Similes in the Mahabharata: A Stylistic Analysis

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Similes in the Mahabharata: A Stylistic Analysis A thesis presented

Anna Maria Ranero-Antolin to The Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of

Sanskrit and Indian Studies

Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts

June 1999

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Anna Maria Rmero-htolin Thesis Advisor: Calvert Watkins

Similes in the MahSbharata: A Stylistic Analysis Abstract

This dissertation concerns the style of the Sanskrit epic the MahSbhgrata. The language and style of this epic form the transition from the earliest stage of Sanskrit, represented by the hymns of the Rgveda, to the highly formalized poetry of classical Sanskrit. While the Mahabhiirata has received a great deal of attention from historians, anthropologists and scholars of religion, the study of this text as a literary work has been neglected. In this dissertation I analyze the comparisons or similes (upama, in Sanskrit) in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahabharata. The simile is the most

prominent stylistic device of the Indian epics, as well as one of the oldest rhetorical figures of Sanskrit literature. A simile is the comparison of one thing with a substantially different thing, as in MBh.6.14.13 sa iete bhumau vdtarugva iva

drumah 'He lies on the ground like a tree broken by the wind.' In this project I also examine the metaphors (riipaka, in Sanskrit) in the abovementioned books. In a metaphor the subject of comparison is only implicitly compared with its object,

as in MBh.6.1O6.43d dvipo bhipno 'bhavat 'Bhipna became an island.' According to the Indian treatises on poetics (Almkaras'Zstra), the metaphor is a variant of the simile.

The goal of this project is twofold. First, by defining and analyzing the similes and metaphors in two books of the Mahabharata, I attempt to bring to light the poetic dimension of the text heretofore overlooked by the critics.

Second, a diachronic study of the simile in several works of Sanskrit literature

(the MahZbharata, the egveda and the Chiindogya Upani8ad) brings to light a pattern in the development of Sanskrit style. The results of this study will lead us to new conclusions about the relevance of the Mahabhzrata as a literary work as well as its place in the history of Sanskrit diction and stylistics.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction Chapter 1: Typology of Similes A. Syntax

B. Distribution C. Semantic Content Chapter 2: Similes and Figures of Sound Chapter 3: Similes and Metaphors Chapter 4: Similes and the Formula Chapter 5: The Pre-Epic Simile A. The Bgveda

B. The Chanciogya Upanisad Conclusion Appendix 1. The Metaphor of the Battlefield as a River Further Examples

Appendix 2. Formulaic Similes in Books 6 and 7 of the MahZbharata Bibliography

This dissertation concerns the style of the Sanskrit epic the Mahgbharata. Although the Mahgbharata has received a great deal of attention from historians, anthropologists and scholars of religion, the study of this text as a literary work has been neglected. This epic is usually dated between 400 B.C. and A.D. 400.' Its language and style form the transition from the earliest stage of Sanskrit, represented by the ritual hymns of the Ijigveda, to the highly formalized poetry of classical Sanskrit. The analysis of the rhetorical devices employed by the epic poet will therefore provide us with a better understanding of the epic diction and of the development of Indian stylistics.

In this dissertation I will focus on the comparison or simile (upam& in Sanskrit). The simile is the most prominent stylistic device of the epics, as well as one of the oldest rhetorical figures of Sanskrit literatut-e.2 I will also examine the metaphor (riipaka), a variant of the simile according to Indian theorists. Further, I will study the similes in two works of Sanskrit literature that predate For a discussion of the dates of composition of the epic, see Biihier. Georg, and J. Kirste. 1892. "Indian Studies 0:Contributions to the History of the Mahabhgrata." Sitzunderichte der WienerAkademie der Wissenschaften 127, no. 2, pp. 1-58 (see esp. p. 2 1ff.); Dahlmann, Joseph. 1899. Genesis des Mahdbhdrata. Berlin: F. L. Dames, pp. 163-74; Dandekar. Ramchandra Narayan. 1954. "The Mahabhgrata: Origin and Growth." University of Ceylon Review 12, no. 2, pp. 65-85; De Jong, Jan Willem. 1984-85. "The Study of the Mah3bhzrata." Part I: Hukkhnka Konkyu 10 (1984), pp. 1-17; Part 2: h k k e Bunk KonAyu 11 (1985). pp. 1-21; Grintser, Pave1 Alexandrovich. 1974. Drevneinduskij epos: Genesis i tipologija. Moscow: Nauka, p. 136ff.; Hopkins, E. Washbum. 1901. The Great Epic o f India. New York: C. Scribner's Sons [Reprinted 1993. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass]; Kane, Panduranga Varnana. 1966. "The Two Epics." MCRf 47, pp. 11-58 (see p. 15ff.); Macdoneil, Arthur A. 1900. A History ufSanskritLiterature. London: D. Appleton & Co. [Reprinted 1990. Delhi: Motild Banarsidass], p. 241ff.; Oldenberg, Hermann. 1922. Das Mahdbhffrata:Seine Emstehung, sein Inhalt, seine Form. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, p. 3lff.; Renou, Louis. 1956. Histoire de fa fanguesanskrite. Lyon: Editions IAC, pp. 101-2; van Buitenen, J. A. B., trans. and ed. 1973. TheMahdbhdrata. Vol. 1: TheBook ofthe Beginning. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (see Introduction, esp. pp. xiii-xv); van Nooten, Barend A. 1971. The Muhdbhdrata. New York: Twayne Publishers, p. 25ff.; Wintemitz, Moriz. 1909. Geschichte der Indischen Literatar. Vol. 1 . Leipzig: C. F. Amelang. [Trans. by S m a , V. Srinivasa 1981. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 436ff.I The importance of the simile as a literary device is recognized by the Indian tradition. Thus, in his Nirukta, Yaska mentions a definition of the upma (Nirukta 3.13- IS); this term is also found in the sdtias of Payini (2.1.56, 4.1.55). Bharata's Natya&stra (N$, the earliest text in which the 'adornment' is brought up, mentions four kinds of alaiplcara: upamti ~ p a caivu b t e n al-ra dpaiary yamakam t a m I a l a m r d s m vij&eyds'catviSrah 'Simile, metaphor, dipaka and yamaka are to be understood as the four ~ ~ E S W17.40). S

the MahSbhZrata, the (Igveda and the Chzndogya Upanisad. A close examination of the stylistic peculiarities of these works will constitute the preliminary basis for a comparison with classical poetry. This project is, however, beyond the scope of the present dissertation. One important feature of a number of highly elaborate passages in the epic,3 to which scholars have barely paid attention, is that here we can see the origins of classical Sanskrit poetics as elaborated in

treatises on Alamk~ras~stra.~ The comparison of such passages with later poetry would shed light on the relevance of the epic text in the codification of rhetorical figures in Sanskrit literature? A simile is "the comparison of one thing with a substantially different

thing in terms of a property, quality, or mode of behavior which they share,"* as in MBh.6.14.13 sa s'ete ... bhumau ... vdtarugca iva d r u d 'He lies on the ground like a tree broken by the wind.' All Indian theoreticians agree that a simile consists of four parts: (1) the upamsna, or object of comparison; (2) the upameya, or subject of comparison; (3) the s8dhZrwadhama, or common property; and (4) the dyotaka, or particle of comparison, such as ha, yathd, etc.'

Thus, in the previous example, vdtarugnah ... drumah 'a tree broken by the wind'

E.g. MBh.6.55.89, 6.102.78 (stanza found after this verse in D3.j). 7.159.40ff.. etc. The Mahabharata does not contain as many rhetorical figures as the other epic of ancient India, [he RiXmByqa- The latter is considered by [he Indian tradition the Adiklvya or "first poem," although by later standards its composition lacks at times poetic refinement For the influence of the epics on kSvya literature, see Renou, Louis. 1959. "Sur la structure du kavya." JA, pp. 1-1 13. I take this definition from Gerow, Edwin. 1971. A Glossary of Indian Figures of Speech. Mouton: The Hague, p. 140. -IIn this dissertation I do not deal with classical Indian descriptions and classifications of similes, for two reasons. First, as I indicate later in this introductory chapter, the presence of a number of figures of speech in the Mah3bh-ta does not imply the poet's acquaintance with a developed theory of poetics. To believe that the poets of the Mahabharata composed the epic according to the norms of classical poetic theories, as some authors have suggested, is anachronistic (see, for instance, Sinha, Jagdamba Prasad. 1977. The Mahdbhdrata:A Literary Study. Delhi: Meharchand Lachhmandas). In the second place, the discussion of similes and other figures of speech in AlaqWr&stra works is a vast subject and might be the topic for another dissertation. In this introduction, however, and only for practical purposes, I employ the definition of simile and metaphor established by Indian theoreticians. The simile (uparna) is described in the following works of Alaipkara^asira: NS 16.40-52, B 23-33. D 2.14-65, V 4.2.1-21, U 1.15-21, AP 344.6-21, R 8.4-31, M 125-34 (see Bibliography).

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is the object of comparison, sa 'he' (the hero) is the subject of comparison, fete

bhumau 'lies on the ground' is the shared property, and iva 'like' is the particle of comparison. Similes can also be expressed by means of bahuvrihi compounds in which the common property is elided, as in kamlapatrak;d 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves.' According to Indian writers on Alamkardastra, the riipaka, or metaphor (lit. "having the fonn o f ) , is a development of the upam%? But while in a upam2 the two terms (subject and object of comparison) are literally compared, usually by means of a comparative particle, in a rijpaka the subject of comparison is only implicitly compared with its object, and no comparative particle is employed, as in MBh.6.106.43cd agadhe manmas tasya dvipo hhfsmo 'bhavat fads 'Bhisma became then the island for him who was sinking in the

ocean.' Compounds such as narqabhd 'man-bull,' or purusavydghrah

'man-tiger,' which are extremely frequent in the epic, are also instances of metaphors. Little work has been done to describe the epic simile or epic diction, in general. One of the first Western scholars to pay attention to the literary structure of the Mahabhsrata was E. W. Hopkins, who in 1901 published his pioneering

and still influential work The Great Epic of India. The first half of his study deals with the sources known to the epic poets and with epic philosophy: the remainder is a thorough analysis of epic versification. In a brief chapter in the latter half of his book, Hopkins makes several observations that touch up on the significance of similes and metaphors in the poem. First, he indicates that the presence of similes, metaphors and other figures of speech does not imply the influence of any ars poetica on the ~ a h ~ b h s r a t aHe ? states that many of the See

NS

M 13945.

16.56-58.

B 2.21-24, D 2.66-96, V 4.3.6. U 1.11-13, AP 344.22-23. R 8.38-56,

Hopkins (1901:205): "The presence in the epic of rflpakas, metaphors, of this or that form, no more implies acquaintance with a studied ars poetica than do such phenomena in other early epic

similes we find in the corpus of the epic are stock similes, and he proves this by means of an extensive list of similes and other expressions shared by both

epics.10 However, as Hopkins himself points out, the purpose of this catalogue is to show the parallelism in the two epics rather than to study this poetic device. Secondly, he remarks that both the Mahabhgrata and the RamZywa lack the more complex figures of classical literature. Finally, he deals succinctly with two

rhetorical figures, the simile and the metaphor, pointing out that "on epic similes and metaphors an interesting essay remains to be written.'"'

In 1922, Hermann Oldenberg published an influential work in which he undertook a systematic study of the Mahabharata, Das Mahabhdrata: Seine

Emfiehung, sein Inhalt, seine Form. In the fourth chapter of this book, Oldenberg analyzes briefly the language of the epic and compares it with that of the I$gveda.'2 In the sixth chapter, he deals with the epic style, observing that in a He number of places the poem seems to have been originally a prose narrati~e.'~ distinguishes three categories of passages in the epic (descriptions, speeches and narrative passages) and analyzes the style of each. In a short section of this chapter (pp. 162-66) Oldenberg examines the employment of similes in the Mahzbharata. He writes that the imagery of epic similes indicates a correspondence between the human and the natural world, and that this correspondence is already evident in Vedic literaturd4 He also points out the

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poetry See also Gerow, Edwin. 1977. Indian Poetics. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, p. 219ff.; Lienhardt, Siegfried. 1984. A History of Classisul Poetry: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, p. 53; Warder, A. K. 1974. Indian KSvya Literature. Vol. 2: The Origins and Formation of Classical KQvya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 20; Wintemitz (1922326-27). la Hopkins ( 1901 :40344). Hopkins (1901:2O5). l2 Oldenberg (1922:136). l3 Oldenberg (1922:145-46): "Die Verse des Epos erwecken an vielen Stellen den EindrUck, aIs lage da ungefahr jene Prosa vor, die man eben nur dem Versmass angepasst, dam vielleicht hier und da durch ein Schmiickendes Beiwort bereichert hatte." l4 Oldenberg (1922:163): "tol ganzen vedischen Ritualwesen herrscht die Neigung, oft in Verzermngen und Pedantenen sich aussernd, das Eine and das Andre abbildend, als Erscheinungsform des Andem zu fallen: Natuwesenheiten und Menschliches enlsprechen einander, Some und Auge, Wind und Atem: hier und don die gleichen, ja dieselben Wellen im grossen

epic poet's abundant employment of similes that contain images of animals and nature, and the relative absence of images of material culture.15 Oldenberg also remarks that the epic poet employs long series of similes on occasions. These are often of a stereotyped character, but they may also contain powerful images? He finishes the section on similes with the comment that the type of simile usually known as "Homeric" does not occur in the Indian epic.17 An opinion on the epic style similar to that of Oldenberg is found in the third chapter of Louis Renou's work Histoire de la langue sanskrite. where he characterizes the language of the Indian epics as "abrupte et

He briefly

enumerates a few characteristics of the epic style: the relative absence of prakritisms, the employment of "nominal style," the nominal composition, the abundant use of epithets and repetitions, etc." However, he does not discuss any figures of speech. He merely indicates that the passages in ornate style are rare in the Mahabhgrata, especially in comparison with the RSmayaqa. As an example of ornate style, he mentions the description of the warriors sleeping after the battle in MBh.7.159.40ff., which is characterized by the presence of a number of similes and metaphors. Renou adds that the Mahzibhzirata lacks any elaborate instances of alliteration, puns, and other rhetorical devices that are relatively frequent in the other epic. The second chapter of this dissertation, in which a number of instances of figures of sound in the epic are examined, will prove that Renou's view is not correct.

Daseinsstrom. So zeigt sich denn auch in rnanchern Biide, das die epischen Dichter brauchen, dieser Zug." Oldenberg (1922:164): "Irre mich nicht, tritt menschliches Leben mid Treiben rnit seinen Interessen und Verrichtungen in den Vergleichungen rnerkiich weniger hervor als die beschaulichere Natur." l6 Oldenberg (1922:164). " Oldenberg (1922166). Renou (1956:104). He adds: "On definira 1E&e c o m e un langage 2 purete arnoindrie, ouvert aux facility qutentralne Itexercise d'un idiome populaire." l9 Renou (1 956: 107-9).

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We find an attempt to describe the similes in a number of Sanskrit works

in Jan Gonda's Remarks on Similes in Sanskrit Literature (1949).~'For Gonda, the simile is, first of all, a linguistic phenomenon, and it can be found not only in literary works but also in non-literary speech? Throughout his work, he mentions a number of similes in everyday speech, which he then compares with similes in Sanskrit works. In my view, his differentiation of literary and nonliterary similes is often not justified. He further claims that his analysis will be ~ o r n ~ r e h e n s i vbut e ~ it ~ lacks any sort of organizing principle: a quick glance at (he table of contents shows that there is no topical or chronological arrangement.

Further, he never discusses similes in compounds, nor the relation between simile and metaphor, because "the metaphor cannot always be recognized

~ne~uivocally.''~ Despite the wealth of examples of similes from a wide range of Sanskrit works (including the epics), Gonda's book is disappointing because it is never systematic. More systematic than Gonda's analysis is that of Ram Karan Sharma, who, in his Elements of Poetry in the Mahdbharata (1964) attempts to collect as completely as possible the similes and other rhetorical figures of speech (including metaphors) in Books 1, 3 and 6 of the poem? About two-thirds of his book (pp. 15-125) is devoted to similes, which he catalogues according to the images they contain: gods, natural phenomena, animals, plants, people, philosophical terms and material culture. He begins his introduction agreeing with Hopkins that, despite the presence of a number of poetic passages in the epic, Gonda, Jan. 1949. Remarks on Similes in Sanskrit Literature. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Gonda (1 949:9). Gonda (1949:8): "It seems to me to be an awkward procedure to confine our investigation to a very small p a t of the literature; we are not able to rate the 'figure' at its true value, if we confine ourselves to too small a domain. We must, I take it, making our choice from various kinds of literature, proceed in a cornparating manner. We must not confine our materials to kavya and Vgveda, which contain, omnium consensu, a great deal of unusual speech, and which are in many ways 'court-art."' Gonda (1949: 10). Shanna, Ram b a n . 1964. Elements of Poetry in the Mahabharata. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 20

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one should not claim the poet's familiarity with any theory of poetics.25 However, his classification of rhetorical figures in the Mahzbhgrata follows that of later kavya

theoretician^.?^ He further writes: "Even if we do not get evidence

of a well-developed science of rhetoric prior to the composition of the

Mahabharata, we should not deny the poetry of the Mahabharata the place it deserves, in the light of what has been said about its poetical virtues by later rhetoricians, poets, critics, or other writers."27 He justifies his view by quoting two passages from Book 1 in which the epic is described as a k8vyd8 One should, therefore, read Shanna's book with caution, since he seeks to demonstrate that the Mah3bhSrata belongs to the group of kZvya works. Further, as I noted above, his entire work consists of a catalogue of figures of speech (mainly similes), but he neither analyzes them nor discusses their function in the context of the poem. The most significant step in the study of the Mahabhgrata as a literary work has been made by Pave1 A. Grintser, who, in his Drevneindijskijepos:

Genezis itipologija (1974), deals with the poetic techniques, especially with the formula, in the two Sanskrit epics. About two-thirds of the similes in my corpus occurs in formulas. Therefore, it is necessary to examine this rhetorical figure in the context of traditional (oral) literature. In his work, Grintser follows the Sharrna (1642). Sharrna classifies the figures of speech in the Mahabharata in eight groups: (1) simile (upam%),(2) metaphor (rflpaka), (3) poetical fancy (utprek@). (4) hyperbole (atigayokti), (5) inference from circumstances (arthiipaiti), (6) antithesis (viroha), (7) exclusion by specification (parisarpkhyii). (8) miscellaneous figures: (I) excellence (vyatireka), (II) converse (pratTpa), (EII) poetical doubt (saipdeha), (IV) mistaker (bhrantiman), (V) equal pairing (tulyayogita), (VI)accompaniment (sahokti), (VII) poetical reason (kavyaiiiiga), (WI) description of nature (svabhavokti), 0 incongruity (viqama), and (X) modal metaphor (saMsokti). 27 Shanna (1964:3). MBh.1.Appendix 1.13 kparp mayedalp bhagavm kavyarp paramapajitam / 'This sacred, highly honored poem has been composed by me (i.e. Vyasa).' MBh. 1.Appendix 1.34-36 tvayil ca kgvyam ity uktarp tasmat kavyag bhaviqyati / asya kavyasya kavayo na samartha v i h q ~ e/ viieqwe grhasthasya &$si traya ivasramah / 'Since you (i.e. Vyiha) have called it kavya, this will be a kavya. Poets cannot excel this poem, just as the remaining three ramas as cannot excel the grnasthil^rama.'

methods developed by Milman Parry in his 1930 study of the Homeric epics,29 and by Albert Lord in The Singer of Tales (1960).~OParry proved that the style of the Homeric poems is typical of oral poetry because it is characterized by the use of fixed formula^.^' He showed that, in Homer, only one formula with a certain meaning is admissible in a given metrical position. According to Grintser, and as Chapter 4 of this dissertation will show, this principle is only applicable to the Indian epic to a certain extent, since there is a greater metrical variety in the sloka than in the Homeric hexameter. He adds that the abundance of synonyms in Sanskrit allows for the existence of metrically and semantically equivalent formulas? Grintser divides the formulas into six groups, according to their syntax:33

Parry, Milman. 1930. Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-making.1: Homer and Homeric Style. (Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 41. pp. 73-147) [Reprinted in Parry, Adam. 1971. The Making of Homeric Verse. Oxford: Clarendon Press], Parry's theory has been further developed and modified by a number of scholars working on different traditions around the world. See, for example, Finnegan, Ruth. 1970. Oral Literature in Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Finnegan, Ruth. 1977. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significanceand Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V.. and Vladimir N. Toporov. 1974. Isdedovanija v oblasti s1avjanskLr drevnostej. Moskva: Nauka; Kiparsky, Paul. 1976. "Oral Poetry: Some Linguistic and Typological Considerations." In Stolz, Benjamin A., and Richard S. Shannon, eds. Oral Literature and the Formula. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 73-106; Nagy, Gregory. 1974. Comparative Studies in Greek and Indie Meter. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; OpIand, Jeff. 1983. Xhusa Oral Poetry: Aspects of a Black South African Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. An extensive bibliography on oral traditions can be found in the following works by Foley, John Miles: 1981. Oral Traditional Literature. A Festschrift for Albert Bates Lord. Columbus: Slavica; 1985. Oral-FormulaicTheory and Research: An introduction and Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland; ed. 1986. Oral Tradition in Literature: Interpretation in Context. Columbia: University of Missouri Press; ed. 1987. ComparativeResearch on Oral Traditions: A Memorial for Milman Parry. Columbus: Slavics; 1988. The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lord, Albert Bates. 1960. The Singerof Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. In this work Lord offers some fundamental observations about the formula. He considers the origin of formulas not only within the tradition but also within the individual singer "Even in pre-singing years rhythm and (bought are one, and the singer's concept of the formula is shaped though not explicit* He is aware of the successive beats and the varying lengths of repeated thoughts, and these might be said to be his formulas. Basic patterns of meter, word boundary, melody have become his possession, and in him the tradition begins to reproduce itself*(p. 32). He adds that tradition generates formulas in the singer by means of the traditional themes inherited by the singer "The fact of narrative song is around him from birth; (he technique of it is the poss&sion of his elders, and he falls heir to it. Yet in a real sense he does recapitulate the experiences of the generations before him stretching back to the distant past" (p. 32). " Parry defines the formula as "a group of words whichis regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea" (Pany 1930 = A. Parry 1971:266-324). Grintser ( 1974:32ff.). Grintser (1974:40ff.).

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( I ) Attributive forrnuhs, e.g. bhfmo bhimapar~krumab'Bhima of temble prowess'; (2) Narrative fonnulas~e.g. @mdpradakqi~am'Having made a circumambulation'; (3) Auxiliary fomuias, e.g. taqu lad vacanum frumd 'Having heard those words

of him'; (4) Formulas of direct speech, e.g. fr~tumicchdmi '1 wish to hear'; (5) Maxims, e.g. esa dharmah sandtanah 'Such is the eternal law'; and (6)

Similes, e.g. p~rpucandrunibhdnand 'faces resembling the hi1 moon.' The first group includes compounds of the type purusa~ydghrab 'mawtiger,* which in fact is a metaphor. Grintser lists all the formulas he finds in the Mhgbhgrata and the Riimayqa in an appendix, indicating whether they occur in even or uneven pgdas. According to his analysis, about me-fifth of these formulas contains similes. Whereas the style of the Mahzbhiirata has barely been examined in works dealing with the epic language, many prominent scholars have studied the egvedic poetic practice, and in particular the Vedic similes. In 1886, Bergaigne published an article, "La syntaxe des comparaisons vtidiques," in which he examines the syntactic structure of this poetic device in Vedic literature, especidly in the bgveda and in the Atharva veda? He begins his analysis by dividing the Vedic similes into two categories. The first category, that of similes marked by yathd/ydthd, he calls "historic.'* To the second category, that of "poetic comparisons," belong similes marked by iva and mi. As an example of the first category, he quotes RV.4.12.6 (= 10. i26.8), indicating that this verse is

also an instance of non-padelism in case between the subject and the object of ~ o m ~ & s o nIn ? ~the in~oductovremarks to his study he adds that "la syntaxe

vddique off= des tours d'une hardiesse, ou, si I'on veut, d'me mal ~in~ulikre.''~~

A very different approach to 8gvedic similes was that of h o l d Hirzel, who, in 1890' wrote Gleich~isseund Metaphern in the Rpeda in euZturhistorischer

Hinsicht z~sammengestel~t?'H i n d attempted to compile d l the similes in the bgveda, arranging them according to topic. Thus, we find all the similes that refer to gods in the first chapter, those from the *'m@ologicd-historical world"

in the second chapter* and hose concerning human kings in the third. In his introduction, Hirzel states that he intends to compxe the Fgvedic similes with those in ancient Greek literature, especially in the works of Homer, Hesiod and the tragedians? Unfomnately, Hirzel's study is not complete (for instance, he does not mention similes that contain images of nature or animals), and the c o m p ~ s o nwith Greek epic and drama is limited to a few examples in the first chapter. A number of scholars in this century have paid a great deal of attention to similes (as well as other figures of speech) in more general works on the Ckldner4O and ~ e n o u ? One Vgveda. Among these scholars are 0 1 d e n k r g ~ ~ must also mention Gonda {P349):2 texts, and an article by Brent

who quotes extensively from several Vedic on the rnetrics of Rgvedic n6, which also

xi Bergaigne (1 886:76).

Hinel, AmoId. 1890. Gleichnisse und Metaphern im we&i~ cuffurhistorischerHinsicht zwamengesfeflt. Leipzig: W. Friedrich. l8 Himel (189&3). 39 Oldenberg, Herrnann. 1909- 12. &we&, Tmbitische umi aegetische Nufen. (Abhmdlungen der kGnigfichen Gesellschaft der Wissemchdten zu Gottingen, 1 1, 13.) Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhmdlung meprinted 1970. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht]

.

huis. 1955-69. Etufks vt5iique.r et flgingennes. 17 Vols. (Publications de I'hstitut de Civiiisahon hdienne, Fast. 1, 2- 4, 6, 9-10. 12. 14, 16-18, 20, 22-23, 26-27* 30.) Paris: E. de Bmcard. a See p. 6 of this intmduction. 43 Vine, Brent. 1978. "On the Metics and Chigin of Rig-Vedic mf 'like, as.'*' IIJ 20, pp. 171-93.

4 Renou,

discusses similes. "I%e most recent study on the syntax of the bgvedic comparisons is that of Stephanie W. Jamison, who, in 1982, published "Case Disharmony in Rgvedic Similes.'& After an introductory section in which she explains the syntactic structure of the Vedic simile, she examines a number of instances of this figure in the bgveda in which the subject and the object of the comparison are not in the same case. She argues that the poet takes advantage of existing syntactic ambiguities of a verb and generates new constructions in the

simile and in the frame. She concludes that case dishmony is employed by the I$gvedic poet as a poetic device. With the exception of a few (rather) ambiguous instances, this type of simile does not occur in the ~h~bh3rata:' As for the Upmi$ads, these texts have barely been examined from the

point of view of poetic devices. Here we have the general studies on their linguistic peculiarities by

first:^

~orgenroth?' ~suchida:~~ s u j i 'and ~

wecker,j0 as well as a few general remarks on the literary aspects of the texts in Olivelle's edition of the earliest u ~ a n i p d s *In ~ ' his Die Lehre der Upanishaden

und die Anfdnge ties B~ddhismus(19 151, Oldenberg briefly exmines a few similes

in the ~ ~ m i ~ dands in : ~his 1917 text on ancient Indian prose, he mentions in passing thm the Upani$adic texts indude a number of instances of this poetic

* Jamison* Stephanie W. 1982. ''Case Dishamony in 8gvedic Similes.'* f!J 24, pp. 25 I J I . a I examine these instances in Chapter 1. * Furst* Alfons. 1916. "Der Sprachgebrauch der alteren Upaniqads verglichen mit dern der fdheren vedjschen Perioden und dem des Wassischen Sanskrit.**KZ 47, pp. 1-82. a Morgemth* Waifgang. 1963. "Die Sprache der Chandagya-Upaniqad? In hrorija i kufrura drevmej lndii. Moskva: Izdatel'stvo vostdnoj literatury* pp. 223-34. &Tsuchida, Rytaro. 1985. "Some Remarks on the Text of the sve~$vam-Upaniqad.*'~uur~af of Indian and Buddhist Studies 34. pp. 48-60, 49 Tsuji, Naoshirti 1955. *'Some linguistic remarks on the Maitri Upani8ad.'' In Studies in fdcdugy and Bu&huioa Presented in Honor of Prafissur Susumu Yumguchi on the Ckcusion ~fhis Sktieth 5inhhy. Kyoto: Hozokan Kyoto. %Wecker*Otto. 1906. "Der Gebrauch der Kasus in der Uteren Upmiqad-litemmr verglichen rnit der Kasus-Iehre der indischen Gramrnatiker." BB 3@ pp. 1-61, 177-207. OIiveMe, Patrick, ed. 1998. The Early Upaniguk. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press (see h w u c ~ o n ) . Oldenberg, Herrnm. 1915- Die khre der Upanishaden urtd die Anfa~gedes Budhismw. G6thgen: Vandenhmck and Ruprecht, pp. 182436.

device? More wehl for the present work are several articles by ~ a l o m o n ,in~ which he describes the language of the Upani5ads and other post-bgvedic texts in relation with epic or "ksatriya" Sanskrit. None of these works, however, systematicd~ydiscusses any figures of speech. m e above discussion of previous literature on the pre-classical simile shows that a comprehensive study is needed. However, such a study would be a long and complex one. First, there is the problem of size. The text of the Mhgbharata as constituted by the Critical Edition consists of approx. 100,WO flokas? or double verses? Secondly, the text is not homcqjeneous, and throughout the epic we find elements that belong to various stages in the composition of the

poem. Thus, my analysis focused on Bmks 6 and 7* BhT$mapmm and ~ r o n a ~ a n m the : ~ first two of the so+xilled "Battle Books'' (approx. l5,WO verses). These books are commonly regarded as the core of the epic? Therefore, it is here that 1 expect to find stylistic peculiarities of the oldest stages of epic

Sanskrit. This9 in t ~ r n ,facilitates the compxisan with the egveda and the Chiindagya Upmigad. As for the ggveda, I analyzed the similes in Book 7.'' s3 Oldenberg, Herman. 1917. Zur Geschichte der a!tindische Prost?. (Abhandlungen der Kihiglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschdten zu G6ttingen. 16, No. 6.) Berlin: Weidmannsche BucMmdIung, p, 28: "Schon wo es sich nicht direkt um die zentraIe Idee des muen G e d d e n h i s e s handelt, zeigt die Diktim oft einen Zug van W m e . von poetischem Schwung, wie er den eigentlichen Br8hmatpis fremd is& So in manchen Gieichnissen. k n n an solchen sind die Upani4aden besonders reich. Hier konnte ja nicht jene Weise nackten, tmknen Behauptens geniigen* in der die Briihmqas jeden noch so wiIk~r1khenEinfdl oft mit einem einzigen Wort abtaten. Das dlenacheidende Geheimnis vollauf glaublich. versthdlich zu machen mussten GIeichnisse helfen? Sa10mon~Ri~hard. 1981. "A Linguistic Analysis of the Mu~#akiaUpaniqad." M K S 25, pp. 91405; 1989. "Linguistic Variability in Post-Vedic Sanskrit." In Caillat* Colette, ed. LXafectes dms Zes /itt&raturesindo-ayennes. Actes du colhque international organist$ par 19UA. Paris: College de Fiance, pp. 275-94; 1991. "A Linguistic Analysis of the W n a Upaniqad." W i X S 35, pp. 47-74 1995. "On Drawing Socio-Linguistic Distinctions in Old Indo-Aryan: The Question of Kgatriya Sanskrit and Related Problems." In Erdosy* George, ed. Lmguage, Material Culture a& Efhnicity. (Indian Philalogy and South Asia Studies. Ed. by Wezler? A.* and Michael Witzel.) Berlin and New York: Walter de Gmyter, pp. 293-305. Sukthaakar, Vishnu Sitaram* et d., eds. 1933-66. 77ze Mahdbhdrata. 19 Vols. Poona: B h a n d a k Oriental Research Institute. Volumes 7-9 of the Critical Edition of the Mahilbhiirata. Fd. by Belvalkw, Shripad Krishna (1947). Vishnu S. Sukthankar (1953) and Sushi1 Kumar Re (1959). Poona: BhanMar Oriental Research Institute. See, for instance, Gnntser (1974: 136ff.), Hapkins (1898: lo), Wintemitz (1909:436ff.). Aufrecht, Thedor, ed. 1877. E e Hymen &sRigve&. 2 Vols. Born: A. Marcus Reprinted 1968. Wiesbaden: Otto Hamssowik]

''

This is one of the ''family books,"q which are considered the nucleus of the Book 7 consists of 104 hymns and contains apprux. 9W verses. The ChZndogya Upmigad, the only work in my study that was composed in prose, was read in its entirety?

