Ship of Thought: Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning (Encyclopaedia of psychoanalysis Vol. 4)

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

THE SHIP OF THOUGHT

Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning

Edited by Duncan Barford

E N C Y C L O P A E D I A OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

4

The Ship of Thought

Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning

edited by Duncan Barford

Karnac Books

First published in 2 0 0 2 by H. K a r n a c (Books) L t d , 118 Finchley R o a d , London N W 3 5 H T

© 2 0 0 2 Duncan Barford to the edited collection, and the individual authors to their contributions All rights reserved. N o part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission o f the publisher. ISBN: 9 7 8 1 8 5 5 7 5 2 8 6 3 www.karnacbooks.com

P r i n t e d and b o u n d b y A n t o n y R o w e L t d , E a s t b o u r n e

The books that help y o u most are those which make you think the most. The hardest way of learning is that of easy reading; but a great book that comes from a great thinker is a ship of thought, deep freighted with truth and beauty. — Theodore Parker

CONTENTS

Foreword

7 9

Notes on Contributors 1 2

3

4 5

6 7 8

9

Introduction Duncan Barford

11

Psychoanalytic Research on L e a r n i n g : A n A p p r a i s a l a n d Some Suggestions Alison Hall

17

Is A n y t h i n g M o r e Interesting than Sex? The F r e u d i a n Perspective o n L e a r n i n g and Teaching Duncan Barford

41

L e a r n i n g : A Jungian Perspective Sylvia Cohen

64

O n ' L e a r n i n g ' a n d ' L e a r n i n g A b o u t ' : W.R. B i o n ' s Theory of T h i n k i n g a n d E d u c a t i o n a l Praxis Jean White

84

The H a z a r d s of C u r i o s i t y : A K l e i n i a n Perspective o n L e a r n i n g Linda Buckingham

106

The D o g ' s Temper: A n Essay o n the Vicissitudes of L e a r n i n g Kirsty Hall

136

F r o m the Desire for K n o w l e d g e to the Jouissance of Learning: A n A p p r o a c h to Lacan's Theory Teresa Celdran P s y c h o l o g i c a l Problems of Writer Identity: Towards a Horneyan Understanding Celia Hunt

10 W i n n i c o t t a n d E d u c a t i o n Val Richards

156

175 192

11 L i f e l o n g U n l e a r n i n g Trevor Pateman

212

Appendix: Quotations and Aphorisms

224

Bibliography

230

Index

240

FOREWORD T h e t i m e is s h o r t l y before C h r i s t m a s 1994 a n d three d r e a m e r s are e n s c o n c e d i n the c o m f o r t a b l e leather a r m c h a i r s of the staff b a r at U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , L o n d o n . T h e d r e a m e r s are K i r s t y H a l l , O l i v e r R a t h b o n e a n d S h a r o n M o r r i s . W e l i k e the i d e a of s t a r t i n g a p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y . S i n g l e a u t h o r e d b o o k s , w e calculate, w i l l take three m o n t h s to p r o d u c e . E d i t e d c o l l e c t i o n s are a little m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , w e note, a n d so m i g h t take u p to s i x months... O u r abject i g n o r a n c e is a k i n d m i d w i f e to o u r project... Yet n o w o u r o r i g i n a l i d e a has f i n a l l y f l o w e r e d . The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis has b e e n b o r n . A n d , despite a l l the d e l a y s a n d setbacks, o u r v i s i o n is s t i l l intact. S i n c e the e a r l y d a y s , R e b u s has n o w b e c o m e p a r t of a larger enter­ p r i s e , K a r n a c B o o k s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the s a m e i d e a l s are s t i l l b e i n g p u r ­ s u e d . K a r n a c is a n o n - p a r t i s a n p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y W e a i m to b r i n g a r a n g e o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas to a w i d e r e a d e r s h i p , n a m e l y : the e x p e ­ r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ; the s t u d e n t , i n the g u i s e of either c l i n i c i a n or a c a d e m i c ; a n d , last b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t least, the inter­ ested p e r s o n i n the street. W e p o s e the q u e s t i o n : are the o r i g i n a l ideas w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s b r o u g h t to the w o r l d n o w d e a d , or are t h e y a l i v e a n d k i c k i n g i n the w o r k of s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s , w a i t i n g to be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d afresh a n d a n e w for each g e n e r a t i o n o f readers? I n t u r n , w e h o p e that t h r o u g h The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis, K a r n a c w i l l s t i m ­ ulate the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n to take u p the b a t o n a n d p r o d u c e further cre­ ative t h i n k i n g . The Encyclopaedia series does n o t set o u t to tell p e o p l e w h a t to t h i n k . It e n c o u r a g e s readers to be fascinated, l u r e d i n t o r e a d i n g 'just one m o r e c h a p t e r ' , to p u z z l e o v e r c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w a n d , o n o c c a ­ s i o n , to g r a p p l e w i t h d i f f i c u l t a n d c o m p l e x ideas. W h y ? W e l l , i f p s y ­ c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s e n c o u n t e r the B y z a n t i n e c o m p l e x i t y of h u m a n s u f f e r i n g i n their d a i l y w o r k , t h e n o u r v i e w is that the p r a c ­ t i t i o n e r w i l l f i n d assistance i n this s u p r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t task b y b e i n g g e n t l y h e l p e d to t h i n k for h i m or herself. B e i n g t o l d w h a t to t h i n k a n d w h a t to d o does n o t p r o d t i c e g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or g o o d p s y ­ c h o t h e r a p y , a n d it seems there is far too m u c h ' i n s t r u c t i o n ' of this k i n d already i n circulation. I w i s h to t h a n k a l l o u r c o n t r i b u t o r s to the Encyclopaedia series—past, present a n d future. A s t h e y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d — o r , i n d e e d , w i l l d i s c o v e r i n d u e c o u r s e — t h i s series is u n i q u e . W e d o n o t settle for statements s u c h as: ' f o l l o w i n g M e l a n i e K l e i n it is clear that../ o r 'as Jacques L a c a n

h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d . . / W e insist o n

explanation,

wherever possible. A s a

result m a n y of the p e o p l e w h o h a v e w r i t t e n for this series h a v e h a d long,

passionate,

interesting, a n d — v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y — a c r i m o n i o u s

d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t their p a p e r s w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l editors of o u r b o o k s a n d w i t h m e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e r e ideas d o s e e m unclear, this is often b e c a u s e it is the i n t e n t i o n of the a u t h o r to l e a v e the reader i n d o u b t . D o u b t can be a p r o d u c t i v e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h to c a r r y out a n a n a l y ­ sis of o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t , or a n assessment of one's o p i n i o n a b o u t a b o o k a n d — i n d e e d — i s r e g a r d e d b y s o m e as the o n l y v i a b l e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h to c o n d u c t g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or p s y c h o t h e r a p y . . . T h e Encyclopaedia series has a consistent format. In m o s t of

the

b o o k s y o u w i l l f i n d p a p e r s w h i c h are i n f o r m e d b y F r e u d i a n , J u n g i a n , K l e i n i a n , L a c a n i a n a n d Object Relations p e r s p e c t i v e s . Y o u m a y also f i n d p a p e r s w h e r e the p e r s p e c t i v e of the a u t h o r is h a r d to p i n d o w n . . . G o o d ! K e e p the ' d o u b t / w o r k i n g ! In e a c h v o l u m e w e attempt to offer a w i d e r a n g e of o p i n i o n , a n d the m a j o r i t y of p a p e r s h a v e b e e n s p e c i a l l y c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d w r i t t e n for the series. In a f e w cases, w e h a v e p u b ­ l i s h e d w o r k w h i c h has a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d elsewhere b u t p e r h a p s i n a f o r m a t w h i c h has n o t b e e n easily accessible. In s o m e instances a p a p e r has a p p e a r e d i n another l a n g u a g e , a n d has b e e n s p e c i a l l y translated for this series. T h e a i m of the Encyclopaedia is to present a coherent b o d y of ideas, yet w i t h i n a structure sufficiently loose to a l l o w the reader to interpret the p a p e r s for h i m or herself.

W e are h o p i n g a n d a i m i n g for a w i d e ­

r a n g i n g r e a c t i o n to the contents of these v o l u m e s . F e e d b a c k , c o n s t r u c ­ tive c r i t i c i s m , ideas for future projects i n the series, possible p a p e r s for f u t u r e i n c l u s i o n — a l l of these a n d m o r e are m o s t w e l c o m e .

Kirsty Hall MA Commissioning Editor e-mail [email protected]

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

D U N C A N B A R F O R D s t u d i e d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a p o s t g r a d u a t e

stu­

d e n t at the U n i v e r s i t y of K e n t , i n C a n t e r b u r y . H e has g a i n e d e x p e r i ­ ence of t e a c h i n g f r o m w o r k i n g w i t h a w i d e range of a d u l t learners, a n d has l e c t u r e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s

at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d i n the

C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at Sussex U n i v e r s i t y . LINDA

BUCKINGHAM

is

a

Consultant

Child

and

Adolescent

P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , w o r k i n g i n a n N H S clinic i n L e w i s h a m . She is a m e m ­ ber of the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h i l d P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d of the G u i l d of Psychotherapists. which

informs

S h e has a n a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d i n P h i l o s o p h y ,

her

understanding

of

the

philosophical

traditions

u n d e r l y i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories. TERESA C E L D R A N

is a Professor at the A u t o n o m a U n i v e r s i t y of

M a d r i d . H e r research interests i n c l u d e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories of g e n ­ d e r a n d sexuality. S Y L V I A C O H E N started out her p r o f e s s i o n a l life as a p s y c h o l o g i s t

­

o r i g i n a l l y w o r k i n g i n p s y c h i a t r y . H a v i n g taught i n Junior, F u r t h e r , a n d A d u l t E d u c a t i o n she t r a i n e d as a n E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g i s t . working

for

ILEA

she

began

training

with

the

Whilst

Guild

of

P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d is n o w i n f u l l - t i m e p r i v a t e practice, a n d a m e m ­ ber of the G u i l d ' s T r a i n i n g C o m m i t t e e . ALISON

HALL

Psychoanalysis

is

Principal

Lecturer

in

Psychology

i n the S c h o o l of A p p l i e d Social Sciences

at

and Leeds

M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y . She also w o r k s p r i v a t e l y as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t . She is c u r r e n t l y r e s e a r c h i n g g u i l t a n d gender. She c a n be c o n t a c t e d at [email protected]. K I R S T Y H A L L has b e e n o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d of s t r u c t u r e d l e a r n i n g experiences

i n the fields of business, careers g u i d a n c e a n d b o t h the

c l i n i c a l a n d theoretical m o d a l i t i e s

of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

psychotherapy

a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . S h e is the M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r of R e b u s Press, lec­ tures p a r t - t i m e at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d has a p r i v a t e practice. She c a n be c o n t a c t e d at K . H a l l @ m d x . a c . u k

C E L I A H U N T is L e c t u r e r i n C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n , w i t h s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for creative w r i t i n g . S h e is also A s s o c i a t e

F e l l o w at the U n i v e r s i t y ' s

Institute of E d u c a t i o n , where she teaches a n M A i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g , the A r t s , a n d E d u c a t i o n . TREVOR

PATEMAN

(b. 1947)

was Reader

i n E d u c a t i o n at the

U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex f r o m 1985 to 2000, a n d is n o w at w w w . t r e v o r ­ p a t e m a n . c o . u k . H e is the author of m a n y articles a n d s e v e r a l b o o k s ,

i n c l u d i n g Key Concepts: A Guide to Aesthetics, Education

Criticism

and the Arts in

(Falmer Press 1991).

V A L R I C H A R D S is a t r a i n i n g s u p e r v i s o r a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n p r i ­ v a t e practice. She is a teacher a n d clinical s e m i n a r leader for v a r i o u s a n a l y t i c a l t r a i n i n g organisations a n d a f o r m e r A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r of the S q u i g g l e F o u n d a t i o n . She has e d i t e d t w o m o n o g r a p h s for

Winnicott

Studies a n d has a u t h o r e d n u m e r o u s p a p e r s a n d r e v i e w s . She is also the

i n a u g u r a t o r of the Winnicott

and Playworkers

Project.

J E A N W H I T E is a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , s u p e r v i s o r a n d lec­ turer. A f t e r w o r k i n g i n several e d u c a t i o n a l , N H S , a n d c o m m u n i t y ­ b a s e d settings, for the last ten years she has w o r k e d p r i m a r i l y i n f u l l ­ t i m e p r i v a t e practice i n L o n d o n .

INTRODUCTION

Duncan

Barford

L e a r n i n g is like p a y i n g a visit to the g y m . I b e l i e v e that l e a r n i n g is p r o b a b l y best c o n c e i v e d as s o m e t h i n g v e r y s i m i l a r to physical

fitness.

C e r t a i n l y , I d o n o t t h i n k w e a d v a n c e v e r y far

i f — a s t e a c h e r s — w e e n v i s a g e l e a r n i n g as s i m p l y the p a s s a g e of i n f o r ­ m a t i o n f r o m the h e a d of o n e p e r s o n into the h e a d of another.

Deep

d o w n w e k n o w i n s t i n c t i v e l y that there is m u c h m o r e to teaching t h a n this. A n d s h o u l d w e ever forget, it w i l l not be l o n g before w e

are

r e m i n d e d forcefully that t e a c h i n g is n o t a matter of s i m p l y telling

the

other p e r s o n w h a t w e w o u l d like t h e m to l e a r n . L e a r n i n g , like p h y s i c a l fitness, is not s o m e t h i n g w e c a n be s a i d to 'possess'. Sadly, w e c a n n o t ' p u t ' fitness into o u r b o d i e s . Instead, fitness is the n a t u r a l response of o u r b o d i e s to the c o n d i t i o n s (the a d v e r s e c o n ­ ditions) to w h i c h w e subject ourselves w h e n w e exercise a n d l i v e a n d eat healthily. L i k e w i s e , l e a r n i n g is o u r response

to w h a t e v e r

happens

w h e n w e c o m e i n contact w i t h a teacher; it is not a discrete ' t h i n g ' w h i c h , it m i g h t be s a i d , the teacher c a n ' g i v e ' us. T h e best teachers p e r f o r m a role a k i n to that of a g o o d c o a c h or p e r ­ s o n a l trainer. T h e best teachers are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h facilitat­ i n g o u r i n c l i n a t i o n to l e a r n , w i t h s t i m u l a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g o u r interest a n d e n t h u s i a s m , rather t h a n w i t h ' t r a n s m i t t i n g ' their k n o w l ­ e d g e to us. L e a r n i n g siiggests a n a n a l o g y w i t h 'fitness' not o n l y i n the e v e r y ­ day

physiological

sense of

the

word,

but

also

i n its

D a r w i n i a n sense. T h e a d a p t a t i o n of l i v i n g creatures

specialised

to their

ever­

c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s is the e m b o d i m e n t i n the l i v i n g w o r l d of a c o n ­ stant, n a t u r a l ' l e a r n i n g process'. E v o l u t i o n b y n a t u r a l selection sees to it that l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s b e c o m e 'fitter', o t h e r w i s e they cease to be l i v ­ i n g o r g a n i s m s . E v o l u t i o n offers the p o s s i b i l i t y that l i v i n g things m i g h t b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x , sophisticated, resilient. C o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d the i n g e n u i t y of the h u m a n intellect seem to b e the p r o d u c t s of this l e a r n ­ i n g process inherent i n life itself, a l t h o u g h it m u s t be b o r n e i n m i n d that e v o l u t i o n a n d n a t u r a l selection operate ' b l i n d l y ' , w i t h n o p r e d e ­ t e r m i n e d a i m , a n d that e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l is c o n s t r a i n e d b o t h b y a creature's e n v i r o n m e n t a n d its genetic inheritance.

12

Introduction T h e instinctive, aimless, a n d directionless nature o f this process, b y

w h i c h l i v i n g creatures nevertheless may b e c o m e fitter, o u g h t to r e m i n d us that a l t h o u g h ' r e a s o n ' a n d 'intelligence' are p o t e n t i a l o u t c o m e s of l e a r n i n g , the l e a r n i n g process itself (like e v o l u t i o n ) n e e d not b e r e g a r d ­ e d as ' r a t i o n a l ' , o r as h a v i n g a l o g i c a l l y d i s c e r n i b l e m e a n i n g or l o n g ­ term goal. T h i s is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s enters the debate o n the n a t u r e of l e a r n i n g . It o p e n s u p n e w perspectives o n w h a t l e a r n i n g is a n d o n w h a t teachers d o . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is able to d o this because, m o r e t h a n a n y other d i s c i p l i n e , it is w e l l - p l a c e d to r e m i n d us that w i l l ­ i n g n e s s a n d ability to l e a r n are s h a p e d b y influences f a r - r e m o v e d f r o m conscious a n d rational motives.

** * M y o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n to this c o l l e c t i o n of essays o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g d e v e l o p e d f r o m s o m e research I u n d e r t o o k w h i l s t o n a c o u r s e to d e v e l o p m y o w n teaching skills. I w a s p u z z l e d b y the a p p a r e n t absence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s f r o m the syllabuses o f the m a i n teacher­ t r a i n i n g courses i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g are p r e ­ s e n t e d to trainee teachers as a debate b e t w e e n the c o m p e t i n g d i s ­ c o u r s e s of behaviourism,

cognitivism

a n d humanism. It s e e m e d to m e that

the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h is quite distinct f r o m e a c h of these. I n m y p a p e r , t h e n , I t r y to a d d a f o u r t h c o r n e r to this f o r m e r l y t h r e e - s i d e d debate. I describe w h a t m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as the differences b e t w e e n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d the other three d i s c o u r s e s , a n d p r o p o s e s o m e k e y a x i o m s for a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g , d r a w i n g u p o n classical F r e u d i a n theory. I have been extremely lucky i n persuading some h i g h l y experienced teachers a n d c l i n i c i a n s to contribute to this collection, a n d I a m v e r y grateful to all of t h e m . I n d e e d , m a n y of the a u t h o r s w h o s e w o r k a p p e a r s i n these p a g e s h a v e e n j o y e d years of experience b o t h as teach­ ers a n d as p r a c t i s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s . T h e ideas p r e s e n t e d here are the fruit of m a n y c o m b i n e d years of t e a c h i n g p r a c ­ tice, g a i n e d across a l l sectors of e d u c a t i o n — f r o m schools, colleges a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s , to p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g organisations. A l i s o n H a l l o p e n s the b o o k w i t h a historical s u r v e y of the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of theories of l e a r n i n g , p r o v i d i n g a context w i t h i n w h i c h it is p o s ­ sible to situate the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h . She offers a c r i t i q u e of s o m e c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e precepts ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n the u n i v e r s i t y

Duncan Bar ford

13

sector), a n d suggests h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be u s e d to o p e n u p s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l l y fresh p e r s p e c t i v e s o n the nature of l e a r n i n g . She also o u t l i n e s s o m e of the p o t e n t i a l l y d i s t u r b i n g consequences the p s y c h o ­ a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h m i g h t h a v e for c u r r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l praxis. T r u e to its i n c l u s i o n i n the Encyclopaedia

of Psychoanalysis,

this b o o k

also a i m s to p r o v i d e a r a n g e of c o n t r a s t i n g ideas f r o m across the m a n y strands of thought w i t h i n psychoanalysis. A l t h o u g h C a r l Jung wrote little e x p l i c i t l y o n the t o p i c of l e a r n i n g , S y l v i a C o h e n teases out f r o m his w r i t i n g s a w i d e r a n g e o f ideas, c o n s t r u c t i n g w h a t c a n be r e a d as a n i m p l i c i t l y J u n g i a n a p p r o a c h to o u r t h e m e . L i n d a B u c k i n g h a m a n d Jean W h i t e p e r f o r m a s i m i l a r service, w i t h respect to the w r i t i n g s of t w o other m a j o r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h i n k e r s — M e l a n i e K l e i n a n d W i l f r e d B i o n . L i n d a presents s o m e e x t r e m e l y v i v i d case m a t e r i a l w h i c h p o w e r f u l l y i l l u m i n a t e s the K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g . S h e examines K l e i n ' s p r o p o s a l of a n innate ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l instinct', a n d illustrates setbacks to l e a r n i n g a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for g r o w t h i n the lives a n d phantasies of her patients. Jean W h i t e , m e a n w h i l e , presents a n e x t r e m e l y l u c i d e x p o ­ s i t i o n o f s o m e salient tenets of the w o r k of B i o n . A l t h o u g h B i o n ' s w o r k is less w e l l k n o w n t h a n — a n d d e e p l y i n d e b t e d t o — t h e w o r k o f K l e i n , Jean argues that B i o n ' s a p p r o a c h offers the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a truly r a d i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r a x i s , a n d she m a k e s s o m e s t i m u l a t i n g a n d p r o v o c a t i v e l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d the w r i t i n g s of P a o l o F r e i r e — a n a m e p e r h a p s m o r e i n s t a n t l y recognisable t h a n that of B i o n to those w o r k i n g i n a n e d u c a t i o n a l context. Teresa C e l d r a n a n d V a l R i c h a r d s are o u r a m b a s s a d o r s for two major figures of (respectively) F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — J a c q u e s L a c a n a n d D o n a l d W i n n i c o t t . L a c a n ' s w o r k is f a m o u s for its c o m p l e x ­ ity, for b e i n g ' d i f f i c u l t ' , Teresa, h o w e v e r , keeps her eye f i r m l y o n q u e s ­ tions s u c h as: H o w is ' k n o w l e d g e ' constructed? W h a t is the role of desire i n l e a r n i n g ? W h a t m a k e s a n effective teacher? She s h o w s h o w L a c a n ' s insistence o n the centrality o f l a n g u a g e i n h u m a n affairs offers a d i s t i n c t a n d u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e o n these issues. W i n n i c o t t ' s relation to the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n is p e r h a p s m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . A m o n g the aspects o f his w o r k p r e s e n t e d b y V a l R i c h a r d s is his f a m o u s n o t i o n of 'the t r a n s i t i o n a l object', a n object w h i c h — f o r the i n f a n t — l i e s neither w h o l l y i n the external n o r the i n t e r n a l w o r l d . V a l demonstrates h o w W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k offers the e d u c a t i o n a l practitioner tools for u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g the v i t a l role o f the l e a r n e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity i n the e d u c a t i o n a l process, a n d the p a r t the teacher c a n p l a y i n m a x i m i s i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t o f these.

Introduction

14

T h r e e p a p e r s i n this b o o k a p p r o a c h the subject of l e a r n i n g f r o m out­ side m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a d d r e s s i n g a m o r e s p e c i a l i s e d range of e d u c a t i o n a l themes. In o r d e r to a v o i d the trap of r e g a r d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a d i s c i ­ pline s o m e h o w 'above' educational

discourse, K i r s t y H a l l turns the

tables a n d c o n s i d e r s the sticky q u e s t i o n of h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself s h o u l d be taught to trainee analysts a n d therapists. Setting out s o m e of the p a r t i c u l a r difficulties c o n c e r n i n g the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t ­ ic t h e o r y a n d practice, K i r s t y laments the current state of p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic t r a i n i n g i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d elsewhere. D r a w i n g o n the w o r k of d i v e r s e figures s u c h as L a c a n , K a r l P o p p e r , a n d R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s , she presents s o m e possible solutions. C e l i a H u n t , o n the other h a n d , d r a w s o n her extensive

experience

as a teacher of creative w r i t i n g , to explore the fascinating intersection of e d u c a t i o n a l a n d therapeutic issues c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n this f i e l d of w o r k . C e l i a engages w i t h the ideas of p i o n e e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t K a r e n H o r n e y , as a m e a n s of e x p l o r i n g p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d b y w r i t ­ ers w h o are l e a r n i n g to ' f i n d their v o i c e ' . F i n a l l y , it falls to T r e v o r P a t e m a n to deconstruct the v e r y n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g . T r e v o r h i g h l i g h t s the p a r a d o x that m o s t o f w h a t w e

com­

m o n l y r e g a r d as l e a r n i n g is i n fact ' u n l e a r n i n g ' of one k i n d or a n o t h ­ e r — f o r instance, the forgetting or r e p u d i a t i o n of o l d ideas c a n h a v e u p o n us effects i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m the l e a r n i n g a n d a d o p t i o n o f n e w ideas. W i t h n o s m a l l degree of w i t , he sketches a t a x o n o m y of 'types

of

u n l e a r n i n g ' , w h i c h w r y l y satirises

many

contemporary

n o t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the v a l u e of e d u c a t i o n .

* if * T h i s b o o k takes its title f r o m a q u o t a t i o n attributed to T h e o d o r e Parker, a 19th c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n c l e r g y m a n a n d c a m p a i g n e r against slavery. I w a s struck b y the majestic i m a g e of 'the s h i p of t h o u g h t ' ,

weighed

d o w n w i t h its p r e c i o u s cargo of truth a n d beauty, a n d P a r k e r ' s i m p l i c ­ it s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g is a v o y a g e — p o s s i b l y

p e r i l o u s , b u t also

potentially i m m e n s e l y rewarding. I w a s also i n t r i g u e d , h o w e v e r , b y the remarkable d e a r t h of s e n s u ­ ous i m a g e r y w h i c h otherwise characterises the great m a j o r i t y of q u o ­ tations a n d p r o v e r b s o n l e a r n i n g . (See the a p p e n d i x , i n w h i c h I h a v e a s s e m b l e d s o m e of the m o r e substantial quotations I encountered.) T h e faintly s h r i l l , m o r a l i s t i c tone of m a n y of these witticisms also attracted

Duncan

Bar ford

15

m y attention. It w a s as i f aphorists d o w n t h r o u g h the ages h a d c h o s e n to s h i r k the direct q u e s t i o n — ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g — a n d h a d o p t e d i n s t e a d for a cheaper, easier s w i p e at w h a t t h e y r e g a r d e d as ' l e a r n i n g for l e a r n ­ i n g ' s s a k e ' , o r at a n y o n e w h o m i g h t d a r e to take s e r i o u s l y w h a t they believed they h a d learned. 7

I h o p e w e h a v e a v o i d e d these t w i n pitfalls i n this b o o k . A c o m m o n r e f r a i n i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n m y s e l f a n d the c o n t r i b u t o r s w a s : 'I n e v e r r e a l i s e d just h o w hard it is to w r i t e about l e a r n i n g ' . I n d e e d , this has c e r t a i n l y b e e n m y experience. L e a r n i n g is the v e r y m e a n s b y w h i c h w h a t w e c a l l ' e x p e r i e n c e ' becomes w h a t w e call ' m i n d ' ; i t is the k e y process b y w h i c h w e b e c o m e w h o w e are. T h e r e a s o n for the lack or f a i l u r e o f i m a g e r y , w h e n it comes to w r i t i n g about l e a r n i n g , seems to m e the d i f f i c u l t y of f i n d i n g a m e t a p h o r large e n o u g h . W h a t i m a g e is there w h i c h is b o t h b i g a n d d e t a i l e d e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s the v e r y n o t i o n of the m i n d a n d a l l its w o r k i n g s ? F a c e d w i t h the task of c o n ­ c e p t u a l i s i n g the v e r y process b y w h i c h w e c o m e to c o n c e p t u a l i s e , it is i n d e e d easier to d o d g e the q u e s t i o n altogether, a n d i n s t e a d e x t o l — o r d e n i g r a t e — t h e v i r t u e s of ignorance. T h e p e r s o n w h o approaches the q u e s t i o n of l e a r n i n g f r o m a p s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e is u n a b l e to let t h e m s e l v e s off the h o o k so eas­ ily. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s a l a n g u a g e (or a set of ' m e t a p h o r s ' , i f y o u l i k e ) for c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g the nature o f the m i n d a n d its w o r k i n g s . N o m a t t e r h o w one regards this c o n c e p t u a l l a n g u a g e — w h e t h e r it refers to entities w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d s o m e h o w ' r e a l ' or m e r e l y ' v i r t u ­ a l ' — t h e w a y of t a l k i n g a b o u t the m i n d offered b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is absolutely unique. A d o p t i n g a psychoanalytic approach, m i n d need n o t be o b s c u r e d b e h i n d a m i s t of a b s t r a c t i o n , n o r erased b y p l a c i n g the e m p h a s i s e n t i r e l y u p o n manifest b e h a v i o u r . There is c e r t a i n l y n o ' l a c k of i m a g e r y ' i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g . E q u a l l y , because it is a m e t h o d of e n q u i r y b a s e d u p o n p a y i n g care­ f u l a t t e n t i o n to h o w i n d i v i d u a l s express themselves, h o w p e o p l e s i t u ­ ate t h e m s e l v e s i n the w o r l d w h i c h t h e y i n h a b i t , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s does n o t p r e s u m e to j u d g e ( i n a n y absolute sense) w h a t l e a r n i n g m i g h t be s a i d to be ' w o r t h ' . W i t h o u t d o u b t , l e a r n i n g is a p a r t of o u r constant, d a i l y s t r u g g l e to l i v e o u r l i v e s as c o n t e n t e d l y as p o s s i b l e . T h e a n s w e r to the q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ' is, therefore, as v a r i a b l e a n d as c o m ­ p l e x as the range of s o l u t i o n s p e o p l e h a v e f o u n d to the f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m of b e i n g h u m a n . T h e a n s w e r is r o o t e d i n the h i s t o r y of o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d i n o u r dreams.

16

Introduction

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS M o s t of a l l , m y t h a n k s are d u e to the contributors to this b o o k for all the h a r d w o r k that w e n t into the p r o d u c t i o n of their p a p e r s , a n d for their p a t i e n c e . I w o u l d also like to thank C e l i a H u n t a n d M i k e Boice, of the C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex, for their s u p e r ­ v i s i o n a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t of the w o r k w h i c h l e d to m y o w n c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n . T h a n k s also to K i r s t y H a l l , f o r p e r s u a d i n g m e that this b o o k w a s a g o o d i d e a , a n d to J u n e O l l i v e r — a t B r i g h t o n C o l l e g e of T e c h n o l o g y — b e c a u s e it's true: y o u never forget a g o o d teacher!

A NOTE O N TEXTS A l l references to F r e u d ' s w r i t i n g s are based o n The Standard the Complete

Psychological

Works of Sigmund

Freud

Edition

of

(24 v o l u m e s ) , trans­

lated b y James Strachey, p u b l i s h e d b y H o g a r t h Press a n d the Institute of P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s (1961).

PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH O N LEARNING: A N APPRAISAL A N D SOME SUGGESTIONS

Alison

Hall

I n this chapter I s h a l l argue that ideas f r o m different strands of p s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s c a n p r o v i d e the basis for n e w k i n d s of research into l e a r n ­ ing. A l t h o u g h I h a v e attempted to discuss ' l e a r n i n g ' i n a generic sense, m y o w n experience as a teacher lies i n the f i e l d of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n . T h i s p r o b a b l y m e a n s that s o m e of the things I s a y a b o u t l e a r n i n g are m o r e relevant to the U n i v e r s i t y , a l t h o u g h I h o p e that m a n y of the p o i n t s I m a k e c a n be a p p l i e d m o r e generally.

Identifying

the problem

W h a t is learning? W h e n w e try to e x a m i n e this q u e s t i o n , the first t h i n g w e d i s c o v e r is that a lot w h i c h is w r i t t e n a b o u t l e a r n i n g d o e s n ' t tell us m u c h about l e a r n i n g as s u c h b u t addresses, i n s t e a d , a r a n g e of issues linked to l e a r n i n g . A l t h o u g h a v a s t a r r a y of literature p u r p o r t s to be a b o u t ' l e a r n i n g ' or a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g ' , it r a r e l y attempts to g r a p p l e w i t h the n a t u r e or processes of l e a r n i n g . If w e l o o k c l o s e l y at the extensive lit­ e r a t u r e o n e d u c a t i o n , w e f i n d that the d i s c o u r s e s a r o u n d t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g are a c t u a l l y d o m i n a t e d b y p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l issues. D i s c u s s i o n has t e n d e d to centre o n the relative merits of m o r e or less n o v e l p e d a ­ gogical styles—for

instance: l e a r n i n g i n g r o u p s , s t u d e n t - l e d

discus­

s i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t project w o r k , l e a r n i n g contracts or w h a t e v e r

the

c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e t e c h n i q u e is. In e d u c a t i o n a l literature one r a r e l y finds a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h e x a m i n e s the actual process of l e a r n i n g . It seems, t h e n , that it is p e r f e c t l y possible for p e o p l e to l e a r n a n d to teach w i t h ­ o u t h a v i n g a n a r t i c u l a t e d t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , yet it strikes m e as c u r i ­ o u s that so little attention is g i v e n to this p r o b l e m . O r p e r h a p s it is n o t so s u r p r i s i n g after a l l , because the m o r e I h a v e entered i n t o a n effort to t r y to u n d e r s t a n d t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , the m o r e p e c u l i a r l y difficult a n d intractable the p r o b l e m s e e m s to be. If w e take a l o o k at the m a i n trends i n p e d a g o g i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g , w e c a n m a k e a p r e l i m i n a r y assessment of the extent to w h i c h

18

Psychoanalytic

Research on Learning

this q u e s t i o n o f l e a r n i n g as such is dealt w i t h . A s u r v e y o f c u r r e n t p e d ­ a g o g i c a l research reveals a c o n c e r n p r i m a r i l y w i t h the conditions

under

w h i c h l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s to b e o p t i m i s e d o r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d — f o r instance, it a d d r e s s e s questions s u c h as: ' w h e r e are there g e n d e r differences i n l e a r n i n g ? ' , ' w h i c h m e t h o d o f teaching r e a d i n g w o r k s best?', ' w h i c h l e a r n i n g m e t h o d s d o students prefer?', ' d o e s active p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k better t h a n p a s s i v e a b s o r p t i o n ? ' T h i s is i n d e e d v e r y p r a c t i c a l a n d often v e r y v a l u a b l e research, a n d there is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h it, b u t n e v e r ­ t h e l e s s — a s I h a v e a r g u e d — i t addresses technical questions a n d is n o t r e a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h how l e a r n i n g takes p l a c e .

A historical overview of theories of learning O f c o u r s e , there h a v e b e e n m o r e explicit theories o f l e a r n i n g . Plato's r e n d e r i n g o f t h e Socratic i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d , for instance, i n c o r p o ­ rates a thesis o n the nature o f l e a r n i n g a n d teaching. T h e m e t h o d o p e r ­ ates b y a s k i n g for definitions of f a m i l i a r concepts to elicit c o n t r a d i c ­ t i o n s . It is b a s e d o n the i d e a that p e o p l e a c t u a l l y k n o w m o r e t h a n they t h i n k t h e y k n o w . B y teasing o u t responses, b y e n c o u r a g i n g r e s p o n ­ d e n t s to e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of their a r g u m e n t s , i n h e r e n t c o n t r a ­ d i c t i o n s o r absurdities w i l l b e c o m e a p p a r e n t a n d , i n this w a y , r e s p o n ­ d e n t s w i l l l e a r n b o t h a content a n d — c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t c r u c i a l l y — a n e w stance o f h u m i l i t y i n the face o f their o w n i g n o r a n c e . Ideas a b o u t e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n w h i c h f o l ­ l o w e d — a n d w h i c h , arguably, has h a d a significant i n f l u e n c e o n p e d a ­ g o g i c a l practice u n t i l c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y — o w e d a great d e a l to the r e l i g i o u s context i n w h i c h t e a c h i n g o c c u r r e d . R o t e - l e a r n i n g i n p a r t i c u ­ lar, w i t h its reliance u p o n repetition, c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d m e n t a l r i g o u r , e m p l o y e d m e t h o d s d e s i g n e d to s h i e l d the p o t e n t i a l s i n n e r f r o m m e n ­ tal w a n d e r i n g . If w a n d e r i n g d i d occur, t h e n syllogistic

reasoning

w o u l d l e a d the w a n d e r e r b a c k to the right(eous) p a t h . Interpretation, i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity w e r e not e n c o u r a g e d . T h e q u a l i t y of l e a r n ­ i n g w a s n o t i n q u e s t i o n ; rectitude, o b e d i e n c e a n d quantity

of learning

w e r e w h a t m a t t e r e d . H o w e v e r , f r o m the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n e m e r g e d a l s o the i d e a o f the ' n o v i t i a t e ' , w h o later b e c a m e the

apprentice.

T h e classical e d u c a t i o n o f the R e n a i s s a n c e — w i t h a h u m a n i s t rather t h a n a theist e m p h a s i s — p r o p o s e d a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f M a n , his d i g n i t y a n d ideals. F i c i n o ' s ' k n o w t h y s e l f , b a s e d o n a m i x t u r e o f r e v i v e d P l a t o n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , b e c a m e a central d i c t u m . T h i s w a s later e c h o e d b y A l e x a n d e r P o p e i n An Essay on Man:

Alison Hall

19

K n o w t h e n thyself, p r e s u m e n o t G o d to scan; T h e p r o p e r s t u d y of m a n k i n d is m a n . (Pope 1733-34: 516) D u r i n g the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , R o u s s e a u ' s n o v e l Emile p r o v e d h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l I n this w o r k R o u s s e a u presented a p i c t u r e of a n i d e a l e d u ­ c a t i o n b a s e d far less o n f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d c e n t r e d i n s t e a d o n l e a r n i n g b y experience i n a n a t u r a l a n d u n r e s t r i c t e d c h i l d h o o d e n v i ­ r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h w a s w i d e l y a n d actively p u t into practice b y e n l i g h t e n e d ( a n d s o m e t i m e s R o m a n t i c ) parents, e s p e c i a l l y

between

1766 (the y e a r i n w h i c h R o u s s e a u c a m e to E n g l a n d ) a n d the 1830s. Rousseau's

ideas

were

further

developed

b y F r o e b e l i n his

Die

Menschenerziehitng (1826). It w a s F r o e b e l w h o o r i g i n a t e d the Kindergarten m o v e m e n t i n the e a r l y nineteenth century. J o h n L o c k e ' s t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e p r o p o u n d e d i n the late s e v e n ­ teenth c e n t u r y c e n t r e d o n the i d e a that the m i n d is a

tabula rasa or clean

slate. T h i s i d e a w a s further d e v e l o p e d b y H e l v e t i u s i n De VEsprit (1758) w h e r e h e a r g u e d that e v e r y t h i n g that a p e r s o n is p r o c e e d s f r o m the i n f l u e n c e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n h e has b e e n subject t o — e d u c a t i o n alone is w h a t m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n o n e p e r s o n a n d another. H i s ideas w e r e f a m o u s l y p u t i n t o practice b y James M i l l i n the e d u c a t i o n of h i s s o n J o h n Stuart M i l l . T h i s e d u c a t i o n consisted i n intense i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m a v e r y y o u n g age a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e p r i v a t i o n of social a n d e m o t i o n a l contact, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h peers. J o h n Stuart M i l l w a s h a i l e d as a p r e c o c i o u s g e n i u s b u t suffered m e n t a l b r e a k d o w n a n d d e p r e s s i o n i n his twenties. H e d i d , h o w e v e r , recover a n d l e a d a v e r y p r o d u c t i v e life d u r i n g w h i c h h e h e l p e d p r o p a g a t e liberal ideas o n e d u c a t i o n ( i n c l u d ­ i n g , i n the face of c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n , a d v o c a t i n g e d u c a t i o n for women). T h e first a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y to l e a r n i n g b e g a n i n the 1880s, w i t h E b b i n g h a u s ' s tests o n the ability to m e m o r i s e lists of w o r d s a n d h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the efficacy of l e a r n i n g b y repetition. In 1916, h o w e v e r , J o h n D e w e y p r o p o s e d a p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h , w h i c h envisaged

l e a r n i n g as c o m p o s e d

of four c o m p o n e n t s :

'experience',

' d a t a for reflection', ' i d e a s ' a n d ' f i x i n g w h a t h a s b e e n l e a r n e d ' . It is D e w e y w h o m w e c a n t h a n k (or castigate) for the o r i g i n s o f 'process­ o r i e n t e d ' e d u c a t i o n (that is, as o p p o s e d to 'task' or ' c o n t e n t ' - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n ) . A further alternative a p p r o a c h to m a i n s t r e a m t h i n k i n g o n l e a r n i n g w a s also d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d this time b y R u d o l f Steiner, w h o

20

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

emphasised

the n e c e s s i t y — a s

he s a w i t — f o r a resuscitated s p i r i t u a l

dimension within education. I n contrast, the p e r i o d w h i c h f o l l o w e d w a s characterised b y increas­ ing

psychological

experimentation—in

E d u c a t i o n a l research w a s

epitomised

particular u p o n

b y studies

animals.

s u c h as those

by

P a v l o v u p o n dogs, b y T h o r n d i k e , W a t s o n , a n d L a s h l e y u p o n rats, cats a n d p i g e o n s , a n d b y K o h l e r u p o n c h i m p s . H o w e v e r , the p r o b l e m s p r e ­ sented b y the s t u d y of h u m a n l e a r n i n g t u r n e d out to be m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n this t y p e of e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y h a d e n v i s a g e d a n d v e r y little of this w o r k enjoys a real, c o n t i n u i n g influence u p o n p e d a ­ g o g i c a l theory a n d practice. I n d e e d , R o u s s e a u ' s p r o m o t i o n of l e a r n i n g as a f o r m of n a t u r a l g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ,

w i t h the a d d i t i o n of

D e w e y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y — v a l u i n g practice a n d e m o t i o n a n d r e c o m m e n d i n g that l e a r n i n g takes place i n a real e n v i r o n m e n t a n d is b a s e d o n reflective t h i n k i n g — a r e m u c h m o r e easily discernible i n c u r ­ rent t h i n k i n g . T h i s p o i n t is e m p h a s i s e d b y B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l , w h o themselves

e x e m p l i f y the current, d o m i n a n t t r e n d i n t h i n k i n g about

learning in Higher Education. T h i s a p p r o a c h [the currently fashionable one] values the inter­ ests, rights a n d n e e d s of the learner. E x a m s a n d tests are less i m p o r t a n t , w i t h practice, l e a r n i n g b y d o i n g a n d the significance of e m o t i o n b e i n g e m p h a s i s e d . T h e teacher here is i d e n t i f i e d , not as a n expert, b u t as a d e v e l o p e r a n d facilitator of the n a t u r a l process of g r o w t h . (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998:

24)

Contemporary approaches T h e w o r k of D o n a l d S c h o n o n reflective practice has also p r o v e d h u g e ­ l y i n f l u e n t i a l i n recent years. It is focused u p o n the specific types of l e a r n i n g experience of p r a c t i s i n g professionals across a w i d e v a r i e t y of fields, a n d is often a d o p t e d as a n u n q u e s t i o n e d credo b y teachers i n the v o c a t i o n a l sector. S c h o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h how 1

professionals

learn.

E v e n t h o u g h the t r a i n i n g of professionals m i g h t be v i e w e d as o n l y a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r f o r m of l e a r n i n g , the fact that S c h o n identifies the

how

of l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m makes h i m a n interesting a n d u n u s u a l c o m ­ mentator:

Alison

21

Hall

W e are i n n e e d of i n q u i r y into the e p i s t e m o l o g y of practice. W h a t is the k i n d of k n o w i n g i n w h i c h c o m p e t e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s engage? (Schon 1983:

8)

S c h o n goes o n to explore the w a y i n w h i c h artful professionals d e v e l o p their k n o w l e d g e . T h e processes b y w h i c h this is a c h i e v e d — h e s u g g e s t s — m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s , or m a y o c c u r so r a p i d l y that

'they

c o u l d n o t be a n a l y s e d b y the p e r s o n s i n w h o s e b r a i n t h e y take place' (Schon 1987: 52). S c h o n d e v e l o p s a thesis o n 'reflective p r a c t i c e ' w h i c h attempts to a c c o u n t , at the l e v e l of i n t r a p s y c h i c d y n a m i c s , for the w a y i n w h i c h l e a r n i n g takes place. A p a r t f r o m there b e i n g little e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t S c h o n ' s rather l i m i t e d m o d e l of p s y c h i c a l life, h o w e v e r , the t y p e of l e a r n i n g h e explores i n e v i t a b l y leaves o u t of a c c o u n t the ques­ t i o n of the i n t e r v e n t i o n s m a d e b y a teacher. E v e n so, S c h o n ' s w o r k f o r m s p a r t of a m o r e general c u r r e n t trend t o w a r d s interest i n ' l e a r n i n g w h i l s t d o i n g ' . T h e r e has b e e n a r e v i v a l of interest i n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d m e n t o r i n g — f o r instance, Jean L a v e a n d E t i e n n e W e n g e r ' s w o r k o n ' s i t u a t i n g l e a r n i n g i n c o m m u n i t i e s of p r a c ­ tice' (1991) w h i c h w a s

developed

f r o m a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l studies

of

l e a r n i n g a trade or p r o f e s s i o n . T h e s e authors d e m o n s t r a t e h o w l e a r n ­ i n g o c c u r s as a c o n s e q u e n c e of 'legitimate p e r i p h e r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' — that is, i n v o l v e m e n t i n a s k i l l e d practice w h i c h begins as ' l o o k i n g o n ' a n d progresses t h r o u g h greater p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e n d i n g — h o p e f u l l y — i n f u l l acceptance of the learner as a s k i l l e d practitioner. B a s e d o n studies of practices as a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a r y as b u t c h e r y a n d m i d w i f e r y , they a r g u e that i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g transfer c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d as ' s i t u a t e d social practices' ( L a v e & W e n g e r 1991). N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y u n d e r s t a n d s l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m of a) i n f o r m a ­ t i o n storage, a n d b) varieties of n e u r o n a l c o n n e c t i o n . A t the l e v e l of b r a i n structure a n d chemistry, n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y p r o v i d e s a n o t u n r e a ­ s o n a b l e set of m o d e l s a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m p u t e r i m a g i n g for d e p i c t ­ i n g n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l change. H o w e v e r k n o w i n g that b r a i n c h e m ­ istry changes w h e n l e a r n i n g takes place d o e s n ' t p r o v i d e a n

explanation

of l e a r n i n g a n d — l i k e their predecessors, the a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s — n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i s t s operate w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d a n d s i m p l i s t i c c o n c e p ­ tions of l e a r n i n g . A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n a l research has c o n c e r n e d itself w i t h ( a m o n g other things) questions s u c h as that of gender

difference.

S o m e f e m i n i s t e d u c a t i o n a l research has

passed

b e y o n d the issues of technique i n o r d e r to e n g a g e w i t h questions c o n ­

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

22

c e r n i n g the how

of e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g styles.

G i l l i g a n (1982), for e x a m p l e , h a s a r g u e d that b o y s a n d girls r e s p o n d differently to the s a m e material a n d that therefore, i n o r d e r to optimise their l e a r n i n g , m o r e gender-sensitive m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g s h o u l d be e m p l o y e d . W h i l e this w o r k d o e s attempt to a d v a n c e k n o w l e d g e of the processes of l e a r n i n g , it still fails to really g r a p p l e w i t h the q u e s t i o n of h o w l e a r n i n g takes place. It is also, incidentally, criticised b y other f e m ­ inists for a p p e a r i n g to rely u p o n essentialist n o t i o n s of gender. E v e n quite explicit attempts to theorise l e a r n i n g t u r n o u t , o n closer e x a m i n a t i o n , to d e a l instead w i t h a range of issues, b u t n o t w i t h theo­ ries of l e a r n i n g as s u c h . A s B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l note, a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of t a x o n o m i e s w h i c h p u r p o r t to be about T e a m i n g ' are r e a l l y about: a)

Categories of learning.

T h e q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ? ' is, i n

effect, r e p l a c e d w i t h ' w h a t appears to be h a v e b e e n l e a r n e d ? ' (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: 34 )

Orientations to learning. Instead of l e a r n i n g , it is the p s y c h o ­ l o g i c a l s t u d y of the motivation to l e a r n w h i c h is f o r e g r o u n d e d —

b)

for instance, the t a x o n o m y of interests a n d desires e l a b o r a t e d b y A b r a h a m M a s l o w (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: c)

Learning strategies and approaches.

35)

Instead of w h a t l e a r n i n g is

a n d h o w it is b r o u g h t about, attention is f o c u s e d i n s t e a d o n the s u p p o s e d 'style' of l e a r n i n g m a n i f e s t e d — f o r instance, w h e t h e r s o m e o n e learns 'step b y step' ('serialist') or 'deals w i t h the over­ a l l v i e w ' ('holist'); or w h e t h e r s o m e o n e e n g a g e s i n ' d e e p ' or ' s u r ­ face' l e a r n i n g (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998:

36)

A great d e a l h i n g e s u p o n the process of l e a r n i n g , yet it is a process w h i c h — I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n — n o b o d y seems to u n d e r s t a n d . 'There is little agreement a m o n g researchers about w h a t l e a r n i n g i s ' , c o n c l u d e B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998: 32) In this respect, at least, l e a r n i n g a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s have m u c h i n c o m m o n .

Psychoanalysis and learning P s y c h o a n a l y s i s has b e e n l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g i n three w a y s . It has b e e n a p p l i e d to questions about (i) the m o d e of d e l i v e r y a n d reception of

Alison Hall

23

l e a r n i n g ; (ii) the learner h i m or herself; a n d (iii) the f u n c t i o n i n g of the class o r g r o u p . I s h a l l c o n s i d e r e a c h of these aspects i n t u r n .

(i) The mode of delivery and reception of learning V a r i o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e e n t h u s e d to a greater or lesser extent o n the i n s i g h t p r o v i d e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s into the i n a d e q u a c y a n d s o m e ­ times h a r m f u l effects of repressive a n d u n e n l i g h t e n e d m e t h o d s

of

i n s t r u c t i o n . F r e u d h i m s e l f w a r n e d of the p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y p o o r e d u c a t i o n i n the f i e l d of sexuality, a n d called for m o r e approaches

( F r e u d 1907). H o w e v e r ,

Freud

does not

enlightened suggest

that

i m p r o v e d p e d a g o g i c a l practices w o u l d necessarily l e a d to a r e d u c t i o n i n levels o f n e u r o s i s , a l t h o u g h this w a s a r g u e d b y s o m e of his f o l l o w ­ ers i n their e a r l y a n d s o m e t i m e s n a i v e e s p o u s a l of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas.

( C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e ,

F r i t z Wittels'

Set the Children Free!

[1932]). T h e y o u n g M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s early e n t h u s i a s m i n f l u e n c e d her w o r k w i t h her o w n s o n , E r i c h , w h o w a s effectively her first patient: She s o u g h t a b o v e all to protect h i m i n a d v a n c e f r o m all d a n g e r of

intellectual i n h i b i t i o n , g i v i n g h i m the k i n d of

education

w h i c h , f o l l o w i n g the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas of the p e r i o d , she b e l i e v e d w o u l d ensure the f u l l use of his intellectual faculties... she s o u g h t to liberate the c h i l d as m u c h as possible, a n d a b o v e all to free h i m f r o m the r e p r e s s i o n of sexual curiosity, c o n s i d e r e d to b e the source of all d e n i a l s of intelligence. (Petotl979: ix) K l e i n ' s a r c h r i v a l i n the field of c h i l d a n a l y s i s , A n n a F r e u d , t r a i n e d first as a teacher. She a r g u e d that teachers o u g h t to be a n a l y s e d : I h o l d w e are r i g h t i n d e m a n d i n g that the teacher or e d u c a t o r s h o u l d h a v e learnt to k n o w a n d to c o n t r o l his o w n

conflicts

before h e b e g i n s his e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k . If this is n o t so, the p u p i l s m e r e l y serve as m o r e or less suitable material o n w h i c h to abre­ act his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties. (A. 1949:

Freud

107)

W h o — e i t h e r f r o m the p o s i t i o n of p u p i l or s t u d e n t — c a n n o t r e c o u n t s o m e e p i s o d e f r o m their e d u c a t i o n i n w h i c h , it a p p e a r e d , the teacher's ' o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties' p l a y e d a part. Yet it seems

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

24

to m e that v e r y f e w teachers w o u l d be w i l l i n g to a c k n o w l e d g e this ten­ d e n c y i n their t e a c h i n g practice.

(ii) The learner O n e of better k n o w n contributions of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is its theories o n intellectual a n d creative i n h i b i t i o n . F r e u d p r o v i d e d the m o d e l for this, t h r o u g h his o w n self-analysis, a n d then his short analysis of the c o m ­ p o s e r G u s t a v M a h l e r (Jones 1961). M a n y e a r l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s

exam­

i n e d the l i n k b e t w e e n p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y a n d creativity, w h i c h l e d to a t r e n d t o w a r d s ' p s y c h o b i o g r a p h y ' , p e r h a p s best e x e m p l i f i e d b y M a r i e B o n a p a r t e ' s s t u d y of E d g a r A l l a n P o e (Bonaparte 1949). M a n y of K l e i n ' s first cases w e r e c h i l d r e n w i t h l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s . K l e i n , b a s e d o n h e r experience w i t h E r i c h , f a v o u r e d c h i l d r e n u n d e r g o ­ i n g a n a l y s i s as a p r e l u d e to e d u c a t i o n . In this w a y — s h e b e l i e v e d — c h i l ­ d r e n c o u l d resolve their most p r i m i t i v e c o m p l e x e s a n d anxieties a n d t h e r e b y reach a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h they w e r e able to take i n l e a r n i n g . D i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to K l e i n , A n n a F r e u d b e l i e v e d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d receive analysis after e d u c a t i o n , because

psychoanalysis

...as a m e t h o d of practical treatment, i n the analysis of c h i l d r e n . . . e n d e a v o u r s to repair the injuries w h i c h are inflicted u p o n the c h i l d d u r i n g the process of e d u c a t i o n . ( F r e u d , A . 1949:

104)

W h a t A n n a F r e u d is referring to here is not just the ' f o r m a l process­ es' of e d u c a t i o n , b u t e v e r y f o r m of restraint p l a c e d o n the c h i l d ' s i n s t i n c t u a l life. F r e u d h i m s e l f s u g g e s t e d that curiosity w a s i n v a r i a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m i n f a n t i l e c u r i o s i t y about sexual matters, o r g a n i s e d a r o u n d certain basic q u e s t i o n s s u c h as ' W h e r e d o babies c o m e f r o m ? ' H e a r g u e d that the c h i l d ' s experiences w h i l s t p u r s u i n g these questions w o u l d p a v e the w a y for further intellectual e n d e a v o u r — o r not (Freud 1905a). O t h e r psychoanalysts ously

been

t o o k u p this theme, i n c l u d i n g those w h o h a d p r e v i ­

teachers—for

instance A n n a F r e u d a n d

Ella

Freeman

S h a r p e . T h i s classical v i e w of intellectual i n h i b i t i o n focused u p o n the i d e a that castration anxiety interfered w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s capacity for s u b l i m a t i o n . M e l a n i e K l e i n d e v e l o p e d her ideas o n intellectual i n h i b i t i o n i n tan­ d e m w i t h her ideas o n s a d i s m . In 1931 she d i s c u s s e d the basis for i n t e l ­ lectual inhibition i n men:

25

Alison Hall

...one c a n see c o n f i r m e d i n e v e r y m a n ' s a n a l y s i s , that his d r e a d of the w o m a n ' s b o d y as a p l a c e f u l l of d e s t r u c t i o n m i g h t be one of the m a i n causes of i m p a i r e d potency. T h i s anxiety is also, h o w e v e r , a basic factor i n i n h i b i t i o n s of the desire for k n o w l ­ e d g e , since the i n s i d e of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y is the first object of this i m p u l s e ; i n p h a n t a s y it is e x p l o r e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d , as w e l l as a t t a c k e d w i t h a l l the sadistic a r m o u r y , i n c l u d i n g the p e n i s as a d a n g e r o u s offensive w e a p o n , a n d this is a n o t h e r cause of s u b ­ s e q u e n t i m p o t e n c e i n m e n : p e n e t r a t i n g a n d e x p l o r i n g are to a great extent s y n o n y m o u s i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . ( K l e i n 1931:

240)

In 1935 K l e i n e x t e n d e d her a n a l y s i s of s a d i s m , p e r s e c u t o r y anxiety a n d e p i s t e m o p h i l i a to i n c l u d e the effects of d e p r e s s i o n a n d s u g g e s t e d that d e s p a i r a n d g u i l t o v e r d a m a g e d objects w e r e also a source of intel­ l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n . K l e i n — a n d , later, M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g — p r o v i d e d a n e x t e n d e d a n d d e v e l o p e d theoretical f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n , a l o n g w i t h a w e a l t h of c l i n i c a l c a s e - s t u d y mate­ r i a l , i n c l u d i n g e l a b o r a t e d d i s c u s s i o n s of the o r a l significance of i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l m a t e r i a l a n d its ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n ' (cf. S c h m i d e b e r g 1938). T h e nearest t h i n g w e h a v e to a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c attempt to

understand

learning came from Fenichel: It is this e m o t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e of self-esteem that b e c o m e s the vehicle

of

all ' m o r e

subtle'

ways

of

education...

The

child

a c q u i r e s a readiness to sacrifice certain of h i s interests i n o r d e r to secure the s u p p l y of necessary affection. I n g e n e r a l , this is the p s y c h o l o g y of sacrifice w h i c h is a l w a y s a lesser e v i l a c c e p t e d v o l u n t a r i l y i n o r d e r to a v o i d a greater o n e . ( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284-5) F e n i c h e l identifies '...the three basic m e a n s of all e d u c a t i o n — d i r e c t threat, m o b i l i s a t i o n of the fear of l o s i n g l o v e , a n d the p r o m i s e of spe­ cial r e w a r d s ' .

He

provides

case m a t e r i a l

to

illustrate h i s

points

( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284). H e also argues that it is t h r o u g h the m e c h a n i s m of 'identification

7

that

l e a r n i n g c a n take p l a c e

( F e n i c h e l 1945:

286).

F e n i c h e l w e n t far further t h a n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c contributors to this d i s c u s s i o n . Rather t h a n s i m p l y e x p o s t u l a t i n g o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c fac­ tors a p p a r e n t l y associated w i t h l e a r n i n g , or c o n s i d e r i n g the potential theoretical relation o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , F e n i c h e l l o o k e d

26

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

at w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts a n d m e t h o d s c o u l d be e m p l o y e d i n providing

explanations

of h o w l e a r n i n g c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d at a l l .

H o w e v e r , the m a i n p r o b l e m , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of e d u c a t i o n , w i t h these k i n d s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas is that t h e y operate o n l y at the l e v e l of the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s is the n o r m i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b u t not i n e d u c a t i o n . M o s t teachers, for m o s t of the t i m e , h a v e to w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of students a n d so are severely h a n d i c a p p e d w h e n it c o m e s to r e l a t i n g to t h e m i n d i v i d u a l l y . M u c h current e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g p r o m o t e s a culture i n w h i c h stu­ dents themselves are e n c o u r a g e d to c o n s i d e r h o w best they l e a r n , a n d to evaluate w h e r e their p a r t i c u l a r strengths a n d difficulties m i g h t lie. T h i s is rather difficult to achieve to a n y m e a n i n g f u l degree o n one's o w n . It is e n c o u r a g e d — a t least i n p r i n c i p l e — b y m e t h o d s s u c h as k e e p ­ i n g ' p e r s o n a l records of a c h i e v e m e n t ' , a n d b y i n v i t i n g students reflect o n their own

to

l e a r n i n g . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the d e c e i v i n g n a t u r e of the

ego u s u a l l y prevents p e o p l e f r o m seeing v e r y m u c h further t h a n the v e r s i o n of events w h i c h is m o s t p l e a s i n g to the ego. It w a s precisely b e c a u s e of the l i m i t s of self-analysis that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w a s d e v e l ­ o p e d . T e a c h i n g m e t h o d s w h i c h rely o n s o m e k i n d of 'self-analysis' are l i k e l y to p r o v e s i m i l a r l y l i m i t e d .

(Hi) Focussing on the functioning of the class group T h e i d e a that the d y n a m i c s a n d f u n c t i o n i n g of h u m a n g r o u p s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d u s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r i n c i p l e s b e g a n w i t h F r e u d ' s Group

Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

(1921). T h e i d e a that a g r o u p of

patients c a n b e treated p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y together w a s m u c h

more

c o n t e n t i o u s , a n d arose d u r i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War, s p a w n e d specif­ i c a l l y b y the n e e d to f i n d a n efficient m e t h o d of treating large n u m b e r s of t r a u m a t i s e d soldiers. W i l f r e d B i o n , S . H . F o u l k e s a n d , later, D o r o t h y

Stock-Whitaker's

v a r i e d g r o u p therapeutic w o r k has i n f l u e n c e d e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g about

class-management

(Bion

1959;

Foulkes

1965;

Whitaker

&

L i e b e r m a n 1965). H o w e v e r , it is arguable to w h a t extent the w o r k , o n g r o u p s , of e a c h of these theorists is p s y c h o a n a l y t i c . It is also clear that their ideas b e c o m e m u c h m o d i f i e d i n practice a n d — a d d i t i o n a l l y — that, i n practice, they are frequently c o m b i n e d w i t h elements of n o n ­ psychoanalytic 'encounter-group' psychology. Teachers' staff-room discussions frequently i n c l u d e o b s e r v a t i o n s o n the differences i n ' c h a r a c t e r ' b e t w e e n one c l a s s - g r o u p a n d another.

27

Alison Hall

Teachers are n o w expected to b e c o m e ' g r o u p facilitators'. W h e r e a s for­ m e r l y a trainee teacher s t r u g g l e d o n l y to l e a r n h o w to d e v e l o p

the

r e q u i r e d a u t h o r i t y a n d d i s c i p l i n e o v e r a class, n o w student teachers m u s t s h o w that they u n d e r s t a n d w h a t k i n d s of ' d y n a m i c s ' are operat­ i n g i n a c l a s s r o o m situation. A t the v e r y least, teachers m u s t h a v e 'ice­ b r e a k i n g ' techniques for e n c o u n t e r i n g n e w g r o u p s . S t u d e n t s ' e m o t i o n s h a v e b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d teachers are e n c o u r a g e d to articulate a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . Recent w o r k has attempted to i m p o r t the c o n c e p t of 'transference' from

the

clinical setting into the

classroom

(cf.

E i f e r m a n n 1993).

A l t h o u g h this i n v o l v e s use of the t e r m 'transference' the r i c h a n d c o m ­ p l e x issues i m p l i e d b y the term are r e d u c e d to c o m m o n - s e n s e p l a t i ­ tudes a b o u t students b e i n g affected b y anxiety w h i c h i n t u r n m i g h t affect

their w o r k .

T h e title of a p a p e r b y

'Missverstandnisse

in

('Misunderstandings

in

der the

Steff

B o r n s t e i n (1937),

psychoanalytischen Application

of

Padagogik'

Psychoanalysis

to

P e d a g o g y ' ) , w o u l d suggest that I a m not the first to r e m a r k o n this phenomenon.

Suggestions for future research C a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s contribute a n y t h i n g further to d i s c u s s i o n of l e a r n ­ i n g a n d teaching? A s I see it, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c e r t a i n l y c a n frame s o m e of the p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g i n u s e f u l a n d p o t e n t i a l l y m o r e fruitful w a y s . I suggest here four strands of p o t e n t i a l research.

(i) Attuned learning T h e w o r k of D a n i e l S t e r n has p r o v i d e d a v o c a b u l a r y for t a l k i n g a b o u t i n t e r p e r s o n a l exchanges w h i c h , it s e e m s to m e , m a y be u s e f u l i n e x a m ­ i n i n g certain issues of p e d a g o g y .

Stern's c o n c e r n is w i t h b r i n g i n g

together d a t a f r o m recent e x p e r i m e n t a l research i n t o the p s y c h o l o g y of infants a n d the insights he has g a i n e d i n the course of his clinical p r a c ­ tice as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t . H e focuses o n 'the i n t e r p e r s o n a l w o r l d of the i n f a n t ' — a s the title of his b e s t - k n o w n w o r k (Stern 1985) m a k e s c l e a r — a n d , i n particular, o n the infant's g r o w i n g sense of self. H e d e v e l o p s a n u m b e r of h y p o t h e s e s about the d e v e l o p m e n t of a sense of self, i n p a r ­ ticular, w h e r e this relates to the i n t e r p l a y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n , typically, the m o t h e r a n d infant. H o w e v e r , it is his i d e a of

'affect

28

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

a t t u n e m e n t ' w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y r a d i c a l a n d w h i c h p r o v o k e d a great d e a l of interest. S t e r n notes that w h e n babies reach the age of about n i n e m o n t h s , their m o t h e r s b e g i n to treat t h e m differently i n some v e r y specific w a y s . F o r instance, if a b a b y b a n g s a toy r h y t h m i c a l l y , t h e n the m o t h ­ er r e s p o n d s to the b a b y b y m i m i c k i n g the r h y t h m . W h a t is notable after the n i n e - m o n t h w a t e r s h e d is that

the mother uses a different mode of

expression—for e x a m p l e , she m i g h t m a k e r h y t h m i c vocal s o u n d s . O r , to take a n e x a m p l e f r o m Stern: An

eight-and-one-half-month-old

beyond

reach. Silently, he

boy

stretches

reaches toward

for a toy it, l e a n i n g

just



and

e x t e n d i n g a r m s a n d fingers out fully. Still short of the toy, he

tenses his b o d y to squeeze o u t the extra i n c h he needs to reach it.

A t that m o m e n t , his m o t h e r says, " u u u u u h . . . u u u u u h ! " w i t h a

c r e s c e n d o of v o c a l effort, the e x p i r a t i o n of air p u s h i n g against

h e r tensed torso. T h e m o t h e r ' s effort matches 1985:

140)

accelerating v o c a l - r e s p i r a t o r y

the infant's accelerating p h y s i c a l effort.

(Stern





S t e r n p r o v i d e s a n u m b e r of s i m i l a r examples w h i c h

demonstrate

different k i n d s of matched actions—with b o t h m o t h e r a n d c h i l d u s i n g the r a n g e of actions w h i c h babies of this age c a n m a n a g e (or almost m a n a g e ) s u c h as expressive p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s

like w a v i n g , c l a p ­

p i n g , s w a y i n g , n o d d i n g , d r u m m i n g or just tensing or e x t e n d i n g l i m b s , v o c a l a n d v e r b a l expressions, e x p i r a t o r y variations, a n d facial expres­ sions. H e e m p h a s i s e s that this s h o u l d not be c o n f u s e d w i t h m i m i c r y or i m i t a t i o n because

the m o t h e r ' s

i n t e r v e n t i o n switches

the

matched

a c t i o n into another mode. F o r e x a m p l e , if the c h i l d engages i n a p h y s i c a l a c t i o n the m o t h e r engages i n a v o c a l one; if the c h i l d b o u n c e s u p a n d d o w n i n a r h y t h m i c w a y the m o t h e r claps her h a n d s or taps her fingers to the s a m e beat. Stern's e x a m i n a t i o n of ' c r o s s - m o d a l e x c h a n g e s ' s u c h as these, b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant, p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e basis u p o n w h i c h to pose s o m e questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g . Stern's o w n d e f i n i t i o n of affect attunement is: T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of b e h a v i o u r s that express a q u a l i t y of feeling

of a shared affect state w i t h o u t i m i t a t i n g the exact b e h a v i o u r a l

e x p r e s s i o n of the i n n e r state. (Stern 1985:

142)



30

Psychoanalytic

Research on Learning

a n d h o w t h e y b e h a v e d . T h i s , of c o u r s e , is m e r e l y a m o r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , m o r e d i r e c t e d a n d m o r e intense v e r s i o n of w h a t , a r g u a b l y , g o e s o n i n a n y h u m a n e n c o u n t e r . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d i r e c ­ t i o n a n d i n t e n s i t y w h i c h o r g a n i s e a n d c o n s t r u c t it as p a r t o f a p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l activity. T h e r e is a l o n g h i s t o r y to the p r o b l e m , i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , of the s p e c i f i c i t y of e a c h a n a l y s i s . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d characterise a v e r y large p r o p o r t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i s i n g as r e p e a t e d attempts to talk a b o u t w h i c h t h i n g s m a y b e c o m m o n to a l l a n a l y s e s — o r , at least, to cer­ tain t y p e s of a n a l y s e s (for instance, w i t h obsessives as o p p o s e d to h y s ­ terics, o r w i t h p h o b i c s as o p p o s e d to m e l a n c h o l i e s ) — a n d w h i c h things are specific to e a c h a n a l y s i s . F r e u d (1912) a t t e m p t e d to d e a l w i t h this p r o b l e m b y describing h o w a n analyst might a p p r o a c h each patient b y t r y i n g to s u s p e n d , i n as m u c h as it is p o s s i b l e , a l l p r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e . L a c a n t r i e d to t h i n k t h r o u g h a n d to f o r m a l i s e this i n his d i s c u s s i o n s of the p r a c t i c e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d t h e scientificiry of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H e c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that w h a t differentiates

psychoanalysis

f r o m o t h e r f o r m s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y is its e m p h a s i s o n the subject as a ' o n e ' . H i s i d e a is that w h i l s t it is i n d e e d p o s s i b l e to articulate stages i n a n a n a l y s i s vis a vis a p a r t i c u l a r d i a g n o s i s , as w e l l as the g e n e r a l strat­ e g y to b e a d o p t e d a n d the p o s s i b l e tactics w h i c h m i g h t ' w o r k ' i n rela­ t i o n to this p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of case, e v e n so, the d e t e r m i n i n g factor i n the c o n d u c t of a n a n a l y s i s is e a c h n e w a n a l y s a n d . T h u s it is i m p o s s i b l e to s p e c i f y the t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a n y a n a l y s i s i n a d v a n c e ( L a c a n 1966: 323-362, 585-645), O t h e r p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s f r e q u e n t l y c l a i m to b e able to d o p r e c i s e l y this. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f this a n d other l i n k e d for­ m u l a t i o n s , L a c a n p o s i t s the i d e a o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a ' c o n j e c t u r a l s c i ­ e n c e ' — b y w h i c h h e m e a n s that t h e m e t h o d o l o g y

of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s

p r o c e e d s v i a conjecture ( L a c a n 1989). It is this attempt to t h i n k t h r o u g h w h a t is the s a m e for a l l a n a l y s e s , or for e a c h t y p e o f a n a l y s i s , a n d w h a t is specific to the a n a l y s a n d that I f i n d u s e f u l for t h i n k i n g a b o u t t e a c h i n g . S o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g this w a y of t h i n k i n g c a n also b e f o u n d i n S c h o n ' s d i s c u s s i o n s o f the p r o c e ­ d u r e s i n v o l v e d i n reflecting: A p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s reflection c a n s e r v e as a corrective to o v e r - l e a r n ­ i n g . T h r o u g h reflection, h e c a n surface a n d criticise the tacit u n d e r s t a n d i n g s that h a v e g r o w n u p a r o u n d the repetitive e x p e ­ riences of a s p e c i a l i s e d practice, a n d c a n m a k e n e w sense o f the

Alison Hall

29

S t e r n c o n s i d e r s that this b e h a v i o u r enacts a n e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h he d o e s n ' t a c t u a l l y a d d v e r y m u c h b e y o n d this, because he is m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f e m o t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n e v i ­ d e n t l y i m p o r t a n t feature of this e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n is that it i n t r o d u c e s a n d s u p p o r t s new f o r m s of r h y t h m i c a l i t y i n t o the life of the c h i l d . 2

W h a t h a p p e n s to this t y p e a n d l e v e l of b e h a v i o u r i n later l e a r n i n g ? S h o t i l d w e a s s u m e that because the loftier r e a l m s of l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e ­ tence h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d that l e a r n i n g b e c o m e s s o l e l y a n d s i m p l y 'the a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s ' ? T h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g b y m e a n s of c e r t a i n t y p e s o f e n c o u r a g i n g , s u p p o r t i n g o r i n d u c i n g b e h a v i o u r o n the p a r t of the teacher is a p r o m i s i n g f i e l d for research. T h e s t u d y of r h e t o r i c s h o w s that l a n g u a g e operates, at least i n part, v i a tropes d e s i g n e d to p e r s u a d e or i n d u c e change, a n d there m a y be u s e f u l p a r a l l e l s to this i n the ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ' of m o t h e r s w i t h t h e i r n i n e - m o n t h o l d c h i l d r e n . R e s e a r c h i n t o the n o n - l i n g u i s t i c m o d e s of p e r s u a s i o n or e n c o u r a g e ­ m e n t o p e r a t i v e i n l e a r n i n g — f o r i n s t a n c e , the r o l e p l a y e d i n l e a r n i n g b y 'manipulation', 'inspiration', 'seduction', 'identification', 'love' and a h o s t o f o t h e r terms w h i c h m i g h t be u s e d to d e s c r i b e aspects of the m u l ­ t i p l e x r e l a t i o n s w h i c h exist b e t w e e n teachers a n d s t u d e n t s — c o u l d fur­ n i s h u s w i t h a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g process­ es. S o m e teachers, u s u a l l y the better ones, are a l r e a d y q u i t e w e l l a w a r e of these d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l a t i n g , a n d it i s u s u a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d that g o o d teachers are the ones w h o are able to generate a c e r t a i n k i n d of r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h their students. T h e r e has b e e n a great d e a l of d i s c u s ­ s i o n a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g styles' i n recent debates, b u t , I w o u l d argue, this has b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n l i m i t e d a n d u s u a l l y s u p e r f i c i a l terms. I w o u l d s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , that a r i c h s e a m o f research c o n c e r n i n g the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n teachers a n d students w o u l d b e o p e n e d u p b y a p p l y i n g S t e r n ' s w o r k w i t h infants to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g . W h e n I reflect o n t e a c h i n g sessions I note t h a t — a l o n g s i d e , o r i n t a n d e m w i t h t h i n k i n g h a r d a b o u t the content o f s t u d e n t s ' w o r k — I e n g a g e i n a n o t h e r process, w h i c h s e e m s to m e e v e n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l for the success of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s process i n v o l v e s m e i n a c t i v e l y a s s u m i n g a n a c u t e l y p e r c e p t i v e state i n w h i c h I a m l o o k i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y for cues a n d clues a b o u t the students. These cues a n d c l u e s are of t w o m a i n types: (a) v e r b a l — w h a t the students said, w h a t the s t u d e n t s d i d not say, how the s t u d e n t s s a i d w h a t t h e y s a i d , a n d so o n . . . a n d (b) v i s u a l — w h a t I r e a d f r o m the s t u d e n t ' s b e h a v i o u r , their d e m e a n o u r , the resonance—or o t h e r w i s e — b e t w e e n w h a t t h e y s a i d

Alison

Hall

31

s i t u a t i o n s of u n c e r t a i n t y or u n i q u e n e s s w h i c h h e m a y a l l o w h i m s e l f to experience. (Schon 1983: 61) And: In e a c h instance, the practitioner a l l o w s h i m s e l f to experience s u r p r i s e , p u z z l e m e n t , or c o n f u s i o n i n a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h he f i n d s u n c e r t a i n o r u n i q u e . (Schon 1983: 68) W h e t h e r it b e analysis or e d u c a t i o n , the subjectivity

of the p a r t i c i ­

p a n t s a l w a y s b r i n g s s o m e t h i n g u n i q u e to the e n c o u n t e r , s o m e t h i n g which

it is i m p o s s i b l e

to theorise

i n advance.

Consequently, an

u n k n o w n element, a n ' X ' , has to b e s o m e h o w a c c o m m o d a t e d i n the p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g , a n d h a s to be a c c o u n t e d for i n theories of l e a r n ­ i n g — e v e n if o n l y as a n u n s p e c i f i e d ' s o m e t h i n g ' a r o u n d w h i c h a l l else m u s t b e o r g a n i s e d . T h e r e is a n o n u s o n the teacher, like the analyst, to k n o w s o m e t h i n g of his or h e r o w n subjectivity, a n d the effects of h i s or her a c t i o n s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s — e v e n at a m i c r o - l e v e l . H o w e v e r the s u b ­ jectivity o f e a c h s t u d e n t w i l l a l w a y s b r i n g n e w a n d u n i q u e challenges to the w o r k . T h e r a n g e of tactics a n d strategies a d o p t e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ses­ sions also offers a n interesting c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the c o n d u c t of teach­ i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e — a s I n o t e d a b o v e — I use v e r b a l a n d v i s u a l clues to a t t e m p t to m a k e s o m e reasonably w e l l - f o u n d e d j u d g e m e n t s about s t u ­ dents. H o w e v e r , I c l e a r l y d o n o t engage i n a n y k i n d of f u l l - b l o w n p s y ­ c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f the student b u t s i m p l y try to m a k e r e a s o n ­ a b l y i n f o r m e d assessments of the student's f r a m e of m i n d — f o r e x a m ­ p l e , c o n c e r n i n g the student's level of c o n f i d e n c e a b o u t their w o r k . If I c a n m a k e reasonable j u d g e m e n t s m a k e better j u d g e m e n t s

about s t u d e n t s ' c o n f i d e n c e , I c a n

c o n c e r n i n g the extent to w h i c h I n e e d to

e n c o u r a g e t h e m i n relation to p a r t i c u l a r elements of their w o r k , o r — a l t e r n a t e l y — d e f l a t e their o v e r - c o n f i d e n c e if they are a t t e m p t i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g b e y o n d their current capabilities. C u r r e n t s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d t h i n k i n g e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of the s t u d e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process. A central a s s u m p t i o n of this w a y of t h i n k i n g is that the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n the a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d b y the learner h i m or herself. T h i s , i n t u r n , is r e g a r d e d as d e p e n d e n t u p o n the c o n c e p t i o n o f l e a r n i n g h e l d b y the learner, w h a t he or she k n o w s about h i s or h e r o w n l e a r n i n g , a n d the strategies that she o r h e chooses to use (cf. M o r g a n 1993). Interestingly,

32

Psychoanalytic

Research on

Learning

this is sometimes referred to as a process i n w h i c h students' choice of h o w to d o their l e a r n i n g m a y be i n f o r m e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s p h e n o m e n a ( N i g h t i n g a l e & O ' N e i l 1994: 61). It seems f r o m this that s o m e w r i t e r s o n e d u c a t i o n are o p e n to the i d e a that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' processes

may

p l a y a p a r t i n l e a r n i n g — t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is surely that if one w a n t s to u n d e r s t a n d m o r e a b o u t l e a r n i n g one w i l l have to attempt to u n d e r ­ s t a n d m o r e about ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' p r o c e s s e s — w h i c h are, of course, the central c o n c e r n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . T h e issue raised above c o n c e r n i n g confidence is one w h i c h is c o m ­ m o n across all students. T h e r e is a l w a y s a generic issue of getting the b a l a n c e r i g h t i n terms of degrees of criticism, e n c o u r a g e m e n t ,

defla­

t i o n , a n d c o n f i d e n c e - b o o s t i n g . H o w e v e r , the specificity of the student's personality, the stage they are at i n the e d u c a t i o n process, a n d , i n d e e d , h o w w e l l or h o w b a d l y other aspects of their life are p r o c e e d i n g o n the p a r t i c u l a r d a y of the s e s s i o n — a s s u m i n g I h a v e access to this i n f o r m a ­ t i o n — w i l l feed into the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process a n d w i l l i n f o r m h o w I act i n relation to the student's confidence. T h i s is o n l y one e x a m p l e of the k i n d of e v a l u a t i o n a n d strategising w h i c h I t h i n k needs

to be

e m p l o y e d i n t e a c h i n g ; a s i m i l a r process s h o u l d also be u s e d across a r a n g e of other a x e s — f o r instance: m a n a g i n g the b o u n d a r i e s a r o u n d the t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g relationship; negotiating intellectual a n d other c o n ­ flicts; a c k n o w l e d g i n g the d i f f e r i n g ideas about teaching a n d l e a r n i n g a n d h o w to d o it h e l d b y the student a n d the teacher; a n d t a k i n g a c c o u n t of the strengths a n d limitations of b o t h student a n d teacher. In a p p r o a c h i n g a tutorial session I h a v e u s u a l l y received the s t u ­ d e n t ' s w o r k i n a d v a n c e . I w i l l h a v e e x a m i n e d it a n d m a d e critical c o m ­ m e n t s i n the m a r g i n s a n d o n the text. T h e actual content a n d style of these c o m m e n t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d b y m y experience of the s t u d e n t w h o w i l l receive t h e m . T h i s is another e x a m p l e w h e r e the specificity of the s t u d e n t is a factor. M y professional skill as a n educator has (at least) t w o strands. O n e of these is c o n c e r n e d w i t h m y relation to the m a t e r i ­ a l — a r e the a p p r o p r i a t e ideas b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , a n d are they b e i n g c o n ­ s i d e r e d i n fruitful w a y s ? A r e relevant m e t h o d s b e i n g e m p l o y e d , a n d are they b e i n g e m p l o y e d correctly? W h e r e are the contradictions, s l i p ­ p a g e s , non

sequiturs i n the argument?

T h e s e c o n d s t r a n d concerns m y relation to the student. T h i s is h a r d ­ l y a o n e - s i d e d affair. Students, generally, like to k n o w w h o w i l l be m a r k i n g their w o r k , so that they c a n try to second-guess w h i c h slant they s h o u l d p u t o n their w r i t i n g . A l l s c r i p t s — e v e n the m o s t arcane of a s s i g n m e n t s — a r e a d d r e s s e d to a reader, a n d m o s t are the p r o d u c t of a

Alison Hall self-conscious

author

who

has

tried—however

unreliable

33 the

p r o c e s s — t o c o n s i d e r w h o she or he is w r i t i n g for. M y p r o f e s s i o n a l concerns i n this f i e l d i n e v i t a b l y l e a d m e to think a b o u t m y u n c e r t a i n attempts at s o c i a l i s i n g m y t w o c h i l d r e n . A t least s o m e of the time I felt that I w a s t r y i n g to i n t r o d u c e certain constraints a n d c o n s e q u e n t frustrations into m y c h i l d r e n ' s lives, yet w i t h o u t w a n t ­ i n g to cause t h e m to t u r n off so m u c h that they w o u l d be too d i s c o u r ­ a g e d to try things a g a i n . So, for e x a m p l e , I w o u l d w a n t to p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m r u n n i n g i n t o the r o a d , b u t i n a w a y that w o u l d n o t d i s c o u r a g e t h e m f r o m e n j o y i n g r u n n i n g a r o u n d i n a safe e n v i r o n m e n t . E q u a l l y , I w o u l d w a n t to e n c o u r a g e t h e m to spell w o r d s p r o p e r l y , b u t w i t h o u t so d e s t r o y i n g their c o n f i d e n c e i n their infantile efforts that t h e y w o u l d be d i s i n c l i n e d to t r y w r i t i n g a g a i n . T h i s k i n d of d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f the potential effects of one's i n t e r v e n t i o n s leads us b a c k a g a i n to Stern's account of the processes operative i n the e d u c a ­ tive f u n c t i o n of e a r l y m o t h e r h o o d . H i s ideas o n a t t u n e m e n t i m p l y that i n the early r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the m o t h e r a n d her infant, the m o t h e r is able

constantly

to a d a p t her b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s

the c h i l d to

take

a c c o u n t of its d e v e l o p m e n t a l needs, a n d that the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p e r ­ a t i n g b e t w e e n m o t h e r s a n d infants i n v o l v e s a k i n d of i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x n e g o t i a t i o n o n b o t h sides. T h i s f r a m e w o r k also places m u c h of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , for m a n a g i n g the e n c o u n t e r w i t h the s t u d e n t , onto m e , as the ' p r o f e s s i o n a l / m o t h e r ' . H o w e v e r , if I s e r i o u s l y take into account the specificity of e a c h s t u ­ d e n t , a n d act t o w a r d s e a c h student differently, t h e n this affects a n u m ­ b e r of d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d practices. F o r i n s t a n c e , r e s p o n d i n g to students differently as a c o n s e q u e n c e of m y p e r c e p t i o n that t h e y require different i n t e r v e n t i o n s f r o m m e sits a w k ­ w a r d l y w i t h E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s policy. I m a y d e c i d e that o n e student r e q u i r e s m a n y h o u r s of patient cajoling a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l s t a n o t h ­ er requires his o r her pretensions p u n c t u r i n g to set t h e m o n a better c o u r s e of action. T h i s gives a n i n d i c a t i o n of w h y s o m e k i n d s of ' e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y ' i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are so risible, a n d w h y the issue also n e e d s careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n . A n o t h e r issue emerges f r o m this d i s c u s s i o n , c o n c e r n i n g ideas a b o u t m o t h e r i n g . M i g h t this m e a n that p e o p l e w i t h experience of m o t h e r i n g m a k e better teachers? O r that p e o p l e w i t h better a t t u n i n g antennae a n d s k i l l s — w h e t h e r or not they are m o t h e r s — m a k e better

teachers?

C l e a r l y , s o m e p e r s o n a l i t y traits a n d skills m a k e for better or w o r s e

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

34

t e a c h i n g . T h i s is a n area w h e r e m u c h m o r e research is necessary a n d w h e r e ideas f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y p l a y a useful part.

(it) Metapsychology L a c a n ' s w o r k of the 1950s, o n the centrality of s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e for p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i m p l i e s a certain stance o n ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n of ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is a d e c e p t i o n of the ego because ' k n o w l ­ e d g e ' exists o n l y i n the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m a n d the i d e a that p e o p l e h a v e or h o l d k n o w l e d g e is d e l u s o r y (cf. H a l l 1996). ' K n o w l e d g e ' is to be c o n ­ trasted

with

'Knowledge'

' t r u t h ' ; the

latter

can

emerge

via

psychoanalysis.

a n d ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' — o n the other h a n d — a r e not

the

g o a l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . If e d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are i n d e e d functions of the c i r c u l a t i o n of signifiers, t h e n p e d a g o g i c a l research m i g h t be u n d e r t a k e n to d e m o n ­ s t r a t e — t h r o u g h case s t u d i e s — h o w

the t r i g g e r i n g effect of signifiers

constitutes o r p r o d u c e s l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , if the signifier c a n i n d e e d be c o n c e i v e d of as m a k i n g all the m o v e s , as d o i n g all the t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k i n g w h i l s t the subject is t h o u g h t a n d s p o k e n , then w e still require a t h e o r y of the relation b e t w e e n the subject a n d the signifier i n the e d u ­ c a t i o n a l f i e l d . L a c a n ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n of a t a x o n o m y of social b o n d s — h i s t h e o r y of the ' f o u r discourses', w h i c h i n c l u d e s a ' d i s c o u r s e of

the

U n i v e r s i t y ' ( L a c a n 1991)—fails to d e l i v e r here because it is b a s e d o n the p r e m i s e that U n i v e r s i t i e s operate w i t h a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t c o n c e p ­ t i o n of science, t h i n k i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e . M a n y p e o p l e w o r k i n g i n U n i v e r s i t i e s w i s h that this w a s the case. Instead, t o d a y ' s U n i v e r s i t i e s are d o m i n a t e d b y ideas l a r g e l y i m p o r t e d f r o m the business w o r l d . T h e q u e s t i o n of l o v e a n d its r e l a t i o n to k n o w l e d g e is p e r t i n e n t here. It is w i d e l y accepted that transference is l i n k e d to l o v e .

However,

L a c a n is at p a i n s to demonstrate that transference is transference to knowledge ( L a c a n , 1999: 67). L a c a n also states: ...what is i m p o r t a n t i n w h a t has b e e n r e v e a l e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y t ­ ic d i s c o u r s e . . . is that k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h structures the b e i n g w h o s p e a k s o n the basis of a specific c o h a b i t a t i o n , is closely related to love.

All love

is b a s e d o n a certain relationship b e t w e e n

two

u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e s . ( L a c a n 1999: 144, m y e m p h a s i s ) P e r h a p s w e n e e d to g o further a n d suggest that l o v e is l o v e of k n o w l e d g e . C o n s i d e r : the w o r s t t h i n g that c a n h a p p e n i n a love rela­

Alison

35

Hall

t i o n s h i p is that s o m e o n e leaves a n d y o u don't know w h y . T h e p a i n of n o t k n o w i n g w h y s o m e o n e left is, it seems, w o r s e t h a n the p a i n of k n o w i n g they left because they p r e f e r r e d s o m e o n e else. It is a p r o b l e m of k n o w l e d g e . If the search for k n o w l e d g e is l i n k e d to l o v e , w h a t m i g h t this i m p l y about l e a r n i n g ? W h i l e love p r o v i d e s o n e m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l route to a s t u d y of l e a r n i n g , p a r a n o i a p r o v i d e s another. F r e u d m a k e s the f o l l o w i n g c o m ­ m e n t w h e n c o m p a r i n g the operations of 'conscience' to features of paranoia: ...the activity of the m i n d w h i c h has t a k e n o v e r the f u n c t i o n of conscience

h a s also

placed

itself at the service

of i n t e r n a l

research, w h i c h furnishes p h i l o s o p h y w i t h the m a t e r i a l for its intellectual o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s m a y h a v e s o m e b e a r i n g o n the char­ acteristic t e n d e n c y of p a r a n o i a c s to construct s p e c u l a t i v e

sys­

tems. ( F r e u d 1914: 96) C a n this 'characteristic t e n d e n c y ' of p a r a n o i a c s p r o v i d e s o m e clues a b o u t intellectual e x p l o r a t i o n i n general? F r e u d , a n d L a c a n after h i m , c e r t a i n l y t h o u g h t that there w a s a p a r a n o i a c t e n d e n c y i n the o r d i n a r y f u n c t i o n of the e g o . If this is the case, then the s t u d y of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of ' s p e c u l a t i v e s y s t e m s ' o n the p a r t of p a r a n o i a c s m i g h t p r o v i d e v a l u ­ able clues as to the m e c h a n i s m s o p e r a t i n g i n intellectual w o r k . T h e ego's p e n c h a n t for false c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d the f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n ten­ d e n c y to fill p s y c h i c a l v a c u u m s — w h i c h w e c o u l d l i n k to the p r o b l e m of loss o f l o v e , a b o v e — m a y also h e l p to e x p l a i n aspects of the desire to 'take i n ' k n o w l e d g e a n d to construct n a r r a t i v e sequences, l o g i c a l struc­ tures a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l systems.

T h i s a g a i n offers r i c h potential i n

terms o f e x p l a i n i n g aspects of intellectual life a n d the processes of intellectual creativity w h i c h are l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g . T h e r e is a h u g e theoretical g a p i n the m e t a p s y c h o l o g y o f intellectu­ al life w h i c h c o g n i t i v e science is i l l - e q u i p p e d to fill. A n y d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g m u s t itself rest u p o n a d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y of intellect. I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n here that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s offers s o m e r a d i c a l f o u n ­ d a t i o n s for research into m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l aspects of intellect a n d learning.

