Space and Eternal Life: A Dialogue Between Daisaku Ikeda and Chandra Wickramasinghe

Space and Eternal Life A Dialogue between Chandra Wickramasinghe and Daisaku Ikeda

Journeyman Press LONDON • STERLING, VA

First published 1998 by Journeyman Press 345 Archway Road, London N6 5AA and 22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling VA 20166–2012, USA Copyright © Soka Gakkai 1998 The right of Chandra Wickramasinghe and Daisaku Ikeda to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1 851720 60 X pbk Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Ikeda, Daisaku. Space and eternal life: a dialogue between Daisaku Ikeda and Chandra Wickramasinghe. p. cm. ISBN 1–85172–060–X 1. Buddhism and science. I. Wickramasinghe, N.C. (Nalin Chandra), 1939–. II. Title. BQ4570.S3144 1998 294.3'375—dc21 97–32247 CIP 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Designed and produced for Journeyman Press by Chase Production Services Typeset from disk by Stanford DTP Services, Northampton Printed in the European Union by Antony Rowe, Chippenham, England

Contents

Foreword by Sir Fred Hoyle

vii

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The Universe and Human Beings The Universe and Science The Big Bang Theory The Buddhist View of the Universe A Fifth Dimension in the Universe? The Existence of Extraterrestrial Beings A Universe Possessing Both Harmony and Rhythm The Theory of Evolution

1 1 16 32 39 42 51 53

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Science and Religion The Quest for a New Worldview Modern Science and Christianity Modern Science and Greek Philosophy The Crisis Confronting Science The Various Forms of Science in the East and West Chinese and Indian Medicine Science and Buddhism The Fruits of Twentieth-Century Technology

64 64 70 74 76 79 83 88 95

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The Eternity of Life Life after Death and the Oneness of Body and Mind Near-death Experiences and Conquering the Fear of Death On the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth Informing Patients of a Cancer Diagnosis Brain Death and Organ Transplantation The Comatose State, Death with Dignity and Suicide Artificial Insemination, In Vitro Fertilization, Fetal Diagnosis and Abortion The Future of Genetic Engineering

98 98 104 110 120 123 129

Buddhist Pacifism Dialogue in Accord with the Speech of the Sage – I Dialogue in Accord with the Speech of the Sage – II The Buddhist Mission for Peace

139 139 142 146

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133 136

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CONTENTS

Religion for Humanity’s Sake Ashoka and Sri Lanka Peace of Mind The Sanctity of Life Buddhist View of Society Shakyamuni and Mahayana Buddhism Meaning of Shakyamuni’s Reticence Buddhism and the Arts

150 153 160 163 168 171 174 177

The Creation of a Global Civilization The Present in the Context of the History of the Human Race Nuclear Arms: Absolute Evil Coexistence with the Earth’s Ecosystem Challenges of Dealing with AIDS Youth and the State of Education The Family Contemporary Society and the Correct Way of Life The Age of Democracy and Human Rights The Mission of Astronomy to Develop a Sense of Human Community

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Notes Index

182 186 192 198 201 204 207 212 215 223 226

Foreword Sir Fred Hoyle

Many challenging problems face humankind as we approach the dawn of the new century. This book explores some of these problems in the form of a dialogue that spans the fields of art, science, sociology and religion. The dialogue is between two distinguished scholars who think deeply but often from widely different viewpoints. Convergence of opinion unfolds partly through the force of logic and argument and partly because of the common cultural heritage of Buddhism that the two participants share. What is amply clear is that the twentieth century has been dominated by science. Enormous strides have been made in many scientific disciplines, particularly in the first half of this century. Science and technology have indeed transformed our lives beyond what could have been imagined as recently as 50 years ago. Even today the pace of discovery has not slackened and vast amounts of exceedingly intricate factual detail continue to fill the pages of scientific journals. What is noticeable, however, is that fact-hunting in science is tending to become like stamp-collecting, with an everincreasing reluctance on the part of scientists to philosophize, and an ever-increasing aversion to reassess and revise old ideas. At the beginning of the twentieth century science and philosophy were inextricably linked. Indeed, in the older universities in Britain science was known as natural philosophy. Now, at the close of the century, science and philosophy seem to have parted ways, much to the detriment of both. If science is to recover its lost vitality, new attitudes will be needed. Whilst the science and technology of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were deeply rooted in European culture, we are now beginning to see the growing influence of Oriental cultures, notably that of Japan, on the scientific and industrial scene. As this dialogue exemplifies, the older philosophies of Asia are set to play an important role in the emerging scientific culture of the twenty-first century. Of the many religious and philosophical systems that have developed over the last several thousand years Christianity has undoubtedly had the greatest influence on science. This influence vii

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can be attributed not to the views of the founder of this religion, but to later philosophical additions, which were made around AD 500, and which formed the foundation for assertions that nothing that happened here on Earth could have any conceivable relation to events occurring in the Universe beyond the Earth, excepting of course the beneficial activities and heating effect of the Sun. In medieval times the Universe was indeed supposed to be fixed and the sky unchanging, and any suggestion to the contrary was visited by dire punishments. It is quite remarkable that nobody in Europe dared to record the supernova of AD 1054, which, according to the Chinese, must have been brighter than the planet Venus for weeks on end. Similarly, the Sun was supposed to be so perfect that no mention of sunspots was ever permitted, despite the fact that large sunspots were readily visible under suitable conditions. So-called naked-eye sunspots must have been seen over the centuries by hundreds of millions of people, and yet there is not one extant record of their occurrence. It may seem a little strange that such a regressive belief system should have been an encouragement to the development of science. But so it was. Many problems in science can be examined and resolved without consideration of the influence of the forces of the Universe. Such ‘closed-box’ problems tend to be the simplest, and so focusing attention on them seemed only too natural. However, this meant that while the simpler problems were being solved, the more difficult dilemmas, in which external influences are involved, came to be excluded by virtue of cultural and religious considerations. It therefore came about that science was obliged by religious belief to concentrate on precisely those matters where the challenge of reaching a breakthrough in understanding was least difficult and so where early progress could best be made. Success came that way, though one can say that, from an intellectual point of view, it was scarcely deserved. It is this kind of success that, in the present book, is referred to as the achievements of reductionist science. The evident disadvantage, however, is that the attitude of mind that produced early success will, if persisted in, lead to later failure. All those problems that require an acknowledgment of the connection between the Earth and the Universe at large will remain inaccessible to solution by the former methodology. It is just this situation in which we find ourselves today, with the supply of closed-box problems essentially exhausted and with the educational process still serving to forbid ‘open-box’ thinking. The unmistakable slowing up of fundamental discoveries in science in recent years, just at a time when the pace of empirical investigation is so intense, can hardly be explained otherwise. Fundamental science has run out of steam because there are no more important closed-box problems to be

FOREWORD

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solved. The hot pace has gobbled them all up and only the openbox problems, requiring a quite different mode of thinking, remain. The situation is exemplified by the problem of the origin of life. Cultural constraints from the past demand that this issue only be discussed within a closed terrestrial box. Since neither the solution to the origin of life nor the solution to its evolution lies there, one may conclude that the present state of the biological sciences is likely to be intellectually vacuous, despite the availability of a veritable mountain of empirical detail. The same, I suspect, is also true of cosmology. It is as if a number of small children were attempting to put together a somewhat complicated jigsaw puzzle. Some of the pieces manifestly can be fitted exactly together. These are the acknowledged successes of science. In other cases, however, pieces have crudely matching shapes, but they do not exactly fit. What children are inclined to do, and what modern scientists in biology and cosmology and, indeed, in physics are seemingly doing, is to force the pieces to fit, leaving a multitude of little gaps, from which one can see that attempts at constructing a coherent picture will not be successful. Predicting the future is a notoriously hazardous task. Yet I will risk the attempt by suggesting that science in the twenty-first century will at last free itself from closed-box thinking. The intimate relationships between events on the Earth and happenings in the wider Universe will be acknowledged fully, with consequences that I expect to be far-reaching for science and also highly profitable for philosophy.

CHAPTER 1

The Universe and Human Beings

The Universe and Science IKEDA: Our dialogue will center on the subject of the Universe, that

stage for a grand drama that is filled with dreams, mysteries and adventures. I am immensely pleased to have the opportunity to talk with you, an expert in astronomy. WICKRAMASINGHE: Ours will certainly prove to be a timely dialogue

in that it concerns the cultures, philosophies and sciences of the East and the West. I consider it a privilege to be able to discuss these matters with you. IKEDA:

It is I who feel highly honored. First of all, I would like to tell you that my specialty is people, and so I am deeply interested in how people are formed. I have heard that you decided to become an astronomer when you were a boy. I would like to know what motivated that decision. Your place of birth, Sri Lanka, is a tropical region with definite rainy and dry seasons. I can imagine that you must have been enraptured by its starry skies when you were a child and that could have eventually led you along the way to begin the study of astronomy. How did it actually come about?

WICKRAMASINGHE: I was a pensive child. I enjoyed solitude a great

deal, preferring the company of my own thoughts to that of friends. As you have just mentioned, the island of Sri Lanka abounds in the splendors of nature. I enjoyed taking long solitary strolls along a palm-fringed beach not far from my house. I would set out most evenings just in time to witness the huge red Sun sink beneath the horizon, lighting up the sky with iridescent hues of yellow, orange and red. Twilight is brief because Sri Lanka lies close to the equator. The spectacle of the sunset thus switched off suddenly and quickly like a light. IKEDA: I visited Sri Lanka for the first time in 1961. The magnificence

of the evening Sun I was fortunate enough to witness on that occasion is indelibly imprinted on my mind. At the moment when 1

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the macrocosm, in the rhythms of its movement, turned from light to darkness, it seemed as if all of nature was resounding with the melodies of a mystic music. WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is a beautiful description. The spectacle that follows is even more impressive on cloudless, moonless nights – the great Milky Way arching gracefully across the sky like a garland of lights. I remember jotting down a short poem to encapsulate this experience when I was about 14: Gazing up At the star-studded vault of the heavens I wondered: How much life and love There was tonight.

IKEDA:

I feel that you as you are today are reflected in this brief poem. Beautiful poems are born in beautiful hearts. Indeed, the richness of nature refreshes our hearts and infinitely stimulates our poetic spirit. Around the age of 14 or 15 one enters a highly emotional period in life, when the basic outline of one’s character is formed. It is a period when one is moved by things that are pure and beautiful, and when one seeks truth and discovers oneself. In Tokyo today, city lights are so overly abundant that they eclipse even the brightest of stars. But when I was a boy, I used to enjoy looking up at the Milky Way lying like a broad, bejeweled sash across the starry skies. And the folktales that I had heard about the constellations, which represented the hopes and wishes of the different peoples of the world, would make my heart take wing, as it were, and soar up to the limitless expanse of the Universe.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The poem I just quoted represents precisely what

I felt at the age of about 14. The starry skies of my native island of Sri Lanka, before city lights could spoil them, as you say is the case in Tokyo, made a deep and lasting impression on me. And that indeed was my first introduction to astronomy. IKEDA: My youngest son, too, was engrossed in astronomical studies

when he was a first-grader in junior high school. What captivated him in the beginning was the mysterious beauty of Saturn’s rings. I talked the matter over with my wife, and we decided to buy him a telescope. He himself purchased dozens of books on astronomy and diligently studied them. Even on bitterly cold winter nights, he would continue to gaze intently at nebulae and clusters of stars

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for hours on end. He must have felt as if his dreams were spreading farther and farther across the vast expanses of the Universe. But to return to the subject of poetry, when did you first become interested in it? WICKRAMASINGHE: I was attracted to poetry from an early age, and

soon I acquired an abiding passion for it. Excellent poetry, just like a majestic sunset, never fails to move my heart. I read a great deal of English poetry, and at about the age of ten I thought I would like to try my hand at writing poems to express my feelings about the world around me. IKEDA:

Since I was a young man, I have always enjoyed both reading and composing poems. I have long thought that the revival of the poetic spirit could serve as a fundamental source of power for the expansion of human hope. At the Tenth International Poets’ Convention held in 1988, in response to a request I presented a paper entitled ‘Poetry: The Hope of Humankind.’ I am inclined to think that poetry can be defined as the state of mind that links the individual, society and the Universe. The invisible laws of the Universe, the laws of the ever-changing real world called human society, and the principles of the human heart all intermingle and pulse together, unfolding a grand drama of life against the backdrop of infinite time and space. I believe that the poetic spirit opens the door into a world throbbing with the profound rhythms of this universal life and presses in on the very source of creative energy. When we encounter a superior work of art, whether it be a poem, a painting or a piece of music, we experience an overflowing of emotion and a sense of fulfillment, a feeling of the expansion of the self, as if we had soared up to the heavens in accord with the subtle rhythms of the Universe. Incidentally, that brief poem of yours resembles haiku in style. Is it true that you also compose haiku poems?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, that’s true. I believe it was my teacher at the University of Ceylon, Douglas Amarasekara, who first introduced me to haiku. Besides being a mathematician, he was a highly cultured man, an artist and a painter in his own right. On my very first reading of the poems of Basho (in translation, of course) I sensed that here was a literary style that suited me. It was a style unique in its precision of expression, a precision that appealed to my temperament; yet the images that were conjured in a very few words within a single haiku stretched to the edge of the Universe!

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Here’s another poem I composed: Full-moon night: The soft jade Buddha Glimmering in the dim light of oil-lamps, Smiled, peacefully I believe that haiku poetry is possibly unique in having a quality that might be described as ‘cosmic.’ Reading a haiku leads within seconds to a deep and powerful experience of one aspect or another of the cosmos. IKEDA: Haiku is the art of compressing the vast scope of the Universe

into the tiny space of 17 syllables. I am deeply impressed by your interest in haiku. And I understand that you have published two books of haiku-style poetry? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, that’s correct. I published my haiku-style poems in 1958 and 1961 – before I had published anything at all in the scientific field! In 1961 I won the Powell Prize for English Verse at Trinity College, Cambridge, for my published haiku verse. And more recently, in 1994, I published a short anthology of my poems.

IKEDA:

Those are remarkable accomplishments.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I would like to comment here that the haiku style

of poetry has had very little influence on modern English poetry as a whole. The American poet Ezra Pound was perhaps the only modern Western poet of note to attempt this style (which came to be known as ‘imagism’) as a legitimate poetic form in the English language. I find it somewhat surprising that the influence of imagism was not more extensive. Perhaps there was a basic cultural mismatch: Western materialism of the twentieth century and haiku philosophy were incompatible and irreconcilable. IKEDA:

I find it interesting that you, an astronomer, have chosen the form of a traditional Japanese literary genre to express the mystery of the Universe. This reminds me of Hideki Yukawa, who was the first Japanese to receive the Nobel Prize in physics. I recall him once saying something to the following effect: ‘What is it that I am seeking? In a word, I think it could properly be called a “world of poetry.”’ In Buddhism, as you know, the process of the formation of Buddhist scriptures began with verses, to which prose passages were added later. Of course, there is the practical consideration that verses are easier to memorize than prose, but, above and beyond that, I

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think that perhaps poetry was deemed more appropriate to express the intangible content of Shakyamuni’s state of enlightenment. Rather than try to explain it conceptually in prose, Shakyamuni’s experience could be better communicated through the direct, immediate perception invited by poetry. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, that makes perfect sense.

IKEDA: In the Lotus Sutra, the central text of Mahayana Buddhism

embodying Shakyamuni’s enlightenment, a Promethean-scale view of the Universe is articulated in the form of what is called ‘the major world system.’ At the same time, a detailed analysis of life that penetrates to the depths of the human psyche is taught. And the principle of ichinen sanzen – literally, three thousand realms in one mind, or moment of life, meaning that the phenomenal world or the Universe is one with human life – is taught as the Law that links the activities of the macrocosm of the Universe with those of the microcosm of individual lives. These ideas are expressed in a highly literary, even poetic, manner. Haiku is also a poetic form, and its poetic spirit shares something with the religious state of enlightenment and the flash of philosophical intuition. I’d like to know what you consider to be the significance of poetry and literature in general with regard to carrying out your work illuminating the ultimate structure of the Universe and life. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Before I answer your question, let me say that I agree with you entirely regarding your analysis of the significance of poetry. I have come to believe that poetry is the most sublime of the art forms devised by human beings. In it the artist continually reaches out to establish his connection with the outside world. The poet and the Universe in a sense come together. Throughout my own scientific work I have found poetry and the poetic experience an ever-present source of inspiration. I do not fully understand the nature of this experience or the connection between science and poetry, but it is undoubtedly there. One could in some way regard the endeavors of poet and scientist as being one and the same, in that both share the ultimate goal of exploration of the Universe and of life. The scientific endeavor is accomplished through rational analytical argument; the poetic endeavor is mainly conducted at a subconscious intuitive level. It is to me no surprise that all the important developments in science have come about through a synthesis of analytical processes with a quality that scientists have been content to describe as ‘intuition.’ This latter quality is indeed the poetry of science.