My methodo1ogy was an extreme1y close reading of the abovementioned texts. The first goal of my reading was to identify the similes in these books. 1 treated the comparisons marked by lva, yuthti, -vat, yafhd/tathd (clausal skniles) or by adjectives meaning "similar" at the end of compounds, such as -sums, -sadp%z, ere. In my study I also included epic similes expressed by bahuvrIhi compounds in which the common property is elided, e.g. kumafapurrdksa 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves.' Similes in the egveda are marked by the particles iva, yathd or mi. In the Chzndogya Upaniqad, similes are always marked by yafhd/farhd.

The next step was to analyze the syntax of these similes. The basic structure of the epic simile is shghtiowud: it is expressed by means of' one of the abovementioned particles, and the noun phrases, that which is compared and that to which it is cornpad, are typically in the same case. In the Fgvecia, however, we find several examples of non-pardelism in case between the subject and the object of the ~ o r n p ~ s o nFurther, ?~ in the MahSbhiirata we have a number of instances of clausal similes, that is, similes in which the comparison is not between two nouns, but between two actions, as in MBh.6.79.41 pdpdavrm

samare sendtp sammamarda sahfijarab / y h d vanagaju rdjun mrdgutpi carati padminfm 'He crushed the m y of the Pzndavas in the battle with his elephant* just as a forest elephant, 0 King* steps un a lotus that grows on the earth' This 59 %oks 2-7 are ~ u d I y called the 'TmiIy books" because each of them is attributed by tradition to a family of reciters. The reciter of Book 7 is the seer Vasi4fia. a Winteinitz (190!?:51), Macdonell (1900:34), etc. Oliveile (1998). a See Jamison (1982).

type of simile, which is also found in the Chibdogya Upanisad, is absent in the bgveda. This thesis analyzed the movement from nominal similes in early Vedic to clausal similes functioning in relative independence in the epic.

The study of the syntactic peculiarities of epic similes was followed by an examination of their distribution within the line, as well as in the poem. The majority of the examples I excerpted from the poem occupy the second or fourth piida of the sloka, and they are usually stereotyped expressions of a formulaic character, such as c a h t a iva parvat*

'(elephants) like moving mountains,' or

puspitdv iva kiMukau '(The two heroes shone) like two blooming kims'uka trees.'

As for the distribution of similes in the poem, my reading shows that similes and other rhetorical devices occur much more abundantly in the long descriptions of battles than in the didactic parts of the epic.63 Further, many similes are found at the most dramatic points of the story, where they tend to accumulate." In Chapter 3 of my dissertation, I analyzed a number of variants of the most common metaphop5 in Books 6 and 7 of the MahSbh2rata, that of the battlefield as a river, and I argued that the similes that usually precede or follow it have a demarcative function." In my corpus, I have found only a few instances of this metaphor without a simile.

In battle scenes, we typically have 1 simile in 5 stanzas, and, in didactic parts, 1 simile in 10 (or more) stanzas. E.g. in MBh.6.15.1-28 (Bhiqma's death), MBh.6.55 (Knpa and Arjuna enter the combat), MBh.7.48.10-17 (Abhimanyu's death), etc. That is, without taking into account metaphoric epithets of the type nararfabha 'man-bull,' puruqavy~ghra 'man-tiger,? etc. '' The following is an example of the metaphor of the battlefield as a river with a simile in the last verse: MBh.7.146.46-47 vadhyamane bale tasrniips tava putrasya marina / prilvartata nadT ghoa Sonitaughatararigini // ubhayob senayor madhye naragvadvipavahinT / yatha vaitarani aian vamafistra~uramnrati // 'When the army of your son was being slaughtered, 0 Lord, a terrible river arose, possessing streams of blood as waves (46), in the middle of both armies, carrying away men, horses and elephants, like the [river] Va.itaranT= 0 King, [flowing] toward the city of Yarnars kingdom'

"

(47).

The semantic content of similes was then examined. From the images contained in epic similes, we can learn about the transmission of thematic motifs in Sanskrit literature. For instance, as Hopkins remarks, in the Mahiibhiirata the god Indra does not have the importance he had in Vedic times." However, a large number of epic similes refer to several of his attributes (strength, brightness, etc.), as well as to his wars with the demons.68 One must also note that, in Grintser's list of formulaic similes in the Sanskrit epics, Indra is the only Vedic god mentioned!'

The study of the imagery in the Mahiibharata and the egveda

sheds light on the way the epic poet appropriates and employs a number of motifs inherited from the Vedic tradition. Further, the survey of the similes in Books 6 and 7 of the MahZbhZrata reveals a considerable number of images that refer to nature. The similes in which these images are contained are typically quite short (one piida) and lack the elaboration of later classical ~oetry?' However, some passages, such as

MBh.7.159.40ff.:~ recall the style of the later kavya poetry. This passage is interesting because its main poetic feature is the accumulation of similes. A close reading of the text further allowed me to study the stylistic

features of similes. Figures of sound such as alliteration, assonance and repetitions or echoes of sequences and words are stylistic devices frequently employed by the epic poet, particularly in com~arisons.~~ Figures of sound (especially "See Hopkins, Edward Washbum. 1915. EpicMythology. Strassburg: K. J. Triibner [Reprinted 1986. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass], p. 54. 6 and 7 of the epic. It will be examined in detail in This is a frequent simile in Chapter 4. Grintser ( 1974:376-77). TO E.g. MBh.6.43.59 prdcchOdayat tam isubhir mahameaha ivdcalam 'He covered him with arrows, just as a great cloud [covers] a mountain,* MBh.7.74.25cd sapapSta hatab pf/Avy#m vdtaru.gna iva drumah *He fell to the ground like a tree broken by the wind/ etc. See Chapter 1. Some examples of figures of sound in the MahgbhSrata follow. Alliteration: MBh.6.Appendix 4.147 nd*dmasa vqena v e u r v r w n ivaujasd '[&eta] destroyed [the army] vehemently, just as the wind [destroys] the trees with violence*; alliteration and repetition of phonetic sequences: (yuddham) devSndg danavair iva '(a battle) like [that] of the gods and the demons,' MBh.6.89.4 ahinam SwaV&ega sammtdt p a r y a v m ~ nI prVAtam Vaidhdrdbhifyfara^IVA baldhakah 'They

" "

"

alliteration) are also extremely abundant in the Rgveda, and almost completely absent in the Chiindoma Upanisad. One of the aims of this thesis is to examine the relationship between the function of the text (narrative, ritual, didactic) and its form. The study of the epic similes cannot be complete without analyzing metaphors as well. I noted above that, according to the Indian tradition, metaphors (riipakas) are a development of the simile (upama). There are about

120 metaphors in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahzbharata, and in more than half of these the battlefield is said by the poet to be a river (of blood). Further, in a number of cases, this metaphor is introduced or delimited by similes. The detailed examination of several variants of this metaphor sheds light on the relation between simile and metaphor in the epic? Finally, in my dissertation, I examined the similes contained in formulaic expressions. Here I followed Watkins' definition of formula as "the verbal and grammatical device for encoding and transmitting a given theme or interaction of

theme^."'^ That is, rather than stressing the importance of meter as the main conditioning force, my analysis of formulaic similes in the epic emphasizes the theme as "the deep structure of the formula."75 I also followed Kiparsky in the distinction he makes between fixed and flexible formulas.76 Fixed formulas appear

in a constant shape; flexible formulas can be inflected, expanded and split by covered him with a shower of arrows on all sides, just as clouds [cover] a mountain with showers of water in the fall'; alliteration, assonance, rhyme and repetitions of words: MBh.7.2.37 hmstaMabhah sa hutdfanaprabhe /&h& fubhe vai svafithe dhanurdhaRA4 I slhilo m j d d h i R A f h i r mahSRAfbh svayam vimdne-s iva sfhitah 'Similar to the oblation-eater, splendid, the bowman (Karga], ~dhiratha'sson, the great charioteer, standing on his own chariot, [which was] splendid and similar to the oblationeater, shone like the king of the gods standing on his own chariot.' See Chapter 3 and Appendix I. "As stated in his response (p. 110) to Kiparsky (1976:73-106). See also "Aspects of Indo-European Poetics." In The Indo-Europeans in the Fourth andThird Millennia. Ed. by Polome, E. 1982. (Linguistics Extranea, Studia 14.) Ann Arbor Karoma, p. I1 1 [Reprinted in Selected Writings. (Innsbrucker Beitage zur Sprachwissenschaft, 80.) Innsbruck Institut fur Sprachwissenschaft der Universitat hnsbruck, 1994, pp. 674-90.1 Watkins (1982: 111). 76 Kiparsky (1976:82ff.). Kipmky follows J. B. Hainsworth's analysis of the Homeric formula in his 1968 work The Flexibility ofthe Homeric Formula. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

"

''

other words. My reading of the epic shows that while many formulaic similes are fixed, there are also a great number of flexible ones. The examination of several instances of formulaic similes in Books 6 and 7 of the Mah8hhSrata ilhstrates some of the composition techniques of the epic poet. The final chapter of my work dealt with the sirniles in the bgveda and in the Chzndogya Upaniqad from a comparative perspective. The function of these texts is radically different from h a t of the epic: the Fgveda is a coliectim of ritual hymns addressed to the gods; the Chiindogya Upaniqad is a work of philosophical/didactic chmcter. Therefore, the employment of similes (and other rhetorical devices) in these texts differs considerably from the usage of the same type of poetic figures in the epic. This comparative analysis illustrates how the composers of the MahZbh8rata appropriate the tradition to create a new type of poetic language. This dissertation consists of five chapters and two appendices. Chapter 1 examines the typology, function and semantic content of similes in Bouks 6 and

7 of the MahiIbhSrata. Chapter 2 identifies and analyzes a number of epic similes characterized by the employment of phonetic figures such as alliteration, assonance and repetitions or echoes af sequences and words. Chapter 3 describes the use of metaphors in the epic, and the relation of metaphors to similes.

Especial attention is given to the most frequent metaphor in the books under exmination, that of the battlefield as a river. Chapter 4 treats the simile in the context of traditional oral style. Chapter 5 examines the similes in Book 7 of the Fgveda and in the Ckindogya Upani9ad. Further exampies of the metaphor of the battkfield as a river are included in the first appendix. A list of formulaic similes is given in the second appendix.

The god of this project is twofold. First, by defining and analyzing the similes and metaphors in two books of the Mahiibhzrat* I attempt to bring to

light the poetic dimension of the text heretofore overIooked by the critics. Second, a diachronic study of h e simile in several works of Sanskrit literature will bring to light a pattern in the development of Sanskrit style. The results of this study will lead us to new conc1usions about the relevance of the MhSbhZmta as a literary work as well as its place in the history of Sanskrit diction and stylistics.

A. Syntax The most commonly used par%icleto mark a simile in the Makbharata is ivu (approx. 1,900~in my corpus). Less frequently, similes are marked by yathd (approx. 300~)~ by -vat (approx. 1 2 0 ~ or ) by adjectives meaning 6'similar'* at the end of compounds, such as m m a , -sadria, -upam&, -prakliya, -saqtnib/za, etc.

(approx. 450x1. Similes can also be expressed by means of bhuvfihi compounds in which the common property is elided (appmx. 150x), as in kamalapafrdk~ub 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves,' or pfirgucandrunibhdnand 'possessing a face similar to the full moon?' The vast majority of the similes in the MhgbhZrata are nominal; that is, the particle merely indicates that the nouns or pronouns they mark have semantic countevas in the matrix clause. This relation can be of two types. The two nouns can k compared as semantically independent of the rest of the ciause, as in MBh.6.16.30 dhvujdb ..Jvu/urttu ivupdvakdb 'banners

... like blazing

fires.' Or,

the comparison may be suggested by the meaning of the verb. This latter type is the most frequently used in the epic. In this type, double comp&sons, with two nouns in different functions compared to two other nouns in these same functions (e.g. subject/object; subjecvinsmment), are common, Triple comparisons also

Examples: Rouble (Nom./acc.) ~ h . 6 . 7 8 . 5 M[sa] nyahanat tiivakq sainym vajrapiiqir ivEsuram

Gerow (1971:240) calls these *'inverse'' c o m ~ u n d sbecause ~ here, in conmt to metaphoric the subject (lotus leaves, fbll

compoun&, the object (eyes* face) is gammaticaily subordinated m moon).

'He destroyed your army, just as he who holds the thunderbolt in his hand (i-e. Indra) [ d e s ~yed] o the demon.'

(NomJloc.) mh.6.29.7d mayi sarvm i d m protm satre rnaqiga~iiiva 'A11 this is woven on me just as a row of pearis [is woven] in a string.' Triple (Nom./acc./ins~.j bBh.6.Appndix 41.147 [iveto

... viihinIm] niiiaygrn%a

vegena

vgyur v&$in ivaujasa '[&eta] destroyed [the m y ] with vehemence, just as the wind [des~oys] the trees with violence.'

(Nom./acc.floc,) MBh.6.Appndix 4.15-1 6 te tu bgnamayam vaqarp ivetarniirdhany ap2tayan / nidiighiinte 'niloddhiitii meghii iva nage jalam / 'They poured a shower of mows on Sveta's head, just as clouds, tossed by the wind, [pour] water on the mountain at the end of the summer.'

A second type of simile in the MAgbhZrata is the clausal type

(approx. 80x in Books 6 and 7). Here the comparison lies not between two noun phrases, but between two clauses. The first clause is usually marked by yuthd, and in a few cases by yadva4 in the seeand clause, t a h ~is employed in the vast majority of cases, and only occasional~ymizm or tadvud. As Jamison (1982252) points out* this type of simile accurs only very marginally in the

Wgveda. However, it is prominent in works of post-i$gvedic literature such as the CMndogya Upanitjad. It is interesting to note that while a number of the ciausai similes in the epic have a didactic character:*

most of them occur in

descriptions of battle scenes and are of a purely descriptive nature' The For instance* those in the Bhagavad CZt2 (MBh.6.144).

20

examination of this type of simile seems to indicate that the epic poet adopted a syntactic structure that had k e n originally employed in didactic works? exploiting it as a poetic device. The compmhve analysis of h e similes in the Mhzbhzrata and the Chsndogya Upanisad, which I undertake in the last chapter of this dissertation, will shed light on the origins of the clausal similes in the epic. In most of the clausal similes in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahzbhitrata (approx. 65j, the poet emp1oys the same verb in both clauses. That is, though formally these similes are clausal, semmtically they are nominal. In a number of instances (approx. 10) the verb is repeated, but typically the verb in the second clause differs from that in the first clause in tense, mood or verbal prefix. The mood employed in the vast majority of similes of this type is the indicative; only in nine cases do we have an optative. In one instance (M13h.7S.9)9 the optative is used in both clauses. One must note that many of the clausal similes in which the verb is repeated contain other words that are also repeated in both clauses. That is, the poet is seemingly trying to turn a nominal simile into a clausal one by merely repeating several parts of the first clause. This method of composition recalls that of a large number of similes in the Chandogya Upaniqad, as we &a11 see in Chapter 5. Examples: Repeated verb Resent: MJ3h.6.26.37 yathaidM~sisamiddho 'gnir bhasmasiit kumte 'rjuna / jiizniignih sarvakmgni bhasmasiit h m t e tathii 'Just as a blazing fire turns wood

//79

ashes, kquna? so does the fire of

knowledge turn dl actians into ashes.'

It is interesting to note that, in this simile, despite dl the clausal machinery, the semantic locus is in the metaphorical compound jtidndpih 'fire of IcnowIedge.'

Perfect: MBh.6.102.73 yath2 kurfinarn sainyani babhafiia yuddhi payjav* / tatha p3gdavasainySni babhafija yuddhi te pita // 'Just as the PZ~du'sson destroyed the troops in the combat, so did your father destroy the Pfindava troops in the combat.'

Past participle: MBh.7.19.32 anilena yathabhrzni vicchinniini samantatah / tatha piirthasya sainyiini vicchinnani kvacit kvacit // 'Just as clouds are tom by the wind on every side, so were the troops of m a ' s son tom in different places.'8o

Same verb with variation in tense, mood and/or verbal prefix Presentmaorist: MBh.6.92.3 1 yatha hi govno vaqam samdhgrayati khzt patat / bhimas tatha dronamuktam Saravarsam adidharat // Just as a bull endures the rain that falls from the sky, so

has Bhima

endured the shower of arrows released by Drona.'

MBh.7.64.53 yathodayan vai gagme stiryo hanti mahat tam& / tathanuno gajEnTkam avadhit" karikapatribhih // 'Just as the rising sun in the sky d e s t r o ~great darkness, so & hjuna destroyed troops of elephants with arrows that had k a k a feathers.'

" A variation of this simile occurs later in the same book (MBh.7.146.38). Notice that, in the

latter, the poet alters the word order in the second line: instead of particle + verb (tathd ... + particle (vicchinnSnita/hd). Further, in the second clause we

vicchinndnz'), here we have verb also have the verb dmn.

*

MBh.7.146.38 anilena yathSbhrEqi vicchinngni samantatat~/ vicchinn3ni tatha ajan balmy asan vitfarp pate // 'Just as cIouds [are]&XJ by the wind on every side, so were the tmaps, 0 King, 0 Lord of men.' This is [he supplelive wrist form of han.

Similes with optative

MBh.6.58.59 yatha pas'unitm sayghiitaq yqtyg p a l a prakalavet / tatha bhimo gajanikiiy gadaya parvakiilayat // 'Just as a herdsman would urge [his] herd with a goad, so

Bhima

urge the elephant division with [his] mace.'

MBh.7.5.9 yatha hy akarqadhiira nau rathas c8siirathir yatha / draved yathegtaiy tadvat syitd fie senzpatirp bdam

/f2

'Just as a boat without a rudder and as a chariot without a charioteer

would run at will, so would be an army without a commander.'

In about 15 instances, we have two different verbs in a clausal simile. As is to be expected, in most of the similes of this type, the two verbs belong to the same semantic field, usually "to take, obtain, receive," or a motion verb, "to go, run, enter," as in the following examples:

MBh.6.79.4 1 pS~davimsamare senam sammamarda sakufijar* / yathii vanagajo riljart *rnrdgamgg3carati padminim // 'He crushed the army of the PZndavas in the battle with [his] elephant, just as a forest elephant, 0 King, steps on a lotus that grows on the

earth.'

MBh.6.112.66 yatM hi sumahitu agnib kakge carati sitnilah /

tathii jajvzla bhigma 'pi divyiiny astriiny u&rayan

//

Here Wt is a dummy verb (see next page). Notice also that the verb in the simile runs into the second line (cf. MBh.6.1.19, below). This is the form given by the text of the Critical Edition. Variants: K5 Eh g&apri, T2 mattam. Neither variant makes sense in this context. This simile is a variant of a simile that occurs approx. I5x in my corpus. I shall examine this image in Chapter 4 below.

'Just as a great fire wanders in a thicket with the wind, so

did

BhTqrna

bum raising the divine weapons.'84

-9

MBh.6.112.100 us@irto hi naro p d v a i jahdhzrgh pratkehati / tathii jagrzha giingey* iaradhzriih iikhqc$n& // 'Just as a man afflicted with thirst welcomes the showers of rain, so

did

the son of GMgii receive gikhiupjin's showers c ~ fmaws.*

In a few instances (approx. 5) we have a dummy verb in the main clause that summarizes the ~irnile.8~ This verb is typically from the stems bhii or as, 'be,' and in one case from vid 'find, know.' In some cases (MBh.6.79.41,

MBh.6.112.66), the verb car 'walk, wander, step on,' might be taken as a semidummy verb. Examples: MBh.6.1.19 yatha sivhasya nadate svanam s'rutvetare mrgiih / traseys tadvad eviisfd dhgfluiig[rabalam tadii /lS6 'Just as the other animals would be afraid, having heard the voice of the

roaring lion, so was Dhnariigra's army then.'

" In this simile we have an inverted metaphor. In the first half of the sloka, the fire (agnih) is

said to wander (camti) in the forest, whereas BhQma bums (jajvsia, perf.) in the battlefield. A dubious case is MBh.7.170.47 (see below), where the first verb might also be considered a dummy. 86 Here the yarM clause breaches the half-verse boundary, and the verb occurs in initial position in the second line. Cf. MBh.7.5.9 (previous page), which also contains a dummy verb. In this example the whole verbal complex, lavayatvw nigacchari 'reaches saltiness,' and vyarthay bhavafi 'becomes useless,' has to be considered in each case.

"

'Just as the sweet water of the divine river Gang& flowing into the ocean, reaches saltiness, so does the manliness of your glorious [warriors], 0 King, having reached the heroic sons of PEncju, become useless in the battle.'

MBh.7.170.47 na hi me vikrame tuly*

kaicid & purniin iha /

yathaiva savitus tuiyam jyotir anym na vid~ate/ f 3 'There exists no man equal to me in strength in this world, just as no other light equal to that of the sun is found (or known).'

In the similes I have examined the subject and the object of comparison are always in the same case and number!'

The only exception to the non-

parallelism in number (approx. 4x) is that in which the subject of comparison is a collective (the army). In this case, the object of comparison may be plural, as in the following example:90

MBh.6.46.11 yathanalarp prajvalitam patarngsh samabhidmtgh / viniiiayaiva gacchanti tatha me sainiko @ah

//

In my view, vidyate is the dummy verb in this simile, but one might also take both verbs (asti and vidyate) as dummies. A potential instance of non-parallelism in case is found in a number of similes in which (he combat on the battlefield is compared with the combat between Indra and the demons, as in the following sloka: MBh.7.134.22 tad yuddham abhavat te@ip lqlapratiwai¤in5 / ptha devgsure wddhe ~akrasvasaha danavaih // 'There was a battle of those [warriors, who were] intent on slaying each other, just as in the battle of the gods and the demons [there was a battle] of Sakra with the dgnavas.' The frame contains a genitive plural only (&tapratikflai&dm), whereas the simile contains a genitive singular and an instrumental (Sakrasyasuha d&navaih). The differentiation in case is important-the emphasis here is on the god as the one who obtains victory, since his opponents, the dgnavas, have been relegated to the instrumental. Cf. MBh.6.65.33. 90 See also the example mentimed above: MBh.6.1.19 yatM ...mndh / trasqw tadvad evdsfd dhdnargstrabafam 'Just as animals ..-would be afraid* so was Dhflar&tra8s m y . '

'Just as moths (pl.) msh into the blazing fire for [fieir] destruction, so does my

m y

(sg.) [go].*"

B, Distribution

In the introduction to his catalogue of poetic devices in Books 1, 3 and 6 of the epic, Sharma remarks that figures of speech occur more often in passages of "heroic poetry" than in "moralistic" or "legal" passages?2 My reading of Books

6 and 7 shows that long descriptions of battles encourage the use of similes and other figures of speech, whereas other parts of the epic, such as those that have a didactic character, use figures of speech more sparingly?3 Thus, in battle scenes, the frequency of similes is about 1 in 5 stanzas:4

whereas in didactic

parts, we have 1 simile in 10 stanzas? Brockington mentions similar percentages

in the different books of the ~ ~ i n a y a q a ? ~ As a number of scholars have pointed out, similes, along with other

figures of speech, tend to be used most in the epic at culminating points in the story or argument.97 At such points, we often find long series of similes. Some of the passages in Books 6 and 7 that illustrate the accumulation of similes are MBh.6.15.1-28 (Bh13ma's death), MBh.6.55 (Krq~aand Aij'una enter the combat), All the manuscripts mentioned in the apparatus of the Critical Edition regularize the syntax of the simile by changing the singular to plural: K02j.5 D2.3.6 TZ sainikdh jan*, M3-5 sainikd javSl, TI G24 ime sainyd nird@&, G I J ime sai~yddikdjavdt. Shama (l964:ll): "It seems that the portion of the epic which we may call 'heroic poetry' has the greatest number of figurative expressions, the theological or moralistic portions has less, and the legal portion still less. This is, however, an a priori conclusion that needs further investigation." Such as MBh.6.4-11 (description of the merits of the earth), MBh.6.14-40 (Bhagavad Gita), Appendix 8 (didactic stories about death), etc. * I have come up with this figure after sampling 300 pages of Book 6. '* As in the Bhagavad Gita. Appendix 8 to Book 6 shows an even lower proportion of I simile in 13 ^lokas. Brockington, John L. 1984. Righteous Rama: The Evolution of an Epic. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 33-34. Brockington (1984:33), Gonda (194956ff.). Oldenberg (1922164ff.). For a detailed discussion of the function of similes in the RamiIya~a,see Porcher, Marie-Claude. 1996. "Remaques sur la fonction des figures de style dans Ie Ramayaqa." Centenaire de Louis Renou. Actes du colloque international (Paris, 25-27 January 1996). Paris: Librairie Honor? Champion, pp. 429-47.

"

"

"

"

MBh.7.1.23-28 (the army's grief without Bhiema), MBh.7.48.10-17 (Abhirnanyu lying dead on the battlefield), MBh.7.60.11-21 (description of Arjuna's chariot) and ME3h.7.76.3-9 ( K ~ n aand Arjuna). The adhyzya that recounts Abhimanyu's last fight and death (MBh.7.48) is arguably the best example of the epic poet's tendency to accumulate similes at the most dramatic moments of the narrative. This adhyzya consists of 53 stanzas and contains 24 similes, that is, I simile in almost every second stanza. Many of these similes include stereotyped images, such as the comparison of the two heroes with uprooted bannersg8 or that of Abhimanyu with a wounded elephant." A few similes, however, are quite elaborate, for instance, that in stanza 50, in

which the battlefield is compared with the mythological river vaitarqi.'"

This

simile is supported by a string of metaphoric compounds that occupies 2 stanzas (49-50) in varphstha meter. The last stanza of this adhygya, also in vams'astha

" MBh.7.48.10

t3v anyonyam gadagfibhyam sarphatya patitau kqitau / indradhvajav ivotsr$(au raqamadhye parawtapau // 'Having hit each other with the tips of their maces, both fell down to the ground, like two uprooted Indra-banners in the middle of the battlefield, causing pain to each other.' MBh.7.48.14 bobhayitva carnthp sawam malinim iva kufijarah / aiobhata hato viro vyadhair vanagajo yalha // 'Having agitated the whole army, just as an elephant [agitates] a lotus, the hero wounded with sharp weapons looked like a forest elephant* lM (See also Appendix 1). MBh.7.48.49 garfrasatpgha(avah5 asfgjalS rathajupii kuqaraiailasaipka(3 / manu$yasTr$opalamS~sakardam3 praviddhaMnSvidha^astramBlini // "Carrying heaps of bodies, possessing blood as water, possessing chariots as rafts, full of elephants as rocks, possessing human heads as stones and flesh as mud, possessing various kinds of abandoned weapons as garlands.'

"

Mbh.7.48.50 mahabhayz vaitar~lvadustaiH pravartita yodhavarais tada nadT / uvaha madhyena ra~2jiraipb h ( ^ q bhayWahS jivam~pravahini// 'Producing great fear, like the [river] Vaitari@, difficult to cross, a river was produced by the best of warriors then, it flowed in the middle of the battlefield, carrying fear, carrying away [both] living and dead [heroes].'

meter, contains an unusual simile in which Abhimanyu is likened to a sacrificial fire.

"' One must also note MBh.6.55. This adhyaya, which describes Qgna and

Arjuna entering the battlefield, consists of 132 stanzas and contains 37 similes and 5 metaphors, a percentage much higher than in other episodes of the epic. Some of the metaphors in this passage are quite elaborate and will be examined in Chapter 3 below.

Besides emphasizing some of the most significant moments in the story, similes may also have a demarcative function. This function is particularly evident in the case of a number of metaphors in which the battlefield is said to be a river (of blood). Most of the metaphors of this type begin or end in a simile, which in some cases is embedded in the metaphor. The similes embedded in the metaphor invariably compare the river in the battlefield with the river Vaitarqi, as in MB h .7.146.46-47 prdvartata nadJghord io&aughatarahgi@ ... yathd vaitarafl rdjan yamard~lrapuramprati ' A terrible river arose, having streams of blood as

waves,

... like

the [river] Vaitmyi, 0 King, [flowing] toward the city of Yama's

realm.' The simile that introduces the metaphor may compare the river on the battlefield with a river flowing at the end of a yuga, as in

MBh.7.13.8 yugantakale ymeva, or it may liken the warrior who causes the massacre to a god, as in MBh.7.20.30 dropas tu p~gdavdnikecakdra kadanap mahat / yathd daityagaife v i ~ ~ usurdsuranamaswah tf 'Dro~acaused a great

massacre among the Pzqdava troops, just as Viqqu, honored by gods and asuras,

lo'

MBh.7.48.53 apetavidhvaslamahartiabhU$~am nipiititarp 6akrasamaxp mah3ratham / rqe 'bhimanyurp dadflus tad3 jan8 vyapo^hahavyalp sadasiva pSvakam // 'Possessing ornaments of great value gone or fallen off, fallen, similar to Sakra, the great charioteer, in the battlefield the people saw Abhimanyu then, like a fire on the altar whose oblation has been taken away.'

[caused a massacre] among the daityas.' These similes will be examined in detail in Chapter 3 below. A frequent feature of the similes in the epic is the repetition of the same

object of comparison in similes close to each other, with few or no instances of the same object of comparison elsewhere.102One example is the simile in MBh.7.2.1 and MBh.7.2.3, in which the army without its commander Bhisma is compared with a boat sinking in the ocean.'03 The only variation of this simile in the books I have examined occurs in two adjacent slokas three adhyiiyas later, where an army without a leader is said to be like a boat without a rudder or a captain.'04 Further examples: A hero in combat is compared to the body fighting with the five senses (MBh.7.71.12 and 13), Kriqna and Arjuna are compared to fishes free from the net (MBh.7.76.6 and 9), the army is said to be a forest

(MBh.7.68.54 and 69.7, metaphor).

As Brockington (1984:33) remarks with regard to the similes in the Ramayqm. In my corpus I have found approx. 10 instances of repeated similes. lo3 MBh.7.2.1 hatap bhigrnarn ildhirathir viditva bhinnam nSvm ivStvagadhe kurflnarn / sodaryavad vyasanat sfltaputM saiplarayisy~stava putrasya senam // Having learned that BhTqma had been slain, Adhiratha's son, the son of the charioteer, wishing to save from calamity, like a brother, your son's army, [the army] of the Kurus, [which was] like a shattered boat in the very deep ocean.'

MBh.7.2.3 hate tu bhiyne rathasattame parair nimaiiaffm navam ivzrnave kuriln / piteva putfiips tvarito 'bhyayat tat& swtgrayiqyms tava putrasya senam // '[Once] BhTqma, the best of the charioteers, [had been] slain by the enemies. [Kargal came quickly then, wishing to save your son's anq, the Kurus, [which was] like a boat sinking in the s e like a father (wishing to save his] sons.' bfBh.7.5.8 na fie nzyakw sena m u h U m api tiqmati / ahavesv ahavdrestha netrhlneva naur jale // 'Without a leader, an army does not stand even for a moment in the battie, 0 you the best in battle, like a boat in the water without a captain.'