36

Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

(Hi) The 'experience' of learning M u c h recent p e d a g o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n s the ' e x p e r i e n c e ' of the learner. E m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n the l e a r n e r ' s i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e , fears, d i s c o m f o r t s , sense of i n a d e q u a c y , lack of c o n f i d e n c e , w i l l i n g n e s s to s u s p e n d beliefs, to g o into a space of lack of c o n t r o l , or to a l l o w t h e m ­ selves to be o p e n to influences, changes, etc. A

recent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e x a m p l e of this is a n article b y Joanne

B r o w n a n d H e a t h e r P r i c e i n w h i c h they i n t r o d u c e a ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c m o d e l of l e a r n i n g w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of l e a r n i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ' ( B r o w n & Price 1999: 89). T h e y d r a w o n the w o r k of Isca S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g (1983) w h i c h , i n t u r n , is b a s e d o n a n e o - K l e i n i a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p s y c h i c a l life. B r o w n a n d P r i c e p o i n t o u t that e a r l y l e a r n i n g is u n d e r t a k e n i n the context of a m o t h e r - i n f a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d refer us to the i d e a of ' m e m o r y i n f e e l i n g ' w h i c h they attribute to K l e i n , r e m i n d i n g u s that w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r the ' e m o t i o n a l aspects of l e a r n i n g ' . T h e y state: ...new l e a r n i n g situations c a n e v o k e p o w e r f u l m e m o r i e s (in feel­ ing) r e g a r d i n g o u r capacity to t h i n k , to be d e p e n d e n t , to k n o w , to be creative, to i n t r u d e , to steal or to v a n d a l i s e

knowledge.

L e a r n i n g f r o m experience, h o w e v e r , i n v o l v e s us b e i n g o p e n to these e m o t i o n a l or b o d i l y states a n d fantasies, w h i c h w e m i g h t f i n d easier to split off, repress, smother, etc. ( B r o w n & P r i c e 1999: 89) T h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g is b e c o m i n g m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n e d u c a t i o n a n d , l i k e the g r o u p - t h e r a p e u t i c t h i n k i n g to w h i c h it is closely related, its p s y c h o a n a l y t i c heritage often gets v e r y s e r i o u s l y lost. H o w e v e r this p o s t - K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h — a r g u a b l y n o w o w i n g little to K l e i n ' s o w n i d e a s — i s far r e m o v e d f r o m the l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t as c o n c e i v e d i n the L a c a n i a n w o r l d . T h e p o s t - K l e i n i a n m o d e l is b a s e d o n g r o u p s n o t i c i n g a n d actively r e s p o n d i n g to m i n u t e v a r i a t i o n s i n a n x i ­ ety levels a n d to a n y change i n m o o d . T h e L a c a n i a n s , m e a n w h i l e , d o n o t a l l o w that at the l e v e l of the c l a s s r o o m issues of ' g r o u p d y n a m i c s ' a n d ' a n x i e t y - l e v e l s ' are w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . L a c a n i a n i n s t r u c t i o n (for that is w h a t it is) is based o n charismatic d i s p l a y s of e x c e l l e n c e — w h o c a n argue best, w h o c a n r e m e m b e r the obscure reference h e a v i l y d i s g u i s e d i n a n a s i d e i n the Ecrits, w h o k n o w s that at this p o i n t i n his w o r k L a c a n is (covertly) referring to C h r e t i e n de T r o y e s , A r i s t o t l e ' s

Alison

Hall

37

causes, or s o m e m a d g e n i u s m a t h e m a t i c i a n . . . It is a J o y c e a n g a m e of references a n d associations w h i c h one is i n v i t e d to j o i n , or, m o r e often, to w i t n e s s — l i k e b e i n g part of a p u l s a t i n g c r o s s - w o r d . In this setting n o t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t be c o n c e i v e d as the ' d y n a m i c s ' of l e a r n i n g is taken into account. S o m e o n e gives a ' b r i l l i a n t lecture' or a ' c l e v e r p e r f o r m a n c e ' ; there is a split b e t w e e n speaker a n d a u d i e n c e b a s e d o n h i e r a r c h y a n d d i d a c t i c i s m w h i c h p r o b a b l y o w e s its o r i g i n s p r i n c i p a l l y to the a n a c h r o n i s t i c e l i t i s m of the F r e n c h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . P e o p l e leave these s e r m o n s w i t h a sense that s o m e t h i n g clever a n d i n t e r e s t i n g has b e e n s a i d . ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is not the g o a l here, because this is seen as antithetical to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ; to leave the session w i t h m o r e questions t h a n a n s w e r s is m o r e the s o u g h t o u t c o m e . A transfer­ ence to a v e i l e d a n d e n i g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e is generated. In contrast, the p o s t - K l e i n i a n w o r l d is obsessed

with dynamics.

E v e r y sneeze a n d s t o m a c h r u m b l e is a m e a s u r e of the g r o u p ' s regres­ s i o n , its l e v e l of anxiety, or its phantasies. A s e m i n a r b a s e d a r o u n d a p a r t i c u l a r issue or text q u i c k l y b e c o m e s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h c o n ­ cepts a n d f o r m u l a t i o n s generate w h i c h k i n d of anxiety a n d l i n k to w h i c h p r i m i t i v e feelings. T h e intellectual content of the ideas at stake is s o o n sacrificed at the altar of subjective

feeling-states.

W h a t I a m s u g g e s t i n g is that each of these a p p r o a c h e s lacks s o m e ­ t h i n g that the other possesses. O n one l e v e l it is a b s u r d to suggest that there is a n y t h i n g i n L a c a n i a n i s m w h i c h c o u l d be ' s u p p l e m e n t e d '

by

p o s t - K l e i n i a n i s m , a n d v i c e v e r s a — b e c a u s e they operate w i t h s u c h dif­ ferent conceptions of m e n t a l life, phantasy, anxiety a n d so o n . E v e n so, i n a m o r e practical sense I t h i n k s o m e l e a r n i n g f r o m each other's p r a c ­ tice c o u l d be v e r y fruitful. C o n s i d e r , for a m o m e n t , the p o s i t i v e c h a n g e w h i c h m i g h t c o m e about if L a c a n i a n s a t t e n d e d m o r e closely to the d y n a m i c s i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d if p o s t - K l e i n i a n s took greater p a i n s to c o n s i d e r the intellectual content a n d heritage of ideas. Surely, p s y c h o ­ analysis could only gain. T h e split b e t w e e n these t w o a p p r o a c h e s is s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t of a g e n d e r d i v i d e . L a c a n i a n i s m is often r e g a r d e d as u n h e l p f u l l y p a t r i a r ­ c h a l , a n d K l e i n i a n i s m as t h r e a t e n i n g l y m a t r i a r c h a l . T h i s is certainly e v i d e n t i n the styles of t e a c h i n g they e m p l o y i n the t r a n s m i s s i o n of their i d e a s a n d practices. T h e s e styles s e e m to c o r r e s p o n d — o n the one h a n d — t o father's abstract, difficult to u n d e r s t a n d h e c t o r i n g , remote a n d distant, a n d — o n the other h a n d — t o m o t h e r ' s i n t r u s i o n into e v e r y c o r n e r of o u r i n t e r n a l w o r l d , p r o v i n g far too close for comfort.

38

Psychoanalytic

Research on Learning

T h e r e is a n a r g u m e n t here for a far-reaching r e - c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the r e l a t i v e lack o f intellectual r i g o u r of K l e i n i a n w o r k , a n d the relative l a c k o f self-consciousness i n L a c a n i a n w o r k . T h e a p p a r e n t g e n d e r split b e t w e e n t h e m also requires e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s raises issues of p a r t i c u ­ lar i m p o r t a n c e for those w i t h i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : it m i g h t be p o s s i b l e to a r r i v e at a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g processes i n g e n e r a l if w e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y the peculiarities of the sys­ t e m s w e o u r s e l v e s rely o n for the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .

(iv) Intellectual

enjoyment

In 1905, F r e u d n o t e d that: ...it is a n u n m i s t a k a b l e fact that concentration o f the attention u p o n a n intellectual task a n d intellectual strain i n general p r o ­ d u c e a c o n c o m i t a n t sexual excitation i n m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e as w e l l as a d u l t s . ( F r e u d 1905a: 204) T h i s s e x u a l excitation, l i n k e d to intellectual effort, f o r m s a basis for all m a n n e r of p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i e s , a l t h o u g h F r e u d h i m s e l f d i d n o t m a k e a specific s t u d y o f the forms this c o u l d take. F r e u d i n t r o d u c e s the c o n ­ cept o f ' f o r e - p l e a s u r e ' s h o r t l y after the passage q u o t e d above ( F r e u d 1905a: 210-212). T h i s t e r m refers to a 'lesser f o r m o f p l e a s u r e ' w h i c h m a k e s p o s s i b l e a greater source of satisfaction. A l t h o u g h F r e u d does n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y l i n k fore-pleasure a n d intellectual w o r k , w e c o u l d hypothesise

that the m e c h a n i s m s

of fore-pleasure

c a n be u s e d to

e x p l a i n the l i b i d i n a l i s e d satisfactions associated w i t h intellectual w o r k . A t t h e s a m e time as h e w a s w r i t i n g Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality

(1905a) F r e u d w a s also at w o r k o n Jokes and Their Relation to

the Unconscious

(1905b) i n w h i c h h e elaborates o n the role o f f o r e - p l e a ­

sure i n r e l a t i o n to jokes. H o w e v e r , the o r i g i n a l G e r m a n title of this w o r k — D e r Witz been

translated

Und Seine Beziehung Zum more

f a i t h f u l l y as 'Wit

Unbewussten—could

have

a n d its r e l a t i o n to t h e

U n c o n s c i o u s ' . W i t , m o r e t h a n jokes, i m p l i e s a degree of intellectual w o r k . I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the m e c h a n i s m s associated w i t h the o p e r a ­ t i o n o f w i t , F r e u d s h o w s h o w m u c h intellectual effort goes into a p p r e ­ c i a t i n g a joke. Jokes, m o r e t h a n m o s t p h e n o m e n a , illustrate the w a y i n w h i c h a p s y c h i c a l content c a n b e a source o f b o d i l y sensation, i n the f o r m o f laughter. A research p r o g r a m m e w h i c h a i m e d to l o o k at the

Alison Hall

39

b o d i l y effects of intellectual w o r k c o u l d further o u r k n o w l e d g e of b o t h l e a r n i n g a n d the relation b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m i n d . E d w a r d L i s s d r e w attention to 'the p h e n o m e n o n of l e a r n i n g as a n erotic, s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e (Liss 1941: 520). H e p r o v i d e d a selection of 7

c l i n i c a l vignettes d e m o n s t r a t i n g the extent to w h i c h he b e l i e v e d that sadistic a n d m a s o c h i s t i c i m p u l s e s p l a y a p a r t i n the p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y of i n d i v i d u a l subjects i n their r e l a t i o n to intellectual w o r k (Liss 1940). F o r s o m e students the i m p l i c a t i o n that the contents o f the l e a r n ­ i n g process are s e x u a l , suffuses

that activity w i t h s u c h

taboo

i m p l i c a t i o n s that the a c q u i s i t i o n of facts is e n d o w e d w i t h i n o r d i ­ nate g u i l t a n d u l t i m a t e l y accentuated anxiety. (Liss 1941: 520) L i s s discusses a t y p e of l e a r n i n g w h i c h h e designates

'essentially

o b s e s s i o n a l ' . T h i s t y p e of (non) l e a r n i n g , ...manifests itself i n a m e t i c u l o u s l y repetitive e v a l u a t i o n o f sen­ tence a n d w o r d contents, w i t h a s t e r e o t y p e d , c i r c u l a r intensive i n q u i r y w h i c h n e e d s repeated i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d , w h e n inter­ p r e t e d , leads to i n t e r m i n a b l e review. T h e obsessive a b s o r p t i o n of these y o u n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n their a c q u i s i t i o n o f factual m a t e r i a l , w i t h their i n t e r m i n a b l e insistence o n detail, e n d s i n a t i m e - c o n ­ s u m i n g p r o c e d u r e w h i c h procrastinates t o m o r r o w ' s

task a n d

leaves t o d a y ' s task u n c o m p l e t e d . T h e s u m total w o r k f i n i s h e d is o u t of a l l p r o p o r t i o n to the effort a n d e n e r g y e x p e n d e d a n d the e n d result is a p r o n o u n c e d l a g i n the l e a r n i n g t e m p o , a b o g g i n g d o w n . . . T h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e are p o t e n t i a l p e d a n t s a n d one c a n a p p r e c i a t e t h r o u g h t h e m the m o r e clearly the genesis of certain aspects of s c h o l a s t i c i s m . (Liss 1941: 522) T h a t this m a y b e s y m p t o m a t i c o f obsessional neurosis is s u p p o r t e d b y the case s t u d y of the m o s t f a m o u s p r o c r a s t i n a t o r i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , F r e u d ' s ' R a t M a n ' , w h o , a m o n g s t other s y m p t o m s , h a d a n 'obsession for u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' w h i c h r e q u i r e d m e m b e r s

of h i s social circle to

e x p l a i n a g a i n a n d a g a i n w h a t h a d just b e e n s a i d a n d its exact m e a n ­ i n g — m u c h to e v e r y o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a n n o y a n c e ( F r e u d 1909:190). Freud's

commentary

o n the ' R a t M a n ' , a n d L i s s ' s

comments

on

s c h o l a s t i c i s m , serve to r e m i n d u s that 'intensive i n q u i r y ' m a y i n fact be p a t h o l o g i c a l , a n d m a y l e a d u s to c o n s i d e r carefully the degree of p s y ­ c h o p a t h o l o g y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a l l research or intellectual w o r k .

Psychoanalytic

40

Research

L a c a n ' s c o n c e p t of jouissance

on

Learning

c a n be b r o u g h t to bear o n this p r o b l e m .

A n e x p l o r a t i o n of the b o d i l y ' e n j o y m e n t ' associated w i t h , t r i g g e r i n g or t r i g g e r e d b y i n t e l l e c t u a l effort, m a y offer a m e a n s to theorise w h i c h k i n d s of i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t generate

excitement

and

anxiety;

w h e r e a n d u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s w e recoil f r o m i d e a s that are too w a y w a r d o r d i s t u r b i n g ; h o w ideas a n d o u r u n c o n s c i o u s e n j o y m e n t of t h e m are p l a y e d out, i n a n d t h r o u g h the b o d y ; a n d w h a t the p a r a m e ­ ters of these processes are.

*** A t t e m p t s to b r i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas a n d l e a r n i n g together i n the p a s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e l i m i t e d a n d h a v e often r e l i e d o n w h a t are n o w rather o u t d a t e d ideas of l e a r n i n g or o n v e r y w a t e r e d - d o w n v e r s i o n s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts. If a p r o b l e m as substantive a n d f u n d a m e n t a l as l e a r n i n g is n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d p e r h a p s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas c a n offer s o m e m e a n s for i n v e s t i g a t i n g it further. I h o p e that I h a v e s h o w n that there is n o short­ age of p o t e n t i a l a v e n u e s for research.

Notes

1 A lecturer i n N u r s i n g , a t t e n d i n g a m e e t i n g o n e d u c a t i o n a l research at w h i c h I w a s present, p r o c l a i m e d i n r e l a t i o n to her a n d her colleagues w o r k w i t h student nurses: ' S c h o n is o u r bible'! 2 T h e c h i l d ' s i n d u c t i o n i n t o a n d i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o r a t i o n of expressive r h y t h m i c a l i t y p r o v i d e s the basis for entry i n t o a s y m b o l i c a n d differentiated w o r l d — o n e i n w h i c h discrete u n i t s of s p e e c h (signifiers) c a n be e x c h a n g e d . T h e c r o s s - m o d a l exchanges s u p p o r t a crucial l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n — t h a t of the s u b s t i t u t i o n of one t h i n g for another (akin to m e t a p h o r ) . Persistent r h y t h m i c a c t i v i t y — f o r instance, r o c k i n g , as frequently encountered i n autistic c h i l d r e n — m a y be i n d i c a t i v e of a f a i l u r e i n c r o s s - m o d a l s u b s t i t u t i o n .

IS A N Y T H I N G M O R E I N T E R E S T I N G T H A N S E X ? T H E FREUDIAN PERSPECTIVE O N LEARNING A N D TEACHING

Duncan

Barford

'I a m a l w a y s r e a d y to l e a r n a l t h o u g h I d o not a l w a y s like b e i n g t a u g h t / —Winston Churchill A c c o r d i n g to F r e u d , w h e n it c o m e s to l e a r n i n g w e are all like W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l . W e are eager e n o u g h to take i n w h a t the w o r l d presents, b u t o n l y as l o n g as this meets u s o n o u r o w n terms. If instead the w o r l d d e m a n d s that w e c h a n g e o u r s e l v e s or alter o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , then, p u g n a c i o u s to the v e r y e n d , the m i n d refuses to surrender. T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g is thus d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c , because the p i c t u r e of the m i n d p a i n t e d b y F r e u d s u g ­ gests

that

human

nature

is f u n d a m e n t a l l y

at o d d s

w i t h reality.

E v e r y d a y c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g is c o n c e i v e d as a fragile superstructure rising

tenuously

from

origins

i n primitive, unconscious

mental

processes. T h e r e is n o n o t i o n i n F r e u d ' s p s y c h o l o g y of a learner w i t h a d i s i n t e r e s t e d c u r i o s i t y about reality for its o w n sake; rather, the h a l l ­ m a r k of all p s y c h i c a l activity is u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p r i m a r i l y of a self-centred a n d s e x u a l n a t u r e . T h i s raises s o m e c o n v o l u t e d questions. If l e a r n i n g is the r e c o g n i t i o n a n d acceptance of aspects of reality, of the ' n o n - s e l f ,

then h o w c a n

l e a r n i n g ever be s a i d to occur, g i v e n that this goes against the f u n d a ­ m e n t a l i n c l i n a t i o n of m i n d ? C o n v e r s e l y , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the teacher, w h a t c o n d i t i o n s h a v e to be i n place to e n c o u r a g e the student to go against the n a t u r a l tendencies of m i n d a n d b e g i n to learn? M a r k T e n n a n t c o m m e n t s that: P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is n o t a b l y absent f r o m the literature o n a d u l t t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d , especially g i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e a d u l t e d u c a t o r s attach to the e m o t i o n a l c l i ­ m a t e of the c l a s s r o o m a n d the anxieties, fears a n d hopes of l e a r n ­ ers. (Tennant 1988:

25)

B u t p e r h a p s it is not really so difficult to u n d e r s t a n d after a l l , c o n ­ s i d e r i n g that the h y p o t h e s e s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a p p e a r so 'strange' to a d u l t e d u c a t o r s . T h e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n the

7s Anything

42

More Interesting than Sex?

p r i m i t i v e a n d i r r a t i o n a l aspects of m e n t a l life d o e s i n d e e d a d d r e s s the issue of the ' e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e ' of the c l a s s r o o m , but w i t h a n intensity that is p r o b a b l y u n c o m f o r t a b l e for the majority. T h e ' u n u s u a l ' n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g a d v a n c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has h a d a n effect u p o n the literature o n the t h e m e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g . Firstly, m a n y writers seem k e e n to p r o m o t e l i n k s b e t w e e n psychoanalytic views

of l e a r n i n g a n d m o r e

orthodox

approaches.

T h e s e w r i t e r s are d r i v e n b y a n e e d to ' d i l u t e ' the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e m p h a s i s , or to l e n d it credence b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g its s i m i l a r i t y to m o r e e m p i r i c a l , o r t h o d o x a p p r o a c h e s (cf. Wolff 1960). Secondly, p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic w r i t i n g o n l e a r n i n g tends to a d o p t a therapeutic, r e m e d i a l o r i e n ­ tation. Less is m a d e of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g t h a n of the a p p l i c a t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s to l e a r n i n g situations. T h e p r i m a r y c o n ­ 1

c e r n here is w i t h the use of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a clinical tool for over­ c o m i n g v a r i o u s k i n d s of l e a r n i n g difficulties. T h e first of these a p p r o a c h e s obscures the u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n p s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s c a n m a k e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g , a n d the s e c o n d shifts the focus of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a w a y f r o m l e a r n i n g onto therapy. T h e existing

psychoanalytic

literature o n l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s

because it i m p l i e s that only psychoanalysts

daunting

c a n e m p l o y the necessary

techniques to a r r i v e at a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g sit­ uations. To trainee teachers, theories of l e a r n i n g are often p r e s e n t e d b e l o n g i n g to one of three b r o a d orientations—behaviourism, a n d humanism.

as

cognitivism

It is expected that teachers w i l l be able to i d e n t i f y a n d

use m e t h o d s f r o m e a c h of these traditions. H o w e v e r , the literature o n w h i c h these theories of l e a r n i n g are based does not q u e s t i o n the p r o ­ fessional c o m p e t e n c e of the teacher to the s a m e extent as the p s y c h o ­ a n a l y t i c literature. E d u c a t o r s d o not seem to s p e n d time w o r r y i n g over w h e t h e r they n e e d to be a ' q u a l i f i e d ' cognitive p s y c h o l o g i s t i n order to use

cognitive

teaching methods.

In contrast,

consider the

heavy

d e m a n d m a d e o n the professional capacity of the teacher i n the fol­ l o w i n g passage f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c text: T h e task of the teacher m a y be thought of as r e s e m b l i n g the p a r e n t a l f u n c t i o n : that is, to act as a t e m p o r a r y container for the excessive anxiety of his students at points of stress. It w i l l m e a n that he w i l l experience i n h i m s e l f s o m e of the m e n t a l p a i n c o n ­ n e c t e d w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d yet set a n e x a m p l e of m a i n t a i n i n g c u r i o s i t y i n the face of chaos, love of truth i n the face of terror of

43

Duncan Barford the u n k n o w n , a n d h o p e i n the face of despair. If he is able to d o this h e is p r o v i d i n g the c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h w i l l foster i n the s t u ­ d e n t a n a b i l i t y to tolerate the uncertainties c o n n e c t e d w i t h learn­ i n g . (Salzberger-Wittenberg

et a l . 1983:

60)

T h e a i m of the present s t u d y is to steer a p a t h b e t w e e n these ten­ d e n c i e s , a n d to concentrate u p o n w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n contribute to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the nature of l e a r n i n g . A n attempt w i l l be m a d e to m a p out s o m e g e n e r a l outlines of a n a p p r o a c h w i t h i n classi­ cal p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is a distinct b r a n c h of p s y ­ c h o l o g y , w i t h a u n i q u e object of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d m e t h o d s of i n q u i r y . A c c o r d i n g l y , a n attempt

w i l l be m a d e

to v i e w

the

psychoanalytic

a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g o n a p a r w i t h b e h a v i o u r i s t , cognitivist

and

h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s , a n d to d r a w attention to s o m e significant s i m i ­ larities a n d differences b e t w e e n the f o u r orientations.

It is n o t o n l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s w h o a d v o c a t e that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n m a k e a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to theories of l e a r n i n g . J e r o m e B r u n e r ' s classic c o g n i t i v i s t text, Toward a Theory of Instruction, contains a chapter e n t i t l e d ' O n C o p i n g a n d D e f e n d i n g ' . It explores a p a r t i c u l a r type of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n c h i l d r e n , a n d is r e m a r k a b l e for its p s y c h o d y n a m ­ ic t e r m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h B r u n e r stops short of e m p l o y i n g explicitly psychoanalytic hypotheses. B r u n e r suggests that at the root of s o m e l e a r n i n g difficulties is w h a t he terms a ' p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r ' . H e argues that e a r l y l e a r n i n g is d o m i n a t e d b y w a y s of a p p r e h e n d i n g the w o r l d w h i c h are not entirely effective i n s e p a r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e f r o m the e m o t i o n a l a n d m o t i v a t i o n ­ al context i n w h i c h it is a c q u i r e d . A p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r is an o r g a n ­ i s a t i o n of associated ideas i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y l i n k e d to a n affective c o n ­ cept. B r u n e r gives the e x a m p l e of a b o y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the issue of ' t h i n g s that c a n h u r t m e ' . In m a t h s lessons, e v e n t h o u g h the subject­ matter p r e s e n t e d to the b o y w a s p u r e l y abstract a n d s y m b o l i c , it n e v ­ ertheless s e r v e d as fuel to this u n d e r l y i n g e m o t i o n a l issue. T o the boy, fractions a s s u m e d the significance of m u t i l a t e d , c u t - u p n u m b e r s ; alge­ b r a i c c a n c e l l a t i o n m e a n t e r a d i c a t i o n a n d k i l l i n g . A s t u d e n t u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the ' c a n c e r o u s g r o w t h of a p r e - e m p t i n g m e t a p h o r ' (Bruner 1966: 138) ceases to c o p e w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d begins to d e f e n d against it. Instead of r e s p e c t i n g the d e m a n d s of p r o b l e m s , the learner begins to

Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

44

fear t h e m , a n d begins to e m p l o y m e a n s of e s c a p i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e m . T h i s is c o m m o n l y a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o u r a n d a s e e m i n g ' i n a b i l i t y ' to l e a r n . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of b l o c k a g e s i n l e a r n i n g d r e w B r u n e r onto u n m i s t a k ­ a b l y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c territory. T h e c h i l d d e s c r i b e d is p r e s u m e d

by

B r u n e r to be subject to p o w e r f u l unconscious phantasies. T h e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n threatens to b r i n g these i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , so (as a s a f e g u a r d against this) the act of l e a r n i n g itself is subjected to repression. T h e ' l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y ' is, f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view, sympto­

matic,

a n d possesses the structure of a neurosis. T h e c h i l d ' s d i f f i c u l t y

has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a deficient I Q , b u t e v e r y t h i n g to d o

with

i n t r a p s y c h i c conflict. P r a g m a t i c a l l y , B r u n e r advocates ' t h e r a p y ' or a ' s u p p o r t i v e t u t o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ' as a r e m e d y for this k i n d of difficulty. T h e tutor is a d v i s e d to a s s u m e a role w h i c h w i l l e n c o u r a g e the learner to i d e n t i f y w i t h h i m or her. I n this w a y , the tutor w i l l h a v e ' p r o v i d e d a n e w m o d e l of c o p ­ i n g b y s h o w i n g that p r o b l e m s are b o t h s o l u b l e a n d n o t d a n g e r o u s — o r , w h e n not s o l u b l e , at least not the s o u r c e of either disaster or p u n i s h ­ m e n t ' (Bruner 1966:

146).

So, despite a p p r o a c h i n g the issue f r o m a different theoretical start­ i n g - p o i n t , the c o g n i t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t e n d s b y u s i n g a s i m ­ ilar l a n g u a g e a n d a d v o c a t i n g the s a m e r e m e d i e s as the e x p l i c i t l y p s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w q u o t e d a b o v e (Bruner 1966: 42-3). T h e c o n c u r r e n c e of e d u c a t i o n a l i s t a n d analyst has m u c h to d o w i t h the t y p e of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that B r u n e r has i d e n t i f i e d . N e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s — t h e i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n as a defence against e m e r ­ gence of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s — a r e l e g i o n i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c lit­ erature o n l e a r n i n g . E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e : a b o y w h o s e o n l y c o n c e r n is w i t h the 'erotic' content of lessons d u e to p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h i s father's s e x u a l life ( A n t h o n y 1989:

121); a g i r l u n a b l e to l e a r n h e r 8x

table b e c a u s e of the p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n c e of 'eight' a n d 'ate'; t w o c h i l ­ d r e n u n a b l e to recognise the letter ' c ' because of its resemblance to a b i t i n g m o u t h ( C o h l e r 1989: 64); a b o y w h o b e c o m e s u n a b l e to r e a d a s t o r y w h i c h i n v o l v e s a d o g , because it is c o n n e c t e d i n his m i n d w i t h m e m o r i e s of a lost d o g , a lost teacher, a n d fears of l o s i n g his m o t h e r ( B l a n c h a r d 1946:

177).

W h e r e Bruner a n d psychoanalysis part company, however,

con­

cerns the degree of significance a s s i g n e d to the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s w h i c h l e a d to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g difficulties. B r u n e r writes:

Duncan Barford

45

W h a t e v e r 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' m e a n s , these c h i l d r e n w e r e o p e r a t ­ i n g b y its d i r e c t i o n . In effect, it a m o u n t s , I s u p p o s e , to a set of c o g n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s that p r e v a i l i n the absence of c o n s c i o u s c o n ­ trols... it is the absence of the c o n s c i o u s or ' l o g i c a l ' c h e c k that p e r m i t s a d e f e n s i v e m e t a p h o r to g r o w b y a c a n c e r o u s metastasis. (Bruner 1966:

144)

T h o s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s a r o u n d the w o r d ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' speak v o l ­ u m e s . F o r B r u n e r , the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is m e r e l y a m o d e of t h i n k i n g w h i c h obtains i n the absence

of r a t i o n a l , c o n s c i o u s

thought. This

i m p l i e s that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is a p r o d u c t of the absence of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , rather t h a n a c o n s t a n t l y present a n d self-sufficient aspect of m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g . It also i m p l i e s that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g , or a ' l o g i ­ cal c h e c k ' , is a l l that is r e q u i r e d to p u t the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' to flight. B r u n e r c o n t i n u e s i n this v e i n : It is too often t a k e n for g r a n t e d that the processes that l e a d to effective c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g are m e r e extensions

of u n c o n ­

scious d r e a m w o r k a n d association. I d o not b e l i e v e this to be the case, a n d a close r e a d i n g of F r e u d c e r t a i n l y indicates that he d i d not b e l i e v e so. (Bruner 1966: 147-8) I believe it is difficult to d e f e n d this interpretation. F r e u d seems to be quite clear i n his o p i n i o n that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l processes, a n d cannot be c o n s i d e r e d as w h o l ­ l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e m : T h i n k i n g . . . is essentially a n e x p e r i m e n t a l k i n d of acting... It is p r o b a b l e that t h i n k i n g w a s o r i g i n a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s . . . a n d that it d i d n o t a c q u i r e further qualities, perceptible to c o n s c i o u s n e s s , u n t i l it b e c a m e c o n n e c t e d w i t h v e r b a l residues. ( F r e u d 1911:

221)

F r e u d suggests that u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g o n l y b e c a m e split off f r o m c o n s c i o u s , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t as a result of e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s — t h a t is, it s o o n b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t to a p r i m i t i v e m i n d that p h a n t a s y a n d h a l l u c i n a t i o n t e n d not to p r o d u c e results a n d satisfaction to the s a m e degree as r a t i o n a l , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n (cf. F r e u d 1911: 219). H o w e v e r , this does n o t i m p l y that l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g c o m p l e t e l y replaces u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c the­ o r y of m i n d rests v e r y m u c h o n the a s s u m p t i o n that u n c o n s c i o u s

46

Is Anything

More Interesting than Sex?

m o d e s of t h i n k i n g are constantly active w i t h i n u s , a n d constitute a l e v e l of c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g w h i c h is w o r t h y of attention e q u a l to c o n ­ scious, l o g i c a l t h o u g h t . F o r the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y - i n f o r m e d educationalist, therefore, the k i n d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g w h i c h gives rise to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g difficulties is w h o l l y consistent w i t h the nature of the h u m a n m i n d . It is n o t to b e v i e w e d — l i k e B r u n e r s u g g e s t s — a s a m o r b i d , ' c a n c e r o u s ' p r o l i f e r a t i o n of u n r e a s o n , a consequence of insufficient ' l o g i c a l checks'. A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t the process o f l e a r n i n g m i g h t entail b e g i n s w i t h the i r r a t i o n a l phantasies of the learner.

T h e p r o b l e m of l e a r n i n g is n o t specifically a d d r e s s e d b y F r e u d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l concerns of classical p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — d r e a m s , slips of the t o n g u e , screen m e m o r i e s , etc.—focus

m o r e u p o n the m i n d ' s refusal

a n d e v a s i o n of reality t h a n its a s s i m i l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , g i v e n the atten­ t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a y s to the m i n d ' s ' n o n - l e a r n i n g ' , it is possible to trace the outlines of a converse process. B r u n e r a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h share the n o t i o n that a learner c a n b e c o m e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h a n u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, a n d that l e a r n i n g difficulties w i l l arise i f the learner reacts d e f e n s i v e l y to m a t e r i a l w h i c h threatens

to b r i n g the u n c o n s c i o u s

phantasy

into

awareness. T h e F r e u d i a n contention that the m i n d at its most f u n d a ­ m e n t a l l e v e l is i r r a t i o n a l , i m p l i e s that all learners are p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies to a n extent. Therefore, learners experience difficulties not p r i m a r i l y d u e to the kind of p h a n t a s y to w h i c h they are subject, b u t a c c o r d i n g to the degree to w h i c h p h a n t a s y is able to exert an influence over thinking: Because e v e r y t h i n g w e experience evokes u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n ­ tasies, e v e r y topic discussed... stirs u p images i n the depths of the m i n d . If these are p o w e r f u l l y present a n d of a d i s t u r b i n g n a t u r e , they w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y

interfere

with

l e a r n i n g . . . S o m e topics like v o l c a n o e s frequently arouse

great

excitement a n d considerable anxiety because they are closely associated w i t h phantasies about b o d y cavities a n d their d a n ­ gerous contents. (Salzberger-Wittenberg

et al. 1983: 71)

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47

L e a r n i n g , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i n v o l v e s n e g o ­ t i a t i o n a n d i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n ' i n s i d e a n d ' o u t s i d e ' . A n aspect of the 7

self is p r e s u m e d to m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies w i t h ­ i n the learner, a n d messages f r o m the external w o r l d — b e t w e e n secret fears of ' d a n g e r o u s b o d y cavities' a n d a lecture o n ' v o l c a n o e s ' . In clas­ s i c a l p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , the ego is e n v i s a g e d as p e r f o r m i n g this f u n c t i o n .

2

A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of l e a r n i n g r e v o l v e s a r o u n d the nature of the ego. F r e u d p o s t u l a t e d that the m i n d f u n c t i o n e d i n its earliest stages a c c o r d i n g to the ' p r i m a r y process', p r o d u c i n g the t y p e of i r r a t i o n a l , p r e - l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g w h i c h is characteristic of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy. U n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the p r i m a r y process, a p a r t i c u l a r i d e a w i l l t e n d to g i v e w a y q u i c k l y a n d easily to other ideas w h i c h — f o r a n y r e a s o n — are associated w i t h it. If a n i d e a is associated w i t h a p r e v i o u s e x p e r i ­ ence of p l e a s u r e or satisfaction, then it is especially l i k e l y to c o m e to m i n d if the o r g a n i s m is i n a state w h i c h calls for that satisfaction (cf. L a p l a n c h e & P o n t a l i s 1988:

339).

C o n s i d e r the e x a m p l e of a h u n g r y

b a b y w i s h i n g for the breast of its mother. In this i l l u s t r a t i o n the basic s u r v i v a l v a l u e of ' p r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g ' c a n be a p p r e c i a t e d , b u t also s o m e s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s . A s e n s a t i o n of h u n g e r m a y e v o k e i n the b a b y ' s m i n d the a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a of the breast, a n d m a y also initiate s u c k i n g actions, b u t the m e r e h a l l u c i n a t i o n of the breast a n d the i s o ­ l a t e d a c t i o n of s u c k i n g cannot i n themselves p r o d u c e satisfaction w i t h ­ o u t the presence of the breast i n reality. P r i m a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g is a k i n d of ' s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d ' c o g n i t i o n . Ideas arise i n the m i n d , a n d are c o n n e c t e d creatively to one another, b u t n o t i n a g u i d e d or o r d e r e d f a s h i o n , a n d w i t h o u t t a k i n g reality i n t o account.

L o g i c a l , reality-oriented t h i n k i n g — o r 'secondary

process'

t h i n k i n g — d e v e l o p s later. P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g initiates phantasies, w h i c h serve the f u n c ­ t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h h a l l u c i n a t i o n s of satisfaction.

Secondary

process t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , takes the d e m a n d s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s of r e a l i t y i n t o account. It is a m o r e i n h i b i t e d a n d d r a w n - o u t f o r m of c o g n i t i o n , w h i c h serves the f u n c t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h about h o w t h e y m i g h t be satisfied (cf. F r e u d 1900:

thoughts

602).

T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p r i m a r y process to s e c o n d a r y process occurs i n s y n c h r o n y w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego. T h i s is h o w F r e u d first a t t e m p t e d to d e s c r i b e the b i r t h of the ego:

48

Is Anything More Interesting than Sex? ...an o r g a n i s a t i o n has b e e n f o r m e d i n * F w h o s e presence inter­ 3

feres w i t h passages [of quantity]... T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n is called the 'ego'. It c a n easily b e d e p i c t e d i f w e c o n s i d e r that the r e g u l a r l y r e p e a t e d r e c e p t i o n of e n d o g e n o u s Qr\ [quantities]... a n d the facil­ itating effect p r o c e e d i n g thence w i l l p r o d u c e a g r o u p of n e u ­ r o n e s w h i c h is constantly cathected... a n d thus c o r r e s p o n d s to the v e h i c l e of the store r e q u i r e d b y the s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n . . . T h u s the e g o is to b e d e f i n e d as the totality of *F cathexes at the g i v e n time; i n w h i c h a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g one. ( F r e u d 1950: 323) D e s p i t e the o p a q u e l a n g u a g e o f ' n e u r o n e s ' a n d 'quantities' that F r e u d uses i n this text, the ego is e n v i s a g e d as a s i m p l e o r g a n i s a t i o n i n terms of its structure a n d f u n c t i o n . F r e u d is p r o p o s i n g that associations w h i c h accrue b e t w e e n

ideas

a n d sensations of p a i n a n d pleasure ('repeated reception of e n d o g e ­ n o u s quantities') f o r m e n d u r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s i n the m i n d . O n c e these are i n p l a c e , a n ' a r e a ' begins to d e v e l o p w h i c h possesses a h i g h e r d e g r e e of structure a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a n its s u r r o u n d i n g , a n d w h i c h c a n m a i n t a i n itself i n response to s t i m u l i i n a m o r e consistent f a s h i o n . T h e s t i m u l i the ego has to d e a l w i t h m a y vary, a n d m a y i n t r o d u c e n e w c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t the d e v e l o p i n g structure w h i c h processes the s t i m u l i r e m a i n s essentially s t a b l e — h e n c e : ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n ­ g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g one'. T h e e g o , then, is i n essence a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h is stable a n d consistent, i n relation to the rest. I n this v e r y f u n d a m e n t a l sense w e are able to describe the e g o as p o s s e s s i n g ' i d e n t i t y ' . F o r m e r l y the condition of

w a s d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g to i m p i n g e m e n t s m a d e u p o n

it b y the o u t s i d e w o r l d , or b y the i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s o f the o r g a n i s m . B u t , as the f l e d g l i n g e g o p r o c e e d s to g r o w f r o m the c o n t i n ­ u e d association of ideas w i t h sensations

of p a i n a n d pleasure, it

acquires the ability to act a c c o r d i n g to p r e v i o u s experience, rather t h a n reacting inconsistently to w h a t e v e r s t i m u l i present themselves. T h e ego b e c o m e s a specialised part of *F. Its stability rests u p o n its g r o w i n g ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i (internal a n d external) w i t h i n certain l i m i t s . F r o m this capacity emerges the p o t e n t i a l for s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k ­ i n g (cf. L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 339). T h e s e h i g h l y abstract f o r m u l a t i o n s c a n b e related to concrete e x p e ­ rience. ' E g o ' m e a n s T ; the m o s t salient characteristic of the experience of T is quite e v i d e n t l y its 'stability' a n d ' c o n t i n u i t y ' . F o r e x a m p l e , i f I

Duncan

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leave o n e r o o m a n d go into another, e v e n t h o u g h m y p e r c e p t i o n s a n d o r i e n t a t i o n h a v e c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d , there r e m a i n s the sense it is I w h o h a v e m a d e the transition. T h i s applies also to i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g ­ ical c h a n g e s . If the w a y I feel changes d r a m a t i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h I feel c o m p l e t e l y u n l i k e h o w I w a s the m o m e n t before, there r e m a i n s the sense that it is the s a m e I w h i c h feels differently. T h e n o t i o n of the sta­ b i l i t y of ego, a n d its ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i i n o r d e r to m a i n t a i n its constancy, has s t r o n g roots i n the subjective e x p e r i e n c e of self.

4

* * *

T h r o u g h e x a m i n i n g the nature a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

of the ego w e c a n

c o n c l u d e that a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g recognises t w o k i n d s of c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g . O n the one h a n d there is p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y i n g , a n d o n the other s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g . T h e s e c o n d d e v e l o p s f r o m the first, as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the g r o w i n g c a p a c i t y of the ego

to stabilise a n d i n h i b i t the p r i m a r y process. Because it entails

o b s e r v a n c e of the d e m a n d s a n d limitations of reality, rather t h a n s i m ­ p l y e x p r e s s i n g i m m e d i a t e n e e d s a n d desires of the o r g a n i s m ,

sec­

o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g facilitates w h a t w e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d as 'learning'. H o w e v e r , a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g w i l l also a d h e r e to the n o t i o n that t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g c a n n e v e r escape the i n f l u e n c e of p r i ­ m a r y process p h a n t a s y . It w o u l d also h o l d that it is not a desirable e d u ­ c a t i o n a l objective to attempt to d o so. T h e o r g a n i s m a n d its m i n d are i n d i s s o l u b l y b o u n d . A l t h o u g h t h i n k i n g takes i n t o a c c o u n t

external

reality, a n d c a n p r o d u c e o b v i o u s r e w a r d s to the i n d i v i d u a l as a result, p h a n t a s y r e m a i n s the p r i m e representative of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r life. T h e o v e r - e m p h a s i s

of t h o u g h t at the e x p e n s e of p h a n t a s y is a

d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e . T h e e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n of existence 5

p r o d u c e s o u r m o s t t r a u m a t i c a n d u n s e t t l i n g experiences, yet it is also the m o s t i m m e d i a t e a n d authentic aspect of life, a n d the source of o u r m o s t p o w e r f u l pleasures a n d m o t i v a t i o n s . P h a n t a s y — a s another w o r d for the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y p r o c e s s — i s the chief e m b o d i m e n t i n the m i n d of this s i d e of life. T h i r t y years after his o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s F r e u d r e t u r n e d to these s a m e issues a n d cast a little m o r e light o n the w a y h u m a n l e a r n i n g i s — b y d e f i n i t i o n — s t a m p e d w i t h the h a l l m a r k of the p r i m a r y process. F r e u d t u r n e d h i s attention to h o w the ego, i n its e a r l y stages of d e v e l ­ o p m e n t , m a k e s judgements c o n c e r n i n g the n a t u r e of p e r c e p t i o n s :

50

Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

T h e f u n c t i o n of j u d g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d i n the m a i n w i t h t w o sorts of d e c i s i o n s . It affirms or disaffirms the p o s s e s s i o n b y a t h i n g of a p a r t i c u l a r attribute; a n d it asserts or d i s p u t e s that a p r e s e n t a t i o n has a n existence i n reality. T h e attribute to be d e c i d ­ e d about m a y o r i g i n a l l y h a v e been g o o d or b a d , useful or h a r m ­ f u l . E x p r e s s e d i n the l a n g u a g e of the o l d e s t — t h e o r a l — i n s t i n c ­ t u a l i m p u l s e s , the j u d g e m e n t is: T s h o u l d like to eat this', or 'I s h o u l d like to spit it out'; a n d , p u t m o r e generally: T s h o u l d like to take this into m y s e l f a n d to keep that out...' [T]he o r i g i n a l p l e a s u r e - e g o w a n t s to introject into itself e v e r y t h i n g that is g o o d a n d to eject f r o m itself e v e r y t h i n g that is b a d . W h a t is b a d , w h a t is a l i e n to the ego a n d w h a t is external are, to b e g i n w i t h , i d e n t i ­ cal. ( F r e u d 1925: 236-7) T h i s i m p l i e s that the transition f r o m p h a n t a s y to t h o u g h t , f r o m ' p l e a s u r e - e g o ' to 'reality-ego', is a c c o m m o d a t e d b y the c a p a c i t y of the e g o to j u d g e presentations a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are

real (rational good ( p h a n ­

t h o u g h t ) , as w e l l as s i m p l y a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are

tasy). T o r e t u r n to the e x a m p l e of the h u n g r y b a b y w i s h i n g for the breast, it is n o t e n o u g h for the b a b y to ascertain that the breast is g o o d a n d to i m a g i n e its goodness, it m u s t also w o r k out w h e t h e r the breast is there i n the external w o r l d . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o types of j u d g e m e n t is n o t u n i q u e to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . D a v i d K o l b ' s use of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ' a p p r e ­ h e n s i o n ' a n d ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' is a close p a r a l l e l . K o l b v i s u a l i s e s these t w o attitudes t o w a r d s the outside w o r l d as the two e n d - p o i n t s of a n axis, against w h i c h it is possible to plot a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s h a b i t u a l style of l e a r n i n g ( K o l b 1984:42). ' A p p r e h e n s i o n ' i m p l i e s a n attitude t o w a r d s t h i n g s w h i c h consists of a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e m for their o w n sake, a n d is b a s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y u p o n interest i n things rather t h a n a p r o p e n s i t y to evaluate t h e m . ' C o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , o n the other h a n d , is a m o r e reflec­ tive attitude t o w a r d s the w o r l d . To c o m p r e h e n d s o m e t h i n g is to criti­ cise it to a degree, to attempt to place it i n s o m e k i n d of context a n d estimate its ' v a l i d i t y ' ( K o l b 1984:103-4). T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h suggests that one of these capacities d e v e l o p s o u t of the o t h e r — t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i o n follows o n f r o m a p p r e ­ h e n s i o n . If the b a b y is to j u d g e whether the breast exists i n the external w o r l d it c a n d o so o n l y because it already h a s a n i d e a of the breast, d u e to a p r i o r j u d g e m e n t that the breast was g o o d . Because the j u d g e m e n t s

Duncan Barford

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of the p l e a s u r e - e g o p r e c e d e those of the r e a l i t y - e g o , the p s y c h o a n a l y t ­ ic a p p r o a c h suggests that w e c a n o n l y p a s s j u d g e m e n t s o n w h a t is real if w e h a v e a l r e a d y j u d g e d s o m e t h i n g as g o o d . W h a t is j u d g e d as b a d b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o i s — a s F r e u d p u t i t — ' s p a t o u t ' . It is n e v e r c o m p r e ­ h e n d e d because it w a s n o t a p p r e h e n d e d . T h e true a i m of reality-testing or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' i s — f r o m the p s y ­ choanalytic point of v i e w — ' n o t b u t to

refind

to find

a n object i n real p e r c e p t i o n . . .

s u c h a n object, to c o n v i n c e oneself that it is still there'

( F r e u d 1925: 237-8). T h e b a b y m a y i n d e e d d i s c o v e r that the breast exists i n reality a n d is n o t just a n h a l l u c i n a t i o n created b y its o w n phantasy, b u t it w i l l h a v e b e e n m o t i v a t e d to l o o k because once before it h a d f o u n d that the b r e a s t — r e a l o r u n r e a l — w a s g o o d . P e r h a p s the b a b y l o o k s a n d d i s c o v e r s that the breast is n o t a v a i l a b l e i n reality. It m a y c o m e to accept a n d act o n the reality of this s i t u a t i o n also, but, once a g a i n , this r e c o g n i t i o n of reality w i l l h a v e c o m e about because the b a b y w a s s e e k i n g to r e - f i n d i n reality s o m e t h i n g it h a d a l r e a d y f o u n d to b e g o o d i n phantasy. T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g h o l d s that for a p r e s e n t a t i o n to g a i n a d m i s s i o n to the m i n d it m u s t first of all be p e r c e i v e d as g o o d , because all c o g n i t i o n d e v e l o p s out of the p r i m i t i v e activity of the e a r l y p l e a s u r e - e g o . I n o r d e r to o p e n oneself u p to experience a n d b e g i n l e a r n i n g i n a full, r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d f a s h i o n , the learner m u s t expect to r e f i n d i n the external w o r l d s o m e t h i n g that he o r she has once a l r e a d y f o u n d i n phantasy, a n d w h i c h p r o d u c e d satisfaction. It is for this reason, p e r h a p s , that the l a n g u a g e o f a c q u i r i n g i n f o r ­ m a t i o n is also the l a n g u a g e of appetite, c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d i g e s t i o n . It seems n a t u r a l to speak of a n a u d i e n c e of learners T a p p i n g u p ' k n o w l ­ e d g e , o r ' s w a l l o w i n g it w h o l e ' . A m o r e tentative a u d i e n c e m i g h t be s a i d to ' c h e w things o v e r ' . ' T o r u m i n a t e ' m e a n s 'to c h e w ' , b u t also 'to t h i n k ' , as if t h i n k i n g w e r e to l e a r n i n g as c h e w i n g is to s w a l l o w i n g . It is c o m m o n for s o m e o n e r e a d i n g to r e a c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y for s o m e t h i n g to eat, as i f i m b i b i n g f o o d facilitated the process of a s s i m i l a t i n g i n f o r m a ­ tion. T h e f r e n z y of e a t i n g w h i c h often a c c o m p a n i e s ' t a k i n g i n a f i l m ' is often e v e n m o r e p r o n o u n c e d , p e r h a p s d u e to the b o u n d a r y - d i s s o l v i n g d a r k n e s s o f the c i n e m a , a n d the large size of the s c r e e n - i m a g e . A p p a r e n t l y , the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d eating, o r b o d i l y i n c o r p o r a t i o n , is v e r y basic to the w a y w e v i s u a l i s e w h a t

happens

w h e n w e assimilate k n o w l e d g e . W h e t h e r it is s o m e h o w literally true that w e 'take s o m e t h i n g i n ' w h e n w e l e a r n is o p e n to q u e s t i o n . In fact, the i d e a that l e a r n i n g is l i k e e a t i n g is a phantasy—precisely the k i n d o f

52

7s Anything More Interesting than Sex?

p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y w h i c h has b e e n u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , a n d w h i c h is l i k e l y to s t i m u l a t e a n d u n d e r p i n r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d l e a r n i n g . If the l e a r n e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y equates the attentive r e c e p t i o n of i n f o r m a ­ t i o n w i t h ' a g o o d f e e d ' , then this w i l l bolster m o t i v a t i o n a n d increase receptivity. 6

A n o t h e r p h a n t a s y w h i c h u n d e r p i n s l e a r n i n g is the n o t i o n o f l e a r n ­ i n g as a k i n d of l o v i n g . L e a r n i n g tends to take p l a c e i n the context of a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n learner a n d teacher, a fertile a r e n a for a p h a n t a s y of c o u r t s h i p , a n i n t i m a t e process of g i v e a n d take b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . T h i s a p p l i e s n o t o n l y to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t also to the s e l f - m o t i v a t e d l e a r n i n g o f the i n d e p e n d e n t scholar, w h e r e it is c o m m o n to t a l k of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s ' p a s s i o n ' or ' o b s e s s i o n ' w i t h his or h e r subject-matter. T h e l a n g u a g e w e use to describe the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n teacher a n d learner, a n d b e t w e e n learner a n d subject, is also the l a n g u a g e o f part­ n e r s h i p , o f s e x u a l intercourse a n d the t o r r i d love-affair. 7

8

T h e l a n g u a g e of l e a r n i n g betrays the v a r i o u s u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n ­ tasies b y w h i c h l e a r n i n g is u n d e r p i n n e d . A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g s h o w s h o w these phantasies m a y f o r m the basis of a p o w e r ­ f u l m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , o r — w h e r e the content of the p h a n t a s y is per­ c e i v e d as t h r e a t e n i n g b y the i n d i v i d u a l ego—a f o r c i b l e d i s i n c e n t i v e .

A t this p o i n t it seems i m p o r t a n t to address s o m e p o s s i b l e objections to a n d l i m i t a t i o n s of the ideas w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d so far. T h e p a r a d o x i c a l n o t i o n that l e a r n i n g — t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d accep­ tance o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n i n r e a l i t y — i s a c t u a l l y the r e - d i s c o v e r y o f a pre­ s e n t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y p r o d u c e d satisfaction, raises a n u m b e r of questions. F i r s t l y , is ' a d m i s s i o n i n t o the m i n d o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n ' r e a l l y a n ade­ quate d e f i n i t i o n of l e a r n i n g ? W h e n w e c o n s i d e r the range of a c t i v i t y the t e r m ' l e a r n i n g ' c o v e r s — f o r e x a m p l e : a c q u i r i n g the c a p a c i t y to per­ f o r m a c t i o n s ; to appreciate the b e a u t y of w o r k s o f art; to criticise abstract s y s t e m s of t h o u g h t — t h e n the a n s w e r has to be ' n o ' . T h e process w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, b y w h i c h a p p e r c e p t i o n o f reality is facilitated t h r o u g h the exercise of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p e r h a p s deserves a n a m e s u c h as familiarisation rather t h a n ' l e a r n i n g ' . A t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g requires s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n o n the w a y the m i n d deals w i t h presentations once it has d e c i d e d to ' a d m i t ' t h e m . S e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g e v i d e n t l y entails a d i m e n ­

Duncan

Barford

53

s i o n o f ' t r u t h ' a n d ' v a l i d i t y ' , w h i c h this s t u d y has n o t a d d r e s s e d i n a n y depth. H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h ' f a m i l i a r i s a t i o n ' m a y n o t be s y n o n y m o u s w i t h the f u l l process of l e a r n i n g , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c n o t i o n that l o g i c a l , d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g , dictates that this process is a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t of a l l l e a r n i n g activity. A s p e c i a l c o n c e r n w i t h this aspect of the l e a r n i n g process—the e m o t i o n a l , ' i r r a t i o n a l ' e n d of the c o g n i t i v e s p e c t r u m — i s w h a t charac­ terises the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h . A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y c o n c e r n s the n o t i o n of w h a t the j u d g e m e n t of a p r e s e n t a t i o n as ' g o o d ' m i g h t be s a i d to e n t a i l . E v i d e n t l y , w e are able to l e a r n a b o u t a l l m a n n e r o f u n p l e a s a n t t h i n g s w i t h little a p p a r e n t diffi­ culty. Therefore, w h a t is the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this n o t i o n that things m u s t s e e m ' g o o d ' i n o r d e r for us to l e a r n them? A g a i n , this q u e s t i o n arises f r o m the p a r a d o x of l e a r n i n g v i e w e d as the re-finding o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the j u d g e m e n t s m a d e b y the p r i m i t i v e pleasure-ego r e v o l v e a r o u n d the g o o d n e s s of presentations, this d o e s n o t a p p l y d i r e c t l y to those m a d e later b y the reality-ego. P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g entails that s o m e t h i n g m u s t be g o o d i n order to be c o g n i s e d ; s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g a i m s to ascertain w h e t h e r that g o o d n e s s c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. S o m e t i m e s it c a n n o t — b u t this m e a n s o n l y that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n has r e a c h e d a negative conclusion, n o t that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e v e r t o o k p l a c e . I n a l l the e x a m p l e s of n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y the l e a r n e r is r e f u s i n g to recognise s o m e t h i n g they already know i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . J u d g i n g that s o m e t h i n g is not g o o d i n s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g , a n d t h e n c h o o s i n g n o t to a c k n o w l e d g e it (whether c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) , does not e n t a i l a cessation of c o g n i t i o n , m e r e l y its negation or repression. A t the m o r e p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of the pleasure-ego, h o w e v e r , there is n o r e c o g n i ­ t i o n of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the subjective a n d the real. C o g n i t i o n ( p h a n t a s y i n g ) occurs e n t i r e l y o n the basis of w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g is g o o d or not. If s o m e t h i n g is j u d g e d as n o t g o o d at this l e v e l , t h e n c o g ­ n i t i o n does i n d e e d cease altogether, for there is n o other register i n w h i c h it m i g h t c o n t i n u e . A n o t h e r w a y to a p p r o a c h this is f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of the p s y ­ c h o l o g i c a l t r u i s m that d e p r i v a t i o n i n i n f a n c y leads to difficulties later i n life. W e h a v e seen h o w l e a r n i n g c a n be u n d e r p i n n e d b y basic p h a n ­ tasies to d o w i t h e a t i n g a n d w i t h l o v i n g . T h e l e a r n e r w h o r e - d i s c o v e r s i n l e a r n i n g a close p a r a l l e l w i t h s a t i s f y i n g , e a r l y experiences of e a t i n g

54

Is Anything

More Interesting than Sex?

a n d l o v i n g , is l i k e l y to be w e l l - m o t i v a t e d a n d receptive. W h a t is r e - d i s ­ c o v e r e d i n the subject matter of the l e a r n i n g is t h e n less l i k e l y to u n d e r ­ m i n e this positive experience. H o w e v e r , the learner w h o has

been

d e p r i v e d of satisfying experiences of eating a n d l o v i n g is u n a b l e to r e d i s c o v e r t h e m i n the l e a r n i n g situation, a s — b e c a u s e they w e r e not good—they

were n e v e r i n c o r p o r a t e d b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o .

Another

t y p e of p h a n t a s y m u s t u n d e r p i n their l e a r n i n g (perhaps of a n aggres­ sive or p a r a n o i d type), or else l e a r n i n g cannot o c c u r .

9

It is possible to r e n o u n c e , negate or tolerate the loss of s o m e t h i n g w e o n c e possessed. T h e loss w h i c h is i m p o s s i b l e to s u r m o u n t is the loss of w h a t w e n e v e r possessed. T h e p e r s o n w i t h o u t p o s i t i v e p h a n ­ tasies to u n d e r p i n l e a r n i n g can o n l y seek r e p e a t e d l y to a c h i e v e the basic satisfactions u p o n w h i c h those phantasies d e p e n d . A t this stage, g a i n i n g the experience of satisfaction is m o r e u r g e n t t h a n l e a r n i n g a b o u t reality. F o r those learners w i t h the ability to phantasy, the i d e a l of a g o o d n e s s they once possessed forms the subjective point-of-refer­ ence for a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h external r e a l i t y .

10

W h a t is then d i s c o v e r e d

m i g h t r e - a w a k e n a phantasy, or negate it, or h a v e n o b e a r i n g u p o n it. W h a t is significant is that all these r e a c t i o n s — i n contrast to the learner w i t h o u t p h a n t a s y — i m p l y a continuation

of c o g n i t i o n , w h e t h e r c o n ­

scious or u n c o n s c i o u s . It is as if the ability to p h a n t a s y kick-starts a process of c o g n i t i o n w h i c h is then d i f f i c u l t — i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e — t o halt c o m p l e t e l y . H o w e v e r useful it m i g h t be to e n v i s a g e t h o u g h t as o r i g i ­ n a t i n g i n the experience of f i n d i n g s o m e t h i n g ' g o o d ' , a n d as b e i n g m a r k e d i r r e v o c a b l y b y these b e g i n n i n g s i n i n s t i n c t u a l s t r i v i n g , it is e v i ­ d e n t t h a t — a s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s — i t acquires the c a p a c i t y to tolerate a n d represent a m u c h w i d e r range of experience. A n o t h e r p o i n t of contention concerns the n a t u r e of the ego a n d its s u p p o s e d role i n the process of l e a r n i n g . T h e concept of the e g o has a long

and

controversial history

in psychoanalytic

thought

(see

L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 130-43). F o r this reason, the v e r s i o n of the ego e m p l o y e d here is f r o m one of F r e u d ' s earliest, m o s t basic f o r m u l a ­ t i o n s — ' a n organisation... w h o s e presence interferes w i t h passages [of q u a n t i t y ] ' ( F r e u d 1950:

323).

S o m e theorists v i e w the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego as t e n d i n g t o w a r d s greater ' a u t o n o m y ' ,

a n d 'neutralisation of the d r i v e . . . [ w h i c h thus

a l l o w s ] the ego to b e c o m e a n o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' ( A n t h o n y 1989: 108-9). O t h e r s a d o p t a r a d i c a l l y different perspective w h i c h v i e w s the

ego

itself as the net result of p r i m i t i v e phantasies of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d identification. Jacques L a c a n ' s t h e o r y of the ' m i r r o r stage'

proposes

Duncan Barford

55

that the basis of the ego is the infant's j u b i l a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h its reflection. T h i s identification is p r o m p t e d b y g r a n d i o s e phantasies of m a s t e r y a n d w h o l e n e s s , w h i c h d i s g u i s e the fact of the c h i l d ' s essential helplessness

( L a c a n 1977: 4). B o t h p o i n t s o f v i e w f i n d s o m e e n d o r s e ­

m e n t i n F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l theories. In s u p p o r t of the L a c a n i a n v i e w , there is a n interesting s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n F r e u d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the e g o a n d of the ego's m e a n s of j u d g ­ i n g presentations. In the e g o ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g o n e ' ( F r e u d 1950: 323)—that is, a n u n d e r l y i n g stabili­ ty c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the v a r i a b l e s t i m u l i w h i c h are p r o c e s s e d i n the e g o f r o m m o m e n t to m o m e n t . F r e u d t h e n goes o n to suggest that w h e n the e g o judges a presentation to see if it p r o m i s e s satisfaction, it breaks it d o w n into t w o aspects: 'the constant p e r c e p t u a l [neurone a] ... a n d the inconstant c o m p o n e n t

[neurone b]

component ... it [lan­

g u a g e ] w i l l call n e u r o n e a the t h i n g a n d n e u r o n e b its activity or a t t r i b u t e — i n short its predicate'

( F r e u d 1950: 328).

A s J e a n L a p l a n c h e has n o t e d , this is 'to posit w i t h i n p e r c e p t i o n a structure a n a l o g o u s to that of the e g o ' ( L a p l a n c h e 1976: 65). It seems w e m u s t bear i n m i n d the p o s s i b i l i t y that the ego's a p p r e h e n s i o n of reality is characteristically distorted b y a self-referential circularity. L a p l a n c h e is s u g g e s t i n g that p e r c e p t i o n , f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the ego, is a k i n d o f constant ' m i r r o r stage', i n w h i c h the f o r m of the e g o a n d the p r e s e n t a t i o n are constantly, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , r e - a f f i r m i n g o n e another. T h i s i d e a m i g h t f o r m the basis o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y s o m e learners experience n e u r o t i c difficulties i n l e a r n i n g a n d others d o not. If the e g o is a n ' a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' , t h e n this q u e s t i o n is h a r d to a n s w e r other t h a n i n genetic, d e v e l o p m e n t a l terms. If, h o w e v ­ er, the l e a r n e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n is constantly s h a p e d a c c o r d i n g to the struc­ ture of their e g o , it b e c o m e s possible to u n d e r s t a n d w h y a learner m i g h t b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n f r o n t e d i n the l e a r n i n g situation w i t h their o w n u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies. F o r e x a m p l e , the b o y w h o i n s i s t e d o n seeing algebraic c a n c e l l a t i o n as ' m u r d e r ' : i n this situation the e g o is n o n e u ­ tral ' w i n d o w of the m i n d ' onto reality, b u t is the e n d u r i n g L a c a n i a n infant, w h o m a k e s a m i r r o r of reality a n d sees h i s o w n phantasies, d e t e r m i n e d b y the structure of his o w n e g o , reflected b a c k f r o m it. As

a countermeasure,

approach:

R i v k a E i f e r m a n n proposes

the f o l l o w i n g

56

Is Anything

More Interesting than Sex?

W h e n t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . . . one is i n e v i t a b l y met w i t h p r e ­ c o n c e p t i o n s , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s , h i g h expectations a n d h o p e s ,

as

w e l l as anxieties. T h e s e are neither altered n o r d i m i n i s h e d b y m e a n s of fore w a r n i n g s . . . I c o n t e n d that, as i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r o c e s s itself, these c a n a n d s h o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the e n c o u n t e r rather t h a n be treated as difficulties interfering w i t h l e a r n i n g . . . ( E i f e r m a n n 1993:

1006)

T h e phantasies of the learner i n the l e a r n i n g situation are thus a s s i g n e d a p i v o t a l role. E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h is a k i n d of ' p h a n t a s y management'.

E i f e r m a n n takes

advantage

of

the

'double-edged'

n a t u r e of p h a n t a s y . O n the one h a n d , its role i n l e a r n i n g difficulties is r e c o g n i s e d ; y e t — o n the other h a n d — E i f e r m a n n is a w a r e of its creative p o t e n t i a l . If p h a n t a s y c a n be ' i n c o r p o r a t e d into the e n c o u n t e r ' it c a n be u s e d to f o r m the basis of deeper m o t i v a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n the learner. It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, because E i f e r m a n n is a t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a ­ lyst, t h e n this is not a n a p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o a c h for the majority of a d u l t e d u c a t o r s w h o l a c k s p e c i a l i s e d t r a i n i n g . H o w e v e r , the p o i n t s at w h i c h E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h differs f r o m the a n a l y t i c a l situation s h o u l d also be b o r n e i n m i n d . T h e a p p r o a c h m a y sound like p e r s o n a l p s y c h o t h e r a ­ py, b u t this is e v i d e n t l y not the case once w e c o n s i d e r that it is the p h a n t a s i e s of the w h o l e g r o u p of learners w h i c h are b e i n g a d d r e s s e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h the a i m of the p s y c h o a n a l y s t m a y be to inter­ pret the a n a l y s a n d ' s

phantasy, E i f e r m a n n quite clearly e s p o u s e s a

p u r e l y e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e — t o enable students to l e a r n . T h e a i m is not to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t phantasies m e a n i n the lives of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t to c o m p r e h e n d t h e m i n the light of the l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n a n d of the topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

* * itIt s e e m s to m e v e r y l i k e l y that m a n y a d u l t e d u c a t o r s — r e g a r d l e s s of their s u b j e c t - a r e a — a r e already, instinctively, u s i n g a p p r o a c h e s s i m i l a r to E i f e r m a n n ' s . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g d e m a n d s the a d o p t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r attitude o n the p a r t of the tutor, a n d the i n c o r ­ p o r a t i o n of this attitude into the d e s i g n of the c u r r i c u l u m . E a c h of the t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g is b a s e d u p o n a f u n d a m e n t a l atti­ t u d e of this t y p e , a set of a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the nature of the r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p b e t w e e n tutor, learner, a n d k n o w l e d g e .

Duncan

Barford

57

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of this, e a c h a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g is also strongly associated w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of l e a r n i n g , o r ' l e a r n i n g d o m a i n ' (Reece & W a l k e r 1994: 61). B e h a v i o u r i s t theory a n d t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s s e e m e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d to l e a r n i n g i n the psychomotor tivist m e t h o d s to the cognitive domain.

1 1

d o m a i n , cogni­

d o m a i n , a n d h u m a n i s m to the

affective

T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , h o w e v e r , does not fit

easily into this t a x o n o m y .

F r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view,

l e a r n i n g is a c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y

process,

b e t w e e n p h a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h i n k i n g . Because it assumes the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of rationality a n d p r i m i t i v e emotionality, the p s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g is g e a r e d t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g situations i n w h i c h ideas a n d feelings are i n d i s s o l u b l y l i n k e d a n d m u t u a l l y e v o c a ­ tive. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g seems to p o i n t t o w a r d s a u n i q u e l e a r n i n g d o m a i n w h i c h is neither ' c o g n i t i v e ' n o r 'affective' b u t a c o m p o u n d of b o t h . R i c h a r d Jones argues for the u n i o n of e m o t i o n a n d t h o u g h t i n e d u ­ c a t i o n , a n d p o i n t s o u t the benefits w h i c h this alliance c a n create: T h e p o w e r of e m o t i o n to generate interest a n d i n v o l v e m e n t i n subject matters that w o u l d otherwise f i n d . . . [learners] u n i n t e r ­ ested a n d u n i n v o l v e d lies i n their d e e p p e r s o n a l f a m i l i a r i t y — s u c h f a m i l i a r i t y b e i n g a consequence

of e m o t i o n h a v i n g been

i n t e g r a l to e v e r y p h a s e of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m i n f a n c y o n . T h e v a l u e of e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process thus lies i n its p o t e n t i a l for a i d i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n of n e w or remote experiences... (Jones 1972:148) It m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e to call this u n i q u e d o m a i n of l e a r n i n g , w h e r e objective ideas a n d subjective e m o t i o n s are j o i n e d together, the imagined

d o m a i n (cf. W o o l 1989:

762).

T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of

l e a r n i n g is e s p e c i a l l y geared t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g i n this i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , w h i c h i n v o l v e s the learner i n a n e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n subjective e x p e r i ­ ence a n d the i d e a s w h i c h constitute w h a t w e call ' c u l t u r e ' .

12

Subjects

s u c h as p o l i t i c s , literature a n d p h i l o s o p h y — w h i c h are neither p r e ­ d o m i n a n t l y ' c o g n i t i v e ' n o r 'affective'—are situated i n this d o m a i n . So too, of course, is p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself, w h o s e chief c o n c e r n is w i t h the fragile interface b e t w e e n h u m a n subjectivity a n d reality. In the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , t h i n k i n g a n d p h a n t a s y i n g enjoy a n espe­ c i a l l y i n t i m a t e alliance. C o n s i d e r the d i s c i p l i n e s listed a b o v e : a l t h o u g h e a c h has its authorities, traditions a n d r u l e s of t h i n k i n g , it is often dif­

58

Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

ficult to d e c i d e w h e r e the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n ' t h e o r y ' a n d ' i m a g i n a ­ t i o n ' m u s t be s a i d to be d r a w n . Excellence i n these d i s c i p l i n e s d e p e n d s u p o n a c o m b i n a t i o n of objective k n o w l e d g e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i m a g i n a ­ tion. W h e n teaching i n the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , the p r o v i s i o n of o p p o r t u ­ nities for learners to p l a y a n d exercise their creativity is necessary for a m o r e c o m p l e t e i m m e r s i o n i n the nature of the subject. * * *

O n page

59 is a d i a g r a m w h i c h attempts to refine further the w a y s i n

w h i c h the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g differs f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l approaches. In the classical F r e u d i a n t h e o r y w e e n c o u n t e r e d the i d e a that the ego, i n o r d e r to j u d g e the nature of a presentation, splits it into t w o aspects (see a b o v e , p. 55). T h e s e are the object (or the ' i d e a ' ) , a n d its predicate (or its ' q u a l i t y ' ) . M u c h w a s m a d e of F r e u d ' s c o n t e n t i o n that the pleasure-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of p r i m a r y process p h a n ­ tasy, concerns itself solely w i t h the predicate of the presentation, i n order to ascertain w h e t h e r the presentation is ' g o o d ' . In contrast the reality-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of s e c o n d a r y process, r a t i o n a l thought, focuses o n the

object

or the i d e a , i n order to ascertain w h e t h e r

it c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. T h i s 'object-predicate'

dichotomy

f o r m s the vertical axis of the d i a g r a m . A p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g c a n be classified a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they s h o w a greater p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the quality of the presentation m a d e to the learner b y the teacher, or w i t h the

intrinsic nature and structure

of the presentation itself.

B e h a v i o u r i s m a n d the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h share a special c o n ­ c e r n w i t h the quality of w h a t is p r e s e n t e d to the learner. In b e h a v ­ iourism,

conditioning—especially

involved—encourages 'good',

thus

the

where

positive

learner to perceive

f a c i l i t a t i n g its

acceptance.

reinforcement

is

the presentation

as

Negative

reinforcement

achieves the s a m e result i n a converse m a n n e r . If the presentation is not accepted b y the learner p u n i s h m e n t is a d m i n i s t e r e d . Therefore the p r e ­ sentation is still m a d e to s e e m ' g o o d ' to the learner, b y contrasting it w i t h the p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h w i l l result if the presentation is accepted.

not

Duncan Barford

59

Fsydioa&aiytk

€ "^H H 11 OT* ' A c r o n i 11=10 d ft tic*

O r i w n U ^1 i 6M*c A ( T u r n 1 '3KK1& $1 in\

•of the Uiflect

of ih£ Predicate Means: by making t J »

Me. t i n s : % i a:fi km

Orientalism: Assimilation 0* the F ^ l i e a l e

ra»nprefrgm;ibift

•aCthe Ubpect >an$:fey m a k i n g the

M e a n s ; by m a k i n g the presEntaitofi

m a k i n g , lihe

attractive

D i a g r a m . Four approaches to

learning

13

W e m i g h t t e n d to a s s u m e that b e h a v i o u r i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — with

their respective

emphases

u p o n behaviour

and psyche—are

w o r l d s a w a y f r o m o n e another. H o w e v e r , their s h a r e d c o n c e r n w i t h the q u a l i t y of presentations offered to the learner suggests s o m e inter­ e s t i n g lines of s i m i l a r i t y (cf. G i l l e t 1996).

14

F r e u d w a s a w a r e that the

w o r k o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c o u l d o n l y p r o c e e d w h e r e a comfortable r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p w i t h the patient w a s established. T h i s a m o u n t s — i n

effect—to

a b e h a v i o u r i s t t e c h n i q u e : a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the analyst is a p o s ­ itive r e i n f o r c e m e n t of the p a i n f u l , difficult w o r k of analysis. A s i m i l a r p a r a d o x has b e e n n o t e d i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . A f r i e n d l y , l i b e r a l a t m o s ­ p h e r e created b y the tutor w i t h i n the c l a s s r o o m , causes the students feel m o r e free a n d at ease, yet s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l l o w s the tutor to exer­ cise m o r e c o n t r o l o v e r their b e h a v i o u r (cf. Jarvis 1995: 61). T h e h o r i z o n t a l axis o f the d i a g r a m c o n c e r n s w h a t effect the p r e s e n ­ tation is i n t e n d e d to h a v e u p o n the e g o of the learner. ' A s s i m i l a t i o n '

60

Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

a n d ' a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' are t w o concepts taken f r o m Piaget.

Assimilation

is the t e n d e n c y of the o r g a n i s m — o r , f r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view—the

ego

of

Accommodation,

the

organism—to

take i n a n d

absorb

an idea.

o n the other h a n d , refers to the c a p a c i t y of the o r g a n ­

i s m to c h a n g e a n d a d a p t its o w n structure i n response to a n i d e a , thus m a k i n g itself m o r e r e s p o n s i v e a n d o p e n to future experiences (cf. Wolff 1960: 23-4). T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory places e m p h a s i s u p o n a d d r e s s i n g the l e a r n e r ' s i n t e r n a l phantasies f r o m the outset, as a m e a n s of facilitating acceptance of the presentation. Therefore, accommodation takes prece­ d e n c e here, as it does i n c o g n i t i v i s m , w h e r e i m p o r t a n c e is attached to e q u i p p i n g the learner w i t h m e n t a l skills necessary for c o m p r e h e n d i n g the k n o w l e d g e o n offer.

15

Psychoanalysis a n d cognitivism both assume

that k n o w l e d g e is t a k e n i n b y the learner o n l y to the extent that the learner is able to adapt to the i n f o r m a t i o n o n offer i n the first i n s t a n c e .

16

H u m a n i s t i c l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e i v e d as b e g i n n i n g w h e n the learner opens h i m or herself to experience. T h e h u m a n i s t i c tutor facilitates this process b y d e v i s i n g l e a r n i n g situations w h i c h take the learner as the m o d e l for the nature of the presentations w h i c h w i l l be o f f e r e d .

17

A s i n b e h a v i o u r i s m , techniques for g u a r a n t e e i n g the s i m ­

p l e r e c e p t i v i t y of the learner are the p r i m e c o n c e r n . T h i s c a n be a c h i e v e d either f o r c e f u l l y — t h r o u g h c o n d i t i o n i n g — o r m o r e easefully, t h r o u g h the s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d , experiential a p p r o a c h . In either a s s i m i l a t i o n is g i v e n precedence o v e r a c c o m m o d a t i o n .

case,

18

*** T h e o p p o s i t i o n i n the d i a g r a m b e t w e e n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d the h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s raises s o m e interesting questions. Is the p s y c h o ­ a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g opposed to the h u m a n i s t ethos? C a n a psychoanalytically-informed

curriculum

appropriately

incorporate

learner-centredness into its d e s i g n ? ' Y o u c a n trust the student', argues C a r l Rogers. ' Y o u c a n trust h i m to desire to l e a r n i n e v e r y w a y w h i c h w i l l m a i n t a i n or enhance self; y o u c a n trust h i m to m a k e use of resources w h i c h w i l l serve this e n d ; . . . y o u c a n trust h i m to g r o w p r o v i d e d the atmosphere for g r o w t h is available to h i m ' (Rogers 1965:

427).

T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h has n o e q u i v a l e n t to R o g e r s ' n o t i o n of ' s e l f . Instead, the aspect of the m i n d m o s t e v i d e n t i n the business of l e a r n i n g is the ego. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h o l d s that the ego d e v e l o p e d out of

Duncan

Barford

61

the m o s t p r i m i t i v e k i n d of m e n t a l processes, a n d that it still bears the h a l l m a r k of these. W h e r e

the e g o e n c o u n t e r s s o m e t h i n g i n reality

w h i c h p r o m i s e s to threaten its integrity, it w i l l resort to d e f e n s i v e m e a ­ sures. Therefore, w h a t a p p e a r s to ' e n h a n c e s e l f m a y , f r o m the p s y c h o ­ analytic p e r s p e c t i v e , m e r e l y e n h a n c e ego. Because the ego is r e s p o n s i ­ ble also for the refusal of l e a r n i n g , then ' e n h a n c i n g e g o ' c a n be tanta­ m o u n t to reducing the l e a r n e r ' s degree of contact w i t h reality. F r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w , R o g e r s ' s trust i n the l e a r n e r ' s ego is f u n ­ damentally misplaced. S o m e writers h a v e d e c i d e d that the a i m s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d of t e a c h i n g i n g e n e r a l are f u n d a m e n t a l l y at o d d s w i t h o n e

another.

A m o n g t h e m , A l i s o n H a l l argues that: T h e a i m s of e d u c a t i o n r u n c o n t r a r y to those of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . E d u c a t i o n i m p l i c a t e s fixity of m e a n i n g a n d the i l l u s i o n of m a s ­ tery associated w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . E d u c a t i o n a l w a y s a i m s to fill a g a p a n d is f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r e d i c a t e d o n the a s s u m p t i o n that all g a p s are fillable, w h i l e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a i m s to h e l p y o u l i v e w i t h the i n e v i t a b l e g a p at the centre of y o u r existence. T h e b u i l t - i n d y n a m i c of the a n a l y s a n d ' s desire subverts the e d u c a ­ tional project w h i l e the r e q u i r e m e n t for closure i n e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e forecloses desire. T h u s are they antithetical. ( H a l l 1996: 78) T h i s attitude f i n d s s o m e s u p p o r t i n F r e u d ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t that e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are b o t h ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n s ' ( F r e u d 1937: 248). H o w e v e r , the v i e w that e d u c a t i o n necessarily i m p l i e s ' f i x i ­ ty of m e a n i n g ' , a n d that the business of the teacher is s i m p l y to 'pass signifiers f r o m teacher to s t u d e n t ' (Verhaeghe 1996: 42) suggests a v e r y l i m i t e d m o d e l of l e a r n i n g . T h e r e seems to be a covert a s s u m p t i o n here that to teach is to lecture. F r e u d m a y h a v e v i e w e d t e a c h i n g as a n ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n ' , b u t he also d e s c r i b e d the task of the teacher as steering a course b e t w e e n : 'the S c y l l a of n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d the C h a r y b d i s of f r u s t r a t i o n ' ( F r e u d 1933:

149).

This view

of

teaching as—necessarily—a

compromise

b e t w e e n the t w o m o n s t e r s of student-centredness a n d teacher-direct­ e d n e s s , c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n i n j u n c t i o n u p o n the teacher to a d o p t a variety of roles a n d a p p r o a c h e s . T h i s m a y n o t be the perfect s o l u t i o n , b u t p e r h a p s it enables us to c o n t i n u e the o d y s s e y b y a v o i d i n g the evils of b o t h extremes.

Is Anything

62

More Interesting than Sex?

Notes For example: '[Psychoanalysis may be less relevant in understanding the development of

mechanisms of learning than in understanding the child's particular experience of going to

school, including sense of self-esteem and capacity to participate with zest in learning'

(Cohler 1989: 29).

1

2 [T]he ego is an agency of adaptation which differentiates itself from the id on contact with

external reality' (Laplanche & Pontalis 1988:130).

y

3 The Greek letter psi is used by Freud in this text as a label for the mind or psyche conceived

as a whole.

^ It is important to bear in mind, however, that ego cannot be taken for granted.

Psychoanalytic observation of psychotics draws on the notion that in psychosis primary

process thinking has reasserted its dominance, and consequently ego-identity is distorted.

Many other relatively common states of mind such as sleep, dreaming, and intoxication can

be described in similar terms.

5 On this theme see Corrigan & Gordon 1995.

6 The converse also seems to hold: 'Bettleheim... discussing the education of culturally dis­

advantaged youngsters, notes the many problems these children encounter in having to learn

on an empty stomach, feeling hungry and depleted at a time when they are expected to learn

new material' (Cohler 1989: 64).

^ The teacher-student relationship establishes the requirements for a mutually satisfying

work experience. The relationship is based on love in the broadest sense of the word, which

includes natural antagonism and aspects of anger when the relationship proves unreward­

ing' (Ekstein 1989: 86).

8 In classical Freudian terms, the phantasy of 'learning as loving'—compared with the phan­

tasy of 'learning as eating'—represents a development from concern with instinctual satis­

faction at the primitive oral stage, to the more developed genital stage.

9 Sandor Ferenczi offers some fascinating formulations which extend this line of thought

begun by Freud and highlights the possible role of the death-instinct in this process. See

Ferenczi 1926: 371.

10 This should not to be taken to imply that there are two types of 'people'—'learners' and

'non-learners'—but that phantasies, life-histories and learning situations interact in complex

combinations, to produce a spectrum of positions.

H This is, of course, tending towards over-simplification. The choice of teaching methods

rests upon a host of other factors besides the nature of the topic. For example: the size of the

group and the characteristics of learners within it. Nevertheless, the nature of the topic—psy­

chomotor, cognitive, affective—will tend to push the tutor in the direction of the correspond­

ing teaching methods.

1 2

Cf. the work of D.W. Winnicott, especially Winnicott 1953,1967.

13 'A person learns significantly only those things which he perceives as being involved in the main­

tenance of, or enhancement of, the structure of self (Rogers 1956: 389). The basic assumption of

the humanist approach seems to be that a presentation is accepted to the extent it can be

made by the teacher to reflect the nature of the subject's own ego. 'To make the presentation

identifiable' (as the diagram expresses this) calls upon the teacher to make the presentation,

as far as possible, something with which the learner can identify, something in which he or

she can readily see their own ego. This is the very essence of the student-centred approach,

which entails setting up learning situations that reflect and address the specific needs and

characteristics of the learner. Rogers's emphasis upon 'significant learning' entails also that it

is with the intrinsic nature of ideas that the humanist teacher is primarily concerned. The prime

Duncan Barford

63

objective of the teacher is to make the presentation significant to the learner, rather than sim­ ply 'good . The psychoanalytic perspective opens up the possibility of a far-reaching critique of the humanist approach, which can only be touched upon here. 7

Gillet draws on more recent developments in behaviourism to argue that: 'Intrapsychic conflicts may be caused by Pavlovian conditioning' (Gillet 1996: 701). 1 4

'Bruner's [cognitivist approach] is the psychology of alloplastic development, of the forms in which knowledge can best be brought into the human mind' (Jones 1972: 93). 1 5

16 'Although the learner is seen to be active rather than passive, the activity itself is con­ trolled by the inherent structure of knowledge itself... teacher and learner are faced by some­ thing which is bigger than both of them, something to which they must adapt themselves' (Rogers 1996: 98). '[W]e permit the student... to be in real contact with the relevant problems of his existence, so that he perceives problems and issues which he wishes to resolve... [T]he task of the teacher is to create a facilitating classroom climate in which significant learning can take place' (Rogers 1967: 286-7). 1 7

All learning necessarily involves both assimilation and accommodation. It is a contrast in emplmsis between the theories which is being highlighted here.

LEARNING: A JUNGIAN PERSPECTIVE

Sylvia Cohen O n e m i g h t ask a b o u t the f u n c t i o n of l e a r n i n g — w h y w e bother, so to speak. E . J . A n t h o n y (1989), i n a p a p e r d i s c u s s i n g the relationship b e t w e e n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g , puts f o r w a r d t w o m o d e l s of the h u m a n b e i n g 'as a l e a r n e r ' . T h e first of these is that w e are passive i n the w o r l d , a n d w a i t for k n o w l e d g e to be p u t into us. In other w o r d s , w e are b o r n ' e m p t y ' , r e a d y to be ' f i l l e d ' . T h i s is a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h it f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y that infants, c h i l d r e n — a n d p e r h a p s e v e n a d u l t s — a r e f o r m e d b y the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h also i m p l i e s that l e a r n i n g is s o m e t h i n g thrust u p o n us, because w e

need

to learn certain things i n

o r d e r to s u r v i v e i n the w o r l d . L i k e a dose of bitter m e d i c i n e , l e a r n i n g is therefore ' g o o d ' for us. O u r m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , then, is p r e d i c a t e d o n the

need

for l o v e a n d a p p r o v a l , rather t h a n u p o n love a n d a p p r o v a l

for their o w n sakes. T h e r e is a n o p p o s i t e view, h o w e v e r , w h i c h h o l d s that w e are

active

rather t h a n p a s s i v e i n the w o r l d . C o n s e q u e n t l y w e are constantly scan­ n i n g events a n d things a r o u n d us for their o w n m e a n i n g s . T h i s v i e w

want to k n o w a n d to l e a r n . (What w e want to required to l e a r n m a y i n d e e d be i n conflict, b u t

i m p l i e s that w e a c t i v e l y l e a r n a n d w h a t w e are

that is a slightly different issue.) F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e it follows that m u c h of the time w e

apperceive rather t h a n perceive.

p u t s o m e t h i n g of ourselves into e v e r y t h i n g w e

In other w o r d s , w e

observe, w e

form

h y p o t h e s e s , a n d test t h e m out i n the real w o r l d , thus (if w e are o p e n to refutation) l e a r n i n g as w e go. T h e g a i n i n g of k n o w l e d g e , the w o r k i n g o u t of p u z z l e s or p r o b l e m s , is of interest i n itself, as w e l l as (possibly) e n a b l i n g us to take steps towards the a c h i e v e m e n t of d e s i r e d goals. T h e s e t w o perspectives are i n o p p o s i t i o n to one another, a n d w o u l d s e e m — o n the face of i t — t o be m u t u a l l y exclusive w a y s of v i e w i n g the h u m a n b e i n g . H o w e v e r , one of the most basic p a r a d i g m s of J u n g i a n t h o u g h t or a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , is that of a 'dialectic b e t w e e n o p p o ­ sites'. I n other w o r d s , w e s h o u l d consider that it m i g h t be possible to set u p a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n conflicting theories, ideas, a n d emotions, a n d i n this w a y a r r i v e at a n o v e r - a r c h i n g d i m e n s i o n , b y exercising (as J u n g calls it) 'the transcendent f u n c t i o n ' (Jung 1916/60). T h i s m a y p r o ­ v i d e a ' t h i r d w a y ' — a s o l u t i o n , p e r h a p s , or a different perspective.

Sylvia Cohen

65

Consequently, although analytical p s y c h o l o g y m i g h t propose a p a r ­ ticular v i e w of the essence of h o w it is to b e h u m a n , there m a y yet b e w i t h i n the t h e o r y itself a w a y of a c c o m m o d a t i n g aspects of the o p p o ­ site v i e w , if this seems u s e f u l or a p p r o p r i a t e . A n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , a n d w e w i l l h a p p e n u p o n other levels of dialectical conflict as w e w e n d o u r w a y t h r o u g h the p l e t h o r a of c o m ­ plex theories p r o d u c e d b y a n d since J u n g . It is i m p o r t a n t to bear i n m i n d t h r o u g h o u t this chapter that there is a l w a y s a p o s s i b i l i t y of d i a ­ l o g u e b e t w e e n opposites. I w a n t to e m p h a s i s e the constant, p o t e n t i a l creativity o f conflict. To r e t u r n to w h a t w e m i g h t call the ' n a t u r e / n u r t u r e controversy, as 7

it

was presented

above,

analytical psychology

since

Jung

has

a d d r e s s e d this issue i n v a r i o u s w a y s , a n d has l a i d e m p h a s i s o n o n e or the other s i d e of the debate to d i f f e r i n g degrees. M i c h a e l F o r d h a m , for instance, has e l a b o r a t e d i n far m o r e detail t h a n J u n g h i m s e l f a t h e o r y of c h i l d h o o d d e v e l o p m e n t , i n w h i c h h e p a y s close attention to e n v i ­ r o n m e n t a l factors ( F o r d h a m 1973). J u n g h i m s e l f f o u n d p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d the s t o r y of c h i l d h o o d to b e of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n the present, existential story. T h i s is n o t to say that h e d i s m i s s e d the former. I n d e e d , he f r e q u e n t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d the v a l u e of a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d of w h a t , i n h i s terms, h e called

the repressed,

'personal'

unconscious

(Jung

1931/54a).

H o w e v e r , h i s a p p r o a c h to the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e c o n t r o v e r s y l a i d m u c h m o r e e m p h a s i s o n the activity rather t h a n the receptive p a s s i v i t y o f the h u m a n being. F o r J u n g , w e are b o r n u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t i n c o r p o r a t i n g ...an a priori factor... n a m e l y , the i n b o r n , p r e c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n ­ scious i n d i v i d u a l structure of the p s y c h e . T h e p r e c o n s c i o u s p s y ­ c h e — f o r e x a m p l e , that of a n e w - b o r n i n f a n t — i s n o t a n e m p t y vessel i n t o w h i c h , u n d e r f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l l y a n y ­ t h i n g c a n b e p o u r e d . (Jung 1938/59: 151) H e goes o n to e m p h a s i s e the i n d i v i d u a l character of e v e n the first r u d i m e n t a r y signs of p s y c h i c life. T h e h u m a n b e i n g is n o t o n l y u n i q u e , of course, b u t also shares a c o m m o n a l i t y w i t h other h u m a n s . W e are collective a n d social b e i n g s , s t r u c t u r e d to p e r c e i v e the w o r l d i n h u m a n w a y s . T h e structures that i n c o r p o r a t e o u r h u m a n i t y J u n g n a m e d 'archetypes'. T h e s e are r e p r e ­ sentations or f o r m s w h i c h

66

Learning: a Jungian Perspective

. . . m i g h t p e r h a p s be c o m p a r e d to the axial s y s t e m o f a c r y s t a l , w h i c h , as it w e r e , p r e f o r m s the crystalline structure i n the m o t h ­ er l i q u i d , a l t h o u g h it has n o m a t e r i a l existence o f its o w n . (Jung 1 9 3 8 / 5 9 : 155) A r c h e t y p e s are 'fleshed o u t ' b y o u r experiences of the e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t affect o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , a n d thus the w a y w e d e a l w i t h the w o r l d . Consequently

a paradox

emerges: w e are b o t h

collective a n d

u n i q u e , g e n e r a l l y h u m a n yet especially i n d i v i d u a l , p r e y to the e n v i ­ r o n m e n t b u t (potentially at least) able to affect it. J u n g , I t h i n k , begins to a d d r e s s the u n d e r l y i n g m e a n i n g of this p a r a d o x i n h i s t h i n k i n g o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of consciousness a n d the ego (Jung 1948/59). F o r J u n g , there is n o ego at the b e g i n n i n g , o n l y

unconsciousness

s t r u c t u r e d b y the archetypes, a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g d r i v e s w h i c h c o m p e l u s to r e a c h o u t to the e n v i r o n m e n t for satisfaction.