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You are a busy man, but you nevertheless manage to find time to write poems, haiku and even novels. I have read some of the poems you composed in your youth, which strongly impressed me. IKEDA:

Your comments are very flattering. I was still in my teens when Japan was defeated in the Second World War. People found themselves in a state of spiritual devastation, for the foundation on which all their values were based had crumbled with the defeat. I read and read, voraciously. As I did so, various thoughts welled up from the depths of my heart, which I would express in the form of poems and songs. This is still a habit with me. Once I wrote a poem entitled ‘The Universe.’ Here are a few lines: The heavens limitless Earth floating through the void, not a conception, not a fancy, but actually existing, the universe – in times far distant gazing at the lovely poetic radiance of the constellations, men heard the music of fantasy The Herd Boy sets off, the Weaving Maiden goes to meet him, two lovers by the Milky Way; at the zenith of the autumn sky, the Swan’s wings spread in flight; the North Star, prayer of ships on their distant voyages; friends talking together, dancing together, stars of the Southern Cross giving forth the sound of a lyre; the mysterious Princess Kaguya ascending in the bright eighth-month moon.1

Buddhism expounds the principle that ‘the Universe is one’s self.’ It teaches that the human being is essentially one with the Universe and clarifies the vastness of the human mind. Spatially the infinite expanse of the Universe in the ten directions and temporally the eternal flow of time spanning the three existences of past, present and future – all this is contained in a single moment of one’s mind. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Your poem is elegant and has deep meaning. I think I can understand how you felt. Were it not for the human

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being, the Universe would be but an amorphous existence. A concept with no vessel to contain it! IKEDA:

‘The Universe’ is but one example of the poems in which I have depicted my encounters with people, nature and various other phenomena. The human mind or, in other words, human life, is something truly mysterious. One can never grasp it in a fixed state no matter how hard one tries. It is an entity that is contradictory, dynamic, harmonious and full of vitality all at once. Every living being plays music in the rhythms of life. Can we not, therefore, say that life itself is a poetic existence? The Flower Garland Sutra, a Buddhist scripture, says, ‘The mind is like a skilled painter.’ We may interpret this to mean that life itself is inherently possessed, like an excellent painter, with the ability to manifest all phenomena. I am convinced that the poet is a seeker of the great law and the life that penetrate all three entities: the Universe, society and the human being. He is one who finds connections among what appear to be separate and unrelated and then expresses these connections in words. And he is a person capable of sharply discerning the truths hidden in the facts. In this sense, I think highly of the fact that you love poems and that you recognize the power of poetry at a most profound level. You have said, ‘In it [poetry] the artist continually reaches out to establish his connection with the external world. The poet and the Universe in a sense come together.’ You have also said, ‘One could in some way regard the endeavors of poet and scientist as being one and the same, in that both seek the ultimate goal of the exploration of the Universe and of life.’ I think this shows how well matched are our concerns.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Poets and scientists simply have different ways of expressing the truths they have found. They speak in different languages, as it were, but they have a common purpose in that they both seek, to use your expression, to ‘discern the truths hidden in the facts.’

IKEDA:

You have noted: ‘… both [poet and scientist] seek the ultimate goal of the exploration of the Universe and of life. The only difference is that while the scientific endeavor is accomplished through rational analytical argument, the poetic endeavor is mainly conducted at an intuitive level.’ I find this statement has important implications. Unfortunately, very few understand that fact. Most people today think of poetry and science as opposite extremes. And the directions

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the two have taken in our time have, I believe, encouraged this misunderstanding. In essence, however, exalted poetry also exists in great science. And in great poetry, the highest wisdom of the human intellect shines. Poetry and science are related in such a way that they have the potential to enrich each other. And, in fact, it is impossible to separate the poetic aspect from the scientific aspect in any human being. Even if one could, one would end up with a terribly impoverished sort of human being. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I wholeheartedly agree. It is not flattery when I say that I see in you a new kind of human being, a new explorer, in whom poetry and science are richly complementary. Such people are all too rare in our modern world.

IKEDA:

Thank you so much for your kind words. Now may I ask you a personal question? I’m curious to know what led you, a poet, to single out, of all the disciplines in the natural sciences, the study of astronomy? Did your family environment perhaps greatly influence you in this matter?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

As I mentioned, from an early age I have been fascinated by the beauty of the night sky. A more serious interest in astronomy must, I think, have started during conversations I had with my father at the age of 12 or 13. I asked questions about the Universe, as every child asks his or her parents, and I remember my father conveying to me how wonderful a subject astronomy was, and how he himself came very near to becoming a professional astronomer after obtaining the highest honors in the Mathematical Tripos at Cambridge in 1933. My father had in fact begun to specialize in astronomy and was taught by Arthur Eddington (1882–1944) and W. M. Smart (1889–1975), two of the great pioneers of stellar astronomy in the 1930s. Unfortunately, however, prevented for family reasons from further pursuing his studies, he returned to Sri Lanka and there obtained employment as a highranking Civil Servant working for the British government. Because of his connection with Eddington, a number of famous books by the astronomer, such as Internal Constitution of Stars, The Mathematical Theory of Relativity and The Mysterious Universe, were in my father’s library, and I remember dipping into these long before I could hope to understand them.

IKEDA:

Buddhism teaches a principle of the oneness of life and its environment. I believe that a child’s environment is so important as to be in a certain sense a decisive factor in the child’s life.

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Since I was young, I have treasured the saying, ‘A home devoid of books is like a person without a soul.’ In addition to having been raised in an intellectually stimulating environment, I think you are a born man of industry, blessed with great natural curiosity. WICKRAMASINGHE:

My father is over 85 and still healthy; he has read part of our dialogue. Although he is a follower of the traditional Buddhism of Sri Lanka, my father agrees with what you have said regarding the relevance of Buddhism to the modern world.

IKEDA: Your father really has had a fascinating life. My mentor, Josei

Toda, the second president of the Soka Gakkai, was also a brilliant man with a great mastery of mathematics. Your relationship with your father reminds me of mine with Toda. I have heard that your desire to become an astronomer began with a total eclipse of the Sun that you experienced when you were 16. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, it was a total eclipse that was visible from Sri Lanka. The event took place on June 5, 1955. No less than eight high-powered teams of international scientists converged on Sri Lanka, and there was a great deal of news about these events in our local newspapers in the run-up to the eclipse. As a budding scientist then at high school, I followed these developments with great excitement, not least of all because this particular eclipse was characterized by having the longest period of totality since AD 699!

IKEDA:

Observations of that eclipse provided conclusive proof of Albert Einstein’s (1879–1955) theory of relativity, didn’t they?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That’s correct. Before that there had been partial proof during several eclipses. For instance, similar results were obtained during the solar eclipse of 1919, which was visible from a large area extending from Brazil to Guinea, by a team headed by Eddington. But observation methods were imperfect and conclusive evidence was lacking. This theory predicts that light, as it passes a massive object like the Sun, will be bent by a certain small amount (1.75 seconds of arc). This was checked and proved correct by observing a star close to the Sun’s limb. I found all this most exciting even though I could not appreciate the science in full. The events of 1955 which I witnessed first-hand confirmed my resolve to become an astronomer.

IKEDA:

That was quite a dramatic first step. Yours is another example showing that one’s teens is the most important period in

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one’s life in that it determines one’s career. The course that one’s life will follow depends largely on the events one experiences during that period. My boyhood coincided with the Second World War; one of my brothers was killed in action. My mother’s grief at his death made me realize that nothing is more tragic or cruel than war, a perception that I have never forgotten. This became one of the fundamental motivations for my activities in promoting peace. So it is not what one undergoes as an adult but rather one’s childhood experiences that really count. Children should be given chances to get in touch with things that are genuine, with the unadorned realities of nature. Both Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, the first president of the Soka Gakkai, and Josei Toda, the second president, were educators. Both of them strove to realize a valuecreating, humanistic education. Bearing their concepts in mind and aiming toward the twenty-first century, I founded the Soka school system, including Soka University, more than 20 years ago. Another important element is the child’s environment, because it is this that forms his or her personality. We may say that the environment that has the greatest influence on a child’s education is mother, father, schoolteachers and friends. Professor Wickramasinghe, in addition to being an astronomer, you are a mathematician. Who would you say was responsible for your taking up mathematics? WICKRAMASINGHE:

From an early age I thought mathematics was great fun, and luckily I was not bad at it. I derived great pleasure from learning the geometry of Euclid. I discovered in it for the first time the nature of proof. I enjoyed its logic and rigor. Later when I thought I would try to become an astronomer, I decided that I would study mathematics at university, because I felt that this was the most important and most powerful tool with which to explore the Universe. I was lucky to have initial guidance from my father, and later from some excellent teachers at the University of Ceylon. A person who influenced me greatly in those early years was the then professor of mathematics at the University of Ceylon, C. J. Eliezer. He was a Cambridge mathematician of great note, a former Fellow of Christ’s College, and a pupil of the illustrious physicist Paul Dirac. Through his lectures I obtained deep insights into the theory of electromagnetism, a subject in which I was later to specialize. I did not realize at the time that Eliezer and Fred Hoyle were Cambridge contemporaries, and that they were, in fact, both pupils of Dirac.

IKEDA: I understand that Dirac was successful in reconciling special

relativity and quantum mechanics.

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WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, he was. Because of the connection among

these three people – Dirac, Eliezer and Hoyle – it also turned out by a really curious coincidence that Hoyle was to be the external examiner in mathematics for the University of Ceylon in the same year that I sat my final degree examination! IKEDA:

You often work with Hoyle. He is renowned, of course, for his theory of a steady-state Universe, and he has even written a science-fiction novel called The Black Cloud. How did you meet Hoyle, and what influence has he had on you? I am especially interested in knowing the manner in which the culture and thought of the East met with those of the West.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

In 1960 I was awarded a Commonwealth Scholarship by the British government to pursue postgraduate studies in mathematics at the University of Cambridge. I jumped for joy, for here was my chance to specialize in astronomy. Fred Hoyle was Plumian professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy at the time, and although he was not in the habit of taking too many research students, he had decided to accept me. Whilst at the University of Ceylon I had read two classic books by Hoyle: Nature of the Universe and The Frontiers of Astronomy, which made a deep impression on me. So when I received a handwritten letter from Hoyle at my home in Colombo, recommending a list of books for me to read prior to coming to Cambridge, it was a moment of joy that I shall never forget.

IKEDA: Hoyle must have already astutely perceived your ability. The

pursuit of learning is based, like other endeavors, on the relationship between teacher and pupil. Would you describe your first meeting with this world-renowned astronomer? WICKRAMASINGHE: I first met the great man in his house at Clarkson

Close, Cambridge, early in October 1960. I was initially overwhelmed with a sense of trepidation. He struck me as being a shy man, but so was I, so I think we got on well! He was an excellent teacher, and was quick to perceive my natural inclinations, which he directed along channels he thought would suit me. After an initial attempt to interest me in a certain aspect of solar physics (which was incidentally related to the eclipse I described earlier), he showed me the way to one of the most exciting areas of modern astronomy. Hoyle taught me how important it is in science to be accurate, rigorous and self-critical. I also learned from him that established points of view in science were there to be challenged and tested as new facts emerged. I was slow to learn this lesson at the start

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because I came from a culture that tends to respect the authority of books and sages. To learn that scientific theories in the West were often insecure was to me an eye-opener. Since that time I have always shared Hoyle’s deep suspicion of doctrinaire theories in science. IKEDA:

So your encounter with Hoyle was also an encounter with a completely new approach to learning.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I regard Fred Hoyle as one of the great thinkers

of our century. In his advocacy of the steady-state theory of the Universe, I consider him to be as important in a historical context as Galileo or Copernicus or Newton. The reason why this is not widely conceded is of course because the theory runs counter to a powerful Judeo-Christian paradigm which appears to have a stranglehold on modern science. I have come to know Fred very well over nearly three decades. Until recently he has visited me regularly in Cardiff, and we often have had long discussions late into the night on matters ranging from history, philosophy and politics to science. Any initial disagreements on scientific matters are only resolved after rigorous argument and detailed examination of the facts. IKEDA:

So you two have been exchanging opinions for a period of more than 30 years! I find Hoyle’s and your idea concerning cosmic dust particularly unique.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

From my own researches into the nature of interstellar dust, I became convinced that cosmic dust grains were ‘living’ by the middle of 1976, about a year ahead of Fred Hoyle. He was, at the time, in the United States, and I began a correspondence with him, sending calculations and exchanging ideas. In April 1977, I wrote a draft of a joint paper and sent it on to Hoyle, who was then visiting Cornell University. The replies I had from him on May 5 and May 7, 1977, were, I recall, very disappointing to me. He disagreed with a concluding paragraph in our paper in which I wrote that the data implied that cosmic dust was ‘living.’ He did not think such a conclusion was justified. I felt that part of the trouble arose from the fact that he was surrounded at Cornell by astronomers who were vehemently against the possibility of cosmic life. We continued our arguments by correspondence. Then, because the results of new observations and calculations gradually emerged, Fred and I were able to agree on the matter of cosmic life by the end of 1978.

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IKEDA: You have been trying to discover life in the minute particles

of matter called cosmic dust. I find your attempt extremely original and exciting. Since you moved from Sri Lanka to the United Kingdom to study, I’m sure you have had a number of encounters with nature that you found pleasant and refreshing. WICKRAMASINGHE: An experience that made a deep impression on

me occurred at the age of 19, when I first walked through the English Lake District – the country that Wordsworth had written about – in the company of Hoyle. It was a moment of supreme happiness – to be actually seeing and walking through the scenes of poems that I had loved since my youth. IKEDA: You have mentioned Shakespeare, Milton and Wordsworth

as poets you are fond of. WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, and I like them in exactly that order. That

is also the order in which I have been influenced by them. IKEDA: They are also the poets whom I have loved since my youth. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Shakespeare understood the world with the perception of a Buddha. His approach was not scientific or experimental, but with profound intuition and genius he saw the truth about people and the world. Milton was a poet who expressed the spiritual side of humanity. His is a Christian perspective, to be sure, but he clearly expressed the unquenchable human desire to unite oneself with some great divine existence. Wordsworth gave lovely expression to the virtues and blessings of the natural world. He taught us the wonder of the green landscapes that we are now losing, the beauty of the hills and lakes.

IKEDA:

There is one poem of Wordsworth’s that I especially like: My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; And I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety.2

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The insight that the Child is father of the Man is, for educators, for parents and for statesmen, and for all people who were once children themselves an inexhaustible source of inspiration. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I like that poem, too. Adults who have lost the childhood desire to discover the world are no longer alive intellectually. They descend lower and lower on the ladder of intelligent life.

IKEDA: We could say, then, that a truly intelligent life is one in which

one never loses the eager curiosity and the love of truth that a child has. A person whose thinking has petrified cannot be intelligent, no matter how much knowledge he may possess. Buddhism teaches that all people must pursue, in their own daily lives and throughout their entire lives, the knowledge of ‘the identity of the Universe and life’ – in other words, of the true aspect of the mutual activity, communication and sympathy of the macrocosm without and the microcosm within. This pursuit, this search, is an intellectual quest and, at the same time, a quest to open up the infinite Universe within yourself and to establish a state of life that will lead to the creation of infinite value. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think that human beings have a basic need to discover the reason for their existence, the direction in which they are heading. A life devoid of a definite direction is like an automobile running without its driver. It is in our nature to seek to know our own place in the scheme of things. From such a quest it is also natural for religion to emerge. The human being is the only creature who, because of his intellect, is capable of contemplating the Universe and of being considerate toward other forms of life. As far as Earth is concerned, plants are the only forms of life that do not feed on other living things, which means that they are self-supporting and self-sufficient. Human beings owe their survival to many other life forms. One must be aware of this fact and have consideration for other forms of life that inhabit our planet. Herein lies the ultimate proof of one’s humanity.

IKEDA: In this regard, the role of the mind that treasures life, of the

religious mind, is indispensable, isn’t it? WICKRAMASINGHE: Precisely. In modern times, the lack of a religious

mind and a moral sense is manifesting itself in rampant violence and cruelty toward the weak. Now is the time to give the highest priority to the dignity of life. In this sense, I find myself strongly attracted to Buddhism.

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IKEDA: You speak of giving the highest priority to the dignity of life,

but this can only be realized when one bases oneself on the correct outlook on life, one that provides a clear-cut answer to the question of the nature of birth and death. Let us discuss this subject in greater detail later; here, suffice it to say that birth and death are the most important question for human beings. And it is not a question limited to humankind alone. Animals and plants, too, are born and die. Moreover, the stars in the cosmos undergo a grand, endless cycle of birth and death. Birth and death form a principle that governs all things in the Universe equally. The sixth-century Chinese Buddhist master T’ien-t’ai (also known as Chih-i, 538–597) stated, ‘The emergence of all things is the manifestation of their intrinsic nature, and their extinction, the withdrawal of that nature into the state of latency.’3 In this statement, ‘intrinsic nature’ signifies the eternal ‘Law’ of the Universe. The Japanese Buddhist teacher Dengyo (also known as Saicho, 767–822) said, ‘The two phenomena of birth and death are the mystic workings of the single mind.’4 This means that both birth and death are the workings of the mind, that is, the inner life with which human beings are endowed. In addition, the Japanese Buddhist sage Nichiren (1222–1282) wrote, ‘No phenomena – heaven or earth, yin or yang, the sun or the moon, the five planets, or any life-condition from Hell to Buddhahood – are free from birth and death.’5 Practitioners of Buddhism become aware of the existence, in the innermost depths of their lives, of the eternal Law that permeates the Universe and the human being. They aim to live every day in accordance with that Law. In so doing, they discover a way of living that can redirect all things toward hope, value and harmony. To walk along the path of life that is filled with supreme good fortune and blessings – this is the practice of Buddhism. WICKRAMASINGHE:

It is interesting that nowadays most Western scientists almost instinctively reject the dogmas of Christianity, and some do indeed turn to Eastern philosophy for inspiration and insight. Fred Hoyle’s beliefs, for instance, were never in tune with Christianity, but they generally coincided with the tenets of Buddhism.

IKEDA: You must have been inherently possessed of something that

struck a responsive chord in Hoyle’s heart. As you remarked earlier, both poet and scientist continually reach out to seek that which is eternal and permeates the Universe and life. To meet one’s true teacher in the course of that search and to have indelible memories of him throughout one’s life – this is perhaps the most beautiful

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and the most fulfilled state of happiness that one can possibly expect to attain. You spoke fondly about a moment of supreme happiness you experienced when you walked through the English Lake District with Hoyle at the age of 19. I, too, at the age of 19, met for the first time Josei Toda whom I resolved to follow as my lifelong mentor. To dearly cherish one’s memories of one’s teacher, to be proud of him, and to strive to realize his ideals – this, I’m sure, is the path of supreme happiness for a human being. This path, I believe, is brilliantly illuminated with the light of wisdom.