'Just as a b a t without a rudder and a chariot without a charioteer advance at will, so does m y [advance] withciut a commmder.'

an

About 95% of the Mahiibhfirata is composed in sloka meter (technically

epic anuqmbh). Therefore, the vast majority of similes occur in slokas. In Books

6 and 7, they also occur in a number of long meters (upajfiti, miilinT, vams'astha, puspitiigrfi, irregular and mixed). Altogether there are 515 stanzas in long meters, and 78 of them contain similes (and some metaphor^).'^^ Most of the shorter similes occupy the second or the fourth pada. These are typically stereotyped expressions and have formulaic character, as we shall see in Chapter 4. About one-tenth of (he similes in Books 6 and 7 occupy the first pada, and fewer the third pada. The use of similes in the first pada does not seem to have any special stylistic ~alue.''~Among the shorter similes and metaphors that typically occur in the last pads (but which can also be found in other places in the verse), we have frozen expressions like the ubiquitous metaphor nararsabhah 'man-bull,' 'bull among men,' or compounds of the type

kamalapatrakfah 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves.' These epithets can be applied to any hero in the epic.

C. Semantic content More than half of the similes in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahiibharata contain images that refer to the natural world. The rest of the similes refer to the gods, philosophical terms and items of material culture.'07 Similes in which sacrifice Some statistics (in order of frequency): upajgti 247 stanzas/48 similes, irregular 207 stanzas/17 similes, mixed 39 stanzas/5 similes, vaqkstha 18 stanza@ similes, p u s p i t w 3 stanzas/2 similes, millin1 I stanza/I simile. There are also eight lines in the long meter drutavilambita (a jagaff) inserted after MBh.7.159.42. These lines contain 2 similes and 5 metaphors. According to the editors of the Critical Edition, the style of these lines suggests later interpolation. Contra Gonda (1949:47ff): "In my opinion there is occasion to raise the question, if there exists any connection between the place in the sentence occupied by the simile and its 'Affektgehalt' (emotionalism). Indeed, in sentences or utterances which are spoken under the influence of feelings and sensations, the most 'affektbetonte' element will push itself towards the First place in the sentence. ... As for Vedic and Sanskrit texts, in a number of cases the simile occupies the first place in a sentence or in a verse; then it seems to me that usually a peculiar stylistic value may be recognized? "" As Shanna (19649) points out. Brockington (19S4:34) remarks [hat the imagery in the Ramayqa is similar overall to that in the MahabhSrata.

'

and ritual are mentioned are infrequent in these books, reflecting the relative absence of such considerations from the basic narrative.108 The single most frequent object of comparison109is the god Indra (approx. 220x),"' though he is not such a prominent deity in the epic as in the &gveda.l1 In the Mahsbharata, Indra symbolizes might, splendor and prominence. Numerous similes refer to his weapons, banner and abode, as well as to his wars

with the demons. The latter are most often refered to with the generic term asura, but a number of them are also mentioned by name, especially Bala [or

Vala], Vma, Maya, Taraka and Namuci. Most of the similes in which the war between the Pandavas and the Kurus is compared with Indra's wars with the demons have become formulas in the Mahiibhiirata, as in MBh.6.96.51 fayoh samagamo ghoro babhuva kawkodayah / yatha dev~sureyuddhe s'akras'ambarayur iva

'There was a terrible, fierce combat of the two (warriors], like [the combat] of and gambara in the battle of the gods and the demons.' Other gods mentioned in similes are Yama (approx. 140x), Siva (approx. 20x), Viqqu (approx. l4x), Brahma (approx. 5x), Rudra (approx. 5x) and Kzrttikeya (3x). It is interesting to note in this connection that, in Grintser's list of formulaic similes, Indra and Yama are the only gods mentioned,Il2 hdra in his function both of leader of the gods and of killer of asuras,'" and Yama in compounds in which the heroes' weapons are compared with his rod.114In a large number of instances (more than 200), we also have the frozen simile X-indra 'best of X's,'

as in ~jendrah'best of kings,' gajendrah 'best of elephants,' munlndrab 'best of At least in terms of vocabulary employed in similes and metaphors.

'@More common than anything in [he natural world.

Brockington (1984:34), Grintser (1974:377), Sharrna (1964:16ff). See Hopkins (1915:54). 'I2 Grintser (1 974:376-77). E.g. devarajasamyuddhi 'similar to the king of the gods in battle,' iakrapratimatejasah 'possessing strength similar to [that of] %dm,' vajrapaifir ivdsurdn 'just as the holder of the thunderbolt [killed] [he demons,* etc. 'I4 E.g. yamadandopama '[a weapon] similar to Yama's rod' (itself not a Vedic image). lo ' I

sages,' etc., where we can see that this term has lost its original meaning as the name of the Vedic god. The usage of Indra mythology and lexicon in classical Sanskrit literature has been analyzed by Jarnison in a 1996 article,ll5 in which she shows that Vedic materials are still a meaningful part of the tradition for Kalidasa and his audience. Most of the similes that contain images of nature refer to mountains, which symbolize immovability. For this reason, warriors are often likened to them in fighting scenes, as in MBh.6.49.11 virus tasthau girir ivdcalah "The hero stood like an immovable mountain.' Heroes are also compared to the sun, which symbolizes brilliance, power and might, as in MBh.6.84.1 na fekuh Npdavd

dragurn tapamam iva bhSskaram 'The P8ncjavas were unable to look [at him], who was burning like the sun.' Other natural elements, such as the stars, sky, earh,

rivers and ocean, are also included in similes. Particularly common is the identification of the battlefield with a river. One must also note here the frequent employment of clouds as objects of comparison, as in MBh.6.42.14 chadayantah

s'aravrdtair meghd iva divdkaram '[they] covering [him] with arrows, just as clouds [cover] the sun.' Among the plants, trees in general, and especially the kims'uka tree (a tree with red flowers), appear often in similes. The epic poet frequently compares the wounded heroes with these trees, as in MBh.6.44.43ef as'obhama

mahdrdja pujpita iva kimsuk*

"They shone, 0 Great King, like blooming kiqhka

trees.' In a few instances, other types of trees are mentioned, such as the kamikiira, palm tree (tala) and mango (cam). The lotus (kamala,padma, pufkara,

pu~&rtka, rdjlva, etc.) is the most common flower in similes, especially in compounds in which the eyes of the heroes are compared with lotus flowers or

Jamison, Stephanie W. 1996. ''Vjmt et V@ragm and Sur la structure du kSvya-Some intersections: ~ e d i cmotifs in Kumttrasambhava VS.." In Langue,style at structure duns Ie monde indien. Centenaire de Louis Renou. Actes du colloque international (Paris, 25-27 January 1996). Paris: Librairie Honor6 Champion, pp. 123-42.

lotus leaves, as in MBh.6.29.2 kamalapatraksah 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves,' MBh.6.102.63b rdjfvalocanah, MBh.7.172.53d ambujebaeah, etc. Among the animals mentioned in similes, the most common are elephants, lions, snakes, tigers and bulls, all of which symbolize might. Instances of horses, birds and insects as objects of comparison are fewer. In Books 6 and 7, elephants (gaja, vdrapa, kunjara, mdta*,

ndga, hastin) are mentioned about 80

times. Many of these similes are included in fixed formulas, such as matto mattam ivu dvipam '[he attacked him] just as an enraged elephant [attacks another] enraged elephant,' or tottrair iva mahsdvipam '[he struck him with arrows,] just as [one strikes] a big elephant with hooks.' In a number of formulas (about 20) the army is compared to elephants treading upon lotuses, as in MBh.7.3 1.I7 @an pothayam cakrur d v ~ sthutanadan ~ @ iva "They crushed the fallen ones, just as elephants [crush] big reeds.' Elephants are also likened to mountains, as in MBh.7.19.19 nUMjanacayaprakhyo madandho dvirado babhau I abhivnlo mahameghair yathd sydt parvato mahdn 'S irnilar to a heap of black ointment, blind with mada, the elephant looked like a big mountain covered by great clouds.' Lions (sipha, kesarin), tigers (vydghra, idrdula) and bulls (rjabha) are mentioned by the epic poet in approximately every second verse in metaphors such as narawhab 'man-lion,' purusavydpab 'tiger-man,' and naranabh& 'man-bull.' A frequent formula (approx. 25x) is that in which a warrior attacking his rivals is compared with a lion attacking small animals, as in MBh.6.92.23 q&tayat kupdalinam si@ab k~udramrgapyatha 'He felled the hero who was

wearing ear-rings, just as a lion [fells] a small animal.' Snakes (sarpa, Mujaga, aslvisa, pannaga, uraga, ndga) are mentioned in a large number of similes (approx. 60) in which the subject of comparison is a weapon, usually in the formula diivisopamab 'similar to a poisonous snake.' Warriors may also be

compared to snakes, as in MBh.7.3.23

(lam padavam)

... dslvisam &tiharam

sughoram '[that Pgndava], a poisonous snake of terrible appearance.' A remark on similes and metaphors that contain images of nature: It is

generally t h o ~ g h t "that ~ the first descriptions of landscapes in Indian literature occur in the ~iimityaqa.'~'However, as we have seen, a large number of similes in the Mahsbhitrata have images of nature as objects of compari~on."~It is true that most of these similes are quite short (usually one pacia) and occur in

stereotyped expressions, like that in which the warriors are compared to fallen trees1" or kims'uka trees, or that in which the heroes shooting arrows at their enemies are likened to clouds covering a mountain. However, in a number of instances these images of nature are expanded into more elaborate ones that contain figures of sound such as alliteration and assonance, variation of vocabulary, compounds, etc., as in the following examples:

MBh.6.43.13cd [tau s'us'ubhatej vasante puspas'abalau ~uspit3viva kims'ukau '[Those two heroes shone] like two kims'uka flowers blooming in spring.'

MBh.6.58.12 athainam s'aravarqena chadayZmasa bhiirata /

@rim ial3garne ~advqiialada ialadhitrinah // H e covered him with showers of arrows, just as clouds, carrying water [cover] a mountain in the rainy season.'

?-

See Renou (1956:109, Note 2). For instance, in RSm.4.1 and 4.27. l i 8 As Shanna (1964:9), Oldenberg (1922:164), etc., remark. l 9 The comparison of a fallen warrior to a tree is an ancient simile, perhaps of Indo-European date. See West, Martin. 1988. "The Rise of the Greek Epic." JHS 108, pp. 151-72. On p. 154 he compares several instances of this simile in the Rgveda with similes in the Iliad. In these similes an adversary may be felled like a tree, whether it is a tree struck by lightning (RV.2.14.2, 6.8.5, U. xiv 414) or one chopped down by a joiner (RV.1.130.4, 11. iv 482-7, xiii 178-80, 389-91).

'

supuspito mZrutavegarugno mahidharagrad iva kamikarah // Wearing a golden garland, he fell from his elephant, adorned with gold, similar to a mountain, like a blooming karnikzra [falling] from the too of

a mountain, tom by the violence of the wind.'

In a small number of instances, the style of passages with similes and metaphors that contain images of nature is closer to that of classical kgvya works than to the rest of the epic. One of these passages is ~~h.7.159.40ff.,'" where we have a description of the warriors sleeping on their elephants after the battle. The first two stanzas of this passage (a sloka and a trigubh) compare the heroes with a painting. Further, they are said to cling to their mounts like lovers. These

stanzas read:

MBh.7.159.40 tat tatha nidrayii bhagnam avscam asvapad'" bdam / kus'alair iva vinyastm pate citram ivgdbhutam // 'That m y , overcome with sleep, fell asleep, like a wonderful picture painted on canvas by skilful [artists].'

MBh.7.159.41 te kgatriyzh kun(ja1ino yuviiniih parasparm sZyakavikgataflg3h / kumbhesu linah susupur gajznsm

h c q u lagnab iva kiimininam //

As Renou (1956109) remarks. I read variant b:prdsvapadwfam.

'Those warriors, wearing ear-rings, youthful, wounded by the others' arrows, lying on the backs of [their] elephants, fell asleep, as if [they were] clinging to the breasts of [their] lovers.'

In the stanza that follows, the poet describes the moon appearing in the sky by means of a compound simile, kdminiga&apddund

'white like the cheeks

of lovers,' and a metaphor, kumudandthena 'lord of the white lilies.' This

elaborate sloka is quoted by the Indian theorist Mammata (1 1th century AD.), in his Kgvyaprakiisa (10.88), as an example of poetic speech:'"

/ MBh.7.159.42 tat@ kumudmathena k2minig~dapSndun~ netranandena candrena miihendfi dig a l a y b a //

'Then the [celestial] region belonging to the great Indra was adorned by the moon, bringing joy to the eyes, white like the cheeks of lovers, lord of the white lilies.'

The most interesting lines in this passage, however, are not those in the

text of the Critical Edition, but those found after verse 42 in several manuscripts

(B hi Dn D 2 . 5 ~ ~ These ). lines read:

As the Critical Edition remarks.

navavadh~smitac~mmano ha& pravisfi* kumudakarabSndhav@ / Coming out of the splitting of the region of the Thousand-eyed [god], of a golden color radiant with the mane [that is] the moon-beams, removing the herd of elephants [that is] the darkness, the lion of the Udaya Mountain (i.e. the moon) came out. Possessing the lustre of the body of Hara's excellent bull, possessing splendor similar to the full bow of the God of Love (i.e. Smara), charming and delightful like the smile of a young bride, the relative of the water-lilies came out.'

All the nominatives refer to candm 'moon' in sloka 42, although in that verse this word was used in instrumental case. Each line contains a compound (which in most cases occupies the entire line), and each compound contains a simile or a metaphor that describes the moon. It is in passages like this that one can see the beginnings of kiivya.

The Indian theorist Bhamaha (718h century A.D.) defined poetry as fabddrthau

sahitau kdvyam 'Poetry is sound and meaning put t~gether.'"~A similar definihon is that of the French poet Paul ValtSry (1938)? who wrote that "l'op6ration du po*te s7exerce au moyen de la vdeur complexe des mots, c'est-h-dire en composant i la fois son et sens

... cornme

hlgiibre op6rant sur

des nombres comp~exes."124 Sou~dafidMeaningwas also the title of Roman J&obsonPs never-finished work on the essence of language Figures of sound such as alliteration? assonance and repetitions or echoes of sequences and words are poetic devices that the epic p e t employs with alliteration the most frequently utilized?

In a sample of

twenty adhyayas from Book 6 (adhygya 1-20, 721 dokas), 1 have found more than 200 instances of figures of sound. My analysis of Books 6 and 7 of the Mhabhgrata indicates that these poetic devices are even mare commonIy employed in verses that contain similes and metaphors. In this chapter, I will illustrate and analyze several figures of sound (alliteration, assonance and reptitions or echoes of sequences and words) that occur in similes in the abovementioned books. Alliteration is the reptibon of the same sound (or sounds) at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. Assonance is the resemblance of sound between two syllabIes in nearby words, arising from the rhyming of two or mare accented vuweIs, but not consanants, or the use of identical Kdvdlamkdra 1.16. a i ~ r e s1. I414. As mentioned by Calveit Watkins in his How ?aKill a &agun: Aspects of fn&-E~~opean hetics. 1995. New Yark and Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 26. Watkins quates fmm Wadimir N. Toporov's influentiat article entitled (in its Gemm tmsIation) "Die U ~ a n g eder indmuropiiischen Pmtik" Pu&u 1 3 (198I), pp. 189-251. is Gmda (1949:43ff.), Hopkins ( 1%) 1:2@2ff.), Sharrna ( l964k 13, 159-166). H q k h s (190k203) remarks that "alliteration [in the epics] is a c o m o n trick, but is not so overdone as it is in the works of later p&." ' ~ 3

consonants with difTerent vowels. Such phonetic echoes, ofien combined with alliteration, are extremely fiequent in epic similes, as the following exampies will show. A particular form of echo that serves a demarcative function is the stylistic device known as ring-composition. Ring-composition is the beginning and the ending of a discourse, or complex utterance longer than a sentence, with the same or equivdent word, phrase, or sound sequence.127This device is of great importance in oral literature: it serves to isolate unities within a larger discourse. 1 have found approx. 10 instances of ~ng-cornpsitionin verses that contain

similes and metaphors in my corpus. The function of all of these figures of speech is indexical: they serve to point to the message, that is, the poetic text, and call attention to it.128 According to some Indian theorists, the excellence of sound (sauiabdyam) was the main constituent of poetic beauty, the meaning of words being considered "something exteriof' (bdhy~rn).'~~ More than one-third of the similes in my corpus illustrate the figure of alliteration. A large number of these similes combine alliteration with assonance or repetition of phonetic sequences, as in the following

' ~ 7As

defined by Watkins (1995:34). Watkins l1995:29). la As EMm&a expiains in his K#vdioqk&ra 1.14, where he refers to other schools of Sanskrit poetics. For Bhnrnaha (as well as for Daq#in, and the successors of both), figures of sound and figures of meaning are equally important. An extreme example of the use of figures of sound occurs in MBh.7.50.32, the climactic line in Arjunais lament for his son Abhimanyu. This line does not contain any similes, but is incIuded in a passage in which the p t employs a Iarge number of similes, as well as several metaphors. The dramatic effect of this passage is enhanced by the figures of sound in this line* as well as the rhetorical figures in the rest of the Iment. The line in question reads: la

MBh.7.50.32cd ya& putrap na pdyUni yUy= ymasiXdanam 'If I do not see my son* I will go to Yma's dweiling (I will die).' Here we have repetition of the syllable ya/ya, which is also the first syllable of three of the six words in this Iine. We aiso have rhyme in two words* paeUmiydqw, which are hrther located in a metrical boundary and therefore emphasized. In a sort of mirror image, the vefb in the first piIda is preceded by its object, putram 'son** whereas the verb in the second pgda is folIowed by it, yamasd&mm 'Yma's dwelling.' Note &so the phonetic echo created by the two accusatives putrum -*. y u m d & m .

mh.6.Appndk 4.147 nSiay3rniki vegena viiyur ~ k q z nivaujasz '[&eta] destroyed [the army] vehementIy, just as t!he wind [destroys] the trees with violence.'

~h.3.112.11b vilterito vk$a ivav&Um& 'Trembling like a tree tossed by the wind.'

A number of similes (approx. 20) in which we find alliteration and other

figures of sound have become formulas. The following are some examples (statistics include variants):

MBh.6.65.33d [yuddharn] deviinii~&nayair iva *[A battle] like [that1 of the gods and the demons.' (approx. 15x1

MBh.6.49.9~ i&agmisrnapm'am '(A weapon) similar in touch to $aha's ~undeholt.'(approx. 1Ox)

MBh.6.1 f 3.48b meghz h a divakaram 'Just as clouds [cover] the sun.' (apprax. 15x)

MBh.6.45.58d gZv*

sftardita iva

'Like cows afflicted with cold.' (appmx. 5x)

In the first simile, the effect of the alliteration is reinforced by the repeated sequence of consonants (d-v-B,d-n-v), with reversal of the second and third consonants in ddnmair. In the second example, iakrdia~is~masparfum

'(a weapon) similar in touch to &kds

thunderbolt,' the syllable fa is repeated

three times. Further, the word that introduces the simileTsama 'similarv' also begins with a sibilant followed by the vowel a. Note that the syilable $a occurs both at the beginning and the end of this compound, as a sort of frame. The fact hat this simile is included in a long compound that occupies an entire psda (usudly the fourth p3da in a iloka) also calls attention to it. The eff'ect of this simile is much more striking than that of the variant indrdianisamasparidh (MBh.7.22.46, ins.)? where the word i d r u replaces iakru, the usual name of the gad in the epics. Other variantsT such as vujrdfa~isamaspariab, brahmadaqdusamaspariab? etc., are likewise devoid of the rich phonetic texture of the first simile. In the example that fo~lows,meghd iva divdkaram 'just as clouds [cover]

the sun,' the syllable va/vd is repeated twice. Further, the first part of the compound divd-karam echoes the comparative partick iva. In the last example, gdvah sltdrditd iva 'like cows afflicted with cold,' the phonetic echo produced by the repetition of the syllabks va @&ah ...iva) and td (~Ttdrditd)is reinforced by the vowel sequence i

-

8

-i -

8

-i-

a @dvab~ltdrdrd iva).

hother example of a formula that has a remarkable phonetic texture is the fallowing:

tad adbhutaxn ivabbvat

That pattle] kcame like [something] wonderful.'

In this brief formula? which contains just four words? we have phonetic echoes created by the reptition of syllables (fa? va/vd), parts of syllabks

(tudud-) and consonants (bh). The s i d e begins and ends with a dental occlusive and a vowel preceding or following it (tad ....abhavut), a small-scale ring-

composition. This is perhaps the single most kequent formula 1 have found in my corpus (over 3 0 0 ~ ) . Instances of similes that iIIustmte the employment of alliteration and phonetic echoes are abundant in Books 6 and 7 of the epic. In what foIlows, I will examine four of the most striking examples. The first instance occurs in MBh.6.44.48. It reads:

MBh.6.44.48 k e r n paiicatihqa Weua b h m b ~ a b h a/ Hjatem ma&Ebi%hurucchritena w a r a t h e /

babhau b h i q ~tadz rSjam5 cmdramB iva men@â // bWith [his] banner of silver and with a palm-tree with five stars raised on [his] great chariot, 0 Bull among the 3haratasTthe great-armed Bhigna looked then, 0 KingT like the moon with [Mount] Meru.'

This is the final aoka of the adhyiiya and, as is often the case in the passages 1 have examined, it is the most elaborate verse. The subject of the comparisonTBhisrna, is not mentioned until the last line, and the object of comparison, candramd iva meruoa 'like the moon with [Mount] MeruT3which occupies the very last pifda of this aokaTechoes the first word of the verseT k e t z ~ i . ~Both ~ ' words, mem@ and ketufid, show the same vowel sequence:

e

-u

8. FurtherTthese three lines are rich in phonetic figures, such as

alliteration (bhTfa) a d repetition of syllabks (fa, ma, rdja-), and even of parts of words ( m h d - ) . Moreover, in two instances, the aoka has to be read vertically in order to join adjectives with the nouns they qualify: kemd ... rdjatena,

mahdbdhur ...bhrjmas. The phonetic echoes created by the sequence of sounds in

13'

In the

text

established by the Critical Edition, but not in all manuscripts. Variants:

Ks candrum iva mrudga@b,

S mer~'cu~drummd yafhd.

the first word of this verse and in the last word of the simile serve as a sort of ring-composition. The second instance of elaborate combination of alliteration and repetition of phonetic sequences is found in a sloka that contains a comparison frequently employed by the epic poet, that of the combatants with clouds. This is a variation of a formula I will analyze in Chapter 4.

MBh.6.89.4 athainam <araVA&ena samantzt p a r y a V a y a n /

parVAtarp V m d h g r ~ b h i h
Here we have three sets of phonetic recurrences of consonant and vowel sequences. In the first place, two words, one in each half of the sloka, begin with s'ara-, one meaning 'arrow' ($bra), (he other 'fall' (farad). Secondly, the syllable va/var/vdr is repeated a total of five times in the sloka. Thirdly, both the last word of the first half of the verse (the main clause) and the first word of the second half begin with par-; that is, this repeated syllable serves as a link between the first and the second halves of the sloka, as well as between the main clause and the clause that contains the simile. Further, the structure of the simile in the second half of the sloka is parallel to that in the clause in the first half. This parallelism can be schematized as follows:

object

-

object

- agent - adverb (locative) - subject (verb elided,

agent

-

adverb (ablative) - verb "cover")

The third example is found in mh.6.92.31. Here we have a pun based

on two etymologically connected words, v p 'bull' and v w g z 'rain':

lW3hm6.92.31p h i i hi g o v q ~varqaq~smdhiirayati khgt patat / bhirnas tatM d r o ~ m u k t a mSaravarsam adidharat // %st as a bull endures the rain that falls from the sky, so did Bhima endure the shower of maws released by Droqa.'

In this clausal simile we have the same verb, dhr 'hold,' in both clauses. In the first clause, the verb is in present tense (causative), with the prefix sam-, and, in the second clause, in aorist (redupl*), without any verbal prefix. The last syllable of iuravarsam immediately precedes adrdharar and so echoes

supdhdrayati. Here two etymologically connected (though synchrtmicdly unconnected) words, qya 'bu11' and varsa 'rain.' we juxtaposed. Whether the poet was aware of this connection is not certain; the two may have k e n considered a purely phonetic echo. We can a h observe the rhyme between the

first and the second hdf of the verse: patat

-

adIdharat.

The last instance of elaborate use of alliteration and phonetic sequences occurs in two lines of the fourth appendix to Book 6:

mh.6.Appndk 4.64-65 samtIq~wcharair arkam m l y a p r a t 8 p a v a n / nudan w n a n a t amare ravir udyan yathii

tima /

'He, burning like the sun, pushing on all sides, covered the sun with mows in the battle, like the rising sun [pushing] darkness.'

This passage recounts the heroic perf!orrnmce of Sveta before he is slain by his rival. In these two lines, the poet extols him by means of two similes,

the first one in the form of a compound (arkatu~yaprff?dpavdn'burning like the sun7), and the second one marked by the particle yathd. The word arka 'sun' occurs twice in the same line, in adjacent positions. It is located in both cases next to the caesura, a position of metrical prominence, thus calling attention to it.

In the second line, we have another word for 'sun,' ruv@z,which immediately follows the caesura, thus creating a parallelism with the first half of the piida. This paraklism is reinforced by the phonetic cchc~created by

Sam,

the first

component of three of the words in this iloka, two of which are, again, adjacent. Further, the final word of the verse, farnab 'darkness,' echoes sum& By means of this phonetic echo, the poet demarcates the verse and calls attention to the simile. Moreover, in my viewl by stating that the hero sveta "covered the sun with arrows," the poet is employing the rhetorical figure called uprekg3 'ascription' by Indian theorists. In this figure? a variant of the upam3 or simile, a property or mode of behavior is attributed to a subject literally incapable of sustaining that ProF*Y I noted above that the device of fing-composition is employed a number of times by the epic poet (approx. lo), mostly in elaborate passages that usua1ly contain similes and other poetic figures. We have already seen several instances

of ring-composition in the previous pages. A striking example of this figure is the second adhyiiya of Book 7. This adhyiiya, composed entirely in irregular trigubhs, consists of 37 stanzas that contain 17 similes. Both the employment of a long meter and the percentage of similes, which is much higher than in other

episodes, are characteristic of the more elaborate passages. Stmas 1 and 3 of this adhyiiya contain two similes each: these were mentioned in the previous chapter as an instance of similes that occur in nearby Iines, with few or no other instances eIsewhere in the epic. These stanzas read as follows:

MBh.l2.l h a t w bhi9mm adhirathir viditva bhinnm navarn iv~tyagiidhekurtin&m / sodqavad vymmiit sntaputr* s ~ t S r a y i q y q stava p u m y a senam // 'Having Ieamed that Bhiqma had k e n slain, Adhiratha's son, the son of the charioteer, wishing to save from calamity, like a brother, your son's army, [the amy] of the Kurus, [which was] like a shattered boat in the

very deep ocean

...'

MBh.72.3 hate tu bhigne rathasattame parair nimajjatlm nsvam ivzmave kufln 1 piteva putrgms tvarito Yhyayiit tat& samtErayiqyams tava putrasya seniim // '[Once] Bhi$rna* the best of the charioteers, [had been] slain by the enemies, [ K q a ] came quickly then, wishing to save your sods m y , the

Kurus, [which wits] like a boat sinking in the sea* like a father [wishing to save his] sons.'

The poet begins this adhyiiya by telling us that K q a , Adhiratha's son

(ddhirathib), came to help the Kum army. We have the verb af this sentence (updyat 'came') in the second s t m ~ a , ' ~md ' a synonym, abhydyas, in the third

stanza. Between the subject and the verb, we find mother clause introduced by the participle s u e t d r q i v a ~'wishing to save,' which is followed by its abject,

tavup~traqasendm 'your son's m y . ' In the second piida, we have kuraodm 'of the Kurus' preceded by a simile in which it is compared to 'a shattered boat in

I haven't quoted this stanza because it cantains no similes. 'came,' whme subject is ddhimthir in the first s t m ~ ~

Here

we find the verb up@dt

the very deep ocean,' bhin~amndvam ivdqagddhe. We find another simile in the third pi%&, s~davavud'like a brother,' followed by a noun in abhtive case, vyusand? 'from calamity,' that refers to the participle s f f ~ t d r a y i ~ This f f n . is

folbwed by siltaputrab, $the son of the charioteer,' another name of Karqa, which echoes ddhirathib in the first piida. The structure of these lines is repeated in the third stanza. This begins with a locative absolute, hate ... b h i p e '[Once]

BhTgmi [had k e n ] killed?' which

echoes hatav bhr~mamin the first stanza. This locative absolute contains also the word rathasattome %he best of charioteers' in apposition to bhrsme. Just as in the first stanza, here we have a simile in which the army of the Kurus is compared with a boat sinking in the ocean, nimajjulfpndvam ivdrpuve. The third line contains a simile as well, pitevaputrdn 'like a father [wishing to save his] sons,' a variation of the simile in the first stanza. The fourth line repeats the fourth line of the first stanza, thus delimiting this small unit within the larger passage. The final stanza in this adhyzya is the most elaborate. It contains a simile in the fourth piida and, unlike the other stanzas in this adhyliya in which we also have similes, this one is rich in phonetic figures such as alliteration,

assonance, rhyme and repetitions of words. It reads as fol1ows:

MBh.7.2.37 hutSSm8bh@ sa hutiiifanaprabhe iubh* hbhe vai svarathe dhmurdharalj / sthito mgjgdhirathk m&ara&& svayap vimiine surariitj iva sthit* //

'Similar to the obIatim-eater, splendid, the b w m m K a q a ] , Adhiratha's son, the @eat charioteer' standing on his own chariot, [which w a ] splendid and similar to the obIation-eater, shone like the king of the gods standing on his o w chariot.'

The phonetic figures in this stanza should be noted:

Here a noun or adjective in nominative is followed in each case by the same noun or adjective' or a variant of it, in locative. The noun or adjective in nominative modifies ddhiruthih' and the noun or adjective in locative modifies

v i m - ~ e'chariot.' Two different terns, ratha and vimana, are used for chariot. Further, mayurn viWm in the last pzda echoes murathe in the second pacia. As noted above, the last line of this stanza, which is the last line of this adhyzya as well, contains a simile, mayurn vimane simrd4 iva sthitub 'like the king of the gods stmding on his own chariot.' Finally' the first word of the adhysya is

k t a m 'shin,' 'lying,' whereas the last word is sthitub 'standing.' By means of this semantic ring-compsitionT the contrast between the fallen hero and the new commander of the troops is ernpha~ized.'~'' 1 noted in the beginning of this chapter that' in the epic, a figure of

sound that is frequent in lines containing similes is the repetition of words or groups of words. A word may be repeated in the s m e case (appmx. 30x1, h a different case or suffixed fom (polyptoton) (approx. lox) or as part of a nominal

lD

Some of the phonetic figures in this passage we the result of word repetition. Repetition of

wards or groups of words is also a phonetic figure, which I m t next. lM Cf. MBh.7.60.17* where we can observe a similar use of a noun or adjective in nominative

and again in locative refenng to a hem and his chariot. Note that* in this case* the aoka atso ends with a simile: MBh.7.60.17 s t rathe mhin8y &wgh@ H6cane k3ficmSvW / vibabhau vimdo 'rciqrn8n meHv iva div&im& // 'He (Arjuna)* the best of charioteers, covered with gold, on [his] golden chariot, pure, respkndent, h k e d like the day-maker (i.e. the sun) on ijbfount] Merue*

and verbal stem (figura etymologica) (approx. lox). Repetitions of parts of lines or even of entire lines are also common (approx. 25x). These similes usually

contain other figures of sound as well, such as alliteration and assonance. Some examples follow.

Words repeated in the same case

/ MBh.7.30.22 t a q ~padmanikargk~qpadmapatrmibhek~~m vy~koiapadmabhamukh~ nil0 vivyzdha siiyakaih // 'Him, [the hero] whose body [is like] a pile of lotuses, whose eyes are similar to lotus leaves, and whose face is like an open lotus flower, NTla pierced with arrows.'