Consciousness

d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h clashes w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t , e n c o u n t e r s w i t h the real w o r l d , w h i c h shock us into awareness. A s these m o m e n t s of a w a r e n e s s coalesce, the e g o begins to f o r m — i n i t i a l l y w e a k , a n d p r e y to stronger, a d u l t e g o s — b u t it g r o w s i n strength t h r o u g h o u t c h i l d h o o d . Y o u n g c h i l d r e n , then, are i n d e e d to a degree p r e y to the e n v i r o n m e n t — often, J u n g suggests, to the p o i n t of c a r r y i n g i n themselves

symptoms

of a p o o r p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r the u n f u l f i l l e d , u n c o n s c i o u s f a n ­ tasies of the m o t h e r o r father (Jung 1931/54b). C h i l d r e n also c a r r y w i t h i n t h e m , h o w e v e r , the seeds o f their o w n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w a y s of b e i n g , their o w n m e a n i n g , w h i c h J u n g calls 'the S e l f . T h i s process of g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t is also the process d e s c r i b e d b y J u n g as 'individuation',

namely

the o n g o i n g

attempt

to attain a

balance

b e t w e e n the d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d the d e m a n d s (not o n l y of the d r i v e s ) b u t of the Self; i n other w o r d s , f i n d i n g ' o n e ' s p a t h i n life'. H o w e v e r , at present w e w i l l c o n c e r n ourselves w i t h the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t o f the e g o — a n i m p o r t a n t concept, as regards l e a r n i n g . M i c h a e l F o r d h a m (1973), t h r o u g h observations o f infants a n d y o u n g c h i l d r e n , locates e g o d e v e l o p m e n t m u c h earlier t h a n d i d J u n g . F o r d h a m bases h i s c o n c l u s i o n o n his c o n t e n t i o n that signs of p e r c e p t i o n , c o n t r o l l e d motility, a n d general responsiveness denote ego activity. H e posits a p r i m a r y u n c o n s c i o u s self w i t h w h i c h the infant is b o r n a n d f r o m w h i c h it reaches o u t — i n its o w n p a r t i c u l a r w a y — t o the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s ' r e a c h i n g o u t ' F o r d h a m terms m e t (or not) it

reintegrates

deintegration.

O n c e the infant's n e e d is

the part that reached o u t , i n o r d e r to absorb

Sylvia

Cohen

67

the e x p e r i e n c e a n d take i n a p a r t of the real w o r l d . T h i s constitutes a r u d i m e n t a r y process o f l e a r n i n g . I n m y o p i n i o n , F o r d h a m addresses i n a m o r e coherent f a s h i o n t h a n J u n g the p a r a d o x of the i n f a n t — t h a t is, the w a y i n w h i c h the infant is b o t h p r e - s t r u c t u r e d , yet nevertheless affected b y the responses of those a r o u n d h i m . It m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d that a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , b y its nature, w a s s i m p l y b i a s e d t o w a r d s the 'active' t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , not o n l y are w e — a s J u n g e m p h a s i s e d — m o v e d b y o u r a r c h e t y p a l structur­ i n g to m a k e h u m a n sense o f the w o r l d , b u t also, as F o r d h a m c l a i m s , f r o m the b e g i n n i n g w e p l a y a n active p a r t i n o u r interaction w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d o u r d e v e l o p m e n t . Yet, b e a r i n g i n m i n d the w a y i n w h i c h a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , w e s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d for the p o s s i b i l i t y that things are n o t quite so s i m p l e , a n d that w e m a y h a v e to recognise a further d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n these t w o a r g u ­ ments.

** * It is difficult if n o t i m p o s s i b l e to start t h i n k i n g about l e a r n i n g w i t h o u t first o f all t h i n k i n g a b o u t

thinking.

J u n g distinguishes two kinds of thinking: 'directed' a n d 'undirect­ e d ' . It is the f o r m e r w h i c h , ostensibly, seems m o s t closely related to l e a r n i n g (Jung 1911-12/52). H o w e v e r , as I h o p e to d e m o n s t r a t e , this is n o t so s i m p l y the case. J u n g writes that d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g ...or l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g is r e a l i t y - t h i n k i n g , a t h i n k i n g that is a d a p t ­ e d to reality, b y m e a n s of w h i c h w e imitate the successiveness of objectively real things, so that the i m a g e s i n s i d e o u r m i n d f o l l o w o n e another i n the same strictly c a u s a l sequence as the events t a k i n g place o u t s i d e it. (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h i s t h i n k i n g is b a s e d o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s — a n act of w i l l , i n a s e n s e — a n d because of this it is, as J u n g says, f a t i g u i n g . It leaves b e h i n d ' a cor­ r e s p o n d i n g state of e x h a u s t i o n , l i k e a n y other v i t a l a c h i e v e m e n t ' (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h u s , as w e c a n see, d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g (because of its r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o n s c i o u s effort) is d e p e n d e n t to a great degree o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ego,

w h o s e f u n c t i o n it is to h e l p the g r o w i n g c h i l d a d a p t to the

d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d thus w h o s e j o b — f r o m the b e g i n n i n g — has m u c h to d o w i t h l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , t h r o u g h its interaction w i t h

Learning:

68

a Jungian

Perspective

others, a n d t h r o u g h the responses of the e n v i r o n m e n t , learns w h a t is acceptable a n d h o w to c o m m u n i c a t e — i n essence, h o w to s u r v i v e i n the f a m i l y a n d society into w h i c h h e or she h a s b e e n b o r n . N o t o n l y i n e a r l y y e a r s is this the case, b u t , a c c o r d i n g to J u n g : T h e w h o l e l a b o r i ­ ous a c h i e v e m e n t of o u r lives is a d a p t a t i o n to reality, p a r t o f w h i c h c o n ­ sists i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g ' (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h e r e is a n intricate relationship b e t w e e n d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t a n d lan­ guage,

a n d this has a p r i m a r y b e a r i n g u p o n the processes of l e a r n i n g .

J u n g quotes James M a r k B a l d w i n w h o describes the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h o u g h t as o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h trial a n d error, t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with meaning. N o w the d e v e l o p m e n t of thought... is b y a m e t h o d essentially of trial a n d error, of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , of the use of meanings more than they are as yet recognised

to be worth.

as

worth

The individual must

use h i s o l d t h o u g h t s , h i s established k n o w l e d g e , h i s g r o u n d e d j u d g e m e n t s , for the e m b o d i m e n t of his n e w i n v e n t i v e c o n s t r u c ­ tions. H e erects h i s thought... ' s c h e m a t i c a l l y ' — . . . p r o j e c t i n g into the w o r l d a n o p i n i o n still p e r s o n a l to himself, as if it w e r e true. Thus all discovery

proceeds . . . B y this e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n b o t h t h o u g h t

a n d l a n g u a g e are together a d v a n c e d . . . M o s t of the t r a i n i n g of the self... [in] s o u n d j u d g e m e n t , comes t h r o u g h the u s e of s p e e c h . W h e n a c h i l d speaks, he lays before the w o r l d his s u g g e s t i o n for a g e n e r a l or c o m m o n m e a n i n g ; the reception it gets c o n f i r m s or refutes h i m . In either case h e is instructed. ( B a l d w i n , c i t e d i n J u n g 1911-12/52: 15). T h e d u a l i t y of o u r p r i v a t e a n d o u r c o l l e c t i v e — o r s o c i a l — e x i s t e n c e , to w h i c h J u n g refers m a n y times, parallels the d u a l i t y w h i c h B a l d w i n p r o p o s e s , b e t w e e n social a n d p r i v a t e m e a n i n g . I n b o t h cases there is a w o r k i n g - o u t o f the d u a l i t y , a r e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h is m e d i a t e d b y the e g o . F r o m the m o m e n t the c h i l d ' s c r y is m e t w i t h a response the e x p e r i m e n t of t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g proceeds. A s the e g o d e v e l o p s i n strength, it b e c o m e s n o t o n l y a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n d r i v e s a n d the d e m a n d s o f the collective, b u t also a director or organiser of conscious t h i n k i n g , l a n ­ g u a g e , a n d l e a r n i n g . P r o g r e s s i v e l y w e b e c o m e m o r e able n o t o n l y t o ' d e l a y g r a t i f i c a t i o n ' — l e t us s a y — b u t also to think

i n s t e a d of a c t i n g

( w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e ) . M o r e cogently, i n terms of l e a r n i n g w e b e c o m e m o r e able to assimilate further k n o w l e d g e , a n d to use o u r e g o - s t r e n g t h as a m e a n s o f f o c u s s i n g a n d d i r e c t i n g o u r t h i n k i n g .

Sylvia Cohen

69

D i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is not o n l y b o u n d to a n d m o d i f i e d b y c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g , b u t also affects it i n t u r n . J u n g a d d s yet another d i m e n s i o n to h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i n k i n g — t h e contrast b e t w e e n

'extraverted' a n d

' i n t r o v e r t e d ' t h i n k i n g . T h i s contrast is b a s e d o n J u n g ' s o w n theory of p s y c h o l o g i c a l types (Jung 1921). T h i s t y p o l o g y of p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r ­ acteristics is too c o m p l e x to enter into m u c h detail here. It is also f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r s of s t e r e o t y p i n g a n d p i g e o n h o l i n g , if u s e d w i t h ­ o u t d u e care a n d attention. H o w e v e r , J u n g ' s e x p o s i t i o n of the differ­ ence b e t w e e n e x t r a v e r s i o n a n d i n t r o v e r s i o n is of relevance to us. It is the real w o r l d , a n d the other p e o p l e w i t h i n it, w h i c h are of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e to the extravert's relationships a n d h i s or her w a y of being.

He

towards

or she is

'turned outwards'—so

to s p e a k — i s

oriented

others a n d relies o n t h e m for c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d a p p r o v a l .

C o n v e r s e l y , the introvert is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the ' i n n e r ' w o r l d , w i t h p s y c h i c a l reality, rather t h a n s e e k i n g to c o n f i r m h i m or herself t h r o u g h relations to other p e o p l e . T h e d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p for the introvert is ' i n w a r d ' rather t h a n ' o u t w a r d ' . B u t h a v i n g s a i d this, it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t w o things. T h e first is that w h a t w e face here is, a g a i n , a

dialectic,

and not two mutual­

l y e x c l u s i v e w a y s of b e i n g . W h e r e J u n g refers to a ' t y p e ' , h e is p r o p o s ­ i n g a predominant or preferred m o d e of b e i n g i n the w o r l d , rather t h a n r i g i d l y d e f i n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r 'category' of p e r s o n . O u r p o t e n t i a l for b e i n g extravert is i n constant d i a l o g u e w i t h o u r t e n d e n c y to be i n t r o ­ v e r t (and

vice versa),

a n d either m a y c o m e to the fore i n different s i t u a ­

tions. T h e s e c o n d t h i n g to r e m e m b e r is that directed t h i n k i n g is a l w a y s c o m m u n i c a b l e a n d l a n g u a g e - r e l a t e d . T h u s , the extra v e r t e d / i n t r o v e r t ­ e d axis, w h e n c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e g a r d to t h i n k i n g , d o e s n o t necessarily d e s c r i b e the d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n the w a y it tends to w h e n w e c o n s i d e r p e r s o n a l i t y types. Instead, i n t r o v e r s i o n a n d e x t r a v e r s i o n refer here to the criterion of judgement o n w h i c h the t h i n k i n g is b a s e d . A l t h o u g h there m a y be a t e n d e n c y i n e a c h of us to v e e r m o r e t o w a r d s o n e p o l e of the axis t h a n the other, J u n g e m p h a s i s e s a n e e d for a b a l ­ a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o m o d e s , if d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is to be effective. E x t r a v e r t e d t h o u g h t is (as one m i g h t guess) t u r n e d o u t w a r d . It is reliant for its progress o n observable d a t a a n d , p e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r ­ tantly, o n a g r e e d m e a n i n g s a r i s i n g f r o m the observations of those data. In other w o r d s , the criterion of j u d g e m e n t is collective a n d consensvi­ a l — i t is ' o u t s i d e ' of the p e r s o n ' s p s y c h e . T h e extraverted t h i n k e r m i g h t b e effective, for instance, w h e r e the structure of rules a n d p r o c e d u r e s

70

Learning: a Jungian Perspective

are clear, a n d w h e r e

the t h i n k i n g c a n b e m o n i t o r e d a n d c h e c k e d

t h r o u g h a g r e e d criteria a n d c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i s e d facts. T h i s is a n i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f t h i n k i n g i n exercises s u c h as the classification of species, g i v i n g rise to a k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e that m i g h t t h e n be u s e d for further l e a r n i n g o r e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . I n t r o v e r t e d t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , is t u r n e d i n w a r d s . A g a i n , I w a n t to e m p h a s i s e that this d o e s n o t m e a n that the p e r s o n t h i n k i n g a l o n g the i n t r o v e r t e d axis d o e s n o t w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e his t h o u g h t s at s o m e p o i n t . T h e reference-point o f i n t r o v e r t e d t h o u g h t s is d e r i v e d f r o m criteria ' i n s i d e ' rather t h a n ' o u t s i d e ' the p s y c h e . W h a t p r e v a i l i n this m o d e o f t h i n k i n g are n e w ideas rather t h a n n e w facts. I n t r o v e r t e d t h i n k i n g f o r m u l a t e s questions a n d creates theories. I n terms of J u n g ' s structure o f the p s y c h e , the ideas a n d theories d e r i v e their p o w e r f r o m a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s r i s i n g f r o m the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h are then directed into logical, conscious thought. T h e i n t r o v e r t e d thinker, then, relies less o n agreed a n d c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g s o r v a l u e s t h a n u p o n o n his own r e c o g n i t i o n o f the l o g i c o f his t h o u g h t . It is n o t that this t h i n k i n g ignores data o r o b s e r v a t i o n s , b u t it d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y fall i n w i t h a g r e e d m e a n i n g s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I n d e e d , s u c h m a y b e the p o w e r of a n i d e a ' s ' i n t e r n a l ' l o g i c o r v a l i d i t y that o n c e it is c o m m u n i c a t e d a p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d t h e o r y m a y w e l l b e altered b y i t — f o r instance, E i n s t e i n ' s t h e o r y o f relativity, a m o n g s t m a n y others. It s h o u l d b e clear f r o m this e x p o s i t i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the e g o a n d d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t that, for J u n g , l e a r n i n g is initiated p r e t t y m u c h at the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f life. A s w e h a v e seen, the b a b y is b o r n s t r u c t u r e d b y archetypes w i t h the p o t e n t i a l to b e h u m a n , into a n e t w o r k of e x p e c ­ tations a n d a c u l t u r e that is i n t u r n s t r u c t u r e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e first m o m e n t s o f R e i n t e g r a t i o n ' for the b a b y are its r u d i m e n t a r y forays i n t o the w o r l d . T h e s e are d r i v e n b y its n e e d for satisfaction, b u t are n e v e r ­ theless still ' f o r a y s ' . T h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t to the b a b y ' s e x p l o r a t i o n s b e g i n s to set u p m o d e s of interaction, the ' f l e s h i n g o u t ' o f a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s . A k i n d o f feedback l o o p is therefore set u p b e t w e e n the a r c h e t y p a l ( w h i c h , w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r , is i n i t i a l l y formless) a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t . E a c h affects the other. F o r instance, to the degree that the a r c h e t y p a l expectations s u r r o u n d i n g the m o t h e r are met, o r fail to be met, the i m a g e o f a ' g o o d ' o r ' b a d ' m o t h e r begins to b e f i l l e d i n . T h i s i m a g e w h i c h , b e i n g a r c h e t y p a l , is extreme, a n d i n i t i a l l y has little r e l a ­ t i o n to the r e a l m o t h e r , b u t is d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m the c h i l d ' s a p p e r ­ c e p t i o n , is projected o n t o the mother. It is as if the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r

Sylvia Cohen only

t h r o u g h glasses of a p a r t i c u l a r h u e .

However,

as

71

the

child

b e c o m e s able to experience the ' r e a l - m o t h e r ' s ' responses to h i s actions, the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n d i m i n i s h e s , a n d she b e c o m e s m o r e h u m a n . * * *

T h i s r e c i p r o c i t y b e t w e e n c h i l d a n d e n v i r o n m e n t touches u p o n another i m p o r t a n t p a r a d i g m of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is a g a i n related to the n o t i o n o f dialectical opposites. J u n g p a y s v e r y little attention to d e v e l o p m e n t s

o c c u r r i n g i n the

e a r l y y e a r s of l i f e — b o t h i n his m o d e l of the h u m a n m i n d , a n d i n his e x p o s i t i o n s of the processes of t h e r a p y a n d the therapeutic encounter. E v e n w h e n he d o e s choose to c o n s i d e r it, i n m a r k e d contrast to the K l e i n i a n p o i n t of v i e w h e p a y s n o attention to i m a g e s of f e e d i n g , a n d n e v e r uses the l a n g u a g e of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d introjection. I n s t e a d , J u n g b a s e d his n o t i o n of the a n a l y t i c e n c o u n t e r o n the p r o c e s s e s of alchemy. H i s justification for this is that to u n d e r s t a n d the p r o c e s s of the p s y c h e o b s e r v i n g itself w e m u s t step outside of the time a n d p l a c e i n w h i c h w e f i n d ourselves: J u n g t h o u g h t that alchemy, l o o k e d at f r o m a s y m b o l i c a n d not a scientific eye, c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as one of the p r e c u r s o r s of m o d ­ e r n s t u d y of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , of a n a l y t i c a l interest i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of personality... the alchemists... h a d t w o interrelated a i m s , [one of w h i c h was] to alter or trans­ form

base

materials

into

something

more

valuable...

The

a l c h e m i s t w o u l d carefully choose elements o n the basis of a s c h e m a o r g a n i s e d i n terms of opposites. T h i s w a s because attraction

of

opposites

( S a m u e l s et a l . 1986:

led

to

their e v e n t u a l

the

conjunction...

12)

M o r e o v e r , the alchemist not o n l y b r o u g h t a b o u t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the elements w i t h w h i c h he w o r k e d , b u t w a s h i m s e l f affected b o t h spiritually a n d emotionally b y his experiments. In analysis m u c h the same applies. T h e analyst, for J u n g , is not m e r e l y a n interpretative observer of the other, b u t is p a r t of w h a t is h a p p e n i n g i n the analysis. T h e d y n a m i c of transference a n d counter­ transference is a k i n to the 'coniunctio'

of elements i n alchemy. T h i s is a

t e r m a p p l i e d b y J u n g to describe the m e e t i n g of the m i n d s , p e r s o n a l i ­ ties a n d souls of t w o p e o p l e , i n w h i c h e a c h is t r a n s f o r m e d a n d c h a n g e d

72

Learning: a Jungian

Perspective

b y the e n c o u n t e r (Jung 1946/54). T h e a n a l y s t is a s s u m e d to be the m o r e c o n s c i o u s of the t w o , to possess greater p s y c h o l o g i c a l h e a l t h , a n d to h a v e the p o t e n t i a l to facilitate greater c h a n g e t h a n he or she e x p e r i ­ ences. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the analyst is c h a n g e d , albeit ever so s l i g h t l y Transference a n d counter-transference are i n p a r t a r e p l a y of e a r l y a n d c h i l d h o o d experiences w i t h parents, t h u s the n o t i o n of ' c o n i u n c ­ t i o ' m u s t also a p p l y there too. A l t h o u g h parents u s u a l l y h a v e the e d g e w h e n it c o m e s to ego-strength a n d k n o w l e d g e , the c h i l d ' s h y p o t h e s e s p o t e n t i a l l y l e a d also to l e a r n i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of ideas i n b o t h p a r t i e s . T h e p a r e n t s ' interaction w i t h their c h i l d i n e v i t a b l y has s o m e effect o n t h e m , e v e n if this entails o n l y that the parent learns s o m e t h i n g a b o u t his or her o w n responses or w a y of s e e i n g the w o r l d . It is, I t h i n k , a c o m m o n experience of a n y parent (and, i n d e e d , of a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h children) that s e e m i n g l y n a i v e or a m u s i n g q u e s ­ tions c a n really m a k e us r e - t h i n k o u r a s s u m e d k n o w l e d g e , o u r r a t i o ­ n a l e for b e h a v i o u r . A t a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l , o l d e r c h i l d r e n a n d adolescents m i g h t offer u s — i f w e c a n accept the o p p o r t u n i t y to d o s o — a chance to re-evaluate o u r perspectives a n d to l e a r n a different w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t things. S o , a l t h o u g h — a s i n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i e s — l e a r n i n g is f a c i l ­ itated t h r o u g h r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y p a y s careful atten­ t i o n to the p o t e n t i a l of the learner as a teacher, a n d v i c e v e r s a , rather t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g e x c l u s i v e l y o n the a c t i v i t y of the learner. T h i s , to m y m i n d , b r i n g s into focus the p o t e n t i a l creativity of any r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d t h u s — a l s o — t h e creative a n d i m a g i n a t i v e aspects of l e a r n i n g .

*** H a v i n g v i s i t e d s o m e aspects of early l e a r n i n g , a n d h a v i n g offered a p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w the process of l e a r n i n g is established, I s h a l l n o w t u r n to w h a t

E J . A n t h o n y refers

to as

'meaningful

learning'.

He

d e s c r i b e s it as that w h i c h : ' i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e exercise of s u c h c o g ­ n i t i v e processes

as j u d g e m e n t

and understanding' (Anthony

1989:

103). N o t o n l y is this v e r y clearly related to the d e v e l o p m e n t of d i r e c t ­ e d t h o u g h t , b u t is a l s o — o n e a s s u m e s — t h e u l t i m a t e object of e d u c a ­ t i o n , a l t h o u g h there m a y of course be steps a l o n g the w a y i n c o r p o r a t ­ i n g 'rote l e a r n i n g ' or e v e n s i m p l e r k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g . Somewhat

a k i n to this, D a v i d K o l b defines

l e a r n i n g as:

'...the

p r o c e s s w h e r e b y k n o w l e d g e is created t h r o u g h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of

Sylvia Cohen

73

e x p e r i e n c e . K n o w l e d g e results f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of g r a s p i n g expe­ rience a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g it' ( K o l b 1984:

41).

Consequently, K o l b distinguishes between two dimensions w i t h i n the process of l e a r n i n g : ' p r e h e n s i o n ' a n d ' t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ' . W i t h i n each of these are t w o

'dialectically opposed

modes'.

P r e h e n s i o n is

the

' g r a s p i n g ' of e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h w e c a r r y o u t either t h r o u g h ' a p p r e ­ h e n s i o n ' or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' . T h e f o r m e r m o d e entails direct concrete e x p e r i e n c e of the t h i n g to be l e a r n e d — a s is g a i n e d t h r o u g h a n a p p r e n ­ ticeship, for instance. T h e latter, m e a n w h i l e , utilises ' s y m b o l i c repre­ sentations of e x p e r i e n c e ' — f o r instance, a c o u n t r y or area is c o m p r e ­ h e n d e d b y creating a map to represent it. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o n the other h a n d , describes those instances i n w h i c h the k n o w l e d g e w e g a i n is u s e d to create m e a n i n g . T h i s is then a p p l i e d to other situations, or to b r i n g a b o u t a m o r e c o m p l e t e u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g . K o l b b o r r o w s terms f r o m logic i n o r d e r to n a m e the

two

m o d e s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : ' i n t e n t i o n ' a n d ' e x t e n s i o n ' , w h i c h relate to abstract a n d concrete qualities respectively. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , he argues, is not s i m p l y a process w e u n d e r g o ' i n t e r n a l l y ' , so to speak. It is i n s t e a d a process w h i c h utilises both extension into the real w o r l d , a n d also the i n t e n t i o n b y w h i c h w e t h i n k abstractly. A s K o l b p u t s it: W h a t I p r o p o s e here is that the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n processes

of

i n t e n t i o n a n d e x t e n s i o n c a n be a p p l i e d to o u r concrete a p p r e ­ h e n s i o n s . W e l e a r n the m e a n i n g of o u r concrete i m m e d i a t e expe­ riences b y i n t e r n a l l y reflecting o n their p r e s y m b o l i c i m p a c t o n o u r feelings, a n d / o r b y a c t i n g o n o u r a p p r e h e n d e d experience a n d t h u s e x t e n d i n g it. T a k e , for e x a m p l e , the rose l y i n g o n m y desk. I t r a n s f o r m m y a p p r e h e n s i o n of the rose i n t e n t i o n a l l y b y d e p l o y i n g m y attention to its different aspects... a n d experience a blossoming

of b r i e f reminiscences. H e r e I c a n n o t resist the

i m p u l s e to t r a n s f o r m the experience extensionally, to p i c k u p the rose a n d h o l d it to m y nose... n e w e x t e n d e d a p p r e h e n s i o n f u r ­ ther stimulates m y i n t e r n a l reflections... (Kolb 1984:

52)

K o l b is i l l u s t r a t i n g here a process of l e a r n i n g i n w h i c h b o t h ' c o n ­ crete' a n d 'abstract' m o d e s of f u n c t i o n i n g are v i t a l , a n d h a v e a n e q u a l v a l u e . W h e n the t w o d i m e n s i o n s of l e a r n i n g are d i a l e c t i c a l l y o p p o s e d , together w i t h their m o d e s , a k i n d of ' m a p ' of types of l e a r n i n g c a n be s k e t c h e d , i n w h i c h different c o m b i n a t i o n s of m o d e a n d d i m e n s i o n are c o n c e i v a b l e . T h e s e different ' l e a r n i n g styles' are d e p e n d e n t u p o n a

74

Learning: a Jitngian

Perspective

n u m b e r o f variables: the tendencies a n d preferences o f the i n d i v i d u a l ; the context a n d content of w h a t is b e i n g l e a r n e d ; a n d the c u l t u r a l expe­ rience o f the i n d i v i d u a l . These m a k e for s o m e v e r y intricate a n d c o m ­ plex interrelationships b u t , for the present, I w i l l concentrate u p o n a single aspect of the tendencies o f the i n d i v i d u a l . K o l b explicitly relates J u n g ' s t y p o l o g y to h i s o w n t h e o r y of m o d e s of l e a r n i n g — w i t h the caveat that neither the t y p o l o g y , n o r the d i m e n ­ sions a n d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g , are s i m p l e concepts. A s I h a v e already e m p h a s i s e d , the d i m e n s i o n s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n b o t h the p e r s o n a l i t y a n d i n l e a r n i n g are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , b u t i n dialectical o p p o s i ­ t i o n — i n accordance w i t h J u n g ' s p a r a d i g m o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n o p p o s i t e s . In other w o r d s , the opposites 'engage i n d i a l o g u e ' , or enter into a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h e a c h feeds the other, so that a w a y o f c o m ­ b i n i n g b o t h approaches m a y b e f o u n d . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o prefers concrete experience as a w a y o f a p p r e h e n d i n g ( w h i c h w e m i g h t relate to the d i m e n s i o n o f extraversion), w i l l , i n o r d e r to t r a n s f o r m the experience for further l e a r n i n g or use, be r e q u i r e d at s o m e p o i n t to e m p l o y a m o r e abstract a n d ' i n n e r ' (or introverted) m o d e o f c o n c e p t u ­ alisation. If s o m e t h i n g is not 'abstracted' f r o m the experience, then it w i l l b e o f n o further use. T h e style o f abstraction w i l l b e i n d i v i d u a l , h o w e v e r , a n d i n part a p r o d u c t o f the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the opposites. O u r extravert, for instance, w h o prefers concrete experience as a m o d e of a p p r e h e n s i o n , m a y n e e d to r e l y h e a v i l y o n i m a g e r y i n order to abstract h i s experience a n d t r a n s f o r m it. T h e s e l e a r n i n g styles,

a l t h o u g h they utilise c o n s c i o u s , directed

t h i n k i n g are, i n part at least, d e t e r m i n e d b y unconscious

processes.

A c c o r d i n g to J u n g , the collective u n c o n s c i o u s is s t r u c t u r e d b y arche­ types w h i c h inter-react w i t h o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e is a l w a y s a n u n c o n s c i o u s potential to be o t h e r w i s e . T h u s w e encounter yet another l e v e l o f dialectic, that b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious d y n a m i c s . F o r J u n g , the u n c o n s c i o u s possesses a compensatory

f u n c t i o n ; it ' b a l ­

ances' conscious attitudes b y h o l d i n g w i t h i n itself the o p p o s i t e to t h e m . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o regards h i m o r herself as ever­ patient a n d tolerant m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n g r y a n d critical. T h e m o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s is s u p p r e s s e d , the m o r e l i k e l y it is to p o p o u t i n u n i n t e n d e d s p e e c h or action. F o r this reason it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y i m p o r ­ tant to listen to 'messages' f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l s — w h e t h e r i n the f o r m of d r e a m s , images, or f a n t a s i e s — i n o r d e r to incorporate into awareness other aspects o f the personality.

Sylvia Cohen

75

In terms o f l e a r n i n g — a n d cognitive processes g e n e r a l l y — t h e s a m e a p p l i e s . A l t h o u g h w e m a y be c o n s c i o u s of h a v i n g certain talents or abilities, there are i n the u n c o n s c i o u s the opposite potentials. T h e p e r ­ s o n w h o t h i n k s a n d learns b y u s i n g h i g h l y f o c u s e d

r e a s o n i n g , for

i n s t a n c e , m a y h a v e a n u n c o n s c i o u s potential for m o r e lateral, i m a g i n a ­ tive w a y s of a p p r o a c h i n g things. A d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the t w o m i g h t e n c o u r a g e a n d p r o d u c e s o m e v e r y creative l e a r n i n g a n d thought, i n w h i c h s o m e of the restrictions of logic m i g h t be released, a n d i m a g i n a ­ t i o n — o r i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s — m i g h t be expressed w i t h i n a c o m m u n i c a ­ ble a n d l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k . A t this p o i n t w e b e g i n at last to t o u c h u p o n that other m o d e of t h i n k i n g p r o p o s e d b y J u n g , w h i c h h e describes as ' n o n - d i r e c t e d ' , a n d w h i c h is: . . . i n the m a i n subjectively m o t i v a t e d , a n d n o t so m u c h b y c o n ­ scious m o t i v e s a s — f a r m o r e — b y u n c o n s c i o u s ones. It certainly p r o d u c e s a w o r l d p i c t u r e v e r y different f r o m that of conscious, d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . . . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s bases of d r e a m s a n d fan­ tasies are o n l y a p p a r e n t l y infantile reminiscences... w e are c o n ­ cerned

with

primitive

or archaic

thought-forms,

based

on

instinct, w h i c h n a t u r a l l y emerge m o r e clearly i n c h i l d h o o d t h a n they d o later. B u t they are not i n themselves infantile, m u c h less p a t h o l o g i c a l . (Jung 1911-12/52: 37) Undirected

t h i n k i n g is a s s o c i a t i v e

rather

than

i m a g e r y a n d fantasy, f o l l o w i n g its o w n subjective

logical,

using

p a t h — w h i c h , of

c o u r s e , m a y l e a d to d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n i n 'real w o r l d '

terms—but

w h i c h , nevertheless, is also b a s e d o n sense perceptions. It is s i m p l y the case that u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g does s o m e t h i n g different w i t h these p e r ­ ceptions. W h e r e a s d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g seeks c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the m a n i p u l a t i o n of ideas or objects i n the real w o r l d (thus e n a b l i n g tech­ n o l o g i c a l progress), u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is less c o n c e r n e d w i t h this t h a n w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h e t h e r that i n v o l v e s one's o w n p s y c h i c reality, or a m i x t u r e of b o t h this a n d the 'real w o r l d ' . Jung's comment

that this k i n d of t h i n k i n g , w i t h its u n c o n s c i o u s

basis, is neither infantile n o r p a t h o l o g i c a l addresses

the p r e v i o u s l y

p o p u l a r v i e w that associative t h i n k i n g is ' i n f e r i o r ' to l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g .

1

T h i s v i e w stems f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r a s s u m p t i o n about k n o w l e d g e a n d its f u n c t i o n — t h a t i s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s — w h i c h seems to h a v e g a i n e d a h o l d since the E n l i g h t e n m e n t . If k n o w l e d g e is a s s u m e d to be l i n e a r ­

Learning: a Jungian

76

Perspective

l y p r o g r e s s i v e — a s is the case i n m a n y s c i e n c e s — t h e n further l e a r n i n g tends to be r e g a r d e d as b u i l t l o g i c a l l y u p o n w h a t has g o n e before, a n d thus it is i n d e e d difficult to appreciate the p a r t that

unconscious

d y n a m i c s a n d fantasies m i g h t play. U n t i l r e c e n t l y w o r k o n cognitive processes

has b e e n i n f l u e n c e d

l a r g e l y b y the b e h a v i o u r i s t a p p r o a c h , a n d has concentrated exclusively Moraglia

on

conscious

processes.

However,

almost

i n a recent

(1991) cites research o n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g

paper

(or

'IP')

w h i c h , h a v i n g established concepts s u c h as 'attention' a n d ' c o n s c i o u s ­ ness' as scientifically v a l i d , has i n e v i t a b l y t u r n e d to a t t e m p t i n g

to

u n d e r s t a n d their opposites. In other w o r d s , n o n - c o n s c i o u s processes i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g are n o w b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d a n d a d d r e s s e d . It seems especially clear f r o m this w o r k that conscious f u n c t i o n i n g is o n l y a p a r t of the activities of the p s y c h e . M o r e o v e r , d u e to the l i m ­ ited c a p a c i t y of the conscious system, w e process a great d e a l of i n f o r ­ m a t i o n w i t h o u t conscious

awareness,

although conscious

precepts

m a y be affected b y this processing. M o r a g l i a notes a n agreement b e t w e e n the properties of n o n - c o n ­ scious IP a n d of the u n c o n s c i o u s , as p u t f o r w a r d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — essentially, that the activity a n d processes of b o t h differ m a r k e d l y f r o m c o n s c i o u s activities a n d processes. S o m e basic elements of the specifi­ 2

cally Jungian m o d e l

of the m i n d also f i n d c o r r o b o r a t i o n i n

this

research. F o r instance, the differentiation w i t h i n the field of IP b e t w e e n ' c o n ­ scious' between

and

'unconscious

directed a n d

processes'

parallels Jung's

undirected thinking. The

distinction

former—as

Jung

r e m a r k e d — i s ' f a t i g u i n g ' or, i n IP terms, i n v o l v e s ' h i g h e n e r g y c o n ­ s u m p t i o n ' , whereas the latter, b e i n g associative rather t h a n a n a l y t i c a l , uses far less energy. IP also appreciates the l i m i t e d capacity of the c o n ­ scious s y s t e m to d e a l w i t h all the i n f o r m a t i o n the m i n d receives, a n d thus recognises the necessity of n o n - c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s i n g . S i m i l a r l y , f r o m a J u n g i a n perspective, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s (repressed mate­ rial f r o m p e r s o n a l experience) is constituted p a r t l y because of the l i m ­ i t e d c a p a c i t y of the conscious system. U n l i k e the collective u n c o n ­ scious, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s derives largely f r o m the w o r l d of sen­ sation a n d experience, m u c h of w h i c h is not m e d i a t e d c o n s c i o u s l y H o w e v e r , the w a y i n w h i c h these data are nevertheless o r g a n i s e d b r i n g s us to the f u n c t i o n of the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h is struc­ t u r e d — i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d — b y archetypes. Similarly, IP research s u g ­

Sylvia Cohen

77

gests that the structures w h i c h organise the u n c o n s c i o u s m a t e r i a l are n o t extraneous or e m p i r i c a l i n o r i g i n , b u t : ...resemble

more

d i r e c t l y innate, t r a n s p e r s o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f

experience, i n a n a l o g y w i t h C h o m s k y ' s ideas of a genetically inherited

a n d unconscious

'deep

structure'

of

language.

( M o r a g l i a 1991: 31) In other w o r d s , archetypes m i g h t be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d as organisers of o u r p e r c e p t i o n s — w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y o n e aspect w h i c h J u n g attributed to t h e m . T h e ' m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g ' to w h i c h I referred earlier i n v o l v e s b o t h a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — i n other w o r d s , a k i n d of i n f o r m a ­ t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . If, then, u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l activity p l a y s as great a role i n l e a r n i n g as it d o e s i n IP, t h e n h o w m i g h t w e g a i n access to this u n c o n s c i o u s activity, a n d h o w m i g h t w e c o n c e p t u a l i s e w h a t it tells u s a b o u t the processes o f l e a r n i n g itself? T h e d y n a m i c s o f the u n c o n s c i o u s — w h e t h e r

'repressed/personal'

or ' c o l l e c t i v e ' — a r e o r g a n i s e d archetypally. H o w e v e r , i n themselves the archetypes c a n n o t b e k n o w n ; they are o n l y — a s it w e r e — ' p o t e n t i a l ' structures. U n c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y a n d contents m a y o n l y manifest t h e m ­ selves t h r o u g h d r e a m s , fantasy, a n d i m a g e r y . T h e s e processes f o r m e r ­ l y c o n t r i b u t e d to another m o d e of t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h , since time i m m e m o r i a l , h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e s t r i v e n to m a k e sense of themselves a n d the w o r l d :

myth-making.

A l l the creative p o w e r that m o d e r n m a n p o u r s into science a n d technics the m a n of a n t i q u i t y d e v o t e d to h i s m y t h s . T h i s creative u r g e explains... the c o n t i n u a l r e j u v e n a t i o n of m y t h s i n G r e e k c u l ­ ture... T h i s activity of the e a r l y classical m i n d w a s i n the highest degree artistic... (Jung 1911-12/52: 24) J u n g is at p a i n s to e m p h a s i s e the h u m a n i n e v i t a b i l i t y of fantasy a n d m y t h - m a k i n g , w h i c h s p r i n g f r o m the a r c h e t y p a l realms of the collec­ tive u n c o n s c i o u s . If w e w e r e n e v e r t o l d a m y t h or a story i n o u r entire lives, w e w o u l d i n v e n t o u r o w n . J u n g focuses o n the creative d r i v e t o w a r d s m y t h - m a k i n g , y e t this p r o c e s s — w h i c h , generally, relies u p o n associative rather t h a n l o g i c a l t h o u g h t — m a y also h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n the process of l e a r n i n g .

78

Learning: a Jungian

Perspective

If there is i n h u m a n beings a n a r c h e t y p a l p r o p e n s i t y to w e a v e sto­ ries, this m i g h t also constitute part of the a r c h e t y p a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of o u r c a p a c i t y for i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g , as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

Myths

w e r e b a s e d o n u n i v e r s a l h u m a n themes, g i v e n f o r m b y a local culture, as attempts to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to l e a r n about the w o r l d i n w a y s w h i c h utilise h u m a n experience. M y t h s c a n themselves b e u n d e r s t o o d as a f o r m of analogy, p r o v i d i n g a means of ' a p p r e h e n d i n g t h r o u g h e x p e r i ­ ence', as K o l b w o u l d p u t it. In K o l b ' s terms w e m o v e constantly f r o m p r e h e n s i o n to transfor­ m a t i o n i n o u r t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . H i s chief interest w a s i n the char­ acteristic styles b y w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s resolve this d i a l e c t i c — t h e differ­ ent w a y s i n w h i c h different p e o p l e learn. H o w e v e r , I a m s u g g e s t i n g that this dialectic (between p r e h e n s i o n a n d transformation) is i n part r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h a n o t h e r — t h a t b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious d y n a m i c s , a n d , concomitantly, b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k ­ ing. O f c o u r s e , ancient m y t h s d o n o t i n themselves p r o v i d e explanations satisfactory i n m o d e r n scientific terms. T h e y d o n o t e n g e n d e r

testable

a n d refutable h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h c a n be tested o u t i n the real w o r l d . In the m a i n this is because the focus of m y t h is u p o n satisfactory e x p l a ­ n a t i o n a n d subjective k n o w l e d g e , rather t h a n c o n t r o l of objects i n the real w o r l d . In the ancient w o r l d , control of events w a s u s u a l l y m e d i a t ­ e d t h r o u g h the g o o d offices of d i v i n i t i e s , p l a c a t e d b y p r a y e r a n d sacri­ fice. H o w e v e r , once h u m a n s became interested i n t r y i n g to m a n i p u l a t e the w o r l d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e n t h i n k i n g h a d to b e c o m e m o r e d i r e c t e d , a n d l e a r n i n g about the w o r l d h a d to b e c o m e m o r e closely related to the w a y things actually w o r k e d . T h e o l d m y t h s , w i t h their a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t r i m m i n g s , were n o longer useful, i n that they w e r e u n a b l e to p r o v i d e the k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n s that m i g h t l e a d to further l e a r n i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n the m o s t r i g o r o u s l y scientific m e t h o d

depends

u p o n the w o r k i n g s of things w h i c h cannot b e seen, i n order to p r o v i d e theoretical m o d e l s . C o n t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c s , for instance, has entered a r e a l m i n w h i c h p h e n o m e n a a n d relationships are d e s c r i b e d m e t a p h y s ­ ically. T o p u t this another way, w e invent stories that h e l p e x p l a i n the w o r l d to u s , a n d enable us to m a n i p u l a t e s o m e aspects of it. T h e s e sci­ entific stories are n o t the same as ancient m y t h s (they p r o v i d e either a l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , or a technologically w o r k a b l e m o d e l ) yet they still w o r k o n the p r i n c i p l e of analogy. T h e m o d e l s t h r o u g h w h i c h w e n o w

Sylvia Cohen

79

u n d e r s t a n d the w o r l d are the p r o d u c t , I w o u l d say, o f the dialectic b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g ; b e t w e e n

the i m a g i n a t i o n

w h i c h creates story, a n d the a p p l i c a t i o n of a logic w h i c h tests o u t h y p o t h e s e s . O f course, i n either case, there m u s t b e a c o m m o n a i m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n c e it is d e c i d e d that p r i v a t e thoughts are to be s h a r e d , they m u s t be translated into terms that utilise n o t o n l y p e r s o n ­ al experience b u t also c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g . T h u s , flights of fancy, those leaps o f logic w e call i n t u i t i o n , fantasy a n d imagery, m i g h t b e b r o u g h t into the p u b l i c sphere i n a w a y that m a k e s sense to others. Because associative or n o n - d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g uses far less p s y c h i c energy, it is less t i r i n g a n d — i n that s e n s e — a m o r e ' p l e a s u r a b l e ' a c t i v i ­ ty t h a n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . T h i s , I t h i n k , b r i n g s us b a c k to m y initial question:

given

the h i g h degree

of will

a n d energy-expenditure

i n v o l v e d i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is necessary for l e a r n i n g , w h y o n earth s h o u l d w e choose to d o it? T h e n o t i o n that h u m a n s are ' n a t u r a l ­ l y ' c u r i o u s creatures does n o t c o m p l e t e l y a n s w e r this because, as I h o p e to h a v e s h o w n , w e are quite capable of satisfying o u r c u r i o s i t y s i m p l y t h r o u g h fantasy a n d i m a g e r y . To meander

a l o n g the h i g h w a y s

and by-ways

of n o n - d i r e c t e d

t h o u g h t is, h o w e v e r , a k i n to a p u l l t o w a r d s inertia. T h i s n o t i o n of ' i n e r ­ tia' is p e r h a p s the closest J u n g c a m e to a v e r s i o n of 'the d e a t h d r i v e ' . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e o n e m i g h t s a y that a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of fantasy a n d association is ' a n t i - l e a r n i n g ' . W e l o n g to r e t u r n to a sense of ' o n e ­ n e s s ' w i t h the m o t h e r — h o w e v e r

i l l u s o r y this n o t i o n m i g h t b e — i n

w h i c h there is n o effort or conflict, a n d w e are sheltered f r o m the h a r s h v a g a r i e s of the r e a l w o r l d . H o w e v e r , the d i m e n s i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h w e f u l l y d e v e l o p o u r h u m a n p o t e n t i a l is c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

a n d this comes about

precisely

t h r o u g h s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n u r t u r i n g mother, t h r o u g h the a g e n c y o f the father or ' p a t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e ' : T h i s is the... L o g o s , w h i c h eternally struggles to extricate itself f r o m the p r i m a l w a r m t h a n d p r i m a l d a r k n e s s of the m a t e r n a l w o m b ; i n a w o r d , f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Q u n g 1938/59: 178) It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the f u n c t i o n s of m o t h e r a n d father d o n o t relate to a n y n e c e s s a r i l y f i x e d roles of the actual parents, b u t rather to a r c h e t y p a l representations o f u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s

('mother') a n d c o n ­

sciousness ('father') i n the p s y c h e (cf. J u n g 1938/59, 1934/54).

80

Learning: a Jungian

Perspective

T h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s separation f r o m the m o t h e r is a n e m b r y o n ­ ic stage i n the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n — t h e l i f e l o n g activity of f i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s a n d o u r p a t h i n l i f e . W i t h the initial s e p a r a t i o n , a n d the c o n ­ 3

c o m i t a n t n e e d for c o m m u n i c a t i o n , relationships w i t h others b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h r o u g h these the c h i l d begins to please a n d to be p l e a s e d b y a d u l t s . T h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l experience activates other a r c h e t y p a l potentials. T h e G a r d e n of E d e n m a y h a v e its place i n o u r e m o t i o n a l y e a r n i n g , b u t once the fruit of the tree of k n o w l e d g e has b e e n bitten, c u r i o s i t y c o m p e l s us to use o u r c o g n i t i o n to l e a r n about the w o r l d . W h a t w e m i g h t call a l e a r n i n g ego' is established, e n a b l i n g the neces­ s a r y d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n fantasy a n d directed t h i n k i n g to take place. W e n e v e r s i m p l y reach a p o i n t i n o u r d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e w e w a n t o n l y to l e a r n ; the dialectic b e t w e e n associative a n d d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is c o n s t a n t l y r e - w o r k e d , as are the dialectics b e t w e e n the other pairs of opposites

we

have

touched

upon: extraversion/introversion,

con­

s c i o u s / u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d concrete e x p e r i e n c e / a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t u a l i s a ­ t i o n , for instance.

* ** T h e dialectic that m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d as the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l to l e a r n ­ i n g , a n d to o u r c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n , is that b e t w e e n the p e r ­ s o n a l a n d the collective. T h e r e is a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n o u r p r i v a t e needs, w a n t s , a n d interests, a n d w h a t w e m i g h t call 'the p u b l i c d e m a n d ' . W e m a y be c u r i o u s a n d e x p l o r a t o r y creatures, b u t there is a n e v i d e n t conflict b e t w e e n w h a t w e are c u r i o u s to l e a r n , a n d w h a t w e are called u p o n to learn. In other w o r d s , o u r l e a r n i n g is to a greater or lesser extent d e t e r m i n e d b y a c o n ­ sensvis o n w h a t is ' v a l u a b l e ' , 'interesting', 'right' a n d ' i m p o r t a n t ' . T h e p r e - s c h o o l c h i l d , for instance, m a y be free to explore the e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h l a n g u a g e , paint, or clay, b u t h e or s h e — e v e n at this e a r l y s t a g e — s t i l l has to l e a r n to control his or h e r excretion, eat i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y , sit i n a circle w h e n t o l d to d o so, a n d learn the l a n ­ g u a g e w h i c h others speak. T h i s conflict is m o r e a p p a r e n t i n adults: the v o c a t i o n a l learner is clearly c o m p e l l e d to take i n things w h i c h d o not r e a l l y interest h i m or her, i n order to attain the r e q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e is a p r o b l e m inherent i n all f o r m s of f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h is precisely to d o w i t h a d d r e s s i n g the i n d i v i d u a l yet at the s a m e time c o n f o r m i n g to the collective consensus. Perhaps the g r o u p of learners m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to this tension b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l a n d collective is c h i l ­

Sylvia

Cohen

81

d r e n of c o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l - a g e . U n t i l sixteen, t h e y m u s t attend s c h o o l , or its e q u i v a l e n t , a n d are expected to l e a r n w h a t is p u t i n front of t h e m , a n d to l e a r n it (usually) i n quite large g r o u p s . O n e m i g h t a l m o s t s a y that the m e m b e r s of this g r o u p of learners n e e d a v e r y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d T e a m i n g e g o ' , p l u s the w i l l to direct a n d focus their t h i n k i n g , to a greater extent t h a n a n y other g r o u p of learners. I t h i n k that there are t w o aspects of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g w h i c h m i g h t p r o v e h e l p f u l i n b e g i n n i n g to a d d r e s s this difficulty. In the first place, the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n to c u r i o s i t y m i g h t be t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n that h u m a n b e i n g s are resilient to the b o r e d o m of collective d e m a n d s as l o n g as they receive a decent a d m i x t u r e of w h a t they really w a n t . This

fundamental

curiosity w i l l

also

p r o b a b l y be best

captured

t h r o u g h effective p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l — c e r t a i n l y b y presentation w h i c h a l l o w s for as m u c h e x p l o r a t i o n as possible. S e c o n d l y , c o n n e c t e d to the a b o v e , the J u n g i a n p a r a d i g m of the coni­ unctio

a s s u m e s that l e a r n i n g is a n interactive

process. T h i s m a k e s , I

t h i n k , for a m o d e l w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s rather m o r e d e m o c r a c y t h a n is i m p l i e d b y the n o t i o n of a teacher w h o m e r e l y a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y 'teaches'. T h e i d e a of coniunctio

i m p l i e s i n s t e a d a place of l e a r n i n g a n d

interaction, b o t h w i t h the m a t e r i a l , a n d w i t h the self of the teacher. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n a n d dialectic b e t w e e n

teacher a n d student m i r r o r s the

' i n n e r ' dialectics the student w i l l u s e i n o r d e r to a p p r e h e n d a n d trans­ f o r m m a t e r i a l i n h i s or h e r o w n u n i q u e way. W e m i g h t s a y that the s t u ­ d e n t 'learns h o w to l e a r n ' t h r o u g h this interaction, d u e to the w a y that d i a l o g u e o r c o n v e r s a t i o n , h o w e v e r s i m p l e o r basic, reveals the t h o u g h t processes of both parties. I w o u l d prefer to e n v i s a g e a process w h e r e b y the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n b o t h parties activates a n e q u i v a l e n t process i n the s t u d e n t , e n a b l i n g t h e m to d i s c o v e r their strengths a n d weaknesses, a n d their o w n p r e f e r r e d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g . T h i s s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n to m e a n that the teacher m u s t address every c h i l d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d i n great d e p t h — a feat that w o u l d be w e l l n i g h i m p o s s i b l e i n a c l a s s r o o m of thirty c h i l d r e n . It does m e a n , h o w ­ ever, that face-to-face interaction b e t w e e n teacher a n d p u p i l s , e v e n i n large g r o u p s , is v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t . T o s o m e extent, of course, c h i l d r e n a n d other learners h a v e to f i n d their o w n w a y of l e a r n i n g within

the

collective setting, a n d h a v e to a d a p t to the collective. If not, w e b e c o m e a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s , rather t h a n the social beings u p o n w h i c h J u n g i a n t h e o r y insists. H o w e v e r , there are s o m e further points to b e m a d e here. T h e first touches u p o n a n aspect of learning

difficulty—a

theme w h i c h I d o n o t

82

Learning:

a Jungian

Perspective

h a v e space to d e a l w i t h p r o p e r l y , b u t w h i c h nevertheless

demands

attention. A c h i l d w h o s e ego cannot mediate effectively b e t w e e n the desires of the p e r s o n a l a n d the d e m a n d s of the collective m a y w e l l h a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g . A n ' o v e r - a d a p t e d ego',

which

enforces

c o m p l i a n c e w i t h a u t h o r i t y or w i t h 'the n o r m ' , m i g h t i n h i b i t e x p l o ­ r a t i o n a n d creativity. In extreme cases, o d d l y e n o u g h , a n ego w h i c h seems ' s t r o n g ' m i g h t actually i n h i b i t m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d m i g h t b e u n a b l e to realise his or her o w n u n i q u e l e a r n i n g style, w h i c h is necessary i n o r d e r for that c h i l d to a p p r e h e n d a n d t r a n s f o r m data i n a w a y w h i c h is u s e f u l a n d m e a n i n g f u l . O n the other h a n d , a n ego w h i c h finds i n h i b i t i o n of i m p u l s e s diffi­ cult to m a n a g e w i l l disable the c h i l d i n a different w a y . A s w e h a v e seen,

l e a r n i n g calls for qualities s u c h as w i l l ,

concentration,

and

d e l a y e d gratification. A n ego w h i c h cannot a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l i m p u l s ­ es or the desire for i m m e d i a t e gratification w i l l manifest itself i n resis­ tance to l e a r n i n g . In b o t h c a s e s — o f over- a n d u n d e r - a d a p t a t i o n — t h e dialectic b e t w e e n opposites is unable to be c o n d u c t e d further to a n y effect. The

f i n a l issue

I would

like to raise concerns

how

collective

d e m a n d s , if not k e p t w i t h i n certain b o u n d s , c a n b e c o m e o v e r b e a r i n g a n d i n h i b i t i n g . T h e p r i n c i p l e of a N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m m i g h t

effec­

t i v e l y e n s u r e a n e q u i v a l e n c e of standards across the country, a n d c o n ­ sole us w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that w e k n o w w h a t o u r c h i l d r e n are l e a r n ­ i n g , b u t it has its pitfalls. S t a n d a r d s m i g h t degenerate i n t o ' s t a n d a r d i ­ s a t i o n ' , w h i c h takes little account of i n d i v i d u a l , social, or r e g i o n a l dif­ ferences. C h i l d r e n w h o are e n c o u r a g e d to b e c o m e too c o n s c i o u s of c o l ­ lective d e m a n d s lose a n y chance of d e v e l o p i n g a l o n g their o w n i n d i ­ v i d u a l l i n e s , a n d m a y lose all capacity for creative t h o u g h t . A N a t i o n a l C t i r r i c u l u m presents a constant d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g too d e t a i l e d a n d p r e s c r i p t i v e , b o t h i n terms of m e t h o d s a n d of content. It might

try to teach things

absorbed—through

that cannot really be taught,

but

only

o b s e r v a t i o n , interaction, a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . F o r

instance: social r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c i t i z e n s h i p , ethical b e h a v i o u r , a n d so o n , are n o t so m u c h subjects to be l e a r n e d (as the G o v e r n m e n t has recent­ l y suggested) as qualities w h i c h c a n be e n g e n d e r e d t h r o u g h relation­ s h i p s w i t h adults i n the e n v i r o n m e n t . In other w o r d s , a c u r r i c u l u m that is too a n x i o u s to teach c a n destroy l e a r n i n g , a n d can negate the f u n d a ­ m e n t a l p u r p o s e of e d u c a t i o n i n its o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g — t o l e a d out, to facilitate, a n d to proffer the o p p o r t u n i t y of l e a r n i n g .

Sylvia

Cohen

83

Notes

1

Both Kolb (1984) Whitmont E (1969) present this view and a critique of it.

2

He cites Shevrin & Dickman 1980.

3 There is in fact an intricate relationship between individuation and learning—one cannot

happen without the other, but they are not the same. We might say that each is a special

instance of the other. Meaningful learning cannot take place without separation from moth­

er—there would be no need to learn anything if this did not occur. On the other hand, indi­

viduation involves learning about oneself.

O N 'LEARNING' A N D'LEARNING ABOUT':

W.R.BION'S

T H E O R Y O F T H I N K I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N A L PRAXIS

Jean White W . R . B i o n (1897-1972) w a s a r g u a b l y the m o s t p r o f o u n d l y r a d i c a l p s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c thinker since F r e u d a n d K l e i n . A f t e r h i s p i o n e e r i n g w o r k o n g r o u p s , he a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f to the s t u d y of t h i n k i n g a n d of w h a t he t e r m e d the evolution of m i n d . A l t h o u g h m o s t of this w o r k is d e r i v e d f r o m h i s analysis of t h o u g h t d i s o r d e r s i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c consult­ i n g - r o o m , it has c o n s i d e r a b l e relevance to the nature of l e a r n i n g a n d w h a t facilitates l e a r n i n g i n e d u c a t i o n a l settings. To m y k n o w l e d g e , the e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s theories h a v e n e v e r b e e n e x p l o r e d , a l t h o u g h B i o n h i m s e l f p o i n t e d o u t the l i n k b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d the­ ories of k n o w l e d g e . (Bion 1984a: 1). T h i s chapter w i l l s h o w h o w s o m e of B i o n ' s k e y concepts are p r o ­ f o u n d l y g e r m a n e to b o t h the attitude a n d technique of the teacher, a n d to the p r o v i s i o n of a facilitative setting for l e a r n i n g i n the c l a s s r o o m or s e m i n a r r o o m . I s h a l l d r a w p r i m a r i l y u p o n the central p e r i o d of B i o n ' s

Learning from Experience (1984a), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1984b), Transformation (1984c), Second Thoughts (1984d), a n d Attention and Interpretation

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w r i t i n g s . T h i s w o r k is p u b l i s h e d as:

(19846). B i o n ' s w r i t i n g style is, unfortunately, not p a r t i c u l a r l y l u c i d , 1

a n d often dense a n d inaccessible e v e n to the e x p e r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic reader. T h i s d o e s n o t i n a n y w a y detract f r o m the r a d i c a l i s m a n d p r o f u n d i t y of his t h i n k i n g , b u t it m a y s o m e t i m e s deter the u n p r e p a r e d . A f t e r the central p e r i o d of h i s w o r k o n t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , B i o n b e c a m e m o r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the nature of transcendent or ultimate reality. A l t h o u g h these later w r i t i n g s are b o t h fascinating a n d i l l u m i ­ n a t i n g , they h a v e less i m m e d i a t e relevance to e d u c a t i o n . I w i l l , h o w ­ ever, briefly explore s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d those of P a o l o Freire, the great educationalist w h o s e t h o u g h t w a s s h a p e d b y his i n v o l v e m e n t i n literacy c a m p a i g n s i n the ' T h i r d W o r l d / . I w i l l also l o o k i n s o m e detail at w h a t the c o m b i n e d a p p l i c a t i o n of B i o n ' s a n d Freire's ideas m i g h t l o o k like i n practice, d r a w n f r o m m y experience of t e a c h i n g a s e m i n a r series i n the f i n a l year o f a u n i v e r s i t y - b a s e d p o s t ­ graduate training course o n psychoanalytic psychotherapy.

Jean White A radical psychoanalytic

85

paradigm?

B i o n w a s t r a i n e d as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w i t h i n the F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n t r a d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h h e retained a n d gave fresh m e a n i n g to m a n y of the c e n t r a l concepts f r o m these traditions, h i s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g also d r a w s u p o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l sources, a n d c a n u l t i m a t e l y s t a n d o n its o w n as a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s y s t e m . F o r the sake of clarity, I w i l l first p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o f those p r i m a r y c o n ­ cepts i n B i o n ' s w r i t i n g s w h i c h are relevant to e d u c a t i o n . B i o n ' s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g rests o n the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t h e t e r m e d 'beta elements' a n d ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' . H e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e d n o n ­ d e s c r i p t i v e , abstract, often m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y as a w a y of d r a w i n g attention to the fact that these are i n t e n d e d to b e empty cate­ g o r i e s , u s e f u l o n l y for p u r p o s e s of n o t a t i o n , a n d c o m p l e t e l y m e t a p h o r ­ i c a l w i t h o u t a n y i n t e n d e d o r i m p l i e d reference to ' a c t u a l ' or ' r e a l ' processes, w h a t e v e r those m i g h t b e (Bion 1984a: 3). 'Beta e l e m e n t s ' represent those particles of r a w experience, sensa­ t i o n , o r i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h m u s t b e e v a c u a t e d f r o m the m i n d if they c a n n o t b e p r o c e s s e d into thought- T h e p r i m a r y routes or m e a n s of e v a c u a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , are h a l l u c i n a t i o n , m i n d l e s s activity, 'act­ i n g o u t ' or a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , m i n d l e s s chatter, m i n d l e s s g r o u p or h e r d b e h a v i o u r , o r s o m a t i s a t i o n (Bion 1984a: 6-7). A l l of these B i o n d e e m e d 'psychotic'

or 'soma-psychotic'

phenomena,

a n d therefore

anti­

t h o u g h t a n d d a m a g i n g to the m i n d . ' A l p h a f u n c t i o n ' , i n contrast, represents the process w h e r e b y these e l e m e n t a r y particles of experience are t r a n s f o r m e d into t h o u g h t (Bion 1984a: 8). T h i s takes place firstly b y m e a n s of the v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y , or sensual

image,

w h i c h c a n be d r e a m t

( B i o n 1984a: 26), a n d then

p r o c e s s e d into ever m o r e sophisticated f o r m s o f t h o u g h t , represented i n the l e f t - h a n d c o l u m n of the d i a g r a m B i o n referred to as 'the G r i d ' ( B i o n 1984a: 55; see figure overleaf). T h e G r i d represents B i o n ' s theory of t h i n k i n g i n a n extremely c o n d e n s e d f o r m . It merits a c h a p t e r — i n d e e d a w h o l e b o o k — a l l to itself, a n d I can o n l y g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n of its m e a n i n g i n this chapter. E a c h o f the G r i d ' s t w o axes p r o v i d e s a p e r s p e c t i v e o n the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t o f t h o u g h t . T h e vertical axis, f r o m t o p to b o t t o m , d e g r e e s o f evolution

a n d abstraction

represents

of t h o u g h t s . T h e h o r i z o n t a l , f r o m

left to r i g h t , demonstrates the application

o r uses of the different d i s ­

tinctions o r levels of t h o u g h t , as represented i n the vertical axes. T h e p o i n t s o f intersection b e t w e e n the axes enable the d r a w i n g of v e r y fine

86

On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

T H E GR I D

Jean White distinctions between

types of thoughts, b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e

psychoanalytic consulting r o o m .

87 the

2

O t h e r k e y concepts i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y are: •

the contact b a r r i e r

•

the selected fact

•

Ps*-»D

•

c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d (or:

•

m u l t i p l e vertices

•

transformations

)

I w i l l b r i e f l y describe a n d clarify these terms.

The contact barrier T h e c o n c e p t of the contact barrier is v e r y closely l i n k e d to the e v o l u ­ t i o n of m i n d . T h e contact barrier is created b y the m e t a p h o r i c a l streams of t h o u g h t w h i c h result f r o m the w o r k i n g s of a l p h a f u n c t i o n ( B i o n 1984a: 17). T h e barrier separates c o n s c i o u s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s

mind,

a n d t h e r e b y protects relations w i t h external reality ( B i o n 1984a: 22). A n e x a m p l e of this process i n action m i g h t be ' t h i n k i n g a b o u t a d r e a m a n d its m e a n i n g ' . In the process of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n manifest

and

latent content, a n d i n reflecting o n the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the m a t e r i a l released t h r o u g h free association, the

external reality

distinction between internal and

is r e i n f o r c e d i n the m i n d of dreamer. A s a result, there is

far less d a n g e r of c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l a n d external reality t h a n if the d r e a m h a d s i m p l y b e e n d r e a m t a n d h a d not b e e n subject to f u r ­ ther m e n t a t i o n . T h e contact barrier, therefore, also r e n d e r s the m i n d less p e r m e a b l e to c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r to the i n f l u x of projective i d e n t i f i ­ c a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m p s y c h o t i c processes i n o t h e r s — f o r e x a m p l e , i n 3

the case of a h i g h l y - c h a r g e d g r o u p s i t u a t i o n , i n w h i c h there m a y

be

e n o r m o u s p r e s s u r e to act or speak a c c o r d i n g to the p r e v a l e n t m o o d or climate of the majority. In this situation, the i n d i v i d u a l w h o c a n s t a n d b a c k a n d ' t h i n k u n d e r fire' is less l i k e l y to be c a u g h t u p i n p o w e r f u l and unthinking group dynamics. O n e of the m a n y e x c i t i n g i n n o v a t i o n s i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y is his insight t h a t — d u e to the o p e r a t i o n of a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact b a r r i ­ er, a n d all the different stages of t h o u g h t o u t l i n e d i n the G r i d — t h e e v o ­ l u t i o n of the m i n d is p o t e n t i a l l y endless or infinite. A s l o n g as o n e is

88

On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

c a p a b l e of t h o u g h t a n d t r u t h , the m i n d c a n c o n t i n u e to e v o l v e or 4

d e v e l o p , far b e y o n d the dictates of e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences.

The selected fact, and Ps In B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g , the notions of the 'selected fact' a n d 'Ps c l o s e l y interconnected (Bion 1984a: 72).

B i o n posits

D are

a continual—

a l m o s t m o m e n t b y m o m e n t — m o v e m e n t w i t h i n the m i n d , a constant i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d ' (Ps) a n d ' d e p r e s s i v e ' (D) p o s i t i o n s . P u t s i m p l y , the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n ' represents the earliest p h a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t of the infant's m i n d , i n w h i c h g o o d a n d b a d experiences a n d objects are k e p t separate a n d , because of the w o r k i n g s of projective identification, p e r s e c u t o r y or p a r a n o i d a n x i ­ eties p r e d o m i n a t e . T h e p r i m a r y defence u s e d i n this state of m i n d is

splitting,

hence the t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s f r a g m e n t a t i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ,

a n d relative chaos. T h e 'depressive p o s i t i o n ' , m e a n w h i l e , represents a step t o w a r d s coherence a n d cohesiveness, as the m i n d b e c o m e s g r a d ­ u a l l y c a p a b l e of tolerating frustration a n d a m b i v a l e n c e . In i n f a n c y this is b r o u g h t about w h e n the y o u n g c h i l d realises that the m o t h e r is the s o u r c e of

both

satisfying

and

gratifying

and

frustrating

and

depriving

experiences. T h u s the c h i l d b e c o m e s able to conceive of the m o t h e r as a w h o l e c o m p l e x p e r s o n i n external reality. A l o n g w i t h this, the c h i l d b e c o m e s able to experience concern for the other as separate f r o m the self, a n d reparative i m p u l s e s replace u n c o n s c i o u s sadistic or projective assaults. A l l of us revert to p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d processes u n d e r stress, a n d s o m e of us n e v e r e m e r g e v e r y far f r o m t h e m i n the first p l a c e . In B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , i n h e a l t h a n d i n t h o u g h t , there is a necessary f l u c t u ­ a t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o positions or states of m i n d . W e

need

to regress

t e m p o r a r i l y to the relative chaos a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the p a r a n o i d ­ s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n as a sort of

reculer pour mieux sauter

('a recoil neces­

s a r y to a leap further f o r w a r d ' ) t h r o u g h w h i c h the emergence of a idea m a y b e c o m e possible. T h i s fleeting regressive m o v e m e n t does n o t nec­ essarily i n v o l v e a great sense of p e r s e c u t i o n ( B i o n 1984a: 92), a l t h o u g h a sense of pressure m a y be felt. It m i g h t feel, for e x a m p l e , as if the m i n d is d a r t i n g about i n a chaotic fashion, or i n t o l e r a b l y b l a n k a n d e m p t y a n d u n a b l e to t h i n k . T h e r e m a y be a sensation of s o m e t h i n g p u s h i n g o n it f r o m b e h i n d , before the relief of a n e w t h o u g h t s p r i n g s out of this inchoate state.

Jean White

89

T h e 'selected fact', o n the other h a n d , represents a n e m o t i o n or i d e a that l e n d s coherence to w h a t is d i s p e r s e d , i n t r o d u c i n g o r d e r into d i s ­ o r d e r ( B i o n 1984a: 73). It c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as a n i n t u i t i o n or a d i v ­ i n a t i o n — a n ' o h . . . ' — w h i c h m a k e s the b e g i n n i n g of a t h o u g h t possible, a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y incites a m o v e m e n t

i n t o the d e p r e s s i v e

(cf. G r i n b e r g et a l . 1975: 51). C h r i s t o p h e r B o l l a s , i n

position

Cracking Up

(1995),

describes a s i m i l a r m o v e m e n t as the basic r h y t h m of l i v i n g a n d t h i n k ­ i n g . H e argues that to benefit a n d g a i n n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m the richness a n d w i s d o m o f o u r u n c o n s c i o u s lives, there m u s t b e a constant, d u a l m o v e m e n t . C o h e r e n t t h o u g h t introduces o r d e r a n d c o n d e n s e s ,

whilst

' d i s p e r s a l ' or free association, b y b r e a k i n g u p that w h i c h c o u l d other­ w i s e b e i n d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g over-coherent, gives u s access to other unconscious

communications.

Container/contained

)

T h e c o n c e p t ' c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d ' (* fundamental

) is closely tied u p i n B i o n ' s

Weltanshauung w i t h a c o u p l e — t h a t is, the m o t h e r a n d

infant, or analyst a n d patient (Bion 1984a: 90). T h i s t e r m a n d its s y m ­ b o l are a n e x t r e m e l y s h o r t h a n d m e a n s o f c o n v e y i n g h i s n o t i o n that t h i n k i n g is essentially not

a o n e - p e r s o n activity. T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e is

d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s ideas o n ' m a t e r n a l r e v e r i e ' a n d

benign

projective

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . P u t s i m p l y , B i o n postulates that the infant projects h i s terror, anxiety, o r 'nameless

d r e a d ' into a receptive m a t e r n a l

mind

w h i c h is able to c o n t a i n or h o l d that anxiety u n t i l it c a n b e r e t u r n e d to the infant i n a tolerable, p r o c e s s e d

f o r m . In this w a y , a n i n t e r n a l

d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h t h o u g h t is possible is introjected, a n d b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d c o m p l e x as it e v o l v e s . B i o n d e s c r i b e d c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d as: ' a n e m o t i o n a l

realisation

associated w i t h l e a r n i n g that b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e c o m p l e x as it constantly recurs t h r o u g h o u t m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t ' ( B i o n 1984a: 93), a n d as: 'the m a t i n g of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s

to p r o ­

d u c e a c o n c e p t i o n ' (Bion 1984a: 91). S u b s e q u e n t analysts h a v e e x t e n d ­ e d a n d d e v e l o p e d the ' m a t i n g ' n o t i o n to i n c l u d e m o r e d e t a i l e d i n t e r n a l m o d e l s of the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e as a p a r a d i g m a t i c f o r m o f c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d (cf. B r i t t o n et a l . 1989). T h e u n c o n s c i o u s f o r m a s s u m e d b y the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d d e t e r m i n e s the w a y i n w h i c h m e n t a l l i n k s are m a d e , o r e v a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i f the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y of p a r e n t a l intercourse is i n t r u s i v e a n d aggressive,

fraught

90

On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

w i t h danger, then the p e r s o n m a y to a n extent be able to a l l o w things to c o m e together i n his or her m i n d , b u t o n l y w i t h great anxiety a n d i n t e r n a l evasions a n d d e n i a l s . It is n o w w i d e l y accepted a m o n g s t p s y ­ 5

c h o a n a l y t i c theorists that the level of t r i a n g u l a t i o n m a d e possible b y the successful resolution of the O e d i p u s C o m p l e x p r o v i d e s a n internal m o d e l o n w h i c h insight is b a s e d . A g r o w i n g , s t r e n g t h e n i n g c o n t a i n e r / 6

c o n t a i n e d , m a d e possible t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n of t h o u g h t a n d interaction w i t h other t h o u g h t f u l m i n d s , a n d w h i c h r e m a i n s flexible a n d a d a p t ­ able, p r o v i d e s the basis for c o n t i n u i n g l e a r n i n g f r o m experience ( B i o n 1984a: 92; 1984e: 72-82).

Midtiple vertices T h e t e r m V e r t e x ' i m p l i e s a perspective or p o i n t of v i e w . B i o n suggest­ e d that h e a l t h a n d thought enable the p o s s i b i l i t y of ' b i n o c u l a r v i s i o n ' or ' m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s ' — t h a t is to say, the c a p a c i t y to h o l d i n m i n d dif­ f e r i n g perspectives o n the same issue or possibility. T h i s p r o v i d e s a p o w e r f u l f o r m of reality-testing. W h e n m u l t i p l e vertices f r o m different p e o p l e or g r o u p s of p e o p l e converge to f o r m a consensus, then a p i c ­ ture or p a r a d i g m of external reality emerges, w h i c h B i o n d u b s ' c o m ­ m o n sense'. T h i s further u n d e r l i n e s the n o t i o n that t h o u g h t proceeds f r o m i n t e r n a l a n d external

relationships.

Transformations A l l the p r e c e d i n g c o n c e p t s — a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact barrier, c o n ­ t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d , vertex a n d m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s — a r e related to B i o n ' s use of his concept of transformations. T h o u g h t , i n the B i o n i a n sense, is a c o n t i n u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e m o ­ t i o n a n d experience, w h i c h i r r e v o c a b l y transforms the thinker a n d his o r her perceptions of internal a n d external reality. T h o u g h t s are also i n themselves thereby

capable of g r o w i n g a n d a c q u i r i n g further m e a n i n g , a n d

inevitably promoting

further p e r s o n a l

development

and

change. Different p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories c a n themselves be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d as g r o u p s of transformations, as c a n the poetic, artistic, scientific, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l fields of k n o w l e d g e . E a c h of these intel­ lectual or c u l t u r a l p a r a d i g m s is the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n s o m e o n e ' s m i n d , of

the

primary unknowable

Progressive

cycles

of

reality—which Bion

transformation

occur.

designated

'O'.

However—apparently

Jean White

91

p a r a d o x i c a l l y — t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n ' K ' (see b e l o w , p.93) m a y result i n closer a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to ' b e c o m i n g O ' or ' a t - o n e - m e n t w i t h O ' . I w i l l r e t u r n to this c o n c e p t w h e n l o o k i n g at s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d those of P a o l o Freire.

Psychoanalytic and philosophical contexts B i o n broke away f r o m both F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n theory i n m a n y fun­ d a m e n t a l areas. T h e r e r e m a i n s n o trace of F r e u d i a n mechanistics or the s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l of the m i n d i n B i o n ' s w o r k . P a r t h e n o p e B i o n T a l a m o , B i o n ' s daughter, tells a n a m u s i n g anecdote c o n c e r n i n g B i o n ' s response to h e r q u e r y a b o u t w h a t the ego w a s . H i s r e p l y — ' a f i g m e n t of p s y c h o ­ a n a l y s t s ' i m a g i n a t i o n s ' — i s p e r h a p s m o r e of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of a j o k i n g ­ l y affectionate f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n of a t r u l y cavalier atti­ t u d e (Talamo 1997: 52). N o n e t h e l e s s , it m a y b y n o w h a v e b e c o m e clear t h a n his m o d e l of m i n d is r a d i c a l i n that it constitutes essentially a

process m o d e l . T h e m i n d is c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v i n g or d e v e l o p i n g t h r o u g h the w o r k ­ i n g s of thought, o r else d e t e r i o r a t i n g , t h r o u g h the o p e r a t i o n of w h a t B i o n t e r m e d lies—the e v a s i o n of frustration a n d reality t h r o u g h p s y ­ c h o l o g i c a l l y o m n i p o t e n t m e c h a n i s m s . In B i o n ' s w o r k , a n d i n that of some

other

p o s t - K l e i n i a n theorists,

omnipotence

or

omniscience

d e s c r i b e s a state of m i n d i n w h i c h tolerance of frustration is so l i m i t e d that the i g n o r a n c e w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be tolerated u n t i l a t h o u g h t c o u l d e m e r g e is i n s t e a d d e n i e d t h r o u g h p r e m a t u r e ' k n o w l e d g e ' . A n e x a m p l e m i g h t b e the patient w h o ' k n o w s ' w h a t his analyst is t h i n k ­ i n g , i n preference to tolerating the n o t - k n o w i n g w h i c h m i g h t a l l o w a n e w a n d c h a l l e n g i n g v i e w p o i n t to be c o n s i d e r e d . B i o n d e e m e d this k i n d of e v a s i o n to be d a m a g i n g to the m i n d a n d v i e w e d it as a n t i ­ development. In B i o n ' s c a n o n , t r u t h a n d the reality p r i n c i p l e are m o t i v a t i o n a l forces of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e to the F r e u d i a n pleasure p r i n c i p l e ( B i o n 1984a: 31); it is e m o t i o n a l g r o w t h w h i c h p r o v i d e s a m o r e p o w e r f u l l y e n e r g i s i n g p r i n c i p l e t h a n s e x u a l l i b i d o (cf. S y m i n g t o n & S y m i n g t o n 1996: 7). F o r F r e u d , a d r e a m is a h i d d e n desire p r e s e n t e d i n d i s g u i s e d f o r m , whereas for B i o n it is the first stage i n the synthesis a n d repre­ s e n t a t i o n of u n o r g a n i s e d aspects of experience. F o r F r e u d , the f u n c t i o n of t h o u g h t is to decrease tension; for B i o n , its p u r p o s e is the manage­

ment

of t e n s i o n — b e a r i n g p a i n is a n essential prerequisite to the d e v e l ­

o p m e n t of a c a p a c i t y for t h o u g h t ( B i o n 1984a: 29). B i o n w o u l d also

92

On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

a p p e a r to h a v e r e p u d i a t e d F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the role of ' p r i ­ m a r y ' a n d ' s e c o n d a r y processes' i n t h i n k i n g , a n d to h a v e r e p l a c e d these w i t h the p r o c e s s i n g of beta elements t h r o u g h a l p h a f u n c t i o n a n d the contact b a r r i e r (Bion 1984a: 22, 54). I n d e e d , B i o n ' s d a u g h t e r has a r g u e d that F r e u d ' s t h e o r y of consciousness, a n d B i o n ' s t h e o r y of a l p h a f u n c t i o n possess a v e r y s i m i l a r status, as '...heuristic t o o l s — m o d ­ e l s — e n a b l i n g us to conceptualise a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w h a t w e t h i n k w i t h greater ease a n d clarity' (Talamo 1997: 52). D e s p i t e B i o n ' s great respect for F r e u d , a n d his a c k n o w l e d g e d i n d e b t e d n e s s , h e constituted a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m i n d a n d m e n t a l m e c h a n i s m s a c c o r d i n g to a n essentially different p a r a d i g m . Nevertheless, he retained m a n y c o r p o ­ real m e t a p h o r s for m e n t a l processes—for e x a m p l e , his use of the a l i ­ m e n t a r y s y s t e m as a m o d e l for the processes of t h o u g h t . T h i s is c o n ­ sistent w i t h his v i e w that p s y c h e a n d s o m a are f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n s e p a ­ r a b l e — s i m i l a r to the F r e u d i a n n o t i o n of a ' b o d y e g o ' ( F r e u d 1923:

26).

spirit of K l e i n i a n t h e o r y i n personal meaning as a g o a l . H i s

B i o n ' s w o r k c o n t r a d i c t e d m u c h of the that he e m p h a s i s e d the i m p o r t a n c e of

later w o r k , o n ultimate or transcendent reality, w h i c h m i g h t be r e g a r d ­ e d as b e l o n g i n g quite c o m f o r t a b l y to the m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , w a s total­ l y u n a c c e p t a b l e to m a n y K l e i n i a n s . Nonetheless he r e t a i n e d , assimilat­ e d , a n d m a d e fresh use of m a n y core K l e i n i a n c o n c e p t s — i n p a r t i c u l a r projective identification, splitting, envy, a n d the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as J. a n d N . S y m i n g t o n p o i n t out, he u s e d t h e m i n the service of ' a different m e t a p s y c h o l o g y ' ( S y m i n g t o n & S y m i n g t o n 1996:

11). M e l a n i e K l e i n w a s the first to posit a n 'episte­

m o p h i l i c instinct' as a central d r i v e i n d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h b e c a m e the p r i m a r y force i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n . B i o n w a s , therefore, a p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n the w a y that (to use his o w n terms) he b r o u g h t ' n e w vertices' to bear o n m a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c shibboleths. H e d r e w w i d e l y f r o m m a n y other intellectual d i s c i p l i n e s : f r o m mathematics [Bion

1984a:

(for instance, the 'selected fact' c o m e s f r o m P o i n c a r e 72]);

from

philosophy

(especially

Plato, Kant

and

Wittgenstein); a n d f r o m d i v i n i t y (the G n o s t i c s , J u l i a n of N o r w i c h , a n d St.

Augustine).

His

t h i n k i n g bears

comparison

with

that

of

G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o (1668-1744), a l t h o u g h this is not a p h i l o s o p h e r to w h o m h e ever referred. V i c o ' s a x i o m that ' M e n at first feel w i t h o u t p e r ­ c e i v i n g , then they perceive w i t h a t r o u b l e d a n d agitated spirit, f i n a l l y they reflect w i t h a clear m i n d ' (Vico 1984: 218) c o u l d almost serve as a p a r a p h r a s e of B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the m e n t a l processes i n v o l v e d i n thinking.

Jean White

93

V i c o a n d B i o n reject C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m a l t h o u g h , as A n d r e G r e e n has p o i n t e d out, a c c o r d i n g to a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( G r e e n 1998), B i o n w a s nevertheless v e r y m u c h i n f l u e n c e d b y Descartes. B o t h V i c o a n d B i o n focus o n ' k n o w l e d g e f r o m the i n s i d e ' , a n d e m p h a s i s e the role of e m o t i o n as central to the d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o u g h t . U l t i m a t e l y b o t h a w a r d v e r y h i g h status to the v a l u e of intuition i n the process of l e a r n ­ i n g . I n d e e d , it is p r o b a b l y o n e of the h a l l m a r k s of B i o n ' s greatness that it is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d r a w parallels b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d that of g r o u n d - b r e a k i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m other e p o c h s .

The meaning of learning So, n o w w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d h i s ideas i n s o m e detail, w h a t does this c u r i o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o l y m a t h offer those of us for w h o m the arts of teaching a n d l e a r n i n g are p r i m a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s ? B i o n d e v e l o p e d his t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g as a m e a n s to b r e a k free of the constraints i m p o s e d b y the latent r e d u c t i o n i s m of m u c h p s y c h o a n ­ alytic theory. H i s m o d e l of m i n d , a l t h o u g h f i r m l y r o o t e d i n somatic a n d e m o t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s , enables u s to concentrate o n w h a t is essen­ tially ' h u m a n ' i n h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t — n a m e l y , the a b i l i t y to think one's w a y into c h a n g e a n d c h a n g e d p e r c e p t i o n s of 'reality'. B i o n e m p h a s i s e d the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t he c a l l e d ' l e a r n i n g ' a n d ' l e a r n i n g a b o u t ' ( w h i c h is also related to the d i s t i n c t i o n he d r e w b e t w e e n ' e v o l u t i o n ' a n d ' m e m o r y ' ) . In his n o t a t i o n a l m o d e l , l e a r n i n g is represented b y the ' K ' l i n k . K , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n : ...does n o t c o n v e y a sense of finality, that is to say, a m e a n i n g that x is i n p o s s e s s i o n of a piece of k n o w l e d g e c a l l e d y, b u t rather that x is i n the state of getting to k n o w y a n d y is i n a state of getting to be k n o w n b y x. ( B i o n 1984a: 47) R e a l k n o w l e d g e , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , i n v o l v e s e m o t i o n at its core, a n d t r u t h is a n e m o t i o n a l experience. ' L e a r n i n g about', i n contrast, is exteriorised, a n d occurs i n a w a y w h i c h d o e s n o t change or challenge the f o u n d a t i o n s of a p e r s o n ' s b e i n g ; it i s — a c c o r d i n g to B i o n — s i m p l y memory. A l l of this, then, begs the d e e p l y p o l i t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y p h i l o s o p h ­ ical q u e s t i o n :

what is learning for?

F o r the p u r p o s e s of this chapter, I a m c h o o s i n g to prioritise the s a m e k i n d of l e a r n i n g as B i o n . T h i s l e a r n i n g is a n integral p a r t of p e r ­

94

On 'Learning'

and 'Learning

About'

s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t — i t m a k e s use of the student's e x p e r i e n c e o f life so far, a n d it changes the student's v i e w of the w o r l d for ever. T h i s k i n d of l e a r n i n g c a n be i n t e r n a l i s e d as a resource a n d a s o u r c e o f strength a n d authority, a n d m a y , ultimately, require the p e r s o n to act u p o n their e n v i r o n m e n t . It w a s this w h i c h B i o n c a l l e d ' e v o l u t i o n ' . Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d that ' A c t i o n ' is the sixth a n d p e n u l t i m a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a l o n g the t o p r o w of the G r i d . B y a c t i o n , B i o n m e a n t a deeply thought-through

decision—the

p o l a r o p p o s i t e of m i n d l e s s action,

a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , o r acting as a m e a n s of a v o i d i n g t h o u g h t . T h e r e are, therefore, v e r y great similarities b e t w e e n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f the u l t i ­ mate o u t c o m e s of t h o u g h t , a n d P a o l o Freire's n o t i o n o f ' cao\

F r e i r e ' s t e r m integrates

the process

of b e c o m i n g

conscientiza­ subjectively

h u m a n , l e a r n i n g to p e r c e i v e i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of a n a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d e n g a g i n g i n p o l i t i c a l p r a x i s b a s e d o n those p e r c e p t i o n s . H e d r e w these c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s of a d u l t literacy c a m p a i g n s i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , i n w h i c h h e s a w that l e a r n i n g to r e a d a n d w r i t e w a s inseparable f r o m l e a r n i n g to t h i n k . A n d once o n e c a n t h i n k o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t s , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to act u p o n the w o r l d , rather t h a n be acted o n b y it. E d u c a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e — i n Freire's t e r m s — i s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y activity. T h i n k i n g , for B i o n , is also a r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y activity, a l b e i t — i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n — r e s t r i c t e d to c h a n g i n g the thinker. B i o n w a s n o t at a l l p o l i t i c a l , i n the sense of p o s s e s s i n g a n i n f o r m e d a n d a p p l i e d awareness of the w o r l d ' s inequalities a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y ­ driven power

relationships. N o r were

any of his writings

overtly

a i m e d at a n e d u c a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e . B u t e v e n s o , h e n e v e r s h i r k e d f r o m a l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , a n d w o u l d — I t h i n k — h a v e a p p r o v e d of the a p p l i ­ c a t i o n o f h i s w o r k o n t h o u g h t , t h i n k i n g , a n d l e a r n i n g to the field o f education. Bion in the

classroom

B i o n ' s w o r k c a n b e a p p l i e d m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the attitude

of the teacher, a n d — t o a lesser e x t e n t — t o suggest specific

techniques a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s . M y a s s u m p t i o n — d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g u n c o n s c i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d the relational n a t u r e o f l e a r n i n g — i s that the state o f m i n d of the teacher, lecturer, o r s e m i n a r leader w i l l h a v e the m o s t p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n the s t u d e n t s ' c a p a c i t y to l e a r n .

Jean White My

arguments

are d e v e l o p e d

f r o m experiences

95

w i t h relatively

s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t u d e n t s — e i t h e r late adolescent or a d u l t — w i t h r e g a r d to w h o m management

control, a n d d i s c i p l i n e are n o t significant issues.

H o w e v e r , the ideas d i s c u s s e d here m a y h a v e s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n to w o r k with children. In a n i n f l u e n t i a l short p a p e r entitled ' N o t e s o n M e m o r y a n d D e s i r e ' (in B i o n 1984d) a n d , later, i n Attention

and Interpretation

(1984e: 41),

B i o n a d v o c a t e s that the p s y c h o a n a l y s t , i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e the evolu­ tion of m i n d i n h i s patient, s h o u l d i n h i b i t b o t h c o n s c i o u s m e m o r y a n d desire for i m p r o v e m e n t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g or cure. S i m p l y h a v i n g a bad m e m o r y w i l l n o t suffice, notes B i o n , because forgetting, i n this o r d i ­ n a r y sense, m e r e l y ties the m i n d to the s e n s u a l or concrete, a n d does n o t facilitate the i n t u i t i v e because it does n o t p r o m o t e the necessarily r e c e p t i v e state o f m i n d . A d i s c i p l i n e d d e n i a l of m e m o r y a n d desire, o n the other h a n d , p r o m o t e s w h a t B i o n calls a n 'act of f a i t h ' , a state of m i n d w h i c h h e referred to elsewhere as ' r e v e r i e ' , i n w h i c h a n intuitive, d e e p a n d new i n s i g h t o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n d e v e l o p i n s u c h a w a y as to c h a n g e or a d v a n c e a n d enlarge the m i n d a n d its a p p e r c e p t i o n s . B i o n also d e f i n e d reverie as that w h i c h Keats t e r m e d

'negative

c a p a b i l i t y ' — ' w h e n a m a n is capable of b e i n g i n uncertainties, m y s t e r ­ ies, d o u b t s , w i t h o u t a n y irritable r e a c h i n g after fact a n d r e a s o n ' (Keats, cited i n B i o n 1984e: 125). It is a state of m i n d w h i c h is b o t h necessarily r e c e p t i v e , a n d y e t i n a state of s u s p e n d e d a n i m a t i o n , for this is h o w a n e w i d e a or i n t u i t i o n c a n enter consciousness. It is the state of m i n d i n w h i c h the m o t h e r receives the b a b y ' s n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d transforms

t h e m into t h o u g h t , i n order to m a k e

the b a b y ' s

over­

w h e l m i n g e m o t i o n a l experiences bearable. It w a s also A r c h i m e d e s ' state of m i n d i n his f a m o u s b a t h . It is n o t a s t r i v i n g after a n y t h i n g i n particular, n o r a l o g i c a l or c o n s c i o u s effort to p u t t w o a n d t w o togeth­ er. Instead, i n this state of m i n d , the m a x i m u m f r e e d o m of m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d the d e p r e s s i v e positions is p o s s i ­ ble. A p a r t i a l regression to a n unformed state takes place, a n d y e t the m i n d is still alert a n d alive, a n d r e a d y to take h o l d of b a r e l y f o r m e d e m e r g e n t t h o u g h t s , taking t h e m as far as i n s p i r a t i o n w i l l allow. I n this state o f m i n d a 'selected f a c t ' — i n the f o r m of a n i d e a p u t f o r w a r d b y a s t u d e n t , for e x a m p l e — c a n be g r a s p e d i n s u c h a w a y as to facilitate m a x i m u m e x p l o r a t i o n of its ramifications a n d associations. T h r o u g h the teacher's state of reverie students c a n be greatly e n a b l e d to t h i n k , a n d e n c o u r a g e d to s u s p e n d t e m p o r a r i l y their ' g i v e n s ' a n d ' k n o w n s ' i n

96

On 'Learning' and 'Learning

About'

f a v o u r o f the r i s k y activity (or m a y b e e v e n passivity) of a l l o w i n g n e w t h o u g h t s to enter consciousness. T h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y interactive process c a n be e n h a n c e d b y a p p r o ­ p r i a t e a n d i n f o r m e d varieties o f c o n t a i n m e n t . B i o n ' s c o n c e p t o f c o n ­ t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d c a n be a p p l i e d to the c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n i n b o t h its m o t h e r / i n f a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n , a n d that o f the parental c o u p l e . In m o t h ­ e r / i n f a n t f o r m , the teacher contains the u n f o r m e d t h o u g h t s a n d c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n s o f h i s or her students t h r o u g h a w i l l i n g n e s s to h o l d t h e m i n m i n d w i t h o u t p r e m a t u r e f o r c i n g of r a t i o n a l c o n c l u s i o n s . S h e or h e m u s t h a v e the receptive c a p a c i t y to tolerate h a l f - d e v e l o p e d

thoughts

a n d creative m e a n d e r i n g s , u n t i l either the student, o r a g r o u p o f s t u ­ dents—with

or without

the t e a c h e r — c a n a l l o w these t h o u g h t s to

e v o l v e i n t o f u l l y e m e r g e n t ideas, w h i c h c a n t h e n be tested b y r a t i o n a l processes a n d b y exposure to other ideas i n the s a m e i n t e l l e c t u a l arena. C o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d i n its parental a n d coital f o r m is less o b v i o u s ­ l y a p p l i c a b l e to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t is still a n extremely u s e f u l concept. In its c l i n i c a l u s a g e , the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y of the p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p c a n represent i n s y m b o l i c f o r m v a r i o u s disturbances o r difficulties i n t h i n k i n g , o r it c a n illustrate h o w m e n t a l connections are m a d e o r a v o i d e d . F o r instance, the p e r s o n w h o c a n n o t quite a l l o w his o r h e r parents to c o m e together i n a sexual f o r m i n h i s or h e r m i n d m a y h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g difficulty w i t h a l l o w i n g t w o ideas to connect. T h e result m i g h t b e s o m e o n e w h o m w e c o m m o n l y describe as V a g u e ' . A l t h o u g h h e o r she sort of has ideas, they r e m a i n i n d e f i n i t e , lack i m p a c t , a n d n e v e r quite c o m e to the p o i n t . In contrast, active p e n e t r a ­ tive i n t e r c o u r s e is a potent s y m b o l for the c o n j u n c t i o n of t h o u g h t , a n d i n t u r n p r o v i d e s a m o r e active, v i g o r o u s m o d e l o f c o n t a i n m e n t . O n e e x a m p l e o f this m i g h t be a n i m p r o m p t u lecture. T h e r e c a n be s o m e ­ t h i n g quite different about the q u a l i t y of t h i n k i n g that takes p l a c e i n a m o r e or less s p o n t a n e o u s lecture, rather t h a n s i m p l y r e a d i n g f r o m a p a p e r o r notes. A s the teacher speaks, h e o r she is t h i n k i n g . S h e o r he m a y d e v e l o p n e w ideas o r strands of t h o u g h t i n the course o f the d e l i v ­ ery. T h i s is often m o r e interesting a n d exciting to listen to; the process of t h i n k i n g itself c a n i m p a c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o n the students, s t i m u l a t ­ i n g a n d p r o v o k i n g a m o r e active, t h o u g h t f u l response. It facilitates p a r ­ ticipative l e a r n i n g , i n other w o r d s , because the students are p a r t y to the t h o u g h t - p r o c e s s e s of the teacher as they occur, a n d are t h u s e n c o u r ­ a g e d to t h i n k themselves. A n o t h e r f o r m of active c o n t a i n m e n t m i g h t be the facilitation o f d i s ­ c u s s i o n , t h r o u g h techniques

w h i c h require a n d p r o v o k e

thinking.