The Big Bang Theory WICKRAMASINGHE: Cosmology at the present time comes very close

to the Buddhist image of the Universe as a whole, and I find myself strongly attracted by the proximity. To be aware of this interesting fact will lead us to a correct understanding of the age in which we are now living. Our contemporaries are without a doubt seeking an entirely new worldview. This is one important reason why I wanted to meet with you and to hear your opinion on this and other related subjects. IKEDA: Then let’s begin by examining the cosmologies that prevail

in today’s science, and then proceed to discuss their relationship with the Buddhist concept of the Universe. WICKRAMASINGHE: A major issue facing contemporary astronomers

is how the Universe began. Did it start with a big bang? Or has it existed eternally, more or less as it is today? We are faced with choosing one of these two alternatives. Today most astronomers subscribe to the big bang theory. IKEDA:

When I was young, Toda often talked to me about a wide variety of subjects, including Einstein’s theory of relativity and George Gamow’s (1904–1968) theory, which assumes that the matter of the Universe existed originally as a primeval fireball. I still remember how deeply impressed I was by their unique and amazing conceptions. Concerning the origin of the Universe, the prevailing theory now is, as you have just mentioned, the explosion theory, that is, the big bang theory, advocated by Gamow in 1948. According to this theory, the Universe came into being after an enormous explosion called the big bang. Cosmological evolution, says this theory, started more than ten billion years ago, with the violent expansion of a highly compressed and intensely hot homogeneous mass of dense energy. Will it be possible to trace even further

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back, to the very moment of the big bang? As far as astronomy goes, we may perhaps be satisfied with the idea that both time and space originated with the big bang. Philosophically, however, we find ourselves yearning to have the moment of the big bang and the state just prior to it described for us. WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is precisely what one is not permitted to explore within the framework of big bang cosmology. Despite modern trends it is my firm conviction that this theory is fundamentally wrong. There is little concrete evidence to demonstrate that 15 billion years ago the Universe began with a big bang. Rather, a growing body of evidence exists to suggest that this theory is incorrect. The Universe may actually be in some kind of steady state. Before discussing some of the recent evidence, it may be profitable to look at this whole problem of cosmology in a historical context. Cosmology seeks to understand the physical Universe by asking questions such as: How and when did the Universe begin; what is it comprised of; and what does it look like as a whole? Such basic questions must have occupied people’s minds from the earliest times.

IKEDA: Where did the human being emerge from, and how? When

we examine these questions by tracing back through history, we inevitably end up considering the existence of the stars and the Universe. As human beings, it is only natural that we should strive unceasingly to find out where we come from, whither we are headed, and what the world that surrounds us looks like. The exploration of the Universe began, I believe, with the emergence of humankind. WICKRAMASINGHE: I couldn’t agree more. Most ancient civilizations

of the world, including the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Indians and the Greeks, had their own particular views concerning these matters. Many of the great religions embodied answers to similar or related questions, and such religious views were often quite rigidly held. Even in the modern science of cosmology, it is quite remarkable how rigid and intransigent the protagonists of cosmological theories can be. Most, if not all, of the early cosmologies were, of course, Earth-centered. The trend away from such models began in a decisive way with Copernicus (1473–1543) some four centuries ago, when the conceptual center of the Universe was shifted from Earth to the Sun. Since then, as is well known, the story of cosmology has been one of ever-widening horizons. IKEDA:

How great were the surprise and emotion that Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) must have felt when he observed, with the telescope he had made in May 1609, craters on the Moon’s surface,

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sunspots and the four major satellites of Jupiter. It was a rudimentary telescope indeed, yet nevertheless incomparably more powerful than the naked eye. Recent research has revealed that on the night of December 28, 1612, he noted and recorded the presence of Neptune. Apparently he was not aware that it was an as yet undiscovered planet situated beyond Saturn. The planet Neptune was formally discovered in 1846 by the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (1812–1910), but, in a way, we may say that Galileo was its first discoverer. Be that as it may, I suspect that when Galileo observed these celestial bodies with his telescope for the first time, he was much more astonished than we of today were when we observed the close-ups transmitted to Earth by the Voyager spacecraft of Jupiter’s erupting satellite Io, of Saturn and of Uranus. When I read his ‘The Starry Messenger,’ I keenly felt the excitement he must have experienced, despite a time gap of nearly 400 years. And I think I can understand what it was that urged him to write Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems – Ptolemaic and Copernican, which consists of an imaginary debate in which geocentrism and heliocentrism are pitted against each other. We can say that the spirit of challenge toward the unknown, uninhibited by conventional ideas and authority, is what has continued to open up and expand new horizons. WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is certainly true. Galaxies such as the Andromeda Nebula or Sombrero Hat were recognized as systems of stars, ‘island universes,’ external to our Milky Way, only relatively recently, some 70 or so years ago, due in the main to the work of the American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889–1953). The first piece of hard evidence that had a direct bearing on the structure of the Universe as a whole came also through the work of Hubble. By using the most powerful telescope available to study distant galaxies, he was able to show that the recession speed of a galaxy (the speed with which it is moving away from us) increases with increasing distance from us. The picture of an expanding Universe soon emerged, a Universe in which distant galaxies seemed to be moving away at ever-increasing speeds.

IKEDA: Hubble discovered a systematic displacement in the spectral

lines of distant galaxies. Based on this discovery, he found that the velocity of recession of the galaxies increases with distance at a certain rate; he calculated the value as about 16 kilometers per second per million light-years. Using the 100-inch (2.54-meter) reflecting telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory, he devoted himself to observing a great many nebulas. One of his findings was that the Andromeda Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye, is a spiral galaxy just as our Milky Way is. The people of his day must have been astonished to learn this. The Americans launched a space

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telescope, by means of a space shuttle, on April 24, 1990; they named it after Hubble. It is rightly designated considering his valuable contributions to the study of the Universe. WICKRAMASINGHE :

This observation of Hubble’s, that distant galaxies are rushing away from us, might for a brief moment have suggested a return to a pre-Copernican Universe, with our Galaxy being placed in a privileged position at the center of things. This potentially uncomfortable situation did not in fact persist, for a resolution of the apparent difficulty soon followed from an application of Einstein’s theory of relativity, which of course had to be considered when dealing with problems that encompassed the whole Universe. The upshot of these considerations was the emergence of a model of the Universe in which every single galaxy was rushing away not only from us, but from every other galaxy, independently of any point of vantage.

IKEDA: SO Hubble discovered that every galaxy was speeding away

from all other galaxies. If we reversed this process, we would have a picture of galaxies speeding toward one another and finally converging at one particular point. This is how the big bang theory came into being on the basis of Hubble’s observation, isn’t it? WICKRAMASINGHE :

That is correct. A simple analogy that is sometimes given is of equally spaced dots on the surface of a spherical rubber balloon, a balloon that is being blown up from inside. The dots behave like Hubble’s galaxies. From the perspective of any particular dot – or galaxy – the other dots – or galaxies – are expanding outward. Of course, the world of galaxies is not twodimensional like the dots on the balloon. But cosmologists can argue by means of precise mathematics that if our real Universe expanded analogously to the balloon, it would eventually become a Universe similar in character to that which we actually observe. If one imagines the process to be reversed, turning the expansion into contraction, it would appear that the Universe was crowded together into an exceedingly dense ‘singularity’ some 15 billion or more years ago, suggesting an origin at a definite moment in time. This is in essence the big bang model of the Universe to which you referred, a model that was first suggested in 1922 by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925).

IKEDA:

Gamow is also known for his studies of the origins of chemical elements.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. Pioneering work to seek an answer to questions concerning the Universe’s origins was carried out by the

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American astronomer Gamow and his colleagues in the mid-1940s. Gamow was mainly concerned with the problem of how the chemical elements – deuterium, helium, lithium and so on – were formed. The conditions that existed when the Universe was some few seconds old, with temperatures around a billion degrees Kelvin, seemed ideal for the formation of the nuclei of deuterium and helium and possibly also for a few other elements from the basic building blocks – protons and neutrons – through a process of nuclear fusion. IKEDA: This can be boiled down to the question of how the chemical

elements were formed in the prevailing conditions of the primordial Universe, can’t it? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, it can. Already in the 1940s, astrophysicists were convinced that similar nuclear reactions were taking place in the deep interiors of stars, where densities and temperatures are high. Analogous conditions are thought to have prevailed on a much grander scale at the very beginning of the Universe. Although Gamow’s belief was that most of the common chemical elements in the world could be synthesized in the fireball associated with the ‘big bang,’ more recent calculations have shown that only deuterium, helium and possibly lithium could have been formed in this way. Further nucleosynthesis, leading to the production of heavier elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, silicon and iron, must have taken place in the deep interiors of stars.

IKEDA: As for the heavier elements, you earlier mentioned that Hoyle

and others examined the process of their creation and postulated that they were synthesized when supernovas exploded. WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes. Hoyle, William A. Fowler and Geoffrey and

Margaret Burbidge worked out the manner in which these elements were formed in the interiors of stars and in envelopes of supernovae in the 1950s. In big bang cosmology, it is believed that the early Universe was immersed in a bath of radiation corresponding to a temperature of a billion degrees Kelvin when primordial deuterium and helium synthesis took place. According to this view, as the Universe expanded from its original dense fireball state, it would have progressively cooled to lower and lower temperatures until by the present epoch the temperature would have fallen to below 10° K. Such then was the nature of a quite explicit prediction of big bang cosmology that existed at the time when the first evidence came to light in 1965 of a background of low-energy microwave radiation filling the Universe. Such radiation causes a steady background hiss in certain radio transmissions.

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The discovery was made accidentally by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson. The temperature of the background was found to be 2.7 degrees above absolute zero Kelvin, and the radiation (with a blackbody spectrum) appeared to come with the same intensity from all directions of the sky. The interpretation that was immediately made from this new datum was that it was indeed a relic of the heat left over from the explosive origin of the Universe some 15 billion years ago, much as Gamow and his colleagues had asserted. IKEDA:

Humankind’s first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched in 1957. During the 1960s a number of communications satellites, including Echo 1 and 2, were launched, and communications technology made a great leap forward. It was under such circumstances that the two radio astronomers discovered a cosmic microwave radiation background, the existence of which was then used as evidence in support of the big bang theory.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, that was the scientific and cultural backdrop

against which the cosmic microwave background came to be discovered. Rival theories of the Universe were then thought to have been instantly disposed of. Over the years this belief has grown in strength, and cosmologists have come to regard the existence of the cosmic microwave background as the final conclusive and irrefutable proof of the correctness of the big bang theory. Yet, in my view, this is far from conclusive proof. The existence of the background itself is not in dispute, but its interpretation as relic radiation from a single and unique big bang has neither been proved, nor is it free of intrinsic faults. IKEDA: That means that the big bang theory is not flawless, doesn’t it? WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, it does. One particular difficulty is that the

background is amazingly smooth in its distribution across the sky. If it had indeed been generated in an initial big bang, the later formation of clusters of galaxies should have left an observable irregular imprint on it. Such a signature has been looked for with great care (as for instance in recent American satellite experiments), but only minute ripples have been found, which can be explained by theories other than the big bang. IKEDA:

Then what is the view that you yourself hold regarding the existence of the cosmic microwave radiation background?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The implication is that the background has been largely smoothed out by some unknown process, or that it was not generated at the beginning of a big bang universe at all.

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Fred Hoyle and I have shown that this background radiation could be explained by the existence of a universal distribution of iron whiskers that absorb starlight from galaxies and subsequently emit microwaves. IKEDA:

What exactly are these ‘iron whiskers’ that you have just mentioned?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The Universe is filled with particles of dust. It is from these dust grains that the various celestial bodies are born, as were, for example, the Sun and Earth. Exploring the precise nature of this cosmic dust has been my main scientific preoccupation for many years now. The notion of iron whiskers occurred to me while I was carrying out this research. Stars undergo what is known as a supernova explosion at the end of their lives. At that point, the ultrahigh-temperature matter that forms the stars is dispersed throughout the Universe. The outer envelope of the star contains a large fraction of iron. Just imagine this red-hot iron being suddenly hurled into the vacuum of space. Now, hot matter cools down as it expands. Accordingly, the iron solidifies when thrown into a vacuum. Calculating on the basis of the known physical properties of iron, one can postulate in what form iron solidifies when dispersed throughout the Universe. One can also tell how matter affects light when the former absorbs the latter. I have made these calculations, and, as a result, I have discovered that, under the conditions I described above, iron will change into numerous minute particles of tiny whisker-shaped dust. This dust is what I have come to call iron whiskers.

IKEDA:

I find your idea quite interesting. By the way, speaking of supernovas, one made its appearance in the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1987. When stars with over seven or eight times the mass of our Sun die, there is a great explosion. At that instant, the star suddenly flares up with a brightness several hundred millions to tens of billions of times that of our Sun. Although ‘supernova’ literally means a super new star, it actually describes a star in the final stages of its life.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, that is correct.

IKEDA: I’d like to ask another question. You mentioned something

you called ‘minute ripples’ when we discussed the cosmic microwave radiation background. What are these ripples? How were they formed? WICKRAMASINGHE: By ripples I mean the tiny fluctuations here and

there in the brightness of the sky caused by microwaves, just as the

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ripples in a pond are caused by slight fluctuations in the surface of the water. Observations of minor ripples in the background radiation were reported in April 1992 by George Smoot. The ripples can be explained in several ways, however, other than the highly publicized big bang theory. The ripples could, for instance, represent a galaxy formation episode following a ‘little bang’ creation event in the type of cosmology originally described by Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar. Or they could be due to irregularities in the distribution of iron whiskers of the type I have discussed. IKEDA: Then we have the question as to how the elements nitrogen,

oxygen, iron and others were created. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. And in the 1940s, one of the biggest problems facing science was precisely this – how the chemical elements were formed. Since the human body is constituted of chemical elements, it is of the utmost importance that we determine their origin. The prevailing cosmological theory then was the big bang theory, and the elements were all thought to have been produced in the big bang. But that hypothesized event could only explain the production of the fairly light elements, from hydrogen through helium and lithium. This question was addressed by Hoyle, Fowler and the Burbidges, who conducted research based on the idea that the chemical elements were formed as a result of nuclear fusion in the depths of stars. Under such circumstances, the production of elements whose atoms are slightly heavier than those of iron would be possible. These scientists were convinced that chemical elements much heavier than iron, however, could not possibly be produced without a phenomenon like the explosion of a supernova.

IKEDA:

It was your research on the universal dispersal of the tiny particles of iron produced in the deep interiors of stars and hurled out by supernova explosions that gave rise to a controversy on contemporary theories of the Universe, wasn’t it?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That’s correct. It produced some irritation among cosmologists who found their confidence suddenly weakened and their cherished ‘proofs’ challenged. The iron particles dispersed throughout the Universe from supernovas come into contact with the heat and light of stars and attain an absolute temperature of about 2.7° K. This causes a phenomenon that is exactly like the microwave background – a confusing situation indeed.

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In addition, there are several circumstances that strongly contradict the big bang theory. For example, there are too many extremely young galaxies in the Universe. According to the big bang theory, all galaxies should be equally ancient, having originated at about the same time. It offers no explanation for the existence of such young galaxies as have recently been discovered. Another problem is that the oldest stars are more than 15 billion years old, indicating that these stars existed before the big bang, which is, of course, illogical. The Universe as a whole should be older than its individual parts; it absolutely cannot be younger. IKEDA:

Proponents of the big bang theory assume that helium was created from hydrogen at an ultrahigh temperature three minutes after the big bang. The strongest support for their theory seems to be their assertion that, calculating on the basis of the present temperature of the Universe – namely, 3° K – the predicted outcome coincides with the amount of helium presently existing in the Universe. In another recent development, the big bang was traced back to 1/1044 second after the generation of the Universe. This is too short a unit of time even for light to pass through an atomic nucleus.

WICKRAMASINGHE: As regards helium and the other so-called light

elements, it is true that big bang cosmology could explain the facts. However, there are alternative scenarios in which correct proportions of these elements might also be formed. One such scenario is the mini-bang model of the Universe, as proposed by Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar. In such a model the Universe as a whole is infinite in extent and in a quasi-steady state, but miniature bangs occur sporadically leading to the creation of new matter. You have just raised another issue, one that has direct bearing on the speculation that all the properties of the observable Universe can be traced back to a moment some 1/1044 or 1/1045 second after the big bang. This is connected to the so-called inflationary models introduced by the American scientist Alan Guth. IKEDA:

I have heard inflationary models referred to on several occasions recently.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Inflationary models are really subtle refinements

of the original big bang model, and depend on recently discovered properties of elementary subatomic particles. According to this concept, the structure of time, space and matter was established in the first 1/1044 second after the Universe came into existence. If one does the calculations, however, it becomes clear that the standard big bang theory and the new generations of inflationary

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cosmological models are quite different. The latter represent major departures from the standard big bang theory. Each of the modern variants of the big bang theory holds that many ‘seeds,’ each containing the structural elements of a Universe, were formed 1/1044 second after the big bang. They maintain that the present Universe is the result of the growth of one of these ‘seeds.’ In this minuscule amount of time light can travel no more than 3/1034 centimeter. And since information cannot travel faster than light in our Universe, 3/1034 centimeter is the greatest distance over which the Universe could have transmitted information in that tiny interval of time. Anything beyond this distance from the origin of the big bang would have had absolutely no connection with the ‘seed’ that was our Universe. And whatever was inside our ‘seed’ would have had no way of becoming aware of, much less of influencing, anything outside of our seed’s limits. The seed universes, each 3/1034 centimeter in diameter, would thus have been equally out of communication with one another. The seed Universe in which we eventually appeared must soon have begun to expand. But, according to the standard big bang theory, this expansion did not lead to an extremely large size. Calculations consistent with the big bang theory indicate that in 15 billion years, the time that is supposed to have elapsed between the present and the moment of the big bang, our kernel Universe, starting from the minuscule size of 3/1034 centimeter, would have swelled only a total of one micron. And that, as mentioned above, anything farther away would be not only different from, but also unrelated and imperceptible to, the kernel Universe. The actual situation, however, is quite different. We are capable of perceiving and comprehending the Milky Way Galaxy and other objects and events that are quite distant from us indeed. IKEDA: In other words, to explain the state of the current Universe,

we would do best to postulate that the Universe swelled explosively to an extraordinary size. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, precisely. Our Universe, our particular kernel, must have done so. But in order for such rapid expansion to occur, it would be necessary for the matter that fills the Universe to possess some special characteristics. The matter of which we are cognizant cannot expand to such a degree. With respect to this point, Guth and others hypothesize that the matter in the Universe underwent some sort of phase transition. This type of reasoning constitutes what are known as inflationary models of the Universe.