The word padma 'lotus' occurs three times in this sloka (in its stem form), though in each case the poet employs it in a different compound. Thus, in the first compound, the body of the dead hero is compared to a a pile of lotuses (padmanikara), in the second one his eyes are likened to lotus leaves (padmapatra), and in the third one his face is said to be like an open lotus flower (vyakdapadma). Note further the repetition of the syllables ka/kd and ra/rd in the first compound, padmanikardkara~'[the hero] whose body (dkdra)

[is like] a pile (nikara) of lotuses.' Moreover, the phonetic echo of this compound is emphasized by its proximity to the metrical boundary. In addition, the three compounds are fronted: they follow the object personal pronoun tarn 'him,' and it is not until the end of the sloka that we have the subject and the verb of this sentence, nflo vivyddha 'NiIa pierced.' Their location in the verse calls attention to them.

Polmtoton (Repetition of a word in a different case or suffixed form) mh.6.33.md piteva putrasya sakheva sakhyuh priye priyi%ytirhasi deva so#hum 'God, tolerate [my faults], just as a father [tolerates those1 of [his] son, a

friend [hose] of [his] friend, a Iover [those] of bis] lover.'

MBh.7.18.35 tad babhau raudrabibhatsam bibhatsar y&wn Zhave / Skfida iva rudrasya ghnata klatyaye pastin // 'Then Bibhatsu's chariot, fierce and dreadhi, appeared in the battle, as in Rudra's pleasure-grove when he kills [dl] creatures at the end of an era.'

In the second example, the poet juxtaposes the words bfbhutsam, an adjective meaning 'dreadful,' and the name of the hero BTbhatsu (in genitive). The phonetic similarity of these two words is emphasized by their location on both sides of the caesura, a position of metrical prominence. The same phonetic

pun is employed again by the poet in the words raudra 'fierce,' and the name of the god Ru&a (also in genitive) in the second line. The listener's perception of this aoka is further enhanced by the unusual comparison of the battlefield to Rudra's pleasure-grove, a comparison found only twice in my corpus.i36 A common simile (approx. 15x in my corpus) that illustrates the figure of

polyptoton is the following:

matto mattam iva dviparn 'Like an enraged @iodtiger/eIephmtchsinda~acfing]an enraged elephant.' variants: S13-6 &j p~yagdrhusi (genitive case, as in h e previous similes in this stami~, ba (dative i- comparative particle iva, or fern. genitive or dative + iva). In the second reading we have no finite verbal form (which we need with fhe infinitive S U & M ~ ) . The other instance of this simk is mh.7.1W.3%& Hopkins {1901:4@t) mentions this simile in his list of paraIle1 phrases in the Mah~bh~mta and the RamZyqa.

D3 priydyd

This formula has several variants. The animal not mentioned can be a lion, a tiger or another elephant; the omitted verb can be my verb meming "chmge," "attack? something or similar (varaydm dsa, prasasdra, upddravat, etc.).

In this simile, we have alliteration {the consonant m), repetition of the same word in two different cases (nominative and accusative) and phonetic echo produced by the vowel sequence i

-a-i-

a (iva dvipum). Note that the alliterating consonant

rn begins and ends the simile (ma- ... -am), creating a sort of mirror image.

M3h.6.1% Z k d brhadbhih kufijarair rnattaii caladbhir ~ d a k iva 'With mis] many enraged elephants, similar to moving r n o ~ ~ . ' ~ ~ ~

MBh.6.43.13cd (tau guiubhate) vasante pu#pa6abaIau puqpiUv iva kiqxfukau '[Those two heroes shone] Iilce two kispsuka flowers blmming in spring.'

ME3h.6.45.43ef haviqit b v y w ikj iva 'Like the obMm-bearer (i.e. the fire) with an oblation.'

One must also mention another type of repetition in epic similesTthat of a noun fdlowed by the same noun in a cornpund~as in m h . 6 . A p p n d k 4.64 arkant arkatafyapratdpmdn 'me covered] the sun, burning like the sun.' Further examples: MBh.6.90.27 ntfo nfldntbudaprakhyah '[the hero] M a , similar to a black ( d a ) cloud' (a pun on the king's name)? MBh.6.96.1ld smajra iva vajrabhrt 'like the hunderblt-baer with the thunderbolt' (Lea hdra)? MBh.7.72.30 vajray vajradharo yuthd, 'like the thundehlt-kmr with the thunderbit,' etc. lg

The tern acda (lit. 'nat moving') is one of the many names for 'mountain' in Sanskrit.

51

The MaEbhgrata also furnishes abundant examples of repetitions of parts of verses, many of which contain similes. Examples of this type of figure occur

typically in the most dramatic moments. I noted in the previous chapter that one of such moments is that in which Arjuna laments his son Abhimanyu

(mh.7.50.18-83).This passage is rich in sound figures, repetitions and parallelisms. A hrther instance of the figure of repetition occurs in a passage ha[ recounts the death of Bhiqma. Bhiqrna has k e n hit by &khandin% mows,

but he knows that the latter has k e n instigated by Aquna. He compiains to his general Du~&isanaa b u t this deceit thus:

'Similar in touch to the thunderbolt, possessing sharp points, made to enter

[the hdy], set lmse, uninterrupted. These are not &Uwy#in's m w s . ? (55) 'Tearing up [my] entrails, breaking through [my] impenetrable cuirass, they

hit me like maces. These are not &khap$k's arrows.? (56)

'Similar in touch to Brahma's rod, possessing the speed of the thunderbok, dangerous, they axe destroying my vital energy. These are not 5khaqdin's mows.' (57) 'Like enraged snakes? darting out their tongues full of poisony they are penetrating [my] entrails. These are not gikhant$inpsarrows.' (58) 'They destroy my life, like hostile messengers of death, similar in touch to maces and clubs. These are not &khqdinls mows.' (59) 'They tear my limbs, just as in the winter [the cold tears the limbs]

a

the cattle. These are Arjuna's arrows. These are not &khaqdin9s mows.' (60)

This passage consists of six flokas and contains seven comparisons, all of which refer to gikhandin's arrows ( b d ~ d b )The . first word in the first verse is a compund simile, vajrdfu~isamaspar~d~ 'similar in touch to the thunderbolt, ' which is repeated, with v d a ~ a n ,in flokas 57 and 59, bruhmadu~~usamasparid~ 'similu in touch to %rahma7srod' and gaddparighusapsparfd~ 'similar in touch to maces and clubs.' In the first two instances, the simile occupies the first piidit. The third compound simile, however, occupies the third piida, leaving room in the fmt h e for another simile, [~d&zyufltrva me prdvdn] yamdata ivdhitdb '[they destroy my life] like hostile messengem of death.' Further, in the other flokas of this passage (56, 58Â601, we bave similes as well: musald~fvu'like maces,' bhujagd iva samkuddhdb 'like enraged snakes' and ~ g h a m d s guvdm e iva 3ust as

in the winter [he cold tears the limbs] of the ~ a t t I e . ' ' The ~ ~ employment of In this simile, the subject (the cdci), the verb (tern) and the object (the limbs) have been gapped, and only the genitive plural m v d m 'of the caws') remains. The compiex syntactic struchm of this simile was h s u n d e r s t d by other epic editors, as the variants show. K3 Da Dn b-4 h42 emend the genitive to nomh&ve, mghdmdsegmd iva 'like caws in winterat K2 reads N g h a m segmap yutird 'just as a fernate crab [tears] a young mb' (?I. D6.8 reads mdghamdtp The I.commen&mr AxjunamXra does not s e p d ha 'just as young crabs [tear] a female crab' (? undemtmd this line either, translating it as folIaws: 'Just as scorpions (segmd) come out breaking

'31

similes at regular intervals creates a parallei structure that is emphasized by the employment of adjectives and nouns uf four syllables each in the second pZda of

57-59, vajravegd d~rdsaddh'pussessing the speed of the aunderbolt, dangerous,' lelihdnd visolba~dh'dasting out their tongues full of poison' and yamaddfd ivahitab 'like hostile messengers of death.' This paralle~isrnis further emphasized

by the sentence neme

iikha~dinab These are not !&khwcjin's arruws,'

which is repeated in the fourth pzda of every flaka. In addition, in he last line

of this passage, the words ime b d ~ d b'these arrows' are repeated twice, and the line begins and ends with the name of a warrior, in both cases in genitive case: arjunava ,., fikhapdinah. Finally, h e first pzda of flcka 60, krntanti mumagutrdgi

'They tear up my limbs,' echoes the first p8da of &ka 56, nikrtamdndmurm&cr 'Tearing up my entraik,' the verbai stem being the same in each case.

CHAPTER 3:

SIMILES AND METAPHORS

I noted in the introduction that, according to Indian writers on ~ l a q k a r & % s t r a , ' ~ ~ the t-tipaka or metaphor (literally 'having form o f ) is a development of the upam& But while in a upam8 the two terms (subject and object of comparison) are literally compared, usually by means of a comparative particle, in a riipaka the subject of comparison is only implicitly compared with its object. For Indian theoristsi4' the proper grammatical form through which this implicit comparison is expressed is ideally the compound noun, with the object of comparison following, as in MBh.7.73.7~ drowmeghah 'Drona-cloud.' The object alone (meghab 'cloud') is grammatically free, that is, the syntax of the sentence relates to it exclusively; it is from this total subordination, morphological as well as syntactic, of the subject (drow-), that the notion of identification derives."' To this category belong metaphors such as narar~abh4'man-bull' or purwavydghrab 'man-tiger,' which the poet employs abundantly in the epic.

Another variety of metaphor is that in which we have simple predication (uncompounded metaphor), as in MBh.6.106.43d dvipo b e m u 'bhavat 'Bhiqma identify a third variety of grammatical became an island.' Indian aestl~eticians'~~ subordination, which consists of the use of a subjective genitive, as in MBh.6.114.71 dvartab s a i n y d m 'eddy of soldiers.' As we can see, the composers of Books 6 and 7 of the Mahabhsrata employ all of the three types of metaphor established by later Indian theorists.

See, for instance, Bhirnaha's Kdvydlamkara 2.2 1 : upamanena yat tattvam upameyasya rflpyate / gunflnalp sarnatalp &$pi3~Upakaxpnama tad viduh // 'When the essential property of the upameya is expressed by the upamana, on having discerned the sameness of their qualities-that they know as 'rOpaka.' For an enumeration of the works of AlaipkZdstra in which the rdpaka is described, see Note 7. As Gerow (197 1 240) explains. See D 2.14-65, R 8.4-31.

There are about 120 instances of metaphors in my corpus. Of these, four occur in a didactic passage, the Bhagavad Gita, and the rest in battle scenes, that is, in passages in which the poet needs to create some variation. "IIe simpler metaphors seemingly occur at my p i n t in the narrative; only the more elaborate ones are employed at siwificmt points in the story, such as the death of the young hero Abhimanyu (mh.7.48.49-SO), Krqna's participation in the fight (mh.6.55.89-901, etc. In more than half of the metaphors in Books 6 and 7, the battlefield is said to be a river (of blood). The basic form of this metaphor is prdvartutu nadr

ghmd ' A temble river arose.' In most cases, h~wever,this uncompounded metaphor is expanded by means of a series of metaphoric compounds, such as

ionituughutaradgiy~'possessing streams of blood as waves,' mahdrathufutdvartd+ 'possessing hundreds of great chariots as eddies,' etc. This type of metaphor will be examined in detail later in this chapter.

Besides the identification of the battlefield with a river, we have only three more instances of uncompunded metaphors in Books 6 and 7

(MBh.6.37.1-2, 6.1M.43cd3 7*3.3); the rest occur in compounds. In two of the uncompounded me~phom(mh.6.lM.43cd and 7.3.3), BhIqma is said to be an island:

MBh.6.106.43cd aggdhe madatas tasya dvipo bhismo 'bhavat tit& 'Bhisma became then the island for him who was sinking in the mean.'

The third instance of this type of metaphor is that of the material universe

of the sa~psgra'~~ as an dvattha tree:

la

As Sharma (1964A27) expkiins. The subject of comparison is not mentioned in the

56

text.

MI3 h.6.W.l ~rdhvamtilama&@gZMm aivattharp priihur avyayam / chandgmsi yasya paqiini yas tarp veda sa vedavit // 'They say the eternal aivattha tree [is] one possessing roots above, branches below, whose kaves are the Vedic hymns. Whoever knows it knows the Vedas.'

MBh.6.37.2 adhs' cordhvam praqtzs tasya G ~ z gunapravddhii vi9aya praviiliih / adha* ca miiliiny musmtatiini kmgnubandhini mmusydoke // 'Downwards and upwards stretch its branches. The objects of the senses [are] its sprouts, nourished by qualities. Its roots extend downwards, resulting in actions in the world of human beings.'

The metaphors that occur in compound nouns contain a variety of images. In a b u t fifteen of these* the heroes are identified with the ocean (lW3h.6.15.26-28, 6.46.8), clouds (MBh.6.15.24, 7.6621, 7.67.1 I T 7"70,17d, 7.73.7~)~ fire (MBh.6.55.27~,6.102.10, 6.1 12.65, 6.1 14.5-6, 7.68.54), the sun (lW3h07.66.21), md animals such as a crocodile (MBh.7.76.26a). It is interesting to note that, with a few exceptions such as MBh.7.66.21 p d ~ d a v d d i ~ a'the b Pgndava sun' (Le. Arjuna) or blE3h.7JO.l7 dhr~{ady~m~abufdhakah 'Dbgadyumna the cloud,' d l of these metaphors have Bhiqma and Drona, the main characters of Books 6 and 7, as subjects of cornparism. Further, a number of metaphors are characteristic of certain heroes. Thus, BhTgna is the only hero said to be an wean or an island in the ocean, and D m p is the only warrior to be identified with a crocodik. Some examples of these metaphors follow:

Bhisma = the ocean blBh.6.15.26-28 i s v a b a Z g m g h o w biipagriihaq dur8sadam / k Z m u k o m i ~ makqayyam advipw saxnare 'plavarn / gadZsirnda8vmq hayagriihaq gajiikulam // 26 haygn gajgn padiits~tfca rathsmg ca taras8 b a h h / nimajjayantm samm p ~ a v i r Z p A i i ~ n // m 27 vid&ymZnm kopena tejasz ca paraqxapam 1

veleva m&uZvZsm Ice vTrZh pqavZraym // 28 'A terrible ocean of mows and weapons, possessing mows as crocodiles,

dangerous to approach, possessing a bow as waves, inexhaustible, without

an island or a boat in the battle, possessing maces and swords as sea monsters md whirlpools, horses as crocodiles, full of elephants, causing many horses, elephants, foot-soldiers and chariots to sink quickly in the battle, carrying away the rival heroes, burning with mger and splendor, destroyer of the enemy, who were the heroes who resisted [him] (i.e* ~ h ~ ~ r n ajust ) , 'as~ the shore [resists] the abode of sea monsters?'

Bhisma = fire MBh.6.102.10 r a h a ~ y a g s r aciip8rcir sii&tigadendhana / ~arasphuliiigobhismgmir dadaha ksahywabhiin // 'Possessing a chariot as the place for keeping the sacred fire, the bow as rays, the swmd, s p a r and club as hel+ and the mows as sparks of fire, Bhisma fire fiimselfl, burned the bulls among the warriors.'

Arjuna = the sun, Drona = a cloud

MBh.7.66.21 'M

tw

pZndavSdit~m'azpgujalq

Bhr~mais mentioned in goka 23.

kurupraviran yudhi ni8~apantam/ sa dronme~h&Saavqavegaib pr&chZdayan megha ivgrkx~min// That net of rays, the arrows of the Pgndava sun, who was burning the best of the Kuru heroes in battle, [him] Drona the cloud covered with streams of showers of arrows, just as a cloud [coves] the rays of the sun.'

In d l of these examples, we have several metaphoric compounds that refer to a hero in each case* In the first and third examples, we can also observe a simile in the last pgda, which is supported by the metaphors in the previous p&ias. One must note the presence of similes in more than half of the longer stanzas in which we also have metaphors. The close examination of the figures of speech in Books 6 and 7 suggests that h e epic poet emphys the more elaborate metaphors to expand a poetic image contained in a simile. We can also observe that the third example is in a long meter (upajilti).

Like most of the stanzas in long meters, this one describes a particularly dramatic event, Arjunays attempt to slay his old teacher Dro~a.This stanza is preceded by a cluster of three similes* which are also the first similes in this adhyiiya. Further? they contain a number of images 1 haw not found anywhere else in the b o k s under examination? such as the c o m p ~ s o nof dead elephants

with burned-down dwellings ( ~ h . 7 . 6 6 . 1 8 ) , ' or ~ ~that of horses with geese (mh.7.66.19}.'~~ The accumula~~n of poetic figures emphasizes the dramatic chmcter of this passage. la

MBh.7.66.18 c ~ m i t Z & ~ i p u d a g d h ~ nvajHnil&ua$m&h ~m /

tuIyarUpZ gajah ptur @qagrmbudavegmmZm // 'Similar 10 mounhn peaks, masses of cIouds, tar] dwellings emshed, driven, [or] burned down by the thunder, the wind, [or] the Ere, the e1ephants fell down.' bfBh.7.66.19 petur aivasahasHni prahasny arjune~ubhib/ hmsa hhava* pnfhe v&iviprabatlI iva //

Another image we find in compound metaphors is that in which the m y is said to be an ocean (approx. 10 times). Examples include: baldr~avam (mh.6.55.46d), se~dsdguru~ (MBh.6.59.5~),balaughamahdrnavam (mh.6.73.15d), buiamahdreavam (hdBh.6.73.Zb)7 sainyasdgarab (MI3h.6.74.32d9 7.1 9.6 1d), kurusdgarab (MI3h.7 3.inserted dter 13), samar~daddhi(MBh.6.92.11 d), rathasdgarab (MBh.7 *74.53a), droednfkamahdreavam (hlBh.7.95.4b).

Further examples of metaphors in Books 6 and 7 include: jfianapiavab 'raft of knowledge' (ME3h.6.26.36), jHdndgni4 'fire of howledge' (M33h.6.26.37), nuvadvdrap p r a m 'the city of nine gates7 (ix. the body, MBh.6.27.13), cukrapadmam 'c&a-lotus ' (MI3hn6S5.89), vyasdrnavu 'ocean of danger'

(6.90.9cd), fukasdgara4 'ocean of grief' (MI! h.6.103.18, 6. I 13.39, 7.1.10, 7.52.2), suinydragyam 'army-forest' (MBh.7.68.54) and sendkukqam 'army-wood'

(MBh.7.69.7). The first three examples are found in adjacent adhyzya in the Bhagavad GIt8. In about half of the metaphors in Books 6 and 7, the battlefield is compared with a river. The most elaborate instances of this metaphor (those with long compounds) occur only at special moments in the narrative, such as Rrona's first attack of the rival army or Krsga's intervention in the conflict (immediately following the Bhagavad GTtQ These passages provide us with the most interesting descriptions (from a poetic p i n t of view) of the battlefield. Apart from these metaphors, the battlefield is described by means of rather stereotyped similes in which the two armies are compared with two oceans, the elephants with clouds, the chariots with cities, the bmners with fire,

e t ~ . , ' ~ 'or

with strings

'Thausands of horses fell, hit by Arjuna's mows, just as geese [falk] on the Himavat mountain d&m down by the rain.' Read, for instance, the description af the armies in MBh.6.16: MBh.6.16.45 ~mut?amahrdvurtau mhdrdhasamdktffau / yugante samupetau h a u dr@efe sdgardv iva "The two armies, possessing maddened cmodites as eddies, ti111 of big sharks, looked like two oceans come together at the end of a yuga' (Notice the metaphoric compund u~mattumahr&arfa~ 'possessing maddened crocodiles as eddies'); lW3h.6.16.25cd (ndgdb) vibhrdjawnd &@ante m e & ? iva savidyukzb '[The elephants] were seen shining like resplendent clouds with lightning';

of instrumentals, usually preceding a simile, in which heroes, animals and weapons are enumerated, as in MBh.6.92.62-66. The identification of the battlefield with a river is expressed by means of a flexible formula, which at its simplest consists of three words, an initial verb followed by a noun and an adjective:

prgvartata nadi g h ~ r d ~ ~ "A terrible river arose.'

Here the poet employs the imperfect of vrt 'turn, arise,' which is the most common verb in this metaphor. The perfect causative may also be used, as in

MBh.7.83.30 rtudip pravartaydm dsa 'He made a river flow,"'" and in some cases

the imperfect causative, as in MBh.7.162.16 nadpt p~vartayanvirdh The heroes made a river flow.'150Other verbs may also be employed, as in the following examples:

MBh.7.13.9 sa v i r a That hero

... made

... raudraqi pr~skandavannadim a terrible river flow'

FdBh.7.15.42ab Sonitadm m h S v ~ kmz 8 ~ viiitsane nadim 'Having made a river in the killing that had blood as water and chariots

as eddies*

MBh.6.16.26ab rathdnlkSny adrsyanta nagardprva bharifah 'The many lines of chariots looked like jvalanta iva pdvakQh '[banners] like blazing fires.' cities'; MBh.6.16.30b (dhvaJQK) IÂ¥ The basic form of this metaphor occurs in MBhe6.85.25c, 6.99.33~and 7.146.46~. 'Â¥ See also MBh.7.Appendix 15.66. This tense is also employed in MBh.7.20.36 and 7.68.47.

mh.7.68.48cd

gajamb%dhZm nadim ~ t t ~ o n i t i i m

'He made a river, full of elephants, having excellent blood.'

The previous example, in which the two parts of the simile, akarot 'made' and nudim 'river,' are separated by g a ~ ~ a m b a d h'Full d ~ of elephants,' shows

that no metrical criteria are part of the definition of the formula. That is, the words that constitute the formula do not always occupy the same metrical slot. This aspect of the epic formula will be discussed in Chapter 4 below. Another example of the formula's independence from meter is MBh.6.55.121, where the formula is split between two lines:"'

MBh.6.55.12 1cd nadi sughora naradehapheni pravartita tatra ranajire vai 'A v e v temble river, possessing bodies of men as foam, arose there in

the battlefield.'

The basic formula may be expanded by adding an adverb of place or time, usually tatah 'then' or tatra 'there,' or a noun meaning "battlefield" (ranajira, mahahava, etc.) in locative:

MBh.7.113.15 tat& priivartata nadi ghorrnpa mahahave / babha va ca vifegena bhirilnam bhayavardhini // 'A river arose, possessing a terrible shape, in the great battle. It became

an increaser of fear especially for the cowards.'

See also MBh.7.68.48cd. quoted in (he previous page. An extreme example of the formula's independence from meter occurs in MBh.7.20.31-38, where the split formula extends over thirteen lines (see Appendix I).

Here the formula, which in its shortest form usually occupies only one pada, runs into the second pada. The line begins with the adverb t a t 4 'then,' instead of the sentence-initial verb pivartata 'arose.' The second piida includes a synonym for ghord, the compound ghorarupd 'possessing a terrible shape' and the locative mahahave 'in the great battle.' In the fourth pads the poet adds that the river increases the fear of the cowards, bhir~pdybhayavardhinl. The compounds ghorarapd and bhayavardhini, refering to the river, appear frequently in the

passages I have examined. In a number of instances, even entire lines are added to the basic formula,

as in the following lines:

MBh.7.146.46-47 vadhyamzne bale tasmiqs tava putrasya mariqa / pravartata nadi ghora s'o~itaughatarartgini// 46 ubhayoh senayor madhye naraSvadvipavahini / yathii vaitarwi riijan yamarZq&apuram prati // 47 'When (he army of your son was being slaughtered, 0 Lord, a terrible river arose, possessing streams of blood as wavesIS2 (46), in the middle of both armies, carrying away men, horses and elephants, like the [river] VaitarwT, 0 King, [flowing] toward the city of Yama's kingdom' (47).

Here the basic formula is expanded by the first line, in which the poet gives some information about the troops (they belong to Dhftariispa's son). Further, the fourth pZda of the first sloka is occupied by a compound that refers to the river, io~itaughatarafigipt'possessing streams of blood as waves.' Moreover, in the second piida, the poet specifies the place where the river arose,

ubhayoh senayor madhye 'in the middle of both armies.' This is followed by 132

Or 'possessing blood as waves and streams.'

63

another compound, narasvadvipavdhini 'carrying away men, horses and elephants.' In addition, the initial formula is expanded by a simile that occupies the entire last line, yath~vaitaraw rajan yamardsrraprae prati 'like the [river] Vaitaraqi,

0 King, [flowing] toward the city of Yama's kingdom.' This comparison is employed by the poet in a number of cases, particularly in the most elaborate examples. In MBh.7.68.56 (insertion in S rnss.)

we have an unusual simile in which the river is likened to the god Rudra's pleasure grove, rudrasydkridasadrsf. MBh.7.146.46-47 is one of the only two instances in Books 6 and 7 of short metaphors (those occupying one or two slokas) that contain a simile. The second instance occurs in MBh.6.114.71:

MBh.6.114.71 Zsid @nga iv8varto muhiirtam udadher iva / sainyZn8m yudhyamZn2nam nighnatsm itaretaram // 'There was an eddy like the [river] Oaf~gZ''~for a moment, like [an eddy] of the Ocean, of the troops [that were] fighting [and] slaying one another.'

In this variant of the usual metaphor, the river in the battlefield is compared with the river ~ a ~ i g i iThis . ' ~ simile ~ is followed by a second simile in which the battlefield is compared with an eddy of the ocean. One must note here

the sentence-initial verb dstt 'there was."55 This verse is repeated in Book 7, with the substitution of $@randm 'heroes' for sainydndm 'troops':

The word gdtiga could also be taken as locative, 'as if in the [river] GlMg3.' If we take gdiiga as nominative. sentence-initialverb is an Indo-European syntactic figure that often occurs at the beginning of folktales and other texts, as Watkins (199525) remarks.

MBh.7.35.13cd-14 asid ggfiga ivsvarto muhurtam udadher iva //

S'UrZniim yudhyam8nZniim nighnatgm itaretaram / smgrZmas tumulo riijan priivartata sudZrun@

//

'There was an eddy like the [river] GaiigE for a moment, like [an eddy] of the Ocean, of the heroes [that were] fighting [and] slaying one another. A noisy battle, 0 King, began, very terrible.'

One can observe here that the first two lines are followed by another formulaic line, satygrdmas turn1110rdjun prdvartata s u d d r u ~ u'~A noisy battle,

0 King, began, very terrible,' which is a variant of a Mahiibhgrata formula for the onset of battle:

tat*

pravavpe yuddham tumulam lomaharqarpn

"Then began a battle, noisy and hair-rising.'

Ingalls (1985) discusses this formula in detail."'

He explains that this

formulaic line consists in most cases of a verb (pravavrte), the adverb tatah and the noun yuddham. The verb dfit may be substituted, and the verb may also be pulled back to the beginning of the line (prdvartata). The opening adverb can be changed to the pronoun tayub or te@m 'of them,' dual or plural, as the particular case may demand. The second half of the formula can be varied by synonyms, such as bhaydvaham, or it can give particular information, k u r ~ ~ d ~ p ~ ~ u v u i ~

saha 'of the Kurus with the PZncjavas.' What is interesting here is that, in a number of instances, the second half of the formula contains a simile, as in

MBh.6.96.49b v~travdsavayoriva 'like [that] of Vma and Vasava.' In the

'"

Ingalls, D. H. H., and D. H. H. Ingalls, Jr. 1985. "The MahgbhSrata: Stylistic Study, Computer Analysis, and Concordance." In Sharma, Arvind, ed. Essays on the MaUbhSrata. Journal o f South Asian Literature 20, no. 1, pp. 17-46 [Reprinted 1991. Essays on the Mahdhhdrata. New York and Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 19-56].

following chapter, I will analyze a number of formulaic similes that follow this formula. The most common way of expanding the basic formula is to add compounds. These can be of two types, tatpuruqas and bahuvrihis. The tatpurups end in adjectives that mean "full" (mkuld, samakula, sevitd, etc.) or "carrying" (vahini,etc.), as in MBh .7.48.50d jivamrtapravahini 'carrying away [both] living

and dead [heroes]' or MBh.7.13.9b k r a v y S d a g a ~ s a ~ u'full l ~ of groups of

flesh-eaters.' Many of the tatpuruqas contain metaphoric compounds, as in MBh.7.13.10 kavacodupasamyukt~m~~apankasamdkuI~m 'abounding in cuirasses as rafts, full of flesh as mud.' The bahuvrihis are metaphoric compounds in which the first member (an object in the battlefield) is implicitly compared with the second member (an object in the river), as in MBh.7.68.47f io~itaughatarahgini'possessing streams of blood as waves' or MBh.6.55.121 b naradehaphend 'possessing men's bodies as foam.' These compounds often contain other compounds as well, as in MBh.6.55.124a narawa~gdsthinjkrttafarkara'possessing bones of men, horses and elephants as loose pebbles,' where the first part, nardhandgathi- 'bones of men, horses and elephants,' is a tatpurusa, which in turn contains another compound, the dvandva nardivanaga 'men, horses and elephants.' A number of bahuvrihi compounds, particularly the longer ones, contain

past participles. These participles can modify any of the members of the compound, as the following examples show:

MBh.7.13.10b hastyas'vakrtarodhasm 'Possessing banks made by elephants and horses.'

MBh.7.48.49d praviddhanan8vidha&istramZlinT 'Possessing various kinds of abandoned weapons as a garland.'

In the previous pages, I examined short instances (consisting of one or two verses) or parts of instances of the metaphor of the battlefield as a river. In what follows, I further illustrate the employment of this metaphor by means of two long passages (5 or more stanzas) in which most or all of the abovementioned features occur.

'"

The first passage (MBh.7.13.8- 18, sloka meter)

describes the massacre caused by Droqa's attack, and contains the longest string of metaphoric compounds in Books 6 and 7 (10 flokas). Here we can also

observe the poet's experimentation with syntactic structures that include metaphors. The second passage (MBh.6.SS.12 1- 125, upajiiti

describes the

battlefield when Arjuna and Knna join the combat. Further examples of this metaphor are listed in Appendix 1. The first passage reads:

MBh.7.13.8 sa vir@ satyavan prgjiio dhannanitya sudamp@ / yugantakZle yanteva159raudrarp priiskandayan nadirn // "That hero, truthful, intelligent, constant in duty, very terrible, made a dreadful river flow, like a charioteer

(?)la

at the end of a yuga.'

Most of the passages in Books 6 and 7 of the Mah8bhSrata in which this metaphor occurs arc long. heo other passage in non-goka meter in which we have the metaphor of the battlefield as a river of blood is found in MBh.7.48.49-50 (vmfastha). See Appendix 1. The wide range of variants of this word (or pada) shows that at least a number of epic poets did not fully understand it. Variants mentioned in the Critical Edition: Ki bhdyatvam; K3 yaiprrevy, KS vd t a m ; Qi yamava4 Dl sa&uddho (for yanteva). B 1 y a m iva k a l m megho; B2.3-5 D"! D3.6 pgdntakaban megho; yugSntakQfavadghordm;DS yugdnfakSlo yamens T G7.-5 yuddhakafeprayanem; GI M yugdnta iva yutnena.

MBh.7.13.9 amarqavegaprabhavZqi kravy2dag~asamkul2m/

balaughaib s w a t & pamaw vTravkqapaharinTm // 'Having its origin in the flow of [Droqa's] wrath, abounding in groups of carnivorous animals, full of troops as streams everywhere, carrying away

the heroes as trees.'

MBh.7.13. i 0 s'onitodgm rathiivartsm hasty~vwarodhasam/ kavacodupasamyuktZm m~msaparikasm~kul~m // Possessing blood as water, chariots as eddies, possessing banks made of elephants and horses, abounding in cuirasses as rafts, full of flesh as mud.'

MBh.7.13.11 medomajjasthisikatZm uqgiqavaraphenilSm / saipgr8majdadEpUmatp pr~smatsyasam~kul~m // Possessing fat, entrails and bones as sand, possessing turbans as foam, filled with combats as clouds, full of lances as fishes.'

MBh.7.13.12 naran8gSivasambhatam Saravegaughavahinim / s'ariradai-us'flgstam bhujan8gasm8kulZm // 'Provided with men, elephants and horses, carrying arrows as streams, having heaps of bodies as trees, full of arms16' as snakes.'

'

I translate the variant yaweva CK.3). Or 'elephants' trunks. '

'Possessing a surface with heads as rocks, abounding in swords as fishes, full of pools having chariots as snakes, adorned162with various ornaments.'