Jean White

97

T h e s e m i g h t i n c l u d e the setting of p r o b l e m s to w h i c h the teacher h a s n o a b s o l u t e l y p r e d e t e r m i n e d answers. O r , alternatively, o n e m i g h t e n c o u r a g e the students to g i v e their o w n presentations, b u t w i t h the p r e s e n c e of the teacher as a n active, c o n t a i n i n g force, s u p p o r t i n g a n d — where

n e c e s s a r y — p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the a r g u m e n t s

a n d dilemmas

p o s e d . O r o n e m i g h t incite t h o u g h t t h r o u g h m o r e deliberate i n t r o d u c ­ tion of paradoxes or contradictions. T h e s e ideas are less a p p l i c a b l e to the t e a c h i n g of facts

t h a n to the

e n c o u r a g e m e n t of interpretations, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d the generation of m e a n i n g . T h e s e m e t h o d s

also m a k e certain a s s u m p t i o n s

about

k n o w l e d g e : that it is a c o m p l e x entity, a l w a y s u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ; that there m a y b e several v a l i d p o i n t s o f v i e w w h i c h it is p o s s i b l e to bear i n m i n d at the s a m e t i m e ; a n d that e v e r y intellectual p a r a d i g m e m b o d i e s o n l y a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t r u t h or o f reality (whatever that m i g h t b e , a n d w h e t h e r w e c a n ever a p p r e h e n d a n y t h i n g close to it...). In B i o n ' s terms, t r u t h is a process, a n d the toleration of d o u b t is a neces­ sity for l e a r n i n g . T h e search f o r m u l t i p l e vertices c a n also b e a p o w e r f u l m e a n s of g e n e r a t i n g debate a n d d i v e r g e n c e of o p i n i o n , w i t h o u t a destructive l e v e l o f conflict o r factionalism. M u l t i p l e vertices c a n demonstrate how—psychically

speaking—diverse

perspectives

throw

different

l i g h t o n a p r o b l e m o r a n issue, a n d d i s c o u r a g e the h o l d i n g of fixed p o s i t i o n s . M u l t i p l e vertices enable m e n t a l flexibility a n d agility, a n d — p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y — a r e a m e a n s o f c o n s t a n t l y c a l l i n g into q u e s t i o n the issue u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . F i n a l l y , the B i o n i a n n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g — o r 'the K a c t i v i t y ' — r e p r e ­ sents s o m e t h i n g that is m u c h closer to the sense of ' g e t t i n g to k n o w ' t h a n to h o l d i n g o r ' h a v i n g ' a p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e of k n o w l e d g e . In this sense k n o w i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e are, therefore, f u n d a m e n t a l a n d q u i n ­ tessentially h u m a n processes, as o p p o s e d to h a v i n g a n y t h i n g to d o w i t h p o s s e s s i n g a piece of k n o w l e d g e . T h i s latter m i g h t b e d u b b e d the 'sta­ tus' o r ' o w n e r s h i p ' m o d e l o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h c o m p a r e s interesting­ l y w i t h Freire's critique of 'the b a n k i n g c o n c e p t of e d u c a t i o n ' (Freire 1970: 53-4). In terms

of Bion's G r i d ,

i n c r e a s i n g abstractions.

knowledge

p r o c e e d s b y w a y of ever

W i t h i n c r e a s i n g specificity, k n o w l e d g e p r o c e e d s

to e x p l o r e the relationships

b e t w e e n elements rather t h a n the elements

t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s process negates the concrete a n d p a r t i c u l a r ; the m o r e s u c c e s s f u l the abstraction o r theorisation

o f the c o m m o n o r l i n k i n g r e l a ­

98

On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

t i o n s h i p , the m o r e u n i v e r s a l a n d true the k n o w i n g or l e a r n i n g (cf. G r e e n 1998). In this w a y , ...the success of abstraction c a n be m e a s u r e d b y the a m o u n t of ' c o n f i d e n c e ' created, a f e e l i n g a n a l o g o u s to the feeling created b y the fact of k n o w i n g that sense i m p r e s s i o n s c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h other

senses

Confidence

or s h a r e d w i t h other is

strengthened

when

people the

(common

representation

sense). corre­

s p o n d s not o n l y to the e m o t i o n a l experience f r o m w h i c h it w a s abstracted, b u t also to other realisations n o t k n o w n at the p o i n t of abstraction. ( B l e a n d o n u 1994:

161)

In terms of the c l a s s r o o m , the v a l u e s d e r i v e d f r o m this w a y

of

t h i n k i n g a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d the a c h i e v e m e n t of k n o w l e d g e p r i v i l e g e s h a r e d reflection, d e e p t h o u g h t , a n d intellectual d i s c o v e r y . T h e y rele­ gate to second-class c i t i z e n s h i p a n y k i n d of ' l e a r n i n g b y rote', ' m e m o ­ r i s i n g ' or ' k n o w i n g about'. Instead, the B i o n i a n a p p r o a c h constitutes essentially a n a d v e n t u r e m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , rather t h a n a m e r c h a n d i s ­ i n g a c q u i s i t i o n of 'facts' a n d ' l i n k a g e s ' . I s h a l l n o w e x p l o r e i n m o r e d e t a i l a n a c t u a l e x a m p l e f r o m the class­ r o o m , a n d d r a w s o m e m o r e substantial p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n B i o n a n d the r a d i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g of P a o l o Freire.

Experiences in learning A b o u t a y e a r a g o I w a s i n v i t e d to teach a series of c l i n i c a l s e m i n a r s — e l e v e n i n a l l — w i t h a g r o u p of students o n the f i n a l y e a r of a u n i v e r s i ­ t y - b a s e d p o s t g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g course i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y . T h i s c o u r s e c o m b i n e d academic rigour w i t h a clinical apprenticeship system. T h e s t u d e n t s w e r e r e q u i r e d to sit e x a m i n a t i o n s i n d i v e r s e strands of p s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y a n d to w r i t e a theoretical thesis, a n d at the s a m e time to d e v e l o p their skills, experience, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g as p s y ­ chotherapeutic

p r a c t i t i o n e r s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , therefore,

a

major

e m p h a s i s of the course w a s the c o m b i n a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e o r y a n d practice. A t the p o i n t I a r r i v e d , i n the s e c o n d t e r m of the t h i r d year, this w a s p r e c i s e l y w h a t the students felt they c o u l d not d o . T h e y felt d e - s k i l l e d i n b o t h areas, h a r b o u r e d m a j o r anxieties a b o u t their a b i l i t y to practice as c l i n i c i a n s , a n d near-catastrophic anxieties c o n c e r n i n g their i m p e n d ­ i n g theoretical e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e y w e r e a n extremely interesting a n d

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u n u s u a l g r o u p o f students. T h e i r c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s r a n g e d across J e w i s h , N i g e r i a n , A f r o - C a r i b b e a n , Irish, W e l s h , A r m e n i a n , I n d i a n a n d I r a n i a n . M a n y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n w o r k i n g w i t h refugees, a n d several c a m e f r o m refugee b a c k g r o u n d s . S o m e h a d experience of p o l i t i c a l i m p r i s o n m e n t . I n d e e d , the extremity o f the experiences s o m e o f the students h a d u n d e r g o n e , a n d their w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k ­ g r o u n d s , w e r e b o t h critical factors i n their a b i l i t y to l e a r n — a s I shall demonstrate. V e r y creatively, t h e y d e c i d e d to m a k e use o f m e to tackle s o m e o f their p r e d o m i n a n t anxieties, a n d I d e c i d e d to a l l o w t h e m to e m p l o y m e i n this constructive fashion. F r o m the p r i v i l e g e o f w o r k i n g as their teacher I learnt a h u g e a m o u n t a b o u t the i n t e g r a t i o n o f theory a n d practice i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , I l e a r n e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n h o w the p e r s o n a l i s a ­ t i o n o f l e a r n i n g — i n this case, the d e e p a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e o r y to p e r s o n ­ al u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e — c a n o p e n the d o o r to theoretical d e v e l o p m e n t . For, as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that s o m e of the students w e r e u n d e r g o i n g the sort o f p r o f o u n d p e r s o n a l t r a n s f o r m a ­ t i o n w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s deep l e a r n i n g , a n d also b e g i n n i n g to g a i n real clinical confidence. Initially, I h a d b e e n a s k e d to use the s t u d e n t s ' c l i n i c a l presentations to illustrate different aspects of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, a n d thus enable t h e m to d e v e l o p their theoretical u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s is a fairly stan­ dard

teaching

format

within psychoanalytic

a n d psychodynamic

courses. H o w e v e r , I s o o n d i s c o v e r e d that the students w e r e j a d e d a n d j a u n d i c e d b y s t a n d a r d teaching m e t h o d s . T h e y r e s p e c t f u l l y insisted that t h e y w a n t e d to b e taught, p e r h a p s p r e c i s e l y because the s t a n d a r d t e a c h i n g formats w e r e not e n a b l i n g t h e m to l e a r n f r o m their o w n expe­ rience. M u c h to m y b e m u s e m e n t

a n d i n i t i a l bafflement,

they

were

a b s o l u t e l y insistent o n this. B u t s u b s e q u e n t l y I realised that w h a t they w e r e a c t u a l l y i n s i s t i n g u p o n w a s , i n fact, their desire to learn. Together, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h e a c h other, students a n d teacher, w e i d e n t i f i e d w h a t the students felt to b e the m o s t salient g a p s i n their c o n c e p t u a l a n d c l i n i c a l grasp o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. Together, w e o r g a n i s e d these areas into a series o f c l e a r l y d e f i n e d subjects. W e a g r e e d that for each s e m i n a r w e w o u l d p o o l suggestions for r e a d i n g . I w o u l d p r o v i d e a b r i e f i m p r o m p t u o v e r v i e w o f the subject, a n d the s t u ­ dents w o u l d b r i n g clinical e x a m p l e s o r issues p u z z l i n g t h e m . A n d s o w e e m b a r k e d o n w h a t h a d b e g u n to feel l i k e a n extremely exciting v e n t u r e , because the p r o g r a m m e w e h a d d e v i s e d tallied i n its format

100

On 'Learning' and 'Learning

About'

p r e c i s e l y w i t h w h a t the students h a d i d e n t i f i e d as their o w n l e a r n i n g needs. T h e risk p r o v e d w o r t h t a k i n g . T h e students felt that the s e m i n a r s w e r e theirs. If they w e r e not l e a r n i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t e d i n the w a y they w a n t e d , then they n o w felt they h a d the liberty to change the t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g format. T h i s m e a n t that they w e r e t h i n k i n g c o n s t a n t l y — w i t h , at times, furious

concentration. T h e i r a l i e n a t i o n h a v i n g greatly

d i m i n i s h e d , they f o u n d that they w e r e l e a r n i n g w i t h p a s s i o n , i n t e n s i ­ ty, a n d intimacy. It w a s a n experience of a m e e t i n g of m i n d s w h i c h c o u l d p r o b a b l y o n l y be m a t c h e d i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m o r w i t h i n a n i n t i m a t e relationship or great f r i e n d s h i p . A s their experiences of l e a r n ­ i n g freed t h e m , so they were able to speak m o r e f r a n k l y f r o m the heart. In this w a y , experiences were expressed a n d l e a r n e d f r o m w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d too p a i n f u l o r difficult for the class­ r o o m . A s it t u r n e d o u t , the theory w a s n o t just ' a p p l i e d ' , b u t instead absolutely

k n i t t e d into the s t u d e n t s '

o w n experiences,

a n d thus

b e c a m e i n d i s s o l u b l y a part of t h e m . T h e experience w a s far m o r e p r o ­ f o u n d than l e a r n i n g for a n e x a m i n a t i o n , a l t h o u g h they w e r e i n d e e d l e a r n i n g for examinations. T h e w a y i n w h i c h w e h a d c o n s t r u c t e d the s e m i n a r s , a n d the fact that w e h a d s h a r e d the experience of s t r u g g l i n g to f i n d a w a y to p r o m o t e the deepest l e v e l of l e a r n i n g , acted b o t h as a f r a m e a n d as a safe container for the p r o c e s s i n g of experiences w h i c h m i g h t otherwise h a v e f u n c t i o n e d as a b a r r i e r to l e a r n i n g . M o r e o v e r , s u r p r i s i n g l y , as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that w i t h i n this constructed frame of s h a r e d l e a r n i n g the use of p s y c h o a n ­ alytic theory itself w a s s e r v i n g as a container a n d as a n a i d e to p r o ­ c e s s i n g the students' experiences. T h e f u n c t i o n of theory w a s d e m o n ­ strated as a n integral part of practice; t h o u g h t w a s not dissociated f r o m experience. T h e students c h a n g e d a n d w e r e c h a n g e d ; there w a s n o n e e d to t r y to remember. T h e fact that these students c a m e f r o m w i d e l y diverse c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s , a n d h a d extremely different experiences of life, w a s of m a t e r i a l consequence c o n c e r n i n g their c a p a c i t y to construct a setting i n w h i c h they c o u l d l e a r n w i t h s u c h p a s s i o n , intensity, a n d s p e e d . T o b e g i n w i t h , it entailed that w e h a d n o o p t i o n b u t to engage w i t h m u l ­ tiple v e r t i c e s — i n w h a t e v e r aspect of theory o r field of e n q u i r y w e f o c u s s e d o n . Because there w a s so little s h a r e d a s s u m p t i o n , e v e r y t h i n g w e l o o k e d at w a s c o n t i n u a l l y c a l l e d into q u e s t i o n f r o m a r a d i c a l l y dif­ ferent perspective.

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Because the students h a d a l r e a d y u n d e r g o n e a r d u o u s experiences at the l i m i t s of h u m a n e n d u r a n c e , there w a s n o p o s s i b i l i t y that a n atti­ t u d e of n a i v e faith or trust c o u l d be a s s u m e d i n o u r s e m i n a r s . T h e trust w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y established b e t w e e n the s t u d e n t s , a n d b e t w e e n the

students

a n d myself,

was meticulously

built a n d challenged

repeatedly, b u t , for a l l that, r e m a i n e d d u r a b l e a n d r o b u s t l o n g after the seminars h a d ended. T h i s r e m i n d s m e of a p o i n t B i o n m a k e s a b o u t the growing er/contained

s t r u c t u r e as a n a p p a r a t u s

'Learning depends

or vehicle

contain­

for l e a r n i n g :

o n the c a p a c i t y for the g r o w i n g c o n t a i n e r / c o n ­

t a i n e d to r e m a i n integrated a n d yet lose r i g i d i t y ' (Bion 1984a: 93). In other w o r d s , the testing a n d v i g o r o u s usage o f the container for l e a r n ­ i n g (in this e x a m p l e : myself, the s e m i n a r s , a n d their format) w a s a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e aspect of o u r h a v i n g b e e n able to d e v e l o p a setting for l e a r n i n g that c o u l d f u n c t i o n at a h i g h l y sophisticated level. Bion and Freire—transformative

praxis

W i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e of it the students a n d I h a d b e e n e n g a g e d i n w h a t Freire d e s c r i b e d as ' d i a l o g u e ' . In Freire's terms, w e h a d b e e n s t r i v i n g to f i n d the 'true w o r d ' w h i c h unites reflection a n d action i n e d u c a t i o n ­ al p r a x i s . T h i s b r i n g s m e to the final part of this chapter, i n w h i c h I s h a l l d r a w s o m e m o r e explicit parallels b e t w e e n the t h i n k i n g of B i o n a n d Freire. I s h a l l n o t focus o n the politics of Freire's d i s c o u r s e , n o r o n his p e d ­ agogic m e t h o d o l o g y for literacy. W h a t I h o p e to d o , h o w e v e r , b y l i n k ­ i n g a n d s h o w i n g the similarities b e t w e e n s o m e of the core ideas of B i o n a n d Freire, is to u n d e r l i n e the transformative p o t e n t i a l of b o t h sets of i d e a s , a n d to s h o w h o w they c o m p l e m e n t each other. B i o n w a s a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w h o w a s essentially a p h i l o s o p h e r . H i s t h e o r y o f t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g penetrates d e e p l y into the n a t u r e a n d structure o f m i n d . Freire w a s a n educationalist w h o w a s , essentially, a p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l . H i s t h e o r y penetrates

d e e p l y into the nature a n d

structure of social a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . T h e i r start- a n d e n d - p o i n t s are t h u s the p o l a r opposites o f the i n t e r n a l a n d the external w o r l d , b u t they are b o t h great theorists of h o w p e o p l e change. C o n s i d e r i n g that they n e v e r m e t , a n d that it is e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y they read o n e a n o t h ­ e r ' s w o r k , the l e v e l o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y a n d s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is h i g h ­ l y s t r i k i n g . D r a w i n g o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l tenets a n d e m p h a s e s they

102

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h a v e i n c o m m o n enables us to i d e n t i f y the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s a n d v a l u e s o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p r a x i s of e d u c a t i o n . F o r instance, b o t h w e r e d e e p l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r o b l e m s of s u b ­ jectivity a n d authenticity. Freire's 'true w o r d ' h a s a n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l p e n u m b r a o f m e a n i n g to B i o n ' s ' t r u t h ' . F o r B i o n , truth is the o u t c o m e of b e a r i n g p a i n a n d frustration to a sufficient degree to m a k e p o s s i b l e the p r o c e s s i n g o f e m o t i o n a l experience t h r o u g h a l p h a - f u n c t i o n ; it is the antithesis o f the m e a n i n g l e s s discharge o f w o r d s t h r o u g h beta ele­ m e n t s . T o u s e w o r d s truthfully, therefore, o n e m u s t b o t h m e a n s o m e ­ t h i n g a n d d e v e l o p oneself i n the process. In Freire's terms, the 'true w o r d ' is that w h i c h unites reflection a n d a c t i o n . W i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of action, w e r u n the risk of verbalism: ...the w o r d is c h a n g e d into i d l e chatter, into a n a l i e n a t e d a n d a l i e n a t i n g " b l a h " . It b e c o m e s a n e m p t y w o r d , o n e w h i c h c a n n o t d e n o u n c e the w o r l d , for d e n u n c i a t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a c o m m i t m e n t to t r a n s f o r m , a n d there is n o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h ­ out a c t i o n . (Freire 1970: 68) Yet w i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of reflection, w e r u n the risk o f activism, w h i c h negates true praxis a n d m a k e s d i a l o g u e i m p o s s i b l e : E i t h e r d i c h o t o m y , b y creating u n a u t h e n t i c f o r m s of existence, creates also u n a u t h e n t i c forms o f t h o u g h t , w h i c h reinforce the o r i g i n a l d i c h o t o m y . . . T o exist, h u m a n l y , is to name the w o r l d , to c h a n g e it... [S]aying that w o r d is n o t the p r i v i l e g e of s o m e f e w p e r s o n s , b u t the r i g h t of e v e r y o n e . . . [I]f it is i n s p e a k i n g their w o r d that p e o p l e , b y n a m i n g the w o r l d , t r a n s f o r m it, d i a l o g u e i m p o s e s itself as the w a y b y w h i c h they achieve significance as h u m a n beings.

Dialogue

is thus an existential

necessity.

(Freire

1970: 69, m y italics) F r e i r e ' s d i a l o g i i e , then, is a k i n to B i o n ' s evolution;

it is n o less t h a n

that w h i c h m a k e s h u m a n beings a u t h e n t i c a l l y h u m a n . B i o n ' s e v o l u ­ t i o n o f m i n d d e p e n d s o n the g r o w t h o f the i n t e r n a l c o n t a i n e r / c o n ­ t a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , s u c h that the m i n d b e c o m e s ever m o r e

flexible,

robust,

complex

resilient, a n d capable

of t h i n k i n g i n i n c r e a s i n g l y

f o r m s . Freire's d i a l o g u e — m e a n w h i l e — i s

the t r a n s p o s i t i o n of B i o n ' s

e v o l u t i o n a r y i n t e r n a l process onto the external w o r l d . H u m a n s are 'beings i n the process o f b e c o m i n g ' . Because, i n Freire's v i s i o n , p e o p l e

Jean White

103

b e c o m e h u m a n i n the act of n a m i n g the w o r l d , it is the social f o r u m s i n w h i c h d i a l o g u e is p o s s i b l e — w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , c o m m u n i ­ ty o r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s — w h i c h are the h u m a n i s i n g forces i n society. A p p l i e d to a specifically e d u c a t i o n a l context, d i a l o g u e is w h a t d i s t i n ­ g u i s h e s ' b a n k i n g ' e d u c a t i o n ( m e m o r i s i n g that w h i c h is g i v e n ; ' d o m e s ­ t i c a t i n g ' students) f r o m p r o b l e m - p o s i n g

e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h offers

a

s e a r c h for k n o w l e d g e i n the B i o n i a n sense of the w o r d . Teacher a n d s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p ' c o - i n t e n t i o n a l i t y ' . T h i s m a k e s the process of s t u d y (and

its c o n c l u s i o n s )

collectively

owned.

Co-intentionality

begins

w h e n the teacher presents a p r o b l e m for i n q u i r y related to a k e y aspect of s t u d e n t experience, so that students recognise their t h o u g h t a n d l a n ­ g u a g e (their subjectivity) i n the study. ' K n o w i n g ' , for Freire, m e a n s b e i n g a n active subject w h o questions a n d transforms. T o l e a r n is to recreate the w a y w e r e g a r d ourselves, o u r e d u c a t i o n , a n d o u r society. T h e r e are s i m i l a r affinities b e t w e e n Freire's c o n c e p t of

conscientiza­

cao a n d B i o n ' s use of the w o r d ' t h i n k i n g ' — p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t w h e n w e c o n s i d e r B i o n ' s G r i d . F o r Freire, t h o u g h t or t h i n k i n g is the f u n c ­ t i o n a l basis of d i a l o g u e : ...true d i a l o g u e c a n n o t exist unless the d i a l o g u e r s engage i n crit­ ical t h i n k i n g — t h i n k i n g w h i c h discerns a n i n d i v i s i b l e s o l i d a r i t y b e t w e e n the w o r l d a n d the p e o p l e a n d a d m i t s of n o d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n t h e m — t h i n k i n g w h i c h perceives reality as process, as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , rather t h a n as a static e n t i t y — t h i n k i n g w h i c h d o e s n o t separate itself f r o m a c t i o n , b u t constantly

immerses

itself i n t e m p o r a l i t y w i t h o u t fear o f the risks i n v o l v e d . (Freire 1970: 73) In the process o f conscientizacao, n a i v e t h i n k i n g . Conscientizacao,

critical t h i n k i n g c o m e s to replace

for Freire, represents the q u a n t u m shift

that takes place as a p e r s o n c o m e s to base their p e r c e p t i o n s of external reality o n a n authentic self w h i c h has l e a r n e d f r o m its o w n e x p e r i ­ ences. W h e r e a s , for B i o n , the p e r s o n b e c o m e s c a p a b l e of i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y abstract levels o f t h o u g h t , for Freire the e m p h a s i s is a l w a y s o n the p e r c e p t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p o w e r relationships i n external reality: C o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n changes one's p e r c e p t i o n of the facts, b a s e d o n a critical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . A p e r s o n w h o h a s r e a c h e d c o n ­ scientisation is capable of clearly p e r c e i v i n g h u n g e r as m o r e t h a n

104

On 'Learning and 'Learning About' 7

just not eating, as the manifestation of a p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d social reality of deep injustice... T h e p e r s o n w h o has

reached

conscientisation is able to connect facts a n d p r o b l e m s a n d to u n d e r s t a n d the connections between h u n g e r a n d f o o d p r o d u c ­ tion, food production and agrarian reform, agrarian reform and reactions against it, h u n g e r a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y , h u n g e r

and

v i o l e n c e a n d h u n g e r as violence... A p e r s o n w h o has r e a c h e d conscientisation has a different u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s t o r y a n d of his or her role i n it. (Freire 1996:182-3) Freire's m o d e l of e d u c a t i o n , a n d B i o n ' s m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , are b o t h i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m the process of b e c o m i n g authentically h u m a n , f r o m d e v e l o p i n g as a h u m a n b e i n g . So, a l t h o u g h Freire alone

emphasises

the necessarily c h a n g e d perceptions a n d relations w i t h r e g a r d to exter­ n a l reality, ultimately, i n neither v i s i o n c a n l e a r n i n g be d i v o r c e d f r o m the w a y the learner relates to the w o r l d . T o s u m m a r i s e briefly, m a n y of Freire's k e y concepts are c o m p a r a b l e a n d d e p e n d u p o n s i m i l a r v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s to those of B i o n . T h e process of conscientizacao is a k i n to that of the G r i d . Freire's v e r b a l i s m a n d a c t i v i s m are v e r y like B i o n ' s 'discharge of beta elements'; the 'true w o r d ' has m a n y similarities to ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' ; a n d F r e i r e a n ' d i a l o g u e ' a n d B i o n i a n ' e v o l u t i o n ' b o t h p r o c e e d w i t h i n relationships, a l t h o u g h B i o n emphasises the internal d i m e n s i o n a n d Freire the external. B u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the coincidence of their basic concepts is the d e e p affinity o f their general outlook. B o t h created

a language ofpos­

sibility. B o t h w e r e p r o f o u n d l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the constitution of a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t a l potential i n h e r e n t i n it. Freire concentrated o n m a k i n g history, a n d B i o n o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of self, b u t — i n m y o p i n i o n — t h e s e are m e r e l y differences of

emphasis.

T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g for e d u c a t i o n h a v e m u c h

reso­

n a n c e a n d affinity w i t h the F r e i r e a n m e t h o d . F i n a l l y , to r e t u r n to m y students, they w e r e e n g a g e d i n a struggle to t r a n s f o r m d e g r a d i n g a n d d e h u m a n i s i n g experiences into

manageable

entities w h i c h c o u l d be thought about, p l a c e d w i t h i n specific contexts, u n d e r s t o o d , a n d u l t i m a t e l y u s e d to i n f o r m h u m a n e practices as c l i n i ­ cians. F o r this enterprise deep theoretical l e a r n i n g was also necessary. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of Freire's t h i n k i n g to this k i n d of e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m is self-evident, a n d n e e d not be spelt out. H o w e v e r , it m a y c o m e as a s u r p r i s e that B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g also p r o v i d e s sage a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g assis­ tance w i t h the p r o b l e m s of integrated l e a r n i n g .

Jean White

105

Notes The original dates of publication for these works are as follows: Learning from Experience (1962), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1963), Transformations (1965), Second Thoughts (1967), and Attention and Interpretation (1970). 1

2 Readers interested in further study of The Grid should read Bion's Elements of Psychoanalysis (1963) . 3 The term 'projective identification' refers to the way in which undigested or disowned aspects of experience can be expelled or projected into the minds of others. Readers interested in exploring this concept more fully should refer to Hinshelwood's Dictionary of Kleinian Thought (1989: 179-208). The term 'truth', for Bion, entails the capacity to tolerate pain and frustration until such a time as an authentic transformation of experience into mental form, through alpha function, can be brought about. Further reflections on the implications of Bion's notion of 'truth' are presented throughout this chapter.

4

5 There is another example of a faulty internal parental model of container-contained below, p.96 (the 'vague' person).

6 For further elaboration of this intriguing concept, see Britton et al. 1989: 7-8.

T H E H A Z A R D S O F CURIOSITY: A KLEINIAN PERSPECTIVE ON

LEARNING

Linda

Buckingham

P s y c h o a n a l y s t s v a r y i n their e x p l a n a t i o n s of failure to learn. F r e u d , for instance, l i n k e d the stifling of sexual c u r i o s i t y i n c h i l d r e n , b y parents, to later difficulties i n l e a r n i n g . If a c h i l d is m a d e to feel g u i l t y for b e i n g c u r i o u s a b o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l sexual facts of life, t h e n other questions m a y feel too d a n g e r o u s to ask. O t h e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t s — s u c h as F a i r b a i r n a n d W i n n i c o t t — s t r e s s the p s y c h i c injuries w h i c h parents inflict o n c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h c o n t e m p t , c r u e l t y a n d neglect, r e s u l t i n g i n different k i n d s of d e f e n s i v e ' s t u p i d i ­ ty'. T h e u n e a r t h i n g of w i d e s p r e a d s e x u a l abuse, often f a m i l i a l a n d e n d u r i n g for generations, has lead to the r e c o g n i t i o n that severe l e a r n ­ i n g difficulties m a y be defensive a n d self-protective, the result of t r a u ­ m a rather t h a n d u e to innate c o n d i t i o n s . O n the w h o l e , p s y c h o a n a l y s t s of different schools are u n i t e d i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n the

unconscious

effects o n the c h i l d of maltreatment o r neglect. T h e K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h differs f r o m these i n that it ascribes l e a r n i n g difficulties, at least i n part, to the infant's i n h e r e n t aggression. F o r K l e i n , f o l l o w i n g F r e u d , o u r p s y c h i c qualities are s u b s u m e d u n d e r the t w o d o m i n a n t instincts: the life a n d d e a t h instincts. L o v e a n d hate are r e g a r d e d as inherent feelings i n c h i l d r e n w h i c h , f r o m the v e r y first, interact w i t h the c h i l d ' s objects—firstly, part-objects

( p r i m a r i l y the

breast) a n d later w h o l e objects: the mother, father a n d siblings. M a n y K l e i n i a n s b e l i e v e i n the existence of a d e a t h instinct, s o m e s i m p l y i n innate a g g r e s s i o n (a less o v e r w h e l m i n g concept), b u t the e m p h a s i s is f i r m l y o n the c h i l d ' s i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the external w o r l d — t h a t is, o n the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n u n c o n ­ s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the experience of external p e o p l e a n d situations. T h e c h i l d ' s u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a b o u t its objects w i l l , f r o m the first, c o l o u r his or h e r perceptions of these objects a n d thus his or her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m . T h e r e is a c o n t i n u o u s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n of unconscious

a n d a c t u a l experience of others, e a c h i n f l u e n c i n g the

other. In g o o d circumstances, actual experience w i l l m o d i f y the terrors of the i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d the c h i l d ' s p e r c e p t i o n w i l l be m o r e i n line w i t h reality. In b a d circumstances, the c h i l d ' s f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies w i l l b e a f f i r m e d a n d thus strengthened; real p e r s e c u t i o n

enhances

Linda

Buckingham

107

p a r a n o i a a n d character d i s t u r b a n c e sets i n . W h e r e K l e i n a n d the postK l e i n i a n s differ f r o m other schools of p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s is i n their a s c r i p ­ t i o n o f o v e r w h e l m i n g sadistic i m p u l s e s to certain infants, e v e n u n d e r g o o d external circumstances. Infants w i t h a n i n h e r e n t l y l o w tolerance of f r u s t r a t i o n are l i k e l y to h a v e phantasies of a b a d , d e n y i n g breast a n d w i l l e x p e r i e n c e sadistic, attacking i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s it. T h i s sets i n t r a i n a n e g a t i v e cycle: fears of r e t r i b u t i o n , introjection of a b a d , d a m ­ a g e d breast, feelings of p e r s e c u t i o n w h i c h are then projected back onto the breast, a n d so o n . E a r l y d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d b a b y c a n set i n , e v e n if the m o t h e r is d o i n g her best to counteract the b a b y ' s anx­ iety. A n o t h e r baby, w i t h a h i g h tolerance of frustration, m a y thus fare better u n d e r w o r s e external circumstances, a l t h o u g h a n y b a b y w h o s e m o t h e r is n o t i n t o u c h w i t h its n e e d s w i l l suffer. It is w i t h this e m p h a s i s o n the infant's o w n personality, u p o n h i s or her o w n l o v i n g or sadistic i m p u l s e s , that I w i l l describe the K l e i n i a n t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n i n g . In a n early w o r k , ' T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f T h e C h i l d ' (1921), K l e i n offers a F r e u d i a n e x p l a n a t i o n for i n h i b i t i o n s of all k i n d s , i n c l u d i n g i n h i b i t i o n s of c u r i o s i t y a n d l e a r n ­ i n g . B a s i n g h e r c o n c l u s i o n s o n the analysis of a y o u n g b o y (this w a s her o w n s o n , unfortunately, a l t h o u g h s h e d i d not p u b l i c i s e this fact at the time) she stressed the i m p o r t a n c e of not stifling the c u r i o s i t y of children,

especially

their c u r i o s i t y about

the b o d y

a n d sexuality.

C h i l d r e n ' s questions, K l e i n b e l i e v e d , s h o u l d be a n s w e r e d openly. T h e c r u s h i n g of this c u r i o s i t y b y parents w o u l d l e a d to its b e i n g repressed, w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d l e a d to n e u r o t i c illness a n d to i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n ­ i n g . A g l i m m e r of her later t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , is a l r e a d y present i n this p a p e r w h e r e she refers to the infant's u r g e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to k n o w . T h i s f o r e s h a d o w s K l e i n ' s ' e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct' w h i c h is p r e s u m e d to exist e v e n before the infant c a n s p e a k a n d w h i c h c a n l e a d to e x p e r i ­ ences o f h u g e frustration. T h i s i d e a is e x p a n d e d i n a later paper, ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s C o n f l i c t ' (1928). H e r e K l e i n discusses the infant's w i s h to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is b e i n g s a i d a r o u n d h i m , h i s consequent frustration a n d , u l t i ­ mately, h i s rage a n d h a t r e d i n response: O n e of the m o s t bitter grievances w h i c h w e c o m e u p o n i n the u n c o n s c i o u s is that this t r e m e n d o u s q u e s t i o n i n g i m p u l s e , w h i c h is a p p a r e n t l y o n l y p a r t l y c o n s c i o u s a n d e v e n so far as it is c a n ­ n o t yet b e expressed i n w o r d s , r e m a i n s u n a n s w e r e d . A n o t h e r r e p r o a c h f o l l o w s h a r d u p o n this, n a m e l y that the c h i l d c o u l d n o t

The Hazards of

108

Curiosity

u n d e r s t a n d w o r d s a n d s p e e c h . T h u s his first q u e s t i o n s g o b a c k b e y o n d the b e g i n n i n g s of his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s p e e c h . ( K l e i n 1928:

188)

If the feelings of rage a n d f r u s t r a t i o n are severe, certain i n h i b i t i o n s m a y d e v e l o p i n later life, s u c h as the i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n a f o r e i g n l a n ­ g u a g e , or a h a t r e d for p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s , races, o r c o u n t r i e s . (I i m a g ­ i n e that s t u t t e r i n g a n d speech d e l a y m a y h a v e s i m i l a r causes.) O n c e s p e e c h is a c h i e v e d , h o w e v e r , other frustrations of the episte­ m o p h i l i c instinct m a y occur. C h i l d r e n f r o m t w o o n w a r d s , before they h a v e a c q u i r e d definite k n o w l e d g e of sexual matters for certain, h a v e o n l y v a g u e l y f o r m e d ideas about t h e m , c o u p l e d w i t h a n intense u r g e to k n o w : T h e c h i l d . . . feels this frustration the m o r e a c u t e l y b e c a u s e he knows nothing

d e f i n i t e a b o u t s e x u a l processes' ( K l e i n 1928:

188).

This,

too, is h i g h l y f r u s t r a t i n g . Interestingly, this contradicts to s o m e extent K l e i n ' s c o n t e n t i o n that m a l e a n d female infants h a v e s t r o n g genital s e n s a t i o n s — p e n i l e a n d v a g i n a l — w h i c h g i v e rise to u n c o n s c i o u s ideas of h e t e r o s e x u a l g e n i t a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y . She refers to the 'first stir­ r i n g s of the genital i m p u l s e s ' a n d believes that 'the o r a l , receptive a i m of the [girl's] g e n i t a l exercises a d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u e n c e i n the g i r l ' s t u r n i n g to the f a t h e r ' ( K l e i n 1928:

192). She also discusses the g i r l ' s

' u n c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s of the v a g i n a ' a n d of 'sensations i n that o r g a n a n d the rest of the genital a p p a r a t u s ' , a l t h o u g h she d o e s not n a m e the clitoris. I t h i n k that if c h i l d r e n d i d h a v e this u n c o n s c i o u s

knowledge

t h e n their s e x u a l q u e s t i o n s , i n this area at least, w o u l d a l r e a d y be p a r ­ t i a l l y satisfied. I t h i n k F r e u d is m o r e accurate i n this respect w h e n he describes the b i z a r r e c o n s c i o u s fantasies c h i l d r e n express a b o u t sexuality a n d r e p r o ­ d u c t i o n — e . g . that babies are b o r n f r o m the m o t h e r ' s b o t t o m or f r o m her navel. F r e u d

d i d not b e l i e v e

that c h i l d r e n h a v e

unconscious

' k n o w l e d g e ' ( w h a t e v e r that is) of these things, b u t t h o u g h t i n s t e a d that y o u n g c h i l d r e n pass t h r o u g h a p h a s e of ' p o l y m o r p h o u s p e r v e r s i t y ' i n w h i c h first the o r a l t h e n the a n a l zones are erotised, a l o n g w i t h other p a r t s a n d surfaces of the b o d y ( F r e u d 1905a: 183ff). A c t i v i t i e s c a n also b e c o m e e r o t i s e d , s u c h as ' w a t c h i n g ' or ' b e i n g w a t c h e d ' ( F r e u d 1905a: 169). Later, u n d e r the d o m i n a n c e of the genital p h a s e , these z o n e s a n d p l e a s u r e s a s s u m e a lesser i m p o r t a n c e . F o r F r e u d , the s e x u a l d r i v e s are n o t i n h e r e n t l y l i n k e d to a n y object, so that object choice is the o u t c o m e of the c h i l d ' s a c t u a l experiences of their parents a n d siblings. C e r t a i n e x p e r i e n c e s m i g h t l e a d c h i l d r e n to t u r n i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f r o m one

Linda Buckingham

109

p a r e n t a n d attach themselves to the other, or to i d e n t i f y w i t h one a n d c o u r t the other. F o r K l e i n , i n contrast, heterosexuality is b a s e d o n innate m a t c h i n g , whereby

the sensations

i n the infant's sexual organs

(omitting

any

m e n t i o n of the clitoris) dictate a n u n c o n s c i o u s i d e a of c o m p l e m e n t a r i ­ ty: p e n i s —> v a g i n a . O n the other h a n d , K l e i n ' s d e t a i l e d descriptions o f object-relating a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y o p e n u p a m u c h m o r e c o m ­ p l i c a t e d p i c t u r e of sexuality. H e r t h e o r y of the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s offer i l l u m i n a t i n g accounts of the h a z a r d o u s j o u r ­ ney

of

infancy

Progress'—the

On

this

journey—a

kind

b a b y faces m a n y obstacles

of

infant's

'Pilgrims

a n d frustrations. It d e a l s

w i t h these a c c o r d i n g to its personality, w i t h the h e l p or h i n d r a n c e of its parents. A s far as i n h i b i t i o n s of l e a r n i n g are c o n c e r n e d , it is i m p o r t a n t to focus i n p a r t i c u l a r o n the p e r i o d c o v e r i n g the a n a l sadistic stage a n d the s u b s e q u e n t ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h b o t h b o y s a n d g i r l s m u s t pass, as o u t l i n e d i n ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s C o n f l i c t ' (1928). T h i s p a p e r is a m i n e of interesting, c h a l l e n g i n g ideas, s o m e of w h i c h K l e i n n e v e r really e x p a n d e d , b u t u p o n w h i c h w e c a n b u i l d .

* ** Before c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n these ideas, I s h a l l give a short account K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of infant a n d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t ,

of

i n t e n d e d for those

readers not closely familiar w i t h K l e i n ' s w r i t i n g s . A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , the infant is b o r n r e a d y to relate to a s a t i s f y i n g object. U n l i k e F r e u d , she d i d not believe i n a phase of p r i m a r y n a r c i s ­ s i s m , a n d — u n l i k e W i n n i c o t t — s h e d i d n o t think there w a s a p h a s e of ' i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ' d u r i n g w h i c h the infant is u n a w a r e of its separate­ ness f r o m the mother. F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , K l e i n b e l i e v e d , the infant reaches out for a n d experiences a n object—the m o t h e r ' s breast

(com­

b i n e d w i t h her s m e l l , voice, t o u c h , m o o d ) . She t h o u g h t that the infant possesses f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a l o o s e l y f o r m e d ego, c a l l e d into b e i n g b y the b a b y ' s n e e d to d e f e n d itself against the i n t e r n a l force of the d e a t h instinct. In other w o r d s ,

the ego

is p r e c i p i t a t e d b y

the

life

instinct. W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e agrees w i t h this as a n a d e q u a t e — o r e v e n l o g i ­ c a l — e x p l a n a t i o n of the b i r t h of the e g o , it is e v i d e n t that s o m e e a r l y f o r m of self is p e r f o r m i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l , tripartite p s y c h i c task f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of life: i.e. s p l i t t i n g , p r o j e c t i n g , introjecting. S p l i t t i n g a n d projection are d e f e n s i v e measures t a k e n b y the infant as w a y s of r e d i i c ­

110

The Hazards of Curiosity

i n g extreme anxiety. W h e n the b a b y has a g o o d f e e d , is n o u r i s h e d a n d c o m f o r t e d , it w i l l p e r c e i v e the breast as g o o d . W h i l s t d r i n k i n g the g o o d m i l k the b a b y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y introjects a n idea o f a g o o d ,

generous

breast. H o w e v e r , i f the b a b y h a s a n unsatisfactory e x p e r i e n c e of the breast, d u e to frustration or the q u a l i t y of the feed, it w i l l introject a n i d e a of a b a d breast w h i c h frustrates o r denies. T h i s is the basis of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the i n t e r n a l w o r l d of the c h i l d , w h i c h is e x p e r i e n c e d concretely as c o n t a i n i n g a host o f objects i n v a r i o u s states of g o o d a n d b a d h e a l t h , e n d o w e d w i t h either l o v i n g o r m a l i g n atti­ tudes. T h e b a b y w i l l project its i d e a of the breast onto the b r e a s t so that it w i l l b e p e r c e i v e d as either g o o d or b a d . N a t u r a l l y , n o b a b y has exclu­ sively g o o d experiences of f e e d i n g , w h i l e b a d experiences v a r y f r o m b a b y to baby. B u t i n either case the infant's ego is too fragile to e n c o m ­ pass the i d e a that the breast c a n b e both g o o d a n d b a d . T h e b a d n e s s threatens to o v e r w h e l m the g o o d a n d the b a b y feels it w i l l fall to bits. In r e s p o n s e it splits the i d e a o f the g o o d breast f r o m that o f the b a d , i n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e the sense of g o o d n e s s a n d the fragile i n t e g r i t y o f the e a r l y ego. T h e g o o d a n d the b a d breast, t h e n , o w e their characters i n the infant's m i n d n o t just to the infant's actual e x p e r i e n c e o f f e e d i n g b u t also to the phantasies w h i c h a c c o m p a n y this. A g o o d feed stimulates l o v i n g i m p u l s e s w h i c h l e a d to i d e a l i s a t i o n of the breast. A b a d e x p e r i ­ ence stimulates c r u e l , aggressive i m p u l s e s w h i c h injure the breast i n the infant's phantasy. A b a d , attacked a n d i n j u r e d breast, w h e n r e ­ introjected b y the baby, leads to fears o f retaliation a n d p e r s e c u t i o n . It is v i t a l to the b a b y ' s sanity, t h e n , to feel that the g o o d breast is u n c o n ­ t a m i n a t e d b y the b a d . In g o o d circumstances, the b a b y ' s p l e a s u r a b l e experiences o f the breast w i l l o u t w e i g h the b a d ones a n d w i l l lessen the a w f u l n e s s of f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies. W h e n the b a b y reaches four m o n t h s , its e x p e ­ rience of the m o t h e r b e g i n s to shift f r o m a part-object to a w h o l e - o b j e c t e x p e r i e n c e . N o t o n l y d o the g o o d a n d b a d breast m o v e closer together i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d as s p l i t t i n g decreases, b u t the m o t h e r b e g i n s to b e e x p e r i e n c e d as p e r s o n . T h i s is the t h r e s h o l d o f the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n . From

the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d perspective,

mustering

all possible

defences to protect itself f r o m b a d n e s s , the infant shifts to the p e r s p e c ­ tive o f s e e i n g further t h a n itself. H o w e v e r , the r e c o g n i t i o n that the l o v e d m o t h e r is the s a m e p e r s o n w h o w a s h a t e d a n d attacked i n p h a n ­

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tasy l e a d s to guilt. T h e w a y the infant deals w i t h this g u i l t is of crucial i m p o r t a n c e for its further character d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i n f a n t d o m i n a t e d b y p a r a n o i d feelings w i l l f i n d this guilt i n t o l ­ erable. H e w i l l a s s u m e that the m o t h e r is n o t o n l y i n j u r e d but also a n g r y a n d s e e k i n g to retaliate or injure h i m . In this narcissistic, p a r a ­ n o i d state, the b a b y w i l l attempt p r i m a r i l y to d e f e n d h i m s e l f f r o m the p e r s e c u t o r y g u i l t a n d splits off a n y feelings

of c o n c e r n a n d

love.

C o n c e r n w i t h p r e s e r v a t i o n of the self w i l l be u p p e r m o s t i n the infant's m i n d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l p r o c e e d a l o n g narcissistic lines. T h e infant w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o v i n g feelings secure

internal good

object w i l l e x p e r i e n c e

a n d a relatively

his g u i l t as

shocking,

p a i n f u l , d e p r e s s i n g , b u t not intolerable. W h i l s t this b a b y w i l l suffer s o m e p e r s e c u t o r y feelings a n d fear r e v e n g e f r o m the mother, he w i l l also h a v e reparative urges a n d w i l l try to m a k e g o o d the d a m a g e he has d o n e i n phantasy. M o r e o v e r , he w i l l be a c t i n g o u t of gratitude for the g o o d n e s s his m o t h e r has g i v e n h i m , n o t just out of g u i l t (cf. K l e i n 1957). F r o m f o u r m o n t h s , u n t i l the infant is a b o u t t w o , he or she w i l l be g r a p p l i n g w i t h the challenges of the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e w i l l be f r e q u e n t shifts b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i v e c o n c e r n a n d p a r a n o i d fears—that is, b e t w e e n the d e p r e s s i v e a n d p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d positions—as

the p e r ­

s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p s either i n a narcissistic f a s h i o n or i n a w a y

more

f o c u s e d o n l o v e a n d c o n c e r n for the other. O e d i p a l feelings, h a v i n g started at four, five or six m o n t h s , w i l l be w e l l - d e v e l o p e d b y t w o years. T h e father, or m o t h e r ' s partner, w i l l f i g ­ u r e i n v a r i o u s significant w a y s : as l o v e d p a r e n t , r i v a l , e n e m y , a d m i r e d f i g u r e , a n d so o n , a n d siblings w i l l also f i g u r e largely. The Femininity

Complex

K l e i n is n o t too clear o n her d a t i n g of the a l l - i m p o r t a n t ' f e m i n i n i t y c o m p l e x ' , b u t this seems to o c c u r at a r o u n d t w o years a n d its reper­ c u s s i o n s f a n o u t into the d e v e l o p i n g O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . F o r K l e i n , all r o a d s l e a d b a c k to the mother. B y the t i m e the father is taken into a c c o u n t , his d i s t i n g u i s h i n g sexual feature, the p e n i s , is seen m a i n l y i n r e l a t i o n to the m o t h e r as s o m e t h i n g she enjoys a n d is able to keep w i t h ­ i n h e r b o d y . If the p e n i s is attacked i n p h a n t a s y at this e a r l y stage, then it is n o t as part of the father per se b u t as p a r t of h i m w h i c h the m o t h e r has i n s i d e her. A s the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , the f a t h e r — a n d h i s g e n i t a l i a — i s seen m o r e o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d as a n alternative love-object to the

112

The Hazards of

Curiosity

m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it is the m a t e r n a l ' i m a g o ' w h i c h d o m i n a t e s e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . It is i n the p e r i o d before the f u l l t h r e e - p e r s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x that the ' f e m i n i n i t y c o m p l e x ' o c c u r s . B o t h the b o y a n d the g i r l e n v y a n d a d m i r e the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d s e x u a l a t t r i b u t e s — h e r breasts w h i c h give m i l k , h e r w o m b w h i c h p r o d u c e s babies, h e r beauty. F o r the b o y a n d the g i r l , the courses r u n b y this c o m p l e x are similar, t h o u g h their o u t c o m e s w i l l often differ a c c o r d i n g to gender. F o r b o t h sexes, the desire to possess the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d sex­ u a l attributes can l e a d to e n v i o u s , destructive attacks i n phantasy. T h e s e result i n fears of r e t r i b u t i o n — f e a r s that the c h i l d ' s o w n insides w i l l b e r o b b e d , s c o o p e d out, bitten u p , d e s t r o y e d . T h e g i r l m a y fear that h e r i n s i d e s are p e r m a n e n t l y d a m a g e d a n d that she w i l l be u n a b l e to h a v e babies of her o w n . (I i m a g i n e she m a y also fear that she herself is too d a n g e r o u s to be a mother.) She m a y later be p r o n e to h y p o c h o n ­ d r i a c a l anxieties. T h e b o y m a y also fear that h i s i n s i d e s w i l l be d e s t r o y e d , b u t as w e l l as this he w i l l h a v e a n acute fear of castration b y the mother. T h i s is a n o t h e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m F r e u d , w h o r e g a r d e d the father as castrator. F o r K l e i n , b y the time the b o y fears castration b y the father for the s i n of d e s i r i n g his mother, he has a l r e a d y suffered fear of castration b y the m o t h e r . T h i s is all the m o r e l i k e l y if, i n phantasy, his p e n i s has b e e n u s e d against the m o t h e r as a n i n t r u s i v e , a t t a c k i n g w e a p o n . In later life he m a y be s e x u a l l y i m p o t e n t . T h a t is, his p e n i s m a y be r e g a r d e d as so p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s that it has to be r e n d e r e d ineffective. A n o t h e r o u t c o m e of a b o y ' s a d m i r a t i o n a n d e n v y of the m o t h e r m a y be a n act­ i n g - o u t i n reality of the sadistic sexual phantasies of infancy. T h e b o y m a y c o u n t e r his e n v y b y d e v e l o p i n g c o n t e m p t a n d h a t r e d of w o m e n , b y o v e r - v a l u i n g his p e n i s a n d his m a s c u l i n e p h y s i c a l a n d intellectual ability. A t its m o s t d a n g e r o u s a n d least subtle this attitude is expressed i n s e x u a l attacks, r a p e a n d m u r d e r . I a m r e m i n d e d here of R i p p e r - t y p e m u r d e r s i n w h i c h the b u t c h e r y is c o n c e n t r a t e d o n the breasts, w o m b a n d genitalia. * * * If o n e accepts these ideas o n the f e m i n i n i t y phase, it is n o t h a r d to see that it is at this p o i n t l e a r n i n g difficulties are m o s t l i k e l y to set i n . T h e e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct of the v e r y y o u n g c h i l d is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h b o d i l y questions a b o u t his or her o w n b o d y , the m o t h e r ' s b o d y ,

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the f a t h e r ' s b o d y . S o m e of the m o s t urgent c u r i o s i t y is directed t o w a r d the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s : W h a t goes o n i n there? D o e s she secretly keep m i l k f o r herself? A r e there babies g r o w i n g i n there? Is father's p e n i s i n there? Is it a b e a u t i f u l sanctuary o r a m o n s t e r - i n f e s t e d forest? T h e c h i l d m a y c o m e u p w i t h s o m e bizarre theories before his or her c u r i o s i t y b e g i n s to be satisfied. T h e e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct c a n f o u n d e r if it is too s t r o n g l y l i n k e d w i t h i n t r u s i v e , sadistic feelings, if w a n t i n g to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s a n d h e r m i n d is l i n k e d w i t h the w i s h to c o n t r o l , to possess, to p u n i s h . C h i l d r e n ' s c u r i o s i t y is u s u a l l y c o l o u r e d b y s a d i s m to s o m e d e g r e e a n d this has v a r i o u s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . T h e c h i l d m a y successfully p u r s u e k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h o u t his o r her life i n a w a y w h i c h i n v o l v e s e x e r t i n g p o w e r a n d control o v e r others. In a d u l t h o o d this t e n d e n c y m a y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n the w o r k p l a c e or i n p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , or it m a y r e m a i n c a r e f u l l y d i s g u i s e d . F o r instance, g y n a e c o l o g y , p s y c h i a ­ t r y a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s are professions i n w h i c h the desire to k n o w c o u l d e a s i l y be i n t r u s i v e l y a n d sadistically m o t i v a t e d . T h e y are p r o f e s s i o n s w h i c h c a n l e n d themselves to p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s of m i s u s e , their objects b e i n g the w o m b

a n d the m i n d . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d be

b o r n e i n m i n d that a n y p r o f e s s i o n c a n be m i s u s e d . The

epistemophilic

instinct/impulse

can r u n a more

ordinary

c o u r s e if it is less a l l i e d to i n t r u s i v e , sadistic i m p u l s e s . It c a n also be e m p l o y e d g e n e r o u s l y a n d w i t h l o v e , a l t h o u g h I suspect the desire to k n o w is n e v e r e n t i r e l y free of the w i s h to possess a n d c o n t r o l . A n o t h e r o u t c o m e is inhibition of l e a r n i n g . T h i s m a y be s p e c i f i c — e . g . a n i n a b i l i t y to d o m a t h s or to s p e a k a foreign l a n g u a g e — o r it m a y be g l o b a l . I d o n o t w i s h to m a k e generalisations r e g a r d i n g l e a r n i n g diffi­ culties. S o m e h a v e p h y s i c a l causes, whereas s o m e , l i k e d y s l e x i a , w h i c h has n o t yet b e e n a s c r i b e d a p h y s i c a l or a genetic cause, s e e m to h o v e r o n the b o r d e r b e t w e e n the p h y s i c a l a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l . I s h a l l o n l y concentrate

here o n the K l e i n i a n v i e w

of p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n h i b i t i o n

w h i c h has its root i n guilt a n d anxiety. If the c h i l d , d u r i n g the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , d o e s n o t s i m p l y a d m i r e h i s or h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e qualities, b u t is i n s t e a d e x t r e m e l y e n v i o u s of t h e m , a n d if h e o r she is n o t s i m p l y c u r i o u s a b o u t her m i n d a n d the contents of h e r w o m b b u t is s a d i s t i c a l l y a n d d e s t r u c t i v e l y interested, t h e n h e or she m a y w i t h d r a w f r o m a n y further c u r i o s i t y a b o u t the m o t h e r . T h a t is, the g u i l t e x p e r i e n c e d for h a r b o u r i n g sadistic c u r i o s i t y a n d c a r r y i n g o u t sadistic attacks i n p h a n t a s y m a y l e a d , n o t to r e p a r a ­ t i o n b u t to severe i n h i b i t i o n .

114

The Hazards of Cariosity

A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , o r d i n a r y ' s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n is itself based o n the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c urge to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s insides. T h i s urge w i l l a l w a y s cause a certain a m o u n t of a n x i e t y because c u r i o s i t y at this stage is i n e v i t a b l y t i n g e d w i t h s a d i s m . I n ' T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l F o r m u l a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t of the E g o ' (1930), K l e i n w r i t e s about the p r e g e n i t a l phase, w h e n g e n i t a l trends b e g i n to exercise a n i n f l u ­ ence. T h i s is the b e g i n n i n g of O e d i p a l conflict a n d s a d i s m p r e d o m i ­ nates. A l o n g s i d e of the infants' l i b i d i n a l interest i n his parent's b o d i e s , e s p e c i a l l y his m o t h e r ' s , the a n x i e t y a r i s i n g i n this phase 7

...sets g o i n g the m e c h a n i s m o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Since the c h i l d desires to d e s t r o y the organs (penis, v a g i n a , breast) w h i c h stand for the objects, he conceives a d r e a d o f the latter. T h i s a n x i e t y c o n t r i b u t e s to m a k e h i m equate the organs i n q u e s t i o n w i t h o t h e r things; o w i n g to this e q u a t i o n these i n their t u r n become objects of anxiety, a n d so he is i m p e l l e d c o n s t a n t l y to m a k e other a n d n e w equations, w h i c h f o r m the basis of h i s interest i n the n e w objects a n d of s y m b o l i s m . ( K l e i n 1930: 220) In other w o r d s , this anxiety p r o m p t s the c h i l d to d i v e r t his or her c u r i o s i t y a w a y f r o m the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s a n d onto a s y m b o l i c e q u i v a ­ lent, s u c h as a t o y or a d o l l w h i c h w i l l then be u s e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h interest. If this object also arouses a n x i e t y because of the s a d i s m s t i l l attached to the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y , then another s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t w i l l be chosen, a n d so o n . I n the process, a n x i e t y is m a s t e r e d a n d the c h i l d ' s interest i n objects b e c o m e s m o r e p l e a s u r a b l e . A t the same t i m e l a n g u a g e is d e v e l o p i n g — a s y s t e m of signifiers w h i c h represents t h i n g s , actions, feelings, b u t w h i c h is n o n e of these t h i n g s itself If a n x i e t y a n d g u i l t p r o v e o v e r w h e l m i n g , the e a r l y process of choos­ i n g s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s is s t o p p e d i n its tracks. I n its severe forms this i n h i b i t i o n prevents p l a y ( w h i c h is a m e a n s of testing one's grasp of the w o r l d ) a n d e v e n the d e v e l o p m e n t of speech. T h e c h i l d w i l l feel that the t o y t r a i n or d o l l is the d a m a g e d a n d persecuted mother. The toy w i l l be cast aside, a v o i d e d , a n d the i m p u l s e of c u r i o s i t y w i l l be c h e c k e d , d a m p e n e d . S p e e c h c a n suffer a s i m i l a r fate. T h e c h i l d m a y m i s t a k e w o r d s for things, so that l a n g u a g e w i l l be a v o i d e d a n d there­ b y i m p e d e d . W e see the s a m e process i n the p s y c h o t i c b r e a k d o w n of a d u l t s w h e n w o r d s are e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete objects. S i m i l a r l y , ideas a n d objects c o l l a p s e i n t o their s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s . I n h e r p a p e r o n s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n , H a n n a S e g a l g i v e s the e x a m p l e of a concert v i o l i n ­

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ist w h o w a s u n a b l e to p e r f o r m because he e q u a t e d p l a y i n g the v i o l i n w i t h m a s t u r b a t i n g o n stage (Segal 1986). A v e r y clear c l i n i c a l e x a m p l e o f the a r r e s t i n g effect of episte­ m o p h i l i c a n x i e t y is p r o v i d e d b y K l e i n i n T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l F o r m a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t o f the E g o ' (1930). I n this p a p e r she pre­ sents a f o u r - y e a r - o l d b o y D i c k , w h o s e v o c a b u l a r y a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t w e r e at the l e v e l of a fifteen to e i g h t e e n - m o n t h - o l d . H e w a s s e v e r e l y l a c k i n g i n h i s a d a p t a t i o n to r e a l i t y a n d to e m o t i o n a l relations. H e w a s l a r g e l y d e v o i d of affects a n d indifferent to the presence or absence of h i s m o t h e r a n d n u r s e . H e d i s p l a y e d v e r y little a p p a r e n t anxiety, h a d a l m o s t n o interests a n d d i d n o t play. W h e n he s p o k e he u s e d w o r d s incorrectly, b u t for the m o s t p a r t s t r u n g s o u n d s together i n a m e a n i n g l e s s w a y a n d c o n s t a n t l y repeated c e r t a i n noises. H e s e e m e d to h a v e n o w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e , w a s antagonistic to his mother, a n d often d i d the o p p o s i t e of w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d of h i m . H o w e v e r , b o t h his o p p o s i t i o n a n d h i s o b e d i e n c e l a c k e d b o t h affect a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . W h e n h e h u r t h i m s e l f he w a s l a r g e l y i n s e n s i t i v e to p a i n a n d h a d n o desire to be c o m f o r t e d . H e w a s p h y s i c a l l y a w k w a r d , c o u l d n o t g r i p k n i v e s or scissors, b u t c o u l d use the s p o o n w i t h w h i c h he ate q u i t e n o r ­ mally. N o w a d a y s , i f D i c k h a d seen a p s y c h o l o g i s t o r a p s y c h i a t r i s t , he w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y h a v e b e e n d i a g n o s e d as b e i n g o n the autistic spec­ t r u m , a n d w o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d b e h a v i o u r a l treatment. A c h i l d p s y ­ c h o t h e r a p i s t m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y m a k e the s a m e d i a g n o s i s b u t w o u l d probably recommend psychotherapy. K l e i n believed Dick was schizo­ p h r e n i c a n d p r o c e e d e d u n d a u n t e d w i t h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c treatment. O n h i s first v i s i t to M r s . K l e i n , D i c k a l l o w e d h i s n u r s e to leave w i t h ­ o u t a n y e m o t i o n , a n d f o l l o w e d K l e i n i n t o her r o o m w i t h c o m p l e t e indifference. H e r a n a r o u n d a i m l e s s l y a n d s h o w e d n o interest i n a n y ­ t h i n g w i t h i n the r o o m , i n c l u d i n g K l e i n herself. D i c k ' s i n f a n c y w a s v e r y d i s t r e s s i n g . H e w a s n o t able to s u c k p r o p ­ e r l y a n d , despite h i s m o t h e r ' s a t t e m p t s to n u r s e h i m , n e a r l y d i e d of s t a r v a t i o n . A r t i f i c i a l foods w e r e resorted to a n d , at s e v e n - m o n t h s - o l d , a w e t - n u r s e w a s f o u n d for h i m b u t b y t h e n h e c o u l d n o t t h r i v e o n breast-feeding. H e suffered f r o m i n d i g e s t i o n a n d h a e m o r r h o i d s . M o r e significantly, p e r h a p s , a l t h o u g h he w a s p h y s i c a l l y cared for, ' n o real l o v e w a s l a v i s h e d o n h i m , h i s m o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g for h i m b e i n g f r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g c o l d ' ( K l e i n 1930). B y the e n d of D i c k ' s first y e a r his m o t h e r d e c i d e d he w a s a b n o r m a l a n d her attitude t o w a r d s h i m w o r s ­ e n e d . N e i t h e r h i s father n o r h i s n u r s e gave h i m a n y tenderness, so he

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started life i n a n u n u s u a l l y loveless e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n he w a s two he h a d a n e w n u r s e w h o w a s k i n d a n d affectionate t o w a r d s h i m , then he s t a y e d for s o m e time w i t h his g r a n d m o t h e r w h o w a s also v e r y l o v i n g . H i s d e v e l o p m e n t i m p r o v e d s o m e w h a t , a l t h o u g h his n u r s e ' s p r o h i b i ­ t i o n o n m a s t u r b a t i o n gave rise to a sense of guilt. H i s f e e d i n g p r o b l e m s p e r s i s t e d . W i t h the w e t n u r s e h e h a d s h o w n n o desire to s u c k , then h e w o u l d n o t d r i n k f r o m a bottle. W h e n he w a s offered s o l i d f o o d , he r e f u s e d to bite it u p , a n d rejected a n y t h i n g that w a s not the consisten­ cy

of

pap.

respects—for

T h o u g h his k i n d l y n u r s e h a d h e l p e d

him

i n certain

e x a m p l e , b y h e l p i n g h i m d e v e l o p a s l i g h t l y increased

interest i n f o o d — h i s

f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s r e m a i n e d . W i t h her, as

w i t h e v e r y o n e else, i n c l u d i n g his g r a n d m o t h e r , D i c k failed to establish f r i e n d l y contact. D i c k ' s p r e m a t u r e genital a c t i v i t y created a n exaggerated i d e n t i f i c a ­ t i o n w i t h the objects he attacked (his p a r e n t s ' genitals), t r i b u t e d to a n e a r l y defence

and con­

against s a d i s m . C o n s e q u e n t l y he h a d

ceased to d e v e l o p a p h a n t a s y life, a n d his contact w i t h reality w a s e x t r e m e l y w e a k . A f t e r a feeble b e g i n n i n g , his s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n h a d c o m e to a standstill. H e was indifferent to the objects a n d toys a r o u n d h i m , w i t h s o m e l i m i t e d exceptions: trains, stations, d o o r - h a n d l e s , a n d the o p e n i n g a n d s h u t t i n g of d o o r s . H o w e v e r , i s o l a t e d a n d u n r e l a t e d to his c o n s c i o u s life, these were u n a b l e to f o r m the basis for further s u b ­ limations. T h r o u g h h e r analysis of D i c k , K l e i n d i s c o v e r e d that these things a n d actions h a d a single s o u r c e — t h e p h a n t a s y of p e n e t r a t i o n into the mother's body: D o o r s a n d l o c k s s t o o d for w a y s i n a n d o u t of her b o d y , w h i l s t the d o o r - h a n d l e s represented the father's p e n i s a n d his o w n . T h u s w h a t h a d b r o u g h t s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n to a standstill w a s the d r e a d of w h a t w o u l d be d o n e to h i m (particularly b y the father's penis) after h e h a d p e n e t r a t e d into the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . ( K l e i n 1930) D i c k ' s defences against his destructive i m p u l s e s w e r e thus a f u n d a ­ m e n t a l i m p e d i m e n t to his d e v e l o p m e n t . H e w a s i n c a p a b l e of a n y act of a g g r e s s i o n . A s w e h a v e seen, as a b a b y he w o u l d not bite a n d c h e w f o o d , a n d b y f o u r h e c o u l d not h o l d scissors, k n i v e s or tools. A l t h o u g h K l e i n d o e s not s p e l l this out, D i c k ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s

his

m o t h e r ' s b o d y w o u l d h a v e arisen d u r i n g the f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e . O n c e

Linda Buckingham

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these i m p u l s e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h g e n i t a l p h a n t a s i e s of p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e y h a d to be s t y m i e d a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n ceased. K l e i n , c o n f r o n t e d b y D i c k ' s total l a c k o f interest i n her, the r o o m a n d the toys she s h o w e d h i m , h a d a flash o f i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s p r o m p t e d b y the k n o w l e d g e that h e w a s interested i n trains. S h e p l a c e d a b i g t r a i n b e s i d e a s m a l l e r o n e a n d called t h e m ' D a d d y - t r a i n ' a n d ' D i c k ­ t r a i n ' . H e p i c k e d u p the t r a i n she called ' D i c k ' , r o l l e d it to the w i n d o w , a n d said 'station'. F e e l i n g m o r e sure o f herself t h a n m i g h t m a n y c h i l d p s y c h o t h e r a ­ pists, K l e i n r e s p o n d e d : T h e station i s M u m m y ; D i c k is g o i n g into M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930). A t this h e r a n i n t o the space b e t w e e n the outer a n d i n n e r d o o r s o f the r o o m , s h u t h i m s e l f i n , s a i d ' D a r k ' , a n d r a n o u t a g a i n . H e d i d this s e v e r a l times, a n d K l e i n e x p l a i n e d to h i m : 'It is d a r k i n s i d e M u m m y . D i c k is i n s i d e d a r k M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930). A l t h o u g h h e h a d left his n u r s e at the start o f the session w i t h o u t s h o w i n g a n y e m o t i o n , h e n o w said ' N u r s e ? ' twice a n d K l e i n a s s u r e d h i m the n u r s e w o u l d c o m e s o o n . In the next t w o sessions h e b e h a v e d i n the s a m e w a y , b u t i n the t h i r d h e r a n b e h i n d a chest of d r a w e r s w h e r e h e w a s s e i z e d w i t h anxiety, a n d c a l l e d M r s . K l e i n to h i m . W h e n the session w a s o v e r h e greeted his n u r s e w i t h u n u s u a l delight. W i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f anxiety, t h e n , there also e m e r g e d a sense of depen­ dence, o n b o t h K l e i n a n d the n u r s e . G r a d u a l l y h e b e g a n to s h o w interest i n the w o r d s K l e i n vised a n d i n the toys she s h o w e d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n b e c a m e e v i d e n t i m m e d i a t e l y i n h i s play, w a n t i n g K l e i n to cut u p toys o n his behalf, a n d r u n n i n g i n t o the space b e t w e e n the d o o r s a n d s c r a t c h i n g t h e m w i t h h i s nails. H e t h e n crept i n t o a c u p b o a r d . A t the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s f o u r t h session h e cried w h e n h i s n u r s e left h i m , b u t s o o n b e c a m e interested i n the toys. H e p u s h e d aside a little cart h e h a d a s k e d K l e i n to d a m a g e i n the p r e v i o u s session. W h e n she s a i d the cart s t o o d for h i s mother, h e p u t it i n the space b e t w e e n the d o o r s , i n d i c a t i n g a n e x p u l s i o n o f b o t h the d a m a g e d object a n d o f h i s o w n s a d i s m . T h e w a s h - b a s i n i n the r o o m c a m e to s y m b o l i s e h i s m o t h ­ e r ' s b o d y , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y he d i s p l a y e d a d r e a d of b e i n g w e t t e d w i t h water. H e s h o w e d the s a m e anxiety w h e n u r i n a t i n g . U r i n e a n d faeces r e p r e s e n t e d to h i m h a r m f u l , d a n g e r o u s substances. T h e s e , a l o n g w i t h the p e n i s , s t o o d , i n D i c k ' s phantasy, for objects w i t h w h i c h to attack the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . T o the extent that t h e y m i g h t p r o m p t retaliation f r o m his m o t h e r , they w e r e also a source o f i n j u r y to h i m s e l f . H e therefore

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h a d a d r e a d of the i n s i d e of his m o t h e r ' s b o d y a n d of his father's p e n i s , w h i c h h e i m a g i n e d to be i n there. T h e introjection of these p a r e n t a l i m a g e s r e s u l t e d i n a h a r m - i n f l i c t ­ i n g super-ego. A l o n g s i d e Dick's premature genital development i n c a p a c i t y for tolerating anxiety w a s a h i g h d e g r e e of empathy

and

w i t h his

objects- T h i s e m p a t h y w a s ...a d e c i s i v e factor i n his w a r d i n g - o f f of all d e s t r u c t i v e i m p u l s e s . D i c k c u t h i m s e l f off f r o m reality a n d b r o u g h t h i s p h a n t a s y life to a s t a n d s t i l l b y t a k i n g refuge i n the phantasies of a d a r k , e m p t y , v a g u e w o m b . ( K l e i n 1930: D i c k thus m a n a g e d

227)

to w i t h d r a w his attention f r o m m o s t of the

objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d the contents of his m o t h e r ' s w o m b a n d his o w n d a n g e r o u s p e n i s a n d excreta. K l e i n m a n a g e d , i n D i c k ' s a n a l y s i s , to get i n t o u c h w i t h the r u d i ­ m e n t s of p h a n t a s y life a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n w h i c h he still d i s p l a y e d . H e became more consciously anxious, a n d established a symbolic rela­ t i o n to p e o p l e a n d objects w h i c h w a s g r a d u a l l y m o r e i n q u i r i n g a n d a g g r e s s i v e . W h e n he b e c a m e too a n x i o u s , he w o u l d t u r n his attention a w a y to s o m e extent f r o m the things w i t h w h i c h h e h a d established a n 'affective r e l a t i o n ' , a n d w o u l d concentrate o n n e w objects. Later, h o w ­ ever, h e w a s able to direct his c u r i o s i t y back to the things h e h a d g i v e n u p earlier, a n d so a c h a i n of m e a n i n g a n d s y m b o l i s a t i o n w a s c a u t i o u s ­ l y e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n objects a n d b e t w e e n activities. A s his interests developed,

he

enlarged

his v o c a b u l a r y

and

become

emotionally

a t t a c h e d to the significant p e o p l e i n his l i f e — h i s parents, h i s n u r s e , Mrs. Klein. In h e r c o m m e n t s o n this patient, w h o m she h a d b e e n s e e i n g for six m o n t h s at the time of w r i t i n g , K l e i n e m p h a s i s e d that she d i d n o t g e n ­ e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t a c h i l d ' s m a t e r i a l so s o o n . H o w e v e r , D i c k ' s c a p a c i t y to c o m m u n i c a t e w a s so m e a g r e that K l e i n m a d e h e r interpretations o n the basis of h e r g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h i m . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the a n a l y s i s s h o w e d her to h a v e b e e n pretty accurate.

*** F o r the c h i l d , as for the a d u l t , successful analysis of the sadistic i n t r u ­ sive p h a n t a s i e s a n d the r e s u l t i n g guilt w i l l free the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e a n d w i l l enable l e a r n i n g to take p l a c e . T h e d i s t o r t i n g g r i p of

Linda

Buckingham

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p e r s e c u t o r y phantasies w i l l be lessened a n d the ability to p e r c e i v e c l e a r l y w i l l b e i m p r o v e d . S y m b o l i c objects w i l l n o l o n g e r b e seen as their e q u i v a l e n t s — e . g . the v i o l i n w i l l n o t b e e x p e r i e n c e d as the v i o l i n ­ ist's o w n p e n i s , a n d w o r d s w i l l n o longer be e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete objects o r real actions. A w i d e s p e c t r u m of i n h i b i t i o n s results f r o m e a r l y c u r i o s i t y a n d its a t t e n d a n t anxieties. I w i l l n o w try to describe a few of t h e m , taken f r o m m y c l i n i c a l experience a n d , i n the last e x a m p l e , the p e r s o n a l experience of a n a c q u a i n t a n c e . Stuart S t u a r t w a s referred for intensive p s y c h o t h e r a p y w h e n he w a s almost f i v e . T h e r e w e r e factors i n h i s f a m i l y situation w h i c h e x p l a i n e d a lot of his agitated b e h a v i o u r , h i s i n a b i l i t y to concentrate i n class, a n d h i s anx­ i o u s b u t aggressive attachment to his mother. H o w e v e r , h i s d i s p o s i t i o n w a s g e n e r a l l y excitable a n d aggressive a n d he d e m o n s t r a t e d i n h i s p l a y a n d his d r a w i n g s a h i g h degree of c o n t e m p t for h i s m o t h e r a n d females. H e h a d a v i e w of m e n as i n h e r e n t l y i n t r u s i v e a n d sadistic. Stuart w a s b r i g h t a n d intelligent so his l e a r n i n g w a s n o t i n h i b i t e d i n a s t u p e f y i n g w a y . Rather, h e w a s so restless a n d d i s t r a c t e d that h e c o u l d rarely settle to lessons. H e w a s a c h i e v i n g far b e l o w h i s ability, e x c e p t i n art, w h e r e h e excelled. N o w a d a y s h e m i g h t h a v e r e c e i v e d a n i n i t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f ' A t t e n t i o n Deficit H y p e r a c t i v i t y D i s o r d e r ' before f i n d i n g h i s w a y to p s y c h o t h e r a p y . H i s l e a r n i n g w a s certainly i m p e d e d . T h e c u r i o s i t y he could

express e m e r g e d i n his d r a w i n g s ( w h i c h h e

m a n a g e d to concentrate o n i n calmer m o m e n t s ) or t h r o u g h a b u s i v e treatment o f other c h i l d r e n , h i s mother, o r m e . ' C u r i o s i t y ' is p e r h a p s the w r o n g w o r d for w h a t Stuart m a n i f e s t e d . It w a s , rather, a c o n c e n t r a t e d stream of p r o j e c t i o n s — m o s t l y negative a n d u g l y — o n t o p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g m e . S o m e of this b e h a v i o u r c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d for b y his h o m e situation. H i s m o t h e r w a s a

defeated

w o m a n w h o w o u l d either y e l l at h i m , g i v e i n to h i m , or ignore h i m . H i s father w a s a d i s t u r b e d a n d sadistic m a n , w h o s e sense of reality w a s h i g h l y d i s t o r t e d , a n d to w h o m his m o t h e r w a s i n thrall. Stuart's father w o u l d l i v e at h o m e for a w h i l e a n d then leave, a n d Stuart w a s d i s c e r n i b l y c a l m e r d u r i n g h i s father's l o n g e r absences. Stuart's p s y c h o t h e r a p y started off fairly a m i c a b l y as he s i z e d m e u p , b u t h e w a s restless a n d agitated. I s o o n b e c a m e the object of h i s h o s t i l i t y i n a w a y that w a s m a r k e d l y sadistic a n d m i s o g y n o u s . T h e c l i ­

The Hazards of

120

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m a t e of the sessions b e g a n to v a r y w i d e l y . H e c o u l d be p l a y f u l , c o n ­ v e r s a t i o n a l , creative, t h o u g h always s o m e w h a t gruff a n d w a r y .

He

w o u l d create elaborate b o a r d games f r o m the materials i n his box, a n d w e w o u l d p l a y t h e m c o m p a n i o n a b l y u n t i l s o m e upset o c c u r r e d a n d h i s a g g r e s s i o n a n d a n g u i s h w o u l d w e l l u p o u t of h i m like a geyser. A t other times h e w o u l d be engrossed i n d r a w i n g a n d i n telling m e the story-lines b e h i n d his p i c t u r e s , w h i c h w e r e often sinister, s o m e t i m e s m o n s t r o u s . T h e themes of g o o d a n d e v i l w e r e t y p i c a l of c h i l d r e n his age, b u t the g o o d characters never m a i n t a i n e d their integrity. Badness u s u a l l y s e e m e d m o r e i n v i t i n g to h i m . H e w a s fascinated w i t h d a n g e r ­ ous

interiors—caves,

tunnels,

dungeons—within

which

dragons,

snakes, m o n s t e r s , s p i d e r s w o u l d be b u s y at their e v i l w o r k , a l o n g s i d e skeletons a n d corpses. T h e r e w a s a lot of p e r v e r s i t y i n his play. G o o d a n d b a d w e r e n o t just c o n f u s e d , b u t b a d n e s s w a s often a d o p t e d as the best choice. H e w a s d r i v e n to destroy, time after time, the sense that I c o u l d d o h i m g o o d , that s o m e w h e r e there w a s a g o o d m o t h e r or p a r ­ ent he c o u l d reach out to. W e k n o w that early d e p r i v a t i o n a n d c r u e l t y often results i n a c h i l d ' s t u r n i n g a w a y g o o d

treatment, because

it

r e m i n d s h i m , unbearably, of w h a t was not available before a n d e m p h a ­ sises p a r e n t a l failure. I h a v e treated s u c h c h i l d r e n , b u t there w a s m o r e to Stuart's n e g a t i v i t y t h a n this. Phases of h o p e o n m y p a r t w o u l d be abruptly, c r u e l l y e c l i p s e d . O n e d a y the s e s s i o n h a d b e e n p r o g r e s s i n g relatively c a l m l y a n d he d e c i d e d to m a k e a ' m e a l ' . H e constructed a n d c o l o u r e d s o m e p i n k ' i c e - c r e a m ' o u t of p a p e r , t h e n p l a c e d it o n the floor w h e r e he w a s sitting a n d e x c l a i m e d h a p p i l y : ' T h i s is m y M u m m y ' s l o v e l y f o o d ! ' I w a s still s m i l ­ i n g b e n i g n l y w h e n he s u d d e n l y h a w k e d u p a gob of p h l e g m a n d spat it out o n the floor beside the 'ice c r e a m ' . H e c r i e d t r i u m p h a n t l y : ' A n d this is m y f o o d a n d I like it best!', m a k i n g l i p - s m a c k i n g s o u n d s . T h e i m p a c t o n m e w a s s h o c k i n g i n its p e r v e r s i t y — a c h i l d ' s a v o w a l of ' E v i l be t h o u m y g o o d ' . A t other times he w o u l d attack m e directly, k i c k i n g , h i t t i n g , s p i t t i n g a n d a b u s i n g m e i n a desperate, excited j u m b l e of w o r d s . I often h a d to restrain h i m p h y s i c a l l y , a n d these sessions w o u l d leave m e filled w i t h i m p o t e n t r a g e a n d despair. H i s v e r b a l attacks o n m e w e r e directed against the m o t h e r ' s insides a n d her sexuality. H e w o u l d y e l l that I w a s a b i t c h , c h a n t about a m u m m y a n d a d a d d y f u c k i n g u p a tree, s i n g ' M y m u m m y licks m y p u s s y ' , or ' L i c k y o u r m o t h e r ' s p u s s y ! ' , a n d rant d e n ­ i g r a t i n g l y a b o u t r i c h m e n a n d t r a m p w i v e s . O n c e , i n the m i d s t of t h r o w i n g t h i n g s about a n d y e l l i n g out the w i n d o w , h e d r e w a p i c t u r e

Linda

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121

of a s n a k e b e i n g t o r n apart b y a ' g o o d ' monster. T h e m o n s t e r started e a t i n g the s n a k e , s a y i n g : ' I ' d f u c k i n g d i e for a f u c k i n g j u i c y snake g o i n g a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d i n m y t u m m y ! ' W h e n I said that this w a s m e a n t to be a M u m m y a n d a D a d d y h a v i n g v e r y b a d sex together h e e x c l a i m e d : 'Sex! Y u k ! If y o u d o n ' t like the d r a w i n g I'll tear it u p ' . I t o l d h i m I w o u l d keep it here a l o n g w i t h a l l h i s other d r a w i n g s a n d , for s a f e - k e e p i n g , I p u t it i n m y p o c k e t . H e w a s c u r i o u s a b o u t m y pockets a n d I s a i d h e w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t w a s g o i n g o n i n s i d e m e . ' M a y b e y o u t h i n k I've got a b a d D a d d y snake i n s i d e m e . ' ' Y o u p r o b a b l y d o ' , he r e p l i e d . ' Y o u s h o u l d check e v e r y m o r n i n g to see.' H e started d r a w i n g a p i n e tree a n d s i n g i n g ' H a p p y B i r t h d a y to M u m m y ' . I t o o k this u p as h i s w i s h to h a n g o n t o the i d e a of m e as a good

mummy

person,

though

this w a s r e a l l y d i f f i c u l t for h i m .

O c c a s i o n a l a n g u i s h e d screams w o u l d w e l l o u t of h i m , as t h o u g h a tor­ t u r e d c h i l d i n s i d e h i m w a s m o m e n t a r i l y u n g a g g e d . T h e tone of the b i r t h d a y s o n g w o u l d c h a n g e f r o m sincere to m o c k i n g , t h e n back a g a i n . L a t e r i n the session he w a s a g a i n c h a n t i n g ' L i c k y o u r

Mummy's

pussy!' a n d giggling mockingly. H e w a n t e d m e to w i n d h i m i n the c u r t a i n a n d k e e p h i m sealed i n there. N o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g his c o m m u n i c a t i o n I i n t e r p r e t e d that h e w a n t e d to t h i n k I w o u l d let h i m get r i g h t i n s i d e m e . H e started t h r o w ­ i n g t h i n g s at m e , r u b b i n g h i s p e n i s p r o v o c a t i v e l y s p i t t i n g at m e . I w a s u n a b l e to s t e m this attack so I e n d e d the s e s s i o n e a r l y a n d took h i m to the w a i t i n g - r o o m w h e r e I sat w i t h h i m w h i l e h e c a l m e d d o w n , r o c k i n g o n the r o c k i n g - h o r s e . In retrospect I feel sure that w h a t I s a i d w a s the o p p o s i t e of w h a t h e w a s feeling. I t h i n k h e w a n t e d to be w o u n d i n the c u r t a i n to b e k e p t f r o m i n t r u d i n g i n t o m e a n d d a m a g i n g m e . M y inter­ p r e t a t i o n therefore p r o v o k e d h i m into the v e r y activity f r o m w h i c h h e w a n t e d to b e restrained a n d protected. In

another

session

he was c h a n t i n g yet again

about

licking

M u m m y ' s pussy, r u b b i n g it u p a n d d o w n , D a d d y f u c k i n g daughter, h i s w i l l y getting stuck a n d sore. ' I ' l l n e v e r d o that a g a i n ! ' I s a i d that h e w a s s i n g i n g about parents a n d c h i l d r e n h a v i n g sex, a n d that p e r h a p s h e w o n d e r e d i f I w a s that k i n d of M u m m y , o r if I w a s just interested i n h i m a n d h i s m i n d . 'If y o u are that k i n d o f M u m m y ' , h e r e p l i e d , T i l k i c k y o u u p the arse!' My

questions

to h i m — w h i c h I p u t f r o m

time

to

time—about

w h e t h e r a n y t h i n g like this w a s h a p p e n i n g at h o m e w e r e m e t w i t h c o n ­ t e m p t , as t h o u g h I w a s d i r t y - m i n d e d or m a d . I h a v e n o d o u b t that his

The Hazards

122

of

Curiosity

h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t w a s perverse, b u t w h e t h e r he w a s a c t u a l l y s e x u a l ­ l y a b u s e d has n o t b e e n d e t e r m i n e d so far b y his s u b s e q u e n t therapists. In another session he attacked m e relentlessly for m e n t i o n i n g his b a b y self. It w a s there i n the material, b u t he f o u n d it u n b e a r a b l e to lis­ ten. H e w a s k i c k i n g m e , so I took off his shoes a n d p u t t h e m o u t s i d e . T h e n he threw a h e a v y chair at m e , so this too w e n t o u t s i d e . T h e n he w a s r u s h i n g at m e a n d spitting. I caught h o l d of h i m a n d w r a p p e d h i m tightly i n h i s r u g . H e p r o m i s e d to c a l m d o w n , b u t was s o o n a t t a c k i n g a n d spitting a g a i n , t r y i n g to w i p e snot o n m e (his nose w a s

always

r u n n y ) a n d threatening to bite m e . I w r a p p e d h i m u p s e v e r a l m o r e times yet the s p i t t i n g w e n t o n . I finally gave u p o n the b l a n k e t a n d his attacks b e c a m e less v i r u l e n t . H e e v e n t u a l l y s a i d he w o u l d not spit a n y m o r e , a n d m a n a g e d this. I s a i d that s o m e t h i n g better w a s h a p p e n i n g i n h i m ; he w a s t r y i n g to h a n g o n to s o m e g o o d feelings t o w a r d s m e . H e s a i d he d i d feel better n o w , a n d started p u t t i n g things to rights i n the r o o m . H e a s k e d for his shoes b a c k so I gave t h e m to h i m a n d tied u p his laces. H e w a s catching bits of floating d u s t i n his m o u t h , t h e n s p r i n ­ k l i n g the c r u m b l i n g stuffing f r o m a chair into his m o u t h . I s a i d that a l t h o u g h he w a s t r y i n g to feel better he was f e e d i n g h i m s e l f d i r t rather t h a n g o o d t h e r a p y f o o d . ' Y o u never feed m e ' , he s a i d . B u t i n another shift of m o o d he searched for a b e a d (there w a s often the o d d b e a d l y i n g a b o u t the r o o m ) . I s a i d he d i d not n e e d to d o that to be g o o d ; get­ t i n g h o l d of g o o d feelings w a s e n o u g h . (I w a s , h o w e v e r , i g n o r i n g the concrete

i m p o r t a n c e of reparation.) H e presented m e w i t h a b e a d , a p i n

a n d a seed. O n c e he w a s i n a state of near d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . H e w a s c r a w l i n g a r o u n d the floor, g r u n t i n g , s l o b b e r i n g — a l m o s t f o a m i n g at the m o u t h . I h a d another patient w h o u s e d to collect t i n y c o l o u r e d b e a d s w h i c h s o m e t i m e s got scattered. Stuart h a d a k n a c k of f i n d i n g t h e m

and

r e g a r d e d t h e m as p r e c i o u s . O n this o c c a s i o n he w a s o n his s t o m a c h , p r o p e l l i n g h i m s e l f a r o u n d the edges of the r o o m like a g r u b , his m o u t h s u c k i n g at the base of the s k i r t i n g b o a r d w h e r e there w a s a tiny, c o n ­ t i n u o u s g a p , h o o v e r i n g u p d u s t a n d t i n y bits of detritus. W h i l s t c h o o s ­ i n g to ingest d i r t as his best f e e d i n g o p t i o n h e m a y also h a v e b e e n h o p ­ i n g to v a c u u m u p a p r e c i o u s b e a d . W e w e r e b o t h extremely s u r p r i s e d w h e n he s u d d e n l y j u m p e d u p , g r i m a c i n g , w i t h a long-lost e a r r i n g of m i n e , silver a n d amethyst, d a n g l i n g f r o m the gap b e t w e e n his front teeth. I e x c l a i m e d i n joy as he h a n d e d it to m e a n d g r a s p e d his h a n d to shake it. H e w a s b e m u s e d b u t let m e shake his h a n d i n thanks, t h e n l o o k e d at it w o n d e r i n g l y . T h e rest of the session he w a s m u c h calmer.