IKEDA:

Would it be correct then to say that what Guth and others mean by the term ‘phase transition’ is that matter actually changed

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state and swelled enormously as a result, rather like water expanding when it freezes and becomes ice? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. Guth and his colleagues proposed that the Universe underwent a change of state as soon as its temperature fell below the ‘freezing’ temperature of 1027 degrees. This is supposed to have occurred at a time 1/1034 second after the big bang. An extremely tiny part of this universal ‘crystal’ is thought to have expanded rapidly, until it reached its present dimensions, 1050 times its original size. And this is thought to be our part of the Universe – including all the galaxies we see. Of course, countless other parts of the Universe must also exist, but these are out of our range of communication. You mentioned a temperature of 1027 degrees and an expansion to 1050 times the original size. The world of cosmology certainly abounds in literally astronomical figures that defy the imagination. Our Galaxy is vast indeed, but it is less than 1020 times the size of a human being. One sees human beings’ unbounded conceptions and unrestrained minds at work in the world of cosmology. To return to the subject of the big bang theory, it takes two different approaches in explaining the disposition of the mass density of the Universe:

IKEDA:

1. If insufficient matter exists to allow the Universe to expand forever, the Universe would then have an open shape, extending to infinity; 2. If a sufficient quantity of matter exists, then the Universe would have a closed shape and would change its motion from expansion to contraction at certain times. Since the mass density is unknown at present, it is difficult and premature to draw a conclusion as to which theory is correct. In a development of the latter theory of the closed Universe, some scientists have put forward the oscillating theory. They argue that, like a rubber ball bouncing up and down on the floor, the Universe undergoes a process of repeated expansion and contraction. When the galaxies converge at some particular point in space, another big bang occurs. New galaxies and stars come into being; the Universe is reborn. According to this hypothesis, though the size of the Universe is finite, the Universe itself is without beginning or end. In addition, there are some scientists, such as John Wheeler, who argue that when the Universe completes its contraction, because of quantum effects so-called wormholes are formed in space-time,

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through which galaxies pass to generate a new Universe totally different from ours. WICKRAMASINGHE:

You have summarized the various positions well. Many scientists have recently been endeavoring to wed Einstein’s ideas of space and time and of general relativity with quantum mechanics. At first sight these two separate ways of describing the physical world appear in some respects to be inconsistent, but attempts at synthesis have indeed been made and some remarkable consequences (or possible consequences) are being discussed. What classical mechanics calls electromagnetic energy is referred to in the language of quantum mechanics as the energy of packets of photons. The two expressions describe one and the same phenomenon. In analogy with this, gravitons are packets of gravitational energy that can be either absorbed or emitted. Crudely speaking, a graviton is thought to represent a tiny ‘sub-quantum’ ripple in the fabric of space-time. The timescale associated with such a ripple is the 1/1044- or 1/1045-second time interval you referred to earlier. This is what Wheeler and his colleagues have dubbed a ‘jiffy.’

IKEDA:

They thus regard time not as a continuous flow but as a series of jiffies, which represent the smallest unit of time. They are obviously influenced by quantum theory. The ancient Indians, too, isolated and identified what they believed was the smallest unit of time, calling it a kshana. It is interesting to note that, irrespective of the age, human beings conceive similar ideas.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, that is indeed astonishing. But let me here

give you a more detailed explanation of a ‘jiffy.’ The distance that light travels in a ‘jiffy’ is a full 20 powers of 10 smaller than the size of an atomic nucleus. A simplistic extrapolation of Einstein’s description of space-time presents a view of a curved and moving canvas on which the events of the world are depicted. But Einstein’s original canvas was smooth and without substructure, whereas Wheeler’s is grainy on a minute submicroscopic scale – a scale defined in fact by a jiffy. On this scale space-time is thought to be riddled with bubbles, foam and wormholes! Some of these ideas are being discussed seriously in the context of big bang-type cosmologies, in which the Universe is regarded as being closed and where eventual collapse is thought to lead to a big crunch. It is here that the wormhole effects are exploited to their fullest in the way you have described. All of these descriptions are great feats of the imagination and of mathematics, but there is no significant connection with the real

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Universe we live in. Cosmology is a science in which we have no more than two or three observations to go by. The rest is clever speculation, speculation conditioned by our own religious and cultural heritage. The fact that big bang cosmologies appear to be so deeply rooted in our modern scientific culture must, I think, be connected with the fact that such cosmologies were developed in the context of Judeo-Christian traditions where some form of a creation is ‘required.’ At present the big bang theory of a Universe with a limited lifetime of 15 billion years is facing challenges on several fronts. It is my personal view that the theory will eventually have to be abandoned. But of course this abandonment will not come easily – too many people have been brainwashed into believing that the theory is correct, and we may eventually have to face a Copernicantype struggle to sort out these issues. IKEDA:

Buddhism teaches that the Universe has neither beginning nor end. It did not just come into being suddenly by accident. Stars and interstellar matter are formed and then become extinct in the natural course of events. The Universe as a whole, however, is not something that will vanish one day. Rather, it is considered an eternal and infinite existence.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Allow me to say one more thing. Quite apart from observational facts, I find the philosophical implications of the big bang cosmologies unsatisfactory. Earlier you expressed your desire to have the state of the Universe just prior to the moment of the big bang described more clearly. And I replied that this is precisely what one is not permitted to explore within the framework of current big bang cosmologies. An atmosphere prevails that discourages one from even stating one’s opinion about these things.

IKEDA:

I think you are correct in saying that cosmology is, for the most part, speculation conditioned by our own religious and cultural heritage. Human beings find it quite difficult to develop ideas that go beyond the framework of the age and the world in which they live. In his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems – Ptolemaic and Copernican, Galileo has three men engaged in the debate – Saguredo, Salviaci and Simpliccio. In the section entitled ‘To the Wise Readers,’ he says, ‘It seemed that the honor that he [Simpliccio] had won by interpreting Aristotle was the greatest obstacle to his learning the truth.’ We can say that the very fact that one is learned often prevents one from looking at things from a fresh point of view.

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Is our Universe finite or infinite? This is a question that has fascinated people ever since the time of ancient Greece. Giordano Bruno, a sixteenth-century Italian philosopher, rejected the traditional concept of a closed, finite Universe, which maintained that nothing existed beyond the sphere of the fixed stars. Instead, he advanced theories of an open, infinite Universe whose broad reaches were characterized by evenness. For this ‘heresy,’ he was burned alive in 1600. It seems to me that cosmology is a discipline quite relevant to us human beings, one that, going beyond the framework of science, has close connections with religion. Among the cosmologies of our time, there is, besides the big bang theory, the steady-state model that is advocated by Hoyle and others. I understand that a steady-state Universe is described as having no beginning or end. From the infinite past to the eternal future the view on the grand scale remains the same. It is a Universe that obeys a ‘perfect cosmological postulate.’ For instance, the steady-state hypothesis takes the position that while the Universe is continually expanding, it simultaneously maintains a constant average density. Astronomical observations indicate that the galaxies are receding from one another, which may imply that the density of the Universe is diminishing to the same degree. The steady-state theory, in its original version, assumes that the loss is compensated for by matter that is being created continuously in space to form new stars and galaxies. I have heard it said that Hoyle’s steady-state model is faring badly compared with big bang cosmology. Do you think it will be revived in one form or another someday? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, I think it will. In 1948 Hoyle, as well as Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi, argued for the first time that the available evidence did not necessarily prove the correctness of the big bang model. It was suggested by these astronomers that the Universe might have always existed in much the same form and appeared in much the same shape as it does at present. This is the perfect cosmological postulate that you have referred to. There is neither beginning nor end, thus giving rise to a picture of a Universe that is described as being in essence in a ‘steady state.’ A consequence of this model was of course that matter had to be created from a field of energy in such a way as would fill the recesses produced by the expansion of the Universe. As galaxies expand and move farther apart from one another, ‘new’ material would be required to fill in the empty spaces if the overall appearance of a steady-state Universe were to be maintained. The average creation rate required was estimated as being equivalent to the production of approximately one new hydrogen atom in a typical-sized assembly hall every

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thousand years – a very slow rate indeed. Modern versions of the steady-state theory consider the possibility that matter is created in ‘little bangs,’ whereby galaxies could be created from new matter. I find this latter idea more attractive and better suited to the data that exists at present. IKEDA: The hypothesis that new matter is being created continuously,

as if welling forth from an inexhaustible fountain, is unique and brims with romanticism. It would be splendid if the theory is proven correct. WICKRAMASINGHE: Since the 1950s the two opposing cosmological

models – the big bang theory and the steady-state theory – have come under close scrutiny. In the early 1960s, studies of the Milky Way by Martin Ryle (1918–1988) and his associates, using radiotelescopes, were cited as proof that the Universe was slightly more compact in the distant past, thereby favoring, albeit marginally, the big bang model. Later, however, new observations analyzed in detail by Jayant Narlikar, Geoff Burbidge, and their colleagues contradicted these assessments. Thus, the radioastronomical evidence that was used in the late 1960s to disprove the steadystate theory would seem to have lost its credibility. An observation that has not been proved wrong in the intervening years is the serendipitous discovery by Penzias and Wilson in 1965 of the cosmic microwave background to which we have already referred. Of course, the cosmic microwave background does not necessarily have to originate during some early phase of the Universe. The stars shining now and those that have shone in the recent past emit sufficient energy to explain this background. If we could identify the mechanism by which their radiation is converted to microwave energy, the cosmic microwave background would be explained. One such mechanism, discussed by Fred Hoyle and myself, involves fine thread-like particles of iron which are thought to be expelled from exploding supernovas. These particles could account for all the known features of the cosmic microwave background. IKEDA:

Today, the big bang theory propounded by Gamow and others constitutes the mainstream of cosmology. At first, however, many scholars rejected it, saying that they could not believe that something could be created from nothing. Only when the cosmic microwave radiation background was discovered did Gamow’s model begin to win support. Each time a new finding is made, a cosmological theory can be either spotlighted or relegated to the shadows. This tells us that it is important not to alternate between

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joy and sorrow at superficial phenomena. Rather we should continue to search for the truth concealed among the facts. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, I couldn’t agree more. Well, a major breakthrough came when Hoyle and I recognized that iron whiskers may occur quite abundantly on a cosmic scale. The element iron is synthesized mainly in nuclear reactions within stars undergoing supernova explosions; we argued that the conditions prevalent in such explosions were appropriate for the condensation of iron into particles in the form of thin long whiskers. Extensive laboratory data were invoked to back our claim that whiskers with a diameter of a hundredth of a micrometer and a length of one millimeter can form under these conditions. Since we know that the average supernova rate is about one per 30 years per galaxy and that about one tenth of the mass of the Sun is formed into iron in each supernova, we can estimate an iron density amounting to one part in 10,000 of the total universal density. The existence of this quantity of cosmic iron in the form of millimeter-long whiskers is confirmed by data on the known electrical behavior of impure iron at cryogenic temperatures. We calculate that the Universe would be opaque at millimeter wavelengths but completely transparent in the visual and near infrared. Thus the energy liberated by hydrogen-to-helium conversion in stars, first converted to infrared radiation due to absorption by micron-sized dust grains in galaxies, could subsequently be further degraded and thermalized by absorption and reemission by iron whiskers. All aspects of the observed microwave radiation background, including its 2.7° K temperature and its smoothness, are explained on the basis of a model that makes no reference at all to the beginning of the Universe. As I stated earlier, the existence of a large number of very young galaxies and the presence of stars older than the presumed age of the big bang Universe are proving to be a serious source of embarrassment. Moreover, if one tries to account for the origin of life, a Universe that is infinitely old and infinitely large may be required. If these considerations are correct, the main support for the big bang cosmology becomes a little insecure. In contrast, the steadystate theory of the Universe, though still not very popular, does have the merit of being in agreement with all the facts available at present. I believe that the steady-state theory, in some form, will be reinstated in the fullness of time.

IKEDA:

At present, as you have said, the big bang theory appears to be a sort of established theory while the steady-state theory is somewhat unpopular. I am a layman in this field, but, as I mentioned

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earlier, as one who studies Buddhism, and who perceives many points of similarity, I find quite a few of the ideas of the steady-state theory convincing. In this sense, too, I plan to closely observe how the debate concerning these concepts develops in the future. In addition, I find your attempt to consider the steady-state theory as a means of explaining the origin of life an absolutely fascinating idea. I would like to continue our discussion on this particular point again later. With the appearance of a supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud, observations have been made confirming the condensation of cosmic dust. I think it would be splendid if these observations were to provide a basis for the verification of your theories.

The Buddhist View of the Universe WICKRAMASINGHE:

In Japan, India and other countries where Buddhism has spread, there is a prevailing understanding that both the Universe and life are eternal. This, in one respect, makes cosmologies other than the big bang theory acceptable there in a way not yet possible in Western cultures. So I would like to take this opportunity to hear you describe the Buddhist view of the Universe.

IKEDA: Buddhism delves into and clarifies the nature of the eternal

life that is inherent in the Universe. Since its earliest days, Buddhism has expounded magnificent views of the world and of the Universe. Northern Buddhism incorporated and systematized the ancient Indian view of the Universe in its early teachings. For example, A Treasury of Analyses of the Law, an exhaustive study written by the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu (fourth or fifth century AD), elaborates on a concept called the major world systems. According to this study, a world consists of a Mt. Sumeru, surrounded by eight seas and eight mountain ranges, the outermost being the Iron Encircling Mountains. Within this world lies Jambudvipa, the continent where human beings live. In orbit around this world are a sun, a moon and other heavenly bodies. Thus the Buddhist idea of a world corresponds to our present-day concept of a solar system. To continue with the Buddhist view, 1,000 worlds comprise a minor world system. Accordingly, were we to picture a conglomerate of 1,000 worlds, in which each world contained a life-supporting planet as our solar system does, we would see that a minor world system is very much like our Milky Way Galaxy. Further, a cluster of 1,000 minor world systems forms an intermediate world system. And 1,000 intermediate world systems

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are thought to constitute a major world system, in which a total of a billion worlds are seen to be repeatedly passing through a cycle of formation and extinction. Mahayana Buddhism, taking this major world system as its starting point, paints a picture of a Universe on an even grander scale. In the Sutra of Brahma’s Net, for instance, Vairochana Buddha exists at the very center of the Universe. And above the thousand-petaled lotus blossom that encircles him 1,000 Shakyamuni Buddhas are found. On each of the individual petals of that lotus blossom ten billion Sumeru worlds exist. Again, in each of these worlds, a corresponding Shakyamuni Buddha is found. Thus, even on one lotus petal, a major world system exists, or, in short, ten times a billion worlds. WICKRAMASINGHE :

The Buddhist view you describe is quite remarkable in that it arose so early in the history of human thought. With the notable exception of the scholar Aristarchus of Samos, who lived in the first half of the third century BC, the dominant view in Europe, well into the sixteenth century, was that Earth was the center of the physical Universe.

IKEDA: Cosmologies fall into two major categories: heliocentric and

geocentric. As I understand it, Aristarchus of Samos is considered to be the first person in Western history to have explained the Universe using a heliocentric concept. His ideas, however, were too advanced for the people of his time. The Stoics declared that he ought to be indicted for impiety and his theories were abandoned. WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is correct. Aristarchus, of course, was a great genius – he had figured out that the stars were very far away, that the Sun was much bigger than Earth, and that Earth moves round the Sun. The primitive, less inspired position was that the planet on which we stand must be at the center of things. To our most primitive ancestors, who saw the planets move among the stars and the stars rise and set with the changes of the seasons, it must have seemed only natural to assume that this entire heavenly spectacle was meant to please human beings. The Christian religion that dominated Europe from the first or second century AD encapsulated this point of view: And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon Earth, …6

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Earth and human beings are clearly the central figures on the stage. This geocentric attitude has, from the outset, been an impediment to the progress of astronomical science. When the facts clearly showed that Earth did not occupy a central position in the Universe, the sociological struggles that followed as this religious point of view was displaced were bitter and ferocious. In contrast, the Buddhist view of the Universe accommodates even the most modern scientific ideas with remarkable ease. IKEDA:

Buddhism’s penetrating eye is directed toward both the external and the internal cosmos. Looking over the entirety of the teachings of Shakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, one realizes that, in the exploration of the interior of life, meditation or contemplation forms the basis of practice. The practitioner, combining this with various other types of practice, such as observing precepts and almsgiving, delves deeper and deeper into the inner realm of his own life, seeking insight into that which exists internally. The quest for the internal does not stop at the individual level; it goes beyond that to enter into a transpersonal realm. To be more specific, it encompasses the lives of one’s family and friends, and continues to expand and deepen to the level of one’s race, of one’s nation and even of all humankind. It proceeds farther, identifying one’s life with those of all other living beings, and then, transcending even the framework of the planet Earth and the cycle of the birth and death of the stars, it becomes one with the Universe itself. Shakyamuni became aware of the presence, in the innermost depths of his life, of the ‘fundamental life’ that gives birth to the Universe itself. In other words, Shakyamuni became aware of the existence of the internal cosmos within his own life and, further, reached the fundamental source of that cosmos, that is, universal life itself. Then he discovered that this source is, in itself, one with the external cosmos. Here he retraced his steps, starting from the level of the life at the source and then casting his eyes over the external or phenomenal world. In so doing, he realized that this ‘fundamental life’ extends not only to the physical, chemical and biological evolutions occurring throughout the external cosmos, but also to the evolution of human consciousness – in fact, to every single phenomenon that occurs in the external world. Thus, that which is internal, at its ultimate level, is transcendent. In Buddhism, the internal does not simply indicate that which is within one’s life; rather, it signifies that the internal cosmos is in itself mutually related with the external cosmos that constitutes the phenomenal world. This relationship is expressed in the phrase ‘the internal is itself transcendence’ or ‘transcendence is itself the internal.’

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WICKRAMASINGHE: This is a very important perspective. I think there

is a great need for people to turn their attention to the inherent wisdom of Buddhism. To return to the subject of cosmology, we know of course that Earth is one of the nine planets orbiting the Sun. The Sun is at the center of a solar system that stretches some eleven light-hours across. We know that the Sun is one quite ordinary star amongst the billions that occupy the Milky Way system, a system that measures some 100,000 light-years across. We also know that this Milky Way system is just one galaxy amongst the billions that occupy the vast observable Universe. These concepts are seen to be exceedingly close to the fundamentals of the Buddhist cosmology that you have just described. Of course, when it comes to numerical details indicating whether there are thousands or millions of objects within a specified system, there may be some apparent inconsistencies with modern ideas. But such details are, in my view, not worth quibbling over, because words used in ancient languages are likely to have a wide range of uncertainty in their meanings. IKEDA:

I agree entirely. There are, for example, a number of views concerning the grand scale of the length of time called a kalpa in ancient India. Buddhist scriptures employ a variety of similes to indicate its unimaginable length. In the ‘Treatise on the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom,’ for instance, it is explained that not even after an exceedingly long-lived man has completely worn down a stone mountain measuring 4,000 ri (one ri equals 654 meters) in all four directions by wiping it with a soft cloth once every 100 years will a kalpa have passed. The sutra also explains that not even after one fills a great castle, also extending 4,000 ri in each of the four directions, with poppy seeds and then removes a single poppy seed every 100 years, not even after every single poppy seed has been removed, will a kalpa have passed. As you have pointed out, there seem to be greatly varying interpretations regarding the quantitative value of various units. I am of the opinion, however, that we should focus on the fundamental line of thinking, rather than on these differences. As for time, A Treasury of Analyses of the Law teaches the concept of the four kalpas, which a world system is said to pass through repeatedly. This is a grandiose Buddhist view of a Universe that eternally repeats the cycle of appearance and disappearance as it passes through the four stages of formation, continuance, decline and disintegration. Each of these stages is said to last for 20 medium kalpas.