MB h.7.13.14 mah8rathaiatavart8m bhOmirenQmim8linim / mah8viwavat2m samkhye sutaram bhimdustafim // 'Possessing hundreds of great chariots as eddies, having a garland of earth

and dust as waves, in the battle of great heroes, easy to cross, hard to cross for the cowards.'

MBh.7.13.15 SUravy31asam8kimam praniv3nijasevit3m / chinnachatramahZhams8m m u k u t ~ n ~ a j a s ~ k u//l ~ m 'Abounding in heroes as snakes, full of living creatures as lot use^,"^ possessing broken parasols as great swans, full of tiaras as birds.'

MBh.7.13.16 cakraktirrn8m gadanakrsm S'arakqudrajhqSkul~m/ badagrdhrasrggl8nam ghorasqghair nisevit8m // 'Possessing wheels as turtles, clubs as crocodiles, full of arrows as small fishes, abounding in terrible heaps of heronsIM as vultures and jackals.'

-- - -

--

'a 1 translate the variant Miifitdm (for ntrajdm) (Sl K 81.3.5, Del Dnz Dl4,g). I translate the variant vdrija (for vdgija) (T (32-5). "4 I translate (he variant baka (for ba&) (81.4) In . this compound, the usual order is reversed: herons are river birds, and therefore we expect to find them mentioned in the second part of the compound; vultures and jackals, the battlefield equivalents, should be mentioned in the first part of the compound.

'Carrying creatures killed in battle by the powefil Drona with arrows to the world of the ancestors by hundredsv 0 Best of kings.'

IbfBh.7.13.18 im-r&ataamb%&8p keg&aivdagZdvd%m/ nadTrp prgvartayad r3ja.n bhiaqgm bhayavadhinrm //

'Full of hundreds of [dead] b~dies*possessing hair as moss and grass, [such] a river [Drogil caused to flaw, 0 King, that increased the fear of cowards.'

This long passage begins with a variant of the basic formula (prdvartafu

nadighord ' A terrible river arose'), in which the original word order has been

altered: instead of verb

+ noun +

adjective, here we have adjective

+ verb +

noun (raudrd~prdskattdayan ttadrm).'65In this sloka, the p e t also employs synonyms of two words of the basic formula, ratdrdrn (for ghurd) and prdskandayat (for prdvartata). The subject of this sentence, sa vrrah 'that hero,'

which opens the line, is separated from the test of the formula by four epithets that refer to it? and by what seems to be a sirni1e.16' Unlike other passages in which we have the image of the battlefield as a river?'67here the simile is not embedded in the metaphor. The function of this simile is demarcative: it immediately precedes the metaphor ra~drdmprdskandqatt nadtm. This metaphor is further repeated* with a variation, in the last verse of this passage, in a sort of dng-camposition, ~m&t prdvartaya? rdjatt b h f r a ~ dbhaymardhinlm p '[Such] a river prona] caused to flow, 0 King, that increased the fear of cowards.'

The change of word order is comonly a bundary markec here it marks the end of the line (and of the Goka). See Note to that goka. See, for instance, the second passage I have chcisen to illustrate the use of this rnetaphar.

A similar introduction to the metaphor of the battlefield as a river occurs

in MBh.7.20.30, where the hero Drona is compared to the god Viqnu during his wars with the daityas:

MBh.7.20.30 dronas tu p@dav%nlkecakiira kadanarp mahat / yathii daityagve vi9~uhs u r 3 s u r m a m ~ ~ //&

'Droga caused a great massacre among the Piincjava troops, just as Vi$qu, honored by gods and auras, [caused a massacre] among the daityas.'

All of the compounds in the previous passage (MBh.7.13.8-18) anticipate

nudim in stanza 18. 'This noun is cued by gender, feminine being the most highly marked gender. The noun nadim is also the last word of the iloka that introduces the metaphor (floka 8), thus making the referent clear to the audience. The compa.irids in these verses illustrate the two types of compounds (tatpuruqas and bahuvfihis) mentioned above. Some examples of tapumqas:

vrravr&$dpahd~iqrm'carrying away the trees as heroes,*kavuco~upasa~y~f&?dm 'full of cuirasses as rafts.' Both tatpumqas contain metaphors (trees as heraes, cuirasses as rafts). Examples of bahuvfihis: h a s ~ a f i a k ~ ~ a r u d h a'possessing ~am banks made

by elephants and horses,' muhdrathafatd~arram'possessing hundreds of great

chariots as eddies.' Perhaps in order to create some stylistic variation, the poet employs both types of compounds in each floka.

This passage is aiso interesting because here we can observe the poet's e x p ~ m e n ~ t i owith n syntactic structures. Thus, instead of the usuai metaphoric compound ending in -parpdrn (cf- 7-13.11c sapgrdmajaladdpar~dm'full of combats as clouds'), in 7.13.9~he employs the adjective p a r ~ d m 'fuil' preceded

by the insmmentd bala~ghaih'trmps as streams' a d the adverb sarvutuh 'everywhere.' This instrumental, however, contains a metaphoric compound

consisting of two members, b ~ ?mop' h and u g h 'stream.' A similar variation is found in aoka MT where the adjective ni~evifdrn'abunding' is preceded by the inshmentd ghurasapghaib 'terrible heapsT' itself a kamadharaya compound, and the metaphoric compound baduadhrasrgdidndrn 'of herons as vultures and jackals. ' 1 noted above that this long metaphor ends with a variant of the basic

fornula, +wdrmprtivarmyad raja8 bjlrr~ydtpb~~ayuvurdl~ir~~m '[Such] a river [Drona] caused to flow, 0 King, that increased the fear of cowards,' which echoes the formula in the first doka? raiddrdm praskundayan m&m. "Rie second passage (MBh.6.55.12 1- 125, upajiiti meter) ~ccursat an impoflmt point in the narrative? that in which Arjuna and Qpp decide to join the conflict. The description of the massacre on the battlefield is a part of a long adhysya (132 verses in the Critical Edition) in which we have 4 additional metaphors: Bhigma as fire (mhs6.55.27), the m y as an ocean (MBh.6.55.46), the battlefield as a river (MBh.6.55.1 I- 12) and Qsqa's weapon, the d a a , as a lotus (MBh.6.55.89-90). The latter is also an instance of a simile supported by an elaborate

'61

mh.6.55.89 s u c i a r ~ a ncgsya ~ raaja saures tac cakrapadmm subhujomn~lm/ yathiIdipadman tarug3rkavmpm rarsja n8r8yaym8bhijgtm // 'The Sudadma, hat discus-lotus, of Sauri (Kfioa), possessing mis] two beautiful m s as its Iarge stalk, shone, just as the p ~ m e v dlotus, whose color is that of the morning sun, born h m NaHyaqa's navel, shone.' MBh.6.55.W tat h ~ ~ & o @ a y w O q a b u d d h ~ ~ u ~ n t a t i k ~ n 3 g m u j ~ t a/p a m my&va dehorns-pmdhm M j a n % ~ y ~ a b a h u n i I //l m 'Awakened by the rising sun which is Knnars anger, possessing beautihi leaves as sharp as the edge of a mar, born fram the large lake of his bctdy, it shone, possessing NaHyqta's m s as its stalk.'

Notice the clausal simile with identicd verbs (rurdju 'shone') in the first stanza.

wdeh&a&*gadohitodZ

/

nadi sugharii nmdehaphen~ pravartitii t a m ~ i i j i r evai // Then, by Kiritin (i.e Arjuna) with sharp arrows, possessing blood of bodies of men hit by weapons as water,[69 a terrible river, possessing men's bodies as foam. arose there in the battkfieM.'

MBh.6.55.122 vegma s3tivap@uprav2h% prasusrutii

bhairavgrgvmpg /

paetm~giiSv&aflrudh~

nuZnvmajj%bhflam2msap&kZ // 'Running impetuously, having a broad current, it flowed terrible, misshapn, possessing bodies of dead elephants and horses as banks, arid entrails, marrow and carried flesh of men as

MBh.6.55.123 pmbhUtu&qog~abhfitaevit& SirakapalZkui&eid8dvalZ / $m-raamgh%t ~ h a s r a v g h i n i v i s ~ m m ~ ~ ~ k a v a c o m i//s ~ k u i ~

'Full of numerous troops af demons and spirits, pssessing abundant hair of the skulls of heads as grass, carrying thousands of heaps of bodies, full of numerous scattered cuirasses as waves.'

Or 'possessing flesh carried by men's entrails and m m w as mud.' Vm*ant Ko indicates that the nouns preceding the participle are to be taken as the agents of the verk aardpPasamjfiair vrtamdma- 'flesh covered (or surrounded) by heaps of men's entrails.' This is the only variant mentioned in the Critical Mitian in which we have rn instrumental preceding the participle.

h4F3h.6.55.124 n x % S v m ~ g Z s h i n i ~ & m k x % vinaiapZtglavaU bhay&ahii / tam kqkmalZmaadhr&ahvaih havy8daswghi$ ca ~ & s u b h i ica // 'Possessing bones of men? horses and elephants as loose pebbles, possessing destruction and hellt carrying tenort that [river], with cranes and vultures, covered with gaimds of herons and goups of flesh-eating hyenas 2

MBh.6.55.125 u p t & n l Z v dadriub sarnant2t lcriiriirp m&Svaituqipr&ZS2m /

pravartitiim q*unab%nsmghir medovaZsr@mv&Z~subhTmZm // 'Full of corpses, they saw [that river] on all sides, terrible, similar to the great [ ~ v e r ]Vaitaqi, caused to flow by Arjuna's showers of mows,

carrying fat, marrow and blood? very dreadfuL7

The first stanza of this passage contains a variant of the basic foxmula nudfsughurd .*. pravartitd 'A very fearful river arose,' which extends over two lines. Here the noun nadr is fi-onted, and the adjective ghord has become the compound sughurd 'very temble.' The formula is expanded by adding the adverb tatra 'there' and the Iocative ruqdjire 'in the battlefield*' One should note that, in five stanzas, we find four synonyms of 'tembIe,' sughord, bhaydvahd, hardm and subhrmdm. The elaboration of this passage is further evident in the use of metaphoric compunds, many af which wwpy the entire pads. The compund

nfdeha~strak~utalohitodd 'possessing blood of bodies of men hit by weapons as

water' is especially interesting. Its syntactic structure is apparently incoherent: this is a bahuvfihi, and the first members, nrdehahstrak~ata'of bodies of men hit by weapons,' seem to form a tatpuruqa with regard to the last part of the word. In order for the entire compound to make sense, the rest of its members might perhaps be read in the following order: fastra-kqta-nf-deha. The variants in the critical apparatus do not give us any hint as to how to analyze this line. Just as in other instances of this metaphor, this passage contains an embedded simile in which the battlefield is likened to the river Vaitara~T."~This comparison is usually marked by yatha, as in MBh.6.99.38c yathd vaitara~i'like [the river] Vaitaraqi.' Here, however, the comparison is in the form of a compound ending in prakdam 'similar to,' mahdvaitara~prak~~m 'similar to the great [river] VaitaranT.' This is one more example of the poet's tendency to elaborate on given structures in passages in long meters.

The last stanza of MBh.6.55.121-25 is further noteworthy because it serves as a ring-composition to the whole passage. Here the vocabulary echoes that in the first stanza: Arjuna (121a kirMm / 125c arjuna) caused [the river] to flow (1 2 1d prmanital 12% pravartitdm) with his arrows (1 2 1 a s'araughaih /

125c bdgasapghaih) all over the battlefield (12 Id fatra ragdjire / 125a samantdt).

The river is very terrible (121c sughord / 12% kruram, 125d subhJmdm) and / carries away the entrails and blood of dead men (12lb ~ehaiastra~atatuhitodd 125d medovasdsrkpravahdm). Finally, the last word of stanza 125, subhlmdm, echoes sughord in 121.

- --

--

See, for instance. MBh.6.99.38. 7.13.9. 7.146.47. etc.

75

Kipmsky (1976) stresses the importance of Sanskrit literature for a theory of oral & a d i t i ~ n He . ~ ~dismisses Lord's theory that composition in perfarmance is a condition sine qua non for oral poetry, and argues that the Vedic poems are examples of oral compositions.174Hawever, he mentions the MAgbharata and the

RZrnEyqa only in passing.17sThe first scholar to point out the relevance of the Sanskrit epics as traditional compositicms is E r n e n e a ~ whose , ~ ~ ~ ideas have been

developed by GrintserIn and Ingallsin in more recent works. 1 noted in h e

In On page lW, he quotes Winternitz (1927:33-4): *'*InIndia, from the oldest times, up till the present day, the spoken word, and not writing, has been the basis of the whole of the literary and scientific activity. Even today, when the Indians have hown the art of writing since centuries, when there are innumerable manuscripts, and when wen a certain sanctity and reverence is accorded to these manuscripts, when the most important texts arc accessible also in India in cheap printed editions* even today, the whole of the literary and scientific intercourse in India is based upm the spoken word. Not out of manuscripts or books does one learn the texts, but from the mouth of the teacher, today as thousands of years ago. The written text can at most be used as an aid to learning, as a support to the memory* but no authority is attributed to it. Authority is possessed, only by the spoken word of the teacher. If today ail the manuscripts and prints were to be lost. that would by no means cause the disappearance of Indian 5terature from the face of the earth, for a great portion of it could be recaIIed out of the memory of the scholars and reciters. The works of the poets, tcm, were in india never intended for readers, but always for hearers. Even modern poets do not desire to be read, but their wish is that their poetry may become 'an adornment for the throats of the expem.""' Kiparsky ( 1976:I0 1ff.). 17' Kiparsky (1976: 103): *'It is not the deveiopment of fixed oral texts or written ckissics which is a mark of decaying creativity, but the failure of new works to be produced. Of course, any healthy society continues to create the [itemure it needs. In particuiar, the subsequent orid tradition of India produced a flourishing epic literature, which itself crystallized into the Rdmdyuqa and the Muhdbhdrafa, and this was in turn foflowed by a rich tradition of prose narrative. To view the fixation of the Vedic literature as a sign of declining creativity would be simply a prejudice.'' IT6 Eheneau, M. EL 1958. "Oral Poets of South India: The Todas.'* J ~ u r n d ofAmerican Fulklure 71, pp. 31344: "The marks of oral composition and of a very early synthesis of numerous oral recitations into one unified text are clearly evident in both these epics [the Muhdbhdrara and the Rdm?yagu] (as they are in Homer). The tradition of the transmittal of the Mahdbhdrura (and of the RdMyana too) even illustrates the postulate that in a living oral tradition and barring special conditions, no two oral recitations of what p u p r t s to be the same work are identical, but each recitation is a f ~ s hcomposition. For we are told in the Muhdbh&rafa itself that its length is not always the same (Book I, adhygya i ) and that the text as we have it is the third recitation in a succession of famous recitations of different Iengths. This oral characteristic (which we know very well fmtn Bowrats work) did not come to an end even after the Mahdbhdrara was written down, perhaps in the fourth century AD., perhaps somewhat earlier. The copyists have never ceased to add mom good, bad, or indifferent passages or stories to their versions when they could do so. It is only recognition of the oral technique of cornpsition and its implications that makes it possible to deal with the Sansbt epic in any but the most fumbling way." Grintser (1974). Ingalls (1385).

''

introductory chapter that Grintser divides the formulas in the Sanskrit epics into six groups, according to their syntax. The last of these groups includes similes,

such as dapdupdpir ivdntakuh 'like [the god og death with a stick in his hand,'

pfirgacandr~nibhdnand 'possessing a face like the full moont e t ~ . ' !According ~ to Grintser, a b u t one-fifth of the formulas in the epics contain similes. He further indicates that formulas (with or without similes) are particularly fiequent in battle scenes, less in narrative passages and even less in didactic passages. His analysis of adhyiiya 49 of Book 6 (description of a duel between Drona and Dhrqtadyumna) shows that only 23 out of 164 piidas are entirely free from fomulas, and that 77% of the entire adhyiiya consist of formulaic expre~sions.~~ B r o ~ h n g t o nsuggests ~~~ the percentage of 30% to 40% in battie scenes in the epics, and argues that a formula should be at least five syllables long, and not just two syllables long, as Grintser c1aimdE In my analysis of forrnulaic similes

in the epic, 1 take as formuias words or groups of words that occupy at least half p8dat that is, four syllables. Ingalls's analysis of forrnulaic expressions in the Mahiibhiirata provides us with useful observations concerning the composition techniques of the epic pets.

However, Ingalls relies too much on the 'traditional" (Parry's) definition of the formula, in that he emphasizes the factor of meter as the main conditioning f~rce."~My analysis of the formulaic similes in the Mhgbhgrata shows that a For the other groups, see Introduction. Grintser (1974:7 I ff.). Brockington (1984:38). Grintser takes as fomdas words like yuddham 'battle,' v r & t 'hem,' vfddhub *old,' svanab 'sound,' etc. Ingalls (1985:23): "A fomula is a framework for expressing any general incident or description that is likely to be needed by the oral performer. One or mare words of the fornula will remain the same in many occurrences and will always occ~pyh e same metrical dot [italics rninel." He illustrates this by means of a fomula for the onset of battle (which typically dms not cantain m y similes): 'SQ

''

tat* pravavpe y u d d h a ~tumulw ~ lomhqqm Then began a battie, noisy and hair-raising.'

large number of formulas are independent from meter, and that theme is the main criterion for identifying an epic formula. In this chapter, 1 examine the formulas in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahabhgrata that contain similes. About two thirds of the similes in these books occur in fornulaic expressions. A number of these fomulas (about one-third) are relatively fixed, that is, they appear in a constant shape. However, most of the

formulas hat contain similes are quite flexible, that is, they can be inflected, expanded and split by other words?

The content of these formuIaic similes

ranges from mythological events, such as the wars between the gods and the demons, to compariscins of combatants on the battlefield with animals, trees or natural phenomena, and they often contain images of nature, such as the comparison of fallen heroes with blooming kir@uka trees, or that of warriors crushing their enemies with elephants crushing lotus-flowers. It is precisely in the images of nature where we find the most elaborate variations of formulas, as in anticipation of later kiivya poetry. Here one must again emphasize the notion of theme as a fundamental criterion for the definition of the formula. Before 1 move into an analysis of fornulaic similes in the Mahiibhiirata, a brief description of the meters employed by the epic poet must be made. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the Mhsbhgrata employs a number of meters, but by He then gives a number of variants of this formula (14). in which the word yaddhum 'battle' dways occupies the same rnehcd slot. Some exampiis: tat@ pravame yuddhm te@m pravavfle yuddharp tat& pravavfle yuddhm tat* pravaqte yuddhaq~ tat& smabhavad yuddham tayob smabhavad yuddhm tayoh smabhavad yuddham

t u m d q hmahaqqm tumulq Iomahwqam ghomtlpam bhayZvahm kauravtiq~mbhaytivhm t u r n u l ~lomahaqmm tumuhp I o m a h a q ~ m vp-v%iavayor iva

However, 1 have found a number of variants of this formuIa in Bm&s6 and 7 in which the word yuddhum does not wcupy the same metrical slot it occupies in the examples cited by IngaIls. In two instances (MBh.6.65.33 a ~ d7.15.12), this fomu1a is followed by a simile (see P. 871. The need to distinguish these twa types of famula, fixed and flexible, is pointed out by Kiparsky (1976:82), who fol1ows Hainsworth (1968).

far the commonest (approx. 95%) is the 4oka (epic anugubh). The floka is

while each half is divided into two halves, each containing sixteen syl~ab~es, divided into two quarters, or piidas, of eight syllables each. The first four syllables are free, although certain combinations are prohibited. In the second half of the psda, the sequence is determined. The scheme of the epic aoka may be represented like this:

pzda 1: x x l xi x l u

-- -- a

pada 2: x xz xz xz u

-u

pxda 3: x

X I XI XI

pada 4: x

x2

--

ii

-- u

ti

u --

xz xz u

In this scheme, u represents a short syllable, -- a long sylIable and x a syllable that may be either long or short so long as certain combinabons of conhguous syllables are avoided. The oppsition of length on the find sy1Iable of each line was neutralized (by convention this syllable was prolonged even if it was short by nature).

The x's marked with subscript I may never fom with each

other a tribrach (u u u) or an anapest (u u --). The x's with subscript 2, in addition to these prohibitions, may never forrn a cretic (- u

--I. Note also that

there is sandhi between the first and the second psdas* and between the third and the fourth piidas* but not between the second and the third. 1 noted in Chapter 1 that the vast majority of epic similes occupy the

fourth pzda of the doka, and a number of similes occupy the second pgda as well. The fact that these are the pgda in the 4oka that allow less metrical variation may account for the presence of formulaic similes in these positi~ns.'~~ As explained by hgalls (1985: 17ff.) As Nagy (1974:156) explains in his analysis of the &gvedic fornula iravafs) ukpkzrn 'imperishable fame': ' * h e s in the closing are more likely to be traditional than phrases in the

A (relatively low) number of similes occur in the f i t and the third piidas. Epic

formulas often have two or more variants, one that fits in the cadence of the second and fourth padas, and another that fits in the cadence of the first and third piidas. For instance, when the poet wants to compare a combat of warriors with a combat of gods and demons, he employs, in most cases, the formula yuthd devdsureyuddhe 'as in the war of the gods and the aurasT (U ..-

--

.... u

-- --

--) in the third piida, and in

very few iris~mcesin the first

pacia, these being the only two piidas in which the formula fits into the cadence. If the poet wants to employ the same comparison in one of the other two piidas, he will use a synonym or equivalent of different metricd shape, as in MBh.7.165b Ql~ddIze)ghme devas&ropame 2s terrible combat, similar to [the combat] of the gods and the demons' (-- --

-- -- u --

ti --).

Another formulaic simile that illustrates this principle is MBh.6.43.6 id mughuvd~iva ddnavam 'just as Maghavan [pierced] the diinava'

(u u -- u u -- u

--).

The similes in which the poet compares a wamor slaying

his enemy with Indra shying the dznavas typically consist of a synonym of hdra

(hkra, Maghavm, etc.) in nominative followed by the particle of comparison ivalyathd and the accusative ddmvdn (or ddnuvdn followed by the partick of

compalison)~as in this instance. This simile usually occupies the fourth pzda. lf the p e t wants to employ this simile in the first or third pa&, he will change the vocabulary and the word order, as in MBh.7.20.53a te dtinavd ivendreoa 'they, like diinavas [being slain] by Indra' (--

--

u

- u -- - u).

This example is

interesting because it is one of the few instances in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahiibhgrata in which the god Indra is mentioned by this name,'" a synonym opening, since rhythmical inflexibility makes it harder to devise a new phrase fitting the closing than to fdl back on a p b e which came almady made with the right rhythmical pattern." See also Grintser (1974:49ff.). Irn With the exception of compund similes such as i~&dfanisamsparfam'[a weapon] similar in much to indra's &undeb&,* or indrdfunisumumaffum'[a weapon] similar in sound to Indra's thunderbolt.'

(&kraT Vajrapii~i?VZsava, devendra? devargja, etc.) king typically employed in the epic. The fact that the word indm commonly means 'best of' in the MahZbhZrata (as in rdjendrub 'best of kings,' etc.) accounts perhaps for the use of synonyms of the god's name. As we can see, the floka presents a vezy free pattern well suited for narratives. On a number of occasions, the p e t employs long meters as well (see Chapter 1). Most frequent among these is the frispbh, with four quarters of eleven syllables each, usud~y:

The vast majority of the examples of formulas that contain similes in Books 6 and 7 occur in ilokas, and only a few occur in long meters. The fomuias in long meters typically show considerable variations in vocabulary and syntax with regard to the basic fomuta in iloka. 1 noted in previous chapters that many of the passages composed in long meters are poetic expansions of a particular episode or theme, and that this explains the variations. The examples that fdlow illustrate the degrees of fmiv/flexibiliv of the fomulas that contain similes in the Mhgbhgmta. The first example is that in which the combat on the battlefield is compared with the combat of the gods and the demons in a mythological past. In these similes (approx. lo)? the comparison typically occupies the second half of the iloka. The components of the third p&la are almost never varied: y u t h ~ d a d s ~ r e y ~ d d&as h e in the battie of the gads and the demons.' The fourth pgda includes the names of the

combatants, and an epithet that refers to them may be added. hdra is the god mentioned in most cases; only in five instances do we have other gods (Rudra?

Yams? Varuna, Kiirttikeya? PiQan). As for the demons? I noted above that they are usually refered to with the generic tern uswa, although a few of them

(Bdmda?Vma, Maya? hmbara? etc.) are also mentioned by name. Examples: ?dBh.6.43.42 vyabhrzjetiim tatas tau tu sarpyuge iaravikgatau /

yathg devzsure yuddhe balaiakrau mahiibalau // Then those two [warriors], hit by arrows in the combat, shone like the mighty %&a and Sakra in the battle of the gods and the demons.'

MBh.6.75.26 sa picjyamZn& sarnare miistro yuddhadumad& / abhimanyur mahiir3ja tsvakiin s m k m p a y a t / yatM deviiswe yuddhe vajrapiinir mahasuriin //

'Injured in the combat, armed? mad with the battle, Abhimmyu, 0 Great King, made your [troops] tremble, just as in the baale between the gods and the demons the holder of the thunderbolt [made] the neat demons [tremble].'

Wh.7.134.22 tad yuddham abhavat teqiim WapratibaiqinSm /

y a M devgsure yuddhc &dcrasya saha danavaik //

'There was a battle of those [warriors, who were] intent on slaying each other, lust as in the battle of the

gods

and the demons [here was a

battle] of Sakra with the dgnauas.' Ia8

la

Here we have a potential instance of non-pdlelism in case (see Chapter 1).

82

~ h . 7 ~ 1 4 4 . 1mahad 8 yuddharp taym asid ghor-pam

viiErp pate /

yath8 deviisure yuddhe iarnbw~mwm~ia~ob //18' 'There was a great and terrible battle of the two [wbors], 0 Lord of

men, just as in the battle of the gods and the demons [there was a p a t and terrible battle] of &mbara and the king of the immortals.'

In a few instances {approx. 10) the comparison of the combat on h e battlefield with the combat bemeen the gods and the demons is expressed by means of a clausal simile. In almost all of these formulaic similes there is only one combatant in both the f r m e and the simile, and the verb is repeated, apparently to take up the space usually filled by the second combatant. Examples: MBh.6.46.35 &obhat%bhiqiktohi dmpadasygtmajo bali / yathZ deviisure yddhe lcikttikeyo hi aiobhata 'Anointed, the powerful son of Draupa& shone, just as in the battle of the gods and the demons K8rttikeya shone.'

ME5h.7.80.21 hiubhe ketunii tena rgjatena jayadrab@ / yathii dev8sure yuddhe purs pas8 sma gobhate /[ 'With that silver banner Jayadratha shonep just as in the battle of the gods and the dernons in ancient times Piisan shone.'

MBh.6.112.34 tayor yuddharp abhavad bhiqmhetob pamptapa / s m a m a y o r mahzraja samare citrayodhinoh /

In the last word of this verse, we have an example of phonetic play: sh-jq~b. Lines found in M3-5 after MBh.6.46.35 (lines 6-7). Notice that KZrttikeya is not a Vedic g e that is, the poet who composed these ihes was obviausiy not very fmiliar with Vedic mythology. '90

yathiZ devibure yuddhe mayavRsavayor abhiit // 'There was a combat of those t w ~[whors] on account of BhTgma,

0 you who cause pain to the enemy, the excellent warriars grasping each other, 0 Great King, in the battle, just as in the battle of the gods and the demons there was [a battle] of Maya and VSsava.'

In one instance we have two comparative particles (iva and yudtd) in the sarne formula. Notice that the first line is a variation of the usual fornula for the onset of the cambat, in which samdgama is a lexical substitute for yuddham. The employment of two formulas in the same 4okai9' illustrates the epic composition technique of conflation of f o r n u l ~ . ~ ~ '

bfBh.6.96.5 i tayoh samggamo ghoro babhava kamkoday* / yathz devibure yuddhe ih$ambaayor iva // 'There was a terrible, fierce combat of the two [warriors], @ [the combat] of &kra and 5!ambua in the battle of the gods and the demons.'

I have found only one instance of this formulaic simile in which the noun and adjective are in nominative instead of locative:

mh.6.54.12 tatrm sumahad p d d h m tumularp iamahqqam / yathii deviisurm yuddham p~tvamiisit sud~runam// 'There was a big battle, noisy, hair-raising, just as there was a dreadful battle of the gods and the demons in ancient times.' 19' The first formula occupies piidas a and b (fuyub sumdgurn~ gham bubhfivah ! a k ~ w u b )the , second formuia pZ&s c and d (yuthd devdswe yddhe ~ u b u $ u m & u riva). ~~r I* As pointed out by Ingalls (1985:24-5) in his &scussion of the formula for licking the lips or licking the mngp (q. s~kkiqiviliizun vfrub / puim&ye vrku yufhd 'The hem, licking the corners of his lips like a wolf in the flock').

Not all of the formulaic similes that refer to the war between the gods A number of them and the demons have a fixed part Qathd dev@s~ireyuddhe). (approx. 8) show some variation in vocabulary, a d they do not always occupy the same metrical slot. In the following examples, the poet substitutes the compound simile de~dsurupama'similar to [the battle afl the gods arid the demons' (-- -- x

--

x x), for yatha devdswe yuddhe (x

-- -- - x -- -- --). While

the latter dways occupies the third @day the simile devdsurupama dways occurs

in the second or the fourth piida. Examples: MBh.7.242lab tad utpifijdakam yuddhm &id dev~suropamam 'There was a tumu~tuousbattle9 similar to [the battle] of the gads and the demons.'

MBh.7.80.8 1 tat& sutumuIm teq%p sqgriirno 'vmat3dbhut@ / piificZliin3m kufiniim ca ghoro deviisuro~amah// There was a very ~ m u l ~ o uand s wonderful battle then of those [mies], the Paficdas and the Kurus, temble, similar to [the battle] & the gods and the demons.'

MBhXl65.5 vmamgne tathii yuddie &are dev~suropme/ abravit ksatriy&p$ tatra dhmarZjo y&is@i@ I/ While a tembIe battle was taking place, similar to [the battle] af the gods and the demans, the righteous King Yudhisfiira then said to the

kqatriyas. '

Other variants of yathadevaweyuddhe occupy the second half of the sloka. In each case this formulaic simile follows a variant o f the epic formula for the beginning of the battle. Examples: MBh.7.24.58 tayos tad abhavad yuddhaqi rak~ogrZmanimukhyayoh/

tadrg yadrk purii vmam Sambaramararaiavoh

//Ig3

There was a battle of the two main chiefs of the raksasas, similar to [the battle which] took place in ancient times between gambara and the king of the immortals.'

MBh.7.7 1.28 tayor yuddharn maharaja citrart'ipam ivabhavat / yadrSam hi pur3 vntw ramar2vanayor mrdhe // 'There was a woncie~ulbattle of the two [ w h o m ] , 0 Great King, simiiar to [that battle] which took place in ancient times in the combat of Rama and Rilvana.'

MBh.7.7 1.30 tat& pravayte yuddharp tayor atyadbhuta nrpa / yatha piirvam mahad yddharn s'mbaramararaiavoh // "There was a very wonderful battle then of the two [warriors], 0 King, just as in ancient times [there was1 a great battle of &imbara and the king of the immortals.'

Another simile that often follows (approx. 15x) the formula for the onset

of the combat is that in which the demons are refered to as danavas.

"' This is the only instance I have found in my corpus of a simile marked by tddrgyddrk. The demonstrative pronoun radrk refers to the frame (the previous line), while the relative yddfk refers to the simile.

I mentioned one of the variants of this formulaic simile (tievandm ddnmiriva) in Chapter 2 as an instance of simile that contains several figures of sound: alliteration (ti-), repetition of syllables (va) and repetition of consonant sequences (d-v-n, d-n-v), with reversal of the second and third consonants in ddnava. Some examples:

MBh.6.65.33 tad yuddhm abhavad ghoraq~devanam dznavair iva / j a y q ca kankvataip nityam yas'as' ca paramadbhutam // 'There was a temble battle, like [the battle] of the gods with the dznavas, of those who wished to obtain eternal victory and the most wonderful

glory. '

MI3h.7.15.12 tad yuddham abhavad ghorm tumulaq lomaharqanam / tvadiyaih pa~duputranamdevangrn iva danavaih // "There was a terrible, noisy and hair-raising battle of your [troops] with the sons of Pan&, like [the battle] of the gods with the diinavas.'