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123

B r i g h t spots l i k e this h a d a s p e c i a l p o i g n a n c y a m i d s t the dross a n d a w f u l n e s s of m o s t of his c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . W h e n I f i n a l l y s t o p p e d see­ i n g h i m a n d ' h a n d e d h i m o v e r ' to the p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t at his special s c h o o l , I felt p r o f o u n d l y s a d a n d also v e r y d i s a p p o i n t e d that I h a d not m a n a g e d to shift his perversity. It is h i g h l y l i k e l y that this b o y h a d b e e n s e x u a l l y a b u s e d , or w i t ­ n e s s e d a d u l t sexual activity, or h a d w a t c h e d v i o l e n t a n d p o r n o g r a p h i c v i d e o s — o r all of these things. I w a s e x t r e m e l y w o r r i e d about his h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o n v e n e d several meetings w i t h S o c i a l Services, b u t d e s p i t e the m a s s i v e a m o u n t of p e r v e r s e sexual m a t e r i a l i n his sessions a n d h i s t e n d e n c y to degenerate w h e n his father w a s at h o m e , this was n o t seen as substantial e n o t i g h e v i d e n c e to m e r i t investigation. After t r a n s f e r r i n g to the s c h o o l p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , Stuart w a s able to talk about m e w i t h s o m e nostalgia. H e w a s later p l a c e d i n a therapeutic b o a r d i n g c o m m u n i t y w h e r e he has b e e n m o r e settled a n d w h e r e the staff are e n c o u r a g i n g h i m to attend art college. Stuart's case is not a clear-cut e x a m p l e of K l e i n ' s theory of l e a r n i n g i n h i b i t i o n s , g i v e n the chaotic a n d p e r v e r s e influences of his h o m e e n v i ­ r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , it is i n d i c a t i v e of the w a y i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n differ i n t e m p e r a m e n t , a n d of h o w s o m e are m o r e aggressive f r o m a n early age t h a n others. In g o o d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Stuart w o u l d h a v e b e e n bright, energetic, c u r i o u s , n o d o u b t quite a h a n d f u l , b u t the s a d i s m inherent i n his e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s m a y w e l l not h a v e o v e r w h e l m e d h i m w i t h hostile feelings a n d h a v e i m p e d e d his p r o g r e s s at s c h o o l . In his case, the lethal m i x t u r e of p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i o n a n d s a d i s m w i t h a chaotic, anti-social h o m e - l i f e m e a n t that h e c o u l d r a r e l y c o n t a i n h i m s e l f for l o n g a n d refrain f r o m destructive outbursts of rage. H e h a d o n l y a tiny, s h i f t i n g place of safety w i t h i n himself. W i t h g o o d p a r e n t i n g his aggres­ s i o n a n d sexual s a d i s m w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e easily s u b l i m a t e d , i n s t e a d of o p e n l y expressed. W i t h his c u r i o s i t y u n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y too m u c h hostility h e m a y h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d quite w e l l at s c h o o l a n d m a y e v e n h a v e a c h i e v e d a b o v e the average.

Tracey M y next clinical e x a m p l e is a m o r e clear-cut i l l u s t r a t i o n of the role w h i c h a c h i l d ' s d i s p o s i t i o n p l a y s i n early d e v e l o p m e n t . T r a c e y w a s b o r n into a f a m i l y of females, h e r father h a v i n g left s o o n after h e r b i r t h . F o r Tracey, her b i r t h a n d her father's desertion were fatefully l i n k e d .

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The Hazards of

Curiosity

T r a c e y w a s ' b o r n w i t h her fists c l e n c h e d a n d r e a d y to fight', as her m o t h e r once t o l d m e w i t h p r i d e . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r h a l f - c o n s c i o u s l y e n c o u r a g e d her aggression as w e l l as resenting it. P e r h a p s , r e s i g n i n g herself to desertion, she delegated her liveliness a n d h o s t i l i t y to h e r daughter. F r o m a n e a r l y age T r a c e y retained her faeces, frustrating her m o t h ­ e r ' s attempts to toilet-train her. T r a c e y w o u l d h a n g onto her m o t i o n s a n d t h e n e x p e l t h e m at i n a p p r o p r i a t e times, setting the t r e n d for a h i s ­ t o r y of s o i l i n g w h i c h , as she got o l d e r w a s n o longer i n v o l u n t a r y or w h o l l y u n c o n s c i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d , b u t w a s deliberately a i m e d at d e n i ­ g r a t i n g her mother. Tracey o n l y d i d this at h o m e , a n d r e g a r d e d it as her m o t h e r ' s task to clear it u p . T r a c e y h a d n o t b e e n neglected o r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y a b u s e d . S h e w a s l o v e d a n d c h e r i s h e d , w i t h all her p h y s i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l w a n t s catered for. H o w e v e r , her sights h a d a l w a y s b e e n set i n the ' w r o n g ' p l a c e a n d f o c u s e d o n the ' w r o n g ' objects. Rather than h a v i n g a c h i l d ' s h u n g e r for care, l o v e a n d attention i n reasonable q u a n t i t i e s — a h u n g e r w h i c h c o u l d be s a t i s f i e d — s h e h a d , f r o m early o n , a g r e e d for u n c o n d i ­ t i o n a l attention, s e r v i t u d e , f o o d , toys. A s she grew o l d e r she

was

h e a p e d w i t h clothes, trainers, gadgets, C D s , a n d so o n . E v e r y t h i n g w a s s w a l l o w e d u p a n d rarely s a v o u r e d , so that experiences a n d objects s o o n lost their v a l u e . A t one time T r a c e y h a d s e v e n T a m a g o t c h i cyber­ pets r u n n i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . W h e n I h e a r d of this she t o l d m e tri­ u m p h a n t l y that she h a d let t h e m a l l die, a n i n d i c a t i o n of h e r attitude t o w a r d s other babies, since cyber-pets d e p e n d u p o n their o w n e r s for survival. T r a c e y w a s b r o u g h t to therapy, a g e d n i n e , b y her desperate m o t h e r w h o s e e m e d to g r o w thinner d a i l y w h i l e T r a c e y g r e w larger. M o t h e r c o m p l a i n e d of Tracey's t y r a n n i c a l attitude, her r u d e n e s s at h o m e a n d i n p u b l i c , h e r constant d e m a n d s . I w a s seeing Tracey once a w e e k a n d h e r m o t h e r w a s seen once e v e r y few w e e k s b y another w o r k e r , to s u p ­ p o r t the therapy. W h i l s t Tracey's awareness of her t y r a n n y a n d her c o n c e r n a b o u t its consequences increased o v e r time, her f u n d a m e n t a l attitude d i d n o t shift. T h i s is p a r t l y d u e to the fact that the d y n a m i c s b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d daughter, set i n train at b i r t h , are c l u n g to b y b o t h of t h e m . Sessions w i t h Tracey, w h i l s t c o n t a i n i n g c o m p a n i o n a b l e

moments,

h a v e l a r g e l y consisted of her relentless attempts to boss m e a r o u n d . I o n c e e x c l a i m e d to her that things d i d n o t h a v e to be this way, that it w a s p o s s i b l e for her to s h o w a different side of herself, one that w a s

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m o r e o r d i n a r y , less c o n t r o l l i n g . To m y s u r p r i s e , she b e h a v e d i n a n entirely n e w w a y for the w h o l e session, u n t i l the v e r y e n d . She q u i e t l y t a p e d s o m e large sheets of p a p e r together a n d d r e w a m o t o r w a y l e a d ­ i n g f r o m L o n d o n to a sea-side resort. T w o b i g brothers a n d a smaller brother w e n t o n h o l i d a y to the resort. T h e little b r o t h e r was

bossed

a b o u t a n d told off a lot a n d fell off a p i e r twice, b u t he h a d f u n . T h e r e w a s also a little sister w h o w a s kept at h o m e , e x c l u d e d f r o m the a d v e n ­ ture. W h e n I c o m m e n t e d that the g i r l , like the y o u n g p a r t of herself, w a s b e i n g kept out of the story, the brothers p i c k e d her u p , let her j o i n i n a n d w e r e quite protective of her. ' H o w d o y o u like m y

world?'

Tracey a s k e d . I s a i d it w a s v e r y interesting to be able to see it i n this w a y (i.e. i n s t e a d of b e i n g d r a g g e d into games, s h o u t e d out, insulted). A t the e n d I c o m m e n t e d that she h a d s h o w n she c o u l d d o s o m e t h i n g different a n d that a p a r t of her, like the little g i r l i n the g a m e , h a d b e e n a l l o w e d to j o i n i n . A c l o u d settled o n h e r face a n d she started to p u n c h m e quite h a r d ( w h i c h w a s fairly u n u s u a l ) so that I h a d to f e n d her off. I h a d b e e n e x p e c t i n g too m u c h a n d h a d i n t r u d e d o n h e r n e w - f o u n d spontaneity. T r a c e y ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s

towards

her m o t h e r ' s

sexuality

and

r e p r o d u c t i v e capacity h a v e h a d c r i p p l i n g consequences. H e r early p r o ­ jective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a bossy, c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , a n d her m o t h e r ' s c o l l u s i o n i n this, h a v e resulted i n a n e n t a n g l e d , a n x i o u s

attachment

b e t w e e n t h e m . M o t h e r ' s c o n t i n u a l g i v i n g - i n to T r a c e y ' s d e m a n d s has the f l a v o u r of s o m e o n e t r y i n g to placate a d a n g e r o u s enemy. Tracey's early retention of her faeces m a y h a v e b e e n a w a y of k e e p i n g her m o t h ­ er o n tenterhooks a n d n o t a l l o w i n g h e r the satisfaction of successful m o t h e r i n g . W h a t e v e r the nature of its o r i g i n s , her use of her faeces has d e v e l o p e d into s o m e t h i n g sadistic, d e n i g r a t i n g , a i m e d specifically at her m o t h e r , the servant w h o has to clear u p her mess a n d w h o s e insides T r a c e y is u n c o n s c i o u s l y attacking. M i x e d i n w i t h this is p o s s i ­ b l y a n a l a r m s y s t e m (also u n c o n s c i o u s ) directed at a m o t h e r w h o has n e v e r a d e q u a t e l y c o n t a i n e d h e r — h e n c e Tracey's feeling of constant n e e d , constant o v e r s p i l l . T r a c e y has b e e n a l l o w e d to o c c u p y her m o t h e r ' s internal p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l space, i n a s h a r e d u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy. T h e r e is n o space for a p o t e n t i a l partner for mother, for a real p e n i s , or e v e n for m o t h e r herself. T h a t is, M o t h e r is not a l l o w e d her o w n integrity, her peace of m i n d , her o w n t h o u g h t s a n d decisions. Tracey's e a r l y curiosity a b o u t her m o t h e r ' s insides w a s h e a v i l y c o l o u r e d b y a n attitude of o w n e r s h i p , a p p r o p r i a t i o n . Rather t h a n o r d i n a r y curiosity, or e v e n c u r i o s i t y w i t h a

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Curiosity

sadistic tinge, her attitude w a s i n v a s i v e a n d c o n t r o l l i n g . J u d g i n g f r o m the feelings she expresses i n therapy, she w a n t e d to eradicate possible other babies f r o m the territory she w a s o c c u p y i n g i n m o t h e r ' s

womb.

O n o n e o c c a s i o n , she a n d her m o t h e r w e r e sitting i n the w a i t i n g - r o o m next to a m o t h e r a n d baby. T h e b a b y ' s foot t o u c h e d Tracey's m o t h e r ' s a r m , a n d Tracey l o o k e d v e r y i n d i g n a n t . In the session she r a n t e d about d i s g u s t i n g babies a n d h o w they h a d n o right to t o u c h her mother. T h e y w o u l d c o n t a m i n a t e h e r ; that b a b y d e s e r v e d to d i e . I n a m e d Tracey's s t r o n g w i s h for h e r m o t h e r to h a v e n o m o r e babies, a n d she a g r e e d noisily. A s for her o w n attitude t o w a r d s babies, she w o u l d n e v e r h a v e one: t h e y ' r e d i s g u s t i n g a n d m e s s y ; t h e y ' r e idiots. I r e m i n d e d her that she w a s a b a b y o n c e , a n d that she still leaves mess for her m o t h e r to c l e a n u p . I d o not recall her response at that time, b u t m o r e recently, w h e n I h a v e b r o u g h t u p h e r ill-treatment of her mother, she

has

a s s u r e d m e that she n o w treats her m o t h e r w e l l . T h i s is u n t r u e , b u t p e r ­ h a p s it demonstrates a m o d i c u m of guilt. A t a n u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l her g u i l t felt p e r s e c u t i n g a n d unbearable. T r a c e y ' s m a l i g n feelings e x t e n d t o w a r d s b o t h sexes: b o y s are 'brainless i d i o t s ' , t h o u g h i n clothes a n d m a n n e r she m o s t resembles a b o y ; girls are u s u a l l y too ' g i r l y ' for her. She despises their l o v e of d o l l s a n d the w a y t h e y tart t h e m s e l v e s u p . T h e fact that, i n her u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a ­ sy, she is the p e n i s , p r e v e n t s her f r o m a n y a d m i r a t i o n of m a s c u l i n i t y as other.

S h e has e n v i o u s l y a p p r o p r i a t e d , b y projective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,

w h a t she regards as m a s c u l i n i t y . A t the same time, her forced o c c u p a ­ t i o n of h e r m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s — p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l — p r e v e n t s her f r o m a d m i r i n g h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e a n d m a t e r n a l qualities. Instead, her i n t r u s i v e relationship to her m o t h e r has resulted i n d e n i g r a t i o n a n d s e e i n g h e r as a servant. W h a t n e e d e d to h a p p e n b e t w e e n Tracey a n d her m o t h e r was, clearly, a process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n w h i c h freed t h e m b o t h f r o m this s y m b i o s i s . T h i s w a s n o s m a l l task! T r a c e y ' s early history, b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l , set the scene for perverse character d e v e l o p m e n t . A t p r i m a r y s c h o o l , T r a c e y m a n a g e d a c a d e m i c d e m a n d s , a l t h o u g h peer relationships w e r e a p r o b ­ l e m . S h e got o n best w i t h the y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , w h o m

she c o u l d

o r g a n i s e . She w o u l d also take u n d e r her w i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h a p h y s i c a l disability, b e s t o w i n g o n t h e m the care she d e n i e d her v u l n e r a b l e self. On

transferring to s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l her difficulties escalated.

She

c o u l d n o t m a n a g e p e e r relationships a n d f o u n d the pressure to be m o r e m a t u r e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e i m p o s s i b l e to d e a l w i t h . She c o u l d n o t concentrate o n lessons, c o u l d not m a n a g e a n y t h i n g w h i c h w a s a c h a l ­

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l e n g e — e s p e c i a l l y m a t h e m a t i c s . A n y tasks or lessons she h a d to s t r u g ­ gle w i t h w e r e ' c r a p ' . P e r h a p s her difficulties w i t h m a t h s were tied i n w i t h her symbiosis

w i t h her mother, so that n u m b e r s

are h a r d to

m a n i p u l a t e — t o d i v i d e , m u l t i p l y , subtract. ( M y final case i n this p a p e r illustrates this k i n d of p r o b l e m . ) T r a c e y ' s i n t r u s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her mother, her identification w i t h a c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , her infantile greed a n d e n v y are all factors w h i c h distract her f r o m clarity of thought, f r o m peace of m i n d a n d f r o m o r d i n a r y e m o t i o n a l a n d intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t . W h e r e T r a c e y ' s guilt e m e r g e d , h o w e v e r , w a s w h e n e v e r her mother h a d bouts of illness. T r a c e y t h e n b e c a m e fearful, a n x i o u s , a n d tried to b e considerate. T h i s m a y h a v e h a d several c o m p o n e n t s : d r e a d that she h a d w o r n her m o t h e r d o w n a n d e n d a n g e r e d h e r life, or w o r r y that the o n l y object she c o u l d t r u l y control w o u l d expire a n d leave her w i t h o u t her f a m i l i a r p s y c h i c e n v i r o n m e n t . W h i l s t creating a ' r o d for her o w n b a c k ' , T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r d i d not create her d a u g h t e r ' s d i s p o s i t i o n . Inserted f r o m b i r t h into the p o s i t i o n of a p h a l l i c object for her mother, Tracey took to this l i k e a fish to water. It seems that Tracey's p o w e r f u l infant p e r s o n a l i t y f e d into

mother's

n e e d s a n d that the interaction of t y r a n t - b a b y a n d v i c t i m - m o t h e r g e l l e d f r o m the start. O n e w o u l d n e e d to h a v e f o l l o w e d their d y n a m i c s i n d e t a i l to u n d e r s t a n d this e v o l u t i o n clearly, so to s o m e extent m y v i e w is retrospective a n d relies u p o n the m o t h e r ' s a c c o u n t of Tracey's i n f a n ­ cy a n d m y r e l a t i o n s h i p to T r a c e y i n the transference. T h e r e is h o p e i n this p i c t u r e . Tracey c o u l d be e n g a g i n g ,

humorous

a n d v e r y p e r c e p t i v e , b u t the i n d i v i d u a t i o n f r o m h e r mother, w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w these qualities to f l o u r i s h , h a d yet to be a c h i e v e d at the time of the p r e m a t u r e e n d i n g of her therapy.

Lucy M y final case is that of a n a d u l t acquaintance w h o has

generously

a l l o w e d m e to use s o m e of her life events to illustrate m y h y p o t h e s i s . L u c y w a s the y o u n g e s t of three c h i l d r e n . H e r m o t h e r b e c a m e ill w i t h a fatal, b u t l i n g e r i n g , disease after her b i r t h . She b e c a m e serious­ l y i l l w h e n L u c y w a s n i n e a n d d i e d w h e n she w a s fifteen. L u c y w a s f a v o u r e d b y h e r m o t h e r w h o took out her h o s t i l i t y o n L u c y ' s elder sis­ ter. T h e subtext of L u c y ' s e a r l y life w a s her m o t h e r ' s illness. H e r father a t t e m p t e d to placate his w i f e a n d to neutralise a n y conflict i n the f a m ­ ily. T h u s L u c y ' l e a r n e d ' f r o m a n early age that anger a n d s a d i s m w e r e

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too d a n g e r o u s to express. T h a t is, anger w o u l d d e s t r o y mother. W h e n h o s t i l i t y d i d arise (unless it was

mother's),

father w o u l d declare:

' T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as hate'. H i s o w n rage against his wife for b e i n g ill w a s n o t a d m i t t e d . H e w a s u n a b l e to grasp his wife's a n g r y projec­ tions a n d give t h e m life i n his m i n d . L u c y w a s a b r i g h t g i r l , g o o d at all subjects. She f o u n d n u m b e r s fas­ c i n a t i n g a n d e n j o y e d arithmetic. A f t e r her m o t h e r ' s h e a l t h deteriorat­ e d her father c o u l d not m a n a g e the three c h i l d r e n , so L u c y w a s f a r m e d out to relatives. She h a t e d this b u t d i d not tell her father, for fear of u p s e t t i n g h i m . W h e n she r e t u r n e d h o m e she c a r e d for her m o t h e r a n d w a s m o r e like father's c o m p a n i o n t h a n h i s daughter. W h i l e m a n a g i n g m o s t of her subjects w e l l at s c h o o l , L u c y started to h a v e severe difficulty w i t h m a t h s . She c o u l d a d d b u t not d i v i d e or s u b ­ tract. L o n g d i v i s i o n w a s a n i g h t m a r e . L u c y has b e e n i n analysis for sev­ eral y e a r s a n d has b e e n able to m a k e sense of s o m e of this. N u r s i n g her m o t h e r gave her a sense of identity, of usefulness a n d f u l f i l l e d her s t r o n g r e p a r a t i v e i m p u l s e s . T h e t h o u g h t of her m o t h e r ' s d e a t h w a s d e v a s t a t i n g a n d left her w i t h the feeling of n o t h i n g n e s s , b o t h i n t e r n a l ­ l y a n d externally. Terrified that her m o t h e r w o u l d be ' t a k e n a w a y ' , she w a s u n a b l e to subtract n u m b e r s f r o m one another. T h i s l i n k w a s not c o n s c i o u s , of course. D i v i s i o n m e a n t an i n t e r r u p t i o n of w h o l e n e s s , the wholeness

of her m o t h e r a n d of her relationship w i t h her m o t h e r ,

w h i c h w a s a k i n d f u s i o n . Fractions a n d ratios m a d e her feel she w a s f a l l i n g apart a n d l e d her i n t o a sick p a n i c . L u c y t a l k e d early, r e a d early, w a s v e r y articulate. H e r facility i n this area r e m a i n e d unaffected. H o w e v e r , maths represented not o n l y the fact of loss (subtraction), f r a g m e n t a t i o n (fractions), a n d s e p a r a t i o n ( d i v i s i o n ) , it also represented connectedness.

L u c y spent her e a r l y

teens a v o i d i n g t h i n k i n g of connections w i t h i n her f a m i l y b e c a u s e it w a s so d y s f u n c t i o n a l . H o w d i d all the parts l i n k u p to m a k e the w h o l e ? H e r fear of the a n s w e r to this l e d her to believe that things a n d p e o p l e w e r e safer c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y — a s isolated n u m b e r s , separate p e o ­ p l e , n o d a n g e r o u s connectedness. In fact, w h a t L u c y felt to be w h o l e w a s actually the result of s p l i t ­ t i n g ; she w a s the ' g o o d d a u g h t e r ' of a ' g o o d m o t h e r ' , a m o t h e r w h o w a s u n a b l e to take o n the ' b a d ' aspects of L u c y , i n c l u d i n g her b a d feel­ ings. In this case, then, neither c o u l d accept the other as b a d , o n l y as g o o d , w h o l l y g o o d . H e r father h a d o p t e d out of the e q u a t i o n . L u c y w a s clearly v e r y e n t a n g l e d w i t h her mother. E a c h s a f e g u a r d ­ ed

the o t h e r ' s

g o o d n e s s a n d aliveness. T h e m o t h e r projected

her

Linda

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129

h a t r e d , anger, a n d bitterness i n t o the rest of the family. A n a l y s i s has h e l p e d L u c y m a k e the c o n n e c t i o n s that w e r e too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m ­ plate before. B e i n g m o r e i n t o u c h w i t h h e r anger a n d s a d i s m , she can now

think more

i n terms of n u m b e r s ,

although mathematics

still

r e m a i n s f r i g h t e n i n g territory. S h e n o w realises that, as a c h i l d , she felt so m u c h u n c o n s c i o u s hostility t o w a r d s her m o t h e r that she feared a n y e x p r e s s i o n of it w o u l d d e s t r o y her. A s for L u c y ' s early c u r i o s i t y a b o u t her m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s , this w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y fear f r o m the v e r y start because her m o t h e r w a s i n fact i l l . H e r n e g a t i v e feelings w e r e then c o m p e n s a t e d for b y o v e r - c o n c e r n a n d g u i l t . T h e s a d i s m m i x e d w i t h h e r e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s w a s felt as p o t e n t i a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g . She s o u g h t solace i n active r e p a r a t i o n b y c a r i n g for her mother. Because she i n t e r n a l i s e d a n i l l m o t h e r , this felt p e r s e c u t o r y , so the b a d , v e n g e f u l m o t h e r h a d to be w i d e l y split off f r o m the g o o d , b e n i g n m o t h e r . E q u a l l y , L u c y ' s o w n v u l n e r a b i l i t y h a d to r e m a i n i n check, because her m o t h e r w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n able to tolerate it, a n d neither w o u l d her father a n d s i b l i n g s . Fortunately, L u c y suffered o n l y a specific l e a r n i n g b l o c k a n d has d e v e l o p e d w i t h her sense o f self a n d h e r w o m a n l i n e s s m o s t l y intact. Conclusion I a m a w a r e that, f r o m the e x a m p l e s offered, it c o u l d be a r g u e d that e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w e r e h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l : i n Stuart's case, his p e r ­ verse f a m i l y ; i n T r a c e y ' s case, her r e s i g n e d m o t h e r a n d the lack of a n y real f i r m n e s s i n her u p b r i n g i n g ; i n L u c y ' s case, the t r a g e d y of a s l o w l y d y i n g m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it seems to m e that, i n all these cases, the p e r ­ s o n a l i t y of the c h i l d p l a y e d its p a r t a n d that s a d i s m , w h i c h K l e i n b e l i e v e d is c a u g h t u p w i t h the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct, w a s a v i t a l ele­ m e n t i n the e a r l y lives of these c h i l d r e n . In Stuart's case, his a g g r e s s i o n r e p e a t e d l y o v e r w h e l m e d h i m a n d s p i l l e d i n t o those a r o u n d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n h a d a v e r y s t r o n g s e x u ­ al e l e m e n t a n d i n his sessions it w a s u s u a l l y the m o t h e r , p e r s o n i f i e d b y m e , w h o w a s b o t h the subject a n d the object of s e x u a l d e g r a d a t i o n . F o r Tracey, h e r relentless t y r a n n y a n d l a c k of c o m p a s s i o n t o w a r d s

her

objects (internal a n d external) d i v e r t e d her f r o m a n y real peace of m i n d . H e r e n v y of b o t h m a s c u l i n i t y a n d f e m i n i n i t y l e d her to d e v a l u e b o t h sexes, a n d left her w i t h a n i m p o v e r i s h e d i n n e r w o r l d . In contrast, L u c y ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of h o w m u c h she c u r b e d her infantile s a d i s m has h e l p e d her a p p r o a c h n u m b e r s i n a less p e r s e c u t e d w a y .

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Curiosity

F o r those of us w o r k i n g a n d t h i n k i n g w i t h i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c tra­ d i t i o n , the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e debate is n o w v i e w e d as w r o n g l y p o s e d . I d o n o t t h i n k that a n y s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s d e n i e s the existence of all i n n a t e qualities n o r the role of the e n v i r o n m e n t . Intergenerational patterns, i n p a r t i c u l a r , are n o w w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d — e . g . the r e p e t i t i o n , o v e r g e n e r a t i o n s , of s e x u a l abuse w i t h i n families, r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h c o n t i n u e s u n t i l it is b r o u g h t to light a n d u n d e r s t o o d . H o w e v e r , there is a s t r o n g s c h o o l of t h o u g h t , p r o b a b l y best e x e m ­ p l i f i e d b y W . R . D . F a i r b a i r n , that a g g r e s s i o n is reactive, that the c h i l d has a c a p a c i t y for a g g r e s s i o n b u t d o e s n o t e x p e r i e n c e the feeling unless p r o v o k e d . K l e i n , of c o u r s e , w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g that e x t e r n a l factors c o u l d exacerbate anger, r e g a r d e d a g g r e s s i o n as a c o n s t a n t l y a v a i l a b l e e m o t i o n i n the infant, not as a capacity. W h a t also d i s t i n g u i s h e s K l e i n i n this area is h e r belief that all i n s t i n c t u a l i m p u l s e s are u n d e r p i n n e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies, w h i c h b e c o m e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d tied i n t o l a n g u a g e as the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , b u t w h i c h o c c u r i n p r i m i t i v e f o r m f r o m b i r t h (as i m a g e s l i n k e d to feelings). F o r K l e i n it is the i n t e r a c t i o n of a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e , d i s p o s i t i o n a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y

which

d e t e r m i n e s character d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w h i c h also e x p l a i n s w h y these processes are so e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d to d e c i p h e r a n d to follow. Postscript: philosophical

trends in Kleinian thought

T h e r e are t w o p h i l o s o p h i c a l tendencies i n K l e i n ' s w o r k . O n e is Realist a n d E m p i r i c i s t , the other is P l a t o n i c a n d Idealist. H e r Realist line of t h o u g h t is f o c u s s e d

o n the necessity for the i n f a n t — o v e r

time—to

t h i n k a b o u t a n d p e r c e i v e reality ( c o m p r i s e d , p r i m a r i l y , of significant others) objectively rather t h a n b e c o m i n g c o n f u s e d b y d i s t o r t i n g p h a n ­ tasies. F r o m this p o i n t of v i e w the a i m of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b o t h w i t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s , is to lessen the distortions a n d exaggerations, b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d negative, of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, so that the p a t i e n t sees h i m or herself a n d others as they r e a l l y are. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h the K l e i n i a n focuses o n the subjective w o r l d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y , this is n o t a Subjectivist, Relativist p o s i t i o n . O n the contrary, K l e i n r e c o g ­ n i s e d p s y c h i c reality a n d stressed

that it has to be m o d i f i e d

and

b r o u g h t i n l i n e w i t h external reality, i n o r d e r for sanity to p r e v a i l . A R e l a t i v i s t p o s i t i o n o n t r u t h w i l l n o t h e l p a patient w h o s e p e r c e p t i o n is d i s t o r t e d . It w i l l n o t h e l p a c h i l d , for instance, to b e t o l d : T c a n see that y o u t h i n k y o u r m o t h e r is t r y i n g to p o i s o n y o u , a n d that she changes into a w i t c h at n i g h t , a n d since that is y o u r " t r u t h " , I w i l l respect that'.

Linda Buckingham

131

Rather, w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g the strength of the c h i l d ' s phantasy, w e s h o u l d recognise that it is a phantasy, a n d s h o u l d w o r k i n the transfer­ ence to m o d i f y it. If the m o t h e r is, i n d e e d , a sadist this w i l l b e c o m e a p p a r e n t d u r i n g treatment. In ' M o u r n i n g a n d Its R e l a t i o n to M a n i c - D e p r e s s i v e States' (1940) K l e i n writes a b o u t the process of i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d the struggle the i n f a n t has i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer reality: T h e r e is a constant interaction b e t w e e n anxieties r e l a t i n g to the ' e x t e r n a l ' mother... a n d those relating to the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r ' . . . In the b a b y ' s m i n d , the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r is b o u n d u p w i t h the ' e x t e r n a l ' o n e , o f w h o m she is a ' d o u b l e ' , t h o u g h o n e w h i c h at once u n d e r g o e s alterations i n his m i n d t h r o u g h the v e r y process o f i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n ; that is to say, her i m a g e is i n f l u e n c e d b y his phantasies, a n d b y i n t e r n a l s t i m u l i a n d external experiences of a l l k i n d s . . . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n s w h e n external situations a n d things are i n t e r n a l i s e d . T h e phantastic nature of the i n n e r w o r l d exerts a p o w e r f u l effect o n the c h i l d , o n the w a y h e t h i n k s a n d feels a b o u t p e o p l e a n d situations. T h e d o u b t , uncertainties a n d anxieties that m a y arise because of this act as a c o n t i n u o u s i n c e n ­ tive to the y o u n g c h i l d to observe a n d m a k e sure about the exter­ n a l object w o r l d , f r o m w h i c h this i n n e r w o r l d s p r i n g s , a n d b y these m e a n s to u n d e r s t a n d the i n t e r n a l o n e better. T h e visible m o t h e r thus p r o v i d e s c o n t i n u o u s p r o o f s of w h a t the ' i n t e r n a l ' mother

is l i k e , w h e t h e r

she is l o v i n g or angry, h e l p f u l o r

r e v e n g e f u l . T h e extent to w h i c h external reality is able to d i s ­ p r o v e anxieties a n d s o r r o w r e l a t i n g to the internal reality varies w i t h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , b u t c o u l d be t a k e n as o n e of the criteria for n o r m a l i t y . I n c h i l d r e n w h o are so m u c h d o m i n a t e d b y their inter­ n a l w o r l d that their anxieties c a n n o t b e sufficiently d i s p r o v e d a n d c o u n t e r a c t e d e v e n b y the pleasant aspects of their relation­ s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e , severe m e n t a l difficulties are u n a v o i d a b l e . ( K l e i n 1940) This

Empiricist view

contrasts

w i t h another

strand

of K l e i n ' s

t h o u g h t , h e r i d e a s o n u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e . I earlier referred to K l e i n ' s debatable t h e o r y that infants of b o t h sexes h a v e a n ' u n c o n ­ s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e ' of the v a g i n a a n d the p e n i s . B y the time she c a m e to w r i t e ' T h e O e d i p u s C o m p l e x i n the L i g h t of E a r l y A n x i e t i e s ' (1945) K l e i n ' s ideas o n infant sexuality h a d n a r r o w e d s o m e w h a t . T h e r e is less

132

The Hazards

of

Curiosity

e m p h a s i s i n this p a p e r o n the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , a b o u t w h i c h she h a d w r i t t e n so i n t e r e s t i n g l y a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s earlier. Instead she lays o u t a m o r e r i g i d f o r m u l a c o n c e r n i n g object-directed i m p u l s e s . In this s c h e m e , the g i r l has a n u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of h e r v a g i n a a n d often m a s t u r b a t e s v a g i n a l l y . She is aware, u n c o n s c i o u s l y , of the receptive ' f u n c t i o n ' of the v a g i n a , so that her . . . o r a l desires for her father's p e n i s m i n g l e w i t h h e r first genital desires to receive that p e n i s . These g e n i t a l desires i m p l y the w i s h to receive c h i l d r e n f r o m h e r father. ( K l e i n 1945) K l e i n d r a m a t i c a l l y d o w n - p l a y s the s e n s i t i v i t y of the clitoris a n d d i s ­ agrees w i t h F r e u d c o n c e r n i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of the ' p h a l l i c p h a s e ' for the g i r l , s t r e s s i n g that, i n h e r v i e w , p e n i s e n v y is b a s e d o n e n v y of the m o t h e r w h o is s u p p o s e d to c o n t a i n the father's p e n i s w h i c h the g i r l herself w i s h e s to receive. E a r l y g e n i t a l desires, as w e l l as o r a l ones, are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s m o t h e r a n d father. T h i s is i n line w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that i n b o t h sexes there is a n inherent u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e of the existence of the p e n i s as w e l l as the v a g i n a . In the m a l e infant, g e n i t a l sensations are the basis for the e x p e c t a t i o n that h i s father possesses a p e n i s w h i c h the b o y desires a c c o r d i n g to the e q u a ­ t i o n 'breast = p e n i s ' . A t the s a m e t i m e , his genital sensations a n d i m p u l s e s also i m p l y the search for a n o p e n i n g i n t o w h i c h to insert h i s p e n i s , i.e. t h e y are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s h i s mother. T h e infant

g i r l ' s genital sensations

correspondingly prepare

the

desire to receive her father's p e n i s i n t o h e r v a g i n a . It a p p e a r s therefore that the g e n i t a l desires for the p e n i s of the father, w h i c h m i n g l e w i t h o r a l desires, are at the root of the g i r l ' s p o s i t i v e a n d of the b o y ' s i n v e r t e d O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . ( K l e i n 1945) T h e r e are m a n y p r o b l e m s w i t h this t h e o r y — e . g . the role of the a n u s as a p o t e n t i a l l y receptive o r g a n i n b o t h sexes; the role of the clitoris for the g i r l ; the i n f l u e n c e of actual experiences w i t h b o t h parents w h i c h w i l l i n f l u e n c e b o t h i d e n t i t y a n d object choice. B u t w h a t I w i s h to h i g h ­ l i g h t here is the t y p e of t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e u p o n w h i c h these ideas are b a s e d , h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i.e. a P l a t o n i c theory of i n n a t e i d e a s m i x e d w i t h a d o s e of b i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n i s m . She w r i t e s s i m i l a r l y a b o u t the 'innate factors' u n d e r l y i n g the infant's relation to

Linda

133

Buckingham

the breast, w h i c h 'is i n s t i n c t i v e l y felt to be the source of n o u r i s h m e n t , i n a d e e p e r sense of life itself. T h i s m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l closeness to the g r a t i f y i n g breast i n s o m e m e a s u r e restores, if things g o w e l l , the lost p r e n a t a l u n i t y w i t h the m o t h e r a n d the f e e l i n g of security that goes w i t h it' ( K l e i n 1957). I n another p a p e r , ' O u r A d u l t W o r l d a n d Its Roots i n I n f a n c y ' (1959), K l e i n writes that the infant has a n ...innate u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of the existence o f the mother. W e k n o w that y o u n g a n i m a l s at once t u r n to the m o t h e r a n d f i n d their f o o d f r o m her. T h e h u m a n a n i m a l is n o t different i n that respect,

a n d this i n s t i n c t u a l k n o w l e d g e

is the basis

for the

infant's p r i m a l r e l a t i o n to h i s mother. ( K l e i n 1959) O n e m i g h t p r o c e e d a l o n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l lines f r o m these state­ m e n t s , a n d argue s i m p l y that a h u n g r y n e w - b o r n b a b y w i l l w e l c o m e a feed a n d b e c o m e attached to the f e e d i n g - s o u r c e (the breast) as a c o n ­ sequence.

However,

Klein's arguments

for 'innateness'

have

been

t a k e n u p b y m a n y s u b s e q u e n t K l e i n i a n s . W i l f r e d B i o n w a s the first post-Kleinian psychoanalyst

to e x t e n d

the P l a t o n i c possibilities of

K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of e a r l y object relations. H e f o r m u l a t e d a s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e o r y of innate i d e a s w h i c h h e set o u t i n ' A T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g ' (1962). In this w o r k h e traces w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s to be the infant's e a r l i ­ est efforts a n d defences i n the area o f object relations. B i o n sees t h i n k ­ ing

as ' a d e v e l o p m e n t

forced

o n the p s y c h e

b y the pressure of

t h o u g h t s ' (Bion 1962) a n d h e classifies these thoughts a c c o r d i n g to their d e v e l o p m e n t a l h i s t o r y : firstly, p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , t h e n c o n c e p t i o n s , a n d , finally, concepts. C o n c e p t s are n a m e d , f i x e d thoughts. T h e c o n c e p t i o n is i n i t i a t e d b y the c o n j u n c t i o n of a p r e - c o n c e p ­ t i o n w i t h a realisation. T h e p r e - c o n c e p t i o n m a y b e r e g a r d e d as the a n a l o g u e i n p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s o f K a n t ' s concept of

'empty

t h o u g h t s ' . P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l l y the t h e o r y that the infant has a n i n b o r n d i s p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a n expectation of a breast m a y b e u s e d to s u p p l y a m o d e l . W h e n the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n is b r o u g h t into contact w i t h a realisation that a p p r o x i m a t e s to it, the m e n t a l o u t c o m e is a c o n c e p t i o n . P u t i n another w a y , the p r e ­ c o n c e p t i o n (the i n b o r n e x p e c t a t i o n of a breast, the p r i o r k n o w l ­ e d g e of a breast, the ' e m p t y t h o u g h t ' ) w h e n the infant is b r o u g h t i n t o contact w i t h the breast itself, mates w i t h awareness of the realisation a n d is s y n c h r o n o u s w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o n ­

134

The Hazards of Curiosity

c e p t i o n . T h i s m o d e l w i l l serve for the t h e o r y that e v e r y j u n c t i o n of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h its realisation p r o d u c e s a c o n c e p t i o n . C o n c e p t i o n s therefore w i l l b e expected

to b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n ­

j o i n e d w i t h a n e m o t i o n a l experience of satisfaction. ( B i o n

1962:

111) B i o n l i m i t s the t e r m ' t h o u g h t ' , at this e a r l y p o i n t of d e v e l o p m e n t , to the m a t i n g of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h a frustration. T h e m o d e l he uses is that of a n infant w h o s e expectation of a breast is m a t e d w i t h a realisa­ t i o n of a ' n o breast' available. T h e experience, t h e n , is of a 'no-breast' i n s i d e . T h e next step taken b y the infant d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r the infant tries to e v a d e f r u s t r a t i o n or to m o d i f y it. A s I see it, there are t w o p r o b l e m s w i t h this a p p r o a c h . Firstly, a need, be it p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , or b o t h , is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y the s a m e as a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n or as ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . A c o n c e p t i o n c a n arise i n s t e a d f r o m the satisfaction of a n e e d . F o r instance, the c o n ­ c e p t i o n of a breast m i g h t b e s a i d to arise f r o m the experience of satis­ f a c t i o n of h u n g e r at the breast. W e c o u l d say, t h e n , that a c o n c e p t i o n is p r o d u c e d b y the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of a n e e d a n d the realisation of a n object w h i c h satisfies that n e e d . T h e r e is n o n e e d to i m p o r t a P l a t o n i c o r K a n t i a n t h e o r y of 'Innate Ideas' to u n d e r p i n this process. S e c o n d l y , the infant c o u l d o n l y be left w i t h the experience of a ' n o breast' i n s i d e if it a l r e a d y h a d a c o n c e p t i o n of a breast. It m a k e s perfect sense that a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast can be m a t e d w i t h the realisation of a no-breast, b u t it m a k e s n o sense to s a y that a n e m p t y t h o u g h t , if f r u s t r a t e d , c a n p r o d u c e a f u l l t h o u g h t — a 'no-breast'. In other w o r d s , to get to ' n o breast' y o u m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e got to 'breast'. A n infant w h o has n o t yet e s t a b l i s h e d the c o n c e p t i o n (the i m a g e , the experience) o f the breast a n d w h o s e h u n g e r is frustrated, w i l l be left w i t h d i s c o m f o r t a n d distress a n d p e r h a p s , if one really stretches this d u b i o u s p o i n t , a ' n o - t h i n g ' i n s i d e . B u t b y i m p o r t i n g the t h e o r y of 'innate i d e a s ' a n d ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e , B i o n is j u m p i n g the g u n a n d i n s e r t i n g the c o n c e p ­ t i o n of the breast i n t o the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n stage. B i o n p r o c e e d s to say that, if the infant c a n tolerate f r u s t r a t i o n , the ' n o breast' i n s i d e b e c o m e s a t h o u g h t a n d t h i n k i n g d e v e l o p s . T h e g u l f of f r u s t r a t i o n c a n t h e n b e b r i d g e d b e t w e e n the m o m e n t o f w a n t a n d the m o m e n t of satisfaction. If a n i n f a n t c a n n o t tolerate frustration he w i l l t e n d to e v a d e it. W h a t s h o u l d be a t h o u g h t , a p r o d u c t of the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n a n d n e g a t i v e realisation, b e c o m e s a bad object, fit o n l y for e v a c u a t i o n , a

135

Linda Buckingham

thing-in-itself. A g a i n , I t h i n k it m a k e s m o r e sense to s p e a k of infants w h o h a v e a c o n c e p t i o n , a n d expectation, of the breast b u t c a n n o t tol­ erate its n o n - a p p e a r a n c e a n d so t u r n it bad i n their m i n d s . If w e are talk­ i n g of a n infant w h o has not yet f o r m e d a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast, then the infant, w h e n its n e e d is frustrated, w i l l h a v e the experience of d i s ­ c o m f o r t , agitation a n d p e r h a p s the presence of s o m e t h i n g b a d . T o h a v e a n experience of a ' n o breast' w o u l d be too s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e b a b y w o u l d n o t h a v e got there yet. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of his s e c t i o n o n p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , B i o n ' s theory is i n v a l u a b l e as a d e s c r i p t i o n of the ability to t h i n k a n d to tolerate e m o ­ t i o n a l life. I w i l l n o t s u m m a r i s e the rest of this t h e o r y since it is d i s ­ c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s chapter. H o w e v e r , I s h o u l d e m p h a s i s e that the substance of B i o n ' s t h e o r y is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the different m e n t a l states c o n s e q u e n t u p o n w h e t h e r the infant m a n a g e s , i n v a r i o u s w a y s , to tol­ erate p s y c h i c p a i n or opts to e v a d e i t — e . g . t h r o u g h d e n i a l or o m n i p o ­ tence. I t h i n k it is t i m e l y to q u e s t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories b y e x a m i n i n g their p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d to d e c i d e

w h i c h ideas

we

b e l i e v e to be true or, at the v e r y least, to be a w a r e of w h y w e are d r a w n to certain theories. A s far as B i o n is c o n c e r n e d I d o n o t believe it is useful to graft c o m ­ p l i c a t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y onto the b a b y ' s experience. I w o u l d be inclined

to d i t c h the t h e o r y

of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s

a n d take

a

more

E m p i r i c i s t , M a t e r i a l i s t line b y f o l l o w i n g the b a b y ' s actual experience. I n his ' T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g ' B i o n ' s e a r l y p r o p o s i t i o n s are suffused w i t h the p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y of innate ideas a n d ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . H i s later p r o p o s i t i o n s , f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n s of ' c o n c e p t i o n s ' o n w a r d s , are m o r e Realist a n d E m p i r i c i s t . It is clearly a t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g w h i c h is itself i n f l u e n c e d b y theories of k n o w l e d g e a n d l e a r n i n g . S i m i l a r l y , as I h a v e s h o w n , K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g has

both

P l a t o n i c (innate ideas) a n d Realist, E m p i r i c i s t strands. H e r statements a b o u t the infant's u n c o n s c i o u s , innate k n o w l e d g e of s e x u a l functions contrast w i t h her d e s c r i p t i o n s of h o w the infant g r a d u a l l y m a n a g e s to d i s t i n g u i s h p h a n t a s y f r o m reality. I n b o t h K l e i n a n d B i o n ' s w o r k the d i v e r s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l tastes of readers

a n d students

are

therefore

catered for b u t there has n o t yet b e e n a n y s u s t a i n e d debate as to w h i c h of their p r o p o s i t i o n s are a c t u a l l y true. T h e o r i e s t e n d to be

either

e s p o u s e d or s h u n n e d i n total, w h e r e a s a critical analysis of a theory w h i c h teases o u t its different strands w i l l s u r e l y h e l p its u s e f u l ele­ m e n t s to s u r v i v e as s p r i n g b o a r d s to further k n o w l e d g e .

T H E D O G ' S TEMPER: A N ESSAY O N T H E VICISSITUDES O F LEARNING

Kirsty

Hall

T h e m i n d s o f m o r t a l s are so different a n d bent o n s u c h d i v e r s e j o u r n e y s that it m a y at first a p p e a r i m p o s s i b l e for a n y c o m m o n taste a n d f e l l o w s h i p to exist b e t w e e n t w o o r three u n d e r these s u p p o s i t i o n s . It is h o w e v e r quite the contrary. M i n d s

would

l e a v e e a c h other i n c o n t r a r y directions, traverse e a c h other i n n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s , a n d at last greet e a c h other at the j o u r n e y ' s e n d . A n o l d m a n a n d a c h i l d w o u l d talk together a n d the o l d m a n b e l e d o n h i s p a t h a n d the c h i l d left t h i n k i n g . — J o h n K e a t s , letter to R e y n o l d s (Keats 1960:102) 'Try another Subtraction s u m . Take a bone f r o m a d o g : what remains?' A l i c e c o n s i d e r e d . ' T h e b o n e w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n , of c o u r s e , if I t o o k it - a n d the d o g w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n : it w o u l d c o m e to bite m e - a n d I ' m sure I s h o u l d n ' t r e m a i n ! ' ' T h e n y o u t h i n k n o t h i n g w o u l d r e m a i n ? ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n . T t h i n k that's the a n s w e r / ' W r o n g , as u s u a l , ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n : ' T h e d o g ' s

temper

w o u l d r e m a i n . ' ( C a r r o l l 1872: 174-5) T h e s e are t w o v e r y different scenarios, each of w h i c h c o u l d b e t e r m e d a ' l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e ' . T h e p u r p o s e o f this p a p e r is n o t to e x a m i n e the h i g h w a y s a n d b y e w a y s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d other theories of l e a r n ­ i n g . O t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to this b o o k h a v e a l r e a d y t a c k l e d this p r o b l e m . Instead I a m e x p l o r i n g o n e p a r t i c u l a r p a t h , the v i c i s s i t u d e s o f the p a t h that l e a d s a p e r s o n to l e a r n to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . T h i s p a p e r l o o k s at the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g expe­ 1

riences s u c h p e o p l e g o t h r o u g h . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are often attacked. T h e y are a t t a c k e d i n the m e d i a for b e i n g e x p e n s i v e , l o n g - w i n d e d , a n d ineffec­ tive. C o u n s e l l o r s are q u i c k e r a n d cheaper. S o m e t i m e s , their services are free, b e c a u s e e v e n f u l l y - t r a i n e d c o u n s e l l o r s are p r e p a r e d to g a i n experience

as v o l u n t e e r s .

E v e n cheaper

a n d even

more

effective,

a p p a r e n t l y , is a self-help g r o u p . A n o t h e r n o t c h u p (or is it d o w n ? ) o n

Kirshj Hall

137

the s a m e scale is the self-help b o o k a n d the internet site. T h e f i n a l n o t c h (the last straw?) is the n e w s p a p e r article, i n w h i c h s o m e o n e claims: T s o l v e d m y p r o b l e m b y t a k i n g s u c h - a n d - s u c h a tablet; there's no need to s p e n d lots of time a n d m o n e y b a r i n g o n e ' s s o u l to s o m e o n e else'. T h e p a r a d o x d e s c r i b e d here is that p s y c h o t h e r a p y h o l d s o u t the p r o s p e c t of b e i n g too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m p l a t e , w h i l s t at the s a m e time offering a n o p p o r t u n i t y to relieve the v e r y s a m e p a i n — y e t p e o p l e p r e ­ fer the i m p e r s o n a l i t y of a p i l l . M e a n w h i l e there is a n a p p a r e n t l y inexhaustible interest i n a n d c o n ­ c e r n a b o u t the quality of o u r lives: H o w s h o u l d w e c o p e w i t h loss, w i t h tragedy, w i t h disaster? C a n w e f i n d w a y s to d e a l w i t h o u r p h o b i a s , w i t h a d d i c t i o n to a l c o h o l or d r u g s ? C a n w e ever be h a p p y ? W h a t k i n d of sex-life m i g h t w e h a v e ? Is it the s a m e as that of other p e o p l e ? C a n w e c o p e w i t h the strains a n d stresses of w o r k ? S h o u l d we stay i n o u r present difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p or not? D e s p i t e the o p p r o b r i u m frequent­ l y h e a p e d u p o n the h e l p i n g professions, f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s t s to social w o r k e r s , there is, apparently, n o shortage of p e o p l e q u e u i n g u p for h e l p w i t h these a n d m a n y other questions. P e o p l e d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d to talk to s o m e o n e b u t , at the same t i m e , this is the last t h i n g they w a n t to d o . If y o u d o choose s i m p l y to take the tablets, y o u a v o i d the p r o b ­ lems b u t also the pleasures of b u i l d i n g a relationship w i t h s o m e o n e else, w h e t h e r it is a f r i e n d or a therapist. T h e twenty-first c e n t u r y is a time i n w h i c h loneliness is e n d e m i c w i t h i n m a n y cultures. S i m i l a r l y there is a p l e t h o r a of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n all k i n d s of things f r o m all k i n d s of m e d i a — p o p u l a r n o v e l s , soaps,

newspaper

articles, T V p r o g r a m m e s , s u r f i n g the internet a n d so o n . T h e i n f o r m a ­ tion o b t a i n e d , w h e t h e r it is about c o o k i n g , D I Y or f i x i n g y o u r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p , is often e n t e r t a i n i n g a n d i n f o r m a t i v e . H o w e v e r , the often-regur­ gitated collective v i e w of large n u m b e r s

of p e o p l e , a l t h o u g h

often

s u p e r f i c i a l l y v e r y attractive, can be less t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g a n d less enjoyable t h a n r e a d i n g the o r i g i n a l v i e w s of a single author. T o i l l u s ­ trate the p r o b l e m of r e d u c i n g ideas to their l o w e s t c o m m o n

denomi­

nator, I r e c o m m e n d a D i s n e y r i d e at the E p c o t centre i n F l o r i d a . Y o u c a n sit i n a g o n d o l a a n d take a r i d e t h r o u g h a n artificial starry n i g h t , l e a r n i n g about the h i s t o r y of the w o r l d i n five m i n u t e s . Y o u pass b y a tableau of ' A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s ' , f o l l o w e d

b y a t a b l e a u of

'Ancient

R o m a n s ' . . . Incidentally, I a m referring here to the h i s t o r y of the h u m a n race; interestingly, d i n o s a u r s m e r i t a separate s h o w s o m e fifteen m i n ­ utes longer. E v e n quite y o u n g c h i l d r e n f o u n d the tableaux rather b o r ­ i n g — p e r h a p s because it w a s too s i m p l e for 'the u n d e r tens'?

138

The Dog's Temper S o , are these a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x e s — t h e p a i n a n d p l e a s u r e of l e a r n ­

i n g , a n d the p a i n a n d pleasure of p s y c h o t h e r a p y — i n a n y w a y related? T h i s p a p e r w i l l a r g u e that i n d e e d t h e y are. In the case of p s y c h o t h e r a ­ p y p e o p l e w a n t relief f r o m their suffering w i t h o u t h a v i n g to e x a m i n e w h a t m a d e t h e m suffer i n the first place. In the case of l e a r n i n g , they w a n t to f i n d o u t a b o u t s o m e t h i n g w i t h o u t g o i n g t h r o u g h the g r i n d of h a v i n g to a c q u i r e a large b o d y of k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e seems to be a n i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the degree of p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t , c o m ­ m i t m e n t , a n d self-exposure r e q u i r e d , a n d the p o p u l a r i t y of the treat­ m e n t or p r o c e s s , w h e t h e r it is p s y c h o t h e r a p y or l e a r n i n g .

*** P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k for the cause of this d i l e m m a i n the n a t u r e of l e a r n i n g itself a n d i n the nature of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e quotations

at the b e g i n n i n g of this p a p e r illustrate t w o

differing

aspects of the p r o b l e m . T h e first is K e a t s ' h o p e f u l a n d l i f e - g i v i n g affir­ m a t i o n that i n spite of a l l the difficulties, at least s o m e t i m e s , m i n d s do m e e t . T h e o p t i m i s t i c r e a d i n g of K e a t s is, therefore, that the e x p e r i e n c e of l e a r n i n g a n d — i n d e e d — o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s too c a n be l i f e - a f f i r m i n g a n d e n h a n c i n g . H o w e v e r , Alice Through the Looking Glass perfectly s u m ­ marises a fundamental h u m a n d i l e m m a : w h e n we think w e ' v e learned s o m e t h i n g , it m a y be perfectly correct i n one sense yet

completely

w r o n g i n another. It d e p e n d s o n the a s s u m p t i o n s w e m a k e . A l i c e ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h the R e d Q u e e n also m a k e s it clear that i n s o m e cir­ c u m s t a n c e s l e a r n i n g c a n be a n e x t r e m e l y u n p l e a s a n t experience. T h e s e p o i n t s are the m e a t o n the b o n e I w a n t to c h e w over. L e a r n i n g - c e n t r e d p r o b l e m s are, after a l l , issues w h i c h c o n c e r n the v e r y n u t s a n d bolts of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H o w e v e r w r o n g - h e a d e d a n d incorrect p e o p l e m a y a p p e a r to be, t h e y d o i n d e e d m a k e j u d g e m e n t s , a c q u i r e ' i n f o r m a t i o n ' about themselves a n d c h a n g e their lives o v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e — i n short, they learn. O n e of the settings w h i c h c a n be u s e d for this process is the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c setting. In a sense, t h e n , p s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be b o t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y for e x p l o r i n g T h e

'Alice

T h r o u g h the L o o k i n g G l a s s ' w o r l d of m i s g u i d e d a s s u m p t i o n s

and

e r r o r s of j u d g e m e n t a b o u t o u r s e l v e s , a n d also a p l a c e w h e r e w e

may

e x p e r i e n c e the relief of b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d — a m e e t i n g of m i n d s i n the s p i r i t of K e a t s . H a v i n g h i g h l i g h t e d s o m e of the d i l e m m a s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g , w h i c h produce ambivalence towards psychoanalysis a n d psychother­

Kirsty

139

Hall

a p y i n all their v a r i o u s f o r m s , I w a n t to t u r n the spotlight u p o n the p a t h I p i c k e d o u t at the b e g i n n i n g of this chapter: the p a t h of l e a r n i n g w h i c h leads to q u a l i f i c a t i o n as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t or p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . H o w is the practice of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a s s e d o n f r o m one generation to another, a n d h o w d o students or trainees learn? If it is difficult for those o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d to c o m e i n t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y , h o w

much

m o r e difficult is it to train p e o p l e to b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y ­ chotherapists? D o w e e q u i p p e o p l e to operate i n a p a r a d o x i c a l w o r l d w h e r e o u r clients b o t h d o a n d d o not w a n t us to w o r k w i t h t h e m , a n d i n w h i c h there is outright s u s p i c i o n of w h a t w e h a v e to offer? T a l k i n g of s u s p i c i o n — d o w e let trainees loose w i t h the a r g u m e n t s for a n d against p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a n d for a n d against c o m p e t i n g theories of c l i n ­ i c a l practice, a l l o w i n g t h e m to participate freely a n d to offer their o w n p o i n t of v i e w , o r w o u l d this i n v o l v e too m u c h risk? In the process of e x p l o r i n g theories of l e a r n i n g as they a p p l y to the p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , I w a n t to relate this i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e of l e a r n i n g to the w i d e r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c u l t u r e a n d to s h o w h o w , c o n t r a r y to the c o m m o n l y h e l d c o n v i c t i o n of m a n y analysts a n d therapists, changes i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, p a r t i c u l a r l y o v e r the last forty years, h a v e p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d c l i n i c a l practice,

e v e n if this

i n f l u e n c e has n o t b e e n w e l l r e c o g n i s e d or a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of the process of l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t or p s y c h o a n a l y s t is f a i r l y t y p i c a l : •

T r a i n i n g is p r e d i c a t e d u p o n y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l analysis or t h e r a p y ( k n o w n i n the field as a ' t r a i n i n g analysis'), s o m e clinical e x p e r i ­ ence, a n often c u r s o r y r e a d i n g of selected texts w h i c h c o n f o r m to the p r e j u d i c e s of the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h w h i c h y o u train, a n d listen­ i n g to a p p a r e n t l y endless n u m b e r s of s o - c a l l e d ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s .

•

E v e n t u a l l y , p r o v i d e d y o u h a v e a v o i d e d t r e a d i n g o n too m a n y of the traditionalists' toes (in the guise of the m e m b e r s

of the t r a i n i n g

c o m m i t t e e ) , y o u e m e r g e f r o m the other e n d of the s a u s a g e - m a c h i n e e x h a u s t e d a n d penniless but, nevertheless, a q u a l i f i e d , registered, p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t o r p s y c h o a n a l y s t , a p p a r e n t l y fit to practice a n a c q u i r e d ' s k i l l ' o n the u n s u s p e c t i n g p u b l i c . U n f o r t u n a t e l y this is i n m a n y cases a s k i l l w h i c h has b e e n a c q u i r e d without

any

apparent need

to u n d e r s t a n d — e v e n

in rudimentary

f o r m — m a n y of the f u n d a m e n t a l ideas w h i c h u n d e r p i n the d a y - t o - d a y

140

The Dog's Temper

practice of p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a n d w h i c h h a v e b e e n the c o m m o n c u r r e n c y of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d i s c o u r s e d u r i n g the first h a l f o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n ­ tury. T h i s l a c k of k n o w l e d g e is e v i d e n t f r o m a n y t r a w l t h r o u g h the c u r ­ rent literature, i n w h i c h it is the n o r m rather t h a n the e x c e p t i o n to w r i t e ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s for p u b l i c a t i o n . In these p a p e r s a n attempt to d e r i v e s o m e t h e o r y f r o m three o r four clinical e x a m p l e s is m a d e , regardless o f the fact that, i n the vast m a j o r i t y of cases, there is n o g o o d

reason

a d d u c e d for a d h e r i n g to o n e t h e o r y rather t h a n another. M u c h u s e f u l k n o w l e d g e relevant to the topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n — b u t n o t d e e m e d to be ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l ' — i s s i m p l y i g n o r e d . T h i s is i n stark contrast to the p a p e r s w r i t t e n i n the first half o f the t w e n t i e t h century, w h e r e the a u t h o r s began w i t h theory, a n d i l l u s t r a t e d the issues w i t h c l i n i c a l e x a m ­ ples.

2

T h e p e r c e p t i o n that there is a p r o b l e m i n t r a i n i n g p e o p l e to b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s is n o t n e w , n o r is it restricted to B r i t a i n . In 1996, O t t o K e r n b e r g published a highly entertaining, tongue-in-cheek paper enti­ tled:

'Thirty Methods

to D e s t r o y

the C r e a t i v i t y of P s y c h o a n a l y t i c

C a n d i d a t e s ' . A brief extract c o n v e y s the f l a v o u r : T h e f o l l o w i n g list of w a y s to i n h i b i t the creativity of p s y c h o a n a ­ lytic c a n d i d a t e s is n o t expected to be e x h a u s t i v e , a l t h o u g h I h o p e it covers d o m i n a n t p r o b l e m s . . . N a t u r a l l y , a v o i d s t i m u l a t i n g c a n ­ d i d a t e s to p u t a n y n e w , o r i g i n a l i d e a o f their o w n into w r i t i n g : w r i t i n g s h o u l d be a chore, a n o b l i g a t i o n , n e v e r a p l e a s u r e , a n e a r l y source of p r i d e i n c o n t r i b u t i n g to the science of p s y c h o ­ analysis w h i l e still b e i n g a student. ( K e r n b e r g 1996)

3

T h e c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h K e r n b e r g m a k e s b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d cre­ ativity is d e m o n s t r a t e d b u t n o t e x p l o r e d b y h i m . Yet it is here I t h i n k that w e n e e d to start o u r search: W h e r e is the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c u r ­ rent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c practice a n d l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t ? P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , as p r a c t i s e d b y s o m e , offers the o p p o r t u n i t y of m a k i n g subtle b u t i m p o r t a n t distinctions b e t w e e n those w h o are n e u r o t i c (less d i s t u r b e d ) a n d those w h o are p s y c h o t i c (severely d i s t u r b e d ) ; i n other w o r d s , b e t w e e n those for w h o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y i n d e e d b e ' t h e t a l k i n g c u r e ' , a n d others to w h o m w e c a n offer o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d h e l p . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h to theories of r e m e m b e r i n g a n d forgetting, a n d it h a s c o n n e c t e d these to t r a u m a . It h a s i n f l u e n c e d d i s ­ course theory, a n d h a s b r o u g h t to the f o r e g r o u n d the v a l u e of the

Kirsty Hall

141

h u m a n subject a n d the subjective. O u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o m e of the c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h u m a n s e x u a l i t y w o u l d be e v e n m o r e w o e f u l l y i n a d e ­ quate w i t h o u t the c o n t r i b u t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n s i g h t s , a n d ambivalences

the

of h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n a n d causality are i n e x p l i c a b l e

w i t h o u t s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c k n o w l e d g e . I h a v e selected just a few of the areas i n w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has m u c h to c o n t r i b u t e , b u t it is m y p e r c e p t i o n that v e r y few practitioners of a n y p e r s u a s i o n c o u l d a c t u a l ­ l y d i s c u s s these theories w i t h a n y degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . O f t e n , they are c o m p l e t e l y u n a w a r e that their c l i n i c a l practice c o u l d be e n h a n c e d b y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the theoretical concerns a l l u d e d to above. So the q u e s t i o n remains: W h y

d o n ' t w e use p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory

to

i m p r o v e o u r practice, i n s t e a d of s h y i n g a w a y f r o m it w i t h excuses s u c h as b e i n g too b u s y or e x h a u s t e d to r e a d , o r else s l i p p i n g i n t o the tired o l d v i e w that a c a d e m i c p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has n o t h i n g to offer the p r a c t i ­ tioner? In the v a s t majority of trainings it is i m p o r t a n t that m i n d s are seen to m e e t , i.e. that y o u r m i n d is seen to be i n agreement w i t h those w h o h a v e t r a i n e d y o u . H o w e v e r , p u b l i c l y v o i c e d o p i n i o n s are often

not

r e a l l y o p i n i o n s at a l l , rather they are ' u n e a s y a g r e e m e n t s ' — n o t , I t h i n k , quite w h a t K e a t s h a d i n m i n d . It is c o m m o n p l a c e for s o m e p s y c h o a n ­ alysts to a r g u e that ' t r a d i t i o n ' m u s t s i m p l y be a c c e p t e d . T r a d i t i o n s e e m s to i n c l u d e a t r e a d m i l l of ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s : s o m e of these p a p e r s h a v e a n e m p i r i c a l scientific basis, a l t h o u g h the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the ' s c i e n c e ' a n d the client i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m is often left u n c l e a r ; others are of the v a r i e t y i n w h i c h phrases like ' m y patient's persistent a c t i n g - o u t of her u n c o n s c i o u s e n v y m a d e m e u n a b l e to t h i n k ' a b o u n d . M u c h o f the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w o r l d seems to p r e s u m e that e x a m i n i n g y o u r own

state of m i n d is: (a) one of the m a i n tools of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ,

a n d (b) that it is a reliable g u i d e to the state of m i n d of the patient. O f t e n t h e s e — a n d o n l y t h e s e — k i n d s of p a p e r s are d e e m e d suitable to f o r m the research projects of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . A n o t h e r frequent experience is for p e o p l e to train a l m o s t entirely w i t h i n a single n a r r o w t r a d i t i o n , w h e r e one analyst's w o r k is p r e ­ s u m e d i n v a r i a b l y to lead to the 'correct' p a t h of t h i n k i n g . A g a i n , K e a t s ' v i s i o n of a c r o s s i n g of paths cannot h a p p e n if e v e r y o n e is b l i n d l y t r e a d ­ i n g i n the footsteps of the p e r s o n a h e a d . H o w e v e r , this rather critical v i e w of current t r a i n i n g s m u s t

be

e x a m i n e d m o r e closely. If I a m to suggest that the t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d of t r a i n i n g p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s n e e d s to be c h a n g e d

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The Dogs Temper

t h e n , to b e fair, w e s h o u l d l o o k at w h a t the attractions a n d a d v a n t a g e s of the c u r r e n t t r a d i t i o n are. S o , w h a t is the other side of the coin? T h e reassurance offered b y t r a d i t i o n is v i v i d l y illustrated i n a t r a d i ­ t i o n a l C h r i s t m a s carol, the f o u r t h verse o f G o o d K i n g Wenceslas: 'Sire the n i g h t is d a r k e r n o w , a n d the w i n d b l o w s stronger; Fails m y heart I k n o w n o t how, I c a n g o n o longer.' ' M a r k m y footsteps, g o o d m y Page; Tread thou i n them boldly: T h o u shalt f i n d the w i n t e r ' s rage F r e e z e t h y b l o o d less c o l d l y . ' I w o n d e r a b o u t the s e n t i m e n t of this verse. I a m n o t c o n c e r n e d here, i n c i d e n t a l l y , w i t h the r e l i g i o u s aspect o f the carol, b u t rather w i t h the s t o r y that it tells. T h e P a g e h a s to h e l p the K i n g d i s t r i b u t e gifts to the p o o r . H o w e v e r the P a g e , i n t u r n , needs h e l p to c a r r y o u t this task. W h y s h o u l d p l o d d i n g after s o m e o n e else be s o reassuring? First o f a l l , at o n e l e v e l it w o r k s v e r y efficiently; the P a g e gets d o n e the job of d e l i v e r i n g a l m s to the peasant. T h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t 'learns' to b e c o m e a p s y ­ c h o t h e r a p i s t , s o w h e r e ' s the p r o b l e m ? M y i m p r e s s i o n is that m a n y practitioners are i n the p o s i t i o n of the P a g e f r o m ' G o o d K i n g Wenceslas' rather t h a n i n that of the c h i l d f r o m the letter b y K e a t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t t h e y fear m o s t is b e i n g p u t i n the p o s i t i o n o f A l i c e i n Through the Looking Glass. It feels safer to f o l l o w w e l l - t r o d d e n p a t h s , a n d e v e n to r e m a i n u n a w a r e of the often v i t r i o l i c a r g u m e n t s w h i c h are i n f u l l f l o w i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , w h e t h e r they c o n ­ c e r n h o w m a n y sessions a w e e k a patient s h o u l d b e seen, the p r o s a n d cons of the u s e o f the counter-transference, o r the s o - c a l l e d ' s h o r t ' ses­ sion. A C h r i s t m a s carol p r o b a b l y changes a little o v e r the years, b u t n o t v e r y m u c h , a n d the debates i n the p s y c h o t h e r a p y f i e l d h a v e c h a n g e d a little o v e r the years, b u t n o t m u c h . T h e tasks o f the P a g e are m a n y a n d v a r i e d , b u t also l i m i t e d i n s c o p e . S t u d e n t s a n d trainees are r a r e l y a s k e d to w o r k t h r o u g h r i v a l r e a d i n g s of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x for e x a m p l e , o r specifically to relate t h e o r y to practice. T h e y are often expected to d e r i v e t h e o r y f r o m practice rather t h a n vice versa. It is n o t a n t i c i p a t e d that they w i l l b e critical of w h a t

Kirsty

143

Hall

t h e y r e a d , a n d t h e y are c e r t a i n l y n o t e n c o u r a g e d to use w h a t they h a v e r e a d to criticise c l i n i c a l practice. It is also f r e q u e n t l y the case that students are not e x p e c t e d to read w h o l e b o o k s — p e r h a p s this m i g h t l e a d to d i s a g r e e m e n t . In the same v e i n , I a m often a s k e d if I can s u g g e s t cribs for the w o r k of w e l l - k n o w n p s y c h o a n a l y s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y that of L a c a n ; b u t I h a v e also b e e n asked for a M e l a n i e K l e i n crib a n d a F r e u d crib i n m y time. W h y ? Because it a p p e a r s to the s t u d e n t that they w i l l save s o m e of that p r e c i o u s c o m ­ m o d i t y , time. H o w e v e r , I t h i n k t h e y m i g h t i n s t e a d be t a k i n g a n e v e n larger r i s k — t h e y m a y w e l l h a v e b e c o m e b o r e d s i l l y l o n g before they h a v e f i n i s h e d r e a d i n g the c r i b — t h e ' D i s n e y l a n d ' s y n d r o m e !

Many

cribs c o n t a i n statements w h i c h differ s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m those of the o r i g i n a l author. S o m e t i m e s t h e y are e v e n d o w n r i g h t w r o n g . A crib is r e a l l y o n l y h e l p f u l if it is u s e d i n the o r i g i n a l sense of a c r i b , i.e. y o u h a v e the o r i g i n a l text a l o n g s i d e a n d r e a d b o t h alternately. I disagree w i t h the a x i o m that 'less is m o r e ' — t h i s m a y be true, i n s o m e cases, w h e r e m a k i n g interpretations of a patient's w o r d s is c o n c e r n e d , b u t i n the case of r e a d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , less is quite s i m p l y less.

Pages

d o n ' t n e e d to k n o w as m u c h as K i n g s so that t h e y w o n ' t h a v e to w o r r y a b o u t b e i n g w r o n g , like A l i c e . Teachers also c o n s p i r e i n the b u s i n e s s of r e a d i n g less. E v e r y w h e r e I go, I a m t o l d that trainees are ' t o o b u s y ' to r e a d , often c o m b i n i n g f u l l ­ t i m e w o r k a n d y o u n g families. It has e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d to m e that t e a c h i n g the t h e o r y of o n l y one p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s c h o o l m e a n s that the s t u d e n t c a n t h e n save v a l u a b l e time. O f c o u r s e , this is s i m p l y a m e a n s b y w h i c h the status q u o c a n be u p h e l d — t h e Pages w o n ' t ever k n o w that there are other m e t h o d s of g o v e r n m e n t o u t there. B u t w o u l d w e accept these s a m e a r g u m e n t s i n the t r a i n i n g of doctors or l a w y e r s ? S t u d e n t s are r a r e l y g i v e n the o p p o r t u n i t y to argue w i t h their teach­ ers o r to l e a r n f r o m other students, except i n the l i m i t e d sense of m i x ­ i n g w i t h p e o p l e f r o m the s a m e year. S t u d e n t g r o u p s are often v e r y s m a l l , b u t this d o e s n o t s e e m to l e a d to i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n — i t just k e e p s the range of debate as n a r r o w as p o s s i b l e . T e a c h i n g o n n e a r l y all courses is d i d a c t i c , m a k e s use of little i n the w a y of t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n v e n t i o n s s u c h as tapes, o v e r h e a d projectors, f i l m s , T V p r o g r a m m e s , d i a g r a m s , f l o w charts, a n d so o n . I c a n t h i n k of instances w h e r e these are e m p l o y e d , b u t they are few a n d far b e t w e e n . O v e r a l l , this t r a i n i n g format d o e s not s e e m to h a v e c h a n g e d m u c h since the 1950s. S t u d e n t s i n m o s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s are d i v i d e d into y e a r g r o u p s , a practice a d o p t e d i n B r i t a i n b y the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l

144

The Dog's Temper

S o c i e t y after the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s . T h e theoretical t r a i n i n g p a r t l y consists of teaching the w o r k s of w h o e v e r are c o n c e i v e d to be the m a j o r

theorists b y the t r a i n i n g b o d y i n q u e s t i o n — x weeks o n

F r e u d , y w e e k s o n J u n g , z w e e k s s t u d y i n g B i o n etc. T h e biggest change since the 1950s is p r o b a b l y t e a c h i n g a c c o r d i n g to w h a t e v e r are the c u r ­ r e n t l y ' p o l i t i c a l l y correct' h e a d i n g s — x w e e k s o n f e m i n i s m , r a c i s m , a n d the i m p l i c a t i o n s of sexual abuse. It is interesting to o b s e r v e that, i n u n i ­ v e r s i t i e s , it is often courses w h i c h discuss issues s u c h as f e m i n i s m , r a c i s m , c u l t u r e a n d g e n d e r w h i c h m a k e u s e of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas, a n d p r o d u c e o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g i n this area. It does n o t s e e m to be the c l i n i c a l trainings l e a d i n g the w a y , as a result of research c o n d u c t e d w i t h patients. W h y is there s u c h a n i n v e s t m e n t i n e n s u r i n g that b o t h the content a n d process of teaching p s y c h o a n a l y s i s r e m a i n s largely static, w h i l s t the w o r l d o u t s i d e is c h a n g i n g ever m o r e r a p i d l y ? I n m a n y countries, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is r e c o g n i s e d as a d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h is d e e p l y e n g a g e d i n a r g u m e n t a n d debate w i t h p s y c h i a t r y , p h i l o s o p h y ,

anthropology

a n d s o c i o l o g y ; whereas i n m a n y other c o u n t r i e s , it seems, these inter­ actions are d e e m e d to be b o t h too difficult a n d too d a n g e r o u s , if n o t i m p o s s i b l e . E v e n i n countries s u c h as F r a n c e o r A r g e n t i n a , w h e r e p s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s is a m u c h m o r e m a i n s t r e a m a c t i v i t y t h a n the U K , the f e w w h o d a r e to disagree w i t h the ' s c h o o l o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' to w h i c h their t r a i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n o w e s allegiance c o u r t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f o p p r o b r i ­ u m , i n s u l t s , a n d e x p u l s i o n , a l l too r e m i n i s c e n t of the fate of e a r l y p i o ­ neers s u c h as S a n d o r F e r e n c z i or W i l h e l m R e i c h . Is the s t u d y of p s y ­ choanalysis

always

doomed

to l e a d

to s p l i t s

and

dissension?

P e r h a p s — s a d l y — i t is. E v e n if o n e accepts L a c a n ' s v i e w that s p l i t t i n g a n d d i s s e n s i o n are a n essential process, the o n l y w a y to p r e v e n t u s f r o m b e c o m i n g e m b e d d e d e v e r m o r e s o l i d l y i n the comforts a n d l i m i ­ tations of t r a d i t i o n , the experience of splits a n d d i s s e n s i o n c a n be ago­ n i s i n g l y p a i n f u l as close f r i e n d s t u r n i n t o d e a d l y enemies. T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e style of t r a i n i n g I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e of course p r o d u c e s results. T h e Pages l e a r n to tread i n the footsteps of the K i n g . P e o p l e b e c o m e Pages, a n d b e c o m e w e l l m a n n e r e d . T h e y k n o w h o w to b e h a v e i n C o u r t . T h e p r e v a i l i n g culture i n B r i t a i n a n d , I suspect, i n many

other countries, is that p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s

of all p e r s u a s i o n s

i n c r e a s i n g l y invest i n p o r t r a y i n g themselves as ultra-respectable m e m ­ b e r s o f society w h o c o n f o r m to ever m o r e t i g h t l y - d r a w n codes of b e h a v i o u r a n d clinical p r a c t i c e . Pages d o n ' t disagree w i t h K i n g s ; t h e y 4

d o n ' t say: ' W o u l d n ' t be better i f w e c a l l e d it a d a y for n o w a n d set o u t

Kirsty Hall

145

t o m o r r o w , w h e n the w i n d has d r o p p e d ? ' or: I f w e p a i d the peasants a bit m o r e , w e w o u l d n ' t n e e d to m a k e this j o u r n e y ' . In the p r e v a i l i n g a t m o s p h e r e it b e c o m e s difficult to l e a r n anything

- let alone p r o p o s e

s o m e t h i n g fresh a n d new. T h e Page doesn't w a n t to c o m e to a sticky e n d at the h a n d s of the K i n g , o r at the h a n d s of his o r her colleagues, o r — t o m i x m y q u o t a t i o n s — b e the object of the d o g ' s temper. T h u s , I suggest, t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s of teaching p r o d u c e a strangle­ h o l d o n creative l e a r n i n g . W e p r o d u c e competent Pages, b u t v e r y f e w K i n g s w h o m i g h t a d v a n c e the cause of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .

** * T h e next step i n the a n a l y s i s of w h a t l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a ­ lyst o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n v o l v e s e x p l o r i n g w h a t is m e a n t b y the w o r d ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' , w h i c h I h a v e u s e d m a n y times i n m y d e s c r i p t i o n of the c u r r e n t situation. W h e r e does ' t r a d i t i o n ' fit i n a t h e o r y o f learning? I w a n t to m a k e use o f R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n his b o o k Keywords—A

Vocabulary

of Culture and Society (1976). T h e root

w o r d i n L a t i n has the f o l l o w i n g m e a n i n g s : (i) d e l i v e r y , (ii) h a n d i n g d o w n k n o w l e d g e , (iii) p a s s i n g o n a d o c ­ trine, (iv) s u r r e n d e r o r b e t r a y a l . (Williams 1976: 318-9) Williams comments: W h e n w e l o o k at the d e t a i l e d processes of a n y o f these t r a d i ­ tions, i n d e e d w h e n w e realise that there are traditions... a n d that o n l y s o m e of t h e m o r parts of t h e m h a v e b e e n selected for o u r respect a n d d u t y , w e c a n see h o w difficult t r a d i t i o n r e a l l y is, i n a n abstract o r e x h o r t a t o r y or, as s o often, r a t i f y i n g use. It is s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v e d , b y those w h o h a v e l o o k e d into partic­ u l a r traditions that it o n l y takes t w o generations to m a k e a n y ­ t h i n g t r a d i t i o n a l : n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , since that is the sense of tra­ d i t i o n as active process. B u t the w o r d tends to m o v e

towards

a g e - o l d a n d t o w a r d s ceremony, d u t y a n d respect. C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s it a c t u a l l y is, this, i n its o w n w a y , is b o t h a b e t r a y a l a n d s u r r e n ­ der. ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319)

146

The Dog's Temper

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n of the o p e r a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n , i n a l l the senses g i v e n a b o v e , seems to m e to describe v e r y accurately the current position of m u c h of psychoanalysis a n d psychotherapy. I a l l u d e d a b o v e to the fact that trainees were d i v i d e d into y e a r grovips i n the 1950s. T h i s is i n d e e d the p e r i o d i n w h i c h m a n y of the tra­ ditions I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e w e r e l a i d d o w n . Before this time t h e o r y a n d practice s e e m to h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e f l u i d l y i n t e r t w i n e d — l i k e the c o n t r a r y directions a n d n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s of K e a t s ' letter. T h i s d i d n o t p r e v e n t the u n p l e a s a n t critical experiences of Alice Looking Glass—quite

the reverse. The Freud-Klein

( K i n g & Steiner 1991) d o c u m e n t s

Through

Controversies

the

1941-45

the b l i s t e r i n g debate w i t h i n the

B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society about w h o w a s to b e c o m e T h e G o o d Q u e e n W e n c e s l a s ' of British p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : w a s it to be A n n a F r e u d or M e l a n i e K l e i n ? I w i l l describe this a r g u m e n t at s o m e l e n g t h , because I t h i n k it out­ lines v e r y c l e a r l y the reasons w h y s u b s e q u e n t l y i n B r i t a i n w e h a v e concentrated

o n p r o d u c i n g Pages

rather t h a n K i n g s

or Q u e e n s .

A l t h o u g h this m a y s e e m p a r o c h i a l , the internecine struggles

between

K a r e n H o r n e y a n d the A m e r i c a n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c establishment, a n d the sequence of events w h i c h l e d to the d e p a r t u r e of L a c a n f r o m the I n t e r n a t i o n a l P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , p o i n t to w h a t m a y b e a u n i ­ v e r s a l u n d e r l y i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n c l i n i c a l t h e o r y a n d practice, w h i c h I s h a l l g o o n to discuss later. T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s c a n be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l B r i t i s h terms as a cricket m a t c h , w i t h M e l a n i e K l e i n , S u s a n Isaacs, J o a n R i v i e r e a n d C o . b a t t i n g for the K l e i n i a n s , a n d A n n a F r e u d , E d w a r d G l o v e r , M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g a n d the 'Viennese g r o u p ' i n general bat­ t i n g for the F r e u d i a n s . I n fact, as y o u m i g h t expect, it w a s m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d n o t at a l l gentlemanly. First of a l l , there w a s also a g r o u p of p e o p l e w h o w e r e n ' t a l i g n e d w i t h either of these factions, a n d w h o s e ideas w e r e n ' t necessarily f o r m e d into a coherent b o d y of o p i n ­ i o n . T h i s g r o u p a c q u i r e d a series of ideas d u r i n g a n d after this p e r i o d , i n a rather p i e c e m e a l fashion, later b e c o m i n g the I n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p of the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, S o m e of the p l a y e r s i n v o l v e d s w i t c h e d s i d e s — f o r e x a m p l e G l o v e r started as a s u p p o r t e r of M e l a n i e K l e i n , b u t later b e c a m e o n e of her p r i n c i p a l critics. A

second

complicating

factor

w a s that

the C o n t r o v e r s i a l

D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e , to use a F r e u d i a n t e r m , ' o v e r - d e t e r m i n e d ' . T h e f o l ­ l o w i n g is a list of the ' d e t e r m i n a n t s ' o f the debate, a l t h o u g h I a m sure it is n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e :

Kirsty

•

147

Hall

T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e not just a b o u t theory, they were also c o n c e r n e d w i t h t e c h n i q u e . ( A t that time it w a s still a s s u m e d i n B r i t a i n that t h e o r y a n d t e c h n i q u e w e r e related to practice albeit, of course, i n a c o m p l i c a t e d manner.)

•

T h e debate

was

groupings—about

also a struggle who

for p o w e r b e t w e e n

actually controlled

the

competing

British

Psycho-

A n a l y t i c a l Society. (For t h i r t y years E d w a r d G l o v e r a n d Ernest Jones h a d o c c u p i e d k e y p o s i t i o n s o n the m o s t influential c o m m i t ­ tees of the Society a n d , not s u r p r i s i n g l y , m a n y m e m b e r s thought it w a s time for a change.) •

T h e D i s c u s s i o n s c a n also be c o n s t r u e d i n B o w l b y i t e terms

(since

B o w l b y h i m s e l f w a s a n i m p o r t a n t participant) as a grief reaction to F r e u d ' s d e a t h i n 1939. T h e s u b s e q u e n t 'attachment p r o b l e m s ' of the B r i t i s h s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are still g o i n g o n today. •

P r e s u m a b l y , also, it is n o accident that the Society w a s at w a r d u r ­ i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War. P a s s i o n s r a n so h i g h that one debate c o n ­ t i n u e d i n the m i d s t of a n air r a i d . It is i m p o s s i b l e i n the space of a chapter to g i v e m o r e t h a n a taste of

these p r o c e e d i n g s . H o w e v e r I h a v e selected a brief excerpt f r o m one of the less w e l l k n o w n b u t , at the s a m e time (as B o w l b y comments) p r o b ­ a b l y the m o s t intellectually acute p a r t i c i p a n t , M a r j o r i e B r i e r l e y : T h e r i g h t ideas are n o t easy to c o m e by. A b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g is a dif­ ficult a n d p r e c a r i o u s activity. It is c o n t i n u a l l y m o u l d e d , d i r e c t e d , a n d o t h e r w i s e i n f l u e n c e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a n d p r e ­ c o n c e p t i o n s . A r c h a i c habits of t h o u g h t i n t r u d e at e v e r y turn. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is the o n l y i n s t r u m e n t w e h a v e for p e n e t r a t i n g b e y o n d the experience of l i v i n g to the l a w s g o v e r n i n g e x p e r i ­ ence a n d so to its m o r e a d e q u a t e control. A l l theoretical f o r m u ­ lations r u n the risk of d e g e n e r a t i n g into restatements of archaic beliefs. A s the e x a m p l e of J u n g s h o w s , there is a n a r r o w m a r g i n of safety b e t w e e n creating a n e w m y t h o l o g y a n d m a k i n g a v a l i d c o n t r i b u t i o n to k n o w l e d g e . K e e p i n g one's f o o t i n g is a matter of trial a n d error. B u t h u m a n n a r c i s s i s m is a l w a y s l o o k i n g for a h a b i t a t i o n a n d has b e e n c h i v v i e d out of one place after another.

The Dog's Temper

148

W e m u s t be v e r y careful i n d e e d that w e d o n o t a l l o w it to f i n d a last refuge i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l reality or i n the o m n i p o t e n c e of f a n ­ tasy. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991:

333)

B e r n a r d B u r g o y n e has c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d that B r i e r l e y ' s c o n c e p ­ t i o n of the relationship b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d practice is d e e p l y f l a w e d ( B u r g o y n e 2000). H o w e v e r , I w a n t to concentrate here o n her a s s u m p ­ t i o n that t h e o r y matters at all T h i s a s s u m p t i o n has, o v e r the years, b e e n q u i e t l y d o w n g r a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , to b e c o m e a m e m b e r of the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, y o u n o l o n g e r h a v e to w r i t e a q u a l i ­ f y i n g p a p e r . M a n y other trainings require a p a p e r as part of the q u a l i ­ f i c a t i o n process b u t often insist that it s h o u l d be a clinical p a p e r , there­ b y i m p l i c i t l y o p p o s i n g theory to clinical practice. T h e p a i n f u l n e s s of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , for all w h o took part,

is v i v i d l y c o n v e y e d

i n the

transcripts. T h e

Controversial

D i s c u s s i o n s illustrate that if the fear of b e i n g e x c l u d e d c a n be faced, t h e n t h i n k i n g of a v e r y h i g h order is p r o d u c e d . K e y p a p e r s i n the lit­ erature w e r e w r i t t e n at this time, n o t o n l y b y w e l l - k n o w n l u m i n a r i e s s u c h as K l e i n , Isaacs a n d R i v i e r e , b u t also b y half-forgotten

figures

s u c h as G l o v e r a n d S h a r p e . D u r i n g these d i s c u s s i o n s the protagonists 5

f a c e d n o t one b u t t w o sources of pain—the fear of exclusion (the reality of this fear is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y G l o v e r ' s d e c i s i o n to p l a y n o further active p a r t i n the Society's activities after 1945) a n d the fear of indepen­ dent

thinking.

6

T h u s I a m e m p h a s i s i n g here that n o t one b u t t w o sources of anxiety are b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d . If the anxiety c o n c e r n i n g either or b o t h cannot be f a c e d , t h e n p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s experience relentless p r e s s u r e to c o n f o r m a n d b e c o m e Pages. T h e p l o t is s c r i p t e d i n the same w a y , regardless of w h e t h e r the participants are L a c a n i a n factions i n F r a n c e , organisations i n different countries w h o s e m e m b e r s b e l o n g to the

International P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n ,

or—in

Britain—rival

o r g a n i s a t i o n s s u c h as the U n i t e d K i n g d o m C o u n c i l for P s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d the B r i t i s h C o n f e d e r a t i o n of Psychotherapists, or e v e n a n t a g o n i s ­ tic a c a d e m i c s i n the universities.

*** H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d the traditional aspect of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g , a n d h a v i n g i n d i c a t e d s o m e of the reasons for the f o r m u l a t i o n of t r a d i ­ t i o n , I t h i n k it is time to t u r n to the f u n d a m e n t a l issue of the nature of

Kirsty Hall

149

l e a r n i n g . A t this stage I a m g o i n g to m a k e use of K a r l P o p p e r ' s theory of l e a r n i n g since it offers t w o useful insights ( P o p p e r 1974: 45). T h e first is its a n a l y s i s of the cause of the s t e a d y decline f r o m p a i n f u l b u t v i b r a n t l e a r n i n g (The C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s ) t h r o u g h d o g m a

to

t r a d i t i o n ; the s e c o n d is its attempt to p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n for the progress (or lack of it) of the Page. P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g goes as follows: •

A t first the student is p r e s e n t e d w i t h a situation w h i c h she or he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d at a l l or w h i c h is new. (For instance: T h e Page is a s k e d a b o u t the peasant w h o lives ' a g o o d league hence'.)

•

If all goes w e l l , the s t u d e n t then progresses to a p r e l i m i n a r y u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g of the m a t e r i a l , d e m o n s t r a t e d b y b e i n g able to imitate the text. (The P a g e treads i n the footsteps of the K i n g . )

•

T h e next stage is the c a p a c i t y to describe the ideas in one's own words. (The P a g e carries o u t the task of t a k i n g f o o d , w i n e a n d logs to the peasant).

•

F i n a l l y the s t u d e n t is i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e they h a v e the ability to criticise a text. (The Page n e v e r gets this far, because the decisions of the K i n g are n e v e r questioned). P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y operates over a p e r i o d of time. I n d e e d if one w e r e

to d r a w it g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e n time w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y f o r m one of d i a ­ g r a m ' s axes. It p r o p o s e s b y i m p l i c a t i o n that n o i d e a is fixed since e v e r y i d e a is a l w a y s criticisable. If w e a p p l y P o p p e r ' s theory to the t e a c h i n g of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , it suggests that the anxiety i n d u c e d i n the Page b y the t r a i n i n g experience is so great that v e r y few w i s h e v e n to c o n s i d e r c h a l l e n g i n g the K i n g , rejecting the v i e w s of the R e d Q u e e n , or d e p a r t ­ i n g f r o m other m i n d s i n c o n t r a r y directions. It is interesting to c o n s i d e r i n this c o n n e c t i o n the w o r k of s o m e B r i t i s h w r i t e r s r e g a r d e d as s t a n d a r d references i n the context of p s y ­ choanalysis

a n d l e a r n i n g . The

Emotional

Experience

of

Learning,

S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g , O s b o r n e a n d W i l l i a m s (1983), presents

by

exam­

ples f r o m w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of teachers b u t , noticeably, there is n o d i s ­ c u s s i o n i n the b o o k of h o w the a u t h o r s ' theories m i g h t a p p l y to their o w n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g . T h e r e are also several b o o k s a l o n g the s a m e lines as On Learning from the Patient b y Patrick C a s e m e n t (1985),

150

The Dog's Temper

i n w h i c h it is a s s u m e d that analysts ' l e a r n ' f r o m patients. Precisely w h a t is l e a r n e d is d e f i n e d i n terms of m a k i n g a c l i n i c a l experience 'fit' a t h e o r y w h i c h the w r i t e r assumes

exists. F o r e x a m p l e ,

Casement's

c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d ' T h e K e y D y n a m i c s of C o n t a i n m e n t ' m a k e s

several

a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h g o u n q u e s t i o n e d i n the text, n a m e l y : ­ (i) that one p e r s o n c a n ' c o n t a i n ' a n o t h e r ' s feelings; (ii) that c o n t a i n i n g feelings is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h it is the analyst's job to do; (iii) that feelings c a n be separated f r o m w o r d s , since i n e a c h of the c l i n ­ ical vignettes

discussed

i n the

chapter, the patients'

feelings

are

d e d u c e d b y the a u t h o r f r o m the w o r d s u s e d b y the patient. In other w o r d s , the feelings that the writer describes are p r e s u m e d to be the s a m e as those w h i c h the patient experiences. T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s

may

be justifiable, b u t the a u t h o r e v i d e n t l y does not feel it necessary to p r o ­ v i d e justification (cf. C a s e m e n t 1985: 132-154), It w o u l d be interesting to ask a g r o u p of students w h a t they a c t u a l ­ l y l e a r n f r o m texts s u c h as these. 'Sitting b y N e l l y ' — i . e . , w a t c h i n g s o m e o n e else c a r r y i n g o u t a s k i l l e d task or, i n this case, r e a d i n g a b o u t s o m e o n e d o i n g t h i s — i s c o n s i d e r e d of v e r y l i m i t e d p r a c t i c a l use i n other p r o f e s s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o n e training to be a s u r g e o n m a y w a t c h s o m e o n e else c a r r y out a n o p e r a t i o n , b u t n o b o d y w o u l d d r e a m of s u g g e s t i n g that o n l y this m e t h o d of t r a i n i n g be u s e d . Instead, a m e d ­ ical s t u d e n t s p e n d s s e v e r a l years f i n d i n g out h o w the h u m a n b o d y w o r k s theoretically, uses m o d e l s o n w h i c h to practice, a n d so o n . It s e e m s to m e that the reason w h y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is so difficult to teach lies i n the n a t u r e of the anxiety p r o d u c e d i n the teachers as w e l l as i n the learners. A safe w a y to l e a r n is to c o p y s o m e o n e else. A n y other m e t h o d p r o d u c e s w h a t is feared to be a n u n b e a r a b l e anxiety that the teacher m a y t u r n o n the p u p i l , like the R e d Q u e e n . T h i s state of affairs is exacerbated b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s process of u n d e r g o i n g a n analysis w i t h a n a n a l y s t .