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As we have seen, Buddhism’s view of the Universe encompasses both its spatial and temporal aspects. In terms of time as well, the Buddhist image of the Universe seems to be remarkably like the picture painted by contemporary cosmology. WICKRAMASINGHE: As regards the four kalpas in Buddhist cosmology,

which correspond to the cycle of formation, continuance, decline and disintegration, I would prefer to compare these phases to the life-cycle of a star. A star like the Sun began its life as a fragment of an interstellar cloud, containing by mass about 74 percent hydrogen, 24 percent helium, and 1.5 percent carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, along with some heavier elements like magnesium, silicon and iron. IKEDA: Viewed in terms of the concept of the four kalpas, that initial

phase would correspond to the period between the stages of disintegration and formation. WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, I think it would. The hydrogen and helium

exist as gases, but the rest exists mostly as solid dust particles – perhaps including life particles or bacteria, according to the theory developed over the last two decades by Fred Hoyle and myself. The interstellar cloud fragment contracts under gravitational forces, and gravitational energy is converted to thermal energy. Since, in the early stages, thermal energy turns into light and is released, heat does not accumulate. But as contraction continues, density increases, and the resulting opacity traps light within, causing the fragment to heat up. As contraction proceeds yet further, the temperature at the core rises to a point at which nuclear reactions begin (at about ten million degrees). These nuclear reactions, whose by-product is the conversion of hydrogen to helium, keep the Sun and most of the other stars shining throughout the major part of their lives. For the Sun the first phase of formation – from a gas cloud – was relatively short, taking some 20 million years or so. It was during this phase that the planets and comets were formed, objects that were later to be connected with the emergence and evolution of living beings. IKEDA:

That phase would correspond to passing through the stage of formation and entering into that of continuance.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes. The Sun’s stable phase has been estimated

by astronomers to last for some ten billion years, and we are now in the middle of this period of continuance.

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IKEDA: So it will be another five billion or so years before the Sun’s

natural life comes to an end? WICKRAMASINGHE: IKEDA:

That is correct.

I’m sure people all over the world will be relieved to hear

that! WICKRAMASINGHE: Incidentally, primitive living systems have existed

on Earth for nearly four billion years, but the emergence of intelligent life occurred only very recently, scarcely a million years ago. In another five billion years or so, the stable phase of the Sun’s history may come to an end. At this point, a core of helium should form at its center. The Sun’s outer layers may then expand rapidly until it becomes a red giant. IKEDA:

That’s equivalent to passing from the stage of continuance to that of decline. I’ve heard that when the Sun becomes a red giant, it will grow to such an appalling size that its surface will almost reach Earth’s orbit.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

By this time life would almost surely have become extinct on Earth, although it may well continue a bit longer on the satellites of the outer planets. In the red giant phase a series of nuclear reactions would begin, producing carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and heavier elements that would ultimately be thrown out by explosion into the space between the stars. For the Sun the ultimate state will be that of a white dwarf, but for a slightly more massive star the end product will be a supernova.

IKEDA:

Now we have come to the last of the four kalpas. But as far as the emergence of intelligent life is concerned, I believe that it should occur during the stage of continuance.

WICKRAMASINGHE :

I agree. Of course the most important development in a solar system’s evolution must be the emergence of life and the development of consciousness and intelligence. Hoyle and I have argued that all life information came initially from outside our solar system and that it was carried in on cosmic dust. The information for all life forms must, according to this viewpoint, be a cosmic attribute imported into every solar system as it develops. Creatures like ourselves, who developed from such cosmic ‘genes,’ must, in our view, following the acquisition of intelligence, have an innate ability to perceive the truth relating to their genesis and evolution.

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IKEDA:

We have now seen that the principle of the four kalpas – of formation, continuance, decline and disintegration – may be applied to the life-cycle of the stars. Do you think that the theory of the four kalpas may also be applied to the Milky Way as a whole, and, further, to groups of galaxies?

WICKRAMASINGHE: We can indeed apply the same concept on a larger

scale. The life of a galaxy would then have similar temporal demarcations, and these would also fit in the case of a cluster or supercluster of galaxies. IKEDA: Then, viewed in terms of Buddhist cosmology, the vicissitudes

of the galactic Universe would correspond to the four stages in the cycle of formation, continuance, decline and disintegration that are passed through by a minor world system. The transitions experienced by a cluster or supercluster of galaxies would then be regarded as similar to what occurs during the four stages or four kalpas that a major world system passes through. Mahayana Buddhism, while incorporating the Hinayana concepts of the major world system and of the four kalpas, unfolds a much grander view than Hinayana of a Universe that is unbounded in both time and space. For example, employing a parable, ‘The Life Span of the Thus Come One’ chapter of the Lotus Sutra explains that Shakyamuni is eternally a Buddha. In this parable we find a view of a Universe that has neither beginning nor end: Suppose a person were to take five hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a million nayuta asamkhya thousand-millionfold worlds and grind them to dust. Then, moving eastward, each time he passes five hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a million nayuta asamkhya worlds he drops a particle of dust. He continues eastward in this way until he has finished dropping all the particles …. Suppose all these worlds, whether they received a particle of dust or not, are once more reduced to dust. Let one particle represent one kalpa.7 In the above passage, note the figure five hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a million nayuta, asamkhya. This means: 5 × 100 × 1,000 × 10,000 × 1,0000,000 × nayuta × asamkhya. Nayuta denotes 100 billion. Asamkhya literally means ‘countless,’ but is commonly believed to indicate ten raised to the 59th power. As we mentioned earlier, a major world system, or a thousand-millionfold world, corresponds to a cluster or supercluster of galaxies. Just imagine: five hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a million, nayuta, asamkhya galactic universes! This alone must be on a scale far greater than

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the largest figures that modern astronomy has thus far been able to compute. WICKRAMASINGHE: What you say certainly applies in the case of the

standard big bang models of the Universe. In such models the largest meaningful numbers are obtained by dividing the radius of the Universe by the dimensions within an atomic nucleus, and this gives the number 1040 (1 followed by 40 zeros). Very much larger numbers are arrived at in the case of steady-state or quasi-steadystate Universes, numbers that come much closer to those you have quoted. IKEDA:

Let us consider why Buddhism was able to develop such a magnificent view of the Universe. As I noted earlier, I believe we may attribute this to the fact that Buddhism directed its penetrating eye first into the innermost depths of life, and, through the elucidation of the internal cosmos (the microcosm) developing within, was then able to arrive at an understanding of the ‘fundamental life’ of the Universe. This great life that is the origin of the Universe is also the source of our phenomenal Universe that is evolving as the external cosmos. It is in a sense the mother, and so, having taken this as its starting point, Buddhism was able to establish a grandiose vision of the external cosmos.

WICKRAMASINGHE: A relationship between a microcosm of life and

the macrocosm must exist for the simple reason that the former is derived from the latter – one must include the other. I do not find it at all surprising that through profound introspection or meditation truths about the external Universe might sometimes be revealed. The various cosmological theories expounded in Buddhism must have been discovered through precisely the process that you have described. Our minds must be endowed with the ability to form a link between the microcosm, or the internal universe of our lives, and the macrocosm, or the external Universe.

A Fifth Dimension in the Universe? IKEDA:

The concept of a space-time continuum in the fourth dimension based on Einstein’s theory of relativity is thought to be a principle by which we can explain both the vast Universe and the sphere of elementary particles. As an astronomer and mathematician, do you think it probable that other dimensions, such as a fifth and sixth dimension, exist beyond the fourth dimension?

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

As a logical possibility the existence of a fifth dimension to the Universe cannot be dismissed. The million-dollar question now is what the fifth dimension might be like. Imagine a two-dimensional or flat creature (say, a flat ant) living on a flat surface and walking around and seeing only the two dimensions on this surface. It would surely be difficult to convince such an ant of the existence of buildings that have length, breadth and height, let alone of that of an Eiffel Tower or an Empire State Building. He could have no direct physical perception of any dimension that is at right angles to the two dimensions on the surface where he lives. In the same way we humans would not easily be able to perceive a dimension of the world that is at right angles to the three or four dimensions we are already experiencing. Mathematically, the logic of the structure of spaces with four, five or more dimensions has been widely recognized for some time. Such geometries were worked out by mathematicians like Nikolai I. Lobatchevsky (1792–1856), János Bólyai (1802–1860) and Georg Riemann (1826–1866) decades before Einstein developed his ideas concerning the theory of relativity and the four-dimensional space-time continuum.

IKEDA:

Is there any connection between dimensions considered logically possible in mathematics and those that really exist?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Although multidimensional ‘worlds’ can be constructed by scholars of pure mathematics, what relationship these systems have with the real ‘physical world’ is another matter. The geometry of Euclid that we all learn at school is based on the premise that three numbers (or spatial coordinates) are needed to fix a point in space. In other words, three simple measurements on the meter scale completely define a point in Euclidean space. From the logical structure implied by Euclid’s geometry are born the various elegant theorems that we learn at school, such as those concerning congruent triangles, parallel lines, and so on. Although the physical world of our everyday experience is almost perfectly explained by this geometry, there is yet something lacking. When it comes to describing the subatomic world, the application of Euclidean geometry, with time and space treated as separate, unconnected variables, has led to certain contradictions with research results. In part in reaction to this, Einstein formulated the special theory of relativity, including the concept of a fourdimensional space-time continuum. Subsequently, in the general theory of relativity, Einstein argued that gravity is connected with the geometry of space and time. Gravitational forces, according to this view, exist wherever the space-time continuum is curved.

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The special theory of relativity has had a great deal of success in explaining subatomic physics, while the general theory of relativity has been successful, in a more limited way, in explaining certain astronomical phenomena – e.g., the slow turning around on its plane of the orbit of Mercury. But it could well be that the inclusion of other phenomena, yet to be discovered, will eventually call for a more comprehensive theory that would account for them, a theory that may include the possibility of extra dimensions perpendicular to the usual ones of height, length, breadth and time. IKEDA:

Regarding American physicist Hugh Everett’s concept of a parallel Universe, I understand that this cosmology was inspired with reference to the quality of uncertainty that exists in the microscopic world. It holds that our Universe exists in parallel with countless other universes that differ in just the slightest way from ours. Our Universe, then, is only one of the countless universes within a ‘super universe.’ Depending on the point of observation, unlimited divergencies exist within the super universe, which is without beginning or end. Some academics say that the super universe is like a giant theater with countless stages, and that the drama of our Universe is merely a single drama being played out on one of these many stages.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. These are ideas that are currently under discussion. An interesting area of cosmological speculation at present concerns the relationship between the Universe that we are able to perceive with our senses and to measure and the other universes that are not accessible to our senses. The ideas of Everett and B. De Witt in this connection are controversial, but nevertheless quite interesting. Their ‘many universes’ theory follows from assigning a physical reality to certain abstract ideas of quantum mechanics that were devised purely for predicting the behavior of an atomic system. According to Niels Bohr (1885–1962) and Louis V. de Broglie (1892–1960), a matter wave is not itself to be assigned any physical reality, being no more than a concept from which calculations about the actual states of a quantum system can be made. When Everett assigns a physical reality to matter waves, he employs the principle of superposition of quantum states in order to generate a multitude of parallel universes in a ‘superspace.’ The superposition principle is one that explains the fact that physical waves overlap and interfere. In the field of engineering, this principle can be seen at work in everyday applications such as, for example, when a large number of telephone signals are placed on a very narrow band of radio waves. Although logically self-consistent, Everett and

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De Witt’s theory appears to be almost incredible and bizarre in many respects. De Witt writes: Every quantum transition taking place on every star, in every galaxy, in every remote corner of the universe is splitting our local world into myriads of copies of itself ...8 Taken literally, this could be interpreted to mean that each of us, our bodies, our minds and consciousnesses (if they can be quantified) are being incessantly replicated to make copies that populate other worlds. This is a scenario that brings to mind some interesting questions: What of our copies that inhabit parallel universes? Could we communicate with our copies? The advocates of these ideas have asserted that the separate universes are incommunicado with one another, but given the vague nature of all of these arguments, there is room to adjust these conditions at will. IKEDA:

The theory of quantam mechanics has become the basis of various technologies, such as the present-day transistor. It is a well established theory. If we extend the perspective of this theory to the entire Universe, however, a very strange picture will emerge. There is still a vast deal that must be closely examined in connection with this principle that scientifically penetrates the behavior of the very largest and the very smallest units of matter. I am most curious to see the direction this study takes in the future.

The Existence of Extraterrestrial Beings IKEDA:

Now let’s turn our eyes to the starry sky. Isn’t it the most natural of ideas to assume that intelligent beings resembling humans exist on the planets that float among the countless glittering stars? From ancient times all peoples, riding on the wings of imagination, have seen a rabbit, the face of a woman reading, the figure of a crab or other things in the shadows on the Moon. Japanese children are well acquainted with the stars of Tanabata, or the Star Festival, which, in accord with the lunar calendar, is celebrated on the seventh night of the seventh month. The Tanabata legend is of Chinese origin. It is the story of Altair, the Cowherd Star, and Vega, the Weaver Star, whose marriage was celebrated by the Emperor of Heaven. The newly-wed couple, however, so enjoyed their wedded state that they began to neglect their duties. Forced then to live separately, they were allowed to meet only once a year, after crossing the Bridge of the Magpie over the Milky Way. The legend conveys the sadness of parting from one’s beloved spouse. Actually, isn’t it said that because the two stars are separated

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by a distance of 15 light-years, even if they took a vehicle that travelled at the speed of light, it would be impossible for them to meet even once a year? WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is certainly correct.

IKEDA:

Speaking of the Weaver Star, the infrared astronomical satellite (IRAS), launched in 1983, showed that around the star Vega new, small bodies are being formed continually, and this discovery caused quite a stir. The report that a star outside the solar system has planets made us suddenly all the more aware of the possibility of extraterrestrial life. Theoretically, is the probability of stars having planets very high?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Until recently, it has been very difficult to determine whether or not planets existed around distant stars. One method of searching for planets works well only if large planets like Jupiter are present. If such a large planet exists, then both planet and parent star move in orbit around a common center of gravity. They do a kind of waltz in the sky. So if you look at the star, which is all that can be seen, it may be possible by studying absorption lines in its spectrum to detect a slight back and forth motion. In 1995 Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz used precisely this method to detect a planet near the star called 51 Peg in the constellation of Pegasus. This was the first apparently secure detection of an extrasolar planet. The planet was estimated to have a mass of about half that of Jupiter. It is located only 0.05 astronomical units (one astronomical unit equals the average distance of Earth from the Sun) from its star, while Jupiter is some five astronomical units from the Sun. Its orbital period is only four Earth days compared to Jupiter’s twelve years. Clearly this first extrasolar planet is far too hot for any life to survivie at its surface. Since 1995 the race to find planets has been gathering momentum. Shortly afterward Geoff Marcy and Paul Butler reported the discovery of two new planets, one orbiting the star 70 Virginis and the other, 47 Ursae Majoris, lying respectively at 0.5 and 2.1 astronomical units from their parent stars. Next came the detection of planets around the stars rho Canceri and tau Bootis, and also the detection of a planet within the dusty disc of the star beta Pictoris – the latter having been thought to harbor planets for some years.

IKEDA:

Although the existence of planets has been confirmed by changes registered in atomic spectroscopy readings, this does not mean that their existence has been directly confirmed. How can astronomers be certain that this kind of indirect finding is correct?

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SPACE AND ETERNAL LIFE WICKRAMASINGHE: To be sure, atomic spectroscopy displacements

can occur as a result of other causes. As a matter of fact, a report also exists that the spectroscopy displacements that have heretofore been thought to be evidence of the existence of planets can be explained naturally as the result of vibrations produced by such things as the expansion and contraction of fixed stars. Again, there is the difficult problem that arises in connection with the theory of the creation of planets that asks how a giant planet could exist at 0.05 astronomical units, in a place so close to a fixed star that it must be extremely hot. In the solar system, for example, Mercury, closest to the Sun, orbits at a distance of 0.39 astronomical units. The correct explanation for these findings will ultimately be decided as a result of a thorough examination of each and every one of the relevant facts. It is now clear that the process by which planets are created is quite an ordinary one that must occur on a regular basis. The probability that stars similar to the Sun possess planetary systems must therefore be quite high. It is interesting to note that recently the Hubble Space Telescope has been refurbished in a way that will make planetary detections much easier. I predict that many such detections will be made in coming years. IKEDA: Then it follows that the possibility of the birth of life on planets

other than Earth is also quite high, doesn’t it? WICKRAMASINGHE:

The existence of extraterrestrial beings is not just a possibility; in my view it is an absolute certainty. It is as certain a matter as the existence of life on our own planet. The starting point of our investigations into this matter must be the nature of earthly life itself. From its intrinsic complexity at the informational level we can infer that the components of life, in the form of viral and bacterial particles, were generated cosmically rather than terrestrially. Earthly life resulted from the piecing together of these fragments that came into being in the cosmos. No matter what the place is like, as long as the conditions are appropriate, life will take root and develop. Astronomers now believe that the formation of planets and comets must be a natural consequence of the formation of stars. So there must be billions of planetary systems like our own solar system in our Galaxy alone. Accordingly, the development of life forms something like ours must have occurred on a good number of the planets in these systems.