In a number of formulaic similes that mention the battles between Indra and the danavas, we can observe lexical as well as syntactical variation. In some cases, the simile is expanded, occupying two padas. These examples further illustrate that this formula does not always have the same metrical shape (vathd

devureyuddhe), nor does it consistently occupy the same metrical slot (the third pada), but, rather, it permits variation. Examples:

MBh.6.43.61 yaudhiqthiras tu sa-ddha

saubalarg niiitaa 6araih /

vyadgrayata saqgrsme maghavan iva diinavam //

'Yudhi~@iraTs son, enraged, pierced Saubala with sharp arrows in the combat, just as Maghavan [pierced] the dznava.'

MBh.6.53.28 dr2vayiIm asur Zjau te tridagg diinavgn iva "They made [them] run away in the fight, just as the thirty [gods made] the dznavas [run away].'

MBh.6.90.28 sa visphsrya mahac capam draunim vivygdha patrii$i / yathz s'akro mahBrBia purZ vivyiidha diinavam

//Ig4

'Having stretched the great bow, he pierced Drona's son with an arrow, just as &dm, 0 Great King. pierced the dgnava in ancient times.'

MBh.7.20.53 te dgnavii ivendrena vadhyamiins mahiItmana / pZfical@ kekay3 rnatsygh smakampmta bhtirata //

'They, like diinavas being slain bv the magnanimous hidra, the Paficalas, the Kekayas and the Matsyas, trembled, 0 Bhiirata.'

The most interesting variations of epic formulas, however, are not found in formulas with mythological content, but in those that include images of nature, such as the comparison of wounded warriors with kirpsuka trees and with trees broken by the wind, or that of combatants shooting arrows with clouds covering mountains with rain. While a number of these formulas are (relatively) fixed, one can also observe the reciter's attempt to create some poetic variation by means of lexical substitutions, expansions and employment of long meters.

Notice that this is a clausal simile, with the perfect vivyddha 'pierced' in both the frame and the simile.

In my first example (approx. 15x in my corpus), the wounded warriors? their bodies covered with blood, are compared with blooming kirpiuka trees (trees with red flowers):

Wh.6.43.13 tau ia8citawZfigau 6uiubhiite mah&alau / vasante ~usp&abaiau pus~itiiviva kimiukau /I "Those two powerfui [heroes], all their limbs covered with mows? shone

like two bloom in^ kimiuka trees of variegated flowers in s~ring.'

MBh.6.44.43ef aiobhanta rnahzrgja puspitii iva kimiukiih 'They shone, 0 Great King, like blooming kimiuka treese9

Mh.6.48.5Ocd virariija rage rgjan sapuspa iva kimgulcah We shone in the battle, 0 King, like a kimiuka tree with flowers.'

MBh.6.49.23ccl mdhiriiktau tatas tau te iu5ubhiite n x q a b h a u / vasmtasamaye riiim ~ u s ~ i t i iiva v kim6ukau // 'Smeared with blood, those two manwbulis shone then, like two blooming

kimiuka trees in spring, 0 King.'

mh.6.106.3kd vyariijata r q e piirth*

kimhkah ~ u s ~ a v i iiva n

'MZsson shone in the battle like a blooming kim$uka tree,'

h4Bh.7.18. Mcd dobhanta rwe yodhiib gys~itZiva lcirngukzb 'The warriors shone in the battle like blmmirg kimsuka trees.'

MBh7.47.4 t3v ubhau kuacitriifigau rudhirena samuk~itau/ babhiivatur rnham3nau puspiav iva kimsukau // 'Those great [warriors], possessing limbs spotted with arrows, sprinkled with blood, became like two blooming kimguka trees.'

In all of these fomuIaic similes, the word order and the word choice are rigidly contmlkd, and the variations are minimal: with only one exception, pu~pita 'blooming' is followed by the compuative particle and the noun kimittku.

Only in two instances the simile has k e n expanded by means of a noun in locative, vusuntGsQmuye,vuxmte 'in the spring,' in the first case with the addition of the adjective pzispaiubula~ 'possessing flowers of variegated color.' In all of these flokas the simile occupies the last pzda. However, we also have a number

of variants in which the poet employs synonyms for ptiqnkz, as well as figures of sound (aIliteration, anaphoric repetition of syIlables and figura etymologica in MBh.7.163.9). He further expands the simiie to two piidas in several instances. Examples: MBh.7.7 1.18 alarpbusas tu s a q k u d d h ~kuntibhojdar2rdit& / asobhata param l a m y a puspZi#h~aiva kimiuk& // 'Almbusa, enraged, hit by Kuntibhoja's arrows, was greatly resplendent, like a kim6uka tree full of flowers.'

supuspau puspasamaye puspitZiv iva kimiukau // 'Mutudly cut with mows, the two man-bulls shone like two blooming gmguka trees with beautiful flowers in spring.'

MBh.7.143.18 mpmiymibhau citrau kaIpavrksiiv ivikibhutau / kimhkgv iva cotphullau vvakiiiietlim rmiiiire // 'Similar to gold, of variegated color, wonderful like two kalpa trees, shone in the battlefield like two kirniuka trees with flowers.'

The potential for poetic variation is even more evident in a number of

fumuhic similes (approx. 25) in which h e combatmts hit by their enemies are compared with trees hit by the wind (or the thunder).1q5Mast of these similes occupy the fourth pgda and we rather stereotyped, as in the following examples:

MBh.7.15.4cd nipetur urvyi!iq~sahasg v8tarunnii iva dmmzh 'They fell violently to the ground, like trees broken by the wind'

MBh.7.74.25cd sa papgta hat* pmvyam viitarugna iva drum& 'He fell to the ground like a tree broken by the wind.'

MBh.6.75.48 (inserted) sa papiita tat0 bhiimau vairmma iva drumah 'He fell to the ground like a tree broken

by

the thunderbok.'

However, in a number of instances of this simile, we have new terms far

tree ( v & q karvikdra, vaauspati, adrird!). The term v&a daes not cause metrical disturbance, but the others require metrical adjustment. Further, in some cases, the forinuia is expanded and occupies two or more padas, and some of the similes (cg. mh.6.91.48)'~~ contain figures of sound such as alliteration md repetition

af phonetic sequences.

'* See Note

119. 1 examined this simile in Chapter 2-

Examples: mh.6.91.48cd sa mwdmZn@ svabdarp vsyw vrkszn ivauiasg 'Crushing his own army, like the wind [crushing] trees with, violence.'

Wh.6.Appndix 4.1.147 niiiayiimiha vegena vzyur vrk@n ivaujasii We destroyed [the army] quickly, just as the wind [destroys] the trees with violence.'

blBh.7.40.5 karnik8ram ivoddhtitam vatena mathitam nagat / bhrgtamq~nihatarp a g v g rzjan k q o vyathq yayau // 'Having seen his brother hit like a kamikiira tree, shaken and uprooted from a mountain by the wind, K a r p grieved.'

MBh.7.67.57 patamitnas tu sa babhau pm$isEiyiih pny* sutah /

'Falling, PqiiSii's dear son shone like the lord of the forest of

man^

branches u~rootedby the wind.'

mh.7.67.69-7Oab gireh Sikharai* irimiin suGkhah supratis&it& / nirbhagna iva vgtena karnikaro himiityaye // Sete sma nihato bhornau kSrnbjastw~wi@ / 'Like a Icmiki&a tree, born on the too of a mountain, resplendent, with beautiful branches, mowing fm, uprooted by the wind at the end of the cold season, so did the Kamboja prince lie dead an the g ~ u n d . '

In MBh.7.28.43 the comparison of the warrior with a tree occurs in a stanza

in long meter (mixed):

m&TdhwZmzd iva karnikiirah // 'Wearing a golden garland, he fell from his elephant, adorned with gold, sirni1w to a mountain, like a Mourning kamikzra [faliind from the top of a mountain. broken bv the violence of the windy

In one instance this fomuia appwently does not fit the context, which is rather unusual in the battle scenes of Books 6 and 7."'

The poet is perhaps

comparing the warrior roaming a b u t the battlefield with the branches of a tree shaken by gusts of wind that come from different directions:

MBh.7.14 1.3Ocd caci'ila samare draunir v~tarurtnaiva drumah 'Rro~a's son advanced in the battlefield like a tree hit

by

the wind.'

'The epic poet's attempt to create variation in lines that contain stereotyped formulaic similes is even more remarkable in the following example, in which a warrior destroying the enemy troops is compared with an elephant destroying Iotuses (or sometimes reeds), There are more than 10 instances of this simile in my corpus. In some of them? the simile occupies the fourth pzda and consists of just three words (the words for elephant and lotus? and the comparative particle). One must note the lexical variation (gaja, vunagaja, vdraea? ~unyundgendra,

prabhi~na,dvpa for 'elephant;' mlinr, padminr, nudmu~aand sthalunadu for lotus/reed), as well as the differences in syntax (nominal vs. clausal similes)* The survey of my corpus shows that all of the fomulas with this image are diff'erent.

Again, the relative importance of theme (the elephant crushing the lotus-flowers) over meter is to be emphasized. Examples: MBh.6.67.40 te@m tatha kaqatiim ca gaiiinam nipam Zbabhau / sarahsu naliniiiilam visaktam iva karsatarn //

'The appearance of those elephanrs dragging [chariots] was !& [that of elephants] dragging lotus-stems fixed in the lakes.'

MBh.6.79.41 p3ndavTm samare seniim sammamarda sakufijar& / yathii vanagaio r a j a *mrdgami carati padminim

//Ig8

H e crushed the troops of the Paqdavas in the battle with his elephant,

earth.'

MBh.6.96.34 tam prarnfdya tat*

seniim padrninim varano vatha /

tat0 'bhidudrzva raqe draupadeysn mahBbalEn // 'Having crushed that m y then, just as an elephant [crushes] a lotus, he then attacked DraupadT's mighty sons in the battle.'

MBh.6.97.28 grjunih samare sainyam tgvakarp saipmamarda ha / madiindho vanyangeendrah sapadmiim padminim iva //'" 'Arjuna's son crushed your army in the combat, just as a chief of forest elephants [crushes] a lotus with his feet'

See Note 83.

'* I translate the variant sapadbhySm (for s a p d w m ) . (Ki Dal

Dni Ds).

MBh.7.3 1.17cd patitiin pothayam cakrur dvipah sthulanadgn iva 'They crushed the f d k n ones, just like elephants [cmsh] & b reeds.'

MBh.7.48.14 ksobhayitvii camam s w a m nalinim iva kufi-iarah / as'obhata hato vim vyadhair vanagajo yatha // 'Having agitated the entire m y , just as an e l e ~ h m t[agitates] a lotus, the

hero struck with sharp weapons shone like a forest elephant.'

MBh.7.68.30 lodaYantado0anikani dvipam padmasaro vatha / niis'aknuvan vzrayitum partham kqatriyapumgavsh // 'The kgatriya-bulls were not able to check

Pftha's

son, who was agitating

the troops, just as an elephant [agitates] a pond of lotus flowers.'

MBh.7.68.52 sa vZjirathm2tartgan nighado' vyacarad arjunah / prabhinna iva matango mrdean nadavanam vatha // 'Arjuna wandered about, slaying horses, charioteers and elephants, just like an elephant with rent temples crushing a lotus-forest.'

In my last example, which occurs approximately 15 times in my corpus, the warriors who shoot arrows at their enemies are compared with clouds that cover the sun. In most cases, this simile is rather stereotyped, consisting of just three words (cloud, sun and the comparative particle) and almost always occupying the fourth pada. Examples:

" I read the variant kfobhayamam (B4). I read the variant nighnun

(61 K D; T 03.4).

MBh.6.42.14cd chgdayant& 8aravrStair megha iva diviikaram (They) covering [him] with arrows, just as clouds [cover] the sun.?

MBh.6.78.51cd pracchiidayam Zsa ca

taip

mahamegho ravim vatha

'He covered him [with arrows], just as a great cloud [covers] the sun.'

MBh-6.80.50cd s'araih s~ch3dayZmSsa meghair iva d i v ~ k a r a r n ~ ~ ~ 'He covered him with arrows, just as with clouds the sun.'

MBh.6.82.5cd bhTqmam samchadayam &a yatha megho diviikaram 'He covered BhTyna [with arrows], just as a cloud [covers] the sun.'

MBh.7.Appendix 1.24.15 drauniq-i samehadayam asur ghanaueha iva bh2skaram 'They covered Drona's son [with arrows], just as noups of clouds [cover] the sun.?

MBh.7 J4.44cd ch2dayanta s'araib partharp megha iva divgkaram '(They) covering Pphii's son with arrows, just as clouds [cover] the sun.'

In a few instances, however (approx. 4), the poet employs this simile in longer and more elaborate stanzas, as in the following examples:

MBh.6.22.16ab etiiny mkani mahgnubhavalp guhanti meehZ iva ehannardmirn

'These troops cover the hero, just as clouds [cover] the sun.'

MBh.7.66.21 tw pandav%dityas'ar~~s'ujZl~

kurupraviriin yudhi niqtapantam / sa dropmegh@ Saravaqavegaib pr3cchadayan megha iv8rkaras'min // "That net of rays, the arrows of the Pandava sun, who was burning the best of the Kuru heroes in battle, [him] Drona the cloud covered with streams of showers of arrows, just as a cloud [covers] the rays of the sun.' -

In both instances, the poet employs a long meter (upajgti). In MBh.6.22.16, the verb used is not a form of chad, as in the previous examples,

but @hami 'cover, hide.' In the second stanza, the simile is supported by two metaphors, pSMavaditya 'the Pii~davasun' and drogameghah 'Drona the cloud.' lam The first metaphor is also part of a longer one, p d ~ ~ d i t y a i a ~ ~ s u j a'that

net of rays, the arrows of the P8mjava sun.' As in other instances I mentioned in previous chapters, the poet chooses to end this elaborate stanza with a formulaic simile. This is a further example of the demarcative function of similes. A common variation of this formula is that in which the clouds do not

cover the sun but, rather, a mountain, or they sometimes fill a pond203 (approx. 25x). Here the simile occupies the fourth pads, in most cases, and is stereotyped. However, the poet's attempt to create some variation is evident in the employment of a number of synonyms for 'cloud' and 'mountain,' as well as

the variations in word order and in the particle of comparison (iva or yathd).

'03

Some examples of the variant of this simile in which the clouds fill a pond: MBh.7.17.15cd Sparayai $arais f f b ~ a i tat3kam s iva vrsubhih 'They filled {him] with sharp m w s , just as [the clauds fill] a uond with rain.' MBh.7.68.1Ocd pQray2m asat& kruddhau tadaeam ialadau vatha 'Angered, the two [warriors]filled [him with arrows],just as two clouds [fill]a wnd.'

Examples: MBh.6.43.59cd priicchiidayat tarn iqubhir mahamegha ivzcalam

'He covered him with arrows, just as a meat cloud [covers] a mountain.'

MBh.6.43.47cd abhyavarqat s u s m d h o megho vrstva iviicalarn 'He shot/poured, very furious, [arrows at him], just as a cloud [pours] rain on a mountain.'

MBh.6. Appendix 4.23 1 bhiqmq smabhidudrava jalaugha iva parvatam

'He rushed against Bhiqma, just as a cloud [rushes against] a mountain.'

MBh.6.75.25cd vavarqur margarpis tikqnair @rim merum iviirnbudah

'They shot/poured sharp arrows at him, just as clouds, [pour rain] Mount Meru.'

MBh.6.79.3 led s'araih pracchadayiim 3sa merum girim iviimbudiih 'He covered [him] with arrows, lust as clouds [cover] Mount Meru.'

MBh.7.45.10ab tiup te 'bhisisicur baiyir meghg airim ivambubhih "They covered him with arrows, just as clouds [cover] a mountain with

rain. ' -

MBh.7.162.36cd jimii tii iva ehanniinte s'aravaqair av&iran

'Like clouds at the end of the summer they covered [them]with showers of arrows.'

MBh.7.7 I .25cd vavarsatuh punar banair yath8 meghau mah8girim "The two [sons of Madff] shovpoured arrows [on him] again, just as two

clouds [pour rain] on a great mountain.'

This formula is often expanded, and in a number of instances the variations are quite elaborate: they contain abundant figures of sound such as alliteration, repetitions of phonetic sequences and syllables, parallelisms, etc. Among these variations, two slokas are especially elaborate:204

MBh.6.58.12 athainam s'aravaqega chiidaygm asa bhgrata /

@rim ialggame vadvai jalada ialadhgrinah // 'He covered him with a shower of arrows, 0 BhZrata, just as clouds, carwine water, [cover] a mountain in the rainy season.'

MBh.6.89.4 athainam s'aravargena samantst paryavgrayan / parvatam varidhzrabhih S'aradTva balghakah // They covered him with a shower of arrows on all sides, just as clouds [cover] a mountain with showers of water in the fall.'

As hgalls remarks with regard to some epic formulas that permit of poetic expansion or variation, it is in examples of this type that one may observe the origins of kgvya style.205The comparison of the warriors who shoot arrows at their rivals with the clouds that pour showers of rain on the mountains or ponds recalls Meghadiita 48, in which Axjuna is compared to the cloud messenger:

205

I examined the second Sloka in Chapter 2. togalls (1985:25).

Megh. 48

... iitafargatair

yatra ganfivadhmva

dharzp2tais tvam iva kamalany abhyavargan rnukhiini // '

Where the holder of the GanGva bow (= Arjuna) shot/poured hundreds

of sharp arrows on the heads of the enemy, just as you (i.e. the cloud) [pour] showers of water on the lotuses.'

CHAPTER 5:

THE PRE-EPIC SIMILE

A. The Rgveda The RV is the earliest literary document of ancient India, its material dating back to the second millennium BCE. It consists of a collection of 1,028 hymns to

Aryan deities, and is divided into ten books (mandalas or circles), Books 2-7 being regarded as the oldest portions of the text. The character of the RV is radically different from that of the epic. The Mahabhzrata is a literary (and didactic) work whose central story tells us of the war between the descendants of P a ~ d u ,the Psqdavas and their cousins the Kauravas. Books 6 and 7 consist mainly of descriptions of a series of combats during this war, and similes, as well as other poetic devices, are employed by the poet to introduce some poetic variation in these long and often monotonous passages. The Rgvedic hymns, on the other hand, tend to have a mainly non-literary function and do not address themselves so much to the general public or the individual hearer as to the gods (via a convention). In other words, the Vedic hymns are religious in character.206 The poetry in these hymns serves mainly a religious/magic purpose, and therefore does not have the same function as later kiivya poetry, as Lienhard remarks.207

Cf. Thierne, Paul. 1971. KleineSchriftm. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, p. 53: "The longer I study the RV, the more strongly I feel the urge to look for a serious, genuinely religious content in its hymns. There is overwhelming prima facie evidence that the poetry of the RV in the bulk-and certainly as far as its oldest layers are concerned-was meant to accompany sacrificial rites, just like the YaSts of the Avesta, to which it bears a specially close relationship. Above everything else, I should think, we have to acknowledge and to take into account thepoet's deep chnvi&on that it is his poem which renders the sacrifice efficient" (after Nagy 1974:16). See also Edgerton, Franklin. 1929. 'The Upanishads: What Do They Seek, and Why?" JAOS 49. p. 121, Keith (1928:41), Lienhard (1984:54-55), Macdonell (1900:38), Nagy (1974: 16-17), Winternitz (1927:49). xn Lienhard (198455); "A number of linguistic devices used in Vedic poetry were naturally adapted by later kavis, some indeed were taken over unchanged. The authors of Vedic songs embellished their texts with figures, saw to it that the language was suitable (araipkrta), employed similes or, like classical writers, endeavoured to see that sentences and stanzas coincided in length. Most of the indicators used in Vedic songs are, however, different; they constitute a framework of signals that is no longer valid in classical poetry and are mainly directed towards religious, magical or conjurational ends, although a few are on worldly themes." See also Gonda (1949:3). Macdonell (1900:38), Warder (1974:2ff.), Winternitz (1927:64, 71ff.). The best description of the poetic devices in the RV is found in Watkins (1995:109-16).

"'

Like the structure of the epic simile, that of the Rgvedic simile is quite simple: it consists of two nouns (the object and the subject of comparison), the common property, and the particle of comparison. While the most common particle to mark a simile in the epic is iva, followed by yathd and -vat, in the RV similes are marked in most cases by nd(a particle that is no longer in use by the time the Mahsbharata was composed), less frequently by iva and, in a

limited number of cases, by yatha?*

Unlike the epic poet, the Vgvedic poet

never employs compounds that end in an adjective meaning "similar," such as sdgaraprakhye 'similar to two oceans' (the two armies), or bahuvfihi compounds in which the common property is elided, such as kamalapmrd@ah 'possessing eyes like lotus leaves.' The abundant employment of compounds (some of them quite long) is characteristic of epic ~anskrit?~ The main syntactic characteristic of the Fgvedic similes is that they are not clausal, but always n~minal.~"As in the epic, in the RV the two nouns can be compared in semantic independence of the rest of the clause, as in

RV.7.18.2 rdjeva hijdnibhih kse'fi 'You live like a king among [his] wives.' Or, the comparison may be suggested by the meaning of the verb, as in RV.7.54.2d pite'va putrdn prdti no jujasva 'Be pleased with us, just as a father [is pleased]

with [his] sons.' Clausal similes do in fact exist in the egveda, but only very marginally.211As in the epic, these are usually introduced with the particle yuthd. Jamison (1982:251) gives the following statistics for the entire RV: mi (approx. 1300~).iva (approx. lOOOx), ydtha (approx. 75x1. In RV.7 I have found 128 similes, out of which 79 are marked by nd, 45 by iva and only 4 by ydrha. Mansion (1931:87), Oldenberg (1922:133), Renou (1956: 108-9). 0I' As Jamison (1982252) remarks. See Jamison (1982:253), also Bergaigne (1886:76). Jarnison further notes (hat in most cases ydthd does not really introduce a simile; it rather presents an actual deed accomplished in the past to which the present or future deed in the main clause is compared, as in RV.1.76.5 ydt& ... devdn @ojah...evd hotah ...adyd ++. yajusva 'Just as you did worship the gods, so perform (he worship today, o hotar.' In a few instances, ydt& takes the present tense, and here we seem to have a simile. In almost all of these instances, however, the main clause takes the imperative (or its equivalent subjunctive in the 1st person). In these cases, the ydrhd clause actually seems to set forth a general troth rather than a simile, as in RV.5.78.7ab ydtha vdtahpu~karfn1m,samifig&afi

"

ami is on^'^ mentions the only instances of clear clausal similes in the RV, two adjacent verses in a popular hymn in Book 10:

RV.10.60.8 ydthii yugim varatrdy2, nahvanti dhaniqaya kdm / eva didhzra te m b o , jivgtave nd mpydvt!, 'tho arigitataye 'Just as they &t

a yoke with a strap to make it fast, so does he hold

fast your mind for life, not for death, but tor unhmedness.' -

RV.10.60.9 y i t h e y h pmivf mahf, dadharemin vdnaspdtin / evd diidhara te mino, j~vgtave nd mftydve, 'tho ariqtdtgtaye 'Just as this great earth holds fast the lords of the forest (i.e. the trees), so does he hold fast your mind for life, not for death, but for unharmedness.'

Note that in the second example, the verb dddhara is repeated in both the simile and the frame. I remarked in Chapter 1 that the repetition of the verb in clausal similes is common in the epic. We have numerous instances of the repetition of the verb in similes in the ChTJ..Jp as well, as I will show later in this chapter. This type of syntactic structure in the ChUp seems to mark the beginning of a trend toward the creation of clausal similes, which are barely employed before the epic. In about 50 similes in the entire R V , ~ the ' ~ principle of correspondence in case between the subject and the object of the comparison is violated. I noted in Chapter 1 that epic similes do not allow such syntactical variations, with a sarvdtalf,evdIegdrbhaej'aru 'hst as the wind makes the lotus flower stir from every side, so let your embryo stir.' Here the ydthd clause seems more a truth formulation intended to produce sympathetic magic than a literary device. 2t2 Jamison (1 982:254). Jamison (1982256).

potential instance of "case dishmony" in a number of fornulaic similes in which the combats of hdra and the demons are mentioned. In RV.7, I found one clear instance of non-pwallelism in case (RV.7.43.3), and two possible instances (RV.7.76.3 and RV.7.95.5). The first instance of non-parailelism in case occurs in RV.7.43.3ab d putrds~nii mdtdruv vz%hftrdh sdnm devdsu burhisah suduntu 'Like children on the

[lap of their] mother, may the gods sit on top of the grass.' Here we have m accusative, mdtdram 'on the mother,' as object of the verb dsadantu 'may [the gods] sit' in the simile, and the insmmentd sdnuu 'on top' in the frame. According to Grassmann, this verb can have both an accusative and a locative as objects. Thus, in this simile, the poet is taking advantage of the ambiguity of the verb to create a syntactic variation. A possible instance of ''case disharrnonyyy(according to the Padapiitha) is

RV.7.76.3cd: ydf& pdri jdrd ivdcurun~i i s ~dad&&' mi pinar y d v a 'Since you,

U$as, have shown yourself like a coming Iover, not [like] one going back.' in this line jdrd 'lover7 seems to be max. (Padapiitha: jdr&ivu)

refering to the

fem. @as 'dawn,' to which the fern. participle yati 'going' also refers. The change of gender does not seem to make sense in this line. It is more appropriate to take jdrd as a locative udre), as SZyma in~iicates."~Geldner's translation reflects the commentatorys view: "Seitdem du, Upsy dich gezeigt hast wie eine (Frau), die zu ihrern Buhlen kommt, nicht wie eine, die wieder geht." Contrary to the Padapiithay this should not be taken as an example of syntactic

under your dearest protection, we approach [you] like a sheltering tree-' The 4I'

Mentioned by Oldenberg (19 12:SS).

structure of this simile is not very clear. Gelciner's gives two translations: "In deinen geliebsten Schutz uns steilend wollen wir wie unter einen schutzenden Baurn treten," or "wokn wir Zuflucht fimden wie unter einem Baum." That is, if we take i6rman priydtume 'your dearest protection' as the subject of comparison

and furagiig mi vrk~dm'like a sheltering tree' as the object of comparison, there is case disharmony between the two members of the cornparisan (as my translation indicates). One might be tempted to take iara~tirn'shelter' as the subject of comparison and vpksdm 'tree' as the object (as Geldner indicates in his second slati ion), in which case there is parallelism. This is not possible, however, because mi folbws iara~um. RV.7 contains 104 hyrnns and approx. 900 verses. 1 found 128 similes in this book; that is, the frequency of similes is a b u t 1 in 7 verses. This percentage is lower than that in the battie scenes of the epic, but higher than in its didactic sections. The distribution of similes in RV.7 is not even, though: in

some hymns we find no similes, while in others the percentage is higher than the abvementioned average?

We saw in previous chapters that the epic consists of

a seties of (often) long episodes? and the accumulation of similes serves to emphasize some of the most dramatic moments in these episodes? such as the death of well-known heroes. The egvedic hymns, on the other hand? are rather short (the average is 10 verses per hymn)? and therefore there is no room for accumulation of similes. The hyrnns that contain similes in RV.7 itre addressed to a number of deities (Agni, hdra, the All-gods, Bhi'iga, h e bbhus, V3sto8pati9 the M a n ~ t s ~ Mitra-Varuqa, Vamqa, the A ~ v ~Qas, s , VZiyu, Sarasvat& Bfiaspati and Soma)

and to the sage Vasiq@a, the reciter of this

Similes are also empbyed

See, for instance* RV.7.3 (10 stamas/8 similes), 7.18 (25 stamas/9 similes), 7.32 (27 stawsfl similes), 7.103 (10 stamas/6 similes) and 7.104 (25 stanzasfi similes). 214 The disfributian of hymns that contain similes according to deities is as follows: Agni 35

in two popular hymns: RV.7.55 (a lullaby) and RV.7.103, where the frogs singing in a pond are compared to brahmins?'

My reading of the hymns in RV.7 does

not indicate any connection between the employment of similes and my deity in particular. As for the distribution of similes in the stanza, in RV.7 we find them in any piida.218 We saw in Chapter 1 that the vast majority of the similes in Books 6 and 7 of the MASbhgrata (approx. 95%) cmur in doka meter (epic anugubh).

Stanzas in long meters in the epic are typically poetic elaborations of stanzas in doka, and similes in these lines tend to be more elaborate, with variations in vocabuiary and syntax, employment of long compounds, etc. The most frequent among the long meters in the epic is the tris~ubh,and only a smail number of similes occur in other meters (upajati, irregular, mixed, vaqxfastha, puqMgrii, miilini, dmta~ilmbita)."~Most of the 8gvedic hymns, on the other hand, are cornposed in thqtubh/jagati or g3ya@T/anuqtubh, and we also find stanzas in other meters, as I explain below. Despite their limited number, the similes in RV.7

occur in almost all of h e meters that are characteristic of the RV. A few words about Vedic versification are in order here?'

The units of

Vedic meter are the verse, the stanza and the hymn. A verse consists most commonly either of eight syllables (dimeter ~erse),~" or of e1eved2' or (3- 5-8* 10, 13, 151, hdm (13, 19, 21-4, 26-30, 32-31, the All-Gods (34, 36-7,39* 41, 43). b b h ~ (481,Vilsto#pati (54)* the Maruts (56, 58-91, Mitra and Vmqa (60.63-5). the ASvins (67-70* 73)Qas (76-7* 79, 811%l n h and Vamna (85)* Varuqa (87* 89). VZyu (W), Indm and Agni (931% Sarasvatl (951, Indm and Brhaspati (971,hdra, Soma and other deities (104). Hymn 33 is addressed to Vasiqma and his family. The only deities whose invacations do not include any similes a e DadhikrZ (hymn 44). Savitr (49* Rudra (46) and the xdityas (51-2). SimilarIyt the hymns addressed to the waters (47* 49)* and ta the sky and earth (53) are devoid of c~mparisons. 217 For a discussim of the meming of this hym. see Jamison, Stephanie W. 1993. "Natural History Notes on the RVic 'Frog' Hymn.'* MW 72/73* pp. 137-44. Some statistics: 24 similes are found in pads l * 39 in p3da 2%33 in pads 3 and 32 in piIda

"' 4.