7

W h e n this s a m e analyst, i n t u r n , has l e a r n e d o n l y b y i m i t a t i o n , then d o g m a is p r o d u c e d , a n d the w h o l e d i s c i p l i n e is infected b y a p l e t h o r a of t r a i n i n g s w h e r e w h a t is p a s s e d o n is d o g m a . L a c a n offers a g o o d e x p l a n a t i o n for w h y this s h o u l d be so. H e proposes four different p o s i ­

Kirsty Hall

151

tions w i t h respect to k n o w l e d g e . T h e p o s i t i o n of the M a s t e r (i.e. G o o d K i n g Wenceslas or tradition) is represented as f o l l o w s :

S

> S

$

a

In this d i a g r a m S is the signifier of the master: the signifier of 'he o r x

she w h o d e m a n d s to be o b e y e d ' . S is 'the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' , the w o r k ­ 2

i n g s of h u m a n discourse. $ is the h u m a n subject, split b e t w e e n c o n ­ scious a n d u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d a is the object,

possession

of w h i c h

i m p l i e s enjoyment. (For a f u l l e x p o s i t i o n of the m e a n i n g of these terms see F i n k 1995:

129-131). T h e t e r m s w h i c h a p p e a r above the h o r i z o n t a l

bars are s u p p o s e d to be r e a d as acting as the representatives of the c o r ­ r e s p o n d i n g terms b e l o w the b a r s . It is also possible to r e a d the terms a b o v e the b a r as ' c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d those b e l o w the b a r as 'repressed'. So, i n the case of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c trainings, if w e start w i t h ' t r a d i ­ t i o n ' i n the place of the master signifier ( w h i c h , as I h a v e a r g u e d , is u s u a l l y the case these days), t h e n I t h i n k this leads to a state of affairs s u c h as the f o l l o w i n g :

tradition

• psychoanalytic theory

British psychoanalyst / psychotherapist

truth

N o t a v e r y h a p p y picture! T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s c h e m a are that if p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s place ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n the role of master, then the s i g ­ n i f y i n g c h a i n ( p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory) b e c o m e s ever m o r e restricted. T o p l a c e ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n this p o s i t i o n , rather t h a n a n y of the others, entails that the object ('truth') is r e p r e s s e d , a n d the h u m a n subject (in this instance the analyst or therapist) is effectively b a r r e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e altogether. A d d to this R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' p r o p o s i t i o n that it takes t w o generations to f o r m a t r a d i t i o n ( p r e s u m a b l y because the restrictive practices i n v o l v e d i n f o r m i n g a t r a d i t i o n n e e d time to take h o l d ) , t h e n you

have

an

explanation

here

of

the

reasons

why,

since

the

C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , the p o s i t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory w i t h respect to clinical practice has r e a c h e d its present state.

152

The Dog's Temper

P e r h a p s there is also a w a r n i n g for L a c a n i a n s themselves i n this for­ m u l a t i o n . A t the m o m e n t L a c a n i a n practice is, possibly, s a f e g u a r d e d b y the fact that L a c a n ' s central project w a s to r e t u r n to F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l ideas a n d to rescue h i m f r o m the m i s c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h t r a d i t i o n h a d l a i d u p o n h i s w o r k . H o w e v e r , n e a r l y t w e n t y years after L a c a n ' s d e a t h , L a c a n ' s o w n ideas are n o w a p p e a r i n g i n a m u c h m o r e f o r m u l a i c (tra­ ditional) f o r m a t .

8

I h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n to illustrate this p r o b l e m u s i n g L a c a n ' s ' D i s c o u r s e of the M a s t e r ' rather than his ' D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y ' . In the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y it is S

2

(the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n , h u m a n

discourse) w h i c h o c c u p i e s the d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n (see F i n k 1995:

132­

3). T h i s m i g h t legitimately be u s e d to illustrate the g o i n g s - o n of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , b u t seems i n a p p r o p r i a t e to describe the scene i n B r i t a i n at the m o m e n t . M a n y p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s are expected to r e a d so little that they s k i p past the r a t i o n a l i s i n g a n d intellectual n i t ­ p i c k i n g of the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y , a n d choose i n s t e a d u n c r i t i ­ cal acceptance of the M a s t e r D i s c o u r s e f r o m the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h w h i c h they trained. A c c o r d i n g to L a c a n , discourse a l w a y s takes place i n the u n e a s y space b e t w e e n irresistible force a n d i m m o v a b l e object—or, to use his o w n terms, b e t w e e n i m p o t e n c e a n d impossibility. U s i n g this theory, t h e n , it b e c o m e s clear that l e a r n i n g is a l w a y s i n c o m p l e t e . L e a r n i n g m a y i n d e e d take place as a process, b u t its results c a n n o t necessarily be categorised or a s c e r t a i n e d — t h a t w o u l d be ' c o n d i t i o n i n g ' . L e a r n i n g a p p e a r s as a n effect i n the r e a l — h e n c e the feeling of u n r e a c h a b i l i t y a n d h o p e l e s s n e s s w h i c h , i n a m y s t e r i o u s w a y , is part a n d p a r c e l of the j o y of

the search i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g new.

For

example,

e n c o u n t e r i n g the w o r k of L a c a n p r o d u c e s a n anxiety that I can n e v e r r e a d e n o u g h of his w o r k to feel that I h a v e sufficiently u n d e r s t o o d the c o m p l e x i t y of his t h o u g h t . So w h a t c a n w e d o i n the face of this anxiety? I t h i n k that R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s offers u s a p o i n t e r i n his q u a l i f y i n g r e m a r k : ' C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s it a c t u ­ a l l y is...' ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319). P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k at that p a r t of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c h i s t o r y that does not f o r m part of t o d a y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l teaching of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y . I p r o p o s e w e d i p into the c a p a c i o u s d u s t b i n of B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c history, because there, I t h i n k , are s o m e interesting p i c k i n g s . F o r instance, i n the section of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s d e v o t ­ e d to t e c h n i q u e , E l l a S h a r p e has this to say about ' c u r e ' :

Kirsty Hall

153

T w e n t y - t w o y e a r s ago I w a s n e v e r d o m i n a t e d b y the desire to c u r e , o n l y to u n d e r s t a n d . C u r e w a s for m e a n a c c o m p a n i m e n t of r e v e a l i n g the h i d d e n causes of illness. Interpretations w e r e s i m ­ p l e a n d w e n t n o further t h a n m y direct u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the bit of w o r k I w a s e n g a g e d u p o n . I r e g a r d e d transference as the m e e t i n g p l a c e of present a n d past e m o t i o n a l fixations a n d the e x p r e s s i o n of hostile transference e v e n m o r e l i b e r a t i n g to the p s y c h e t h a n the infantile p o s i t i v e one. Transference w a s to be u s e d for one p u r p o s e o n l y the l e v e r i n g of the r e p r e s s e d into c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s , o n e h a d n o other use for it. I b e l i e v e d i n r e a l parents, as w e l l as i m a g o s , i n real events as w e l l as i m a g i n a r y ones. I b e l i e v e d , as I still d o , that phantasy, h o w e v e r h o r r i f i c , m u s t be easier for the p e r s o n r i d d e n b y phantasy, t h a n r e a l i t y I h a d to u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n d w h e r e a n d h o w the t w o w e r e associated i n a space-time w o r l d . I b e l i e v e d a n d still b e l i e v e i n F r e u d ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n that the a n a l y s t s h o u l d content h i m s e l f w i t h the m o t t o of a n o l d s u r g e o n : 'Je le p a n s a i , D i e u le g u e r i t ' . [I c a r e d for h i m , G o d c u r e d h i m . ] T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g not d u e to us, h o w e v e r s k i l f u l w e m a y be, w h e n a patient achieves a cure, a n d w e m u s t b o w to reality a n d a c k n o w l e d g e there are illnesses that c a n n o t be c u r e d . A n analyst of o u r Society s a i d to m e quite s e r i o u s l y not l o n g a g o , ' O n l y the l i m i t a t i o n s of t i m e p r e v e n t s the cure of all p s y c h i c a l d i s o r d e r s ' . T h a t belief is n o t c o n s o n a n t w i t h reality, its reference is to eterni­ ty. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991:

642)

M a n y p r a c t i t i o n e r s m a y f i n d m u c h to disagree w i t h i n this state­ m e n t , n o t a b l y p e r h a p s its u n q u e s t i o n i n g use of the w o r d s ' r e a l ' a n d ' r e a l i t y ' . H o w e v e r , w h a t I f i n d s t r i k i n g is E l l a S h a r p e ' s v e r y realistic (if I d a r e use the t e r m here) a p p r o a c h to w h a t she thinks p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n d o a n d w h a t is b e y o n d it. T h i s is a r e a l i s m b o r n e of a n a p p r e c i a t i o n of the l i m i t a t i o n s of k n o w l e d g e — t h e k n o w l e d g e of the subject, about the subject, a n d — e q u a l l y — o f the analyst a n d his or her p a r t i c u l a r the­ o r y o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . E l l a S h a r p e d o e s n o t strike m e as a w o m a n w h o w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y appreciate L a c a n ' s d i s c o u r s e t h e o r y B u t then a g a i n , p e r h a p s she m i g h t , c o n s i d e r i n g that, after t w e n t y - t w o years, she still refuses to b e l i e v e that the analyst s h o u l d o c c u p y the p o s i t i o n of the Master.

154

The Dogs Temper

T o r e t u r n to the state o f B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : h a v e n ' t w e all taken o u r collective eyes off the ball? P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are attempts to r e s p o n d to h u m a n suffering. S o m e k i n d of t h e o r y i n f o r m s the m a n y a n d v a r i e d a p p r o a c h e s to these practices. C o m p e t i n g theo­ ries often p r o p o s e c o m p l e t e l y different a p p r o a c h e s to the s a m e k i n d of p r o b l e m ; the l a n g u a g e u s e d to o u t l i n e a t h e o r y often v a r i e s w i l d l y f r o m that o f a n o t h e r ' a n d , frequently, t h e o r y is i m p l i c i t rather t h a n explicit. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n spite o f these often h u g e differences, there i s , I t h i n k , a c o m m o n a l i t y of p u r p o s e . W e n e e d K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s as w e l l as P a g e s — o r p e r h a p s w e n e e d a d e m o c r a c y of s o m e k i n d — a n a t m o s ­ p h e r e w h e r e t h e o r y p l a y s a n active role i n the e d u c a t i o n of p s y ­ c h o t h e r a p i s t s , w h e r e d i s c u s s i o n , a r g u m e n t a n d e v e n c r i t i c i s m leaves a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t thinking (rather t h a n bitten b y L e w i s C a r r o l l ' s d o g ) . If the t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f analysts a n d therapists c o n t i n u e s i n its p r e s e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e n the d e m i s e o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a ­ p y is a possibility. T h e y w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b y p i l l s , o r — p e r h a p s — g e n e ­ t h e r a p y rather t h a n p s y c h o - t h e r a p y . B u t sadly, I t h i n k , h u m a n suffer­ i n g i n its m y r i a d f o r m s w i l l persist. Notes Throughout this chapter all references to psychoanalysts and psychoanalysis should be taken to include psychoanalytic psychotherapists and psychoanalytic psychotherapy and vice versa. There are, of course, many arguments about the distinguishing features of these terms, but these are not within the purview of this paper. 1

2 To illustrate my point the reader might profitably compare two books published in 1999. The first is Female Sexuality: the Early Psychoanalytic Controversies (Grigg 1999) which contains a collection of papers, all written prior to the Second World War. The second is Psychoanalytic Understanding of Violence and Suicide (Josef Perelberg 1999) in which all the papers were writ­ ten during the 1990s. There is no coherent attempt in the latter to delineate the link between violence to another person and violence to oneself. This is simply assumed. Equally, there is no attempt to understand the sociology of suicide using psychoanalytic tools, for example: why there has been an increase in the rate of suicide among young men. On the other hand, in the former book, the issue of defining the psychoanalytic meanings of 'castration', and the implications of this for female sexuality, for malejfemale relationships and clinical practice, is at the very heart of the book. 3 I have chosen this extract partly to indicate how universal the debate about psychoanalyt­ ic training has become, since Kernberg acknowledges here that he is echoing the views of the British psychoanalyst, Ronald Britton (1994). 4 The most vivid example which comes to mind is the unpleasant scrap going on between the rival registration bodies in Britain. The British Confederation of Psychotherapists is prepared to argue that their registrants are 'better' because, they allege, they see their patients more times a week than their rivals in the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy. One does not need to turn to a philosopher or a psychoanalyst for a convincing demonstration of the futility of this argument. George Orwell expresses it most succinctly near the end of Animal

Kirsty

Hall

155

Farm when the pigs stand on their hind legs and chant: Tour legs good, two legs better' (Orwell 1989).

5 I have in mind such papers as The Nature and Function of Phantasy' by Susan Isaacs

(1943), and 'The Therapeutic Effect of Inexact Interpretation: A Contribution to the Theory of

Suggestion', by Edward Glover (1955).

6 A careful examination of any part of the debates concerning the papers written for the

Controversial Discussions reveals subtle as well as extreme differences of opinion between

those who took part. It is striking that few of the contributors are content to play the role of

the Page. Very little was taken for granted during the discussions, and each participant was

willing to take the risk of being criticised as well as criticising. A good example is the pro­

longed series of debates which followed Susan Isaacs' paper The Nature and Function o f

Fantasy' (see King & Steiner 1991:322-475), although it should be noted that Isaacs' paper is

also available in other, significantly different versions (see Isaacs 1948, and Klein et al 1952).

^ This paper does not seek to challenge the notion that a training analysis is an essential part

of learning to be a psychoanalyst. It would seem it is indeed essential to have first-hand expe­

rience of that which one seeks to pass on to others.

^ Bruce Fink's book A Clinical Introduction to Lacanian Theory and Practice (1997) is excellent in

many respects but has begun to show signs of tradition creeping in with the telltale use o f

words such as 'must', 'ought' and 'should'.

F R O M T H E DESIRE F O R K N O W L E D G E T O T H E

JOUISSANCE OF LEARNING: A N APPROACH T O

LACAN'S

THEORY

1



Teresa Celdran N o matter h o w m a n y times w e go a r o u n d the matter, i n the e n d l e a r n ­ i n g is n o m o r e t h a n a w a n t i n g to k n o w s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t oneself. W e n e v e r e m e r g e f r o m n a r c i s s i s m — t h a t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e — b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s there is 'the s o c i a l ' , 'the c o m m u n i t y ' . T h e r e is also love, for e x a m p l e . A n d this is just as w e l l . . . T h e 'extra s o m e t h i n g ' , this a d d i ­ t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e of b e i n g w h i c h , once p u t into w o r d s 'for i t s e l f , is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a k n o w l e d g e 'for u s ' , 'for the c o m m u n i t y ' , to the extent that the subject f o r m s p a r t of the ' w e ' as w e l l as of the ' o n e ' . T h e o n e w h i c h articulates the message i n a ' s a y i n g ' , then, states s o m e t h i n g of the t r u t h a b o u t itself, s o m e t h i n g definite a b o u t the t r u t h of its desire. In other w o r d s , it says s o m e t h i n g a b o u t that w h i c h it k n o w s . T h i s ' s a y i n g ' , structured t h r o u g h the s y s t e m of l a n g u a g e , therefore becomes intelligible—or

intelligent.

W e m a y b e t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e here,

b u t at the s a m e time the n o n s e n s e b e c o m e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , c o n c e i v ­ able for those others w h o m — b y a p a r a d o x of l a n g u a g e — w e d e n o t e as s i m i l a r , as o u r f e l l o w creatures. H o w e v e r i n this d i s c o u r s e o n the t r u t h o f its desire, the subject b e c o m e s a l i e n a t e d f r o m itself. T h e subject a p p e a r s a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r s a l o n g the p a t h w a y s of l a n g u a g e , like a r i v e r r u n n i n g a l o n g its s o l i d b e d , o n l y to lose itself b e l o w g r o u n d . T h i s is h o w w o r d s w o r k : the s u b ­ ject is filtered through t h e m , a n d i n the process eludes itself, is w i t h ­ d r a w n f r o m itself. H o w m a n y times w e say s o m e t h i n g different f r o m w h a t w e w a n t e d to say, o r else s o m e t h i n g m o r e — o r l e s s — t h a n w e h a d b e e n t h i n k i n g ! It is so difficult to say the r i g h t t h i n g , to f i n d the right w o r d . T o s a y the right w o r d w o u l d be to assert, to e n u n c i a t e : it w o u l d be a n act. Its consequence. A creation. C r e a t i o n i n w h a t e v e r f o r m , a p p e a r s as a n effect of a t r u t h of the s u b ­ ject. It is the re-encounter of the subject w i t h itself i n s o m e t h i n g it h a d lost. C o n s i d e r : to l e a r n is to

investigate.

It is to circle a r o u n d , getting

closer a n d closer to the lost object, u n t i l w e a p p r e h e n d it, seize it, a n d t h e n — o n l y once it has b e e n g r a s p e d ; i n d e e d , precisely t h e n — t o realise that, once a g a i n , it w a s n o t quite w h a t w e w e r e l o o k i n g for.

Teresa Celdran To l e a r n is to invent.

157

It is to i n v e n t a p r o c e d u r e for ' c o m i n g to realise'

s o m e t h i n g that h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u n s a i d . B u t w h e n one arrives at that p o i n t , after the s u r p r i s e of the d i s c o v e r y is it n o t a l w a y s the case that there h a d b e e n s o m e t h i n g of that k n o w l e d g e already

there before­

h a n d ? S o m e t h i n g w h i c h connects the h i s t o r y of the siibject w i t h a n O t h e r t h i n g , a n a l i e n O t h e r w h i c h is at the s a m e t i m e the subject's o w n ? It w o u l d s e e m , t h e n , that all k n o w l e d g e is i n s c r i b e d i n a d o u b l e d i m e n s i o n , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y , w h i c h connects the i n d i ­ v i d u a l w i t h m y t h a n d w i t h science, f r o m time i m m e m o r i a l . If to l e a r n is to realise this k n o w l e d g e , t h e n to t e a c h is to 'transfer', to ' g i v e a n a c c o u n t ' of that k n o w l e d g e . T o teach is to tell w h a t one k n o w s , so that it passes f r o m one to the other. H o w e v e r , not e v e r y t h i n g that is k n o w n is transferred. T h e object of transfer(ence) is o n l y that part of subjective k n o w l e d g e w h i c h , as p a r t of the t r u t h about oneself, goes b e y o n d the frontiers of subjectivity a n d arrives at the other i n the f o r m of a message. T h e message, that w h i c h c o m e s f r o m the other, f r o m w h a t h e says, reaches us a n d is a l w a y s the result of a d e c i p h e r e d code. T h e transfer(ence) creates k n o w l e d g e . T h e s o l u t i o n to one s u b ­ ject's e n i g m a then e n g e n d e r s a n o t h e r ' s (the other's) s o l u t i o n . T h e y are different, b u t are c o n n e c t e d , since they originate f r o m a c o m m o n place. S o m e t h i n g like this h a p p e n s i n the case of m y t h s , l e g e n d s , a n d p o p ­ ular tales w h i c h h a v e b e e n transmitted f r o m g e n e r a t i o n to g e n e r a t i o n d o w n the centuries. T h e s e tales s u r v i v e , i n o r a l o r w r i t t e n traditions, n o t so m u c h because their (hi)story has c o n t e m p o r a r y interest, b u t because it has a value.

T h e y are a n e c h o of a n i n n e r v o i c e f r o m the

d e p t h s of time w h i c h p a r t i a l l y lifts the v e i l s that c o v e r the t r u t h l o c k e d u p i n the h u m a n heart. M o d e r n times h a v e created another f o r m of h o p e a n d i l l u s i o n : the ' r a t i o n a l subject'. T h e activity of this subject of k n o w l e d g e has s u p ­ p l a n t e d the 'authentic subject' as s u c h b y m e a n s of R e a s o n . T h i s s p e a k ­ i n g - b e i n g (parletre)

legislates the t r u t h of t h i n g s — e v e n the t r u t h of the

subject itself. H a v i n g a s s u m e d the task of p r o d u c i n g these ' t r u e ' state­ m e n t s , the r a t i o n a l subject has elevated itself to the d i g n i t y of the epis­ temological

subject, w h i c h decrees b y a n d for itself ( a n d not for another)

w h a t is ' p r o p e r ' to true k n o w l e d g e . H o w e v e r , this r a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e , this d i s c o u r s e of r e a s o n , w h i c h achieves its greatest e x p r e s s i o n i n s c i ­ entific d i s c o u r s e , t u r n s out instead to be the m o s t perfect instance of those i m a g i n i n g s of the 'ego', w o r k i n g i n the service of a n Ideal a n d u s u r p i n g the place of the 'authentic e g o ' of the subject.

158

From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

L a c a n d e s c r i b e d this scientific r a t i o n a l i s m as 'the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y ' (see F i n k 1995: 132-3). F r o m its p e r s p e c t i v e of s u p p o s e d l y a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e , it reaches its p o i n t of greatest suture w i t h its p r o ­ n o u n c e m e n t s o n 'the truth of the subject' a n d o n 'authentic k n o w l ­ e d g e ' . T h e D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y is a ' g a g ' o n s c i e n c e — t h a t is, o n the k n o w l e d g e of the O n e , w h i c h , s t r u c t u r e d b y the d i s c o u r s e of l a n ­ g u a g e , is transferred to another b y the truth o f the message. In other w o r d s , for L a c a n , the ' t r u t h ' c a n o n l y be h a l f - s a i d . F o r h i m ' a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e ' is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y d e f i n i t i o n , is lost for ever. T h i s is a k e y ; a reference to the u n c o n s c i o u s . . . In a desperate effort to d e n y that p o i n t of the emptiness of reason, w h i c h constitutes the true essence o f knowledge,

scientific discourse

generates

instead

an

unrestrained

d a n c e of theories w h i c h , i n e v e r - w i d e n i n g c o n c e n t r i c circles, distances the subject f r o m the roots of its history. C o n t r o l o v e r k n o w l e d g e , a n d the a c c u m u l a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e as a c o n s u m e r i t e m , is w h a t c o m e s to constitute the i n h e r i t a n c e of k n o w l e d g e , a n d is e x p r e s s e d as a k i n d o f

greed.

R a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e cut off f r o m its u n c o n s c i o u s roots b e c o m e s

d i s t o r t e d to the p o i n t of charade, a n d m a l i g n a n t to the p o i n t of i m p o s ­ ture. Farcically, the subject, alienated i n a c h a i n of ' s a y i n g s ' , represents itself t r y i n g to i g n o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s o r i g i n of its desire a n d the puis­

sances

(or 'enjoyments') w h i c h s u r r o u n d it.

*** T h e three g r a n d p r i n c i p l e s at the basis of the o r i g i n a l i t y a n d scope of F r e u d ' s discoveries w e r e r e f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n as the three d i m e n ­ s i o n s w h i c h structure subjectivity:

desire, language,

and

the unconscious.

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g , a n d its conse­ q u e n t c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n as a p r o b l e m p e r t a i n i n g to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of k n o w l e d g e , c a n be u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of the e n e r g y and. i n t e r a c t i o n of these three d i m e n s i o n s . It w a s f r o m structuralist t h e o r y that L a c a n a d o p t e d the p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h m i g h t define a n d e x p l a i n the c o n d i t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l as s p e a k i n g - b e i n g . It is l a n g u a g e w h i c h constitutes the s t r u c t u r a l differ­ ence of the s p e a k i n g b e i n g f r o m a l l other l i v i n g creatures. T h e struc­ turalist attitude p r e s u p p o s e s a different strategy for t h i n k i n g a b o u t objects, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y reveals r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n those objects that m i g h t n o t be i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . It entails the a b a n d o n m e n t of a ' r a t i o n a l ' or ' p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l '

d e s c r i p t i o n of the n a t u r e of

the

objects, their properties a n d their qualities, i n f a v o u r of u n c o v e r i n g the

Teresa Celdran

159

a p p a r e n t l y d i s g u i s e d relations that exist between t h e m , or b e t w e e n their elements. Jean Piaget d e f i n e d 'structure' as a l a w - g o v e r n e d s y s t e m of t r a n s ­ f o r m a t i o n s , w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d a n d e n r i c h e d b y the v e r y p l a y of those t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , b u t w h i c h does not, h o w e v e r , extend b e y o n d its o w n b o u n d a r i e s o r refer to n o v e l or external elements (Piaget 1973). A s t r u c ­ ture h a s three m a i n characteristics: totality, transformation,

a n d self-reg­

ulation. A c c o r d i n g to Piaget, the totality of a structure p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e u n i o n o f elements is n o t e q u i v a l e n t to their s u m . T h e n o t i o n of t r a n s ­ f o r m a t i o n , m e a n w h i l e , i m p l i e s the existence a n d o p e r a t i o n of internal l a w s . F i n a l l y , self-regulation, w h i c h is the essential characteristic of the structure, a s s u m e s m a i n t e n a n c e of these internal l a w s o v e r a n d a b o v e those transformations a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h i n the s y s t e m , s u c h that a n y e l e m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of p r e v i o u s elements w i l l c o n ­ stitute a further, integrated element o f the selfsame s y s t e m ,

adapted

t o — i n d e e d , subjected t o — t h e l a w s b y w h i c h it operates. In other w o r d s , the structure is a stable s y s t e m , a n effect of a n e l e m e n t a r y order, w h i c h b y the o p e r a t i o n of certain l a w s functions so as to achieve a f o r m a l result. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of structure, w h i c h has s p r e a d t h r o u g h e v e r y s c i e n ­ tific f i e l d i n the course of its c o n c e p t u a l itinerary, has its roots i n m a t h ­ e m a t i c a l logic. Gestalt P s y c h o l o g y is a subsequent echo of it. T h e w o r k c a r r i e d o u t b y F e r d i n a n d d e Saussure (1983) i n the f i e l d of s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s b e c a m e extremely useful i n the s t u d y of l a n g u a g e as t h e basis of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . L a c a n a d o p t e d certain elements f r o m this w o r k i n o r d e r to articulate the relationship b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d l a n g u a g e — t h a t is, to say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the structure o f the s u b ­ ject itself. L a n g u a g e is articulated a l o n g t w o axes; o n e m i g h t also s a y that l a n ­ g u a g e is ' d i v i d e d ' a c c o r d i n g to these axes. T h e syntagmatic

axis r e p r e ­

sents the d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e , its historicity a n d u n f o l d ­ i n g o v e r t i m e (Saussure 1983: 121ff). T h i s is the axis of s p e e c h

(parole),

w h i c h is b a s e d o n a n a r t i c u l a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c unities that s u c c e e d o n e another i n a c o m b i n a t o r y order. F r o m this aspect of l a n g u a g e is b o r n w h a t L a c a n refers to as ' t h e s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' ( L a c a n 1977: 153), if w e u n d e r s t a n d b y this a p h o n e m i c c h a i n i n a t e m p o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g concept w i t h i n d i s c o u r s e of this s y n t a g m a t i c axis of l a n ­ g u a g e is the o p e r a t i o n of metonymy

( L a c a n 1977:

156-7,164).

160 The

From the Desire for Knowledge to the fouissance of Learning paradigmatic axis,

o n the other h a n d , represents the s y n c h r o n i c

aspect of l a n g u a g e : its state taken as a w h o l e i n the present (Saussure 1983: 87ff). It is the axis of l a n g u a g e

(langue)

moment

w h o s e basis is

the s i g n . It enables the selection of l i n g u i s t i c unities a c c o r d i n g to a r e l a ­ t i o n of s i m i l a r i t y or resemblance, w h i c h gives rise to the processes of

metaphor

a n d to their c o r r e s p o n d i n g role i n s i g n i f i c a t i o n ( L a c a n

1977:

156-7, 164). D i s c o u r s e d e v e l o p s effectively t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h these types of operation—metaphor a n d metonymy. T h e f o r m e r

comprises

s e m a n t i c ' c o n d e n s a t i o n s ' of terms a c c o r d i n g to s i m i l a r i t y — ' t h e g o l d of y o u r h a i r ' , for instance, w h e r e the s i m i l a r h u e of the p r e c i o u s m e t a l a n d the tresses of the b e l o v e d facilitates a ' c o n d e n s a t i o n ' of the t w o terms. T h e latter c o m p r i s e s linguistic ' d i s p l a c e m e n t s ' , b a s e d o n c o n t i ­ g u i t y — f o r e x a m p l e , 'a glass of s h e r r y ' , w h e r e the d r i n k is referred to i n terms of the vessel w h i c h contains it. L a n g u a g e is thus the result of a n articulation between

langue

and

parole.

A n act w h i c h is a c o n s e q u e n c e

of the o p e r a t i o n of a structure. It is the act of a subject, the subject of

parole, of s p e e c h ; the act of the s p e a k i n g - b e i n g . H o w e v e r , this interpretation of h u m a n l a n g u a g e as constituted b y signifiers a n d signifieds is n o t as s i m p l e as it m i g h t first appear. T h a t w h i c h w e call ' r e a s o n ' c o n t i n u a l l y escapes f r o m it. T h e r a t i o n a l m o d e l , the r e a s o n a b l e m o d e l , w o u l d — i d e a l l y — b e that of a l e x i c o n . T h e i d e a l of p s y c h o l o g y , l i k e w i s e , is that one d a y it m i g h t b e c o m e master of that strange v a r i a b l e 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d c h a i n it to the a c a d e m i c order. I n d e e d , A l d o u s H u x l e y d r e a m e d of s o m e t h i n g l i k e this i n Brave New World (1994), b u t d i d n o t go quite so far as to s p e l l it out. P e r h a p s he lost h o p e o n the r o a d of reflection, o r p e r h a p s he w a s not quite so blind. L a c a n , i n contrast, d e p l o y e d the structuralist strategy w i t h i n the f i e l d of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r to t r y a n d e x p l a i n the m e a n i n g of l a n ­ g u a g e , a n d its consequences. T h e results of his w o r k i n c l u d e d a r a d i c a l shift w i t h i n m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l

epistemology.

S a u s s u r e ' s o r i g i n a l structural a l g o r i t h m w a s b a s e d o n a transfor­ m a t i o n of the n o t i o n of the linguistic s i g n . H e p r o p o s e d that the s i g n j o i n e d a concept w i t h a sound-image a n d n o t — a s h a d b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t — a ' t h i n g ' w i t h a ' w o r d ' (Saussure

1983:

66), F u r t h e r m o r e ,

a c c o r d i n g to Saussure, the s o u n d - i m a g e is not the 'trace of the m a t e r i ­ al s o u n d ' , as Piaget w a s to c l a i m (cf. T r a n - T h o n g 1967), b u t rather its

psychical

trace: it is the

mental

representation of the t h i n g . It is a testi­

m o n y to o u r senses, a sensory i m a g e — o r , better still, a n interpretation.

Teresa Celdran

161

T h e l i n g u i s t i c s i g n is thus p r e s e n t e d b y Saussure as a p s y c h i c entity that relates a concept to a s o u n d - i m a g e . G i v e n that the latter is n o l o n g e r s o m e t h i n g p u r e l y m a t e r i a l — ' t h e s o u n d i t s e l f — b u t instead its representation, S a u s s u r e c h a n g e d its d e s i g n a t i o n to ' s i g n i f i e r ' , w h i c h c o u l d b e t a k e n to m e a n 'that w h i c h carries the content of s i g n i f i c a t i o n ' . F o r the s a m e r e a s o n , its c o u n t e r p a r t , the ' s i g n i f i e d ' , w a s also d i l u t e d into a less precise c o n f i g u r a t i o n , to the extent that it m i g h t b e taken to refer to ' a n e v o c a t i o n of the object', rather t h a n to the object i n itself. T h e e v o l u t i o n o f the s c h e m a S a u s s u r e p r o p o s e d is as f o l l o w s :

Concept

Word

Sound-image

T h i s relationship of o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o elements reveals a p r o p e r t y of the s i g n w h i c h L a c a n d e s c r i b e d as 'the a u t o n o m y of the signifier w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d ' . T h e relationship is not f i x e d b e f o r e h a n d b y a n y d i c t i o n a r y or l e x i c o n , b u t is instead variable

rather

than pre-established. T h e s e t w o p r o p e r t i e s of l a n g u a g e — f i r s t l y , its s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y as p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a n d , secondly, the v a l u e of the s i g n — l e a d to a f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t i n L a c a n ' s theory, n a m e l y the p r i m a c y o f the signifier over the s i g n i f i e d , a n d the attendant consequences

of this for the f o r m a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s

( L a c a n 1968). In other w o r d s , the f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n

psychology

a n d the c o n c e p t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i c h L a c a n p r o p o s e d , lies p r e ­ cisely i n the significance p l a c e d o n the s p o k e n c h a i n . F r o m a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , Saussure's t h e o r y w o u l d l e a d us to a c o n c e p t i o n of l a n g u a g e as a ' d o u b l e c h a i n ' — o f concepts a n d of s o u n d - i m a g e s — s u c h that a n y cut i n the c h a i n of s o u n d - i m a g e s w o u l d b e taken to c o r ­ r e s p o n d exactly w i t h a s u b s e q u e n t cut i n the c h a i n of concepts, o n the basis of the p r i n c i p l e of a o n e - t o - o n e relationship b e t w e e n signifier a n d s i g n i f i e d . I n d e e d , S a u s s u r e ' s v e r y n o t i o n of the l i n g u i s t i c s i g n w o u l d s e e m to l e a d to this s a m e i d e a (cf. S a u s s u r e l 9 8 3 : 110-1). I n effect, if w e c o n s i d e r the s i g n as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e v o k e s the i d e a of another t h i n g i n o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e n w e m i g h t i m a g i n e that e v e r y time w e e n c o u n t e r a signifier, S , i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , then this signifier is n e c ­ 1

essarily c o n n e c t e d to a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n i f i e d , s . T h i s w o u l d g u a r ­ 1

antee a significance for the s i g n i n itself, w h o s e v a l u e w o u l d then c o n ­

From the Desire for Knozvledge to the Jouissance of Learning

162

sist i n g r a n t i n g a signification as a c o n s e q u e n c e

of the r e l a t i o n s h i p

i n v o l v e d b e t w e e n the t w o terms. B u t w e all k n o w that this is not h o w things h a p p e n . L i n g u i s t i c c o m ­ p r e h e n s i o n d e p e n d s c r u c i a l l y o n context. T o s a y this reveals that the l i n ­ guistic s i g n exists o n l y as a f u n c t i o n of other signs, o r — t o p u t it a n o t h ­ er w a y — t h a t the linguistic s i g n o n l y assumes v a l u e w i t h i n a s t r u c t u r e d e n s e m b l e o f other signs. O n l y i n this context c a n it establish m e a n i n g a n d offer a signification. T h e character o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p established b y the s i g n w i t h a l l these other signs d e p e n d s o n its contextual p o s i ­ t i o n . I n this sense, a s i g n is o p p o s e d to all the others as a differentiated e l e m e n t , b u t at the same time is also subject to the rules w h i c h o r d e r the s p o k e n c h a i n . T h u s , l a n g u a g e c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d as a struc­ t u r a l s y s t e m w h i c h emerges f r o m a series o f d i v i s i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y the s i g n into the a m o r p h o u s mass o f the p h o n e m i c c h a i n . T h e s e d i v i ­ s i o n s constitute a cut; it is the v e r y structure of the linguistic s i g n that gives f o r m t o — w h i c h cuts a n d l i m i t s — t h e m a s s of l a n g u a g e . F r o m this cut the signifier is b o r n a n d , w i t h it, words. In the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of l a n g u a g e f r o m w h i c h w e all suffer f r o m t i m e to time {only ' f r o m t i m e to time'?) w e c a n see reflected the c r u c i a l role of the context a n d v a l u e of the s i g n w h e n it c o m e s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o b l e m s of c o m m u n i ­ cation. W e all k n o w that t w o different signifiers c a n b e l i n k e d to a s i n ­ gle s o u n d i m a g e , w h o s e signification c a n o n l y be c i r c u m s c r i b e d b y the s i g n — ' m u l e ' a n d ' m e w l ' , for instance. A l l o f this has to b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n a context, w h i c h is the site w i t h i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e operates a n d the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h it operates. H e r e , precisely, is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o l o ­ g y d i v e r g e irreparably. T h e i r w a y s o f r e a d i n g the context a n d the v a l u e a s c r i b e d to the s i g n o r i g i n a t e — q u i t e l i t e r a l l y — f r o m d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d places. D e s p i t e the fact that p s y c h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s use the s a m e terms to describe their objects, w h a t is s a i d is so v e r y dif­ ferent that the m e t h o d s a n d the objectives of their respective ethical a p p r o a c h e s are also r a d i c a l l y divergent. P s y c h o l o g y starts f r o m a f r a m e w o r k w h i c h deals w i t h w h a t is ' r a t i o n a l ' . R e a s o n is the p r i n c i p l e w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s its m e t h o d a n d its c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m s of b e h a v i o u r . Its p h i l o s o p h y is b a s e d o n control—control

over variables, the f i l i n g of d a t a , the e v a l u a t i o n o f

results, a n d so o n . T h i s is reflected i n its s o - c a l l e d 'scientific m e t h o d ' , w h i c h is b a s e d o n the i d e a l o f b e i n g able to s a y e v e r y t h i n g a n d to u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y t h i n g about b e i n g h u m a n , a n d thus ('thus'?) to a d a p t man

to its a i m s , w h i c h i n c l u d e control over its object.

However,

163

Teresa Celdran

because the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of all the processes of l e a r n i n g , p s y c h o l o g y is l e d into a c u l d e sac b y this a p p r o a c h . W i t h o u t w i s h i n g to d e m e a n the w o r k of n u m e r o u s a u t h o r s , espe­ c i a l l y those b e l o n g i n g to the R u s s i a n a n d G e n e v a Schools of p s y c h o l o ­ gy, s u c h as Piaget, W a l l o n , V y g o t s k y , L e o n t i e v , L u r i a , P a v l o v , et a l . , all of w h o m h a v e m a d e serious c o n t r i b u t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e d a n d system­ atic s t u d i e s of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , nevertheless I t h i n k it is true to say that the general a p p r o a c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y p s y c h o l o g y is c o n s p i c u ­ o u s l y u n a b l e to a n s w e r the

f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : ' W h a t is M a n ?

7

It is

e q u a l l y u n a b l e to g i v e a n a c c o u n t of h u m a n particularities, s i m p l y because

it cannot s e e — o r d o e s n o t w a n t

to u n d e r s t a n d — t h a t

the

m e a n i n g of b e h a v i o u r cannot be d e c i p h e r e d b y a r a t i o n a l interpreta­ t i o n of the s i g n , w h i c h conflates the terms ' s i g n i f i c a n c e ' a n d 'behav­ iour'. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the teaching of p s y c h o l o g y a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n leave the subject i n a state of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m itself. W h a t is essential to the structure of p s y c h o l o g y a c t u a l l y lies o u t s i d e it, a n d — w h a t is m o r e — d i s t u r b s the d i s c i p l i n e b y e s c a p i n g its c o n t r o l , so that p s y c h o l o g y is l e d to d e n y it, or to attempt to m a k e it d i s a p p e a r . T h i s m e r e l y a d d s one m o r e p r o b l e m to a n a l r e a d y essential p r o b l e m : it resolves n o t h i n g . In certain cases, this objective b e c o m e s a n i m p e r i o u s n e e d w h i c h comes close to b e i n g c o m i c a l . I c a n n o t resist the t e m p t a t i o n to quote several sections of a text b y C l a r e n c e B r o w n a n d E d w i n G i s e l l i , w h o were p r o ­ fessors at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley. T h e i r thesis is that n o s t u d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y s h o u l d d o u b t that the a p p l i c a t i o n of scientific m e t h o d w i l l h e l p to e l i m i n a t e all the 'false' a p p r o a c h e s to the s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . Since I c o n s i d e r m y s e l f to be i n s o m e sense a ' s t u ­ d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y ' , I w a s o n c e i n c l u d e d a m o n g those w h o were p r e ­ s u m a b l y g o i n g to be r e s c u e d f r o m i g n o r a n c e a n d i n s t a l l e d i n the truth of science. I p r o m i s e d m y s e l f that I w o u l d r e a d the b o o k , a n d h a r ­ b o u r e d the secret h o p e that a l l of p s y c h o l o g y ' s p r o b l e m s w o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d once a n d for a l l , a n d — w i t h t h e m , i n c i d e n t a l l y — a l l of m y o w n . In this b o o k w a s the r e c i p e , t h e n , h e a d e d w i t h j u i c y subtitles s u c h as: ' C o n t e m p o r a r y false theories of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r ' , 'Scientific s p i r ­ its', ' C o m p a r i s o n of scientific spirits w i t h n o n - s c i e n t i f i c spirits': M o d e r n m a n has not freed h i m s e l f f r o m the use of i m a g i n a r y entities i n his attempts

to e x p l a i n his b e h a v i o u r . B u t m o d e r n

spirits are not a l w a y s p e r s o n i f i e d a n d h a v e a m o r e

abstract

n a t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , they are still the p r o d u c t of the i m a g i n a ­

164

From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d so as to g i v e easy a n s w e r s to difficult q u e s t i o n s

a n d are often e m p l o y e d i n the s a m e w a y that o u r

predecessors

u s e d spirits. F o r m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , these m o d e r n spirits e x p l a i n

behaviour

satisfactorily,

a n d after

a l l , that is their

function.

( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)

W e t h e n p a s s onto a n e n u m e r a t i o n of these ' s p i r i t s ' : ...destiny... chance... nature [!!]

...instinct, is another s p i r i t that is

a l r e a d y t i r e d a n d w o r n . . . inheritance... the e n v i r o n m e n t . . .

the



u n c o n s c i o u s , is a n o t h e r m o d e r n spirit of questionable r e p u t a t i o n

[I agree w i t h the adjective!], a p p a r e n t l y g r a n t e d all the functions

that the i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g possesses... [likewise, I agree]

It is interesting to note that the spirits of the m a n of science a n d those of the l a y m a n are s i m i l a r i n one respect. T h e y are b o t h b o r n f r o m the i m a g i n a t i o n . . . H e e m p l o y s constructions that d o n o t refer to t h i n g s w h i c h are

really observable...

that is to s a y they

are b e y o n d s e n s o r y representation... In a s i m i l a r m a n n e r the l a y p e r s o n uses his i m a g i n a t i o n to postulate ghosts, spirits, elves or magical powers. ...the spirits of the scientist differ f r o m those of the n o n - s c i e n ­ tist [what l u c k ! ] . T o b e g i n w i t h , scientific theories are not p e r ­ s o n i f i e d . T h e y d o not consist of i m a g i n a r y p e r s o n s ,

great

or

They do not have the characteristics of human beings. They do not have desires. They do not experience emotions no do they have intentions. T h e y d o not h a v e to be p l a c a t e d l i k e the

s m a l l , g o o d or b a d .

g o d s of p r i m i t i v e tribes. Scientific theories are n o t reified concepts. T h e y d o not c o m e to life. F o r e x a m p l e , i n the h a n d s of s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s

the

It is no longer a sim­ ple rational idea which helps to explain human behaviour. It is c o n c e p t of the u n c o n s c i o u s has b e e n reified.

d e s c r i b e d as t h o u g h it w e r e another p e r s o n e x i s t i n g i n s i d e the individual,

a person with desires

a n d a m b i t i o n s w h i c h differ f r o m

those of the i n d i v i d u a l . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t far a w a y f r o m one w h i c h s u p p o s e s

the existence of spirits a n d

demons.

( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965, italics mine) If o n e l o o k s closely at this text, it says m o r e t h a n it a p p e a r s to say, e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e the

jouissance

of the w r i t e r is c o n c e r n e d . T a k e n f u r ­

ther, it c o u l d also serve to e x e m p l i f y s o m e t h i n g of L a c a n ' s n o t i o n of

Teresa Celdran

165

'the p r i m a c y of the s i g n i f i e r ' . In effect, if w e i n v e r t the s i g n , or take it o u t of the context i n w h i c h it is i n s c r i b e d , it c a n be r e a d against the g r a i n as a defence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b y m e a n s of a critique of scientific m e t h o d . T h e signifieds are s u b o r d i n a t e to the signifier b y v i r t u e of the type of relation b e t w e e n the t w o w h i c h obtains w i t h i n the s i g n . T h e m e a n i n g of the text, h o w e v e r , is r e v e a l e d at that p o i n t w h e r e the 'cut' a p p e a r s — w h i c h L a c a n also d e s c r i b e d b y the t e r m

'point de caption',

or

' q u i l t i n g p o i n t ' ( L a c a n 1977:154). In other w o r d s , this is the place of the message. L a c a n u s e d this n o t i o n of the

'point de caption'

to

reformulate

S a u s s u r e ' s thesis a n d d e m o n s t r a t e that the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n signifier a n d s i g n i f i e d is established a posteriori, at the p o i n t of s i g n i f i ­ c a t i o n , a n d that it is this w h i c h gives us the k e y to the message. In a d d i ­ t i o n , this c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a l w a y s takes place i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m its d e c i p h e r m e n t . E v e r y d i s c o u r s e emits a message. It is n e v e r indifferent. T h u s i n o u r e x a m p l e , the text c o n t i n u e s to r u n t h r o u g h a n e q u i v o ­ cal c o u r s e , i n the guise of a s a y i n g w h i c h does not k n o w itself, a n d w i t h a k n o w l e d g e that is u n s a i d . It is l i k e a fantasy w i t h o u t its o w n b e i n g — a spirit, p e r h a p s — i n the ineffable i n n o c e n c e of its o w n s t u p i d ­ ity. H o w e v e r ,

at one

point, towards

the e n d

of

the

chapter,

the

m e d i o c r e tone of the d i s c o u r s e is i n t e r r u p t e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h m o r e precise f o r m u l a t i o n : T h e scientist controls h i s theory. H e keeps it i n the service of his o w n problems a n d aims, and

makes it work for him.

(Brown &

G i s e l l i 1965, italics m i n e ) H e r e is the

'point de caption',

clearly stated. T h e theory of the scien­

tist is n o t i n the service of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h the object poses, n o r i n the service of the scientific a i m s of a d v a n c e s the scientist's own

the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , but rather

a i m to m a k e another w o r k for h i m . A t this

p o i n t of the d i s c o u r s e , the little ' s p i r i t s ' h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , to

be

r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h m o r e a w e s o m e a n d d a n g e r o u s figure: the Master, L a c a n ' s ' d i s c o u r s e of the u n i v e r s i t y ' , w h i c h secures the k n o w l e d g e of science f r o m the m o u t h of a 'subject s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' , c a n u n d e r g o a twist t o w a r d s w h a t L a c a n calls the ' d i s c o u r s e of the m a s t e r ' (see F i n k 1995: 130-1). T h i s entails a n attitude w h i c h guarantees the enslavement of the other alienated b y its i g n o r a n c e ; the M a s t e r pontificates s h a m e ­ lessly o n e v e r y t h i n g he misrecognises, or k n o w s n o t h i n g about, for the v e r y r e a s o n that it escapes his control. I n d e e d , H e g e T s dialectic of the

166

From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

m a s t e r a n d slave reveals that i n order to ensure the existence of his b e i n g , the m a s t e r ' s

d i s c o u r s e m u s t d e g r a d e or destroy e v e r y t h i n g

w h i c h w i l l not s u b m i t to h i m . W i t h these w o r d s , then, B r o w n a n d G i s e l l i close their chapter a n d s e n d their message: ...the F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t has his o w n w h i m s to satisfy a n d h i s b e h a v i o u r cannot be anticipated. B e i n g u n p r e d i c t a b l e , those spirits

provide no sort of control...

their f u n c t i o n consists of

placing

obstacles in the way of thought or channelling it, so that it becomes easier to accept stereotypes a n d one is d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m t a k i n g o n b o a r d a n d c o n s i d e r i n g n e w ideas. ( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)

T h e s u b v e r t e d message of this text opens u p for us the q u e s t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h L a c a n construes as ' s t r u c t u r e d like a l a n g u a g e ' ( L a c a n 1979: 149). T h i s l a n g u a g e , i n its current, s y n c h r o n i c aspect, is f o r m e d o n the basis of operations of metaphor. M e t a p h o r , a c c o r d i n g to l i n g u i s t i c s , is a c o n d e n s a t i o n , the d e s i g n a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g b y m e a n s of another t h i n g . F o r L a c a n , m e t a p h o r is n o t h i n g b u t the s u b s t i t u t i o n of signifiers; a matter of one signifier b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y another. T h e process of m e t a p h o r therefore p r o d u c e s m e a n i n g w i t h i n d i s ­ c o u r s e precisely b y v i r t u e of b e i n g w h e r e it o u g h t not to be.

A

m e t a p h o r is the a p p e a r a n c e of a signifier w h e r e it is not e x p e c t e d ; the m e t a p h o r i c signifier substitutes for another, w h i c h is t h e n s u b v e r t e d . In m e t a p h o r the true, literal signifier b e c o m e s lost i n the s p o k e n c h a i n . T h e m e t a p h o r locks u p the e n i g m a — o f the O t h e r — a n d , once it has itself b e c o m e

present, says s o m e t h i n g about this O t h e r . M e t a p h o r

therefore reveals s o m e t h i n g about the p r i m o r d i a l character of the s i g ­ n i f i e r — n o t o n l y w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d , b u t also w i t h respect to the subject w h i c h it d e t e r m i n e s — a n d substitutes f o r — w i t h o u t the s u b ­ ject k n o w i n g . T h e s e c o n d o r d e r of operations, w h i c h structure l a n g u a g e i n its d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n , are those of m e t o n y m y . These are e v i d e n t i n a transfer(ence) of d e n o m i n a t i o n , b y w h i c h a n object is d e s i g n a t e d b y a t e r m different to that w h i c h is c o m m o n l y its o w n . M e t o n y m y is a d i s ­ placement,

based

o n certain connections b e t w e e n

the

two

terms.

Metonymy

is also a s u b s t i t u t i o n of signifiers, b u t — i n contrast

to

m e t a p h o r — i n this case it is manifest. W h a t is s u b v e r t e d is n o t the s i g ­

nifier b u t the value of the signifier. In m e t o n y m y it is signification that is

Teresa Celdran

167

lost. M e t o n y m y a l w a y s appears as a n a b s u r d i t y i n a d i s c o u r s e w h i c h acquires its m e a n i n g t h r o u g h a process of association. L a c a n ' s thesis, b a s e d o n his r e a d i n g of F r e u d , h o l d s that the struc­ ture of the subject is d e t e r m i n e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e subject e x i s t s — p r i o r to b e i n g — t h r o u g h speech. F o r instance: one talks about a c h i l d before it is b o r n . T h e subject is c o n c e i v e d b y m e a n s of speech a n d exists w i t h ­ i n it e v e n before it d o e s so i n its o w n b o d y . But, because l a n g u a g e is a c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h operates b y m e a n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y , a p a r t of the d i s c o u r s e of the subject is w i t h d r a w n f r o m consciousness, p r e c i s e l y because of those losses of m e a n i n g — o r of the s i g n i f i e d — w h i c h take p l a c e i n the course of these operations. T h e n o t i o n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y

are t w o k e y pieces of

L a c a n ' s structural c o n c e p t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s process. In effect, if the processes of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y are as present i n the d i s ­ c o u r s e of the subject as i n the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y process, then this m e a n s , o n the one h a n d , that the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of e v e r y c o m p o n e n t of l a n g u a g e a n d , o n the other h a n d — o r , at least, this is L a c a n ' s p r o p o s a l — t h a t 'the u n c o n s c i o u s is structured like a l a n ­ guage'. T h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s lead to a r a d i c a l l y different a p p r o a c h to the s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . If it is l a n g u a g e w h i c h creates the s u b j e c t — a n d n o t the r e v e r s e — t h e n w e c a n assert that the structure of the s u b ­ ject is that of its d i s c o u r s e . T h e h u m a n b e i n g c a n o n l y be s u c h as a sub­ ject of language, a n d f r o m this it d e r i v e s its subjectivity. B u t at the same t i m e as l a n g u a g e generates the subject w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of a struc­ ture c o m p r i s e d of the rules of d i s c o u r s e , it also takes possession of that subject a n d i m p r i s o n s it w i t h i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , b y m e a n s of a n u n f o l d i n g t h r o u g h m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y i n w h i c h the subject loses itself. In this w a y the s p e a k i n g b e i n g r e m a i n s attached to the l a n g u a g e w h i c h creates it, yet is alienated w i t h i n it as the subject of l a n g u a g e . L e a r n i n g , t h e n , s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t h e n as the consequence of a process of m e t o n y m y w h i c h achieves its m e a n i n g i n a m e t a p h o r of a realisation. T h e c h a i n of m e t o n y m i c associations is p u t into m o t i o n w h e n the n e w l y b o r n c h i l d arrives i n the w o r l d . T h e c h a i n operates o n the real b y f o r m i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l constructs. T h e s e constitute the s u c ­ cessful creation of k n o w l e d g e w h i c h w e call ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h i s ' w a v e of e m i s s i o n ' , w h i c h travels b e a r i n g the message of k n o w l e d g e , has as its o r i g i n the subject's o w n desire to solve the e n i g m a of his o w n subjec­ tivity. W h a t is l e a r n e d o n l y acquires m e a n i n g to the extent that it r e p ­ resents s o m e t h i n g real w h i c h has b e e n lost. W h a t is l e a r n e d , then,

168

From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y v i r t u e of a lack, fills a v o i d . L e a r n i n g is a

jouissance

w h i c h represents a m e t a p h o r for s o m e t h i n g that cannot be

s a i d . T h i s s o m e t h i n g is the essential T a c k of b e i n g ' w i t h i n the s p e a k i n g being. T h e d i v i s i o n that l a n g u a g e p r o d u c e s i n the subject is a c o n s e q u e n c e of the s y m b o l i c o r d e r of the s i g n i f i e s w h i c h possesses the s i n g u l a r p r o p e r t y of r e p r e s e n t i n g the presence of s o m e t h i n g real b y m e a n s of a n absence. A s L a c a n ' s a p h o r i s m has it: T h e t h i n g m u s t be lost i n o r d e r for it to b e r e p r e s e n t e d ' ( L a c a n 1997). In other w o r d s , w h a t w e are d o i n g w h e n w e s p e a k is to n a m e that w h i c h w e are s p e a k i n g about, but w i t h o u t it i n reality b e i n g present i n o u r d i s c o u r s e as s u c h . Instead, that of w h i c h w e s p e a k is m a d e present o n l y t h r o u g h the s y m b o l i c r e p ­ resentation w h i c h the signifiers m a k e of it. T h e subject itself is lost i n d i s c o u r s e , loses itself i n d i s c o u r s e , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m itself, i n o r d e r to be n a m e d b y the signifiers that designate the subject (such as T , ' y o u ' , ' m e ' , 'he'). To s u m u p : the r e l a t i o n s h i p to the c h a i n of d i s c o u r s e i s — a b o v e a l l — o n e of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m the signifier b y v i r t u e of the s i g n i f i ­ e s a n d the fate of the s i g n i f i e d is s e c o n d a r y to this. F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the u n c o n s c i o u s (such as w e observe its w o r k i n g s i n dreams) o n l y the substitutions of signifiers are decisive for the s t r u c t u r a t i o n of the subject. P r o o f of this is the a l i e n a t i o n of the t r u t h of the subject's desire i n the o r d e r of d i s c o u r s e — t h e difficulty w e h a v e i n s a y i n g w h a t w e w a n t to say, i n s a y i n g w h a t w e m e a n . A d o p t i n g this a p p r o a c h , a n y s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , a n d — i n p a r t i c u l a r — a n y s t u d y of the t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d a c q u i s i t i o n of k n o w l ­ e d g e , r e m a i n s tied to the structure f r o m w h i c h it derives a n d m u s t operate i n the l i g h t of it. In other w o r d s , w h a t is l e a r n e d , the a c q u i s i ­ t i o n of k n o w l e d g e i n its w i d e s t sense, is not a consequence of a n expe­ rience of the real, since the real ' i n i t s e l f cannot be a p p r e h e n d e d other t h a n b y subjectivation. T h i s is the c u l de sac of p s y c h o l o g y — a n d p s y ­ c h o l o g i s t s k n o w it. Instead, l e a r n i n g c a n be v i e w e d as a consequence of l a n g u a g e , w h i c h operates t h r o u g h the i m a g i n a r y trace left b y its s y m b o l i c representative. W h a t w e call 'reality' is o n l y a n imaginary objectivation of t h a t — t h e r e a l — w h i c h c a n o n l y be c a p t u r e d b y m e a n s of a representation. E v e n p s y c h o l o g y recognises that sensory experience is i r r e d e e m a b l y p r i v a t e , a n d — f r o m K o f f k a to L e o n t i e v — h a s s p o k e n of itself as 'the science of p s y c h i c p h e n o m e n a as functions of a b r a i n w h i c h reflects reality' (Pinillos 1975). A n y act of sensation, s u c h as see­ i n g or h e a r i n g , e n d s u p b e i n g a n inner experience:

169

Teresa Celdran P a r a d o x i c a l l y expressed, if e v e r y o n e o n l y h a d the reactions that others c o u l d observe, n o b o d y w o u l d observe a n y t h i n g . (Koffka 1999)

T h e p r o b l e m , then, lies i n the fact that the b r a i n does not reflect the real b u t interprets it, a n d d o e s so i n a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r way. Reality does n o t exist b u t , like art, is a creation of the subject. E v e r y k n o w l e d g e is s u b j e c t i v e — i t p r o c e e d s f r o m s u b j e c t i v i t y — a n d is s u b o r d i n a t e d to a desire that d e r i v e s f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s order. T h i s k n o w l e d g e

is

o p e n e d to experience t h r o u g h a jouissance, a n d is transmitted as the effect of a transfer(ence).

Transfer(ence)

is a k n o w l e d g e

concerning

t r u t h , the t r u t h of e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n i n g their desire, w h i c h c a n be o r d e r e d a n d transmitted. T h i s is w h a t constitutes teaching: it is the t r a n s m i s s i o n of a k n o w l ­ e d g e w h i c h says s o m e t h i n g about the t r u t h of the subject. W h e n this k n o w l e d g e is t r a n s f o r m e d into a p r o d u c t , t h e n art a n d the sciences are b o r n . C r e a t i o n is the result of a w i l l to s p e a k to the other, for the other. T h e r e is n o u n i q u e truth of science, or of art. T r u t h is not ' u n i q u e , b u t 7

is, i n s t e a d , one:

t r u t h is the truth of the desire of e a c h subject. B u t if

t r u t h w e r e o n l y a p u r e l y a n d u n i q u e l y subjective matter, then teaching w o u l d n o t be v i a b l e . H o w c o u l d a truth w h i c h is o n l y one's o w n be transmitted? C a n e d u c a t i o n be r e g a r d e d as a n y t h i n g other t h a n a p a r a ­ d o x ? I n d e e d , this seems to be the case. E d u c a t i o n is one of the three things w h i c h F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s posits as i m p o s s i b l e

(Freud

1937: 248). T h i s is for the s i m p l e reason that w h a t w e call ' c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n ' b e l o n g s to the register of the i m a g i n a r y . F o r e v e r y subject the s a m e signifier c a n offer different signifieds, a c c o r d i n g to the discourse w i t h i n w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l operates, a n d — a t the s a m e t i m e — s i g n i f i ­ c a t i o n c a n n e v e r be m a d e b y two subjects i n precisely the s a m e way. T h i s fact b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n the structure of the g r o u p . O n o n e o c c a s i o n , a g r o u p of students w a s a s k e d to write d o w n the c o l o u r of the shirt w o r n b y a friend i n the lecture h a l l , a n d then after­ w a r d s to say a l o u d w h a t the c o l o u r w a s . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y straightfor­ w a r d task p r o d u c e d s u c h a v a r i e t y of responses that it b e c a m e i m p o s ­ sible to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h c o l o u r w a s actually meant. O n e c o u l d w o r k out

approximately what

terms—'blue',

colour was

for e x a m p l e .

involved by

B u t , thereafter,

the

excluding

range

of

other

possible

c o l o u r s r a n f r o m ' b r o w n ' to ' y e l l o w ' , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h ' o r a n g e ' , ' m u s ­ t a r d ' , ' o l i v e ' , a n d m a n y m o r e besides. F u r t h e r m o r e , the students w e r e s u r p r i s e d to hear other replies so at o d d s w i t h their o w n . T h i s m a d e

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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

t h e m l a u g h , since e v e r y o n e ' s colour, w i t h o u t b e i n g precise, n e v e r t h e ­ less d e s c r i b e d s o m e shade w h i c h c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as 'accurate'. T h e j o k e - l i k e effect p r o d u c e d b y the d i s p a r i t y w a s a p r o d u c t of a m e t a p h o r ­ ical c o n d e n s a t i o n , t h r o u g h w h i c h e a c h of the terms h a d a m e a n i n g w i t h o u t n e e d of e x p l a n a t i o n . H o w e v e r , i n a d d i t i o n , they a l l h a d s o m e ­ t h i n g i n c o m m o n , o w i n g to a m e t o n y m i c concatenation, w h i c h i n the e n d p r o v i d e d a certain signification. T h i s degree of signification, f r o m a c o m m o n m e a n i n g , is w h a t a l l o w s to us to a r r i v e at c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t w h i c h is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n consensus i n s p e e c h . F r o m this c o n s e n ­ s u s — t h a t is, f r o m the ' d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n ' of l a n g u a g e — a r e b o r n those s o c i a l agreements w h i c h place limits o n the i m p o s s i b l e , a n d a m o n g w h i c h are i n c l u d e d the e d u c a t i o n a l project itself. T h e v a l u e of this e x a m p l e is that it demonstrates h o w c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n b e t w e e n s p e a k i n g - b e i n g s o n l y s e e m i n g l y operates at the r a t i o n a l l e v e l . C o n s e n s u s i n l a n g u a g e is a n i m a g i n a r y objectivation, a tacit a g r e e m e n t to say w h e r e s a y i n g is i m p o s s i b l e . It is a n agreement that i n a common

place—the

dictionary, the l e x i c o n — s o m e t h i n g

w h i c h is

strictly i n d i v i d u a l a n d subjective w i l l be w o r k e d o n . In reality, true c o m m u n i c a t i o n , that w h i c h gives m e a n i n g a n d significance to w o r d s , d o e s n o t lie i n a rational f o r m of d i s c o u r s e , n o r i n the 'content' of w o r d s themselves, b u t rather i n the s u b v e r t e d m e s s a g e w h i c h leaves a m e t a p h o r i c effect a n d a m e t o n y m i c trace. T h i s process of ' e n u n c i a t i o n ' — a s L a c a n describes it ( L a c a n

1966:

193)—liberates, b y m e a n s of a s i g n i f y i n g cut, that first l a n g u a g e

of

u n c o n s c i o u s desire w h i c h is articulated i n the s a y i n g . If, t h e n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n u n d e r its r a t i o n a l f o r m is actually a n o p e r ­ a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e n i n w h a t sense c a n w e speak of ' e d u c a ­ t i o n ' a n d ' l e a r n i n g ' ? If the s a i d is o u t s i d e the s a y i n g , a n d the s a y i n g is n o t i n 'the s a y i n g s ' , then w h a t is really t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n , a n d o n w h a t are e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s based? A s w e h a v e seen, e d u ­ c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g , as c o n c e i v e d u n d e r the n o t i o n of r a t i o n a l control b y the subject, f o r m a n i l l u s o r y i d e a , for the s i m p l e reason that this m e t h o d is absolutely d i s c o r d a n t w i t h the nature of the material w i t h w h i c h t h e y w o r k — t h a t is, w i t h

individual

subjects, one-to-one. Science

f u n c t i o n s ' b a c k w a r d s ' here: firstly it i n v e n t s a subject a d a p t e d to its s y s t e m , a n d then submits the subject to the control of its m e t h o d , i n o r d e r to o b t a i n a r e s u l t — ' r a t i o n a l m a n ' . B u t , because h u m a n nature is n o t s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d reason, b u t is rather a n effect of u n c o n s c i o u s desire, this s u p p o s e d subject of science c o n t i n u a l l y breaks out of the s y s t e m a n d escapes its control. H e r e w e h a v e the b e g i n n i n g of that

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farce i n w h i c h e d u c a t i o n fails, w h e t h e r it is re-enacted i n the limitless d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the s y m p t o m a t o l o g y

of the p s y c h i a t r i c clinic, or i n

failures i n s c h o o l . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n o r m a l l y subject to reason, a n d e v e n w h e n it b e c o m e s so, it is u s u a l l y b y routes other t h a n e d u c a ­ tion. T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n a i v e , a n d is m u c h stronger a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n reason. N e v e r t h e l e s s , scientific d i s c o u r s e c o n t i n u a l l y d o w n - p l a y s the s t u d y of w h a t constitutes the m a i n p i l l a r of the speak­ i n g b e i n g : the u n c o n s c i o u s d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e . T h i s b l i n d n e s s , w i l ­ f u l or a c c i d e n t a l , o n the p a r t o f scientific d i s c o u r s e , is b a s e d o n a d e n i a l of the e v i d e n c e , a n d i n v a r i a b l y leads to a s t a n c e — a p o s e — o f

the

m a n i p u l a t i o n of subjects, s u p p o s e d l y 'the subjects of science'. T h i s c u l ­ minates i n a n 'impasse',

a circuit w i t h n o w a y out, w h e r e all w e

e n c o u n t e r is the d e a d l y signifier of repetition. It is precisely here, w h e r e the subject ' s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' fails, that it gives w a y to the repressed, w h i c h i n one w a y or another a l w a y s returns, as F r e u d h i m s e l f s a i d ( F r e u d 1919). E d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are, then, the effects of a

transfer(ence).

B o t h p r o c e e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of u n c o n s c i o u s desire. O n l y w h e n this knowledge

is i n s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r of l a n g u a g e does it

a c q u i r e m e a n i n g a n d signification. M e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a t i o n are ele­ m e n t s w h i c h structure the l o g i c of k n o w l e d g e a n d are bearers of the act of t r a n s m i s s i o n . In reality, h o w e v e r , it is not k n o w l e d g e w h i c h is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h the transfer(ence),

'in itself

b u t o n l y its logic.

T e a c h i n g c a n o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d the act of transfer(ence) of this l o g i c — a n e n u n c i a t i o n — o f w h i c h its statements p r o v i d e a n account. T h e truth-effect generated b y teaching u n f o l d s i n the

knowledge

that it p r e s e n t s — a n offering to the other w h i c h recognises it as s u c h . L e a r n i n g w o u l d t h e n consist i n the r e c o g n i t i o n of the t r u t h — o f the o t h e r — t h r o u g h the t e a c h i n g of k n o w l e d g e . L e a r n i n g is the a c k n o w l ­ e d g e d effect of a t r u t h w h i c h , like that of teaching, concerns desire. T h i s is seen m o s t clearly i n practice: teaching is d e s c r i b e d as a ' v o c a ­ t i o n ' , a c a l l i n g , a ' w i l l to s a y ' , a n d is m o s t e v i d e n t i n those of us w h o r e m e m b e r h a v i n g l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g ourselves. T h e s e v o c a t i o n a l s u b ­ jects—our

true

teachers—leave

a r e m a i n d e r w h i c h goes

beyond

i n s t r u c t i o n a n d their o w n k n o w l e d g e . W h a t they leave us, o n top of a n y r e c o g n i t i o n of their k n o w l e d g e , is s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e g e n u i n e a n d authentic: the m a r k of subjectivity. It is precisely this p e r s o n a l trace left b y e v e r y professor o n his or her k n o w l e d g e w h i c h attracts d i s c i p l e s , w h i c h energises l e a r n i n g , a n d w h i c h creates a s c h o o l . T h a t i m p r i n t is w h a t , w i t h o u t b e i n g e n u n c i a t e d c o m p l e t e l y (because b y def­

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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

i n i t i o n it c a n n o t be) calls the other to k n o w l e d g e

of himself.

The

teacher is the e x a m p l e , the one w h o enunciates his or her k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h the result. Therefore there d o e s n o t exist a t r u t h of science for the s u b j e c t — e v e n t h o u g h this w o u l d n o d o u b t a v o i d a certain d i s c o n ­ t e n t — b u t i n s t e a d there d o e s exist a t r u t h of the subject for science, w i t h w h i c h o n e a n s w e r s the q u e s t i o n 'Che

Vuoi? ' ('What d o y o u desire?),

a c c o r d i n g to the f o r m u l a t i o n L a c a n b o r r o w e d f r o m C a z o t t e ' s n o v e l ,

The Devil in Love

(see D o r 1986).

T h i s t e a c h i n g w h i c h goes b e y o n d i n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h serves as a n e x a m p l e , is w h a t constitutes the e d u c a t i o n a l process. E d u c a t i o n has to d o w i t h the n o r m , w i t h the i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n of the r u l e , w i t h the a d v e n t of that d i s c o r d a n t t h i r d p e r s o n — t h e f a t h e r — a s representative of the law. E d u c a t i o n transmits a k n o w l e d g e f r o m ' o n e ' to ' a n o t h e r ' . T h e i n c l u s i o n of this t h i r d element offers the subject a m e a n s of e n t r y i n t o reality. E d u c a t i o n is the l a w of spirit. F r o m a p a t e r n a l referent—the s y m b o l i c l a w — i t f o r m s , l i m i t s , a n d t r i m s one's p a s s i o n s for another. B u t e d u c a t i o n itself, as o n e of F r e u d ' s three i m p o s s i b i l i t i e s , is o n l y p o s ­ sible if o n e takes into account that the u n c o n s c i o u s is present i n a l l the processes of l e a r n i n g . If t e a c h i n g is a n effect of a transfer(ence), t h e n l e a r n i n g is the effect of a jouissance, a n d the c o n s e q u e n c e of a desire. W h e n a c h i l d learns s o m e t h i n g , w e s h o u l d ask ourselves why

does he d o it? F o r w h o m , or

w h a t ? W h a t m o t i v e is at w o r k ? A n d w h a t m a k e s the task easy or d i f f i ­ cult for h i m ? T h e real m e a n i n g of the p r o b l e m a t i c of desire, as related to n e e d a n d d e m a n d , a n d as f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n , c a n o n l y be e l u c i d a t e d if w e start f r o m F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the first experiences of satisfaction ( F r e u d 1915), T h i s first experience of the c h i l d after b e i n g b o r n , breast­ f e e d i n g , c o m e s as a s u r p r i s e . T h e c h i l d ' s c r y is a call o u t of o r g a n i c n e e d , b u t h e d o e s not k n o w w h a t to expect i n response to his call. In reality, the c h i l d is not ' a s k i n g f o r ' a n y t h i n g , b u t is m e r e l y e x p r e s s i n g his u n p l e a s u r e at a state of tension that results f r o m a lack. W h e n the m o t h e r i n t e r v e n e s , so as to r e d u c e this t e n s i o n w i t h the n o u r i s h m e n t that she offers, she i n a u g u r a t e s the p r o c e s s of desire i n the c h i l d . T h e m n e s i c trace of this first s a t i s f a c t i o n — t h e pleasure of s u c k i n g — t r a n s ­ f o r m s the b o d y ' s organic n e e d into a

drive,

the d e m a n d of a desire, a n d

it does this r i g h t f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a n d for a l l time. In effect, f r o m this m o m e n t o n , n e e d is a l r e a d y attached to the r e p ­ resentation of the p e r c e p t i o n of the object w h i c h offers satisfaction (the breast), at the s a m e time that the o r g a n i c tension is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a n

Teresa Celdran

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a i m : the r e d u c t i o n of that n e e d . W h e n this process is repeated, the n e e d t r i g g e r e d b y l a c k is t r a n s f o r m e d into a d r i v e j o i n e d to a d e m a n d for satisfaction. B u t the m n e s i c trace w i t h w h i c h it is a s s o c i a t e d — i t s ' p s y ­ chic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' — i s c h a r g e d w i t h tension b y the d r i v e . T h e p s y ­ c h o l o g i c a l effect of this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n the n e w l y - b o r n c h i l d a m o u n t s to a n h a l l u c i n a t o r y a n t i c i p a t i o n , since it is i m p o s s i b l e for the c h i l d to distinguish

between

the

real

and

its

representation.

The

very

d y n a m i s m of this process constitutes the essence of desire, a n d b y its v e r y n a t u r e it c a n n o t be satisfied i n reality, since its realisation is not i n o r g a n i c satisfaction (the 'feed'), b u t instead i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the scene. T h i s u n e x p e c t e d pleasure, w i t h its effect of s u r p r i s e , inscribes the c h i l d i n his t u r n i n the register of the m o t h e r ' s desire, w h o i n r e a l ­ ity

interprets

the c h i l d ' s n e e d s a n d r e s p o n d s to his d e m a n d . T h e m o t h ­

er, t h e n , as bearer of a signification, is c o n v e r t e d into a p s y c h i c r e p r e ­ sentative for the c h i l d of his o w n n e e d s — t h a t is, into the p r i m o r d i a l signifier of his desire. M o r e o v e r , w h e n the m o t h e r a c c o m p a n i e s h e r response w i t h l o v i n g words

a n d gestures,

demand

b e y o n d itself, w h e r e the l o v i n g

is i n s c r i b e d i n desire as

jouissance w h i c h

something

the m o t h e r p r o v i d e s is

also a d d e d to the satisfaction of n e e d . H o w e v e r , the m o s t p r o f o u n d d i m e n s i o n of desire, b o r n f r o m the relation w i t h the O t h e r — t h e m o t h ­ e r — i n her q u a l i t y as signifier, cannot be f u l l y satisfied b y a n y object, b u t o n l y b y the v e r y presence of that O t h e r itself, w h i c h constitutes the basis of the s y m b o l i c statute b y w h i c h the c h i l d w i l l pass f r o m object to subject. It is because of this state of affairs that desire c a n n o t h a v e a n object i n reality, a n d therefore appears i n t r i n s i c a l l y tied forever to a lack. W h a t is l a c k i n g constitutes the m e t o n y m y of desire i n the h i s t o r y of the subject, w h i c h grants m e a n i n g to its subjectivity b y m e a n s of its s y m b o l i c realisations. The

puissances

of the b o d y w h i c h constitute its p r i m o r d i a l l a n g u a g e

a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h the c h i l d is o p e n e d u p to the w o r l d w i l l be p r o ­ g r e s s i v e l y d i s p l a c e d b y other objects. T h e pleasures of l e a r n i n g a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e represent a s e c o n d a r y source of

'symbolic

n o u r i s h m e n t ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h the subject reconstitutes the lost object. Acquired knowledge

a n d p a r t i c u l a r skills h a v e a l w a y s

to d o w i t h

l a c k — ' t h e lack of b e i n g ' , as L a c a n p u t s i t — o f s o m e t h i n g lost forever i n the t i m e p r i o r to s p e e c h , w h i c h has to be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , d i s c o v e r e d a n e w t h r o u g h i n v e n t i o n , the creative act at the basis of a n y a n d all knowledge.

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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

T h e r e are three passions w h i c h s u r r o u n d a n d d e l i m i t desire: l o v e , hate a n d i g n o r a n c e . T h e first t w o — L a c a n tells u s — u n d e r

different

p o l a r i t i e s create a n object b y extraction f r o m a desire to k n o w . T h e t h i r d , b y contrast, is a p a s s i o n 'not to k n o w ' , to k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t oneself, n o r a b o u t the u n c o n s c i o u s w h i c h presides o v e r a l l o u r actions. F r o m this h a t r e d of k n o w l e d g e are b o r n the evils that p l a g u e o u r s o c i ­ ety: stress, b o r e d o m , the t e d i u m of the inescapable existential v o i d w h i c h the subject of i g n o r a n c e sees o p e n e d u p . D a n g e r lies m o r e often i n the d e n i a l of k n o w l e d g e t h a n i n d i s c o v e r y . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s w i l l c a r r y o n b e i n g there w h e t h e r w e w a n t to k n o w or not. A s the S p a n i s h s i n g e r J. M . Serrat p u t it: ' T r u t h is n e v e r s a d : there is n o r e m e d y for it'. T h e risks w h i c h this p a s s i o n for i g n o r a n c e carry w i t h it lie i n the effects t h e y h a v e o n the e d u c a t i o n a l process; i n this case, e d u c a t i o n seems a n i m p o s s i b i l i t y . H o w e v e r , h u m a n creativity consists p r e c i s e l y i n the p l a c ­ i n g of l i m i t s o n the i m p o s s i b l e , limits w h i c h are constituted as the effect of a l a w b u t are the p r o d u c t of l o v e . 1

Translated from Spanish by Philip Derbyshire

P S Y C H O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS OF WRITER IDENTITY:

T O W A R D S A H O R N E Y A N U N D E R S T A N D I N G

Celia Hunt M y e x p e r i e n c e as a tutor of creative w r i t i n g of l o n g - s t a n d i n g leads m e to the v i e w that there are t w o m a i n areas of l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e d i n cre­ ative w r i t i n g : f i r s t l e a r n i n g to master the craft of w r i t i n g a n d , s e c o n d , l e a r n i n g to f i n d a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' or ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' . T h e first, l e a r n ­ i n g to m a s t e r the craft of w r i t i n g , is o b v i o u s ; i n the case of fiction, w i t h w h i c h I a m p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d , it w i l l i n v o l v e the a c q u i s i t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e of a repertoire of n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h as characterisa­ t i o n , d i a l o g u e , setting, p o i n t of v i e w , as w e l l as p l o t t i n g a n d structur­ i n g . T h e s e c o n d , l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g identity, is m u c h less o b v i o u s , a n d I w i l l discuss it i n d e t a i l i n this chapter. M y research w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g over the past four y e a r s i n t o the benefits of w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y as a first stage in a 'writing apprenticeship'

1

reveals that a significant p r o p o r t i o n of

a p p r e n t i c e writers experience difficulties i n the s e c o n d of these t w o areas of l e a r n i n g . In a t t e m p t i n g to u n d e r s t a n d these difficulties I h a v e f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the ideas of the G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n p s y c h o ­ analyst K a r e n Horney.

Learning to find a 'writing voice' or 'writing identity' It is u s e f u l , w h e n t h i n k i n g about the n o t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' , to d i s ­ t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the r e a d e r ' s a n d the w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . A reader e n g a g e d w i t h a n o v e l w i l l be able to identify a p a r t i c u l a r style or tone i n the w r i t i n g . If she is familiar w i t h other n o v e l s b y the s a m e author, she m i g h t notice that certain themes or certain t u r n s of p h r a s e recur r e g u l a r l y . T h e s e c o u l d be s a i d to constitute the ' v o i c e ' of the n o v e l or the ' v o i c e ' of a p a r t i c u l a r author w h i c h recurs t h r o u g h o u t his or her

oeuvre . 2

F r o m the w r i t e r ' s perspective the t e r m ' v o i c e ' w i l l h a v e differ­

ent c o n n o t a t i o n s . O n the one h a n d , a w r i t e r m a y struggle to f i n d the r i g h t n a r r a t i v e ' v o i c e ' for a p a r t i c u l a r character o r for a first p e r s o n n a r ­ rator o f a n o v e l or story. O n the other, she m a y feel that, i n a m o r e g e n ­ eral sense, she has ' f o u n d her v o i c e ' , w h i c h m a k e s her relationship w i t h h e r w r i t i n g m o r e fluid a n d comfortable. F i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' i n this latter, i n t e r n a l sense, or f i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , as it m i g h t

176

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

a l s o be c a l l e d , i s , i n m y v i e w , c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i f a w r i t e r is to h a v e a w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her w r i t i n g a n d to be able to l e a r n h o w to a d o p t m a n y different n a r r a t i v e voices, S e a m u s H e a n e y ' s d e f i n i t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' c o m e s closest to w h a t I m e a n here: ' F i n d i n g a v o i c e m e a n s that y o u c a n get y o u r o w n f e e l i n g i n t o y o u r o w n w o r d s a n d that y o u r w o r d s h a v e the feel o f y o u a b o u t t h e m ' ( H e a n e y 1980: 43). T h i s entails a n a b i l i t y to d e l v e i n t o the i n n e r w o r l d , i n o r d e r to create w r i t i n g w h i c h , w h i l s t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a u t o b i ­ o g r a p h i c a l i n the strict sense, is d e e p l y p e r s o n a l , i n that it d r a w s o n the w r i t e r ' s feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . P e o p l e n e w to w r i t i n g — a n d s o m e t i m e s also p e o p l e w h o h a v e b e e n w r i t i n g for s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e — d o n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y m a k e this ( i n m y v i e w ) necessary c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w r i t i n g a n d the i n n e r life. T h e i r w r i t i n g m a y be t e c h n i c a l l y w e l l craft­ e d b u t , l a c k i n g feelings a n d e m o t i o n s , it d o e s n o t c o m e a l i v e o n the page. M y course ' A u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d I m a g i n a t i o n ' , w h i c h n o w forms the first of a three course Certificate i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g , w a s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e v i s e d to h e l p students f i n d their w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y i n the i n t e r n a l sense o u t l i n e d above, b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to engage m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h their feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . O v e r the ten w e e k s o f the course they engage i n free w r i t i n g , g e t t i n g i n t o u c h w i t h s p o n t a ­ n e o u s i m a g e r y a r i s i n g f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s ; they e x p l o r e e a r l y m e m ­ o r i e s , t h i n k i n g t h e m s e l v e s b a c k i n t o the e x p e r i e n c e of the past t h r o u g h s e n s o r y i m a g e r y a n d e x p a n d i n g those m e m o r i e s t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n ; t h e y w r i t e f r o m p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y w e r e y o u n g , t r y i n g to f i n d a p p r o p r i a t e v o i c e s for t h e m s e l v e s at different ages; t h e y c o n s i d e r the w a y s that places they h a v e l i v e d i n or v i s i t e d h a v e c o n ­ t r i b u t e d to their o w n i n t e r i o r l a n d s c a p e s ; t h e y w r i t e a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s f r o m different p o i n t s of v i e w , p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s as n a r r a t o r s i n fanta­ s y o r h i s t o r i c a l settings, l e a r n i n g about the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m ­ s e l v e s as a u t h o r a n d the roles they i n h a b i t o n the page; t h e y d r a m a t i s e m o m e n t s f r o m their l i v e s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e ; t h e y p l o t t h e i r l i v e s u s i n g a t i m e l i n e , i d e n t i f y i n g s i g n i f i c a n t m o m e n t s a n d p e o p l e a n d places i n t h e i r l i v e s , a n d a l l t h r o u g h o u t this w o r k t h e y are e n c o u r a g e d to engage w i t h the feeling tone of their w r i t i n g , to m o v e b e y o n d the surface to the felt i n t e r i o r . 3

T h i s intense focus o n themselves a n d their e x p e r i e n c e often b r i n g s a b o u t p r o f o u n d changes i n s t u d e n t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to their w r i t i n g . L o r n a , for e x a m p l e , h a d b e e n w r i t i n g for m a n y years a n d w a s p r o d u c ­ i n g w r i t i n g w h i c h she d e s c r i b e d as ' t e c h n i c a l l y p r o f i c i e n t ' , b u t she 'felt 4

Celia Hunt

177

there w a s s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g at the heart of it'. E x p l o r i n g herself i m a g ­ i n a t i v e l y for several m o n t h s e n a b l e d h e r 'to i d e n t i f y that I h a v e b e e n too d e t a c h e d f r o m m y w r i t i n g , w r i t i n g o n l y w i t h m y h e a d a n d not m y heart. T h e free w r i t i n g technique has h e l p e d w i t h [this] p r o b l e m . I a m n o w u s i n g [it] r e g u l a r l y as a m e a n s of freeing u p m y i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c a n see the w a y m y w r i t i n g has progressed as a result'. P h i l , w h o w a s accustomed

to w r i t i n g n o n - f i c t i o n , r e g a r d e d his fiction w r i t i n g as

'well-written, but uninteresting—too dry'. Writing autobiographically l e d to a b r e a k t h r o u g h , i n w h i c h he opened up to a n experience he w a s t r y i n g to w r i t e about, so that instead of w r i t i n g i n his f o r m e r rather impersonal style—writing from a distance—he

was

now

inside the

w r i t i n g . A n d r e a , w h o w a s c o m p l e t e l y n e w to w r i t i n g , s a i d that f i c t i o n ­ a l i s i n g herself h a d p r o v i d e d her w i t h a s o l i d g r o u n d f r o m w h i c h to fic­ tionalise b e y o n d her o w n experience. A s another student p u t it, ' . . . w r i t ­ i n g f r o m experience [gives] one a s o l i d base a n d t h e n [lets] the i m a g i ­ n a t i o n s o a r ' . These students h a d l e a r n e d to h a v e confidence i n their 5

own

material

and

confidence

in engaging

with

their o w n

inner

processes for the p u r p o s e of w r i t i n g . T h i s gave t h e m a stronger sense of rootedness i n themselves, a l l o w i n g t h e m to g a i n the necessary d i s ­ tance f r o m w h i c h to explore their o w n material i m a g i n a t i v e l y . In other w o r d s they h a d d e v e l o p e d a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' w h i c h e n a b l e d a flexi­ ble, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n their w r i t i n g , b e t w e e n f r e e d o m a n d c o n ­ trol. Mechanisms

of artistic

creation

M a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c writers discuss this flexible, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h i c f r e e d o m a n d control i n artistic creation. B o t h F r e u d a n d J u n g , for e x a m p l e , r e g a r d it as a special gift of the artist.

6

M a r i o n M i l n e r identifies t w o different m o d e s of attention i n the artis­ tic process: the b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the m i n d o n external objects w h i c h is characteristic of conscious t h i n k i n g , a n d the b r o a d h o v e r i n g attention w i t h the b o d y ( M i l n e r 1989: 29-40). T h i s latter m o d e of atten­ tion, w h i c h she likens to a d o m e , as o p p o s e d to the s h a r p - p o i n t e d n e s s of the f o r m e r , is c r u c i a l , she believes, for the contact one n e e d s w i t h the inner ' w o m b - s p a c e '

w h e r e a k i n d of d r e a m i n g goes o n ( M i l n e r

37). It is i n this i n t e r n a l s p a c e — W i n n i c o t t ' s

'transitional

1989:

space'—that

the i m a g i n a t i o n c a n w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d b e g i n the process of t r a n s f o r m i n g it into art.

178

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

E n g a g i n g w i t h this internal space i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y g i v i n g u p of the d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ego, w h i c h stands apart a n d tries to see things objectively a n d rationally a n d w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l c o l o u r i n g ' , a n d m e r g i n g i n a n 'aesthetic m o m e n t ' w i t h the object one is creating ( M i l n e r 1993:

27). In l e a r n i n g h o w to engage i n artistic creation, the

artist has to cultivate the 'internal gesture' ( M i l n e r 1952:

72), as she

describes this inner ' s t a n d i n g apart' or s h e l v i n g of the ego or critical faculty, w h i c h allows the u n c o n s c i o u s contents to be accessed v i a the i m a g i n a t i o n . O n l y w h e n this has o c c u r r e d d o e s the critical faculty c o m e b a c k into p l a y to d e v e l o p the m a t e r i a l into its final artistic f o r m . T h e F r e n c h feminist, H e l e n e C i x o u s , refers to the process of s h e l v ­ i n g the critical faculty as ' d e - e g o i s a t i o n ' ; it is 'this state of w i t h o u t - m e , of d i s p o s s e s s i o n of m e , that w i l l m a k e the

possession

the characters p o s s i b l e ' ( C i x o u s , i n Sellers 1996:

of the a u t h o r b y

xiv). She is r e f e r r i n g

here s p e c i f i c a l l y to the w r i t i n g of stage d r a m a , b u t a s i m i l a r p o i n t a p p l i e s to the w r i t i n g of fiction a n d c a n also b e a p p l i e d i n a m o r e g e n ­ eral w a y to the process of f i n d i n g m a t e r i a l for one's w r i t i n g , of 'step­ p i n g b a c k ' a n d a l l o w i n g oneself to be p o s s e s s e d b y one's s p o n t a ­ n e o u s l y a r i s i n g ideas. T h i s state of ' w i t h o u t - m e '

is precisely

what

M i l n e r calls 'the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' , a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h feels like a b o d y , ' i n that its essential q u a l i t y is a sense of extension i n s p a c e ' ( M i l n e r 1971: 36). She discusses this i n relation to her attempts to b r i n g her d r a w i n g s of objects to life, to g i v e t h e m action, to c o n v e y o n the p a p e r w h a t she calls their ' s p i r i t u a l life'. She d i s c o v e r e d that:

'My

w h o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h other p e o p l e as w e l l as objects, w o r k s of art, n a t u r e , m u s i c c o u l d d e p e n d u p o n w h a t I d i d w i t h this i m a g i n a t i v e body

rather t h a n w i t h m y

1971:

36). W h a t M i l n e r is t a l k i n g a b o u t here s o u n d s v e r y s i m i l a r to

concentrated intellectual m i n d ' ( M i l n e r

w h a t F r e n c h feminists call ' w r i t i n g w i t h the b o d y ' (Jones 1991), w h i c h they i d e n t i f y as a specifically f e m i n i n e attribute, a l t h o u g h it is a v a i l ­ able to b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n . I a m n o t sure that w e n e e d to i d e n t i f y it as s p e c i f i c a l l y f e m i n i n e , a l t h o u g h w h e n M i l n e r refers to the t w o differ­ ent m o d e s of attention as the s h a r p - p o i n t e d b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h the m i n d a n d the b r o a d , h o v e r i n g , d o m e - l i k e attention w i t h the b o d y , o n e c a n see the o r i g i n of the f e m i n i n e / m a s c u l i n e associations. I w o u l d prefer to say that ' w r i t i n g w i t h the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' is o n e side of the t w o f o l d process of e n g a g i n g i n creative w r i t i n g : the i n t u i t i v e , creative f a c u l t y rather t h a n the critical f a c u l t y g o v e r n e d b y the e g o . T h e m a i n difficulty w i t h the process of s h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y is that it i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y loss of the sense of s e l f

Celia Hunt ( M i l n e r 1993:

179

17) a n d exposes h i m to the chaos of his i n n e r w o r l d . A n

a r t i s t therefore, n e e d s to h a v e a strong e n o u g h sense of self, so that h e c a n 'accept chaos as a t e m p o r a r y stage' ( M i l n e r 1971:

76). W h a t I a m

c a l l i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , t h e n , i n the i n t e r n a l sense d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , is a s t r o n g e n o u g h sense of self to facilitate 'the i n t e r n a l gesture', the mechanism

of s h e l v i n g the critical faculty, w h i c h a l l o w s

'positive

r e g r e s s i o n ' into the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d the h o l d i n g o p e n of the ' i n t e r n a l s p a c e ' w h e r e the i m a g i n a t i o n sets to w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d transforms it into art.