IKEDA:

Today, thanks to progress in molecular spectroscopy, not only atoms but also various organic molecules, such as those comprising the hydroxyl group, ammonia, water, formaldehyde,

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vinegar, and even an amino acid (glycine) have been identified in interstellar matter. It is now clear that these basic ‘building blocks’ of life are indeed a part of interstellar matter. The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) published the Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (Universal Natural History and Theories of the Heavens) when he was 31. Concerning the formation of the solar system, his cosmology is most widely known for its theory of the generation and development of interstellar nebulas. In this book, Kant takes a look at the possibility of living beings existing on Mars, Jupiter and other planets. Today, his theorizing is regarded as mere fantasy, but I see it as the natural outcome of his profound insight, as exemplified in his statement, ‘the starry heavens above and the moral law within.’9 WICKRAMASINGHE :

You referred to the widespread galactic occurrence of the chemicals required for life. That is certainly correct, and it is well recognized as such. Less well accepted, but equally well founded and well attested to, has been my assertion, with Fred Hoyle, that particles indistinguishable from viral/bacterial particles are also widespread in the Galaxy. We infer this from detailed spectral signatures of bacterial systems that are matched precisely by the spectra of the dust in space and in comets. It is only educational prejudice that stands in the way of some people admitting that these statements are valid. Even though scientists have spent vast sums of money looking for life beyond Earth, whenever the evidence seemed to indicate the presence of extraterrestrial life, they turned away from such signs and invented reasons for devaluing or ignoring the data. In our book Space Travellers – the Bringers of Life, Hoyle and I first pointed out that there is astronomical evidence for the existence of microbial life on comets and on other planets in the solar system. Since the book’s publication the solar system has been explored in depth, and the data from many sources all point, albeit indirectly, to the presence of extraterrestrial microbial life. IKEDA:

With the Apollo 11 space mission, launched in July 1969, humankind marked its first step on the Moon’s surface. The lunar rocks brought back to Earth by the astronauts at that time provided invaluable data concerning the origin of planets. In 1984, through the good offices of Gerald P. Carr, who commanded US Skylab 4, the Soka Gakkai had the privilege of borrowing six kinds of moon rocks and displaying them at a space exhibition it sponsored for young people.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

No life at all has been found on the Moon and in moon rock, but this is precisely what we expected. The Moon has no atmosphere, so any living particles or organic molecules that hit the surface at high speed would be destroyed.

IKEDA:

Some time after that, the United States carried out Mars exploration programs.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. The Viking exploration of Mars in 1976 provided information that at present can be seen to be fully consistent with the supposition that microbiological life is active in niches close to the surface of the planet. Two experiments were carried out on board the Viking spacecraft that were thought at the time to lead to contradictory results. In one experiment, when nutrients suitable for bacterial growth were poured on the Martian soil, the soil frothed up, and there was an energetic release of carbon dioxide gas. In other words, it was exactly as if bacteria were present. In another experiment the search for organic molecules proved completely negative. Taken together, these two sets of results were thought to be incompatible with the view that biological activity exists on Mars. The argument was that biological activity would produce organic molecules and these were not found. We now know that the Viking experiment was subsequently taken to the dry valleys of the Antarctic (where life is known to exist) and the results obtained were identical to those on Mars. In the Antarctic the environment is so extremely hostile that life proceeds at a very slow rate, producing such a minimal quantity of organic matter that it could not be detected in the experiment. The situation on Mars is likely to be very similar. Also, we should note that no nonbiological explanation has so far been found to explain the Mars Viking results. The upshot of this work is that the presence of microbial life on Mars, at least in localized niches below the surface, cannot be ruled out. In 1996 this fact was recognized at long last by NASA, and, in connection with a forthcoming robot mission to Mars a decade from now to bring back samples, plans are afoot to prepare for the possibility that microbial life will be brought back to Earth – perhaps even microbes that may be pathogenic to human life!

IKEDA:

On August 6, 1996, a team of scientists from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, led by David S. MacKay, made the historic announcement that evidence had been found of fossilized microbial life in a piece of rock that fell to Earth from Mars. I would like to have your opinion concerning this discovery, which must surely rank among the most important in the whole of science.

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WICKRAMASINGE: Yes, that is certainly true. I think this will eventually

turn out to be as important a turning point as the discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo and Newton in the sixteenth century, and of Darwin in the last century. But there are still many facets of this story that need to be clarified. In making the announcement it seems to me that NASA was signaling an important paradigm shift away from the old idea of Earth-centered life. The August 6 report followed from studies of a 1.9 kg meteorite (ALH 84001) that is believed to have come from Mars. ALH 84001 is just one of a group of meteorites discovered in 1984 in Allan Hills, Antarctica, that are thought to have been blasted off the Martian surface by the impact of an asteroid or comet some 15 million years ago. This object orbited the Sun until 13,000 years ago when it plunged into the Antarctic and remained buried in ice until it was discovered. The presumed Martian origin of these meteorites (also known as SNC meteorites) seems to have been confirmed by several independent criteria. Perhaps amongst the most cogent is the fact that when gases discovered trapped within the rock were analyzed, they were found to closely resemble gases that had been identified in the Martian atmosphere. Also the ratio of oxygen isotopes in the mineral component is said to match the value found on Mars so closely that no reason exists to doubt a Martian origin. IKEDA:

It seems that we may very well assume that the origin of the meteorites was Mars. Those unfamiliar with the field may be astonished, wondering how a person can speak so confidently about such a thing, but when one considers that we have become able to ascertain even such things as this because of developments in the twentieth century in our knowledge of the atomic nucleus, one really cannot contain one’s amazement. I admire the achievements of Hoyle and William A. Fowler, who built the vital foundation for knowledge of this kind. In this connection, what about the point that the evidence of possible microbial life exists within the meteorites? In the photograph taken by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and released by NASA, something can be seen that definitely looks like bacteria, and it is said that anyone who looks at these pictures will immediately conclude, ‘Those are bacteria!’ Their size, however, is only 1/100 that of the bacteria on Earth, and even with the analysis with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) scheduled for the near future it is suspected that it will be difficult to find direct evidence of life. Actually it is also said that because there have been no cases of detailed analysis of rocks on Earth with experimental equipment as precise as that used to examine the Martian rocks, basic knowledge about fossilized bacteria contained in the rocks on Earth is insufficient.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

Inside ALH 84001 NASA scientists found submicron-sized carbonate globules around which complex organic molecules were deposited. These molecules, inlcuding polyaromatic hydrocarbons, are the usual products of the degradation of bacteria. Also found were actual structures and shapes that resemble strings of tiny bacteria. Amongst these structures are crystals of a substance called magnetic iron oxide. We know that groups of bacteria exist on Earth that oxidize iron to form highly similar types of magnetite crystals, so we can assume that the magnetite found in ALH 84001 was a by-product of bacterial action. Another indication that may point to biology is an enrichment of the carbon isotope ratio C-12 relative to C-13 that has been found in the organic material. This happens on Earth whenever biological processes occur – biological processes having a slight preference to take up the lighter isotope of carbon. MacKay and his colleagues admit that their proposed identification involves a process of multifactorial assessment. Considered as a whole, the available evidence points in their view to a microbial origin, although each single piece of evidence may also lead to a more conservative interpretation. As you might expect, there have been a number of critics of the biological explanation, and some questions must still be answered. The situation in this regard is, however, far from resolved, and may remain so for some years, perhaps until the next expedition to Mars brings back more decisive samples of microbial fossils or even actual microbes.

IKEDA: This is certainly an exciting development, and I look forward

with great interest to hearing how it unfolds. Interplanetary probes have provided us with a true picture of the eight planets, other than Pluto, and their satellites. Voyager probes, launched successively in 1977, sent us clear pictures of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Voyager 2 made a 12-year journey to Neptune and transmitted back to Earth previously unknown data. For example, a long belt of volcanic smoke was identified on the Neptune satellite Triton, whose surface temperature is 236 degrees centigrade below zero – the coldest body in the solar system. I understand that such a long belt of volcanic smoke can exist only when the wind blows at a velocity of 100 meters per second. Such a discovery is surely an important step toward understanding a fundamental aspect of the Universe. Voyager 2 is continuing its journey to a point where it will exit the solar system. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The Voyager space probe rendezvous with Neptune and its satellites in August 1989 was both the climax and the grand finale of solar system exploration in the present century. This event was of particular interest to me because the outer

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planets Uranus and Neptune were essentially formed from comets some five billion years ago. Neptune, at a distance of 2.7 billion miles from the Sun, receives only 0.1 percent of the solar energy received by Earth. Yet it emits many times more energy than it receives, mainly in the form of violent storm activity in the atmosphere. The energetics of storms on this planet point strongly to the existence of microbiological activity beneath a frozen crust. Gases such as methane could be accumulating, leading to a highpressure buildup beneath the surface, and then to sporadic release of this pressure through cracks and vents. The dramatic pictures of Neptune’s moon Triton show evidence of frozen lava flows and active volcanism. Again, the implication, in my view, is that life, at a microbial level, might be thriving there. IKEDA:

Carl Sagan, the American astronomer who was devoted to the investigation of extraterrestrial life, and his colleagues affixed to Voyager spacecraft 1 and 2 a gold-plated copper phonograph record containing messages addressed to extraterrestrial beings. The messages included: greetings in 60 tongues; the hellos of humpback whales; some natural sounds, such as those of the wind and waves, that can be heard on our planet; exquisite music from many cultures; and 116 photographs that convey the life-style of human beings all over the world. All of these messages were transcribed and recorded as acoustic signals. It is said that the information carried on the Voyager record will last a billion years even amidst the severe conditions of interstellar space. Sagan was kind enough to send me a letter and two cassette tapes copied from the master tape of that record. His letter reads: ‘We hope that you, Mrs. Ikeda and your colleagues will enjoy these artifacts of the first attempt to communicate to beings of other worlds something of the cultural richness and diversity of our global family.’ Can we expect that the time will come when extraterrestrial beings will find and decipher the Voyager messages, that is, the ‘letter from humankind’?

WICKRAMASINGHE: That is indeed a remote possibility once Voyager

speeds out of the confines of the solar system into the depths of space. If one was hoping to find creatures like ourselves or higher life forms on planets and satellites elsewhere in the solar system, then one may find the results of 25 years of space exploration disappointing. If, on the other hand, one is thinking of more primitive bacterial life, which can have a much wider range of adaptation, then the evidence for it has indeed been discovered in abundance. Since we have not seen men in space suits or cities on alien planets, the indirect evidence for bacterial life can easily be overlooked or denied if we are so inclined. Direct evidence for the

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existence of creatures like ourselves in distant planetary systems will be hard to come by. But since we are built essentially from ‘bacterial’ units, the presence of these units in great profusion on a cosmic scale must imply a profusion of higher life forms as well. Creatures as intelligent as ourselves, or even more intelligent, must surely be commonplace. IKEDA:

Reportedly NASA launched a ten-year research program in 1992 to examine the question of whether extraterrestrial life actually exists. An encounter with highly advanced beings from beyond Earth has been the dream of humanity throughout history. All of us are curious about the number of civilizations that exist in the Universe. Some scholars proclaim that there are more than 1,000 civilizations in our Milky Way Galaxy alone. May I ask your opinion on this matter?

WICKRAMASINGHE: It is my view that since all the important attributes

of life came from outside Earth, consciousness, intelligence and the capacity to develop a technological civilization must also have been derived from outside. If this is so, then every planet on which life arises would eventually go through a stage where intelligence and high-tech capabilities, including the ability to exploit nuclear power, would emerge in a natural way. It would be an unremitting law of nature that this would be so. A matter on which we have no information at all is the survival time of a high-tech nuclear civilization. IKEDA:

I also suppose that if the laws of nature work in extraterrestrial civilizations as they do on Earth, we can take for granted their discovery of nuclear energy. It is then essential that we consider under what circumstances civilization can prosper on Earth, on other planets or anywhere else in the Universe. Essential above all else, I believe, is the establishment of a philosophy of peace capable of controlling the immense power of nuclear energy. Unless living beings believe in such a philosophy, and unless their planet is completely enveloped in compassion, there can be no hope for the prolonged stability of advanced civilization. A planet shrouded in egoism and arrogance is destined to bring ruin on itself. Buddhism teaches that various forms of Buddha lands abound throughout the Universe, and that a dynamic range of contact and exchange occurs between them. For example, the first chapter of the Lotus Sutra, entitled ‘Introduction,’ vividly describes the moment at which the Buddha Shakyamuni is about to expound the great Law to the multitudes who have gathered to hear him preach. It reads: ‘At that time the Buddha emitted a ray of light from the tuft of white hair between his eyebrows, one of his

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characteristic features, lighting up eighteen thousand worlds in the eastern direction. There was no place that the light did not penetrate ....’10 The Buddha displayed this miraculous sign to illustrate that Buddhas, bodhisattvas and living beings, who are carrying out religious practices and who are together constructing peaceful and tranquil societies, exist on other heavenly bodies. On this subject, the Sutra of the Benevolent Kings states, ‘Great King [King Prasenajit of Kosala], the region where my teachings now hold sway consists of 100 billion Sumeru worlds with 100 billion suns and moons. Each of these Sumeru worlds comprises four great continents.’11 In modern astronomy a Sumeru world with its sun, moon and four continents would correspond to the solar system. Imagine the existence of 100 billion such worlds, each having a star like the Sun and a planet like Earth where intelligent life has emerged. Thus Mahayana Buddhism takes as a basic premise the existence of numerous life-bearing worlds throughout the Universe. Mahayana scriptural passages describe Buddhism as the driving force that enables individual human beings to bring about their own spiritual reformation – that is, their own human revolution – thereby assuring eternal peace and the longtime survival of scientific high-tech civilizations. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I agree with you that a Buddhistic philosophy is imperative for survival. The nuclear age, having commenced immediately after the end of the Second World War, is just over 50 years old. The question is how long it will continue. Let us suppose that the life-spans of stars are randomly distributed throughout the ten-billion-year history of the Galaxy. If a nuclear civilization lasts 5,000 years before destroying itself, and if there are a few billion stars with suitable habitats for intelligent life, then at any given time there would only be about a few thousand such civilizations. If a pacifist philosophy eventually dominates, as one might hope it would, there is no reason why the duration of civilizations could not be measured in millions of years, and then there would be millions of intelligent civilizations coexisting in the Galaxy. If and when we hear our first ‘hello’ from space, I believe the course of human history will change dramatically. We may be forced at last to abandon our Earth-centered, egotistic, arrogant pose and to adopt an ecological-cosmic stance as is advocated in Buddhism.

A Universe Possessing Both Harmony and Rhythm IKEDA:

I have met and spoken with several American and Soviet astronauts, including Gerald P. Carr. During our meeting Carr said that harmony and order undoubtedly exist in the Universe. Traveling

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in space, he observed the inexorable shift from night to day; the stark contrast between the brilliant Sun and the pitch-darkness of the starry heavens; the beautiful blue Earth; and the atmosphere over the region where the Sun was setting as it shifted from one delicate tone of color to another. These sights filled him with awe, and convinced him of the existence of a harmony and order that transcended reason. Do you ever experience similar feelings? WICKRAMASINGHE:

In a more mundane way I do. My own idea of blissful communion with Nature is to walk alone along a tropical beach on a clear moonless night, gazing up at the star-studded sky, listening to the magical soothing sound of the waves. On such occasions I feel overcome with a sense of awe. I feel humbled to the extent that my own identity as an individual vanishes, and I merge with the immense vastness of the Universe.

IKEDA: It seems that one who studies the Universe cannot help but

become, sooner or later, keenly aware of the existence of its harmony and order. It also appears that, in the process, one often comes to reflect deeply on the relationship between the part and the whole, between the human being and the Universe. I don’t think that such awareness is the monopoly of astronauts and scientific researchers alone. Once during a conversation with a Japanese astronomer, we talked about one of the English poet William Blake’s poems, which reads in part as follows: To see a world in a grain of sand, And a Heaven in a wild flower, Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand, And Eternity in an hour. Auguries of Innocence12 To me, this is a sort of ‘Song of Life.’ I’m told that Einstein and many other scientists who contributed to the establishment of quantum mechanics were greatly influenced by this portion of the poem. WICKRAMASINGHE: I do believe, as you do, that some sort of intrinsic

harmony exists in the Universe, and that it is capable of stirring deep emotions in those who can perceive it. The experience is mystic and beautiful. As I mentioned earlier, in my youth I often set out these feelings in the form of haiku-style poems. I was deeply influenced by the great Japanese poet Basho. Here are a few examples of my work:

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Harmony. The star shines. I gaze at it. Among a myriad stars I stand Alone. The evening is silent. Even the flowers Fall noiselessly. These lines may only be poor imitations of Basho, but I do think that haiku is an ideal artistic medium for expressing our intimate links with the cosmos. And there are many passages of poetry in English literature that, using different styles, express the same concepts as those lines of Blake’s that you have just quoted. IKEDA:

Einstein, too, I’m told, after he had deeply pondered the immense void of the Universe, came to realize the infinite expanse of the microcosm that was his own internal mind, his own thinking self. Awed by the unparalleled solemnity, mystery and splendor of the innermost realm of life, of the world of the mind that is the microcosm, I think that Einstein could do no other than describe this with the words ‘cosmic religious sense.’ I think that what Einstein’s ‘cosmic religious sense’ was aiming at was the perceptions of life revealed in the Buddhist principles that the self is one with the Universe and that the Universe is one with the self, that is, the tide of joy etched in the depths of human life that can permeate the entire Universe. Fred Hoyle also, I’m sure, perceiving the eternal boundless existence of the Universe, felt what may be called a religious sense of awe.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I’m sure you must be right. If one contemplates

a Universe that is boundless and eternal, one is essentially converging on a Buddhist perspective of things.

The Theory of Evolution IKEDA: I think the origin of life on Earth, too, should be considered

in terms of its connection with the larger Universe. A variety of views exist about the formation of our solar system, but it has been generally accepted that it evolved from clouds of interstellar gases in the following manner: interstellar gas and matter gradually came

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together to form a disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust, at the center of which, because of gravitational forces, condensation began to take place, creating a dense gaseous nebula. At the same time, throughout the cloud small clusters of matter were brought together by localized gravitational forces. These small clusters within the gaseous cloud collided with and adhered to each other, so that larger conglomerates were gradually formed. This process led to the generation of our Sun, our Earth and the other planets of our solar system. Among these nine planets, life actually developed on Earth, extending its realm from the sea to the land and the sky, and evolving into its highest form as human beings. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I agree with the theory of a contracting, fragmenting cloud for the formation of the Sun, the comets and the outer planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. But the formation of the inner planets and of the cores of the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn must, as Fred Hoyle asserted around the time of the Second World War, have been the result of the expulsion of a disc of hot gas from the equatorial regions of a fast-spinning primitive Sun.