See Note 105. a 1 t k e this iMomation from Amold, EL Vernon. 1905. VedicMetre. Cambridge: Cambridge university l?c€ The regular form of the eight-syllable p3da is xxxxu-ua The eleven-syllable h e has a caesura after the Fourth or fiflh syllable and its regular farm is

gI'

twelve2z sy1IabIes (trimeter verse). The most typical fotms of the stanza are the

muspibh (four dimeter verses) and the triqvbh (four trimeter verses, each of eleven syllables). Four trimeter verses, each of twelve syllables, form a jagati. Stanzas may contain more or fewer verses than four. Among these, we have the ggyatri, which consists of three dimeter verses; the viritj, which consists of three

. verses; and the dvipadz viriij, which consists of two decasyilabic verses. tristubh Stmzas may also consist of combination of dimeter and trimeter verses, the latter

then usually being of twelve syllables: a11 meters of this type are cdled lyric meters. Among the lyric meters in which similes occur are the brhati (8.8.12.8) and the satobrhati (12.8.12.8). The most common meter in which similes occur in

RV.7 is the trigubh (113 similes out of 128). Other meters are the giiyatri (RV.7.15ST 89.2), dvipadii (RV.7.32.3, 22, 26; 34.4, 51, brhati (RV.7.32.20, 81.3), satobrhati (RV.7.322, 8 1-41, virgj (722.1 ), anugubh (RV.7S5.6T 59.12) and jagati (RV.lM.2). My reading indicates that, at least in RV.7, here is no link of deities to particular meters? The images contained in the Rgvedic similes differ considerably from the images in the epic similes. We saw in Chapter 1 that, in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahiibhiirata, the poet employs numerous similes in which the combatants are compared to gods, animals (usudly wild animals like lions, elephants, tigers etc.)

and trees. Other images of nature, such as the sun, sky, earth, rivers, etc., are xxxx//xxx-u-0 or x x x x x / / x x - ~ - ~ The we1ve-syllable line differs from the eleven-syllable one only in that it has one more syliabte; besides chat, the two meters are fumed exactly the same. The regular form of the twelve-syllable pZda is: xxxx//xxx-u-ua or xxxxx//xx-u-uu atThe hymns in g8yatrT meter are addressed to Agni and to Vmna, the hymn in v i a j to Indra, the hymns in dvipadii viaj to Indm md to the All-Gods, the hymns in brhati to lncfra and Uqa, the hyrnns in satobman to Indm and Uqas, the hymns in muq?ubh to the Manits (also found in the lullaby) and the hymn in jagatT to Indm Warder (19744) remarks that the meters employed by the &vedic poet are we11 suited to various types of poetry: a %eroic sounding," strongly articulated line of eleven syllables fur the epic type, and a variety of meters and strophe structures for the lyric type. 1 noted above that my analysis of RV.? does not indicate any connection between deities and types of meter. A larger sample might modify u s conclusion.

also prominent in epic similes, while image of rituals and sacrifices are relatively few. Among the irnages wed by the egvedic poets, one must note those in which domestic animals are mentioned, especially cows and horses (more than

lox each in RV.7). It is well known that animals play a considerable part in the rnythdogicai and religious conceptions of the veda?

Cows, in particular, figure

very prominenfly, often in quite imaginative similes. Thus, in RV.7.2.6, night and dawn are likened to a good miking cow?'6 in RV*7.69.6 the Mvim are invoked

by comparing them to thirsty cattle running after the lightnin$27 and in two similes (RV.7.23.4 and 68.8) waters are compared with cows or vice versa.228 In RV.7, only once is a god (Indra) compared with a bull (RV.7.19.1). Like cows, horses were not very common in epic similes. In RV.7, however, we have a number of similes in which gods are said to be like horses (Agni RV.7.3.2, 4, 5; the Maruts RV.7.56.16, etc.). In other similes that contain animal images, the tribe of the Matsyas is compared with hungry fish'"

{RV.%l8.6), Siirya with a

falcon (RV.7.63.5)? those who sit next to the soma with flies sitting on honey (RV.7.32.2) and frogs with pnests (RV.7. I 03)~'~' Unlike the MahiibMrata, in RV.7 we find relatively few similes that contain images of nature. Some examples: Agni's light is compared with the light of the sun (RV.7.8.4 and 10.1); Vasiq@a's sons are likened to the sun? the seas and the wind (RV.33.8); a hymn is said to look like clarified butter and the dawn (RV.7.85.1)? etc. As is to be expected in a text of religious character,

As, for exmple, MacdaneIl (1990:9i) remark za RV.7.2.6b wdsdnuktd sud@hwa dhenib 'Dawn and night* like a good milking cow.? zn RV.7.69.6ab ndrd g a ~ d v aviedruv tr$&@dsmdkmd y t i dvundpa ydtum 'Lords, came today to

our soma preparation Iike thirsty cows [running] after the lightning.' d gdvab 'The waters swelled £&barren cows**RV.7.68.8cd RV.7.23.4a dpuicit p i p y ~~ m y ad ydv ughqdm dpinvaram apd mi staydm cil 'You swelled the cow We waters, although [it was] barren.' What is interesting here is that the comparison can go both ways. The syntactic smcture of these similes has been examined in detail by Jarnison (1982). ~9 Obviously a pun on their name (mtsya means 'fish'). In this simiie, the subject of compariscin is the animaf (the frogs), and the object of comparison the human being (the priests).

images of sacrifice and ritual are usual, for instance in RV.7.13.1 and 18.11. One must note the employment of bold imagery in Rgvedic similes; they are indeed far more imaginative than most of the similes in Books 6 and 7 of the epic. I mentioned a number of such similes above. A further example should be mentioned: in RV.7.59.12, the supplicant asks the Maruts to be released from death, just as a cucumber is released from its stem.231

In chapter 2, I examined a number of figures of sound (alliteration, assonance, and repetitions or echoes of sequences and words) that the epic poet employs abundantly in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahgbharata. I claimed that these figures of speech are found more often in lines that contain similes than in the rest of the text. Figures of sound are extremely frequent in the RV, even more than in the epic. In RV.7, more than half of the similes contain one or more instances of the abovementioned figures. These figures are, however, equally frequent in lines that do not contain similes. That is, unlike the epic, where figures of sound seem to be employed especially to highlight similes, in the RV such poetic devices are used throughout the text?

Some examples of similes

that contain figures of sound in RV.7 follow: Alliteration RV.7.5.7ab s6 jgyamiina param6 vybman vZy6r n6 path* pan pssi ~ady&--~

RV.7.59.12cd urvdrutdm iva bdndhandn mpyilr mutflya mdmfrdt 'Just as a cucumber [is released] from [its] stem, may I be released from death, not from immortality.' This simile is often quoted in Vedic literature. A short passage chosen at random (RV.7.1.1-3)shows the abundant use of figures of sound that is so characteristic of the RV: agofip nliro dfdhitibhir yor hastacyuff janayanta pra^astam / dOredfiarp gi-hd patim atharyum // 1 // t h ¥gnfi tfste vis ny @van supraticdkqam h e k M cit / dçfc>iyy yd (Uma &a n t y a // 2 // priddho agile drdihi pun5 n6 'jasray* s ~ r m y &yavigha / p n t i vijily // 3 // pri ie agniyo 'gnfthyo vn(h suvfras@ fo&ucant& ~Sbn n W sardsate sujat@ // 4 // (M no agne dhiy$ rayfip suvfratp svapatyAp dy~m sahasya pra&st%m / nd y6p ydvl tirati yltumivan // 5 // 33 Note the pattern of the alliteraling sounds in this simile: s - [p - [v - v] - p] s. Further, j < dy in MI (this change has already taken place in jyotir), so the initial sound in jdyamdnab and dy in s a w might constitute another sound figure.

-

'Born in the highest heaven, yau protect all around in a moment? like the wind, the fold.'

no j u g a ~ v a ~ ~ ~

RV.7 S42d piteva put& @ti

'Be pleased with us, just as a father [is pIeased] with [his] sons,'

RV.7.68.8cd y8v aghnyh &pinvatam apt5 ni starykn cit 'You swelled the cow like waters, although [it wm] barren.'23s

Reptitian of sy11ables (sometimes combined with diiteration) RV.7.23.k yiihi v ~ y i i rnii niytla

'Go like Vgyu to his team.' (Reptition of the syllable yu)

RV.7.24.5ab e*d st61110 mah6 ugdya v h e dhurhdtyo ni vRj5yann adhayi 'This praise was established/placed for the great, strong one, just as a

horse who runs for victory [is placed] at the chariot p d d (Reptition of the syllables ya and va, and of the sound dh)

RV.7.32.2b d d h a u n i d c g e 'Like flies on honey.' (Rephtion of the alliterating syllable ma)

vhanm

'Let them carry the treasure-finder Bbaga near to us? just as victo~ous horses [carry] the chariot.' (Repetition of the syllable va) This is a fomuI&c simile with numemu instances in the RV (see below). This is another f~tmuIaicsimile. Cf. RV.7.23.4a dpaicitpipyu mry6 nughu!~'The waters swelled like barren cows' (see Nate 2.28).

~3'

110

'May we be sharers of the treasure of yours as sons of a mother.' (Alliterating f, repetition of syd, na, ma and vu)

RV.7.95.5cd thva

$& N IIUI

priydtame d6dhiinii ipa stheyiEma & r a ~ & d

v&dh 'Putting ourselves under your dearest protection, we approach [you] like a sheltering tree.' (Repetition of fa, ma, ya and na)

RV.7.lM.8cd #pa iva kWhZ ~ & g b h i H &am astv hats indra vakd 'May the speaker of untruth, 0 Indra, be destroyed like water held by the clenched hand' (Alliterating a, repetition of vu, su and M. Notice that both p&h.s end with the syllable ta.)

When discussing the rnemcal context in which formulas occur in the RV, the strictly formuhic considerations found in the epic portion of my study cannot

be applied directly. As Nagy points

the &gvedic hymns were built on a

formidable set of mnemonic devices designed for the ~ s m i s s i a nof 01d fixed texts over immense stretches of time. The primordial texts were once oral campsitions, and these became fixed at some p i n t during the m s r n i ~ s i o n . ~ ~ Lord's criterion that a truly "oral" tradition is one in which every performance

Nagy (1974A6)- See atso Emeneau (195!3:313), Kiparsky (1976:99ff.). For the empfopent of Fomulas in Vedic prose texts see Jamison* Stephanie W. 1997. "Fomuiaic Elements in Vedic Myth.'' In Witzel, Michaei, ed. h i d e the 7'kr~s.Beyorid the Texts. (Haward Oriental Series, Opera Minora 2.) Cambridge: Hmard University Press, pp. 127-38. Kiparsky (1976:lOl-2) summarizes the pracess of msmission of the l$gve&c hymns thus: +'We cannot suppose that a particular ~ c i ~ i ohappened n to f x memorized one day. This is excluded by the length of the text and by the internid evidence of rnultipk composition. We must rather picture a @ual jding of an hitialy I ~ s d yconnected M y of poetry, which was gradually added to and reorganized* at fmt quite f ~ e l y ,and then with diminishing scope* the last stage in the Rig Veda being the largely phonetic n o m w t i o n s introduced by SEkdya9s&tion* prepared somethe before 5 0 B.C."

generates a new composition is overly re~trictive.'~~ h my analysis of formulaic similes in the epic, I showed that the poet has a repertory of similes that he employs as the occasion demands. We saw that while a number of the fomulaic similes in the MhEbhErata are relatively fmed, appearing always in (almost) the same shape, many of them are flexible, showing lexical substi~tionand/or different syntactic structures. Flexible similes contained in formulas can be further split by other words, and in some instances they are split between two or more lines, The formulaic similes in RV.7, howevert seem to be characterized by a higher degree of fnity: they form a tight syntactic unit (typically occupying one pgda), and it is only within that position that we find variations in case, number, word order, etc. 1 will illustrate this by means of the following example. In RV.7, we have

a formula, 'like a father [his] son' (or 'like a son [his] father') seven times. I have collected d l the instances of this formula (21 altogether) in the

fWI3'

in

the table below We can observe that, in each case, the simile is contained within the piida bundaries. In most instancest the word order and the word choice are ccmtrolled: 'son' fdlows 'father* fifteen times9 without being split by other parts of the sentence (with the exception of the comparative particle), and pima *sonyis employed in almost every simile-only in four instmces do we

have sanu instead of p t r a The simile wcupies mostly the first or the second half of the pgda (and one or two more syllables, if this formula occurs in a short meter), that is, it is located right next to the metrical boundary, a psition

Lard (1960:9, Note 5) excludes the Vedic literature fmm a d p t r y : "It should be clear from this and h m what fallows that sacred texts which must be preserved word for word, if there be such, could not b oral in any except the mast literal sense. Bogaty~vand Jakobson (p. 912) mention the Vedic hymns and say: ''hrt, wo die Rolle der Gemeiwhfi akin in der A u h w h n g eines zu ginem u m m t b m n Kman ehobenen dichterischen Werkes besteht, gibt es keine schopferische 2 n s w kehe Improvisation, kein kdektives Schaffen rnehd' 1 used Alexander Lubotskyis A &ve& Word Cuneordince. 1997. (American Oriental Society Series, 82, 83J New Haven: American Oriental Society.

of prominence within the stanza. The alliterating consonant p- in bath p u m and pird brings further attention to this formulae

Despite the apparent rigidity of this scheme, we have a p a t deal of variation within the psda-there are variations in case ( p u ~ ~ / p u ~ e % h y ~ / p// u ~ d n pit8/pit8rm/piab), in number, in the particle of comparison employed (ndykth8/iva) and in its placement in the pacia. Further, as 1 noted above, in four instances we have lexical substitution (siinti for pttrra). What is interesting here is that, in three of these four instances, the fomula occupies a slot that is not the usual far this fornula (the meter is always triqtubh). Thus, in R V . l . 1 8 5 2 ~it occupies slots 3-8 (I scan p h d r u u

--),

in RV.7.67.ld it occupies slots 3 4 6 7

8 and in RVX48.4b it occupies slots 1 2 3 6 7 8. Notice also that in the latter

the fomula is split by the vocative somu. This is the only instance of this furmuIa in which the two members are split by other words. It is interesting to note that, despite the empioyment of a number of different meters, the lexical variations are minimal. This is in s h q conmist with the formulaic similes in the MhZbhgrata, as we saw in the previous chapter. Here one must emphasize again the origin and the function of the F$gvedic hymns. A more detailed study of the fornulaic similes (and, in generai, of the formulas) in the RV would shed light on the composition technique of the bgvedic puet.

Occurrences of the formulaic simile 'like a father b i s l son' (or 'like a son [his1 father') in the RV (# indicates @cia boundary24').

RV.l.38.b

(giiyatfi)

RV.7.32.26b (dvipadii virZij) RV.7 S . 2 d

(tristubh)

RV.10.22.3d (purastgdbrhati)

RV. 10.69.1Oa (trigubh) RV.7.26.k

(triqtubh)

RV.7.1032 c (hqtubh) RV.8. W27a (dvipads virgj) RV.5.43.7~ (trigubh) RV.9.97.30~ (hqtubh) RV.3 5 3 2

(txigubh)

RV. 1.68.9a

(dvipadg virgj)

RV. 10.13 1 S a (triqtubh) RV. l.l3O. 1 f (atyaqti) RV.7.32.3b

(dvipadii virsj)

RV. l0.39.6b (jagati) RV. 10.106.4a (trigubh) RV.1.185.2~ (hq@bh)

RV .8.48.4b

(hgpbh)

RV.7.67.ld

(niqp~bh)

RV. 1O.25.3~ (astgrap~kti)

This notational scheme is used by Nagy (1974).

114

'The Upmigads are some of the most important literary products in the history of Indian religion. The earliest Upaniqads (the Brhad3rwyaka and the Chgndogya) date back from the 7th or 6th century BCE,'~' a time of great social, economic and religious change in India. These texts represent the transition from the archaic rituals of the Veda to new religious ideas and institutions. The Chtind~gyaUpani~ad(the Upmigd of "the singers of the SZmaveda"), the only text in prose in this study, is contained in the Chgndogya Briihmqa, and this belongs to the Rindya school of the Siimaveda. Rather than a unitary text, it is

an anthology of materials that must have existed as independent texts before k i n g incorporated into this work by an editor or series of editors. These source texts consist, among other things, of dialogues, debates and formal teachings by famous teachers of the timeT many of whom were brahrnins. Some of them, however, are said to be kqatriyas. The conhbution of the k~atriyacaste to Upanigadic doctrine has been long debated. According to ~ o r s c h '(among ~~ others), the revolutionary ideas of the early Upaniqads about rebirth, karmaT dtmm and brahman are the conhbution of kqatriyas rather than brahmins, This is seen, first of all, in the attribution in the texts themselves (es~ciallyin the earliest Upaniqads) of crucial passages and ideas to kqatxiya teachers: for instance, in ChUp.5.3.7 the king P r a v g h ~ aJaibali tefls the bradimin Gautma h n i , with regard to the secrets of death and rebirth, that "As you have tdd me, Gautama, before you this knowkdge has never reached brahmins. In at1 the worlds, therefore, government has belonged exclusively to I ~ q a t r i y a s .SecondlyT ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ the occurrence of non-standard linguistic Olivelle (1998:10). The date is appmximate. Horsch, P. 1966. Die wedische Gdthd- und$/oh-~i?erutur.Bern: Francke Verlag. See dsa uss sen, Paul. 1906. The Philosophy ofthe Upanisha&. Minburgh: T. and T. Clark Reprinted M6.

3i

New

Yo* hver], p. 17ff.

features in the Upmiqads also points toward a possible association with the batriyas. Salomon remarks that in the ChUp we find some examples of non-standard "Umgangsprachep' or "voks~mlich"usages which can be taken as forerunners of the later epic-vernacular ~ m s k r i t . ' ~ The syntactic structure of the similes in the ChUp shows more affinity with that of epic similes than with that of egvedic similes. It is precisely in the examination of their syntax that the compmison of the stylistic peculiarities of the l$gvedic and the epic texts becomes most fruitful. Before l plunge into the anaiysis of the similes in the ChUp, 1 will make a few remarks about their semantic content. As is to be expected in a work of didactic character, the subjects of comparison in the Upani9adic similes are philosophical concepts and, unlike the epic, here we do not find images of Vedic gods or elaborate descriptions of nature as objects of comparison. Some examples of 4'philosophical?' similes are ChUp.8.3.1, in which thase who live in the world of Brahma without finding it are compared with those who do not know a field and walk over a hidden

or ChUp4.16.5, where we are told that the sacrifice of a

brahmin priest (who remains silent) becomes steady, like a man walking with both feet? or a cart moving on two wheels.246We do, however, find some truly poetic images in the

like ChUp.5.24.3, where the evil deeds of someone

Salornan (1991:SS-6, 63); cf* his other writings on Upanigadic texts (1981, 1989:278, 1995:298). See also Hock, Hans Heinrich, and Rajeshvari Pandhhpmde. 1976. "The Sociolinguistic Position of Sanskrit in Re-Muslim South Asia.**Sfdies in hnguuge kaming 1.2, pp+ 105-38. upary upari sawcaranfana tlindqub, ChUp8.3.1 fad yafhdpi hiraeyanidhim ~ihitamabe~ajfld warn memdh sand4 pa]d ahar ahar gacchanya cram brahmalakam BU vhdunti, anrtena hi pray@hdb 'Just as those who do not h o w the field, walking again and again over a hidden masure of gold would not find [it], so do all these creatures, going day after day into the world of Brahrna, not find it, for they are carried away by untruth.' ChUp.4.16.5 su yafhabhqapdd vrajm rafhuvobhdbhyd~cakrdbhydp vaflawnab prutifi~?hati, evam avayajfluhprutitiqfhafi 'Just as a man waiking with bath feet, or a cart moving on both wheels becomes steady, so does his (the brafunin's) sacrifice become steady.' %' As OIdenberg (1915A86) rwnarks with regard to several similes he has just quoted: "Diese Gleichnisse beanspruchen nicht poetisch m sein, sondem nur das Verborgene, Geistige durch Naheliegendes und Natiirliches m verdeutlichen. Aber ungesucht weht him oft doch auch ein Hauch tier Poesie hinein, wenn der Gedadce bin und her spie1t zwkheri den beiden Vorstelhngen, die so Ieicht und volkommen in einander aufgehn: wenn v m huben d i e s Bilder

who sacrifices are said to bum like fibres of reeds on fire:48

or ChUp.6.8.2,

which likens the mind settling down in breath to a bird tied by a string flying in vmious directions before it finally settles down in its place?'

The aim of the

ChUp is to make the listener think about puzzles, md similes serve the function of embellishing the text. They do not have (in my view) the syntactic complexity nor the bizarre images of many of the egvedic similes; they are, nevertheless, quite elaborate at times, as the foilowing examples will show. The ChUp consists of eight sections and approximately 800 subsections.2so

In this text, 1 found 24 instances of similes; that is, there is approximately 1 simile in 30 sentences, a percentage cmsiderably lower than in the didactic portions of the epic.25' The similes in the ChUp are always marked by the particles yathd/mam, and in a number of instances (more than haif') an additional particle (the emphatic ma) is used in both clauses. Here we do not have the particles iw,vat, nti (Vedic), or compunds (epic). Unlike the similes in the RV, in the ChUp the similes are almost exclusively clausal. The only exceptions are the similes in ChLJpS.L84 1, which follow the introductory question katham ufukata pe mujjrvitum iti 'How have you been able to live without me?' in each case:

aus Natur und Menschleben auf die Geheinmisse des Jenseits hinzeigen, und wenn von driiben das Unerfassbare sich herabneigt, urn das Gewand des Sichtbaren anlegend selbst sichtbar zu werden." ChUp.5.24.3 tad yathejiMtdfam ugna p r a m prudiiyeza. warn hdqa same pdpmnah prad6yunrer yu e z a d w a ~v i h d n u ~ i h a ~ uj~huzi m 'Just as the fibres of a reed would bum when Iaid on a fire, so are burned up all the evils of one who knowing &us offers the fire sacrifice*' 249 ChUp.6.8.2 su yuthd fakut@t sfitreguprabu&ha difutp difaw pari&d~yatrdyufanum ahbdhvd , muno d i h y di&y patimdnyatrdyatunum bundhanum w~pufrqure, evum ma k h h , ~ u m y utan afabdhvdprdeuy ~ a p a i r q a t eprd@ubandhamm * hi, su&ma,m n a iti 'lust as a bird tied with a string, having flown in every direction without finding a resting place anywhere else, settles down at the place where it is bound, so does the mind, [my]son, having flown in every direction without finding a resting place anywhere else, settie down in the breath [itselfl; far the mind* [my] son, is tied to the breath.' 1 tern ''~ubsections'~the smallest uni& of the text* which typically consist of one (and sometimes more) sentences. 2~' Howeverv similes in the Upmiqds are much more c o m o n than in the Bfihma~as,as Oldenberg (19 1728) remarks.

ChUp.5.1.8 yathd kuk avadantab 'Like the dumb not speaking.' ChUp.5.1.9 yathdndhd apafyantab 'Like the blind not seeing.* ChUp.5. I . 10 yathd badhird afrn~antab' L k the deaf not hearing.' ChUp.5.1.11 yathii bdd amanasah 'Lke mindless children. '

In about half of the clausal similes ( I 1 instances) the verb is repeated in both the simile and the frame. That is, though formally these similes are clausal,

semantically they are mrnind. This is also the case of most clausal similes in the epic, as we saw in Chapter 1. In this text, the Upmiqadic poet seems to be experimenting with a new syntactic structure, which in fact comes out of the marginal yathd

... evd type of

the RV, and which does not appear f d y developed

until later on in the epic. Or, this syntactic structure might have been adapted by both didactic and epic style from chams and incantations, such as those we find in the Atharva veda?

ChUp8.1.6 is an example of simile in which the verb is

repeated, Note also the repetition af other words (the subject bkab 'worldTand the second member of the compound, jitah 'wonT) both in the simile and in the frame:

ChUp.8.1.6 tad yatheha karmajito 10kal.1 ksi~ataevam eviirnutra punyajito lak* ksiyate 'Just as here [in this world] a warid won by action comes to an end, so does in the h e ~ a f k ra world won by merit come to an end.'

In one instance, the prefix piarb is added to the verb in the yathd clause.

The addition of verbal prefixes is very frequent in the epic, as we saw above. What is kteres~nghere is that this subsection from the ChUp is in aaka meter: szCf- RV.5.78ab (See Note 211).

ChUp.5.24.5 yatkiiha kgudhita bZkQ miitarm pmuo&ate / evam s a r v s ~ ibhatsny agnihotrm upasate / ity agnihotram upasata iti 'Just as here h u n m children & around their mother, so & all beings & around the fire sacrifice, they sit around the fire sacrifice.'

A small v ~ a t i o nin the gender and number of the verb (here a past

participle) is found only once (ChUp.7.15.1). Unlike the Fgvedic poet, and more in accordance with the syntactic peculiarities of the epic simile, the p e t of the ChUp does not exploit non-pardlelism in case or number as a poetic device.

ChUp.7.15.1: yaths vg arZ nsbhau sammitah, evam asmin priine sawam samarpitam 'Just as s p k e s are fixed to the hub, so & everything fixed to this life breath.'

As in the epic simiks, the mood employed in the vast majority of clausal similes in the ChUp is the indicative, the optative occurring only five times (ChUpA.4.3, 4.17.7-8, 5.18.2, 6.1.5-6, and 8.32). h e must note the embedding of the yathd clause in the simile in ChUp.1.4.3, which is extremely unusud for Vedic syntax:

ChUp.l.4.3 tiin u t a m aqtyw yathZ rnatsyam udake pari&vet

evarp

p w a ~ d ~ rci a d samni yajuqi 'Death saw them (i.e. the g d s ) there in the I$g [verse], in the %man

[chant], arid in the Yajus [formula], just as one would see a fish in water.'

In the clausal similes in the epic, we have a number of instances of tense variation in the verb. In the ChUp, however, only one such case occurs (presenvperfect):

ChUp.1.12.4 te ha yathaivedam bahigpavamanena stagyamanah sarprabdhah smantitv e v m 8 s a m ~ ste ha samupaviiya hiv cakmb 'Just as they (i.e. the priests), when they are about to chant with the bahiqpavamzna hymn of praise, slide stealthily, joined to one another, so @ c J they (i.e. the dogs) slide stealthily. Then they sat down together and

made the sound "him."'

I have found only two instances of clausal similes with two different verbs in the ChUp. In the first example, the first clause (with the compound verb vtjndtam sydt) is repeated with variation in three subsections before the warn clause (with bhavati). Functionally, these are pretty much the same verb. The repetition of similes (and of sentences that do not contain similes) is characteristic of the ChUp, especially in those parts in which the author wishes to emphasize some point of his doctrine:253

ChUp.6.1A yathii, saumya, ekena m i n d m a s a r v q m m a y a vi-ifigtarn syat* 'Just as, my son, by means of one lump of clay all that is made of clay becomes known.'

253 Gonda (194958) calls this type of simile in the Upan&ads an "explaining or illustrating simile," as opposed to "emotional" similes, which, according to him, are characteristic of epic and lyric poetry*

ChUp.6.1.5 yathz, saumya, ekena loharnwinfi s w a i n lohamayam viififitam syzk

'Just as, my son, by means of one copper trinket all that is made of copper becomes known.'

ChUp.6.1.6 yaths, saumya, ekena nakhmimtmena s w a m k8rsniiyasarp viifiiitam syiit,

... evam, saumya,

sa Zddo bhavatiti.

Just as, my son, by means of one nail-cutter all that is made of iron becomes known,

... thus,

my son, & that teaching.'

In the second instance of clausal simile with two different verbs we have three yatha clauses with three verbs before the evam clause with the verb na vidtth :

ChUp.6.9.1 yatha, saumya, madhu madhukfto nististhanti, nfinStyay3n8~ vrkqiinitm r a s h samavahgram ekatgm rasarp garnayanti. 'Just as, my son, the bees premre honey by collecting the juices of difierent trees md reduce them into one juice.'

ChUp.6.9.2 te yathii tatra na vivekam labhante, a m u g y a h ~qkqasya raso 'smi, a r n u q y a h ~ykqasya rasosmiti, evam eva khaiu, saumya, imiih sarvZih

prajlih sati sampadya na viduh, sati smpadygmaha iti. 'Just as these [juices] are not able to differentiate: "I am the juice of that tree," "1 am the juice of this tree," so &, my son, all these creatures know, having reached the Being: "We have reached the Being."'

Other instances of accumulation of similes in this text are ChUp.5.1.8-11, 6.1.4-6 and 8.9.1-2.

The only metaphor in the ChUp occurs in one subsection in which the universe is compared to a treasure chest. In this stanza we have two compound metaphors of the type we saw in the epic, but not in the RV. What is interesting here is that, as in the Mahgbharata, the metaphoric compound occurs in a sloka. Notice also that the third line is hypennetri~,~~'* perhaps an indication that the author of the ChUp (or a later editor) is attempting to adjust the style of the Upanisadic prose to a line in aoka meter:

ChUp.3.15.1 antariksodarah koio bhumibudhno na jiryati / dis'o hy asya sraktayo dyaur asyottaram bilam / sa esa kos'o vasudhanas tasmin vis'vam idam Sritam // possessi in^

the atmos~hereas [its] inside, the chest, possessing the earth

as [its] bottom, does not decay. The quarters [are] its corners, the sky [is] -

its upper lid. This chest [is] one containing wealth, in it rests everything here.

To sum up: as can be seen from this brief analysis of the similes in the ChUp, their syntax is closer to that of the similes in the epic than that of the similes in the RV. I noted above the similarity of the language of the Upanisads to that of the epics.As far as the employment of similes is concerned, the style

of the ChUp constitutes a transition between the RV and the epic.

254

In their 1958 edition of the

text.

Limaye and Vadekar suggest dropping sa. Hauschild

(1961:38) thinks that there may have been a slurring between sa and esa (after Olivelle 1!?98:545).

CONCLUSION

This analysis of the similes and metaphors in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahzbharata

elucidates the distinctive characteristics of these two poetic devices in the epic. Further, it demonstrates that there is a development in the use of similes (with regard to their syntactic structure, content, function, etc.) in works of pre-classical literature in Sanskrit, the Mahzbharata forming a transition from the RV and the Upanisads to the later works of ksvya poetry. Moreover, the examination of a number of highly elaborated passages in the epic allows us to see the origins of classical poetry as established in Alamk3ras'Zstra treatises. The first set of results of this study concern the syntactic structure of epic similes. We saw in Chapter 1 that the epic poets make use of a number of particles, as well as of adjectives and nouns, to mark similes. Thus, epic similes are marked by the particles iva or yathd, by -vat or by adjectives meaning "similar" at the end of compounds. Further, they can also be expressed by means of bahuvrihi compounds in which the common property is elided. The bgvedic similes, however, are marked only by three particles, d,iva and y a m , and the similes in the ChUp exclusively by yathd/evam. The epic poets use similes more abundantly than do the authors of the other two texts, especially in long descriptive passages, and this fact may account for the variety of ways in which they insert new comparisons in their compositions. The search for variation is

also seen in the employment of compound similes. This type of simile is absent

in texts that predate the epic and, in some cases (the most elaborate ones), it recalls the compound similes of classical poetry. Another syntactic innovation of the epic is the creation of clausal similes, that is, similes in which the comparison lies not between two noun phrases, but between two clauses. This is in contrast with the similes in the RVT which are

always nominal,25s In most of the clausal similes in the epic, the poet repeats the same verb, and often other parts of the clause as well, both in the simile and in the frame. Such instances reflect the poet's attempt to turn a nominal simile into a ciausal one by merely repeating several parts of the f m e . We saw in the previous chapter that this is the method uf campasition en~pluyedby the author(s) of the ChUp, where we find only one clear instance of a clausal simile. A number of similes in the didactic portions of the epic (for instance, in the

Bhagavad GItii) are clausal as well. However, in the epic, most of the similes of this type are found not in didactic passages, but in descriptions of combats. What is interesting here is that the epic singers have appropriated a syntactic structure that originally belonged to works of didactic character and have exploited it for poetic purposes. Or, this structure might have been adapted by both the Upani$ads and the epic from chms/incantations like those in the Atharva Veda. The survey of similes in the ChLJp shows that, as far as the syntactic structure

of similes is concerned, this text forms the transition fiom the RV to the epic. The much-debated issue of the relation between the language of the Uparkjads and that of the epics, which I mentioned in the previous chapter, must therefore be re-considered. A hrther difference in the syntactic structure between the similes in the

RV md in those in the epic is that, in the former, we have a number of instances of b'c~e-dishmony,''256 that is, similes in which the subject and the object of comparison are not in the same case. Jamisun (1982) argues that this non-parallelism in case is exploited by the egvedic poet as a p t i c device. In Books 6 and 7 of the MhzbhZrata, however, we have no instances of this type

~ 5 ' 1 noted above (after Jamison [1982]) that clausal similes do exist in the RV, but only very marginally. A term coined by Jamisan (1982).

of syntactic disharmony?' Non-paflelism in the number of the subject and the object of comparison is found in a few isolated instances in the epic. However, in all of these instances* the subject of comparison is a cotlective, and therefore rather arnbigucius with regard to its number (even if m o ~ h o l o ~ c a l lity is a singular). To sum up: while we see a development from nominat similes in early Vedic to clausal similes functioning in relative independence in the epic, the basic syntactic structure of the simile (two nouns in the same case and number

and a comparative particle) is never exploited for poetic purposes by the composers of the Mahiibhhta. A second significant difference among these texts concerns the semantic

content of similes. As a number of schdars have

the images

contained in the similes reflect the historic and cultural background in which these texts were produced. For instance, a large number of similes in the RV have cows as objects of comparison, thus reflecting the prominent place of cattle in the Vgvedic society. The same is true of horses.3q It is also interesting to

note that, with only one ex~eption?~'the deities invoked in RV.7 are never compared with ferocious animak Further, since the RV is religious text, images of sacrifice and ritual are common. The bgvedic pets seem to strive to create

new, often bold images, perhaps in order to avoid the monotony of the many invwa~onsto the same god. The simiks of the ChLJp., on the other hand, are of a philosophicd nature, and while the images they contain are often elaborate, they are not, in my view, as imaHnative as those found in the Bgvedic hymns.