Psychological

blocks to learning to find a writing

identity

F o r s o m e p e o p l e , l e a r n i n g to 'shelve the critical f a c u l t y ' i n o r d e r to give their f i c t i o n a l narrators a n d characters a life of their o w n is relatively s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F o r others there are p r o b l e m s w i t h this process.

My

o w n e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e s a g o o d e x a m p l e . In the e a r l y 1980s I b e g a n w r i t i n g a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l called Stages. T h i s w a s a first p e r s o n a c c o u n t of a p e r i o d i n m y life i n the 1970s w h e n I w a s

travelling

a r o u n d A u s t r a l i a a n d the East w i t h a y o u n g A u s t r i a n m a n , ' K l a u s ' , w h o s e n o m a d i c w a y of life a n d ' o u t s i d e r ' stance t o w a r d s the o r g a n i s e d w o r l d I h a d a d o p t e d . I w a s i n m y e a r l y 20s, h a d a b a n d o n e d m y h a p ­ hazard and unhappy

attempts

at l e a r n i n g , h a v i n g p a s s e d

up

the

o p p o r t u n i t y to go to u n i v e r s i t y , a n d h a d not f o u n d a n y satisfactions i n the secretarial w o r k w h i c h I h a d u n d e r t a k e n after l e a v i n g s c h o o l . I w a n t e d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n to r e m o v e m y s e l f f r o m the w o r l d of w o r k , to lose m y s e l f a n d m y i n a b i l i t y to f i n d f u l f i l m e n t i n m y life, i n the vast­ ness of A u s t r a l i a ' s h i n t e r l a n d . T h e story w a s t o l d f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of a ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , representing m y s e l f at the time of w r i t ­ i n g , s o m e t e n years after the events, w h e n I w a s back i n E n g l a n d , m a r ­ r i e d to a m u c h o l d e r m a n , ' H u g o ' , a n d , as I l i k e d to t h i n k then, m u c h m o r e m a t u r e , self-assured, a n d i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d c e r t a i n l y free of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h h a d afflicted m e i n m y twenties. I n d e e d , m y c o n s c i o u s i n t e n t i o n for the n o v e l w a s to s h o w h o w I h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e the p r o b l e m s of the earlier p e r i o d of m y life a n d h a d started d o i n g s o m e t h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d f u l f i l l i n g ; i n other w o r d s h o w I h a d m a d e the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one stage of m y life to the next, as the title of the novel implied. I took extracts of the d e v e l o p i n g n o v e l to a creative w r i t i n g class a n d s h o w e d t h e m to the tutor. She w a s quite c o m p l i m e n t a r y , b u t n o t e d that there w e r e ' t w o voices i n the n a r r a t i v e ' . T h i s w a s greatly p e r t u r b ­

180

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

i n g . W h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d o n e n a r r a t o r telling the s t o r y of the past f r o m the perspective of the present, i n fact I h a d t w o quite different first p e r s o n narrators representing m y s e l f at different p o i n t s i n m y life, a n d this m a d e the n a r r a t i v e inconsistent a n d c o n f u s i n g . I w o r k e d h a r d at t r y i n g to integrate the t w o v o i c e s o n the page, b u t w i t h o u t

success.

A f t e r m u c h struggle, I d i v i d e d the n o v e l i n t o t w o separate n a r r a t i v e s , so that I h a d a first p e r s o n past tense n a r r a t i v e f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of m y 70s narrator, a n d first p e r s o n p r e s e n t tense d i a r y entries f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of m y 80s narrator. W h e n , after a l o n g a n d p a i n f u l five y e a r s , the n o v e l w a s c o m p l e t e d , it w a s o v e r 500 p a g e s i n l e n g t h a n d rather u n w i e l d y . It w a s , nevertheless, t a k e n o n b y a L o n d o n literary agent, w h o s u g g e s t e d that I s h o u l d r e m o v e the present tense d i a r y entries, l e a v i n g the past tense n a r r a t i v e i n the v o i c e of the 70s narrator. T h i s I d i d , b u t w i t h m i s g i v i n g s , as it left c o m p l e t e l y o u t of a c c o u n t h o w the n a r r a t o r h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e h e r earlier p r o b l e m s a n d thus u n d e r m i n e d w h a t I s a w as the m a i n p o i n t of the n o v e l . N e e d l e s s to say, the n o v e l d i d not f i n d a publisher, a n d it w a s w i t h relief that I f i n a l l y p u t it a w a y i n a d r a w e r . It w a s s o m e time later that I realised that the p r o b l e m w i t h the n o v e l s t e m m e d f r o m the fact that the 80s narrator, i.e. m y s e l f at the time of w r i t i n g , h a d clearly not m o v e d o n i n terms of h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e

and

a b i l i t y to fulfil herself. She was still as d e p e n d e n t a n d n a i v e as she h a d b e e n i n the 70s. In the s a m e w a y that she h a d attached herself to K l a u s a n d t a k e n o n his i d e n t i t y a n d his Tife s o l u t i o n ' , she h a d s i m p l y t a k e n 7

on Hugo's

i d e n t i t y a n d was

s i m i l a r l y t r y i n g to l i v e t h r o u g h h i m .

C l e a r l y , there were i m p l i c a t i o n s for m y sense of i d e n t i t y at the time of w r i t i n g w h i c h I d i d not w a n t to see. I h a d h a d to k e e p strict c o n t r o l o v e r m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' i n o r d e r to ensure that she c o r r e s p o n d ­ e d to the w a y I s a w myself. In other w o r d s , I was i m p o s i n g a n i d e n t i ­ ty o n h e r w h i c h w a s at o d d s w i t h the w a y she w o u l d h a v e b e e n if I h a d b e e n able to 'shelve the critical faculty' a n d g i v e h e r a s p o n t a n e o u s life of her o w n . T h u s , there was a conflict b e t w e e n the rhetoric of the n o v e l a n d m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , s u c h that the n o v e l p r o v e d

extremely

d i f f i c u l t to write. O n e c o u l d p e r h a p s describe this as t r y i n g to d r i v e a car w i t h the h a n d - b r a k e o n .

8

S o m e of the students w h o took p a r t i n m y research suffered f r o m s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s of w r i t i n g identity w h i c h were i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h their w r i t i n g of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l l y b a s e d fiction. ' S a r a h ' , for e x a m p l e , c a m e 9

to m y creative w r i t i n g course w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g a n o v e l b a s e d o n a p e r i o d of her past i n G r e e c e i n the 1960s w h i c h w o u l d

Celia Hunt ' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings' of that t i m e .

1 0

181

Early on in

the c o u r s e she g a v e m e a section of the draft to r e a d . T h e piece w a s n a r ­ r a t e d i n the first p e r s o n b y a y o u n g w o m a n o n h o l i d a y i n Greece w h o , w h i l s t f e e l i n g a l i e n a t e d f r o m the r e m a i n d e r of her party, meets b y c h a n c e i n the h o t e l w h e r e they are s t a y i n g a G r e e k m a n , a n d they b e c o m e l o v e r s . T h e w r i t i n g w a s v i s u a l l y s t r o n g b u t the e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h u s e d , m i n g l i n g past a n d present i n a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y f i l m i c style, w a s o n l y p a r t l y successful. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r ,

was

that, w h i l s t the piece w a s w r i t t e n i n the first p e r s o n , it d i d not reveal v e r y m u c h at all a b o u t the narrator, a n d this m a d e the text v a g u e a n d c o n f u s i n g . T h i s , it t r a n s p i r e d , w a s not a n e w p r o b l e m for S a r a h ; p e o p l e w h o h a d r e a d h e r w r i t i n g s h a d often o b s e r v e d that she w a s not present i n h e r fictions. S h e d e s c r i b e d her m e t h o d of w o r k i n g as follows: 'First I w r i t e the p i e c e , t h e n I stuff m y s e l f into it'. So a l t h o u g h Sarah's w i s h w a s to ' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings of that p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t ' , there w a s clearly a p r o b l e m for her i n e n g a g i n g e m o t i o n a l l y w i t h h e r n a r r a t o r w h o w a s to serve as a v e h i c l e for her

own

feelings.

T h e r e s e e m e d to b e a difficulty i n r e v e a l i n g herself o n the p a g e to o t h ­ ers, or p e r h a p s m o r e significantly (in a w a y s i m i l a r to m y o w n e x p e r i ­ ence) of r e v e a l i n g herself to herself. T h e w r i t i n g S a r a h d i d w h i l s t a t t e n d i n g the creative w r i t i n g c o u r s e p r o v e d v e r y h e l p f u l for this p r o b l e m , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t w i t h o u t its t r a u m a s . She f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the exercise I call 'objectifying the s e l f , w h i c h requires students first to w r i t e about themselves i n the t h i r d p e r s o n e n g a g i n g i n a n e v e r y d a y p u r s u i t a n d , t h e n , to place the character they h a v e n o w created out of themselves i n a fictional setting i n w h i c h t h e y b e c o m e the first p e r s o n n a r r a t o r of s o m e o n e else's story. T h u s t h e y create a narrator w h o is still themselves b u t at s e v e r a l fic­ tional removes. O u t of this exercise S a r a h created a fictional n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r w h o e n c a p s u l a t e d a n aspect of herself w h i c h she h a d c l e a r l y b e e n at p a i n s to k e e p h i d d e n . S h e d e s c r i b e d it as the 'bossy, d o m i n e e r i n g ' p a r t of h e r ­ self, a n d it w a s n o t altogether to her l i k i n g , a l t h o u g h she also 'felt like c e l e b r a t i n g it'. T h e clarification of this p a r t of h e r i d e n t i t y e n a b l e d S a r a h to feel m o r e confident i n b e i n g present o n the p a g e i n her fic­ tions, a n d she w a s t h e n able to g o o n to f i n d a v o i c e for the first p e r s o n n a r r a t o r of h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l w h i c h c o n v e y e d 'the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings' of her 60s self. L i k e m e , S a r a h h a d b e e n u n a b l e to s u s p e n d the critical faculty a n d a l l o w a n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r b a s e d o n herself to d e v e l o p a life of her o w n ; she h a d h a d to control

the n a r r a ­

182

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

tive, because she d i d not w a n t aspects o f herself o f w h i c h she d i s a p ­ p r o v e d to e m e r g e o n the p a g e .

The theoretical writings of Karen Homey K a r e n H o r n e y O s theoretical w r i t i n g s enable us to u n d e r s t a n d these p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g identity. K a r e n H o r n e y (1885­ 1952) w a s a s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n F r e u d i a n w h o left h e r native G e r m a n y i n the e a r l y 1930s a n d m a d e h e r career i n A m e r i c a , first i n C h i c a g o under

Franz Alexander,

then

as

a member

of

the N e w

York

P s y c h o a n a l y t i c Institute. S h e s u b s e q u e n t l y set u p h e r o w n institute i n N e w Y o r k , w h i c h continues to operate. S h e is the a u t h o r of five m a j o r books

( H o r n e y 1937, 1939a, 1942, 1946, 1951) a n d m a n y

separately

p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s . H e r v i e w s u n d e r w e n t s e v e r a l significant c h a n g e s d u r i n g h e r lifetime. She is best k n o w n for h e r e a r l y p a p e r s o n the p s y ­ c h o l o g y of w o m e n ( H o r n e y 1967), w h i c h w e r e the first to take s e r i o u s issue w i t h F r e u d ' s ideas o n female sexuality ( G a r r i s o n 1981: 673). H o w e v e r , she q u i c k l y m o v e d a w a y f r o m h e r feminist c o n c e r n s

11

to

focus o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l factors i n the f o r m a t i o n o f personality, a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r o n the role of social a n d c u l t u r a l factors ( H o r n e y 1937). T h e late p h a s e of h e r w o r k , w h i c h B e r n a r d Paris calls h e r ' m a t u r e t h e o r y ' (Paris 1994), concentrates o n b o t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c fac­ tors i n p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r ( H o r n e y 1951). F u n d a m e n t a l to H o r n e y ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t is the n o t i o n that there is a 'real s e l f . She w a s the first p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h i n k e r to use this t e r m ( H o r n e y 1939b: 130), a n d it is this m o r e t h a n a n y other aspect of h e r w o r k w h i c h m a k e s h e r t h e o r y p r o b l e m a t i c a l i n the p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d . ' R e a l s e l f is n o w r e g a r d e d as a n o u t m o d e d essentialist n o t i o n , i m p l y i n g a fixed u n i t a r y substance

which

will

' u n f o l d i n definite, innate stages t o w a r d s its " n a t u r a l e n d " o r p u r p o s e (adult m a t u r i t y / h e a l t h ) ' (Flax 1993: 99). T h i s , h o w e v e r , is to m i s u n d e r ­ s t a n d H o r n e y O s i d e a . W h i l s t there are certainly m o m e n t s i n H o r n e y ' s w r i t i n g s w h e n it does s o u n d l i k e a n essentialist n o t i o n , she stresses that real self is n o t a fixed entity b u t a set of ' i n t r i n s i c potentialities', the ' " o r i g i n a l " force t o w a r d i n d i v i d u a l g r o w t h a n d f u l f i l m e n t ' , a ' p o s s i b l e s e l f , felt rather t h a n seen ( H o r n e y 1951: 17, 158). W h i l s t these ' i n t r i n ­ sic potentialities' are the c o n s e q u e n c e of o u r genetic m a k e - u p , they c a n o n l y b e actualised t h r o u g h i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h u s , the w a y p e o p l e ' s potentialities d e v e l o p is v e r y

much

d e p e n d e n t o n the w a y they interact w i t h the social a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i ­

Celia Hunt

183

r o n m e n t , a n d the d o m i n a n t narratives therein. ' R e a l s e l f , then, o n H o r n e y ' s v i e w , is b o t h innate a n d the p r o d u c t of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s expe­ rience w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r social w o r l d . H o r n e y does n o t discuss the n o t i o n of ' r e a l s e l f i n great detail i n her w r i t i n g s ; her m a i n focus is o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p s y c h i c processes 1 2

w h i c h ensue w h e n a p e r s o n loses t o u c h w i t h 'real s e l f or b e c o m e s self­ alienated

( H o r n e y 1951: 13). N e u r o s i s ,

1 3

for H o r n e y , is the consequence,

i n the first instance, of difficult i n t e r p e r s o n a l relations i n c h i l d h o o d . L i k e C a r l R o g e r s , she is of the v i e w that h e a l t h y p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l ­ o p m e n t requires a n e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h the c h i l d receives u n c o n d i ­ t i o n a l p o s i t i v e r e g a r d f r o m its parents, a n d thus d e v e l o p s a feeling of safety a n d b e l o n g i n g . In s u c h c o n d i t i o n s of g o o d object relating, the c h i l d w i l l be able to d e v e l o p its potentialities, a l t h o u g h , as I h a v e s a i d , the e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l p l a y a significant role i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h potentialities d e v e l o p a n d the f o r m they take. In the absence of s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , the c h i l d is l i k e l y to b e c o m e a n x i o u s a n d feel 'isolated a n d helpless i n a p o t e n t i a l l y hostile w o r l d ' ( H o r n e y 1946: anxiety

41). T h i s basic

causes the c h i l d to a b a n d o n its innate d r i v e to d e v e l o p

its

p o t e n t i a l a n d i n s t e a d to f i n d ' w a y s to c o p e w i t h this m e n a c i n g w o r l d ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 42). E c h o i n g the e m e r g e n c y r e a c t i o n of fight, flight a n d s t i b m i s s i o n i n a n i m a l b e h a v i o u r , H o r n e y suggests that the c h i l d w i l l m o v e against

people a n d b e c o m e hostile, away from

d e t a c h e d , or toward

people a n d b e c o m e

people a n d b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t ( H o r n e y 1946:

42).

Social a n d c u l t u r a l factors w i l l p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role here i n d e t e r m i n ­ i n g the choice of one defence over another, so that girls w i l l t e n d to m o v e t o w a r d s p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e l o v e , w h i l s t b o y s w i l l t e n d to m o v e against p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e p o w e r . U n l e s s f a v o u r a b l e life circumstances i n t e r v e n e , then b y the time the c h i l d has b e c o m e a n a d u l t these defensive c h i l d h o o d strategies w i l l h a v e d e v e l o p e d into w h a t H o r n e y calls life solutions. three m a i n k i n d s , w h i c h she regards as ' d i r e c t i o n s of rather t h a n clear-cut 'types': self-effacing, expansiveness arrogant-vindictive

expansive

b e i n g d i v i d e d into the narcissistic,

S h e identifies development'

a n d resigned,

with

perfectionistic

and

( H o r n e y 1946: 187-290, 191). E a c h of these solutions

i n v o l v e s w h a t P a r i s calls a ' b a r g a i n w i t h fate' (1991), a k i n d of d e v i l ' s pact, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the s o l u t i o n is a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y i n e x c h a n g e for certain benefits. F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the

self-effac­

i n g s o l u t i o n w i l l try to g a i n safety, l o v e a n d esteem t h r o u g h d e p e n ­ dency, h u m i l i t y a n d self-sacrificing ' g o o d n e s s ' . H e r ' b a r g a i n ' w i l l r u n : 'If I a m h e l p f u l a n d s u b m i s s i v e a n d d o n o t seek m y o w n g a i n or glory,

184

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

I w i l l be treated w e l l b y fate a n d other p e o p l e ' .

1 4

T h e a d o p t i o n of a s i n ­

gle life s o l u t i o n , s u c h as self-effacement, c a n b r i n g a b o u t a certain free­ d o m f r o m the i n n e r conflicts r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self, a n d this c a n p r o v i d e a sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a degree of security. H o w e v e r , as a l l three life solutions t e n d to be present s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , this a p p a r ­ ent

stability is illusory, for

the other solutions

w h i c h have

been

r e p r e s s e d i n t o the u n c o n s c i o u s s i m p l y generate n e w conflicts, w h i c h i n t u r n r e q u i r e further r e m e d i e s . T h i s intrapsychic d e v e l o p m e n t , o r i g i n a l l y set i n m o t i o n b y the inter­ personal difficulties i n c h i l d h o o d , H o r n e y regards as c r u c i a l i n c o n s o l i ­ d a t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g the c h o s e n life s o l u t i o n , a n d this c o n c e p t i o n f o r m s the core of her later w o r k . She calls it the

search for glory

(Horney

1946:17-39). Because a p e r s o n has m o v e d a w a y f r o m the centre of h i m ­ self,

15

h a s b e c o m e self-alienated, his ' i n n e r strength a n d coherence' are

severely

i m p a i r e d a n d h e cannot d e v e l o p

self-confidence

(Horney

1946: 20). H e therefore feels inferior to other p e o p l e a n d needs a m e a n s of l i f t i n g h i m s e l f above t h e m . H e does this t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n , b y c r e a t i n g w h a t H o r n e y calls a n idealised image of h i m s e l f ( H o r n e y

1946:

22). T h e elements w h i c h go to m a k e u p the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e are n o t a r b i t r a r y ; t h e y d e r i v e f r o m 'the materials of his o w n s p e c i a l e x p e r i ­ ences, his earlier fantasies, his p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s , a n d also his g i v e n fac­ u l t i e s ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 22), a n d they w i l l b e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y h i s c h o s e n s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the

self-effacing

s o l u t i o n m a y create a n i d e a l i s e d i m a g e of herself as the perfect w i f e a n d m o t h e r ; i n her b e h a v i o u r she w i l l t r y to please others a n d to be e x q u i s i t e l y sensitive to their needs, a n d w i l l a v o i d e x p r e s s i n g direct hostility. W h e n successful, this w i l l enable her to d e r i v e a substitute self-esteem. B e c a u s e the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e is a p o t e n t i a l source of substitute self­ e s t e e m , the d r i v e to realise this i m a g e i n reality, to b e c o m e the idealised self, is v e r y s t r o n g . T h u s , the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e generates w h a t H o r n e y calls

the pride system

function

( H o r n e y 1946: 111), a series of m e c h a n i s m s w h o s e

it is to b l u d g e o n

the p e r s o n

to

achieve

the

impossible

d e m a n d s of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e . First, it gives rise to intense p r i d e i n the

characteristics of

the

idealised image,

ers.

Neurotic claims

( H o r n e y 1946:

this neurotic pride neurotic claims o n o t h ­

and

( H o r n e y 1946: 86-109) justifies the n e e d to m a k e

40-63) are w i s h e s or needs t u r n e d

o u t w a r d s . T h e y ' a s s u m e a right, a title' to special treatment b y other p e o p l e , b y institutions a n d b y life i n g e n e r a l , a title ' w h i c h i n reality d o e s n o t exist' ( H o r n e y 1946: 42), b u t w h i c h a p e r s o n feels is d u e to

185

Celia Hunt

h i m b y v i r t u e of h i s s u p e r i o r status. Internally, there is a s i m i l a r l y coer­ cive r e g i m e : w h a t H o r n e y calls shoulds ( H o r n e y 1946: 64-85) are a c o n ­ stant battery of i n n e r dictates w h i c h d e m a n d that a p e r s o n

should

b e c o m e the s u p r e m e b e i n g of his i m a g i n a t i o n , w i t h utter d i s r e g a r d for ' w h a t he c a n feel or d o as he is at p r e s e n t ' ( H o r n e y 1946:

67).

F a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the i n n e r dictates leads to a n i n n e r t u r n i n g against oneself or, as H o r n e y calls it, the f o r m i n g of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e ' s c o u n t e r p a r t , the

despised image.

T h e r e s u l t i n g self-hate a n d self­

c o n t e m p t l e a d to self-belittling a n d self-frustrating m e c h a n i s m s , a n d — i n extreme c a s e s — t o self-destructiveness, of b o t h gross or subtle k i n d s ( H o r n e y 1946: 110-154). T h e w h o l e p i c t u r e is m a d e e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s existence of different life s o l u t i o n s , so that not o n l y are there conflicts w i t h i n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l life s o l u t i o n b e t w e e n i d e a l i s e d a n d d e s p i s e d i m a g e s , b u t conflicts b e t w e e n s o l u t i o n s themselves. F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o is p r e d o m i n a n t l y self-effacing w i l l be d r i v e n to be s u b ­ s e r v i e n t to others a n d w i l l f i n d it a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to be e x p a n s i v e . S h e w i l l thus t e n d to a v o i d a n y situations w h i c h i n v o l v e assertiveness or c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s . H o w e v e r , if she has repressed the e x p a n s i v e s o l u ­ t i o n , then she w i l l b e d r i v e n i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , to exercise p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l o v e r others, a n d to excel i n e v e r y t h i n g she does. This internal tug-of-war

between

o p p o s i n g aspects of herself

will

r e s u l t i n a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e w h a t e v e r she does is w r o n g , a n d thus she w i l l feel e n d l e s s l y t o r m e n t e d . A p e r s o n c a u g h t u p i n s u c h a conflict m a y w e l l m o v e i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o w a r d s the d e t a c h e d s o l u t i o n w h i c h , H o r n e y says, often serves to k e e p the conflict b e t w e e n

self-effacement

a n d e x p a n s i v e n e s s o u t of awareness. T h e task of therapy, for H o r n e y , is to d i s m a n t l e this c o m p l e x i n t r a p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d to re-estab­ l i s h contact w i t h the real self, thus setting h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t i n motion again.

1 6

Towards a Horneyan understanding of problems of writer identity T h e r e are three m a i n , interrelated factors w h i c h are central to u n d e r ­ standing problems

of w r i t e r i d e n t i t y f r o m the H o r n e y a n p o i n t of

v i e w : the i n h e r e n t r i g i d i t y of the defensive character s t r u c t u r e — 1 7

because of the conflicts b e t w e e n the different life solutions a n d the ten­ d e n c y to b e c o m e e n t r a p p e d i n o n e d o m i n a n t s o l u t i o n ( H o r n e y

1951:

310-311); the lack of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real self ( H o r n e y 1951: 310); a n d the threat f r o m the ' i n n e r t y r a n n y ' r e p r e ­

Psychological

186

Problems of Writer Identity

s e n t e d b y the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951:118). I shall take e a c h of these in turn. A s I h a v e s a i d a b o v e , the defensive character structure c o m e s into b e i n g i n the first instance to d e f e n d the c h i l d against basic a n x i e t y w h i c h has b e e n a r o u s e d b y a n e n v i r o n m e n t that threatens the e m e r ­ g e n c e of its i n d i v i d u a l i t y A s the defensive character structure d e v e l ­ o p s a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c factors c o m e into p l a y , its f u n c t i o n b r o a d e n s , to provide

also

the

defences n e e d e d

to

protect

the

adult

i n c r e a s e d a n x i e t y a n d p a i n of i n n e r conflicts, a n d the

from

the

destructive

effects of the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951: 297). T h e r e c a n be little flexi­ b i l i t y w i t h i n s u c h a defensive structure: ' R i g i d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h w i l l p o w e r a n d r e a s o n i n g is... [a] ... s t r e n u o u s m e a n s of a t t e m p t i n g to b i n d together all the d i s c o n n e c t e d parts of the p e r s o n a l i t y ' ( H o r n e y

1951:

172). W h e r e a p a r t i c u l a r life s o l u t i o n has b e c o m e d o m i n a n t , it w i l l be r i g i d l y a d h e r e d to. L o o s e n i n g c o n t r o l m e a n s r u n n i n g the risk of b e i n g p l u n g e d into self-torment, or of s w i t c h i n g i n t o one of the other life solutions. Instead of the central o r g a n i s i n g a g e n c y of the p s y c h e b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m r e a l self, it w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d b y the defensive character struc­ ture a n d the c o m p u l s o r y narrative of s h o u l d s a p p r o p r i a t e to the d o m ­ i n a n t life s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , if a m a n ' s e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n d e m a n d s of h i m that he s h o u l d be p o w e r f u l a n d c o n t r o l l i n g i n a l l situations, t h e n h e w i l l h a v e difficulty b r i n g i n g to life o n the p a g e a character b a s e d o n h i m s e l f w h o is w e a k a n d v u l n e r a b l e a n d a l l o w s h i m s e l f to be o p p r e s s e d b y others. H e cannot a l l o w his d o m i n a n t i m a g e of h i m s e l f to be s u s p e n d e d or s h e l v e d . S i m i l a r l y if a w o m a n ' s d o m i n a n t n a r r a t i v e of s h o u l d s tells h e r that she m u s t be g o o d , t h e n r e p r e s e n t i n g herself o n the p a g e as less t h a n g o o d contravenes the rules of her s o l u t i o n a n d w i l l arouse anxiety. O r a character r e p r e s e n t i n g repressed

tendencies

c a n be p o r t r a y e d accurately b u t c o n d e m n e d b y the rhetoric. A d o m i ­ n a n t s o l u t i o n h a s to be a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y , because it p r o v i d e s a m u c h n e e d e d sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a p s e u d o - s e l f - e s t e e m

w h i c h c a n , to a n

extent, s u s t a i n a p e r s o n , i n the absence of g e n u i n e self-esteem ( H o r n e y 1951:

23).

In m y o w n case, the d o m i n a n c e of a self-effacing s o l u t i o n m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e , w i t h o u t great struggle, to represent m y s e l f o n the p a g e i n a n y other w a y . W h i l s t i n the rhetoric of the n o v e l I w a n t e d to s h o w that m y 70s self h a d m o v e d o n a n d b e c o m e m o r e e x p a n s i v e , the 80s n a r r a ­ tor c o u l d not c o u n t e n a n c e this, as it c o n t r a v e n e d the i n t e g r i t y of m y d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u t i o n . In spite of this, today, w h e n I r e a d the

187

Celia Hunt

n o v e l , I c a n see, w i t h the benefit of h i n d s i g h t , that there is a subtle e x p a n s i v e n e s s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the v o i c e a n d actions of the 70s n a r r a ­ tor w h i c h has e s c a p e d the c e n s o r s h i p of the 80s narrator. T h e n o v e l s e e m s to represent the struggle b e t w e e n the self-effacing a n d e x p a n ­ sive s o l u t i o n s , a struggle w h i c h b o t h narrators h a v e tried to r e s o l v e t h r o u g h different f o r m s of d e p e n d e n t d e t a c h m e n t . F o r S a r a h , o n the other h a n d , her d o m i n a n t e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h itself w a s l a r g e l y k e p t out of awareness, p r e v e n t e d her f r o m r e p ­ r e s e n t i n g herself i n h e r n o v e l i n the guise of a v u l n e r a b l e

young

w o m a n w h o fell v i c t i m to a rather u n s c r u p u l o u s o l d e r m a n . T h i s is b e c a u s e , i n the e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , w e a k n e s s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y are not allowed. T h e l a c k of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real self is a

serious

problem

i n a person's

a b i l i t y to

engage

in learning.

T h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e of h e r theory, H o r n e y differentiates b e t w e e n a h e a l t h y a n d a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t of self. In a h e a l t h y d e v e l o p ­ m e n t , r e a l s e l f — w h i c h at the outset is u n k n o w n , p o t e n t i a l — g r o w s a n d d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h g o o d object-relating. T h e c h i l d f i n d s p e o p l e , s i t u a ­ tions a n d experiences w h i c h h e l p it to d e v e l o p its potential. T h i s p r o ­ v i d e s the c h i l d w i t h a sense of its o w n w o r t h , w i t h a feeling of s e l f - c o n ­ f i d e n c e , a n d a n i n c r e a s e d a b i l i t y to m a k e choices. In a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t the s i t u a t i o n is m u c h m o r e c o m p l i ­ cated. R e a l self d i s a p p e a r s f r o m v i e w , so that self-esteem d o e s not develop

naturally. In its absence,

emergency

measures

h a v e to

be

taken. S e l f - i d e a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s , a n d this has to be protected b e c a u s e , if it is u n d e r m i n e d , its o p p o s i t e p o l e — s e l f - h a t e — w i l l be e v o k e d ( H o r n e y 1951:

112). T h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w h e r e real s e l f - w o r t h a n d self-esteem

w o u l d n o r m a l l y reside, is m i s s i n g , thus a l l o w i n g this see-saw to o p e r ­ ate. O n e c o u l d say that a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self leaves a h o l e i n the m i d d l e of the p s y c h e . It is '...the subjective feeling of...being r e m o v e d

from

[oneself]' ( H o r n e y 1951: 160). T h e self is d e - c e n t r e d , m o v e s a w a y f r o m its heart. R a t h e r t h a n a 'space for the i m a g i n a t i o n ' , a safe h o l d i n g e n v i ­ r o n m e n t i n h a b i t e d b y b e n i g n presence, there is absence, or it m a y be f i l l e d w i t h anxiety or be e x p e r i e n c e d as t h r e a t e n i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous.

1 8

A s T r e v o r P a t e m a n says,

I m a g i n a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y fails us w h e n the space w h i c h w e

are

g i v e n i n w h i c h to exercise it... creates a sense of anxiety rather t h a n a sense of o p p o r t u n i t y . ( P a t e m a n 1997:

4)

188

Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

S t u d e n t s often refer to a sense of d a n g e r or d i s c o m f o r t w h e n t r y i n g to w r i t e . A p o w e r f u l critic i n the h e a d is constantly l o o k i n g o v e r their s h o u l d e r a n d f i n d i n g fault w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h e y w r i t e ; ' T h e critical eye b r e a t h i n g d o w n the creative n e c k ' , as one s t u d e n t p u t it. T h i s w a s cer­ t a i n l y m y o w n p r o b l e m w h e n I started to w r i t e f i c t i o n . W h e n I tried to get i n t o u c h w i t h m y ' i n n e r v i s i o n ' , I felt that i n o r d e r to k e e p the i n n e r space o p e n I h a d to p r i s e it apart b y sheer effort of w i l l , as if I w e r e h a v ­ i n g c o n s t a n t l y to l e a n against a h e a v y s w i n g d o o r w h i c h , i f I l o o s e n e d m y g r i p , w o u l d s w i n g b a c k a n d s l a m shut. N e e d l e s s to say, this w a s a n e x h a u s t i n g process w h i c h m a d e w r i t i n g a t i r i n g a n d d i s p i r i t i n g u n d e r ­ t a k i n g . T h e space w i t h i n w h i c h m y i n n e r v i s i o n l i v e d w a s t h r e a t e n i n g , f i l l e d w i t h anxiety, a n d often I p r e f e r r e d n o t to g o there, e v e n t h o u g h I h a d a s t r o n g desire to w r i t e . T h i s sense of i n n e r d a n g e r is a direct c o n s e q u e n c e of the p r i d e sys­ t e m ' s c a p a c i t y to inflict p u n i s h m e n t for c o n t r a v e n t i o n of its rules, the f a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the unrealistic expectations of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e ( H o r n e y 1951:118). T h u s , the space w h e r e creativity o c c u r s a n d w h e r e contact is m a d e w i t h the d e v e l o p i n g self ( M i l n e r 1989: 37) b e c o m e s dif­ ficult to enter, or m a y be c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d off. T h e d e s i r e to create has to b e r e p r e s s e d : ' H e does n o t e m b a r k o n a n y serious p u r s u i t s c o m ­ m e n s u r a t e w i t h his gifts lest he fail to be a b r i l l i a n t success. H e w o u l d like to w r i t e or to p a i n t a n d does not d a r e to start' ( H o r n e y 1951:

107).

O r if it is n o t r e p r e s s e d , attempts to create w i l l b e w r a c k e d w i t h a n x i ­ ety or h a m p e r e d b y self-torment: ...a w r i t e r is i n h i b i t e d i n d o i n g creative w o r k because of s e v e r a l factors w i t h i n h i m s e l f w h i c h m a k e w r i t i n g a n o r d e a l . H i s w o r k therefore p r o c e e d s s l o w l y ; h e f i d d l e s a r o u n d or d o e s i r r e l e v a n t t h i n g s . Instead of b e i n g s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h h i m s e l f for this afflic­ t i o n , a n d e x a m i n i n g it, h e calls h i m s e l f a l a z y g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g o r a f r a u d w h o is n o t really interested i n his w o r k . ( H o r n e y

1951:

124-5) F o r c r e a t i v i t y to occur, there n e e d s to be a c a p a c i t y to be a l o n e w i t h the s p a c e w i t h i n oneself (Winnicott 1965), a n d this c a n be d o n e m u c h m o r e e a s i l y if that space is b e n i g n , if there is a sense that o n e is present to o n e s e l f i n that space. S h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y c a n n o t e a s i l y o c c u r if the s p a c e for the i m a g i n a t i o n is threatening.

189

Celia Hunt

The role offictionalautobiography in learning to find a writing identity In m y w o r k w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g I h a v e f o u n d that e n c o u r ­ a g i n g t h e m to fictionalise themselves

a n d their experience can h e l p

those w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l blocks to l e a r n i n g to o v e r c o m e s o m e of their w r i t i n g difficulties. T h i s k i n d of w r i t i n g seems to p r o v o k e a confronta­ t i o n w i t h self w h i c h c a n h e l p t h e m to i d e n t i f y the p r o b l e m s a n d s o m e ­ times to w o r k t h e m t h r o u g h . In m y o w n case it forced m e to see that w h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d m o v e d b e y o n d m y d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u ­ t i o n — a s represented b y m y 70s n a r r a t o r — I w a s still l o c k e d into it. W h i l s t I n o w felt m u c h m o r e c o n f i d e n t a n d e x p a n s i v e , I c o u l d o n l y be so because I h a d attached m y s e l f to a n e x p a n s i v e p a r t n e r a n d w a s able to c h a n n e l m y o w n expansiveness t h r o u g h h i m . T h i s clarification of m y s e l f h e l p e d m e , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y , to f i n d a m o r e s o l i d sense of m y o w n identity, a n d this i n t u r n e n a b l e d m e to o v e r ­ c o m e m y p r o b l e m s w i t h l e a r n i n g a n d to e m b a r k o n u n i v e r s i t y studies. In S a r a h ' s case, w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y h e l p e d her to clarify her d o m i n a n t expansiveness a n d to see its negative as w e l l as its p o s i ­ tive effects. T h i s e n a b l e d her not o n l y to f i n d the v o i c e for her a u t o b i o ­ g r a p h i c a l n o v e l , b u t to m a k e p o s i t i v e major changes at w o r k , w h e r e her e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n a n d the c o n t r o l she t e n d e d to exercise over o t h ­ ers h a d b e e n a s o m e t i m e s d a m a g i n g feature of her relationships. It is the m e t a p h o r i c a l nature of f i c t i o n w h i c h facilitates insights a n d subsequent

changes. A s I h a v e s a i d elsewhere

1998a, 1998c), fiction d e m a n d s

the skills of ' s h o w i n g '

these (Hunt

as w e l l

as

' t e l l i n g ' . In order to animate the w r i t i n g , the writer has to efface herself a n d to a l l o w h e r characters a n d narrators to c o n v e y their o w n feelings a n d e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e a n d action (Booth 1991). W h e n

we

w r i t e fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y , w e are forced to engage w i t h our

own

feelings a n d e m o t i o n s i n a w a y w h i c h w e m a y not be able to d o so eas­ i l y i n the n o r m a l course of o u r lives. F i c t i o n also allows the writer, rather t h a n h a v i n g to confront herself h e a d - o n , to create instead p l a y ­ f u l m e t a p h o r s for self, as S a r a h d i d , w h i c h c a n be d e e p l y r e v e a l i n g a n d s u b v e r t internal defences,

thus l o o s e n i n g the h o l d of r i g i d i n t e r n a l

structures. N o t only, t h e n , d o e s this enable writers to l e a r n h o w

to

d e v e l o p a stronger w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y — w h i c h m a y h e l p t h e m engage m o r e freely i n the i n n e r dialectic b e t w e e n the critical faculty a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s contents, a n d thus increase the p o s s i b i l i t y of their creating m o r e effective f i c t i o n — t h e y are also b e i n g e n a b l e d to d e v e l o p as p e o ­ ple.

190

Psychological

Problems of Writer Identity

T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , risks i n v o l v e d i n u n d e r t a k i n g this k i n d of w o r k i n the c l a s s r o o m . E n c o u r a g i n g p e o p l e to e n g a g e m o r e closely w i t h their i n n e r lives s o m e t i m e s m e a n s that they w i l l h a v e to confront diffi­ cult o r p a i n f u l p e r s o n a l issues i n the course of their w r i t i n g . S u r e l y , one m i g h t say, this is the d o m a i n of t h e r a p y rather t h a n e d u c a t i o n . M y e x p e r i e n c e leads m e to believe that a lot of g o o d ' t h e r a p e u t i c ' w o r k can be d o n e i n the c l a s s r o o m , as l o n g as one creates a ' h o l d i n g e n v i r o n ­ m e n t ' w i t h i n w h i c h students c a n feel sufficiently safe to a l l o w their s o m e t i m e s difficult material to e m e r g e .

19

Notes 1

To be published as Therapeutic Dimensions of Autobiography in Creative Writing (Hunt 2000).

2 I am using the term 'voice here in a similar way to Foucault's notion of 'author-function'

(cf. Foucault 1977).

7

3 For a more detailed outline of my course see Hunt 1995,

4 90% of the students (a sample of 50) who completed questionnaires for my research report­

ed that the course had helped them to develop as writers. 74% reported that writing fiction­ al autobiography had helped them to overcome problems with their writing. 51 am grateful to the students mentioned for allowing me to quote from questionnaires com­ pleted as part of my research. 6 Leader 1991 contains a very useful summary. 7 This is a term used by Karen Horney, which I discuss below. 8 On the conflict between rhetoric and character in fiction, see Paris 1997 and Hunt 1998b. 9 I have discussed the case of 'Sarah' in more detail in Hunt 1998a. 10 The quotations are from Sarah's essay written at the end of the course and from the inter­ views undertaken as part of my research. I am very grateful to Sarah for allowing me to quote from these documents. 1 1

Paris (1994: 92-96, 232-238) discusses possible reasons for this.

Christopher BollasO elaboration of Winnicott's notion of 'true self6 (Bollas 1987, 1989) provides a useful extension of Horney's notion of 'real self. 1 2

13 Horney's definition of neurosis changed and developed over time, along with her views as a whole. The major features of neurosis which she identifies are basic anxiety and alien­ ation from self, leading to disturbances in relations with self and others, in particular 'a cer­ tain rigidity in reaction and a discrepancy between potentialities and accomplishments' (Horney 1937: 22). 14 Horney's 'life solutionsO can usefully be thought of as 'self-conceptsd, which contain a narrative, including a powerful narrative of 'shoulds' which determines how a person should behave, what she should be doing with her life, what sort of relationships she should be engaging in, etc. This is discussed below. 15 Horney uses the male pronoun throughout her books, except when discussing specific case studies. 16 See Paris 1994, Part V, for a full account of Horney's mature theory. l ^ Whilst Horney does not discuss problems of creative writing or writer's block as such, her chapter 'Neurotic Disturbances in Work', in Neurosis and Human Growth, focuses specifically

Celia Hunt

191

on 'creative work in the broadest sense of the word' (Horney 1951; 310), and some of the examples she uses are of creative writers. 18 Milner's discussion of the space for the imagination as inhabited by monsters is relevant here (Milner 1971: 35-44). 19 These topics are discussed in greater detail in Hunt 2000.

WINNICOTT A N D EDUCATION

Val Richards Introduction W i n n i c o t t ' s w r i t i n g s b r i n g together a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m i n d a n d a n existential v i s i o n of h u m a n life. H e offers a s t r i k i n g l y i n t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d social p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s . T h e ideas w h i c h s h a p e d W i n n i c o t t ' s v i s i o n i n c l u d e a s t r o n g i n f u ­ s i o n of N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y R o m a n t i c i s m . T h i s is a n essentialist stance, w h i c h bears little r e l a t i o n to the m o d e r n i s t n o t i o n of the self as a n 'absent centre'. H o w e v e r , t h r o u g h his i m m e n s e

clinical experience,

W i n n i c o t t a r r i v e d at a v i e w of the self w h i c h — e v e n t h o u g h t it is r e g a r d e d as ' a n e n t i t y ' — i s nevertheless p r o b l e m a t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y unresolved: T h e r e is m u c h u n c e r t a i n t y i n m y o w n m i n d about the m e a n i n g of ' S e l f . . . F o r m e the self, w h i c h is not the ego, is the p e r s o n w h o is m e , w h o is o n l y m e , w h o has a totality b a s e d o n the o p e r a t i o n of the m a t u r a t i o n a l process. A t the s a m e time the self has p a r t s , a n d i n fact is constituted of these parts. (Winnicott 1989:

271)

In the first part of this chapter, I w i l l focus o n W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas o n e a r l y i n f a n t n e e d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . In the s e c o n d , I g o o n to e x p l o r e h o w these concepts m i g h t be a p p l i e d — b o t h to the fostering of creative a n d effective l e a r n i n g , a n d to the d i s c o v e r y a n d r e c o v e r y of d i s t u r b e d creativity.

I A t the heart of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t is his insistence that the infant's self—its c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g i n time a n d s p a c e — i s at first held b y the mother,

1

b o t h literally a n d f i g u r a t i v e l y T h e s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e of

this 'facilitating e n v i r o n m e n t ' i n W i n n i c o t t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o d e l is e p i t o m i s e d b y his o b s e r v a t i o n that: ' T h e r e ' s n o s u c h t h i n g as a b a b y ' (Winnicott 1960a: 39). T h i s w a s uttered as a c h a l l e n g i n g corrective to w h a t h e s a w (perhaps a little unfairly) as the near a u t o n o m y of the infant i n M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s v i e w s o n the c h i l d ' s internal w o r l d . W h a t is

Vol Richards

193

c r u c i a l i n W i n n i c o t t ' s a p h o r i s m , h o w e v e r , is the w a y it refers not o n l y to the o b v i o u s p h y s i c a l care of the b a b y — o n w h i c h it is, of course, a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d e n t — b u t also to the p e r h a p s less o b v i o u s belief that at first the b a b y cannot thrive w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l holding. A central feature of parental h o l d i n g is the p a r t p l a y e d b y m a t e r n a l ' m i r r o r i n g ' . F o r W i n n i c o t t ' s infant, the reflection it perceives of itself is t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n the i m a g e of another p e r s o n , u p o n the expres­

sion on its mother's face.

W i n n i c o t t writes:

W h a t does the b a b y see w h e n he or she l o o k s at the m o t h e r ' s face? I a m s u g g e s t i n g that, o r d i n a r i l y , w h a t the b a b y sees is h i m ­ self or herself. In other w o r d s the m o t h e r is l o o k i n g at the b a b y and 1990:

what she looks like is related to what she sees there.

(Winnicott

112)

W i n n i c o t t suggests, then, that for the b a b y to experience full narcis­ sistic c o n f i r m a t i o n of itself, its o w n self-image has to be m e d i a t e d b y another. T h e infant's i m a g e of itself is contingent u p o n the m o t h e r ' s g i v i n g b a c k the infant's i m a g e

to her c h i l d . T h i s suggests, then, not

o n l y the f u n d a m e n t a l l y interactional nature of f a v o u r a b l e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t also the d e p e n d e n c e of the learner o n the other for the i n i t i a t i o n of e d u c a t i v e processes. M i r r o r i n g is a v e r y c o m p l e x process w h i c h is s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the factor of time. A l t h o u g h the process occurs m o r e or less s i m u l t a n e ­ o u s l y , there is nevertheless a

sequence i n v o l v e d : firstly, the

mother must

see the c h i l d , a n d t h e n r e s p o n d to w h a t she sees, so that the c h i l d m i g h t t h e n l o o k at the mother, a n d f i n a l l y see (or apperceive) himself. It is a k i n d of b e n i g n cycle i n w h i c h the m o t h e r is r e p e a t e d l y g i v i n g the i n f a n t b a c k to h i m s e l f . T h r o u g h s u c h affirmation a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n the c h i l d ' s i n n e r self, his integration, is g r a d u a l l y b u i l t u p . T h e c h i l d ' s e a r l y l e a r n i n g is t h u s situated s q u a r e l y i n a n i n t e r p e r s o n a l process, a n d is totally d e p e n d e n t o n the reflection of the o t h e r .

2

W i n n i c o t t p a r a p h r a s e s the s i t u a t i o n of the infant as f o l l o w s : W h e n I l o o k I a m seen, so I exist. I c a n n o w afford to l o o k a n d see. I n o w l o o k creatively a n d w h a t I a p p e r c e i v e I also perceive. In fact I take care not to see w h a t is n o t there to be seen (unless I a m tired). (Winnicott 1990:

114)

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Winnicott and Education

H o w e v e r , this early, absolute d e p e n d e n c e

o n the m o t h e r for its

' g o i n g - o n - b e i n g ' is b a l a n c e d b y W i n n i c o t t ' s n o t i o n of the infant's o w n self. T h i s self d e r i v e s u l t i m a t e l y f r o m the infant's o w n earliest ' s p o n t a ­ n e o u s g e s t u r e ' — t h a t is,

its own instinctual expression within the security

of being held. A l l later creativity a n d l e a r n i n g is v i e w e d b y W i n n i c o t t as i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m this p r i m a r y root. C r e a t i v i t y is thus p o s i t e d as a ' p r i m i t i v e a l i v e n e s s ' rather t h a n — a s i n the classical t h e o r i e s — a s a sec­ o n d a r y process or c o m p e n s a t o r y d i s p l a c e m e n t . In a d d i t i o n , f o r m i n g a v i t a l b o o s t to this process of i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l ­ o p m e n t , W i n n i c o t t places a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s o n the part p l a y e d b y hate. In the n u r s e r y , the hate a n d a m b i v a l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d b y a m o t h e r t o w a r d s her infant serves as a n i n v o l u n t a r y b u t c r u c i a l element i n the process of differentiation b e t w e e n t h e m , facilitating the b a b y ' s

own

c a p a c i t y for l o v e a n d hate. T h i s d y n a m i c also a p p l i e s to w h a t h a p p e n s i n the c l a s s r o o m a n d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . W i n n i c o t t ' s assertion that ' T h e m o t h e r hates her b a b y f r o m the w o r d g o ' (Winnicott 1949:

201) is a robust corrective to the s e e m i n g d e l i c a c y of m a t e r n a l

m i r r o r i n g . T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g of hate a n d aggression w i t h the motifs of h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g h i g h l i g h t s h o w W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas are d e c i ­ s i v e l y r o o t e d i n the real w o r l d of the i n t e r p e r s o n a l , as w e l l as i n the intrapsychic w o r l d .

*** F r o m h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g — w h i c h are t i n g e d w i t h a h e a l t h y a n d necessary

degree

of h a t e — d e v e l o p s

the ability to p l a y , a n d

what

W i n n i c o t t f a m o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as 'transitional p h e n o m e n a ' . T h e latter, a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , arise f r o m that p o i n t of d e v e l o p ­ m e n t at w h i c h the baby, a l t h o u g h still essentially a part of its m o t h e r , is also b e g i n n i n g to r e g a r d her as a separate p e r s o n . W i n n i c o t t there­ fore pictures a n intermediate state, b e t w e e n a b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y and

his

g r o w i n g a b i l i t y to recognise a n d accept reality. U l t i m a t e l y the c h i l d w i l l b e c o m e able to enjoy the o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the two areas of d e p e n ­ d e n c e a n d s e p a r a t i o n , able to initiate p l a y and

to r e s p o n d to his m o t h ­

e r ' s s t i m u l u s . T h i s transition f r o m d e p e n d e n c e to s e p a r a t i o n enables the c o n c e p t i o n of a series of tensions, e a c h h e l d i n a dialectic r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p . A r o u n d the p r i m a r y t e n s i o n b e t w e e n ' i n n e r a n d o u t e r ' r e v o l v e other o p p o s i t i o n s s u c h as ' m e a n d not m e ' , ' l o v e a n d hate', ' i l l u s i o n

Val Richards

195

a n d r e a l i t y ' , 'concrete a n d s y m b o l i c ' , a n d — a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of the lat­ ter—'meaning and non-meaning'. T h e o v e r r i d i n g q u e s t i o n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t addresses here is: h o w is m e a n i n g m a d e a n d u n - m a d e b y each i n d i v i d u a l ? F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of l e a r n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n , W i n n i c o t t ' s e m p h a s i s o n the i m p o r t a n c e of transitional p h e n o m e n a indicates h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s n o t p r i m a r i l y f r o m a ' t a k i n g i n ' of the outside, n o r p r i m a r i l y f r o m a ' p u t t i n g i n ' b y s o m e o n e o n the o u t s i d e . Rather it occurs p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h a n inter­ m i n g l i n g i n the space between i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e . T h e c h i l d ' s first use of s y m b o l s d e p e n d s o n his or her p e r c e p t i o n that o n e t h i n g c a n stand for another, as if it w e r e that other. T h i s c u l m i ­ nates i n the s u p r e m e a c h i e v e m e n t of v e r b a l representation. T h e s h a k y 'as

if

factor

i n this process

is the

h a l l m a r k of

the

transitional.

T h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s o n the crucial t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ' m e ' to 'not m e ' , f r o m the concrete to the s y m b o l i c , W i n n i c o t t r e p e a t e d l y e v o k e s the p r e ­ cariousness a n d f l u i d i t y of the relationship b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer, i l l u s i o n a n d reality, a n d — s u p r e m e l y — b e t w e e n me a n d not me. In these o p p o s i t i o n s , 'as i f is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of s l i p p i n g into 'is the s a m e a s ' — t h a t is, the s y m b o l , s i g n , or w o r d , is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of b e c o m ­ i n g m o r e real t h a n its referent. T h e space i n w h i c h i l l u s i o n m i g h t b e c o m e e q u a t e d w i t h reality is the p a r t i c u l a r source a n d p r o v i n c e of all f o r m s of p l a y i n g a n d c r e a t i v i t y — b u t also of m a d n e s s : I a m s t a k i n g here a c l a i m for a n i n t e r m e d i a t e state b e t w e e n a b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y a n d his g r o w i n g ability to recognise a n d accept reality. I a m therefore s t u d y i n g the substance of illusion, that w h i c h is a l l o w e d to the infant, a n d w h i c h i n a d u l t life is inherent i n art a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d yet b e c o m e s the h a l l m a r k of

madness

w h e n a n a d u l t p u t s too p o w e r f u l a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of o t h ­ ers, f o r c i n g t h e m to a c k n o w l e d g e a s h a r i n g of i l l u s i o n that is not their o w n . (Winnicott 1990:

3)

W h a t characterises the transitional stage or state is, t h e n — p r i m a r i ­ l y — t h e f r a g i l i t y of the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. If the ten­ s i o n b e t w e e n the t w o b e c o m e s too great or the l i n k s n a p s , then w h a t was

transitional

becomes

instead

'the

hallmark

of

madness'.

W i n n i c o t t ' s a l m o s t c a s u a l w a r n i n g that this w i l l o c c u r ' w h e r e a n a d u l t puts too great a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of others' a l l u d e s to the t y r a n ­ n i c a l effects of a p e r s o n ' s p a r a n o i d o r p s y c h o t i c o m n i p o t e n t fantasies. P e r h a p s w e m i g h t extend this w a r n i n g to the c l a s s r o o m , a n d take it as

196

Winnicott and Education

a reference to the effects o n c h i l d r e n a n d students of a n y p o w e r f u l f i g ­ ure w h o seeks to i n d o c t r i n a t e or b r a i n w a s h , b y d e s t r o y i n g t r a n s i t i o n a l phenomena. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the precariousness of the transitional, h o w e v e r , a n d 'the necessity of i l l u s i o n ' , W i n n i c o t t further asserts that: n o h u m a n b e i n g is free f r o m the s t r a i n of relating i n n e r a n d outer reality, a n d that relief f r o m this s t r a i n is p r o v i d e d b y a n i n t e r m e ­ d i a t e area of experience... w h i c h is n o t c h a l l e n g e d . 1990:

(Winnicott

13)

T h i s f i n d s s u p p o r t i n M a r i o n M i l n e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i l l u s i o n : Moments

of

i l l u s i o n are

necessary

for

symbol

formation,

m o m e n t s w h e n the m e not m e d o not h a v e to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . M o m e n t s w h e n the i n n e r a n d outer s e e m to c o i n c i d e , n e e d e d for r e s t o r i n g b r o k e n l i n k s , b r i d g e s , to the outer w o r l d , as w e l l as f o r m i n g the first b r i d g e s . A s necessary for h e a l t h y l i v i n g as n i g h t d r e a m s s e e m to b e — a n d as p l a y i n g is. ( M i l n e r 1969:

417)

T h u s , i n a n i m p o r t a n t sense, w h e r e v e r transitional c o n d i t i o n s are recreated o r recur a m o n g s t a n d w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , w h a t takes p l a c e i m p l i e s a b u i l t - i n 'regressive' element, w h i c h necessarily b l u r s the o r i g ­ i n a l l y h a r d - w o n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, b e t w e e n concrete a n d s y m b o l i c . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y this

blurring

the

w h i c h affords a

'relief f r o m the s t r a i n ' . T h e participants i n m o m e n t s of i l l u s i o n b e c o m e automatically more open and more childlike, more omnipotent

and

m o r e v u l n e r a b l e , i n a w i l l i n g a n d i n v o l u n t a r y s u s p e n s i o n of disbelief. F o r instance, the t o d d l e r w h o p o u r s out p r e t e n d c u p s of tea, offer­ i n g t h e m to y o u a n d to h e r i n v i s i b l e friends, is far f r o m m a d .

She

k n o w s t h e y are not real. B u t i n o r d e r to enjoy the satisfaction a n d i n n e r e n r i c h m e n t of p l a y the t o d d l e r — a n d , i n d e e d , c h i l d r e n a n d adults of a l l a g e s — w i l l i n g l y s u s p e n d their disbelief, i n o r d e r to r e v e l i n the b l u r r i n g b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, the h a l l m a r k of the transitional. T h e i m p l i c i t m o d e l of l e a r n i n g o n offer here, t h e n , is neither that of 'teacher a n d taught as separate i n d i v i d u a l s ' , n o r of a n o m n i p o t e n t l y m e r g e d p a i r or m a s s . It is, rather, a dance of separateness a n d together­ ness, a m o v i n g i n a n d out of m e r g i n g , the ' p o t e n t i a l ' space c o n s t a n t l y o p e n i n g a n d c l o s i n g . In contrast to K l e i n i a n a n d F r e u d i a n t h o u g h t , i n w h i c h the infant's f o r b i d d e n desire for the b o d i e s of its parents is c o n ­

197

Val Richards

stantly d i s p l a c e d o n t o objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d , i n W i n n i c o t t a n d M i l n e r w e e n c o u n t e r i n s t e a d a n alternation b e t w e e n f u s i o n a n d apart­ ness.

For Klein,

there

is a s e v e r a n c e

between

baby

a n d breast.

W i n n i c o t t ' s c o n c e p t o f the t r a n s i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r , i m p l i e s that g r a d u a ­ t i o n t o w a r d s the s y m b o l i c rests n o t o n the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a n object w h i c h i s i r r e c o v e r a b l y lost, b u t — i n s t e a d — o n the loss of the

fusion

b e t w e e n the breast a n d the infant's m o u t h . M i l n e r a d d s to this her s u g ­ gestion that the p e r p e t u a l tensions of the t r a n s i t i o n a l are best e n v i s ­ a g e d i n the p h a n t a s y o f a c o n t i n u i n g relationship b e t w e e n m o u t h a n d breast. P a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s — t h o s e i n w h i c h transactions d e p e n d o n a p a r ­ ticular k i n d o f relational contract u n d e r s p e c i a l i s e d c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as theatre, for instance, o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y — e m p l o y the creative pressure w h i c h arises f r o m the p r e c a r i o u s balance b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. A p h a n t a s y o f relating is also central to e a c h of these situations. T h i s has b e e n d e s c r i b e d v i v i d l y b y the c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n H u i z i n g a : T h e a r e n a , the c a r d - t a b l e , the m a g i c circle, the t e m p l e , the stage, the screen, the t e n n i s - c o u r t , the court o f justice, etc. are a l l i n f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n p l a y - g r o u n d s — t h a t i s , f o r b i d d e n spots, iso­ lated, h e d g e d

round, hallowed,

within which

special

rules

o b t a i n . . . A l l are t e m p o r a r y w o r l d s w i t h i n the o r d i n a r y w o r l d d e d i c a t e d to the p e r f o r m a n c e o f a n act apart. ( H u i z i n g a , i n F a r h i 1991: 10) T h i s c l o s e l y echoes W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that: playing

has a place a n d a t i m e . It is n o t inside b y a n y u s e of the

w o r d . . . N o r is it outside, that is to say, it is n o t p a r t of the r e p u d i ­ ated w o r l d , the n o t - m e , that w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l has d e c i d e d to recognise ( w i t h w h a t e v e r d i f f i c u l t y a n d e v e n p a i n ) as t r u l y exter­ n a l , w h i c h is o u t s i d e m a g i c a l control. (Winnicott 1990: 41) I m p l i c i t i n these d e s c r i p t i o n s of p l a y i n g p o s s e s s i n g ' a place a n d a t i m e ' is the w h o l e d i m e n s i o n of semiotics. T h i s is a d i s c i p l i n e i n w h i c h a n a l y s i s of the ' c o d e s ' w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r setting demonstrates the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the elements w i t h i n the setting, a n d the c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n o f e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t i n the m a k i n g o f m e a n i n g . U n d e r the h e i g h t ­ e n e d c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y the s e t t i n g — w h e t h e r this is the theatre, therapy, o r the c l a s s r o o m — t h e

p l a y o f signs w i t h i n the d e s i g n a t e d

198

Winnicott and Education

s t r u c t u r e causes certain elements to leap out, p r o d u c i n g h u g e e x p l o ­ s i o n s of m e a n i n g for the p a r t i c i p a n t s — a s K e i r E l a m p u t it:

'all that is on

the stage is a sign' (Elam 1983: 7). T o c o n t i n u e w i t h the theatre as a n e x a m p l e , b e s i d e s the s u p r e m a c y of s p o k e n (or s u n g ) w o r d s , these ' s i g n s ' w o u l d i n c l u d e a l l the p r o p s of l i g h t i n g , s o u n d , c o s t u m e a n d scenery. T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is u n l e a s h e d when,

i n s t i n c t i v e l y , the

participants

(audience

and

performers)

attribute a s p e c i a l significance to all the f o r m s of p l a y i n g w h i c h o c c u r w i t h i n the c o r d o n e d - o f f place a n d time. O n c e c o n s e q u e n c e of this is a r e v e r s i o n to o r i g i n a l , m o r e p r i m i t i v e m o d e s of s y m b o l i s a t i o n

and

m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e s e c a n b o r d e r u p o n ' s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n ' — t h a t is, the p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the s y m b o l , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , the n a m e a l o n e , snatches the properties of the t h i n g s y m b o l i s e d . H o w e v e r , as I h o p e I h a v e e m p h a s i s e d a b o v e , it is this bordering on w i t h o u t q u i t e t o p p l i n g i n t o s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , w h i c h is the s o u r c e of t r a n s f o r m i n g i m a g i n a t i v e activity. R e g r e s s i v e states c a n b e either fruitful or fateful. T h e y are facilitated b y the ' p l a c e a n d t i m e ' b u t a l s o — a b o v e a l l — b y the r e l a t i o n s h i p to the significant i n v e s t e d figure(s),

whose words

and

silence are e n d o w e d w i t h a m u l t i t u d e of m e a n i n g s a n d i n t e n t i o n s . T h i s process c a n also be o b s e r v e d i n therapy, as i n the f o l l o w i n g illustration: A p a t i e n t i n a l o n g a n d s o m e t i m e s s t o r m y a n a l y s i s , reacted s t r o n g ­ l y to signs of sleepiness i n the n o r m a l l y attentive therapist. T h e p a t i e n t h a d b e e n r e l a t i n g matters of v i t a l m o m e n t . H e r a n g e r at the therapist p e r s i s t e d into the next session, e v e n t h o u g h , to her s u r p r i s e , the t h e r a ­ pist demonstrated

complete

recall of the p r e v i o u s d a y ' s

material,

d e s p i t e the a p p a r e n t inattentiveness. A s the p a t i e n t d e s c e n d e d stairs after the session, which—she

the

h o w e v e r , she h e a r d w h a t s o u n d e d l i k e a click,

realised—always

s o u n d e d as she c a m e a n d w e n t .

She

b e c a m e i n s t a n t l y c o n v i n c e d that her sessions w e r e t a p e - r e c o r d e d , i r r a ­ t i o n a l l y a s s u m i n g that w h a t the therapist c o u l d n o t listen to ' l i v e ' c o u l d — a n d w a s — p l a y e d b a c k later. A f t e r a sleepless n i g h t s p e n t f u m ­ i n g at the therapist's p e r f i d y , a tiny c h i n k a p p e a r e d i n the patient's cer­ tainty a n d , b y the time she reached h e r session, the c o n v i c t i o n h a d n o w s h r u n k to a fantasy, w h i c h she d i s c l o s e d to the therapist. T h e latter d r o p p e d the analytic stance, e x p r e s s i n g bafflement

c o n c e r n i n g the

' c l i c k ' , a n d i n v i t e d the patient to p o i n t o u t the next time it o c c u r r e d . Instead of the sinister s w i t c h of a tape recorder, it p r o v e d to be the s m o k e a l a r m , a n d the patient's s u s p i c i o n s s u b s i d e d .

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T h i s is a clear e x a m p l e of h o w , w i t h i n a sealed s i g n i f y i n g structure, b o t h patients b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n a s t r a i n i n g of the b a l a n c e

between

i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y r e s u l t i n g i n a b e n d i n g of the a n a l y t i c frame. T h e patient's shakiness a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y c a u s e d her to m i s t r u s t a n d to rise u p i n r e a c t i o n against the analyst's u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s l e e p y response. T h e tangle of actions a n d reactions, projections a n d introjections, resulted i n the p a r a n o i d f o r e g r o u n d i n g of a single i n n o c u o u s element i n the total setting: the m i s r e c o g n i s e d s o u n d of a s m o k e a l a r m . E v e r y t h i n g w i t h i n this s p a c e — ' o n the s t a g e ' — i s i n d e e d a s i g n , a n d the o v e r l o a d ­ i n g of one p a r t i c u l a r signifier exposes the thinness of the 'as i f w h i c h , o n this o c c a s i o n , h a d to be b r e a c h e d b y the therapist as w e l l as the patient. F u r t h e r m o r e , the e x a m p l e also illustrates h o w a l l elements i n the setting are e x p e r i e n c e d as a n extension of the analyst a n d , p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the w a y i n w h i c h u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m i t i v e anxiety triggers a n inextricable c o m b i n a t i o n of h e i g h t e n e d m e n t a l activity a n d emotions.

T h i s i n s e p a r a b i l i t y of i m a g i n a t i o n a n d the a t t r i b u t i o n of

m e a n i n g is w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d b y a n e x a m p l e f r o m one of Brecht's p l a y s , i n w h i c h he s o u g h t to d e m o n s t r a t e c o o l l y a n d c l i n i c a l l y m a n ' s i n h u ­ m a n i t y to m a n . Instead of a h u m a n figure, Brecht chose to represent the v i c t i m b y a s a w d u s t - f i l l e d c l o w n . Yet e v e n at the sight of a s a w d u s t m a n n i k i n h a v i n g its leg ' a m p u t a t e d ' , s o m e spectators i n the a u d i e n c e fainted a w a y ( R e d m o n d 1981).

*** T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s h e i g h t e n i n g of m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d of e m o t i o n is associated, at the transitional stage, w i t h the c h i l d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to a special p o s s e s s i o n or b e l o n g i n g , a ' t r a n s i t i o n a l o b j e c t ' — s u c h as a t e d d y b e a r — w h i c h b e c o m e s the central feature of the transitional area. It is the r e l a t i o n s h i p to this object w h i c h affords a g r a d u a t i o n (rather t h a n a single, giant leap) a w a y f r o m m e r g e r w i t h the

mother towards

the

c a p a c i t y to use s y m b o l s . T h e transitional object assists the c h i l d i n p e r ­ c e i v i n g itself a n d its m o t h e r

as separate b e i n g s , e v e n w h i l s t

they

r e m a i n interrelated. T h e o r i g i n a l i t y of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t appears p a r t i c u l a r l y i n his

insistence that the transitional object is, l i k e the breast, created b y the

child:

Of the transitional object it can be said that it is a matter of agreement betiueen us and the baby that we will never ask the question : 'Did you

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conceive of this or was it presented to you from without?' The impor­ tant point is that no decision on that point is expected. The question not to he formulated. (Winnicott 1990: 12) T h e f u n c t i o n of a transitional o b j e c t — s u c h as the f a m i l i a r t e d d y — c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n three p r i n c i p a l senses, w h i c h a l l h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n the t h e o r y a n d practice of l e a r n i n g a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of s y m ­ b o l f o r m a t i o n . Firstly, it stands p a r t l y for the m o t h e r (breast, bottle); s e c o n d l y , p a r t l y for the c h i l d ' s o w n self; a n d , t h i r d l y — b u t of

the

u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e — i t exists as a n actual object i n the w o r l d . W i n n i c o t t writes: It is t r u e that the p i e c e of b l a n k e t (or w h a t e v e r it is) is s y m b o l i ­

c a l of s o m e part-object, s u c h as the breast. N e v e r t h e l e s s ,

the



p o i n t of it is n o t its s y m b o l i c v a l u e so m u c h as its actuality. Its n o t

b e i n g the breast (or the mother), a l t h o u g h real, is as i m p o r t a n t as

the fact that it stands for the breast (or m o t h e r ) . ( W i n n i c o t t

1990:



6).

B e c a u s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant occurs f r o m the

very

beginning, and because—during

omnipotence—the

the

phase

of

infantile

infant has n o i d e a that this m o t h e r is other, the

i n f a n t g r o w s a c c u s t o m e d to w h a t it takes to be p e r p e t u a l

self c o m m u ­

n i c a t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a p r e s u m e d p a r t of itself. H e n c e the t r a n s i t i o n a l stage, w i t h the b e g i n n i n g s of s e p a r a t i o n , m u s t i n c l u d e s o m e sense of l o s s of self, as w e l l as loss of m o t h e r . T h e t e d d y bear h e l p s c o m p e n s a t e for this s e e m i n g loss of ' m e ' , as m o t h e r b e c o m e s ' y o u ' or ' o t h e r ' . T h e b e a r comes to represent n o t o n l y the mother, b u t a l s o the ' m e o u t there', thus b e c o m i n g the first of the n u m b e r l e s s series of ' o t h e r s i n f u s e d b y the s e l f i n a l l areas of experience. T h e n e e d to h a v e p a r t of oneself outside is a major i m p e t u s for the c o n f e r m e n t of i m a g i n a t i v e life a n d i m a g i n a t i v e qualities onto the object, a n d for s u p ­ p l y i n g the object w i t h the f u n c t i o n of a c o m m u n i c a t i n g alter

ego,

w h i c h the infant o n c e took for g r a n t e d i n the f o r m of the mother. T h i s is c a p t u r e d p o w e r f u l l y i n the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n b y the c h i l d h e r o ­ ine of W i l l i a m M a y n e ' s novel,

Cuddy:

A t that m o m e n t she b e c a m e certain that B e o w u l f w a s not o n l y a

b e a r she h a d k n o w n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of h e r life, b u t a p e r s o n

Vol Richards

201

i n his o w n r i g h t , i n his o w n way, d e p e n d i n g o n her to m a k e the w o r l d u n d e r s t a n d h i m . ( M a y n e 1998: 83) T h u s , for W i n n i c o t t , the e a r l y relationship to the t e d d y bear inspires creative activity w i t h materials f r o m the o u t s i d e w o r l d just as m u c h as the infant's o r i g i n a l p o s s e s s i o n of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . I m m e r s i o n of the self i n p a i n t , p l a s t i c i n e , s a n d or m u s i c a l s o u n d , revives the transitional state of b o t h creating s o m e t h i n g that is not self, a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g a sen­ s u a l satisfaction a k i n to the o r i g i n a l transitional r e l a t i o n s h i p of m o t h ­ e r - i n f a n t - t e d d y bear. It to the relationship w i t h the transitional object that w e c a n trace the source o f the t r a n s f o r m i n g properties of the i m a g ­ i n a t i o n , for i n the transitional object appears the first l i b e r a t i o n of the i m a g i n a t i o n b y m e a n s of a s y m b o l , a n d the first experiences of i m a g i ­ n a t i v e interaction. T h i s i n f u s i o n o f the transitional object w i t h the self prepares the g r o u n d for w h a t W i n n i c o t t regards as later identifications

w i t h key fig­

ures, b o t h real a n d i n fantasy. T h e s e identifications are the basis o f e m p a t h y a n d of the i n v e n t i o n of fictional, i m a g i n a r y characters, n o u r ­ i s h e d b y pleasure i n h e a r i n g , telling, a n d — e v e n t u a l l y — w r i t i n g stories. T h e s e possibilities d e v e l o p once the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r / o t h e r as a real p e r s o n . It is b y e n t e r i n g into the d o m a i n of the s y m b o l i c that the self, h a v i n g a c h i e v e d a degree o f separateness, p r o c e e d s ,

consciously

a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y , to aspire t o w a r d s b e c o m i n g either like or unlike oth­ ers o r a n o t h e r — t o identify, behaviour experienced

that is, w i t h k e y figures a n d patterns of

i n the c h i l d ' s life. T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n arises

u n c o n s c i o u s l y as w e l l as consciously, b o t h b y i m i t a t i o n a n d r e p u d i a ­ t i o n , a n d i n v o l v e s a v i t a l a c t i n g - o u t i n p l a y for the establishment of p e r s o n a l identity. T h e transitional object exists for the c h i l d to p l a y w i t h , to i d e n t i f y w i t h as a p r o j e c t i o n o f the self, to use, to d o things to, a n d — m o s t

essen­

t i a l — t o destroy i n fantasy, e v e n to hate. It is these p r i m i t i v e yet v i t a l emotions

w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , h e l p p r o p e l the c h i l d into

e x t e r n a l i t y — t h e reality of separateness. I n d e e d , the f u n c t i o n o f the transitional object as a genuine

piece of

external reality has p e r h a p s b e e n under-stressed. In this c a p a c i t y a b o v e all others it serves as a p a r a d i g m o f the dialectic b e t w e e n the concrete a n d s y m b o l i c , b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, w h i c h motivates all l e a r n ­ i n g . F o r i n c o n c e d i n g the existence of the bear for its o w n sake a n d i n its o w n right, the c h i l d — a s w e l l as e n g a g i n g i n m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d a d a p t a t i o n to external r e a l i t y — i s also p u l l i n g against the s y m b o l i c , b y

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Education

r e a l i s i n g that ' a bear is a bear is a b e a r ' . F o r the c h i l d , w h a t also counts a n d matters a b o u t the b e a r — a p a r t f r o m its s y m b o l i c c o n n o t a t i o n s — i s its v e r y 'thereness' or 'Bearness'. T h e r e is v a l u e i n the v e r y concrete­ ness a n d s i n g u l a r i t y of the object. T h i s d i m e n s i o n of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' confers status u p o n the manifest, the surface, the concrete, i n contrast to the ' d e e p e r ' or the ' h i d d e n ' . N o n - m e a n i n g allows for the p o s s i b i l i t y of r a n d o m n e s s , a n d subverts the urge t o w a r d s constant p a t t e r n i n g a n d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e 'thisness' of the c h i l d ' s first p o s s e s s i o n obstructs the u n i v e r s a l d r i v e to insist that 'reality' a l w a y s possesses m e a n i n g b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e a n d g i v e n . 'Bearness' invites i m m e r s i o n i n the i m m e d i a t e , for its own

sake.

T h e transitional object also a c c o m m o d a t e s , therefore, the v a l u e of the thing-in-itself. It liberates patient a n d analyst, teacher a n d p u p i l , to accept—when

a p p r o p r i a t e — t h e absence of c o n n e c t i n g l i n k s , or

to

reject interpretations a n d explanations. It p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of f a c i n g the p o s s i b l e r a n d o m n e s s of things, w h i c h so outrages o u r o m n i p o t e n t a s s u m p t i o n of p a t t e r n a n d m e a n i n g . II ...the patient... m u s t be a l l o w e d to c o m m u n i c a t e a s u c c e s s i o n of ideas,

thoughts,

impulses,

sensations

that are n o t

linked...

[T]here is r o o m for the i d e a of u n r e l a t e d t h o u g h t sequences w h i c h the analyst w i l l d o w e l l to accept as s u c h , n o t a s s u m i n g the existence of a significant thread. (Winnicott 1 9 9 0 : 55) W i n n i c o t t ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of the n e e d to conceptualise ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' is e n s h r i n e d b o t h i n his concept of the transitional object a n d i n his a n a ­ lytic w o r k — i n c o m m e n t s s u c h as the above, i n w h i c h h e w a r n s that the analyst's insistence o n c l e v e r l y d i s c o v e r i n g a coherent theme m a y be f a i l i n g the patient's p r i m a r y n e e d to be free to ' c o m m u n i c a t e n o n ­ sense'. T h i s is i m p o r t a n t l y elaborated b y Bollas, i n his attempt to define the w a y i n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t ( a m o n g others) represents a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e f r o m m o r e o r t h o d o x practice: Each

of

the

authors

[from

the

Independent

Group

of

P s y c h o a n a l y s t s ] believes that the success of a n analysis rests not s i m p l y o n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of u n c o n s c i o u s conflicts into c o n ­ scious awareness, b u t also o n f u n d a m e n t a l l y n e w p s y c h i c expe­

Val Richards

203

riences generated b y the analytic situation, i n particular, those s p o n s o r e d b y transference states. N a t u r a l l y , s o m e transference experiences are interpreted a n d cease to be u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t cer­ t a i n uses the a n a l y s a n d m a k e s of the analyst are of a different c a t e g o r y of m e a n i n g f r o m that represented b y the concept of r e p r e s s e d u n c o n s c i o u s conflict. W h e n W i n n i c o t t i n t r o d u c e d the t e r m 'true self' to s t a n d for i n h e r i t e d potential that f o u n d its e x p r e s s i o n i n s p o n t a n e o u s action, I t h i n k he c o n c e p t u a l i s e d a feature of the analytical r e l a t i o n s h i p (and of life) that h a d hereto­ fore b e e n u n t h e o r i s e d . (Bollas 1989: 8) T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n is n o t h i n g less t h a n the realisation that for p s y c h i c , e m o t i o n a l r e c o v e r y — a n d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of the capacity for m e n t a l a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g intellectual p r o g r e s s — i t m a y at times be m o r e effective to a l l o w a p a r t i c u l a r experience to operate u p o n the senses, e m o t i o n s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , entirely u n m e d i a t e d b y analytic e n d e a v o u r . T h i s , I suggest, c o m p l e t e l y b y p a s s e s the analyst's attempt to

render

'conscious'

h i d d e n disturbances,

but—instead—strikes

d i r e c t l y at the u n c o n s c i o u s , the o r i g i n a l 'true s e l f . In terms of the relationship b e t w e e n

teacher a n d student, this

a p p r o a c h b y p a s s e s the teacher's n e e d to extract m e a n i n g f r o m the stu­ d e n t , or i m p o s e it o n h i m or her. It is instead the total

experience—like

the theatrical s i t u a t i o n m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r — r a t h e r t h a n i n the single e l e m e n t of explicit interpretation ( a l t h o u g h this is i m p o r t a n t ) w h i c h reaches, h e a l s — a n d teaches. A s C o l e r i d g e p u t it: T h e I m a g i n a t i o n is the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g characteristic of m a n as a p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g ; a n d . . . it o u g h t to be carefully g u i d e d a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d as the i n d i s p e n s i b l e m e a n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t of a m e ­ l i o r a t i o n a n d refinement. ( C o l e r i d g e , q u o t e d i n W a l s h 1960:

23-4)

W a l s h c o m m e n t s that ' I m a g i n a t i o n is the air i n w h i c h n e w k n o w l ­ e d g e breathes, as it is the salt p r e s e r v i n g the s a v o u r of the o l d . Knowledge

d o e s not keep

a n y better t h a n f i s h ' (Walsh 1960:

24).

I n d e e d , as is often p o i n t e d o u t , scientific d i s c o v e r i e s s p r i n g f r o m a p r i o r i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n , w h i c h leads to a h y p o t h e s i s , so that the n e w discovery becomes

the c o n s u m m a t i o n

of

an original imaginative

gleam. In terms of W i n n i c o t t ' s theories o n transitional p h e n o m e n a , then, the s t u d e n t s h o u l d 'create' for h i m or herself w h a t is l y i n g there to be

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f o u n d . T h e s t u d e n t — g i v e n the s k i l f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of the t e a c h e r — i s t h e n m o r e l i k e l y to ' p l a y ' , to l e a r n t h r o u g h b e i n g r e c e p ­ t i v e to the m a t e r i a l ( w h i c h b e c o m e s the e d u c a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t of a n a n a l y t i c interpretation). T h i s , h o w e v e r , is i n stark contrast w i t h h o w generations of c h i l ­ d r e n — i n c l u d i n g e v e n the m o s t g i f t e d — h a v e d e v e l o p e d the c o n v i c t i o n that k n o w l e d g e b e l o n g s n o t to the s h a r e d ' i n t e r m e d i a t e ' area of m i n ­ g l e d i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y w h i c h is 'neither i n s i d e n o r o u t s i d e ' , b u t i n s t e a d to b l o c k s of facts, w h i c h are to be t a k e n ' i n ' f r o m ' o u t there'. B y w a y of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n , c o n s i d e r — f o r i n s t a n c e — t h e experience of r e a d i n g 'The Sick Rose' b y W i l l i a m Blake: O Rose, t h o u art sick. T h e invisible w o r m T h a t flies i n the n i g h t In the h o w l i n g s t o r m H a s f o u n d out t h y b e d O f c r i m s o n joy, A n d his d a r k secret l o v e D o e s t h y life destroy. (Blake 1983:

39)

B y m e a n s of a false b u t frequent d i c h o t o m y , readers t e n d to b e d r a w n p r i m a r i l y to the s y m b o l i c levels of the p o e m , to its meanings a n d a m b i g u i t i e s , w h i c h m a y t o u c h o n sexual c o r r u p t i o n ,

possessiveness,

f e m a l e helplessness, r a p e , a n d so o n . It is as if matters s u c h as these w e r e s o m e h o w of m o r e a c c o u n t t h a n the p o r t r a y a l a n d s e n s u a l e x p e r i ­ e n c e of the manifest scene, a n d the a u r a l satisfaction i n the w a y the r h y m e m i r r o r s the m o v e m e n t of the d r a m a t o w a r d s its d a r k c o n s u m ­ m a t i o n . W h o is to say that the ' w e i g h t i e r ' , s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s of the p o e m possess greater i m p o r t a n c e t h a n its m o r e direct effects? T h i s false d i c h o t o m y , w h i c h d i s p l a c e s a p o t e n t i a l l y u n i f i e d response to the p o e m , s u r e l y parallels the e x c l u s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h i n p s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n contrast to Bollas's d e s c r i p t i o n of W i n n i c o t t ' s w a y of w o r k i n g . W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that the patient needs to be free to ' c o m m u ­ nicate n o n s e n s e ' o c c u r s i n the context of a p o r t r a y a l of the k i n d s of e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h p r o m o t e d i s c o v e r y , recovery, a n d creative l i v i n g . D e s p i t e the celebration of h e a l t h t h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s , W i n n i c o t t ' s m a i n c o n c e r n is w i t h the effects of loss. I n d e e d , h e

distinguishes

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b e t w e e n t w o degrees o f loss. O n e type of loss is that w h i c h concerns a h a l f - r e m e m b e r e d d e p r i v a t i o n , o c c u r r i n g at a p o i n t at w h i c h there is s o m e m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l separateness, a n d a d e v e l o p i n g capacity for s y m b o l i s a t i o n . H o w e v e r , loss m a y also b e l o n g to a m o r e p r o f o u n d d i s t u r b a n c e i n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s v e r y c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g , p r i o r to a n y sense o f the m o t h e r as other. C l i n i c a l l y , b o t h types of loss m a y manifest themselves as tendencies t o w a r d s feeling u n r e a l , f r a g m e n t e d , or d i s s o ­ ciated, because the patient has b e e n cut adrift i n time a n d space. It w a s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k w i t h regressed a d u l t s w h i c h e x p o s e d these areas of earliest infant d i s t u r b a n c e . H e r e g a r d e d these as m o m e n t s of i m p i n g e m e n t w h i c h h a d resulted i n a ' s p l i t t i n g ' o f the self into a 'true s e l f — t h a t h i d e s away, for s a f e t y — a n d a c o m p l i a n t 'false s e l f , w h i c h protects the p e r s o n a l i t y f r o m further d i s r u p t i o n , b u t at the e x p e n s e of s p o n t a n e i t y a n d a u t o n o m y : In analysis o f a False Personality, the fact m u s t b e r e c o g n i s e d that the analyst c a n o n l y talk to the False Self o f the patient a b o u t the patient's T r u e Self. It is as if a n u r s e brings a c h i l d a n d at first the analyst discusses

the c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s ,

a n d the c h i l d is not

d i r e c t l y contacted. A n a l y s i s d o e s n o t start u n t i l the n u r s e h a s left the c h i l d w i t h the analyst, a n d the c h i l d has b e c o m e

able to

r e m a i n alone w i t h the analyst a n d has started to play. (Winnicott 1960b:151) H e r e , W i n n i c o t t describes a d i v i d e d p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h lacks a n y access to a centred, integrated self capable of p l a y i n g — a n d , therefore, of l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , the o n e w h o m i g h t p l a y (but w h o , at first, m i g h t be m i s t a k e n for the ' n u r s e ' ) , is m e r e l y a 'false s e l f , a s t a n d - i n , f e n d i n g off a n y fullness of contact. C o n s e q u e n t l y , o r t h o d o x interpretations, w h i c h seek to ' t e l l ' or 'teach' are entirely u n h e l p f u l because they c a n ­ n o t r e a c h the m o s t v i t a l yet dissociated core o f the self, the ' c h i l d ' w h o m the ' n u r s e ' h a s b r o u g h t . Instead, for the n u r s e to leave the c h i l d w i t h the analyst, a n d for the c h i l d to b e c o m e able to r e m a i n alone w i t h the analyst a n d start to play, w h a t is n e e d e d is a ' n e w experience i n a s p e c i a l k i n d of setting'. T h e o r t h o d o x a n a l y t i c task of m a k i n g conscious the u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m a r i l y b y m e a n s of interpretation, m u s t g i v e w a y to the p r o v i s i o n of a n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t — a little a k i n to the o r i g i n a l m o t h e r a n d infant r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e , the quest for conscious m e a n i n g is s u s p e n d ­ e d i n o r d e r to a l l o w a phase of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' , w h i l s t the g r o u n d for

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206

' p l a y i n g ' is p r e p a r e d . T h r o u g h the d e v e l o p i n g transference relation­ s h i p , a n y p a i n w h i c h has b e e n split-off m a y be actualised a n d inte­ g r a t e d w i t h i n the analytic setting. T h e r e is a r e n e w e d — p o s s i b l y e v e n a b r a n d - n e w — o p p o r t u n i t y for a relaxation of those defences activated b y earlier pressures o n the personality. T h e patient is t h e n freed for p r i m i t i v e experiences of h e i g h t e n e d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g , t h r o u g h s y m ­ bolic equation: T h e c o u c h a n d the p i l l o w s are there for the patient's use. T h e y w i l l a p p e a r i n ideas a n d d r e a m s a n d then w i l l stand for the a n a ­ lyst's b o d y , breast, arms, h a n d s etc., i n a n infinite v a r i e t y of w a y s . In so far as the patient is regressed (for a m o m e n t or for a n h o u r or o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of time) the c o u c h is the analyst, the p i l l o w s are breasts, the analyst is the m o t h e r at a certain past era. I n the extreme it is n o l o n g e r true to say of the c o u c h that the c o u c h represents the analyst; the c o u c h is the analyst. (Winnicott 1954:

288)

T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of these analytic ideas a n d experiences for v i e w s o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of l e a r n i n g entail the r e c o g n i t i o n that compliance a child

or s t u d e n t — w h i c h w a s

pathologised

in

a n d i d e n t i f i e d as a

defence b y W i n n i c o t t , but is too often p r i z e d b y teachers a n d p a r e n t s — m a y b e a s i g n of sickness rather t h a n health. C o m p l i a n c e c a n often b e u n d e r s t o o d as a reactive rather t h a n a n a u t o n o m o u s response, a r i s i n g f r o m a d i s s o c i a t e d part of the personality, the 'false s e l f . A b s o r p t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n i n d u l l obedience c a n easily b e c o m e a substitute for v i t a l learning;

imitation

too

often

replaces

creative

identification.

W i n n i c o t t ' s a p p r o a c h , i n contrast, focuses o n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s o w n d i s ­ c o v e r y of m e a n i n g , rather t h a n the analyst or teacher's i m p o s i t i o n of m e a n i n g . W i n n i c o t t also insists o n p r o v i d i n g a place for the p o s s i b i l i t y of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' . R e a d i n g W i n n i c o t t , w e also encounter the s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g is m o r e effective if, i n the presence of the teacher, the i m a g i n a t i o n , the u n c o n s c i o u s d e p t h s of the self are accessed, e n a b l i n g the m a t e r i a l of the l e s s o n to be g r a s p e d a n d p o s s e s s e d from within. dents to realise—in

T h i s enables s t u ­

the fullest sense of the w o r d .

R e g r e s s i o n w h i c h borders o n a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality is all b u t lost, c a n , i n a c o n t a i n e d therapeutic s i t u a t i o n , p r o v e creative a n d h e a l i n g . H o w e v e r , i n s o m e schools of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h o u g h t a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n is taken p r i ­

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m a r i l y as a n i n d i c a t i o n of p a t h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o s i s . In contrast, f r o m W i n n i c o t t ' s perspective, the recognition of the dialectic b e t w e e n i l l u ­ s i o n a n d reality also encompasses the possibility of its t e m p o r a r y c o l ­ lapse. A collapse m a y i n d e e d occur at certain d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages a n d i n certain h e i g h t e n e d states, whether of disturbance or of ecstasy In these instances the hierarchical relationship b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d representation is r e v e r s e d ; the s y m b o l itself is n o longer the represen­ tation of a reality b u t actually replaces that reality. It b e c o m e s m o r e w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h m e a n i n g than is ' a p p r o p r i a t e ' . A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of this it is possible to cite the results of tests b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s s u c h as Piaget a n d Vygotsky. E v e n t h o u g h the n a m e of a t h i n g d o e s not reflect—or h a v e a n y intrinsic relationship t o — t h e p r o p ­ erties of that t h i n g , y o u n g c h i l d r e n tend to a s s u m e otherwise.

In

r e s p o n s e to questions s u c h as ' W h y is a c o w called a c o w ? ' , they r e p l i e d : 'Because it has h o r n s ' ; a n d to ' W h y is i n k called i n k ? ' they a n s w e r e d : 'Because it is u s e d for w r i t i n g ' ( V y g o t s k y 1962: 128-9). It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, here, m o r e m e a n i n g than is w a r r a n t e d is b e i n g attached b y the c h i l d r e n to the s y m b o l , the w o r d , the n a m e . B u t this extends also into n o r m a l a d u l t life, w h e r e the m e a n i n g of a p o e m , a s a y i n g , a n artefact, is s o u g h t t h r o u g h its possible ' f u r t h e r ' or ' d e e p ­ e r ' m e a n i n g s , rather than in itself—as w e e x p l o r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h B l a k e ' s ' T h e Sick Rose'. T h e patient's regression to a m o r e p r i m i t i v e state of m i n d a n d feel­ i n g — t h r o u g h o u t w h i c h the analyst acts as a mirror, ' g i v i n g b a c k to the patient w h a t the patient has c o m m u n i c a t e d ' — l e a d s to a f o r m a t i o n of 'the basis of a sense of s e l f , a n d to a n e x p r e s s i o n of T A M , I a m alive, I a m m y s e l f (Winnicott 1990: 56). O n l y f r o m s u c h a sense of self can the activity o f l e a r n i n g b e c o m e p r o p e r l y integrated into the personality, w i t h o u t the k i n d of 'split-off intellect' w h i c h tends to characterise cer­ tain s c h i z o i d or 'false s e l f academics.