IKEDA:

Is that an established theory?

WICKRAMASINGHE: No, it is not, but it is an idea that is slowly coming

into vogue at the present time. The idea was criticized by Lyman Spitzer, Jr., the American astrophysicist who established the study of plasma physics. It was his opinion that gas expelled from the Sun would disperse rather than form a thin disc. Because of his evaluation, Hoyle’s model was not considered seriously for a while. Now, looking back on those days, I would say that Spitzer was still young. I don’t think he made thoroughgoing observations of phenomena; rather, he probably gave too much credit to physical theories that were based on simple hypotheses. Hoyle did not try to refute him. Perhaps he considered Spitzer’s argument to be logical enough and perhaps he himself did not have sufficient observational facts to attempt any counter-argument at the time. Recently, however, researches have been conducted on stars that have a bearing on the primeval Sun. And the new observational findings thus obtained are not satisfactorily explained by current popular theories. I propose that those points of the established theories that are at issue be reexamined in the light of these fresh discoveries. By so doing, I am convinced, Hoyle’s intuition will be proved to have been correct yet again.

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IKEDA: Would you mind describing that intuition of Fred Hoyle’s? WICKRAMASINGHE:

It is this: He believed that as the disc of gas expelled from the Sun cooled, metallic and mineral particles condensed and eventually stuck together and grew in size to form the terrestrial-type planets. In the outer regions of the solar system there was a vast swarm of icy comets, tens of billions of them. Some of the collisions between these comets led to the formation of Uranus and Neptune, and some of the collisions caused comets to be expelled to form the shell that now surrounds the entire solar system at a distance of a tenth of a light-year from the Sun. Occasionally a comet from this shell is deflected and reaches the inner regions of the solar system. Some of these inevitably collide with planets such as Earth. We think that such collisions produced the bulk of the volatile material on Earth’s surface, including the oceans and the atmosphere. In 1963 Harold C. Urey, who won the Nobel Prize for chemistry for his discovery of deuterium, criticized Hoyle’s theory as being ‘quite artificial.’ I am aware that many scientists have endorsed Urey’s view, but circumstances are rapidly changing. I believe that Hoyle’s concept is essentially correct, and a wealth of modern data exists that supports it.

IKEDA:

It is natural to assume that such collisions of comets and other debris with the primeval Earth would have generated a great deal of heat. Similarly, it may be easily imagined that this would have caused the gaseous components of the primeval Earth to react and interact, leading quickly to the formation of a primordial atmosphere.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Earth would have possessed its first stable atmosphere and crust some 3.8 billion years ago. We can pinpoint this moment of time fairly accurately from data obtained from the Moon. We know that intense bombardment of the lunar surface with comets and meteorites stopped at exactly this point.

IKEDA:

Observing from Earth, we can see that on the Moon’s surface there are some bright spots and some dark ones. The Apollo spacecraft’s lunar probe revealed that the bright spots consist of rocks pulverized by meteoritic collisions while the darker places are composed of lava that gushed out from within. In addition, it appears that while the bright spots are older than 3.8 billion years, the dark spots are younger.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Precisely so. Compared to the vast distances that

meteorites travel, the distance between Earth and the Moon is almost

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nil. Therefore, Earth also would have been subject to frequent and violent impacts until about 3.8 billion years ago. It follows, then, that the time at which meteoritic collisions ceased marks the first moment in the history of Earth when it was possible for life to survive. IKEDA: I have heard that what are considered to be the world’s oldest

rocks – those discovered in Greenland – date back to approximately that point in time. WICKRAMASINGHE: That is correct. That particular moment coincides

with the appearance of the oldest sedimentary rocks – that is, rocks laid down by water erosion of more primitive igneous rocks. Quite remarkably we now know that the first indirect evidence for life is to be found in these oldest sedimentary rocks. The evidence is in the form of a slight increase in the proportion of the lighter isotope of carbon, C-12. This isotope is taken up preferentially in the process of photosynthesis, and is thereby concentrated very slightly in the sediments. Photosynthetic bacteria and algae seem to have existed on Earth at that first moment when the violent impacts of meteorites and comets stopped. But the first structural fossils of micro-organisms show up at a slightly later stage, at a point about 3.5 billion years ago, in the so-called Apex cherts of northwestern Australia. At this time it appears that a wide range of microbial types were flourishing on Earth. These discoveries came to light only in 1993. Before that the oldest known bacterial microfossils were to be found in the so-called fig-tree cherts. IKEDA:

You are no doubt referring to the 3.1-billion-year-old figtree shale found in Transvaal Province in the Republic of South Africa.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, exactly. Later, slowly, almost imperceptibly,

over long periods of geological time, life on Earth evolved, becoming more and more complex; and human beings appeared along an evolutionary branch that developed some 80,000 years ago. IKEDA :

Concerning humankind’s emergence, Jacques-Lucien Monod, the French molecular biologist, states in his book Le hasard et la nécessité (1970: Chance and Necessity, 1971): ‘Man knows at last that he is alone in the universe’s unfeeling immensity, out of which he emerged only by chance.’13 He also declared: ‘The cornerstone of the scientific method is the postulate that nature is objective. In other words, the systematic denial that “true” knowledge can be got at by interpreting phenomena in terms of final causes – that is to say, of “purpose.”’14

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It seems to me that Monod’s theory that humankind’s emergence was an entirely chance occurrence must have been strongly influenced by nineteenth-century materialism, a doctrine that denied the value and meaning of human existence in favor of the purely objective view of science. Do you think it will become possible for science to reconcile human values with its objective point of view? WICKRAMASINGHE: I do not agree with Monod’s claim that the only

legitimate interpretation of nature requires a denial of ‘purpose’ – that is to say, intelligence. Since human beings are clearly endowed with intelligence, consciousness and a sense of purpose, one could say that these attributes must indeed be derived from similar attributes inherent in the wider Universe. Such a relationship is consistent with what we know, and cannot be ruled out. IKEDA:

Recent advances in molecular biology and in other areas seem to be close to providing a solution to the origin-of-life puzzle. It is thought that energy from ultraviolet rays and electrical discharges acted on existing inorganic matter to synthesize amino acids, fatty acids and eventually proteins and nucleic acids. There is virtually no scientific possibility, however, that even simple proteins could have been formed without their constituent amino acids having possessed a sense of purpose. As Haruhiko Noda, professor at the University of the Air, a national television and radio broadcast university in Japan, said: ‘Suppose that you use whatever amino acids you can lay your hands on in an attempt to synthesize a protein. As long as you continue employing such a method, even should all the matter in the entire Universe be converted into amino acids, they would still be insufficient even for the creation by accident of a single protein molecule with a proper sequence of 100 amino acids.’15 He suggests a similar scenario regarding nucleic acids. ‘I cannot help but conclude,’ he states, ‘that the substances that exist in the natural world are arranged or configured in such a way as to support reactions leading to life.’16 I, too, feel that it is impossible to completely exclude teleology. I also believe that the Universe possesses, on a fundamental level, a ‘tendency’ to give rise to life.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Moreover, if one is to restrict the age of the Universe to a mere 15 to 18 billion years, the origin of the organizational structure of life might require an intelligent conscious intervention. That is to say, the crucial arrangements of molecules in living systems (e.g., enzymes) may need to have been worked out by an intelligence connected with the entire Universe. I myself think this to be less attractive than the possibility that the Universe

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has an infinite age during which the organizational structure of life arose in a mechanistic way. We further need to understand how consciousness came to evolve and how it came to be imprinted on the chemical fabric of brain cells in higher life forms. IKEDA: Let us now move on to a discussion of the evolution of living

beings on Earth. On its publication, the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, by Charles Darwin, the nineteenthcentury English naturalist, sent shock waves through not only the field of biology, but many other fields as well. His arguments may be briefly summarized as follows: l. Living beings are generally prolific, and some offspring are born with inherent variations. 2. In the struggle for survival among the offspring of a species, some variations work to the advantage of their possessors. 3. Through natural selection, individuals with favorable variations survive and come to make up a majority in their species. This, Darwin asserted, is how the process of evolution takes place. Thus he advanced a theory, based on modern scientific methods, of evolution by natural selection. Built on a foundation of nineteenth-century ideas, the work contains some concepts that are obviously far off the mark when examined from our present-day understanding. Although other evolutionary theories have been put forward since, a vast body of newly uncovered knowledge also exists that reinforces Darwin’s theory. Called neo-Darwinism, this supportive evidence includes the rediscovery of mutation and Mendel’s principle of heredity, as well as the results of gene analysis based on molecular genetics. Accordingly, I think that the significance of Darwin’s achievements and the significance of the establishment of evolution as a subject of scientific research remain unchanged. What are your opinions on Darwin’s theory of evolution? WICKRAMASINGHE:

The points you raise are very interesting. I agree that the publication in 1859 of Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species marks a turning point in science as well as in history and sociology. The sociological implications of Darwinism are just as profound as the purely scientific ones. The data and observations on which Darwin’s assertions were based were of course not new. Some three decades earlier the English naturalist Edward Blyth used much the same set of facts to assert that natural selection acted only in a conservative way to maintain, on the average, a fixity of species.

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IKEDA:

That is true. Although Darwin recorded a great number of observations while serving as naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836, much of the data cited in On the Origin of Species was of a general nature. For instance, a species of fish that produces a great number of eggs served as an example of a prolific creature. And pigeons raised by human beings were used as examples of a variation of the wild pigeon. Scientific insight can reveal the essential meaning of data that is already quite familiar or even seemingly unrelated to the subject in question. This fact was all the more important in Darwin’s time, because contemporary points of view were overwhelmingly influenced by the idea that an omnipotent God had created all living things.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Of course, we know from geological records that

species do show a progressive tendency to diversify and develop as time goes on. The earliest life forms are relatively simple – e.g., single-celled structures – and the most recent life forms are complex and sophisticated. The full range of geological evidence was not available in Darwin’s day, but enough data existed suggesting that evolution had occurred. The fact that evolution occurs over long periods of time was not in dispute, but the question of exactly what mechanism might be responsible had not been fully resolved. The Darwinian explanation was ‘natural selection’ – the survival of the fittest from among the vast numbers of any given species that can be generated. Random mutations occurring amongst the vast numbers of the members of a given species compete to fill available niches, and any mutation that can cope slightly better in the competition survives to produce ever increasing numbers of offspring. In this way it was thought that one species could slowly merge with another, and that new orders and classes of plants and animals could be formed. Darwin’s description of the situation is summarized as follows: On an average every species must have same number killed year with [sic] year by hawks, by cold, & c. – even one species of hawk decreasing in number must affect instantaneously all the rest. The final cause of all this wedging must be to sort out proper structure …. One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying to force every kind of adapted structure into the gaps in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out the weaker ones.17 The powerful rhetoric of these words won the day in 1859, as it does now. But the suggestion that random copying errors were

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responsible for generating the entire range of plants and animals from some initial starting system, say a bacterium, stretches credulity as well as logic. IKEDA: While it is not good to leave truths vague, it is also important

to avoid stretching them to fit inappropriate concepts. The facts that science has revealed to us clarify only certain aspects of the vast array of problems that human beings are struggling to understand, and are therefore limited. To mistakenly attempt to extend these facts to explain concepts beyond their limited scope of applicability is not science. There is a famous story connected with an open debate that occurred about six months after the publication of On the Origin of Species. Samuel Wilberforce, a bishop who was opposed to the theory of evolution, turned to Thomas Huxley, a proponent of Darwin’s views, and asked: ‘Mr. Huxley, I beg to know, was it through your grandfather or your grandmother that you claim to have descended from a monkey?’ Unperturbed, Huxley rose and replied: I assert that a man has no reason to be ashamed of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would rather be a man, a man of restless and versatile intellect who … plunged into scientific questions … only to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by eloquent digressions …18 WICKRAMASINGHE:

The difficulty arises when we consider the question of how new information was generated – that is, how the information needed to form a human being was derived from the information present in a bacterium, or from an even closer ancestor. All the billions and billions of replications of primitive bacterium fall woefully short of generating the information needed. Imagine the information needed to produce a bacterium to be analogous to that present in the characters written on a single page of a textbook – say a page of Shakespeare. Imagine also a scribe copying this page over and over again billions upon billions of times. The standard Darwinian story of biology is analogous to saying that the mistakes generated by copying this single page could eventually be sorted out to produce not just all the plays of Shakespeare but all the books in all the libraries of the entire world! This is surely a travesty of logic as well as common sense. The claims of Darwinian theory concerning the development of new species have never been proven by rigorous mathematics, or by geological evidence of truly intermediate forms in the fossil

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record. Darwin’s position on the latter problem was to say that the fossil record was incomplete in his time and that eventually the evidence he needed would be unearthed. Now, nearly 140 years later, the situation remains pretty much the same. IKEDA: As you have said, this has led to a number of controversies.

A theory of intermittent equilibrium exists that suggests, based on the lack of evidence, fossil or otherwise, the existence of intermediary or transitional models of evolution, in which evolutionary changes take place suddenly, over short periods of time, followed by long periods during which living beings undergo relatively few changes. This theory suggests that evolution is not necessarily something that occurs continually. WICKRAMASINGHE: A major problem with the theory of intermittent,

or punctuated equilibrium is that it is not a theory in the strict sense of the word. It merely describes the factual evidence present in the fossil record, but does not offer any explanation of the phenomenon itself. The supporters of Darwin in the last century were opposed to the biblical version of creation, in which the evolution of living forms was essentially denied. There were sociological reasons for this stance, including the growing power and influence of the Church and the resentment that this inevitably engendered. Then there was also the effect of the Industrial Revolution that was gathering momentum in the mid-nineteenth century. Man had become all powerful. He could wrest power from nature, produce steam locomotives, and even conquer the world. It seemed only natural to expect that the same mechanistic, reductionist attitudes could be applied to explain all the phenomena connected with life. But such attempts as have been made proved to be unqualified disasters. Although the fact of evolution is indisputable, the evolutionary mechanism suggested by Darwin and his followers did not satisfactorily explain the emergence of new species, let alone the origins of consciousness and intelligence. Evolution, in my view, required the introduction of creative informational inputs from beyond our own planet. IKEDA:

Darwin’s theories have certainly exerted a great influence on Western culture. Social Darwinism, for example, introduced the concepts of survival of the fittest and of the struggle for existence, and was supported by the British philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), an early advocate of the theory of evolution.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is correct. Social Darwinism followed quickly on the heels of scientific Darwinism. Hitler’s defense of a

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super-race can be seen in certain respects as being an offshoot of Darwinist ideology. Similarly, the colonial suppression of poorer nations by stronger ones has, at times, been defended by the ideas of Darwinism. A scientific theory was developed in directions that could scarcely have been imagined. Ideas of biological evolution were extended further to include suggestions that a chemical evolution had preceded the emergence of first bacterium, leading in turn to a concept that life had its origin in the activities of simple chemicals. Although the building blocks of life in the form of amino acids and other substances may well have taken shape in such a manner, for life itself to have originated in this way would, in my view, be well-nigh impossible. IKEDA:

The concept of evolution also has left its mark in various ways on astronomy. For example, the big bang theory is centered on the idea that the Universe has evolved. If we take a look at the concept of the evolution of the Universe, as employed in the big bang theory, the first stage appears to be the evolution of matter, in which elementary particles and hydrogen and helium were formed, stars underwent nuclear fusion, and the explosion of supernovae brought about the production of heavier elements. Next comes chemical evolution where atoms formed in the first stage combined to create higher molecular compounds. The third stage is biotic evolution, where primitive life, born of the compounds formed in the second stage, developed.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Your reference to the extension of evolutionary

ideas to astronomy and cosmology is interesting. There do indeed appear to be similarities in the way the origin of life has been traced back to simple beginnings on Earth, that is, to a single bacterium, and in the idea of the entire Universe originating in a ‘super atom.’ It is ironic that the idea of a creation, though denied by biologists as a reasonable explanation for the origin of life, was revived soon after in cosmology in the big bang creation model for the Universe. IKEDA:

You are one of the scholars who deny the scenario of the big bang hypothesis. As an alternative, when, where and under what conditions do you propose that the ‘seeds of life’ were formed, to be carried around by interstellar dust?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I do not think that enough time exists in the cosmology suggested by big bang theorists for the organizational structure of life to have arisen by purely mechanistic processes. ‘Life seeds’ require the presence of atoms of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and other elements, and these can appear only after

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galaxies have formed, stars have evolved, and supernovas have exploded. Conditions appropriate for life could not have occurred much earlier than 12 billion years ago in a standard big bang cosmology. In a steady-state cosmology, which I tend to favor, the seeds and attributes of life are part of the unchanging fabric of the Universe. IKEDA:

In his book The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe, Steven Weinberg persuasively argues the case for the evolutionary theory of the Universe. He concludes: ‘The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it also seems pointless.’ Buddhism teaches that the self and the Universe are one and postulates an intimate and inseparable connection between the lives of human beings and that of the Universe. In other words, the Universe itself is a ‘live’ existence, an entity inherently possessed of a fundamental tendency toward the generation of life. From this perspective, Buddhism has discovered the profound meaning that exists in the relationship between the life of the Universe and the existence of human life. Of course, Weinberg’s statement arises from an examination of things through the cool eye of science; a philosophical view would reveal something different. But could the existence of the Universe really have no meaning whatsoever for human life in the real world?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The life-universe equivalence you refer to is remarkably consistent with the point of view implied by a steadystate cosmology. Life could be thought of as being the primary object of the Universe – the whole Universe being directed to the maintenance of life and consciousness. Freeman John Dyson, professor at Princeton University, who introduced to the world the achievements of the Japanese scholar Shin’ichiro Tomonaga, includes in his autobiography similar careful studies concerning these points. In any analysis of our world, if we omit this aspect, that is, results of studies regarding a universal life, we would very likely end up with the same dilemma as Weinberg. The Universe would then indeed seem pointless.