2.57

A potential instance of case disharmony in epic similes was mentioned in Chapter 1 (see Note 89). 258 See, for instance, Brockingtan (1984:345), Gonda (1949:8) and S h m a (1964:g-10) for the epics; Gonda (1949:8ff.), W e 1 (1890:3K) and Renou (1956:27-8) for the RV. 259 Renou (1956~28)remarks that the RV reflects the cx.isteme of a jargon of horse races. A number of the shiJes in RV.7 refer to horses running (or winning) in races. 260 RV.7.19.1- Indm is, however, hquently compared to a bull in the RV.

Similes in Books 6 and 7 of the MahZbhZrata differ from those in the previous texts in that they exhibit a wide variety of images that refer to deities, the natural world? a number of philosophical terns (in the didactic parts) and items of material culture. Unlike the RV, here items that belong to the sphere of sacrifice and ritual are mostly absent. Among the deities, the martial god hdra is the most frequent object of cmnparison. As is to be expected in an epic poem, warriors are often compared with wild mirnds such as elephants, lions, snakes, tigers and bulls? all of which symbolize might. h contrast to RV.7, instances of horses and cows as objects of comparison are relatively few. As an exception, one must note the simile gdvub s?tdrditd iw 'like cows afflicted with cold,' which stresses the cowardliness of the rival armies. Warriors are also frequently compared with elements of nature, such as the sun, mountains and trees? Specid attention must be paid to a number of epic similes that contain elaborate images of nature, like those I discussed in Chapter I, since it is in such passages that one can see the beginnings of kiivya. The analysis of the similes in the RV, the ChUp and the epic demonstrates that the function of these texts plays a crucial role in the employment of poetic devices. 1 noted in Chapter 5 that the RV is a collection of religious hymns (or praise poems), and that it has mainly a non-literw function? the audience being by convention the gads. The p e t wishes to obtain favors from the deity he praises, and therefore attempts to create elaborate lines, which are often characterized by semantic and syntactic dist~rtions.Further, a large number of hymns are addressed to the same deities, and this may account for the use of similes with (often) bizarre images. The hnction of the ChUp, on the other hand, is to get students to think about a number of philosophical problems. Themfore, the text is never as obscure as some of the passages in the -

26 i

An ancient comparison of Indo-Eumpean origin, as I noted

in Chapters 1 and 4.

RV, and similes, though quite elaborate at times, lack the syntactic distortions

and bold imagery of the Fgvedic comparisons. The simiies in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahgbhiirata have a distinctly different function. These bwks consist mainly of long descriptions of combat, and similes (as well as other figures of speech) are employed by the poet to introduce some poetic vhahon in these often monotonous passages. They are addressed to a general audience,262and therefore the epic singers are expected to create straighforward compsitions that most members of the audience are able to comprehend. This explains the fact (at least partially) that the vast majority of simiies in Books 6 and 7 of the Mhgbhgrata are rather short and of a stereotyped character. However, despite their simplicity, a great number of similes are endowed with figures of sound such as alliteration, assonance and repetitions

or echoes of sequences and words. All of these are poetic devices that the poet employs in oral compositions "to p i n t to the message, the poetic text, and call attention to it.''263 The fact that figures of sound are found more commonly in verses that contain similes than in the rest of the text emphasizes the prominence of similes in the text. In contrast to the epic, the Bgvedic poets employ figures of sound throughout the hymns, and similes are highlighted by means of grammatical distonions or bizarre images. The ChUp, on the other hand, is not a poetic text (at least p h m ~ l y )and therefore is devoid of sound figures. When discussing the stereotyped character of many of the similes in the epic, one has to reckon with the factor of transmission as well. The MaMbMrata is a traditional poem, that is, it was transmitted orally for many centuries before being committed to writing, and it is characterized by the employment of fomulas, The surv~yof similes in two books of the Indian epic reveals that

262

See, for instance, Buhler, Georg, and .J. Kirste (1892:21ffJ. As Wa8kins (199529) expiah.

about two-thirds of them occur in fomulas. The fourth pzda of the Aoka* the most common meter in the epic, is less subject to variation than the other p ~ d a , and therefore most traditional fomulw tend to occur in this pasition, A number of the forrnulas in which similes occur are (relatively) fixed, that is, they appear in a constant shape. However* most of the formulaic similes are (relatively) flexible9 being often inflected, expanded and split by other words. This is especially true of a number of similes hat contain images of nature, where we can discern the poet's experimentation with various syntactic structuresT lexical substitutions and meters. Similes of this type recall the similes with images of nature that characterize kzvya poetry. The formuIaic similes in RV.7? on the other hand, form a tight syntactic unit (usually the piida), and it is only within the boundaries of the pads that we have variations. This was illustrated by means of one fomuIaic simile that occurs 7 times in the book 1 examined* arid 21 times altogether in the RV. Further scrutiny of the Bgvedic fomulas would shed light on the nature of the formuiaic similes and on their function in the hymns. One common formula in the Mahgbhiirata is that in which we have the metaphor of the batdefield as a river (of blood). According to Indian theo~sts* the metaphor (fipaka) is a variant of the simile (upamii) in which the common property is not mentioned. The analysis of the metaphor of the battlefield as a river reveals the abundant employment of metaphorical compcmnds (some of them quite long) in the descriptive passages of the epic Further, it demonstrates the close relation between metaphors and similes in this work. The frequent occurrence of this metaphor and of a large number of similes hroughout the

poem highlights the literary structure af the Mhabhgrata* and suggests the need for a thorough re-examination of many current assurnptions a b u t the character and the function of the epic* as well as its relevance in the history of Sanskrit literature.

APPENDIX 1:

THE METAPHOR OF THE BATTLEFIELD AS A RIVER: FURTHER EXAMPLES

The metaphor of the battlefield as a river (of blood) is the most common metaphor in Books 6 and 7 of the Mahgbhiirata. It occurs in a number of variants that illustrate the epic poet's attempt to create poetically interesting passages in the midst of long descriptions of battles. These passages also show the relationship between similes and metaphors in the epic.

In this example the metaphor is introduced by a simile that occupies the entire sloka, and in which the massacre caused by the warrior Dropa is compared with the god Viqnu's massacre among the daityas. The word nadim 'river' is not mentioned until the last verse (36). It is, however, cued in each verse by a synonym of ghord 'terrible,' the epithet that forms part of the basic formula pravarrata mdjghord ' A terrible river arose.' One must note that the Southern '[He] made a river flow' for bhiruvibhjgawm mss. substitute prdvartayan na& 'producing fear in cowards' in the fourth pZda of sloka 31, thus regularizing the syntactic structure of the metaphor. MBh.7.20.30 dronas tu p%n&wiinikecakzra kadanam mahat / yathii daityagqe vi9nuh sur~suranamaskfl~ // 'Droqa caused a great massacre among the Piindava troops, just as Viqnu, honored by gods and asuras, [caused a massacre] among the daitya troops.' MBh.7.20.3 1 sa iiirah satyav8kprZjfio balav3n satyavikram* / mahZnubhBva kalante raudrim bhimvibhisanam // 'That hero, truthful, wise, strong, truly powerful, generous, [sloka 36: made a river flow] at the end of time, temble' producing fear in cowards.' MBh.7 20.32 kavaconnidhvajiiv~a~ martyakQIZpahiirinim / gajavgjimahagr8ham asirninarp dudsadam // 'Possessing cuirasses and banners as whirlpools, carrying away great numbers of mortals, possessing elephants and horses as great crocodiles, possessing swords as mina-fishes, inaccessible.'

MI3h.7 .2O.33 virashiSmkagm ratidram bhefimurajkacchap8rn / c m a v m a p l a v % ghorihn ~ ke6daivdd8dvdZrn // 'Possessing bones of heroes as pebbles, dreadful, possessing drums and cymbals as tortoises, possessing shields and cuirasses as rafts, terrible, possessing hair as moss and weeds.' MBh.7.20.34 s'araughi~imdhanulprotarp bahupannagaswulam / rqabhamiv&gm ghorsm kumsfijayavZhinfm / manu$yasiqapZ~a~Sm SaktiminiXrp gad04upZm // 'Possessing arrows as currents, possessing bows as flowing water, full of arms as snakes, flowing through the battle-field, terrible, carrying away the

Kurus and the Spijayas, possessing human heads as stones, possessing spears as mina-fishes, possessing maces as rafts.' MBh.7.20.35 us~i~aphenavasanam nigkimantrasarisip8m / vlrap&%rinim ugri~mm8~sas'onitA~damiim// Possessing turbans as foam, possessing scattered intestines as stones, carrying away heroes, dreadful, possessing flesh and blood as mud.' MBh.7.20.36 hastigraham ketuqksam ksatriyZnZrp nimajjanim / kriirsm S'afirasaipghStZm s3dinakram duratyayam / dronah prgvartayat tam nadim antakagaminim // 'Possessing elephants as crocodiles, possessing banners as trees, causing the warriors to sink, fierce, full of corpses, having horsemen as alligators, inaccessible; Drona made a river flow there, [a river] that flowed to the realm of Death,'

2. MEth.7.48.49-50 (Meter: vmiasiha). This is one of the only two instances in Books 6 and 7 in which the metaphor of the battlefield as a river occurs in a long Notice the contrast between the long metaphorical compounds in the first stanza and the lack thereof in the second (with the exception of jivam~tapravdhml).One must also note the third pads of stanza 49. Unlike any other metaphoric compounds in my corpus, here the compound contains two metaphors, manusyasf~upala'possessing human heads as stones' and rnmakardamd 'possessing flesh as mud.'265 MBh.7.48.49 SMraswghZ[av&3 asrgjalii rathocfupii kufijaras'ailasmkatZ / rnanu~yasir;)opalarn8msakardm~ praviddhm~nZvidha^astram~lini // 'Carrying heaps of bodies, possessing blood as water, possessing chariots as rafts, full of elephants as rocks, possessing human heads as stones and Flesh as mud, possessing various kinds of abandoned weapons as garlands.' MBh.7.48.50 mahiibhaya vaitarqiva dustara pravartita yodhavarais tad3 nadi / uvaha madhyena rmiijirm b h r i i - ~ ~ bhayWahZ jivanipapravahinI // 'Producing great fear, like the [river] Vaitar~T,difficult to cross, a river was produced by the best of warriors then, it flowed in the middle of the battlefield, carrying fear, carrying away [both] living and dead [heroes].'

The other instance (MBh.6.55.121-251, was examined in Chapter 3. The only variant mentioned in the Critical Edition is that found in hi,which substitutes utpala 'water-lily' for upala 'stone.'

2>-

In this example we have two variations of the basic formula, the first in aoka 47, prmrtayan nadim ugram 'He made a dreadful river flow,' and the second in sloka 48, akarod ... nadim 'He made a river.' The metaphor ends with a clausal simile (not embedded in the metaphor) in which the blood of corpses on the battlefield is compared with Indra's torrential rains, an image not found anywhere else in my corpus. MBh.7.68.47 pattyaS'varathanagai&a p r a c c h a n n a ~ a s a ~ a m/~ m iaravarqaplavam ghorzm ke~daivala^Zdvalam/ pravartayan nadirn ugriim s'onitaughatarartginm // 'Possessing banks made and covered (?) with foot soldiers, horses, chariots and elephants, possessing showers of arrows as rafts, terrible, possessing hair as moss and weeds, he made a dreadful river flow, possessing currents of blood as waves.' MBh.7.68.48 s'irastr~naksudramatsy3myuggnte kalasmbhparn / akarod gajasambadhii~nadim ~[taras'onitiim/ dehebhyo rajaputriin3rp nagZSvarathasSdiniim // 'Possessing helmets as small fishes, produced by death at the end of an era, he made a river, full of elephants, possessing excellent blood, with the corpses of kings' sons, elephants, horses, chariots and knights.' MBh.7.68.49 yathii sthalarp ca nirnnam ca na syZd vaqati vgsave / tathSsTt prthivT saw3 Sonitena pariplutS // 'Just as there is no mound or depression when Vasava (= India) rains, so was the entire earth covered with blood.'

The following example is a variation of the metaphor of the battlefield as a river. Here the army is compared with the ocean three times, once in the beginning of this passage, and twice in the last sloka. In the first sloka we have a phonetic echo produced by the repetition of pakja 'wing,' 'winged' (= bird), in two adjacent words in 6.72.14c, the first one with the negative prefix a-. A long compound without caesura between the third and the fourth pada occupies the second half of sloka 15.2" In sloka 16 the poet experiments with syntactical variations in piidas 3 and 4, where the last member of the final compound, the participle kampitam 'shaken,' is modified by both the compound vdyuvega 'the violence of the wind' and by the instrumentals vahana@prisarpadbhi~'running vehicles,' to which vdyzivega refers metaphorically,

266

Hopkins (1901:195) remarks that verses in which there is no caesura between piidas a and b or c and d usually contain an enumeration of objects (as here). He further indicates that the lack of caesura is not typical of the epic. This is the only instance of lack of caesura I have found in my corpus.

'[The army is] like the great Ocean, filled with rivers on every side, covered with chariots that have no wings [but are] similar to winged-ones and with elephants.

''''

ME3h.6.72.15 ngnsyodhajalarp bhimm vahanonnitaranginam / k~ep~yasigad~SaktiSarapr~sasamZkulm // 'Possessing numerous warriors as water, terrible, possessing vehicles as waves; full of swords, maces, spears, arrows and darts as oars.' MBh.6.72.16 dhvajabhU~~asaipbadham ratnapattena saipcitam / v8hanaih parisarpadbhir v~yuvegavikmpitm// 'Abounding in banners and ornaments, full of garments with jewels, shaken by the violence of the wind, the running vehicles.' MBh.6.72.17ab apZram iva garjantw s8garapratimam mahat / 'Like - [an ocean] without shores, roaring, similar to the great ~cean?"

The subject of this simile (sainyam 'army') is mentioned in the first sloka of the adhyaya. A slightly different variant of this passage is found in MBh.7.89.11-15. Here the subject of comparison {sainyam) is mentioned in the first verse, and there are no similes in the last verse.

268

A. G&

and demons.

'Like in the battle of the gods and the demons' yathii devZsure yuddhe lVBh.6.43.42~~4 6 . 3 5 ~73.1 ~ lc, 75.2k, 95,20a, 9 6 . 5 1 ~ ~ 1l2.3&, 7.75.2 1 (ins.), 8 0 . 2 1 ~134 ~ I ~ c ,1U.18c; yathz devssurarp yuddham MBh.6.54. 12c. 'Similar to [the combat 04 the gods and the demons' devZsurapm* MEh7.8O.8 1d, 8 1-4; dev8suropmm MBh.6.79.ll d, 7.24.2 I b; deviisuropame MBh.6,113.49b, 7.1655b; devasurmwopamam MBh.6.43.8 Id.

'Like $&flndmahendra, etc.' $aha iva MBh.6,14.12a, 15.14a, 22.8d, 43.39d, 97,2W, 7.8.32a, 19.2Od, 44.2a; $&am iva IMBh.7.8.22a; iakreneva MBh.6.22.4d; &krasyeva MBh.6.67Sb, 93,25d, 1 16.25b.

indra iva MBh.6.20.11 d, 7.27.24b; indram iva MBh.7.29.9d.

This appendix includes variants of the formulas (even if they occur only once), except when they an Ionger than two padas.

'Similar [in spIendor/sound/to~~h] to Indra's thunderbolt' indrzgmipnbhm MBh.6.8 8.14b.

'Like Viisava/the thunderbolt-kxer with the thunderblt' savajra iva v8savQ MBh.6.58.34d, 7.64.14b. savajra iva vajrabw MBh.6.96.11 d.

'Like [the combat] of V p a and Viisava' vmav&wayor iva MBh.6.43.34d, 96.49b. yath8 vai vpraviisavau mh.6.86.5M.

'Like 1ndra,8&a, etc. [killindfighting] the demm(s)' indra iviisuriin ME3h.7.109 1Id.

vajrapgqir mahasuriin MBh.6.75.26f, vajrapiinir iviisurarn ME3h.6.78.5Mv 82,37d, 7.1 10.1 1b, vajrapznir ivzsuriin M3hm6J32.37d,Appendix 4.121b; vajrapiinim iviisuriih MBh.6.104.33d.

'Like Indra/the gods [killindfighting] the diinava' mahendra iva dznaviin MBh.6.93.36f.

maghaviin iva dihavsn hdBh.6.43.61d. dsnaviin iva vasav* MBh.6.73.30d9 7.95.20b; dznavzn iva vgsavam MBh.6.73.3fM yatha surapatih &ikras MsaygmSsa danaviin mh.6.79.27ab.

tridaifs danavii iva h4Bh.6.53.28d.

devzniim diinavair iva MBh*6.65.33b, 114.22d; deviiniim iva dznav* MElh.7.15.12d; yathii vai devadiinavau MBh.6.97. lob.

indro dznavsn iva hdBh.7538d.

'Similar to the rod of Death' k81adqdopmm ME3 hA.43*8d, Appendix 4.2 1 I.

daqdapgnir ivgntaka MBhb6-50.2b,58.51d, 59.1 ld, 73.15 (ins.), 78S7d, Appendix 4230b.

'Like Death with mis] mouth open' vySditEsyarn ivzntakam MF3he6.110.38d, 7.8 1 lob, 85,3M, 92.27b, l38.49d.

2. NA'IIXU

A. sun 'Similar to ?.he sun [in splendor]' ivaditya MBh.6.14.11~,Appendix 4.119b, 7.9.7a, 20 (ins.), 25.50~;&lityam iva MI3h.6.15.58a.

yathiidityah mh.6.Appndix 4278a. ~dityasmamMBh.7.29.1 (ins.). iiditysamatejaam MBh.6.19.42.

stirya iva MBh.728.36 (ins.); stiryam iva MBh.7.1%5M, 43.21 ivztapantm MBh.6.59.28b (tr-kgubh).

suryarn

bhiiskaro y a M MBh.7.13-71d, 59.16d; bh&kargv iva MBh.7.90.4M.

'Like the rising sun' udaymn iva bhaskar* MBh.7.33.17f.

babhau sihya ivodit* MBh.7.64.18d.

'Like the sun at noon' stiqaq-i madhyarpdine yaths Mh.7.4O.23bt 7.138 16d. madhymdine stiry* iva MBh.7.32d. madhyamgata ivsdity* MBh.7. t 65.1 O6c.

madhyam praptam yatM @sme tapantam b h & k u m divi klBh.6.113.29cd. caran madhyqdine siirya pratapann iva durdpk@ MEK7.32.17cd.

'Like the shininouming sun' pratapmtm ivZciityw klBh.6.55.64~, lOZ.5 1a, 7.39.21a. stirya pratapann iva MBh.7.32d. tapantam iva bhiiskaram MBh.6.84.1 d, 105,34d, 1 13.Dd. jyotiqiim iva bhiiskm*

MBh.74.2b.

'Like the autumn sun' iamdiva divzkar* MBh.693.22, 7.37.2M, 47.3 (ins.),

'Difficult to look at like [at] the sun' dusprekgyo rdmiviin iva MBh.6.l9.33d9 45.57d, 55.474 102.38d.

'@mners) like burning fires' jvalimta iva ptivdclih hdBh.6.15- 12c; jvdantarn iva piivakam mh.7.70.39b; jvalmtiiv iva pi'lvakau MBh.7.76.14b.

'Like the fire of kath/at the end of a yuga' yug%nte pi'ivakc~yathii hdBh96.%k12d.

ki%.igner iva dipyat* MBh.7.7028d.

kalggnisadrs'ah MBh.7.36.35 (ins.). 'Like a fire without smoke* vidhiima iva pgvakalJ MBh.6.45.56d, 1O5.33d, 7.165.16b. 'Like the oblation-eater (i.e. the fire) with an oblation' haviva havyavgd iva MBh.6.45.43f, 92. Nd, Appendix 4.1b.

'Like clouds [covering] the sun' megha iva divakaram MBh.6.42.14d, 113.48b, 7.74.44d; meghair iva divitkaram MB h.6.80.50d. megho yadvad divakararn MBh.6.79.4 1d. yathz megho diviikaram MBh.6.82.5d, 97.49d.

meghalJ sOryam ivoditam MBh.7.68.6 1d.

m q h z iva ghannarasmim MB h.6.22.16b jimOta iva bhaskaram MBh.6.60.38d.

jalado bhzskaram yathii MBh.7.101.41d, 137.6d. suryarn abhragaqa iva MBh.7.21.25d. ghanaughz iva bhiiskaram MBh.7.Appendix 1.24.15b. 'Like a cloud/clouds [covering] a mountain (with rain)' megha ivacalan MBh.7.148.9d.

megho qstyii iviicalam MB h-6.43.47d. megho vrstya yathgcalau MBh.6.102.7 Id. meghS iva @fin yathz MBh.6.58.37d.

yathg meghau mahagirim MBh.7.71Z d .

jalada iva parvatam MBh.7.13.79d.

parvatRii jaladz iva MBh.67.15.10d, 7.15.10d. jdaugha iva parvatam MBh.6.Appendix 4-23I b. megho vrstyeva parvatam MB h.7.106.18d. parvato vZridh3rZbhir varqamanair ivgmbudaih MBh.6.109.26cd.

@rim jalggame yadvaj jaladz jaladhariq*

MBh.6.58.12cd.

abhivrsto mahiimeghair yaths syat parvato mahgn MBh.7.19.19cd. parvatam vgridharabhih priiv~sivabalzhakah MB h.7.112.2 1cd. parvatarp v3ridhZrSbhiS chadayan iva toyad& MBh.7.114.3 lab. parvatan iva varsena tapante jalado mahiin MBh.7.9 1-19cd. yathii meghair rnahsriija tapante divi bhiiskaram MBh.6.101.cd. 'Like cloud(s) with lightning' rneghii iva savidyuta MBh.6.16.25d, 18.5d, 87.14b, 89.324 7.72.22d.

savidyuta iv3mbudiih MBh.7.1 WOd. savidyud iva toyad*

MBh.7.111.30d.

vidyunmilli rnegha ivantarikse (tris~bh)MBh.7.152.20d. yathii megha savidyut MBh.6.67.6ab. yathii savidyuto megh*

MBh.7.164.13 1a.

D. Planets 'Like the planets in the sky' gah8 iva nabhastale MBh.6.53.30d, 68.19d.

yathii buddhas nabhastale MBh.6.97.57cd. 'Like a meteor falling from the sky' jyotirpsiva nabhastdat MBh.6.42.22d.

jyotir ivarnbariit MBh.7.20.47d.

E. Mountain 'Like a mountain' parvat% iva MBh.6.17.17d, 73.15 (ins.); parvatair iva MBh.6.92.55d. parvatopam@ MB h.7.65.22 (ins.); parvatupaman MB h.6.58.47d, 49b, 84.7b; parvatopmaih MBh.7.68.32b.

girir iv&al& MBh.6.49.1 Id.

merur iv3cala MBh.6.59.8d, 74.24d, Appendix 4.1 17b, 7.33- 1 8d. mainaka iva parvat* MBh.6.88.23f, 7.150.59b; maingkam iva parvatam MBh.6.43.64d, 45.19d, 7.46.15d, 67.17dT 74.28dT 99.2d.

mahantam iva mainiikam MBh.7.3.4a. himavan iva MBh.6.14.8b. 7.21.24 (ins.).

He stood like an immovable mountain' tasthau girir ivZcal* MBh.6.49.11d, 88.12d, 90.21b, 7.14.7d' 74.41d. ni%caladgirir%$iva MB h.6.74.7.d. ngkampata yathScal*

MBh.6.79.48d, Appendix 4.159b.

'Like a mountain during an earthquake' kqitikampe yathScal& MBh.7J6.28dT 66.23b. 'Like moving mountains' calanta iva parvatiib MEh.6.19.3 Id, 46.53. caladbhir acalair iva MBh-6.19.24d 'Like winged mountains' sapakqiiv iva parvatau MBh.7.13.40 (ins.), 65d; sapaksSn iva parvatan MBh.7.65.10d.

Like a tom mountain' bhidyamana ivacaI@ MBh.6.4826d, 79.33d, 7.14.25d. 'Like scattered mountains' vikima iva parvatah MBh.6.112.37d; vikimair iva parvataih MBh.7.19.5 Id. 'Like a burning mountainy sajviila iva parvat& MBh.6.97.16d. jvalantam iva parvatam MBh.6.67.2 (ins.), 7.57.33d.

F. Ocean '(Bhisma/the troops) similar to the ocean' siigariiv iva MBh.6.16.45d, 7.145.5d. dvayoh sagarayor iva MBh.6.1.24d. pumasagarayor iva MBh.7.170.9d. sagarapratim* MBh.6.83.2d; sagarapratimam MBh.6.48.2d, 72.17b, 83.5~; ~ZgarapratimeMBh.6.78.2b.

te sene sagaraprakhye MBh.6.4 1 . 6 ~ samudra iva MBh.6.14.8c, 20.19b, 7.4.2a; sarnudram iva MBh.7.9.47b, 36.13a.

3. ANIMALS A* Elephant 'Like an elephant with rent temples' prabhinna iva rnatartg* MBh.7.68.52~; prabhimam iva matartgam MBh.7.9.8a. prabhinna iva kuiijar* MBh.7.20.40b7 38.28b; prabhhnam iva kuiijaram MBh.7.21.4b' 24.27 (ins.).

'Like an enraged [elephant attacking another] enraged elephant' matto mattam iva dvipam MBh.6.43.60d, 77.28d, Appendix 4.15%' 7.13.28 (ins.), 24.9d, 45.12d, 117.45d, 140.5d.

vane mattarp iva dvipam MBh.6.49-3 lc, 112S3d.

mattgv iva makidvipau Wh.6.Appendix 4.132b. vme vanyau gajiiv iva Wh.7.135.43b.

'Just as an elephant [crushes] a lotus' padminim viirmo yaths MBh.6.96.34b.

dvipam padmasaro yathii mh.7.68.30b. dviradam naiinim iva mh.7.26.27b.

vmyanggendr& padminim iva MBh.6.97.28. gajam ndavaniiniva vimrdrmtam !vfBh.6.l03.13~. prabhinna iva mamigo mrdgan nadavanarp yaths MBh.7.68.52cd'Just as [one hits] a great elephant with goads' tottrair iva mahzdvipam MBh.6.57.35d9 60. id, 97.12d9 7.67.37d, 1O7.22d; tottrair iva mahZdvip& MBhb6.10912b.

tottrair iva maMn%gam bBh.6.1O2.6c, 7.109.6~.

t o t w ~ rviddha iva dvip* mh.6.86.32d.

tomEdita iva dvipa mh.6.50.63b, 8 3 3 , 7.12 1.1Ode

'Roaring like a lion again and again' s i a a v a d vinadan muhub mh.6,55.49b, 75.4M, 87.9d, 37.9b, 102*40b, 54b.

'Just as a lion [attacks] a small animal* sirph* kgudrmgam yatha MBh.6.92.23d; siM* k9udramrggn iva MBh.7.102.72d; 'Like (small) animals [having seen] a lion' sirpharp kqudrqgg iva ~h.6.19.1Od, 55b45d; (makisimham) dr$ivii k8udran-q-$i yathii MBh.6.16.43b. sirpho mrgagqgn iva MBh.7.16.47d; sirphm mrgagaxgi iva MBh.6.82.19d.

'[AKOWS]similar to snakes' bhujagopmgb MBh.6.M.Zl d, 7.3 1S6b; bhujagapmm Wh.6.45.38d7 bhujagopmgm lW3h.6,69.35d7 Appendix 4 2 15b. bhujagii iva MBh.6.114.58a, 7.3 1 3 %

'[Arrows] similar to poisotiow snakes7 iarz iisivi$opamiQ blBh.7.98.5d; mTvi$opmm MBhS6.78.2Ob, 82.9d, 7.164.1 14b; aSTvi~oparniinlW3h.6.7O.2b9 9b, 75*27d, 88.38bT96.4b, 7.101.8b, 106.35b, 164.113b; gfivigopamaib MBh.7.25.35 (ins.), 31.2 (ins.), 36.l2b, 16dT39.29 (ins.), 7824d, 96.22.d, 13022d, 141.18b. s q a v i g o p m m MBh.6.50.26b; sqaviqopaman MBh.7.20.4 (ins.).

ahln iiflviqiln iva MBh.6.45.6Od, 54.19d. 'Breathing like a snake' n i h ~ v a s miva pannag* mhm6.88.2b,92. Id.

Svasmta iva pannagah MBh.7.85.fkL

ivasantih iva coragau MI3h.7.54.1 b.

'Like a snake [entering] an ant-hill* 1 12.118, 7.36.27d: vdrnikm iva pannagzh valrnkun iva pannag@ MBh.6.91.46~£ blBh.7.28.38dT llLl5d.

'(Soldiers) like cows afflicted with cold* giiva sftsrditii iva mh.6.45.58d3 1l6.26d. 7.7.17d, 101.Wd, 1M Z d .

'Like insects [entering] a fire' pataq~gi~ iva piivakam MBh.6. i 12.1 1Od. falabhz iva p8vakam MEhm6-7O.32d,7.35.21dq 106.40d (ins.), 7.35.21d. falabhzh pgvakarn yathii MBh.7 .97.14d.

pradiptarp pzvakm yadvat (patamgab) MBh.6.96.10c(d). yatk prajvalitarn vahnim (patmgah) MBh.6.103.2Oc(d).

'Like a tree broken by the wind' vztmgna iva drum& MBh.6. i 5.15b* 75.48 (ins.), 7.74.25d.

viitmnna iva drum* MBh.7.14 1.3Od; vZtmmTi iva drurniih MBh.7.15.4, 1 11. Nd, 142,43d, 164.8 1d; viitarunnav iva drurnau MBh.7.68.24d; vataninnair drumair iva MBh.7.113.9d.

vgyur qk@n ivaujasil MBh.6.9 1.48d, Appendix 4.1.147.

viitoddhuta iva drum* mh.7.13 1.92d, 155.3d.

s q b h a m a iva vstena bahu63kho vanaspa*

MBh.7.67S7cd.

nirbhagna iva vgtena k ~ i k z r ohimiityaye MEh.7.67.69cd. 'Like a tree broken by the thunderbolt' vajrarugna iva drum* MBh.6.75.48b (ins.).

'Like (two) blooming kirpiuka trees' pu9pitgv iva kimiukau MBh.6.43- 13d, 49.23d, 7.14.23d. 47.4d, 7 l.l7d, l36-9d; pqpitz iva Icimiukah MBh.6.44*43f, 7.18.14d.

kimguksv iva cotphullau MBh-7.143. 18c.

kimsukair iva pu*pitaih hdBh.7.99. i Od. 'Like a shining kiqxfuka tree' pra&pta iva kiqxhk& MBh.7.83.2M.

'Possessing eyes like lotus leaves' pugdwk3kq* ~ h . 7 . 1 0 . 1 8 ~56.1 , c, 6 (ins.); puc#Mkakgm MBhe6.102.59b.

Abbrwhions of Texts Agni P u r d ~ a

BhZmaha, K d v d i ~ e k d r a C h d ~ d ~ Upani~ad aa Day$in, Kdvyudariu Mammafa, Kdvyuprabia

Mahdbhdrata Bharata, N d ~ gdsna a Rudrata, Kdvydla~kdra

Rdmdyapa egveda Udbhata, Kdvydlu~kdrasdrasa~graha Viimana, Kdydfamkdruvrtti

WZKS

Wiener Zeitschriftfur die Kunde Sudasiens

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