*** H o w e v e r , w h i l e transient regression to these m o r e p r i m i t i v e e m o t i o n ­ al a n d m e n t a l states m a y b e h e a l i n g , W i n n i c o t t w a r n s that i n the l o n g t e r m d i s r u p t i o n o f the balance b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d object has serious consequences: T h e ' d e p r i v e d c h i l d ' is n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to play, a n d has a n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of capacity to experience i n the c u l ­

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t u r a l f i e l d . . . [A] s t u d y of the effects of loss at a n y e a r l y stage i n v o l v e s us i n l o o k i n g at this i n t e r m e d i a t e area, or p o t e n t i a l space b e t w e e n subject a n d object. F a i l u r e of d e p e n d a b i l i t y or loss of object m e a n s to the c h i l d a loss of the p l a y area, a n d loss of m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l . (Winnicott 1990: 101-2) T h e s e o m i n o u s w o r d s refer less to the ' infant ' i n the a d u l t , b u t m o r e to the actual flesh a n d b l o o d c h i l d , w h o m a y e v e n h a v e reached a m e a s u r e of separateness

p r i o r to d e p r i v a t i o n . T h e l o s s of the p l a y

a r e a ' a n d of ' m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l ' refers to the f a d i n g of the internal object or mother, a n d to the s i m u l t a n e o u s f a d i n g of the 'as i f faculty d e r i v e d f r o m the tension b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. T h e r e is a d i m ­ m i n g of the p e r c e p t i o n that a is like b or is unlike b. Instead, a becomes

the same as, or more important than b. S y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n w h i c h , i n the short t e r m , enables the k i n d of b e n i g n regression suggested b y W i n n i c o t t ' s a c c o u n t of the

regressed

a d u l t patient, c a n , i n the l o n g t e r m , lead to e m o t i o n a l p a r a l y s i s a n d the s t u n t i n g of the life of the m i n d . T h e capacity to create a s y m b o l i c w o r l d — p r i m a r i l y f r o m w o r d s , b u t also f r o m other c u l t u r a l f o r m s — i s i n t e r r u p t e d . T h e ' p l a y area', the space that keeps object a n d s y m b o l a p a r t , is closed. Winnicott's

account

of the loss of

'meaningful

symbol',

whilst

f o c u s e d specifically u p o n e m o t i o n a l a n d m a t e r n a l d e p r i v a t i o n , i m p l i c ­ i t l y recognises

that a d e p r i v i n g m o t h e r is o n l y a first l i n k — a l b e i t

v i t a l — i n a vast c h a i n of e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d social factors, w h i c h h a v e f o r g e d the m o t h e r herself. A l s o chief a m o n g these elements is the p a r e n t i n g that the m o t h e r herself o r i g i n a l l y r e c e i v e d . It is, t h e n , for a w h o l e tangle of reasons that d e p r i v e d c h i l d r e n , w h o are ' n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to p l a y ' , suffer a deficit i n e x p e r i ­ ence of the c u l t u r a l field. T h e i r ' p l a y i n g ' expresses itself

generally

t h r o u g h physical action a n d monosyllabic communication. T h e y func­ t i o n m o r e b y acting-out or b y w i t h d r a w a l t h a n b y e n t e r i n g that arena w h e r e entire s h a r e d edifices arise, b u i l t entirely u p o n the exchange of w o r d s a n d other s y m b o l s — h o u s e s

of cards, i n the best possible sense.

F r o m the w h o l e range of possible v e r b a l constructions, the s y m b o l ­ i c a l l y d e p r i v e d i n d i v i d u a l is c o n f i n e d to f o u r m a i n f o r m s :

assertion,

n a r r a t i o n , attack a n d interrogation, all of w h i c h are b o u n d largely to the present tense. These f o r m s

of e x p r e s s i o n e x c l u d e the potential

e n r i c h m e n t of s p e c u l a t i o n , the l i b e r a t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n a l tense; they e x c l u d e p l a n n i n g a n d a m b i t i o n , e x p a n s i o n of the self t h r o u g h concepts

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Vol Richards

of ' t o m o r r o w ' ; a n d t h e y exclude r e m i n i s c e n c e , the past that l e n d s s u b ­ stance a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n to identity. T h e y also e x c l u d e the necessary sadness of f o r m u l a t i n g w h a t ' m i g h t h a v e b e e n ' . T h e entire d i m e n s i o n of i m a g i n a t i v e p l a y i n g a n d s h a r e d abstract t h o u g h t , w h i c h , u n d e r the right c o n d i t i o n s , b e g i n s v e r y e a r l y o n , d e p e n d s o n the capacity to r o a m a n d r o v e b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l phases, between

the real a n d the i m a g i n a r y U n f o r t u n a t e l y , then, i n those

w h o s e c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g is i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d i n the s y m b o l i c a l l y d e p r i v e d , this basic tool for l e a r n i n g is d a m a g e d . Patently, for c h i l d r e n i n this p o s i t i o n , the w h o l e business o f teaching a n d l e a r n i n g o n l y serves to stultify a n d frustrate f u r t h e r — l i k e b e i n g o r d e r e d to p l a y chess w i t h a chess b o a r d , b u t n o pieces. F o r W i n n i c o t t , the chief h a l l m a r k o f lack a n d loss w a s — f r e q u e n t ­ l y — d i s s o c i a t i o n a n d d e p e r s o n a l i s a t i o n . I n those w h o suffer d e p r i v a ­ t i o n at the later stage, w h e n the self has benefited a l r e a d y f r o m a g o o d ­ e n o u g h e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t , these s y m p t o m s

m a y b e allied to a n t i ­

social tendencies, a n d e v e n to feeling real o n l y t h r o u g h s o m e v i o l e n t act. N e v e r t h e l e s s , W i n n i c o t t argues, s u c h manifestations of v i o l e n c e c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a n S . O . S . , as the e x p r e s s i o n of s o m e k i n d o f h o p e for the restoration of that lost g o o d . I d e a l l y this occurs i n the f o r m of a r e c o v e r e d or b r a n d n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r else i n the p r o v i s i o n of a secure, c o n t a i n i n g f r a m e w o r k i n a g o o d residential h o m e . A t this p o i n t , t h e n , w e m i g h t f i n d o u r s e l v e s c o n s i d e r i n g the i m p o r ­ tance of the ' a r c h e t y p a l father', a s t r o n g - e n o u g h c o n t a i n i n g figure w h o — w h e t h e r parent, teacher, or a n a l y s t — i s capable o f s u r v i v i n g the c h i l d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n or v i o l e n c e . N o t o n l y is this father a s t r o n g - e n o u g h figure,

h e also p r o v i d e s a s t r o n g - e n o u g h structure.

W h e n the father

interposes b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d c h i l d , f a m i l y l o v e u n d e r g o e s n o t a c o n ­ traction b u t a n e x p a n s i o n into a space a n d a f r a m e w o r k , for w h i c h ' h o m e ' is b o t h the literal n a m e , a n d also s y m b o l i c of the e q u i v a l e n t e x p a n d i n g internal space. F r o m here, the c h i l d b e g i n s to t h i n k a n d l i n k a n d to 'challenge the p a r e n t s ' l a n g u a g e , to b e , o n e m i g h t say, a b a d e n o u g h c h i l d ' (Wright 1984: 99). A s W i n n i c o t t avers: If the h o m e c a n s t a n d u p to all the c h i l d c a n d o to d i s r u p t , h e set­ tles d o w n to p l a y B u t first, the test m u s t be m a d e . T h e c h i l d needs to b e c o n s c i o u s of a f r a m e w o r k if h e is to feel (Winnicott 1992: 115)

free.

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and

Education

T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the father, as the t o u g h barrier w h i c h c o m ­ p l e m e n t s the features of the m a t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , represents

also

those aspects of l e a r n i n g w h i c h d e p e n d o n r i g o u r , c o n t a i n m e n t a n d c o n t r o l . If the m a t e r n a l stands for i m a g i n a t i v e f r e e d o m , the p a t e r n a l e m b o d i e s the i m p o r t a n c e of rules a n d d i s c i p l i n e , of a constructive use for rote l e a r n i n g , of f u r n i s h i n g the m i n d i n a n o r g a n i s e d way. If, i n W i n n i c o t t , the transitional object is the h a r b i n g e r of the s y m b o l i c , at its m o s t e m b r y o n i c a n d f l u i d , then w i t h the father the s y m b o l i c arrives f u l l y f l e d g e d . If, i n the d o m a i n of the transitional, w i t h m o t h e r a n d t e d d y bear, the m a k i n g of m e a n i n g is f l u i d a n d p r o v i s i o n a l , w i t h the a r r i v a l of the father the steel links of the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n are f o r g e d . H o w e v e r , W i n n i c o t t d o e s not elaborate o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d the p a t e r n a l i n his w r i t i n g s . T h e degree to w h i c h the paternal is a n essential part of the role of the teacher, therapist or carer, is suggested i n the f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n . A y o u n g p l a y m a n a g e r d e s c r i b e d his abortive attempt to r u n a n e x p e r i e n t i a l g r o u p , at the request of s o m e adolescent b o y s . It l o o k e d p r o m i s i n g , because the initiative h a d c o m e f r o m the b o y s

themselves.

Yet w h i l s t e l e v e n of the twelve y o u t h s were c o - o p e r a t i v e , it t o o k o n l y one to w r e c k the w h o l e venture. A l l he d i d to cause chaos to d e s c e n d w a s m e s s a r o u n d w i t h a telephone. ' W h a t c o u l d I h a v e d o n e to p r e v e n t the

spread

of

chaos?

7

pleaded

the

facilitator. I n e v i t a b l y

he

was

s w a m p e d w i t h suggestions, i n c l u d i n g trenchant interpretations of the w a y w a r d y o u t h ' s u n c o n s c i o u s n e e d — a s s i g n a l l e d b y his p h o n e p l a y — for a less e x p o s e d f o r m of contact t h a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a live g r o u p . Insisting that he h a d a l r e a d y tried m o s t of these ideas, the p l a y - w o r k ­ er at last realised that his p r i o r u n c o n s c i o u s v i s i o n of h i m s e l f as g r o u p l e a d e r h a d b e e n of a tender, n u r t u r i n g , entirely ' m a t e r n a l ' figure. However,

exploring

Winnicott's

conceptualisation

of

the

father

a l l o w e d h i m to i n c o r p o r a t e other, ' p a t e r n a l ' qualities, w h i c h h e l p e d t o u g h e n his relationship w i t h the y o u n g s t e r s . T h r o u g h d r a w i n g o n a stronger, m o r e ' p a t e r n a l ' part of himself, the b o y s e x p e r i e n c e d a m o r e satisfactory c o n t a i n m e n t . If there is a failure i n the structure of this s t r o n g - e n o u g h i n t e r n a l ' h o m e ' , W i n n i c o t t suggests, then: C h i l d r e n d e p r i v e d of h o m e life m u s t either be p r o v i d e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g p e r s o n a l a n d stable w h e n they are yet y o u n g e n o u g h to m a k e use of it to s o m e extent, or else they m u s t force u s later to p r o v i d e stability i n the shape of a n a p p r o v e d s c h o o l or i n the

Val Richards 211 last resort four walls i n the shape o f a p r i s o n cell. (Winnicott 1992: 119) T h i s inexorable trajectory t o w a r d s the four w a l l s of a p r i s o n cell, as a b e t t e r - t h a n - n o t h i n g ' h o m e ' for d i s t u r b e d youngsters, h i g h l i g h t s the tenacious n e e d i n all of us for our e n v i r o n m e n t to reflect elements of b o t h the o r i g i n a l m a t e r n a l h o l d i n g — a s i n W i n n i c o t t ' s picture of the regressed adult p a t i e n t — a n d of the t o u g h - e n o u g h paternal f r a m e ­ w o r k , w h i c h w i l l w i t h s t a n d the i n d i v i d u a l ' s attempts to w r e c k the w o r k i n h a n d , a n d i n d e e d the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t itself. T h u s , u p o n the educator, is p l a c e d the challenge of b e c o m i n g a facil­ itator, w h o b o t h h o l d s a n d contains, a n d w h o also continues the p r i v i ­ l e g e d task of m e d i a t i n g that reality first e x p e r i e n c e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l i n its m o t h e r ' s arms: T h e w o r l d , the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t , nature a n d society, ' e d u ­ cates' the h u m a n b e i n g : it d r a w s out his p o w e r s , a n d makes h i m grasp a n d penetrate its objections. W h a t w e t e r m e d u c a t i o n , c o n ­

scious a n d w i l l e d , means a selection by man of the effective world w h i c h is concentrated a n d manifested i n the educator.

(Buber,

q u o t e d i n Britton 1962)

Notes 1 'Mother' here such be taken to imply also any number of mother 'stand-ins', which might

indeed include the father.

2 This is in opposition to the more self-sufficient infant in Freudian and Lacanian theory.

LIFELONG

UNLEARNING

Trevor

Pateman

I M y U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y contains h u n d r e d s of m o d e r n

books—mostly

s h e l v e d as ' P s y c h o l o g y ' — w h i c h h a v e the w o r d ' L e a r n i n g ' i n their titles. It h a s just o n e b o o k w h i c h uses the w o r d ' U n l e a r n i n g ' : Julia P e n e l o p e ' s Speaking

Freely:

Unlearning

the Lies of the Fathers'

Tongues

(1990). T h i s is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . P e o p l e w h o live i n acquisitive societies w i l l t e n d to write b o o k s about h o w to acquire things, n o t h o w to get r i d of t h e m , a n d this is w h a t a c a d e m i c psychologists h a v e also d o n e — as a matter of the routines of their d i s c i p l i n e , of course, n o t of c o n ­ scious i d e o l o g y T h a t s a i d , i n order to a v o i d the trap of c o n s p i r a c y the­ ory, the rhetoric of l e a r n i n g p s y c h o l o g y is often transparent e n o u g h to facilitate i d e o l o g i c a l d e c o n s t r u c t i o n . L e a r n i n g theorists, for e x a m p l e , c o n c e r n themselves w i t h things they call acquisition n e v e r w i t h giving

away o r

a n d retention,

but

expulsion.

L e a r n i n g theorists are hoarders rather t h a n wasters. N e v e r t h e l e s s there are b o o k s i n the l i b r a r y — e v e n m o d e m w h i c h are i n fact, if n o t i n title, about unlearning.

books—

T h e y are s h e l v e d

u n d e r ' P s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' a n d ' R e l i g i o n ' , yet w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d as c o n ­ frontations w i t h theories of l e a r n i n g or w i t h the i d e o l o g y of l e a r n i n g theory W h a t I w o u l d like to d o i n this essay is to set o u t s o m e o f the w a y s i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n t h i n g s , a n d to stress the p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of the fact that w e d o u n l e a r n . M y a i m is to m a k e a start at r e s t r a i n i n g the i m p e r i a l a m b i t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g theory, w h o s e designs o n c o l o n i s i n g the mind

are s u c c i n c t l y

expressed

i n the c u r r e n t p h r a s e

'Lifelong

L e a r n i n g ' . T h i s , to m e , seems a classic case of ' P r o d u c e r C a p t u r e ' . T h o s e w i t h a v e s t e d interest i n L e a r n i n g ( p r i n c i p a l l y teachers)

have

e n c o u r a g e d u s to forget U n l e a r n i n g as the other half of the dialectic of c o g n i t i v e life.

213

Trevor Pateman II

T h e essays I w r i t e are sometimes rejected b y a c a d e m i c journals o n the g r o u n d s that they read too m u c h l i k e the texts of i n f o r m a l talks. T h i s is h i g h p r a i s e to m e , b u t since it is n o t so to others I w i l l b e g i n this p a p e r w i t h s o m e t h i n g s u i t a b l y f o r m a l . It is a i m e d at b r i n g i n g the d o m a i n of l e a r n i n g theories a n d the d o m a i n of u n l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( w h i c h still r e m a i n s to b e constructed) into a strictly s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l e a r n i n g theory is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the w a y s — f o r ,

presumably,

there are m o r e than o n e — i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a p o i n t i n t i m e does n o t k n o w h o w to d o s o m e t h i n g , x, o r that s o m e ­ t h i n g , p, is the case, arrives at a state later i n time w h e r e they d o k n o w h o w to x o r that p is the case. So S m o v e s , for e x a m p l e , f r o m n o t k n o w ­ i n g h o w to speak a first or a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e to k n o w i n g h o w to d o so, or S m o v e s f r o m n o t k n o w i n g the K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to k n o w i n g that t h i n g . A t h e o r y o f u n l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the w a y s i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a p o i n t i n time does k n o w h o w to d o x o r that p is the case arrives at a state later i n t i m e w h e n they d o n o t k n o w h o w to x o r that p. S o S m o v e s f r o m k n o w i n g h o w to s p e a k a l a n g u a g e to not k n o w i n g h o w to d o so, o r f r o m k n o w i n g the K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to n o l o n g e r k n o w i n g that t h i n g . H o w e v e r , before a n y o n e k n o w s w h a t is h a p p e n i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s — at this p o i n t — w i l l h a v e i n d i c a t e d that the w o r d ' k n o w ' is b e i n g u s e d h e r e generically, to s u b s u m e 'believe' (or v i c e versa), a n d so I a m n o w i n d i c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y this o n their behalf. Ill

Y o u m a y w e l l h a v e u n d e r s t o o d this little b i t of f o r m a l i s m — w h i c h is n o w o v e r a n d d o n e w i t h — b y g e n e r a t i n g for y o u r s e l f a n e x a m p l e of a w a y i n w h i c h u n l e a r n i n g occurs, a n d I w o u l d not b e s u r p r i s e d if the e x a m p l e y o u c a m e u p w i t h w a s that oi forgetting.

In any, case,

forgetting

is m y o w n o p e n i n g e x a m p l e of a w a y i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n s o m e t h i n g . T h e r e is a l o t to b e s a i d about it, a n d here I a i m to b e n o m o r e t h a n i n f o r m a l a n d suggestive. Teachers ( a n d those w h o , like p o l i t i c i a n s , t h i n k f o r teachers) are p l e a s e d w h e n y o u l e a r n s o m e t h i n g v e r y w e l l . A n d h a v i n g learnt s o m e ­ t h i n g v e r y w e l l is e v i d e n c e d b y n o t forgetting i t — i d e a l l y , n o t forget­ t i n g it ever. If w e taught c h i l d r e n their tables properly t h e n they w o u l d

214

Lifelong Unlearning

never—barring

n a t u r a l disasters s u c h as A l z h e i m e r ' s

Disease—forget

t h e m . A n d they w o u l d h a v e a teacher to t h i n k for that. L e a r n i n g is g o o d , a n d s h o u l d a l l o w us to feel g o o d ; f o r g e t t i n g — o n the other h a n d — i s b a d , a n d o u g h t to m a k e us feel b a d . I w a n t to say, h o w e v e r , that this attitude is i r r a t i o n a l , e v e n i n the d o m a i n o f w h a t w e l e a r n at school. C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e , w h y it is that metric m e a s u r e m e n t is m a k i n g s u c h s l o w progress i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . It is s i m p l y that p e o p l e k n o w their I m p e r i a l m e a s u r e m e n t s so w e l l that they w i l l n o t a n d c a n ­ not forget them. T h e y are p r o u d of w h a t they k n o w , a n d are able to use it f a i r l y effortlessly. A s a result E u r o c o m p u t a t i o n is still a lot further off t h a n a single E u r o p e a n currency. It w i l l h a v e to w a i t for the l o n g r u n w h e n w e are a l l d e a d . B u t h a d o u r s c h o o l s y s t e m b e e n less g o o d at i n s t i l l i n g i n us o u r c r a z y m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m , w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n able to forget it m o r e readily, a n d to m o v e o n to d e p l o y

something

m o r e u s e f u l . A s it is, w e l i v e i n a society full of p e o p l e w h o are p r o u d of k n o w i n g h o w m a n y f u r l o n g s there are i n a m i l e , a n d w h o are total­ l y u n w i l l i n g to forget it. Interestingly, w h e n it c o m e s to the c o n d u c t of o u r p e r s o n a l l i v e s , the v i r t u e s o f forgetting are m u c h m o r e frequently c o m m e n d e d , a n d the fact that forgetting is r o o t e d i n attitude m u c h m o r e w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d . W e c a n choose to forget things, a n d are often e n c o u r a g e d to d o so: T o r g e t it!' is s t a n d a r d a d v i c e to the a g g r i e v e d . I m a g i n e t r y i n g that line o n p e o p l e c o m m i t t e d to m a i n t a i n i n g that there are f o u r t e e n p o u n d s i n a stone... In o u r p e r s o n a l lives it is a fault to refuse to f o r g i v e a n d forget. I n o u r p o l i t i c a l lives, too, w e are aware that it is m e m o r y w h i c h m a i n t a i n s c o n f l i c t s — l i k e those i n N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d — w e l l b e y o n d their r a t i o n a l duration. L i k e w i s e , i n o u r c o g n i t i v e lives o u r m e m o r i e s (or zohat we know) often p r o v e a n obstacle to e n g a g i n g p r o p e r l y w i t h the w o r l d a r o u n d us. It is a c o m m o n p l a c e that w h a t w e see is often i n f l u e n c e d b y w h a t w e t h i n k there is to see, w h i c h m i g h t be taken as a n a r g u m e n t for t h i n k i n g less a n d w i t h less c o n v i c t i o n . W e s h o u l d p e r h a p s c a r r y o u r k n o w l e d g e lightly, a n d a l w a y s be r e a d y to let g o of it. S u c h ideas h a v e h a d at least one p e d a g o g i c a l e m b o d i m e n t , i n the practices of m o d e r n i s t v i s u a l arts e d u c a t i o n — b r o a d l y , i n that p r a c t i s e d or i n s p i r e d b y the B a u h a u s . If, for e x a m p l e , y o u force r i g h t - h a n d e d s t u ­ dents to d r a w w i t h their left, y o u d e n y t h e m the h a b i t of f a l l i n g b a c k o n w h a t they a l r e a d y k n o w . C o m i n g f r o m a v e r y different b a c k g r o u n d ,

Trevor Pateman

215

the c o g n i t i v e scientist D a v i d M a r r (1982) a r g u e d that the serious w o r k of v i s u a l artists i n v o l v e s t h e m i n u n l e a r n i n g the routines of h a b i t u ­ a l i s e d seeing, a n d regressing f r o m 3 - D to w h a t h e c a l l e d ' t w o a n d a half D ' v i s i o n . T h i s w a s w h a t C e z a n n e w a s t r y i n g to achieve t h r o u g h his e n d l e s s r e p a i n t i n g of M o n t St V i c t o i r e ; l e a r n i n g i n order to forget, a n d f o r g e t t i n g i n o r d e r to l e a r n . IV F o r g e t t i n g is o n e of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e e n d u p not k n o w i n g w h a t o n c e w e d i d k n o w . It is a t e r m w h i c h covers b o t h the m e a n s e m p l o y e d a n d the result: b y ' d o i n g forgetting' (as the e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s

might

p u t it) w e e n d u p h a v i n g forgotten. W h e n w h a t w e k n o w has a n i n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t — a s w i t h r e l i g i o u s or p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s — f o r g e t t i n g often takes the f o r m of lapsing. W e b e c o m e a l a p s e d C a t h o l i c , or l a p s e d m e m ­ ber of the L a b o u r Party. In these cases a loss o f interest ('a w i t h d r a w a l of l i b i d i n a l energy') i n i t i a l l y disconnects us f r o m certain r o u t i n e p r a c ­ tices, s u c h as g o i n g to C h u r c h or p a r t y meetings, a n d m a y e v e n t u a l l y result i n o u r forgetting the doctrines to w h i c h w e were

committed—

forgetting, p e r h a p s , i n n o t so v e r y different a w a y f r o m w h i c h w e m i g h t forget a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e

as a result of never p r a c t i s i n g it.

L a p s i n g s e e m s , t o b e t e m p o r a l l y b o u n d e d : w h e n e n o u g h years h a v e p a s s e d , y o u cease to b e a l a p s e d m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y a n d b e c o m e instead s o m e o n e w h o was once a m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y T h i s l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m a r k e d shift recognises that a real c h a n g e i n the state o f one's relations to the object h a s o c c u r r e d . D i s e n c h a n t m e n t , loss of f a s c i n a t i o n , d i s i n v e s t m e n t , are processes w h i c h e n d i n f u l l s e p a r a ­ t i o n f r o m the object. O u t s i d e s u c h o b v i o u s l y institutional contexts as c h u r c h e s a n d parties, there are other k i n d s of l a p s i n g . O n e ' s r e a d i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r subject or of a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r c a n lapse. T h i s is often d e s c r i b e d negatively, as w h e n w e regret ' n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h ' the lit­ erature i n s u c h - a n d - s u c h a field. B u t e v e n here l a p s i n g c a n h a v e its o w n p o s i t i v e d y n a m i c . I n d e e d , m y sense o f w h a t it is to l e a d a n i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l life p r o v o k e s m e to suggest that this o u g h t to i n v o l v e a great deal of lapsing. H o w e v e r , this c l a i m requires s o m e contextualisation a n d justifica­ tion. T h o u g h I a m quite c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d m i r i n g of those w h o r e m a i n monogamous

t h r o u g h o u t l o n g m a r i t a l relationships, I d e s p a i r o v e r

p e o p l e w h o r e m a i n w i t h the s a m e ideas, the s a m e theories, the s a m e

Lifelong

216

Unlearning

subjects, t h r o u g h o u t their intellectual lives. O f t e n e n o u g h , it seems that t h e y are l i v i n g off w h a t they b a n k e d i n their a c a d e m i c y o u t h . T h e y are f a i l i n g to m o v e o n w a r d s a n d o u t w a r d s . Yet moving

out

is w h a t the

i n t e l l e c t u a l life is all about; it is w h a t m a k e s it a n a d v e n t u r e rather t h a n a n e n t r e n c h m e n t . T h i s is n o t ( t h o u g h it c o u l d be) a n a p o l o g y for d i l e t ­ t a n t i s m — f o r w h a t the U t o p i a n socialist C h a r l e s F o u r i e r c a l l e d 'the b u t ­ terfly p a s s i o n ' . A n artist d o e s not start o u t w i t h a style, n o r d o e s a w r i t e r start o u t w i t h a voice. Rather, they h a v e to achieve these things. S i m i l a r l y , a n intellectual life does not start w i t h a v i s i o n , b u t has to a c h i e v e one. A n d it is achievable o n l y t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t , not t h r o u g h the reiteration of w h a t one r e a d i n one's y o t i t h . ( O n c e , for e x a m p l e , I d i d k n o w ' W h a t M a r x S a i d ' , because I r e a d it fairly conscientiously. N o w I h a v e l a p s e d a n d I n o longer k n o w . T h i s is h o w it s h o u l d be.) W h a t is p o t e n t i a l l y s h o c k i n g i n this, I s u p p o s e , is the lack of reverence it d i s p l a y s . B u t a l t h o u g h one s h o u l d p e r h a p s be careful i n one's treat­ m e n t of p e o p l e , one's treatment of ideas, theories, b o o k s , o u g h t to be careless. T h e y are there for use, that's all. T h e r e is n o h a r m i n l a p s i n g , n o h a r m i n n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h e v e r y last jot a n d tittle that s o - a n d - s o wrote.

V B u t relatively painless forgetting a n d l a p s i n g are not a l w a y s p o s s i b l e . S o m e things c a n o n l y be got r i d of b y m o r e o b v i o u s l y e x p u l s i v e a c t s — those of rejection a n d repudiation.

P e o p l e leave churches a n d parties b y

s t o r m i n g o u t o n t h e m , t u r n i n g a n g r i l y o n t h e m , k i c k i n g u p a great d e a l of d u s t w h i c h r o u t i n e l y finds its w a y onto p u b l i s h e r s ' lists for a season o r t w o . S o m e t i m e s , y o u c a n only, get r i d of s o m e t h i n g b y p u r g i n g y o u r s e l f . T h i s is a traumatic w a y of u n l e a r n i n g f r o m w h i c h there are n o i m m e d i a t e gains: n o n e w k n o w l e d g e a u t o m a t i c a l l y replaces that w h i c h is r e p u d i a t e d a n d m o r e or less r a p i d l y u n l e a r n t . Rejection

and

r e p u d i a t i o n often

enough

leave

w h e t h e r u n l e a r n i n g has really o c c u r r e d i n s o m e o n e .

us

wondering

Sometimes

it

s e e m s that the p e r s o n r e m a i n s attached, at s o m e l e v e l , to the ideas or the i n d i v i d u a l s t h e y h a v e superficially, rejected. T h i s s u s p i c i o n is c o n ­ f i r m e d w h e n p e o p l e r e t u r n to the f o l d or r e t u r n to their partners. In other w o r d s , s o m e rejections a n d r e p u d i a t i o n s are cases of w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d ' n e g a t i o n ' (Die

Verneinung).

N e g a t i o n is n o t a f o r m of u n l e a r n ­

i n g ; it is s i m p l y a d e n i a l of w h a t one k n o w s a n d feels (cf. F r e u d

1925:

235-6). H o w e v e r , it m a y be i n t e n d e d to b r i n g about u n l e a r n i n g — t h a t

Trevor Pateman

217

is, to b r i n g about a state i n w h i c h one really does not k n o w or feel the thing denied. VI

In s o m e w a y s

less traumatic t h a n rejection a n d r e p u d i a t i o n is the

m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n of conversion, i n w h i c h one m o v e s r a p i d l y f r o m k n o w i n g o n e set of things to k n o w i n g another b u t i n c o m p a t i b l e set, w i t h o u t a n y o b v i o u s i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d or process of u n l e a r n i n g . In o u r p e r s o n a l lives, a n e q u i v a l e n t to c o n v e r s i o n m i g h t be the e x a m p l e of a p e r s o n w h o m o v e s easily a n d q u i c k l y out of one h a p p y or u n h a p p y r e l a t i o n s h i p into a n o t h e r — e q u a l l y h a p p y or u n h a p p y — b u t w i t h a different p e r s o n . T h i s defies o u r sense that, b e t w e e n

the

t w o , there o u g h t to be a p e r i o d of m o u r n i n g — a p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h one l o o s e n s the o l d attachment before g o i n g o n to f o r m the n e w one. (cf. F r e u d 1917: 243-5). O u r n o t i o n that m o u r n i n g o u g h t to intercede g i v e s us s o m e i n s i g h t into the nature of c o n v e r s i o n . F o r if the p e r s o n w h o m o v e s out of one r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d straight into another is s o m e ­ t i m e s accurately d e s c r i b e d as incapable of m o u r n i n g , t h e n the same m i g h t be s a i d of the enthusiastic convert. Just as the f o r m e r lacks the a b i l i t y to be w i t h o u t a partner, so the latter lacks the ability to be w i t h ­ o u t a set of g u i d i n g beliefs. Just as one cannot tolerate b e i n g alone, the o t h e r c a n n o t tolerate b e i n g i g n o r a n t . In m y v i e w , the ability to be alone a n d the ability to be i g n o r a n t are absolutely f u n d a m e n t a l not o n l y to o n e ' s p e r s o n a l life, b u t also to intellectual l i f e — a thesis a r g u e d at l e n g t h i n A n t h o n y S t o r r ' s interesting b o o k Solitude.

As

a mode

of

u n l e a r n i n g , I g i v e c o n v e r s i o n l o w m a r k s , a n d I c o m m e n d those (start­ i n g i n the West w i t h Socrates—see P a t e m a n 1999) w h o h a v e s h o w n us the v a l u e of the state of n o t - k n o w i n g , the v a l u e of i g n o r a n c e . VII—EXCURSUS I g n o r a n c e m i g h t also be characterised as a state of o p e n n e s s to n e w i n s i g h t s , to n e w k n o w l e d g e . It is a resistance to closure. W h a t i n the W e s t has c o m e to b e called ' m e t a p h y s i c s ' is n o w o n l y d o - a b l e w i t h i n a space m a r k e d o u t b y s u c h resistance. 1 w i l l elaborate a bit o n this... A

fairly c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w

has it that the

domain

of

science

(physics) c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h it is fairly clear w h a t the questions are, h o w to go a b o u t a n s w e r i n g t h e m (the q u e s t i o n of m e t h o d ) , a n d w h a t counts as a (good) answer. W h e n F r e u d c l a i m e d i n

218

Lifelong

Unlearning

The Interpretation

of Dreams that d r e a m s w e r e the ' r o y a l r o a d ' to the

u n c o n s c i o u s he w a s , a m o n g other things, strengthening h i s c l a i m to b r i n g the vinconscious m i n d into the d o m a i n o f science, b y i d e n t i f y i n g a s o u n d m e t h o d for a n s w e r i n g the questions w e m i g h t h a v e about it. A c c o r d i n g , t h e n , to this c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w , the d o m a i n of meta­ p h y s i c s c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g o n w h i c h w e are unclear w h a t the ques­ tions are, h o w to a n s w e r t h e m , a n d w h a t o n earth is to c o u n t as a g o o d a n s w e r . A r t i s t s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s of art h a v e often e n o u g h m a d e the c l a i m that art c a n p r o v i d e a m e t h o d for m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i c h is p e r h a p s m o r e a s s u r e d t h a n the p r a y e r a n d m e d i t a t i o n historically p r i v i l e g e d a m o n g the major religions. W h i l s t d i f f e r i n g f r o m o n e another i n this w a y , artists a n d believers m i g h t a g r e e — a n d , I think, w o u l d b e right to a g r e e — t h a t the success of their m e t h o d s c a n n o t be w i l l e d , a n y m o r e t h a n y o u c a n w i l l cleverness o r originality. It is a matter of luck o r grace—depending

o n w h e t h e r y o u r v i s i o n is secular o r r e l i g i o u s —

w h e t h e r , t h r o u g h art or p r a y e r o r m e d i t a t i o n , y o u c o m e u p w i t h s o m e ­ t h i n g w h i c h begins to focus a m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n or begins to p r o ­ v i d e the g l i m m e r i n g s of a m e t a p h y s i c a l answer. T h e results cannot b e g u a r a n t e e d a n d , if s o u g h t for too h a r d , m a y e l u d e u s e v e n m o r e d e c i ­ sively. Y o u c a n n o t — a c c o r d i n g to this v i e w — s i t d o w n to w r i t e 'meta­ p h y s i c a l p o e m s ' . T h a t w o u l d b e to confuse m e t h o d a n d result. Y o u c a n o n l y sit d o w n to write p o e m s , a n d it is n o t for y o u as their author to d e c l a r e that they are s o m e m e t a p h y s i c a l lager i l l u m i n a t i n g the parts w h i c h other arts cannot reach. T h a t is for y o u r readers a n d for poster­ i t y to feel a n d j u d g e . T h e a i m s of m e t a p h y s i c s are, b y d e f i n i t i o n , seek­ i n g to g a i n s o m e h o l d o n ultimate questions a n d answers. But those s a m e a i m s c o m p e l it to h u m i l i t y i n its m e t h o d s . T h e w i l l to p o w e r — m a n i f e s t i n the e x a m p l e I h a v e g i v e n as the d r i v e to c o n t r o l the results of o n e ' s artistic efforts—is a n i n s u p e r a b l e obstacle to a c h i e v i n g the out­ c o m e s d e s i r e d . If art is i n d e e d the m e t h o d of m e t a p h y s i c s , then a suc­ cessful

poem

w i l l i l l u m i n a t e some d a r k corner of o u r existence,

w h e t h e r w e w i l l it o r not. Poetry, u n l i k e r h u b a r b , cannot b e forced. A n d w h e n it is forced the p o e m itself is d r o w n e d out b y the h i s t r i o n ­ ics, the sophistry, of the poet. W e f i n d o u r s e l v e s l i s t e n i n g to the poet's n e u r o s i s a n d n o t to i n t i m a t i o n s of the u n c o n s c i o u s o r the d i v i n e . T h a n k s i n large measure to Plato's Socrates, the W e s t e r n intellectu­ al t r a d i t i o n is a n t i - s o p h i s t i c a l . F r e u d b e l o n g s to that t r a d i t i o n insofar as h e r e c o g n i s e d a n d insisted that i n neurosis it is often e n o u g h b y o u r o w n s o p h i s t r y that w e d e c e i v e ourselves. W e thereby d e p r i v e o u r ­ selves of s u c h insights as are actually w i t h i n o u r o r d i n a r y h u m a n

Trevor Pateman

219

capacities to achieve. Instead, w e are b l i n d e d b y the rhetoric o f e m p t y words . VIII C l o s e l y related to c o n v e r s i o n , b u t actually distinct, is the

epiphany,

w h i c h is c a u s a l l y effective i n s w i t c h i n g u s f r o m o n e set of beliefs to another. H o w e v e r , the e p i p h a n y is effective o n l y because s o m e inner p r e p a r a t i o n o r w o r k h a s already b e e n d o n e — s o m e d o u b t or dissatis­ faction a l r e a d y exists, s o m e i n k l i n g that w e are l o o k i n g at things or g o i n g at things the w r o n g way. Sometimes there m a y be n o m o r e than a sense o f ' s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g ' . E p i p h a n i e s are s o m e t i m e s b i g events i n p e o p l e ' s lives, t r a n s p o r t i n g a b e l i e v e r f r o m o n e r e l i g i o n to another, or s w i t c h i n g a scientist f r o m one t h e o r y to another. E q u a l l y , they c a n be quite m o d e s t events, the k i n d of t h i n g teachers m a y h a v e r e a d about i n r o m a n t i c e d u c a t i o n a l theory, a n d c a n h o p e for i n the c l a s s r o o m : events w h i c h s u d d e n l y c a p ­ ture a c h i l d ' s interest a n d l e a d the c h i l d into a s u s t a i n e d e n g a g e m e n t w i t h s o m e t h i n g quite new. E p i p h a n i e s c o u l d be better u n d e r s t o o d , b u t they t e n d to b e neglect­ e d o u t s i d e of w r i t i n g s o n religion, p e r h a p s because they c a n neither be p r e d i c t e d n o r c o n t r o l l e d . A teacher c a n h o p e for t h e m , b u t c a n n o t e n g i ­ neer

them.

They

enable

fast-track

unlearning a n d learning, and

because of this w e s h o u l d be m o r e grateful a n d m o r e interested i n t h e m t h a n w e are. T h a t I h a v e u s e d the w o r d ' s w i t c h i n g ' to describe e p i p h a n i e s s u g ­ gests that they m a y also have s o m e t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h the switches s t u d i e d i n Gestalt p s y c h o l o g y

T h e s e s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t of as

a p p l y i n g o n l y to t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d r a w i n g s — t h e i r m o s t t y p i c a l e x e m ­ plar. F o r instance, a s w i t c h is often i n v o l v e d i n s o l v i n g l o w - l e v e l p r a c ­ tical p r o b l e m s . W h e n I w a s a c h i l d , b o t h raspberries a n d strawberries c o u l d b e h u l l e d — t h a t is, the central p l u g c o u l d be p u l l e d o u t b y p u l l i n g o n the stalk. F o r strawberries, h o w e v e r , this is n o l o n g e r true: m o d e m varieties are g r o w n for l o n g e r shelf-life a n d a n o n - p u l l a b l e p l u g assists this. P u l l i n g o n the stalk, y o u s i m p l y m a k e a mess, b u t for a l o n g time that is w h a t I d i d . T h e n I realised that the t h i n g to d o is to treat a m o d e r n s t r a w b e r r y like a carrot: y o u h a v e to slice off the top... T h i s is h a r d l y a n e p i p h a n y , b u t it is a s w i t c h , i n w h i c h a n o l d w a y of g o i n g a b o u t things h a d to be unlearnt.

220

Lifelong

Unlearning

IX T h e r e is also a sort of opposite to the e p i p h a n y , w h i c h consists i n u n p i c k i n g one's cognitive route u n t i l one locates the source of a n error. L i k e A r i a d n e , w e j o u r n e y b a c k a l o n g the w a y w e h a v e t r a v e l l e d . It is a c o m m o n e n o u g h w a y of f i n d i n g a mistake i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l c a l c u l a ­ t i o n , b u t occurs m o r e widely. It is o b v i o u s l y less d r a m a t i c i n its m a n i ­ festations t h a n c o n v e r s i o n or e p i p h a n y , but o u g h t n o t — f o r all t h a t — b e n e g l e c t e d as a m e a n s of u n l e a r n i n g . There is n o t h i n g w h i c h says a pri­ ori that u n l e a r n i n g has to be a n u n m e t h o d i c a l business, e v e n if, as a matter of fact, it often is. A lot o f psychotherapists w o u l d be h a p p y to say that their w o r k consists i n assisting p e o p l e to u n l e a r n h a b i t u a l w a y s of g o i n g about t h i n g s , a n d that this i n v o l v e s g o i n g over real-life examples of p e r s o n a l history, a l m o s t as if they were mathematical p r o b l e m s i n w h i c h a m i s ­ take has s o m e w h e r e

been m a d e . Sometimes part of the therapist's

w o r k is to give a n a m e to the defective strategy b e i n g u s e d b y the client. E r i c Berne's p o p u l a r b o o k

Games People

Play (1968)

names

d o z e n s of s u c h strategies. C o m m o n sense h a d already n a m e d m a n y of these: ' C u t t i n g off one's nose to spite one's face'; ' D o g i n a m a n g e r ' ; ' C r y i n g W o l f ! ' , a n d so o n a n d so forth. In other w o r d s , o n e m i g h t s a y that the m e t h o d of A r i a d n e is o n e w h i c h a i m s at d i a g n o s i s as w e l l as cure. If w e are asked ' W h e r e d o y o u t h i n k y o u w e n t w r o n g ? ' , the q u e s t i o n d e m a n d s reflexive attention to a precise step-by-step d e s c r i p t i o n of w h a t w e d i d w h i c h e n d e d u p w i t h u s getting it w r o n g . T h e q u e s t i o n is m o t i v a t e d b y the belief that the w a y w e w e n t w r o n g w i l l itself p r o v e to be s i g n i f i c a n t — p a r t of a repet­ itive p a t t e r n , p e r h a p s , whether i n the w a y w e d o maths, or i n the w a y w e l e a d o u r lives. S o if w e say (for example): ' W e l l , I went w r o n g w h e n I c o n c e d e d rather t h a n h o l d i n g m y g r o u n d ' , it is easy for the therapist to f o l l o w w i t h the question: ' D o y o u often d o t h a t ? ' — w h i c h almost s e e m s to p r o v o k e a n affirmative response. T h e therapeutic task is t h e n c o n c e i v e d as i n s o m e sense l a y i n g bare the m i s g u i d e d character of the patient's h a b i t u a l strategy, a n d i n f i n d i n g a w a y to enable t h e m , i n f u t u r e , to a v o i d t y i n g the knot i n w h i c h they h a v e h a b i t u a l l y tied t h e m ­ selves. T h e therapeutic a i m is to b r i n g about a certain k i n d of u n l e a r n ­ i n g b y m e a n s o f careful u n r a v e l l i n g .

Trevor Pateman

221

X T h e gentleness of A r i a d n e ' s m e t h o d o f u n l e a r n i n g m a y s e e m s o m e ­ times t o o cautious, too liable to result i n m e r e l y p i e c e m e a l repairs o f c o g n i t i v e structures. It does n o t g o to the root o f t h i n g s ; does n o t tear u p a n d start over a g a i n . T h e r e is a m o r e r a d i c a l m e t h o d w h i c h asserts the v a l u e of the b l a n k sheet, the v a l u e of s w e e p i n g a w a y the past, a n d s t a r t i n g o v e r f r o m the g r o u n d u p w a r d s — i n a s l o g a n : I destroy and I

build (Destruam et Aedificabo). T h e w o r l d s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o l o g y , as w e l l as of politics a n d r e l i g i o n , h a v e a l w a y s k n o w n radicals w h o w a n t to k n o c k y o u (or it) d o w n before they b u i l d y o u (or it) u p again. A n d n o t a l l o f t h e m are m a d megalomaniacs, though some have been. A m o n g the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s , there are those w h i c h tell the therapist n o t to b e satisfied u n t i l y o u h a v e c r i e d o r s c r e a m e d or a d m i t t e d to d e p r a v e d lusts. T h i s seems to be c o m m o n e n o u g h k n o w l e d g e for it to h a v e m a d e its w a y into a recent f i l m , Good Will Hunting,

w i t h its d e p i c ­

t i o n of a therapist w h o s e coup de theatre is to m a k e h i s patient cry. O n c e he has d o n e that, h i s job is all b u t over. W o u l d that it w e r e that s i m p l e . . . T h e p a r a d i g m , h o w e v e r , for the ' d e s t r o y a n d b u i l d ' a p p r o a c h m a y w e l l b e to p u t s o m e o n e t h r o u g h ' C o l d T u r k e y ' . I n the case of a d d i c t i o n , this m a y b e the m o s t e f f e c t i v e — p e r h a p s the o n l y e f f e c t i v e — a p p r o a c h to u n l e a r n i n g , a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h a i m s at w h a t o n e m i g h t call total unlearning. T h e inherent danger, h o w e v e r , is that the patient goes totally to pieces, c o n s e q u e n t l y C o l d T u r k e y is a route to u n l e a r n i n g o n w h i c h o n e m u s t be m a s s i v e l y s u p p o r t e d . H e n c e , the structure of s u c h o r g a n ­ isations as A l c o h o l i c s A n o n y m o u s . XI C o l d T u r k e y , as a process v o l u n t a r i l y u n d e r t a k e n as a cure, is another t r a u m a t i c f o r m o f u n l e a r n i n g , o f w h i c h yet a n o t h e r v a r i a n t r e m a i n s to b e listed a n d b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d . T h i s is the u n l e a r n i n g b r o u g h t about u n d e r c o m p u l s i o n , b y the i m p o s i t i o n o f sanctions w h i c h m a y escalate a l l the w a y to b o d i l y torture. T h i s is the m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n o f

brainwashing. T h e o r i g i n o f a l l p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g is to be f o u n d i n s c h o o l s w h i c h , w o r l d - w i d e , for m o s t o f their existence, h a v e o p e r a t e d o n the p r i n c i p l e that error c a n b e beaten o u t o f c h i l d r e n . A v e r s i o n ther­

Lifelong

222

Unlearning

a p i e s are m e r e l y a m i n o r v a r i a n t o n this venerable t r a d i t i o n , o f w h i c h P a v l o v p r o v i d e s the m o s t o b v i o u s m o d e m avatar. H o w e v e r , it is a tra­ d i t i o n w h i c h raises issues far too large a n d c o m p l e x for m e to e x p l o r e i n this s h o r t study. I s h a l l s i m p l y list p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g as a t y p e w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n a n y c o m p l e t e c o v e r a g e of m y topic. XII B y w a y of c o n c l u s i o n , I w a n t to b r i n g into focus t w o r e c u r r e n t motifs of this essay. First of a l l , I h a v e i n m a n y places i n d i c a t e d that w e a l w a y s s t a n d i n a n e m o t i o n a l relationship to w h a t w e

know

or

believe.

K n o w l e d g e a n d belief are n e v e r ' c o l d ' . T h i s m e a n s that o u r feelings c a n act to enable or frustrate b o t h o u r l e a r n i n g a n d o u r u n l e a r n i n g . T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s c h a p t e r o n ' M o t i v a t i o n ' c o u l d be greatly e n r i c h e d — i n d e e d , replaced—by

the m a n y chapters i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s o n o u r affec­

tive relations to o u r objects, i n c l u d i n g s u c h i n a n i m a t e objects as o u r k n o w l e d g e , ideas, theories, beliefs, h u n c h e s , c o m m i t m e n t s a n d v a l u e s . A l r e a d y , c o m m o n sense p r o v i d e s us w i t h a n e n t r y into u n d e r s t a n d i n g this affective r e l a t i o n s h i p to o u r k n o w l e d g e b y a l l o w i n g us to s p e a k of b e i n g p r o u d of o u r l e a r n i n g , jealous of o u r k n o w l e d g e , i n s e c u r e i n o u r beliefs, tired of o u r o w n ideas, confident of o u r Tightness, u n w i l l i n g to c o n c e d e w e m i g h t b e w r o n g , k e e n to k n o w m o r e , hesitant i n a p p l y i n g w h a t w e k n o w . T h i s list is r e a d i l y e x p a n d e d . S e c o n d l y , I h a v e at v a r i o u s p o i n t s l i k e n e d o u r relationship to ideas to o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e . E v e r y d a y m e t a p h o r s r e c o g n i s e this p a r a l l e l i s m also: w e c a n be w e d d e d to o u r ideas, be intellectual b u l l y ­ b o y s , h a v e a love-affair w i t h F r e u d , a n d so o n . Insofar as p s y c h o a n a l y ­ sis h a s v a s t l y e x t e n d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , it c o u l d also e x t e n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r c o g n i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . We m i g h t t h e n be able to see, for e x a m p l e , that the l u r e of a c c u m u l a t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l qualifications is n o t so v e r y different f r o m a n i n v i t a t i o n to m a r r y s o m e o n e for their m o n e y — e x c e p t , of course, that the m o n e y i n this instance is o u r o w n . I n terms of its content, this essay is about d i s p o s i n g of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s rather t h a n about g a i n i n g t h e m . It is about w h a t w e once k n e w b u t n o w k n o w n o longer. It has offered a t y p o l o g y of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e may

cease to k n o w

a n d believe, sometimes finding s o m e t h i n g

to

r e p l a c e w h a t is g i v e n u p (as i n conversion), s o m e t i m e s n o t (as i n for­ getting). It has also s u g g e s t e d s o m e m e r i t i n w h a t , a p p r o p r i a t i n g a

223

Trevor Pateman p h r a s e , w e m i g h t call, generically, losing

it. T h e architect M i e s v a n der

R o h e once c a m e u p w i t h the m e m o r a b l e s l o g a n 'Less is m o r e ' 1980:

(Hughes

168). M y p r o p o s a l is that s u c h m i n i m a l i s m has a p a r t to p l a y i n

o u r c o g n i t i v e life. W e s h o u l d n ' t w o r r y t o o m u c h about feeling that w e k n o w less t h a n w e once d i d , or about l o n g p e r i o d s o f d o u b t a n d u n c e r ­ tainty i n w h i c h w e feel i g n o r a n t a n d u n a b l e to c o m e u p w i t h q u i c k answers. T h e painter M a r k R o t h k o l i k e d to remark: 'Silence is so a c c u ­ rate' (Breslin 1993: 306). I t h i n k this is a phrase w o r t h

remembering

w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the b r a s h p o l i t i c i a n or the e v e n brasher a c a d e ­ m i c w h o c a n p u t a s p i n o n e v e r y t h i n g , w h o has a n instant d i a g n o s i s a n d a cure for all ills. S u c h q u a c k doctors s h o u l d r e m i n d us a l w a y s to p r a y for a f u l l w o r d a n d a cautious t o n g u e .

This

paper

was first

Sussex Institute

presented

for Education,

Barf or d and Robin Morris

at a Faculty November

Seminar

of the University

1998.1 would like to thank

for their encouragement

and

help.

of

Duncan

APPENDIX: QUOTATIONS A N DA P H O R I S M S

T h e f o l l o w i n g list of quotations o n the theme of l e a r n i n g w a s a s s e m ­ b l e d w h i l s t s e a r c h i n g for the title of this book. Because the great major­ i t y o f the f o l l o w i n g w e r e h a r v e s t e d f r o m the internet, n o c l a i m s are m a d e as to their a c c u r a c y o r a u t h e n t i c i t y

** * It is a m o n g the c o m m o n p l a c e s of e d u c a t i o n that w e often first c u t off the l i v i n g root a n d t h e n t r y to replace its n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n s b y artificial m e a n s . T h u s w e s u p p r e s s the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y a n d t h e n w h e n h e lacks a n a t u r a l interest i n l e a r n i n g he is offered special c o a c h i n g for his scholastic c o a c h i n g for h i s scholastic difficulties. — A l i c e Duer Miller B y l e a r n i n g y o u w i l l teach, b y teaching y o u w i l l l e a r n . — L a t i n Proverb C r e a t i v i t y is a type of l e a r n i n g process w h e r e the teacher a n d p u p i l are l o c a t e d i n the s a m e i n d i v i d u a l . — A r t h u r Koestler C u r i o s i t y is the w i c k i n the candle of l e a r n i n g . — W i l l i a m A . W a r d (1921-1994), U S C o l l e g e A d m i n i s t r a t o r . D o n o t confine y o u r c h i l d r e n to y o u r o w n l e a r n i n g , for they w e r e b o r n i n a n o t h e r time. — C h i n e s e Proverb E d u c a t i o n is l e a r n i n g w h a t y o u d i d n ' t e v e n k n o w y o u d i d n ' t k n o w . — D a n i e l B o o r s t i n (b.1914), U S H i s t o r i a n . E d u c a t i o n is not f i l l i n g a bucket, b u t l i g h t i n g a fire. — W i l l i a m Yeats E v e n a thief takes t e n years to l e a r n h i s trade. —Japanese Proverb

Appendix

225

H e w h o is a f r a i d to ask is a s h a m e d of l e a r n i n g . — D a n i s h Proverb H e w h o is n o t satisfied w i t h h i m s e l f w i l l g r o w ; h e w h o is n o t sure of his o w n correctness w i l l l e a r n m a n y things. — C h i n e s e Proverb H o w is it that so often... I get the feeling I've w o r k e d h a r d to l e a r n s o m e t h i n g I a l r e a d y k n o w , or k n e w , once. — L i n d a E l l e r b e e (b.1944) U S Broadcast Journalist I h a v e l e a r n e d t h r o u g h o u t m y life as a c o m p o s e r chiefly t h r o u g h m y m i s t a k e s a n d p u r s u i t s of false a s s u m p t i o n s , n o t m y e x p o s u r e to founts of w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e . — I g o r Stravinsky I h a v e n e v e r i n m y life l e a r n e d a n y t h i n g f r o m a n y m a n w h o agreed with me. — D u d l e y Field Malone I h a v e n e v e r m e t a m a n so i g n o r a n t that I c o u l d n ' t l e a r n s o m e t h i n g from him. —Galileo I've

k n o w n countless

people

w h o were

reservoirs of l e a r n i n g , yet

never h a d a thought. — W i l s o n M i z n e r (1876-1933) U S P l a y w r i g h t a n d A u t h o r If a m a n w i l l b e g i n w i t h certainties, he s h a l l e n d i n d o u b t s , b u t if he w i l l b e content to b e g i n w i t h d o u b t s , he s h a l l e n d i n certainties. — F r a n c i s B a c o n (1561-1626) In a time of drastic c h a n g e it is the learners w h o inherit the future. T h e l e a r n e d u s u a l l y f i n d themselves

e q u i p p e d to l i v e i n a w o r l d that n o

l o n g e r exists. — E r i c H o f f e r (1902-1983) U S W r i t e r a n d P h i l o s o p h e r It is a l w a y s the season for the o l d to learn. —Aeschylus

226

Appendix

I r r e g u l a r i t y a n d w a n t of m e t h o d are o n l y s u p p o r t a b l e i n m e n of great

l e a r n i n g o r g e n i u s , w h o are often too f u l l to b e exact, a n d therefore they

c h o o s e to t h r o w d o w n their pearls i n h e a p s before the reader, rather

t h a n b e at the p a i n s of s t r i n g i n g t h e m .

— J o s e p h A d d i s o n (1672-1719) Essayist a n d P l a y w r i g h t

It is p a r a d o x i c a l that m a n y educators a n d parents still

differentiate



b e t w e e n a time for l e a r n i n g a n d a time for p l a y w i t h o u t seeing the v i t a l

connection between them.

— L e o B u s c a g l i a (1925-1998) U S A u t h o r a n d E d u c a t o r

It is w h a t w e t h i n k w e k n o w

already that often p r e v e n t s u s f r o m

learning.

— C l a u d e B e r n a r d (1813-1878) F r e n c h P h y s i o l o g i s t

T o b e p r o u d o f l e a r n i n g is the greatest i g n o r a n c e .

— J e r e m y Taylor

T h e r e is n o t a f l o w e r or b i r d i n sight, o n l y a s m a l l screen o n w h i c h lines

are m o v i n g , w h i l e the c h i l d sits almost m o t i o n l e s s , p u s h i n g at the k e y ­

b o a r d w i t h o n e finger. A s a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , it m a y b e m e n t a l l y

r i c h , b u t it is p e r c e p t u a l l y extremely i m p o v e r i s h e d . N o smells o r tastes,

n o w i n d or b i r d s o n g (unless the c o m p u t e r is p r o g r a m m e d to p r o d u c e

electronic tweets), n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s o i l , water, s u n l i g h t , w a r m t h ,

the actual l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t is a l m o s t autistic i n quality, i m p o v e r ­

i s h e d sensually, emotionally, a n d socially.

—John Davy

T i l l a m a n c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r they be truths o r n o t , his u n d e r s t a n d i n g

is b u t little i m p r o v e d , a n d t h u s m e n of m u c h r e a d i n g , t h o u g h greatly

l e a r n e d , b u t m a y be little k n o w i n g .

— J o h n Locke

L e a r n of the s k i l f u l ; h e that teaches himself, h a s a fool for h i s master.

—Benjamin Franklin

L e a r n to u n l e a r n .

— B e n j a m i n Disraeli

Appendix L e a r n i n g . . . s h o u l d b e a j o y a n d full of excitement. It is life's

227 greatest

a d v e n t u r e ; it is a n illustrated e x c u r s i o n i n t o the m i n d of n o b l e a n d l e a r n e d m e n , n o t a c o n d u c t e d tour t h r o u g h a jail. — T a y l o r C a l d w e l l (1900-1985) E n g l i s h N o v e l i s t L e a r n i n g a n d sex u n t i l r i g o r mortis. — M a g g i e K u h n (1905-1995) U S A c t i v i s t a n d S o c i a l W o r k e r L e a r n i n g carries w i t h i n itself certain d a n g e r s because o u t of necessity o n e has to l e a r n f r o m one's enemies. — L e o n Trotsky L e a r n i n g is w h a t m o s t adults w i l l d o for a l i v i n g i n the 21st century. —Perelman L e a r n i n g m a k e s the w i s e wiser a n d the fool m o r e f o o l i s h , — J o h n R a y (1627-1705) E n g l i s h N a t u r a l i s t L E A R N I N G , n . T h e k i n d of i g n o r a n c e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the s t u d i o u s . — A m b r o s e Bierce, The Devils

Dictionary.

L o v e of l e a r n i n g is a pleasant a n d u n i v e r s a l b o n d , since it deals w i t h w h a t o n e is a n d n o t w h a t o n e h a s . — F r e y a Stark, F r e n c h - E n g l i s h T r a v e l Writer M a n is the o n l y creature that dares to light a fire a n d l i v e w i t h it. T h e reason? Because h e alone has l e a r n e d h o w to p u t it o u t . — H e n r y J a c k s o n V a n d y k e , Jr. (1852-1933) U S C l e r g y m a n a n d A u t h o r T e a c h i n g is m o r e difficult that l e a r n i n g because w h a t t e a c h i n g calls for is this: to let l e a r n . T h e real teacher, i n fact, let n o t h i n g else b e l e a r n e d t h a n l e a r n i n g . H i s c o n d u c t , therefore, often p r o d u c e s the i m p r e s s i o n that w e p r o p e r l y l e a r n n o t h i n g f r o m h i m , i f b y l e a r n i n g w e n o w s u d ­ d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d m e r e l y the p r o c u r e m e n t of u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n . — M a r t i n Heidegger M e n l e a r n w h i l e t h e y teach. —Seneca

228

Appendix

M o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n l e a r n i n g h o w to recall things is f i n d i n g w a y s to forget things that are cluttering the m i n d . — E r i c Butterworth N e v e r l e a r n to d o a n y t h i n g ; if y o u d o n ' t l e a r n , y o u ' l l a l w a y s

find

s o m e o n e else to d o it for y o u . — M a r k Twain N o c h i l d o n earth w a s ever m e a n t to b e o r d i n a r y a n d y o u c a n see it i n t h e m , a n d they k n o w it, too, b u t then the times get to t h e m , a n d they w e a r o u t their brains l e a r n i n g w h a t folks expect,

a n d spend

their

s t r e n g t h t r y i n g to rise o v e r those s a m e folks. — A n n i e D i l l a r d (b.1945) U S A u t h o r O n e p o u n d of l e a r n i n g requires ten p o u n d s of c o m m o n sense to a p p l y it — P e r s i a n Proverb I g n o r a n c e of a l l things is a n e v i l neither terrible n o r excessive, n o r y e t the greatest o f a l l ; b u t great cleverness a n d m u c h l e a r n i n g , if they be a c c o m p a n i e d b y a b a d t r a i n i n g , are a m u c h greater m i s f o r t u n e . —Plato T e a c h i n g is the r o y a l r o a d to l e a r n i n g . — J e s s a m y n West (1902-1984) U S A u t h o r T h a t is w h a t l e a r n i n g is. Y o u s u d d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g

you've

u n d e r s t o o d all y o u r life, b u t i n a n e w w a y . — D o r i s Lessing T h e b o o k w r i t t e n against fame a n d l e a r n i n g has the a u t h o r ' s n a m e o n the title-page. — R a l p h Waldo Emerson T h e chief object of e d u c a t i o n is n o t to l e a r n things b u t to u n l e a r n things. — G . K . Chesterton

Appendix

229

T h e eagle n e v e r lost so m u c h time as w h e n he s u b m i t t e d to l e a r n f r o m

the crow.

— W i l l i a m Blake

T h e l e a r n i n g process is s o m e t h i n g y o u can incite, literally incite, like a

riot.

— A u d r e L o r d e (1934-1992) U S Poet a n d F e m i n i s t

T h e m a n w h o is too o l d to l e a r n w a s p r o b a b l y a l w a y s too o l d to learn.

— H e n r y S. H a s k i n s

T h e p u r p o s e of l e a r n i n g is g r o w t h , a n d o u r m i n d s , u n l i k e o u r bodies,

c a n c o n t i n u e g r o w i n g as w e continue to live.

— M o r t i m e r A d l e r (b.1902) U S P h i l o s o p h e r , E d u c a t o r a n d E d i t o r

T h e real object of e d u c a t i o n is to h a v e a m a n i n the c o n d i t i o n of c o n ­

t i n u a l l y a s k i n g questions.

— B i s h o p Creighton

T h e trouble w i t h l e a r n i n g f r o m experience is that y o u never graduate.

— D o u g Larson

T h e w i s e are i n s t r u c t e d b y reason, average m i n d s b y experience, the

s t u p i d b y necessity a n d the brute b y instinct.

— M a r c u s Tullius Cicero

T h e r e is n o s u c h w h e t s t o n e , to s h a r p e n a g o o d w i t a n d e n c o u r a g e a

w i l l to l e a r n i n g , as is praise.

— R o g e r A s c h a m (1515-1568)

T h e r e is o n l y o n e t h i n g m o r e p a i n f u l than l e a r n i n g f r o m a n d that is n o t l e a r n i n g f r o m experience.

—Archibald McLeish

W e l e a r n g e o l o g y the m o r n i n g after the earthquake.

— R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n (1803-1882)

W h o dares to teach m u s t n e v e r cease to learn.

— J o h n Cotton Dana

experience



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Games People Play, H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n . (1959) Experiences in Groups N e w Y o r k : Basic B o o k s .

B e r n e , E . (1968) Bion, W.R.

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240

Index

INDEX abstract 37, 43, 48, 52, 73, 74, 80, 85,103,

145, 147, 163, 209

abstraction(s) 15, 74, 85, 97, 98

accommodation 60, 63

acquisition 39, 98,168,175, 212

acting 45, 68, 73, 85,94, 99, 111, 112,141,

151, 201, 208

action(s) 28, 31, 33, 45, 47, 53, 71, 74, 87, 94,

99, 101-103,114,116,119,174,178,187,

189, 199, 203, 208

addiction 137, 221

adults, regressed 205

affective relation 118

aggressive 54, 89,110,118,119,123

Alcoholics Anonymous 221

Alexander, Franz 19,182

alpha function 85, 87, 90, 92,104, 105

analytical psychology 64, 65, 57, 70

Anthony E.J. 44, 54, 64, 72, 217

anthropology 144

anus 132

anxiety(ies) 24, 25, 27, 36, 37, 39-42, 46, 56,

88-90, 98, 99,107,110,112-115,117-119,

131, 148-150,152,181,186-188,190,199

basic 183, 186,191

apprehension(s) 50, 55, 73, 74, 77

archetypes 65, 66, 70, 74, 76, 77

Ariadne 220, 221

Aristotle 36

assimilation 46, 57, 59, 60, 63

attachment 119,125,147, 217

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

119

attitude(s) 50, 56, 61, 74, 84, 91, 94,101,110,

112, 115, 124-126, 158,165, 214

attuning antennae 33

audience 37, 51, 94, 198,199

autistic children 40

autistic spectrum 115

autobiography 175,176,189,190

Bleandonu 98

blurring 196

body 25, 28, 39, 40, 46, 47, 92,107, 108,111­ 113,116-118, 138,144,146,150, 167,172,

173, 177,178, 201, 206

Bollas, Christopher 89,190, 202-204

Bonaparte, Marie 24

Bornstein, Steff 27

Bowlby 147

breast 47, 50, 51,106,107,109, 110,114,

132-135,172, 197,199, 200, 206

bad 107,110

good 50,110

Brierley, Marjorie 147,148

British Confederation of Psychotherapists,

The 148,154

British Psycho-Analytical Society 143, 146­ 148

Brockbank 20, 22,

Brown, Joanne 36

Bruner, Jerome 43-46

business world 34

castration 24, 112,154

children 23, 24, 29, 33, 40, 43-45, 62, 64, 66,

72, 80-82, 95,106-108,113, 119-121, 123,

126-132, 137, 196, 204, 207-210, 212, 220

Chomsky 77

Churchill, Winston 41

Cixous, Helene 178

classical psychoanalysis 46, 47

clinical practice 27,139, 141,143,144,148,

151,154

clitoris 108,109,132

clues 29, 35

verbal 29, 31

visual 29, 31

cognition 47, 51, 53, 54, 80

cognitive psychologist 42

cognitive science 35

cognitivism 12, 42, 60

cognitivist 43, 57, 63

cold turkey 221

collective unconscious 70, 74, 76, 77

comprehension 50, 51, 73,162

Baldwin, James Mark 68

compulsory narrative 186

behaviourism 12, 42, 58-60, 63

concepts 18, 26, 37, 40, 60, 74, 76, 84, 85, 87,

behaviourist 43, 57, 59, 70

90, 92, 104, 133, 161,164,192, 208

belief 130,153,193, 220

concern and love 111

believe 11, 45,106,108,109,128,135,153,

concrete 48, 73, 74, 80, 95, 97,114,119,122,

190, 213, 222

195, 196, 201, 203

Berne, Eric 220

beta elements 85, 92,102,104

condensation 160,166,170

Bion, Wilfred 13, 26, 84, 85, 87-98,101-105,

conditioning 58, 60, 63

133-135, 144

Index coniunctio 71, 72, 81

conscientizacao 94,103,104

conscious 12, 30, 45, 46, 54, 67, 70, 72, 74-78,

80, 82, 87, 95,107, 108, 114, 126, 151,

179, 202, 203, 205, 209, 211, 212

conscious system 76

conscious thinking 41, 45, 68,177

consensus 80, 90,170

contact barrier, the 87, 90, 92

container/contained 89, 90, 96,101,102,105

container/contained (or M,F) 87, 89

containment 96,150, 210

control 23, 26, 59, 78, 80, 82, 95,113,127,

147,158, 162, 163, 165, 166,170, 177,

180,181,185,186,189,197, 210, 218

Controversial Discussions, the 144,146-149,

151,152,155

conversion 217, 219, 220, 222,

counter-transference 71, 72,142

creation 156,167, 169,177, 178

creative 36, 56, 72, 75, 77, 82, 96,120,145,

173,178, 188, 191, 192, 197, 201, 204, 206

creativity 13,18, 24, 35, 58, 65, 72, 82, 140,

174,186,188,192,194,195

crib 143

criterion of judgment 69

critical faculty 178-181,188, 189

cross-modal exchanges 28, 40

culture 26, 57, 70, 77, 78,139, 144, 145

cure 95, 140, 152, 153, 220, 221, 223

curiosity 23, 24, 41, 42, 79-81, 106, 107, 113,

114,118, 119, 123, 125, 129

241

directed thinking 67-69, 74-76, 79, 80,

Discourse of the University 34,152,158,165

Discourse of the Master 152,165

discourse theory 140, 153

disintegration 88,122,

displacement(s) 160, 166, 171,194,197

double chain 161

dreams 45, 46, 74, 77, 87, 91,150,168,196,

296, 218

dynamics 21, 26, 27, 36, 37, 74, 77, 78, 87,

124,127,150

eating 51, 53, 54, 62, 104, 121

Ebbinghaus 19

education 12-14,17-20, 23-26, 31-34, 36, 37,

57, 59, 61, 62, 72, 80, 84, 85, 94, 97,

102-104,154,169-172,174,190,195, 211,

214, 221, 223

educationalist 44, 46, 84, 101

educators 41, 42, 56

ego 26, 34, 35, 47-50, 52, 54, 55, 58-62, 66-68,

70, 82, 91, 109, 110, 114, 115, 118, 157,

178,192

authentic 157

body 92

deceiving nature of the 26

discriminating 178

learning 80, 81

over adapted 82

pleasure 50, 51, 53, 54, 58

reality 50, 51, 53, 58

ego-strength 68, 72

fimile 19

daddy 117,120,121

emotions 27, 57, 64,162,176,181,189,199,

death drive 79

201, 202

death instinct 62, 106, 109

empathy 118, 201

de-egoisation 178

Empiricist 130,131, 133

deintegration 66, 70

enlightenment 19, 34, 75

depressive 111, 131

enunciation 170,171

envy 92,112,127,129,132,141

depressive position 88, 89, 92, 95,109-111

epiphany 219, 220

Descartes 93

desire(s) 13, 25, 35, 60, 61, 82, 91, 95, 99,112, epistemology of practice 21

113, 116, 132, 153, 156, 158, 167-174, 188, epistemophilic instinct 92,107, 108,112, 113,

196

129

essentialist 22, 182,192

despised image 185

evolution 11,12, 84, 85, 87, 90, 93-95, 102,

destroy and build 221

104, 127, 161

Dewey, John 19, 20

expansive 183,185-187,189

dialogue 64-66, 69, 74, 75, 80, 85,101-104,

expulsion 117, 144, 212

175, 176, 189

extravert 69, 74

Dick 115-118

Die Verneinung 216

faeces 117,125

direct threat 25

Fairbairn, W.R.D. 106, 130

directed (thinking) 53, 68, 70, 72, 79

242

Index

False Personality 205

false self 205-207

familiarisation 52, 53

fantasy(ies) 36, 66, 74-79, 84,108,155,165,

176,184,195,198, 201

father 37, 77-79, 91, 106, 108, 111-113, 115,

116, 118, 119, 123,127-129, 132, 172,

209-211

fear of exclusion, the 148

fear of independent thinking, the 148

feeling tone 176

feelings 37, 57, 73,106-108, 111, 113,114,

122,123,126, 128-130,150 176,181,189,

222

femininity phase 109,112,113, 116, 132

feminism 144

Fenichel 25

Ferenczi, Sandor 62,144

Ficino 18

fiction 175,177-180, 188-190

fictional autobiography 174, 189,190

fictional narrator/character 179,181

figure(s) 13,14, 85, 111, 148,165,196,198,

199, 201, 209, 210

find 14,17, 26, 30, 36, 51, 55, 57, 71, 76, 81,

100,101, 111, 133,137,142,148,153,156,

175, 179-183, 185,189, 209, 218

fitness 11

fitness, physical 11

fixed thoughts 133

Fordham, Michael 65-67

forgetting 14, 95,140, 213-216, 222

Foulkes, S.H. 26

Four Discourses 34

framework narrator 179,180

freedom 95, 177, 184, 210

Freire, Paolo 13, 84, 91, 94, 97, 98,101-104

Freud, Sigmund 13, 24, 26, 30, 35, 38, 39, 41,

45-51, 54, 55, 58-60, 62, 84, 91, 92,106,

108, 109, 112, 132,143, 144,146,147,152,

153, 158,167, 169, 171, 172,177,182,

216-218, 222

Freud, Anna 23, 24, 146

Froebel 19

gap 35, 59, 122

gender 18, 21, 22, 37, 38, 112, 144

genital impulses 108

Gestalt Psychology 159, 219

Gilligan 22

giving away 212

Glover, Edward 146-148, 155

Gnostics, The 92

Green, Andre 93, 98

Grigg 154

group facilitators 27

groups 17, 24, 26, 27, 36, 81, 82, 90,143, 146,

149

guilt 25, 39, 111, 113,114,116,118, 124, 127,

129

hate 106,128, 174, 185, 186, 194, 201

heterosexuality 109

Horney, Karen 14,146,173,182-188,190,

191

human behaviour 159, 163,164, 167,168

humanism 12, 42, 57

humanist 18, 43, 60, 62, 63

Huxley, Aldous 160

idea(s) 12,15,16,18,19, 24, 26-28, 32, 34, 36,

37, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 60, 68, 79, 88, 89,

95, 107, 109, 110, 121, 140, 149, 161,164,

170,182, 200, 202

idealised image 184,185,188

idealist 130

identification 25, 29, 54, 55, 88, 89, 92,105,

114,116,125-127, 201, 206

identity 48, 62, 128,132, 175-177, 179-182,

184-186, 189, 201, 209

illusion 61,157,194-197,199, 201, 204,

206-208

images 46, 67, 70, 71, 74,118,130, 161, 185

imaginary characters 201

imaginary, the 169, 209

imaginary trace 168

imagination 13, 18, 58, 75, 79, 164, 176-179,

184,185,187,188,191,198, 199, 201,

203, 206

imaginative body 178

imaginative playing 209

imitate 67,149

imitation 28, 50, 201, 206

impossibility 152, 174

impossible profession 61

impotence 25,152

inertia 79

Information Processing/IP 76, 77

innate aggression 106

inner vision 188

inspiration 29, 95

intellectual enjoyment 38

intellectual inhibition 23-25

intelligence 12, 23

intentions 164, 198

interior 176

Index

243

Laplanche & Pontalis 47, 48, 54, 62

Lashley 20

Lave, Jean 21

learn, desire to 60, 99

learning 20, 22, 27, 36, 42-44, 53, 54, 57, 60,

67, 78, 81, 83, 93, 100, 109, 136,137

about 54, 78, 83, 93,137

active theory of 67

attuned 27

barrier to 100

blockages in 44

categories of 22

difficulty 43, 44, 53, 81

experience 20,136

Isaacs, Susan 146, 148,155 inhibition of 109

orientations to 22

jokes 38

situations 36, 42, 57, 60

Jones, Ernest 24,147

strategies and approaches 22

legitimate peripheral participation 21

jouissance 40,164,168,169,172,173

less is more 143, 223

judgment(s) 31, 49 - 51, 53, 68, 69, 72,138

Julian of Norwich 92

lies 13,17, 57, 91,150, 161,163,169,174, 212

life solutions 183-186

Jung, Carl 13, 64-72, 74-77, 79, 144,147,177

life, psychical 21, 36

K 91, 93, 97

Liss, Edward 39

K activity, the 97

Locke, John 19

Kant 92, 133

Kernberg, Otto 140, 154

love 29, 34, 42, 52, 62, 64, 106, 111, 113, 115,

Klein, Erich 24

124, 126, 156,172,174,183,194, 204,

209, 222

Klein, Melanie 13, 23-25, 36, 84, 92,106-109,

111, 112,114-118,123,129-133,135,143, love, fear of losing 25

146, 148, 152, 192, 197

loving 52-54, 62, 107, 110, 111, 116, 131, 173

know 11,18,19, 23, 31, 32, 35, 36, 53, 64, 82,

madness 195

93, 97, 107, 108, 113, 114, 120, 121, 123,

133, 142-144, 154, 162, 163, 165, 168, 171, Mahler, Gustav 24

manipulation 29, 75, 171

172, 174, 213-217, 222, 223

knowing 21, 35, 91, 97, 98, 103, 166, 213-215, Master 151-153, 160,165,166

master signifier 131

217

matched actions 28

knowledge 11,15, 19, 21, 22, 25, 30, 34-37,

matriarchal 37

39, 43, 51, 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 68, 70, 72,

McGill 20, 22

73, 75, 78, 80, 94, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 98,

103, 108, 113, 117, 118, 131-136, 140, 141, meaning(s) 12, 24,39, 61, 64, 66, 68-70, 72,

145, 147,151,153,156-158,165,167-169,

73, 75, 77, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90, 92, 93, 95,

171-174, 203, 204, 214, 216, 217, 221, 222

102, 115, 118, 145, 151, 154, 160, 162, 163,

165-167, 170-173, 192, 195, 197-199,

Kohler 20

201-208

memory 36, 93, 95, 214

Lacan, Jacques 13,14, 30, 32, 34-36, 40, 54,

mental pain 42

55, 143, 144, 146, 150,152,153, 158-161,

mental representation 160

164-168,170, 172-174

mental space 125

lack of being 168

language 13,15, 29, 34, 40, 44, 48, 50, 51, 52, metaphysics 217, 218

55, 68-70, 77, 80, 103, 104,108, 113, 114, metaphors 15, 92, 189, 222

130, 154,156, 158-162, 166-168,170,171, metonymy 159-161,166,167,173

Mill, James 19

173, 209, 210, 213, 215

Mill, John Stuart 19

Langue 160

internal space 177 - 79, 209

International Psycho-Analytic Association

146,148

interpretation(s) 18, 39, 45, 70, 84, 95, 97,

105, 118, 1121, 143, 153, 155, 160, 163,

164, 196, 202-205, 210, 218

intrinsic potentialities 182

introjecting 109

introvert 69

introverted thinking 70

intuition 75, 79, 89, 93, 95, 117

investigation 19, 29, 42 = 44, 53,123,173

IQ 44

244

Index

Milner 177 - 180, 188, 191,196, 197

mimicry 28

mirror 55, 207

mirror stage 54, 55

mirroring 193,194

modernist 192, 214

modes of functioning 73

Moraglia 76, 77

mother 25, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 44, 47, 66, 70,

71, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 95, 96,106-120,

124-129, 131-133, 172, 173, 184, 192-194,

199-201, 205, 206, 208-211

motherhood 33

mothering 33,125

mother's insides 113,114,120,125-127

motivation 22, 52, 56, 64,141, 222

mourning 131, 217

moving out 216

multiple vertices 87, 90, 97,100

mummy 117,120,121

myth-making 77

myths 77, 78, 157

paradigmatic axis 160

paradoxes 65, 67, 97, 138

paranoia 35,105

paranoid-schizoid 88

paranoid-schizoid perspective 110

paranoid-schizoid position 88, 92, 95, 109,

111

Parker, Theodore 14

parole 159,160

patriarchal 37

Pavlov 20,163, 222

penis 25, 109,111-114, 116-119, 121, 125-127,

131, 132

perceptions 49, 66, 75, 77, 90, 91, 94,103,

104,106

Perelberg, Josef 154

personal records of achievement 26

personality, divided 205

perversity 108,120,123

phallic phase 132

phantasy(ies) 13, 25, 37, 45-47, 49-58, 60, 62,

89, 106, 107,110-113, 116-119, 125, 126,

130,131,135,153,155, 197

narcissism 109,147, 156

phantasy management 56

narrators 176, 179, 180, 187, 189

phenomena 32, 38, 78, 85,168, 194-196, 203

National curriculum 82

phobia(s) 137

nature/nurture 65,130

Piaget, Jean 60, 159, 160,163, 207

negation 53, 216

Plato 18, 92, 218

negative capability 95

Platonic 130. 132 - 135

pleasure(s) 38, 47-50,108,137, 138, 140,172,

negative reinforcement 58

173, 201

neurones 48

pleasure principle 91

neuropsychology 21

point de caption 165

neurotic 44, 46, 53, 55,107,140,184,190

polymorphous perversity 108

neurotic claims 184

Pope, Alexander 18,19

no-breast 134

Popper, Karl 14, 149

nursing 40, 128

possession 50, 93,151, 167,178,199, 201,

202

O 90, 91

object 13, 25, 43, 51, 58, 72,108-111,114,119, post-Kleinian approach 36

127,131-134,145,151,152,156,157,161, post-Kleinian model 36

162, 165,166,170,172-174,178,183,197, preconscious 65

200, 202, 207, 208, 215

predicate 55, 58

choice 108,132

pre-emptive metaphor 43

damaged 117

prehension 73, 78

transitional 13,199-202, 210

Price, Heather 36

object-relating 109, 187

primary process 47, 49, 52, 58, 167

obsessional 39

primary process thinking 47, 53, 62

Oedipus Complex 90, 111, 112,131,132,142 primitive aliveness 194

Other, the 166, 173

process model 91

over-determined 146

projecting 68, 109

projections 119,128,199

pain 35, 42, 48, 91,102,103,115,135,137,

projective identification 87-89, 92,105, 125,

148, 187, 197, 206

126

paradigm 71, 74, 81, 85, 88, 92, 97, 201, 221

Ps <-> D 87, 88

Index psychiatry 113, 144

psychical trace 160

psychoanalysis 12-15,17, 22-27, 30, 32-35,

37-39, 41-44, 46, 47, 50, 57, 59-61, 64, 76,

84, 105, 130,136,138-147,149,150,

152-154, 160-162, 165, 169, 204, 210, 222

psychoanalytic 12,13,15, 23, 25, 26, 30, 31,

34, 36, 40-42, 44, 46, 50-54, 56-58, 60-63,

84, 87, 90, 92, 93, 99,115,130,136,

138-141, 143-145, 151, 152, 154, 176, 182,

192, 206

interaction 138

theory 12,14, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 57, 60,

72, 90, 93, 98-100,135,136,139,141,151

psychology 19, 20, 25-27, 39, 41, 63-67, 72,

159-163, 168,180, 210, 219, 221

psychotherapy 30, 56, 84, 98, 115, 119,

136-140,142,146, 148,152,154,189,197

psychotic 85,114,140, 195

psychotic processes 87

245

rejection 216, 217

relationships 69, 78, 80, 90, 94,97,104,113,

126, 131,154,158, 182,189,190, 214, 222

repetition 18,19,130,171

representation 91, 92, 98, 160, 161, 164, 168,

172, 173,195, 198, 207

repressed 65, 76, 77,107,151,171,184-186,

188, 203

repression 23, 44, 53

repudiation 14, 201, 216, 217

resigned 129,183

resistance 82, 217

retained her faeces 124

retention 125, 212

reverie 89, 95

Riviere, Joan 146,148

Rogers, Carl 60-62, 182

rote-learning 18, 72, 210

Rousseau 19, 20

sacrifice 25, 78

sadism 24, 25,113,114,116,117,123,127,

129

sadistic impulses 107,113, 116,125

Salzberger-Wittenberg, Isca 36, 43, 46,149

Saussure 159-161,165

schizophrenic 115

Schmideberg, Melitta 25,146

racism 144

Schon, Donald 20, 21, 30, 31, 40

radicals 221

science 30, 34, 35, 77,140, 141, 157,158,

Rat Man 39

163-165,168-172, 217, 218

real 15, 20, 50, 51, 53, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69-71,

scientific method 78, 162, 163, 165

73, 75, 78, 79, 85, 93, 99, 106,115, 119,

125, 129, 153, 167, 168, 184, 194-196, 200, Second World War 26,147,154

secondary process 47, 57, 58

201, 209, 215, 220

secondary process thinking 47-49, 52, 53,

real self 182, 183,185-187,190

194

real, the 152, 167-169, 172, 173, 209

Realist 130,135

security 133,194

reality 41, 45-47, 49, 50-55, 57, 58, 61, 67-69, seduction 29

75, 84, 90-93, 97, 103,104, 106, 112, 115, Segal, Hanna 114,115

116,119,130,131,135,148,153,168,169, selected fact, the 87-89, 92, 95

171-173, 184, 194-197, 199, 201, 202, 204, self 27, 47, 49, 60-62, 66, 68, 81, 88, 102, 104,

206-209

109, 111, 122, 126,129, 178,181, 184-194,

200, 201, 205-209

external 62, 87, 88, 90,103,104, 130, 131,

201

analysis 24, 26

internal 131

confidence 184,187

reality principle 91

effacement 184,185

reality-testing 51, 90

effacing 183-187, 189

reason 12,15, 45, 140, 150, 157, 158, 160,162,

regulation 159

semiotics 197

170, 171

sessions 29, 31,117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 142,

refind 51

198

reflective practice 20, 21

sex 23, 106, 108, 121, 130, 137,144

regression 37, 95,179, 206-208

abuse 106, 130,144

Reich, Wilhelm 144

qualifications 222

quality 18, 28, 31, 58, 59, 96, 110, 136, 137,

172, 178

quantities 45, 71, 80, 82, 106,113,126,127,

130,158, 200, 210

246

Index

sexual curiosity 23,106

life 137

processes 108

sexuality 23, 38, 107-109, 120,15, 131,141,

154,182

sexually abused 122,123

Sharpe, Ella Freeman 24,148,152,153

short sessions 142

short-circuited cognition 47

sign 160-163,165,195,198,199, 206

significance 20, 25, 43, 44,102,161,163, 170,

198

signification 160-162,165,166,169-171,173

signified 161,165 - 168

signifier(s) 34, 40, 61,114,151,160-162,165,

166, 168, 169, 171, 173,199

silence 198, 223

skills 19, 33, 60, 98,173,189

sociology 144,154

Socrates 217, 218

soma-psychotic 85

sound-image(s) 160,161

speaker 37

special rewards 25

speculative systems 35

speech 34, 40, 68, 74, 108, 114, 159, 160, 167,

170,173

spiritual life 178

splitting 88, 92,109,110, 126,144, 205

St Augustine 92

Steiner, Rudolf 19,146, 148,153,154

Stern, Daniel 27-29

Stock-Whitaker, Dorothy 26

subject 11,14,19, 30, 34, 46, 52, 54, 57, 58,

62, 87, 99,129,153,177, 215

subject (in the context of a person) 44, 103,

141,151, 157, 166-174, 208, 215

surface 22, 30,176, 202

switching,186, 219

symbol formation 114-118, 196, 200

symbol, meaningful 208

symbolic

equation 198, 206, 208

meanings 204

representation 73,168

symbolic, the 168, 172, 173,195, 197, 201,

206, 210

symbolisation 118,198, 205

symbols 195, 199, 208

Symington, J. 91, 92

Symington, N. 91, 92

talking cure 140

teacher 11-15,17, 20, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 32,

41, 42, 44, 52, 58, 61-63, 72, 81, 84, 94-97,

99,103,150,172,196, 202-204, 206, 209,

210, 214, 219

teaching 9,10, 12,17, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29­ 32, 24, 26, 41, 42, 56-58, 61, 62, 84, 93, 97,

99, 100, 143-145, 149, 152, 163, 169, 171,

172, 209

teaching, adult 41

technique 17, 21, 59, 84,147, 152, 177

Tennant, Mark 41

The Grid/Grid 85, 87, 94, 97,101,104,105

theory 12,17,19, 34, 35, 38, 43, 52, 54, 57, 58,

65, 69, 70, 74, 81, 85, 91-93, 98-101,107,

109, 123, 131-135, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145,

155, 158, 161,165, 182, 187, 190, 200,

211-213, 219

thinking 17,19, 26, 29-31, 34, 36, 41, 45-49,

52, 53, 57, 60, 66-72, 74-80, 82, 84, 85,

87-89, 91-94, 96, 98,100-104,107,130,

133-136, 141,142, 147, 148, 154, 156, 158,

175-177, 214

Thorndike 20

totality 48,159,190

tradition 18, 92,130,141, 142,144-146, 148,

149,151,152,155, 218, 222

training analysis 139,154, 155

training experience 149

transference 27, 34, 35, 71, 72, 127, 131,153,

203, 206

transformation(s) 71-73, 75, 78, 84, 87, 90,

91, 99, 102,103, 105, 159, 160, 202

transitional 13,177,194-197,199-203, 210

transitional space 177

trauma 106,140

Troyes, Chretien de 36

true self 203, 205

true word 101,102,104

truth 14, 34, 42, 53, 88, 91, 93, 97, 102, 105,

130,151,156-158,163,168,169,171, 172,

174

unconscious contents 178,189

unconscious knowledge 108, 131,132

unconscious phantasy(ies) 41, 44, 46, 47, 52,

55, 89, 96, 106,109, 110, 125, 126,130,

147

unconscious, the 25, 38, 44, 45, 53, 71, 74-77,

89, 104, 107, 158-161, 163 164, 166-172,

174,176-179,184,189, 202, 205, 206, 218

understanding 12,13, 24, 27, 29, 34, 36-39, 42, 43, 46, 55, 56, 61, 62, 72, 73, 75, 94, 95, 97-99,101,103,104,108,115,121, 141,149,153,154,161,162,182,183, 185,192, 202 undirected (thinking) 67, 75, 76 United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy 148, 154 unlearning 14, 212, 213, 215-217, 219-222 vagina 108,109,114,131,132 vertex 90 Vico, Giambattista 92, 93 voice 14,109,157,175,176,180,181, 187, 190, 216 Watson 20 Wenger, Etienne 21 Williams, Raymond 14,144, 149,152 Winnicott, Donald 10,13, 62,106,109,177, 188,190,192-197, 199-211 wit 14, 38 without-me 178 Wittels, Franz 23 Wittgenstein 93 Wolff 42, 60 womb-space 177 world, external 47, 50, 51, 101, 102,106 world, internal 13, 37, 106, 110, 131,192 words 19, 33,102,107,108,114,115,117, 119, 120, 1440,, 143, 149,150, 153,155, 156, 162,166, 170, 173, 176, 198, 208, 219 writing 15, 32, 33, 38,42, 84,120,140, 175-181,188-190, 201, 207

creative 14, 175, 176, 178-181, 189, 190

free 176, 177

identity 175-77,179,180,182,189

voice 175, 176

with the body 178

writing course, creative 180,181

Learning is the most basic means by which we can change ourselves. Of all the activities of the mind, learning is perhaps the most fundamental, yet one of the most provocative and difficult to understand. This book contains ten new essays by educationalists, psychotherapists and academics, who confront the many problems associated with the mystery of learning. What is learning? How are ideas 'transmitted from one mind to another? What makes a good teacher? 1

Chapters are devoted to theories of learning implicit in the work of Freud, Jung, Klein, Bion, Winnicott, and Lacan. Other topics explored in this comprehensive and thought-provoking collection include how to teach 'psychoanalytically'; the links between learning and 'writer's block'; and the problems inherent in teaching psychoanalysis itself. Cover design and image by Julia Ingle

KARNAC BOOKS 6 PEMBROKE BUILDINGS LONDON NWIO 6RE PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN ISBN I 85575 286 7