CHAPTER 2

Science and Religion

The Quest for a New Worldview IKEDA: Face-to-face with the twenty-first century, and with traditional

values crumbling throughout the world, humanity is at a great turning point. One circumstance particularly worthy of note here is that, on considering the relationship between science and religion, many people are now turning their attention to the creation of a new worldview. Western technological civilization, with its numerous serious problems, now shows signs of having reached an impasse. Confronted with this reality, and having entered a period of great change, people are seeking fresh ways to view the world and the Universe and are pondering on creating new standards of action, or new paradigms. It seems that the new trend transcends the mechanistic view of the world and reductionism, its principal methodology, aiming at the construction of a totally new worldview based on a holistic and ecological approach. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, I agree that a growing tendency exists to move away from the purely mechanistic, reductionist worldview of Galileo, René Descartes (1596–1650) and Isaac Newton (1642–1727), to a holistic, ecologically oriented view. It would be interesting to examine the reasons for this, and to this end we should consider the entire matter in a proper historical perspective. I think it is important to recognize that the emergence of the reductionist point of view coincided with the birth of physics in the midseventeenth century. In effect, reductionism was an attempt to explain the entire Universe, including biology, in terms of mechanistic physical principles.

IKEDA:

If one were to ask, ‘Who is the father of modern Western science?’ I believe we could cite Galileo. This position was then passed on through his contemporaries Francis Bacon (1561–1626), said to be the founder of empirical science, and Descartes, resulting 64

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in the perfection of Newtonian mechanics. Needless to say, that was the starting point of today’s scientific age. WICKRAMASINGHE: Exactly. The reductionist worldview really dates

back to 1623, when Galileo penned the Saggiatore … (Assayer …), and effectively defined science as being concerned with ‘primary’ qualities – those attributes of the external Universe that are tangible and measurable. ‘Secondary’ qualities, including love, anger, beauty and so forth, were deemed to lie outside the legitimate realm of science. Descartes expressed essentially the same ideas a few years later, in 1637, distinguishing between a physical substance (res extensa), or that which is measurable and divisible, and a thinking substance (res cogitans), or that which is immeasurable and indivisible. A universe made up of res extensa and res cogitans was thus posited, but the subsequent development of reductionist science, in all its forms, was concerned only with the physical component, res extensa. The reductionist approach was immensely successful in dealing with so-called classical mechanics, which elegantly explained the motions of comets, planets and stars. Models of physical systems could be constructed within this framework to fit existing data, and predictions in connection with models were made whose veracity could be confirmed by further observations. Newtonian mechanics essentially spearheaded the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. That revolution transformed our lives so profoundly that we have been loath ever since to question the absolute validity of the Cartesian worldview that made it possible. IKEDA :

The progress made by modern science based on the nineteenth century’s mechanistic worldview has been remarkable. In 1900, however, Max Planck (1858–1947) published his quantum theory, and in 1905, Einstein set forth his relativity theory. It seems that physics here entered a period of transition so great that Newtonian mechanics would actually be relegated to the level of classical mechanics. As the concept of quantum units came to be widely accepted and the curtain opened on the world of quantum physics, many facts came to light that rocked the foundations of Newtonian mechanics. Scientists such as Einstein, Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), Niels Bohr (1885–1962), Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961), Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) and Paul Dirac (1902–1984) appeared one after another, and the principles that govern the microscopic worlds of quantum mechanics and the elementary particles theory were revealed. These were epoch-making events.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The word ‘quantum’ means a discrete amount.

While the macroscopic properties of matter can vary in a smooth

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or continuous way, the properties of atomic particles often show variations only by discrete amounts. This discovery, made at the turn of the century, came as a great shock to physicists, and they eventually developed the quantum theory to account for the discrete nature of atomic and electronic quantities. IKEDA:

Would you mind explaining briefly exactly how quantum mechanics differs from classical mechanics?

WICKRAMASINGHE: Objects in classical mechanics can be regarded

as collections of mass points, each mass point effectively behaving like a miniature billiard ball. In quantum mechanics elementary particles are represented by ‘waves.’ However, whether or not subatomic units demonstrate the properties of waves depends on the method of observation. In one experiment individual components of a quantum system may exhibit the behavior of what in classical mechanics are called ‘particles,’ but in another experiment they may behave like waves. In quantum theory, for instance, electrons behave as if they were both particles and waves. A similar dichotomy arises when we consider electromagnetic radiation or light. IKEDA :

As I understand it, each particle possesses a unique individuality and can be counted, whereas waves, rather than being independent, interact, strengthening or weakening each other. The fact that electrons possess the qualities of both particles and waves is most intriguing.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

It certainly is. That’s why the determinism of classical physics eventually had to be abandoned and replaced by probabilistic considerations. When we interpret phenomena, we have no alternative but to use the terms particle, wave and others employed in classical mechanics. But this ultimately involves a conceptional contradiction. So the terms were retained, but the doctrine on which they were based – that is, determinism – was altered.

IKEDA:

And the result was the well known Heisenberg uncertainty principle, wasn’t it?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes. That principle says that for subatomic particles, position and momentum cannot be determined precisely at the same time. If position is fixed, momentum is uncertain within given limits, and vice versa. From the early 1920s, quantum theory advanced in great leaps and bounds, leaving classical physics far behind.

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IKEDA: Is it correct to think of ‘momentum’ as indicating the speed

at which matter moves? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, I think that is sufficient. More precisely, however, because the mass of matter also influences momentum, heavy objects such as those we commonly find around us in our daily lives are not affected by uncertainty.

IKEDA: The quantum theory radically transformed the deterministic,

mechanistic worldview that had prevailed until then, and it is said that the scientists who built the foundations of quantum physics, such as Einstein and Planck, were themselves incredulous at the finished theory. WICKRAMASINGHE:

According to Bohr’s version of the quantum theory, the external world and the observer’s perception of it are inextricably linked. According to quantum theory, the external world has no existence independent of our perception of it. The philosophical implications of the quantum theory are indeed profound, and several aspects of it are still the subject of vigorous debate. Einstein, for one, was convinced right to the end of his life that quantum theory lacked an essential ingredient in its assertion that the world ‘out there’ can only exist in relation to an observer and to a specified experiment that must be defined. Einstein and Bohr had a famous argument on such matters.

IKEDA:

The focus of their argument was what is known today as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics. Here, determinism is replaced with statistical probability and the inseparability of observer and observation is shown. In other words, the Copenhagen interpretation introduces the philosophically extremely interesting concept of a relationship between the perceiving subject and its object.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The observable physical world is manifestly deterministic, but every transition at an atomic or subatomic level lacks determinacy in the way you have described. It is the observation itself, the intervention of the observer’s consciousness, that removes indeterminacy at each observed step. The world can indeed be seen as a sequence of such observational steps. Within each step the laws of quantum mechanics apply, but to proceed from one step to the next it is necessary for consciousness to intervene. And that goes beyond the laws of reductionist physics. Needless to say, some of these matters are still considered to be unresolved at a deep philosophical level. Quantum mechanics, however, as a theoretical framework for explaining natural

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phenomena, is firmly established and here to stay. It is perhaps one of the most successful physical theories to appear in this century. The quantum theory led to explanations about atomic and molecular structure, about the structure of the nucleus, and about the creation and annihilation of elementary particles; it also led to predictions about antimatter. And it has brought us indirectly to an understanding of the nuclear processes that occur in the deep interiors of stars. No experiment has yet contradicted any prediction based on quantum mechanics. IKEDA: Viewed from the Buddhist perspective too, I think that, just

as you have said, an extremely important key lies hidden in the philosophical implications of the quantum theory. One of the most fundamental doctrines in Buddhism is that of dependent origination. This doctrine, which teaches that all phenomena produce effects as a result of interaction between internal and external causes, is known as both the dual-cause and the multiple-cause theory. It is no mere mechanistic determinism, where just a single cause produces a single effect in the physical world. Rather, it is a comprehensive doctrine that, while encompassing the principle of the chain of cause and effect, in the end asserts the importance of the relationship among multiple external causes. Since effects arise from the interaction among multiple external causes and between internal and external causes, it follows that these relationships are endowed with a degree of freedom. In this sense, the Buddhist principle of dependent origination may be said to have something in common with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Moreover, when one attempts to understand the principle of dependent origination from the standpoint of the theory of knowledge, one finds that Buddhism teaches that human cognitive functions originate in interactions among the following three factors: 1. the six consciousnesses, or the five senses – sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch – and consciousness; 2. the six sense organs – the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind; and 3. the six objects of cognition corresponding to the six sense organs – color and shape, sound, odor, taste, tangibility and spiritual or mental elements. The first two factors operate from within the life of the subject, and the third, from the environment. The six consciousnesses function in their respective seats, namely, the six sense organs, to which the six objects respectively correspond. Buddhism teaches

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that the cognitive functions materialize when the workings of these three factors harmonize and interact. A Buddhist theory of knowledge of this sort brims with philosophical import and substance that appear to transcend the mechanistic worldview based on the reductionist approach. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Another modern development that departs from conventional ways of thinking is embodied in the so-called ‘anthropic principle.’ One form of this principle states that the evolution of human consciousness must be written into physical laws from the outset and that the Universe is actually designed in such a way as to allow us to observe it. I find these ideas unsatisfactory because they seem to me to represent a return to an anthropocentric view of the Universe, although the protagonists of the anthropic principle would deny this.

IKEDA: The limitations of the reductionist approach become all the

more apparent when one moves from the realm of physics into that of biology. The Buddhist principle of dependent origination also teaches that the degree of freedom is greater for living things than for nonliving, and that this is even more so when it comes to human life. Surely one can say that human life, with its highly developed mind and will, is the freest of all existences. WICKRAMASINGHE:

It is exactly as you have said. The extension of the reductionist approach to the field of biology, including the study of humankind, in the late nineteenth century created difficulties that have not yet been resolved. Reductionism had a limited measure of success in coming to grips with the evolution of life as a basic mechanistic process, but a great deal remained unexplained, particularly in relation to the emergence of human intelligence and the mind. Even the great protagonist of evolution by natural selection, Alfred Russell Wallace (1823–1913), questioned the adequacy of the reductionist method later in his life. He was of course severely criticized by his peers for reintroducing spiritualism and metaphysics into science. Res cogitans, once abandoned, could never again be reintroduced, it was argued. We have already mentioned that a purely Cartesian attitude had to a certain extent failed in physics. So also has it failed in modern discussions of the human brain, despite the progress made in the physics and chemistry of neurons. The Cartesian worldview admits no place for investigations of our subjective experience, though science itself relies on our perceptions of the world. Attempts to create a model of the brain generally do not acknowledge the existence of the consciousness, or mind, as a separate entity.

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To resolve this paradox and to probe the true nature of consciousness, a new holistic worldview might well be required, though what this would consist of remains at the moment obscure.

Modern Science and Christianity IKEDA: Examining the achievements of the scientists who established

the natural sciences in the early part of the modern age in Europe, such as Copernicus, Galileo, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and Newton, one sees that Christianity played an intimate role in their work. They appear to have had a definite sense of purpose: to work for the ‘glory of God.’ WICKRAMASINGHE:

You are correct in saying that Western science has developed in response to Christian theology. Indeed, all aspects of Western culture are deeply connected with the Christian religion, and that includes art, literature, music, architecture and the social systems that evolved in Western Europe. From the time when the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion the Church moved to centre stage in society and became increasingly more powerful. Thereafter the Christian Church guided the destiny of Europe. We might perhaps say that science, which was originally just another ordinary pursuit, began as an attempt by human beings to employ their intellect and to make use of their leisure time. But with the growing power and authority of the Church, this intellectual activity became inevitably entwined with the doctrines of Christianity.

IKEDA: Christian doctrines deeply pervaded the thinking of modern

Western scientists. For instance, it is said that Copernicus’s theory that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun reflected his belief that God would surely have chosen simplicity over complexity. Because God had created nature without the slightest waste, it followed that the heavens would be simple and orderly. Kepler too studied the movements of the stars in order to prove the harmony of the heavenly bodies, for he believed that God in his providence had created the Universe in a geometrically methodical way. And for both Galileo and Newton, who were convinced that the Universe was a cryptogram created by an almighty God, the study of the movements of the heavenly bodies was perhaps an attempt to decipher what was encoded in the Universe about divine providence, or the order of nature. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I fully concur with your perception that Christianity permeated the thinking of these early European

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scientists. I would also agree with you that Copernicus’s conviction that God favored simplicity over complexity led eventually to the abandonment of the idea of a geocentric planetary system. In this latter instance it is clear that though the original motives were colored by a particular religion, the final position reached must be regarded as according more closely with absolute truth than the position held before. In any discovery or invention that has a purely factual basis – as, for example, in the case of the steam engine – any religious or cultural background may be set aside once the discovery is made. But of course modern science is, for the most part, concerned principally with using empirical facts to construct grand theories – such as theories of biology, cosmology or even theories regarding our terrestrial environment. And here we are still plagued by the evils of ways of thinking that place a particular religion at centre stage. IKEDA:

I heartily agree. To illustrate, the trial of Galileo, a symbol of the conflict between Christianity and science, may appear to have been the result of an overlapping of numerous circumstances and accidents of history. However, the major cause was the fact that the codes of God that Galileo had deciphered to glorify Him, that is, the scientific discoveries themselves, ran counter to the teachings advocated by the Church.

WICKRAMASINGHE: With hindsight, we can now see that the intrusion

of the biblical story of creation and, along with it, the concept of a Universe that is anthropocentric were disastrous to the progress of science. Another dogma espoused by the Church of Rome from about AD 600 was that objects in the sky were unchangeable and that nothing that happens to heavenly bodies could have any conceivable effect on Earth. All these views were rigidly held. Science developed first in an attempt to establish the correctness of these concepts. Later, when evidence was found suggesting they might be incorrect, fierce conflicts ensued to refute the paradigms that were built on them. Western science may be seen to have started from a serious disadvantage at the outset, with a worldview that had a low a priori probability of being correct. A succession of minor inconsistencies in this worldview must have been apparent to observers of nature from the earliest times. For example, there are no European records of naked-eye sunspots, which are dark patches that appear from time to time on the Sun’s surface and that cannot be missed. It is also strange that not a single European record exists of the supernova that occurred in AD 1054, leading to the formation of the Crab Nebula. According to Chinese records, this supernova was brighter than Venus for several weeks; it must certainly have stood out in the skies.

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IKEDA:

I think so too. Records concerning this phenomenon exist in both China and Japan. The formation of the Crab Nebula from the explosion of a star in the constellation Taurus is a historically well known event. A Chinese document, Xi zhi tong jian (Continuation to the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government), volume 54, describes this nebula as follows: On the day of the cyclical sign tsuchinoto-ushi in the fifth month of the first year of Chih-he, an itinerant star appeared a few inches or so southeast of the star T’ien-kuan.

The lunar calendar date mentioned falls on July 4, AD 1054. Another document gives a description of the same nebula: The itinerant star first appeared in the eastern sky one morning in May of the first year of Chih-he, in the neighborhood of T’ien-kuan, guardian of the east. Like Venus, it was visible even during the daytime …. It remained visible for some twentythree days. In Japan, too, an account concerning this celestial body is given in Fujiwara no Sadaie’s (1162–1241) diary Meigetsuki (Journal of the Full Moon). Moreover, I understand that it is also depicted on a wall painting discovered in the ruins of an American Indian settlement in northern Arizona. A large star is drawn beneath a crescent moon. The exact date of the ruins cannot be fixed, but it is known that they were in use from the eleventh to the twelfth century AD. WICKRAMASINGHE: The failure in the West to note this remarkable

event shows how strong was the repressive power of Christian dogma. Facts that did not fit prevailing dogma were simply ignored. The first significant confrontation came about with the incident concerning Galileo to which you have just referred. The concept of a ‘Universe for humankind’ implies that humankind’s abode, Earth, must be at the center. By the middle of the sixteenth century, however, when the movements of the heavenly planets were being studied, it had become increasingly difficult to defend an Earthcentred system. Although very complex epicycles were proposed to prop up the Earth-centred view, they eventually had to be abandoned in favor of the heliocentric or Sun-centred view. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries many reports of meteorites falling from the skies were brought to the attention of scientists. Because, however, the idea of stones falling from the sky ran counter to the ‘closed-box Earth’ dogma dating

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back to AD 500, these reports were systematically denied. Indeed, the French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee of the most distinguished scientists to examine these reports and then pronounced that ‘stones of extraterrestrial origin could not exist.’ It was only in 1836, after more than 2,000 stones fell from the heavens near L’Aigle in Normandy, about 60 miles west of Paris, that the French Academy changed their opinion, and this was done because too many people had seen the phenomenon to deny its existence any longer. The closed-box Earth dogma did not die with the meteorite saga, however. IKEDA:

It is modern history that, because of this bitter experience, the Church separated philosophy from theology and then split off science. But I believe that the ideas of Christianity, which played a major role in the formative period of modern science, are still very much a part of the principal framework of contemporary Western science.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Although the distinctly Christian inputs into modern science are not emphasized or even acknowledged in the present day, they nevertheless still persist. Cosmologists hold tenaciously to the view that the Universe had a beginning, or a ‘creation.’ The reason why this paradigm dominates must, I think, lie in the Judeo-Christian antecedents of these beliefs. In a similar way, I think that geocentrism is at the root of the present-day resistance to admitting the validity of arguments concerning an extraterrestrial origin of life.

IKEDA: The idea that ‘nature exists for humankind’ is a view of nature

based on the Creation myth and a human-centered understanding of the Universe. This view of nature asserts that nature was created by an absolute God, the creator of all things, for the sake of human beings and as such should be controlled by human beings; it has also underpinned Western scientific civilization right up until the present day. Although this idea, which separates the human subject from its object (nature), formed the basic framework of modern Western science and promoted its development, it has also led to reductionism and brought about a loss of humanity and the destruction of nature. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The belief that nature exists for the sake of human beings is an essential ingredient of Judeo-Christian theology. Human beings, this belief holds, are the ultimate and the pinnacle of creation, so they are permitted to alter the fates of other creatures and of the planet itself in whatever manner they choose. I think you are right in saying that the present-day lack of respect for our

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environment stems at least in part from this deep-rooted theological dogma. To avoid the obvious dangers we face it is necessary, first and foremost, to move away from anthropocentrism and toward a global ecological point of view.

Modern Science and Greek Philosophy IKEDA:

Western scientific civilization was born from Christianity and Greek philosophy. It is historical fact, of course, that the scientific knowledge of ancient India and China, together with Greek thought, merged long ago with Arabian and Islamic sciences, then flowing into what was to later become modern Western science. It was the doctrines of Christianity and the philosophy of the Greeks, however, that formed the core of the paradigms upon which modern Western science stands. We have already discussed the connection between modern science and Christianity, but the connection with ancient Greek thought also seems to have been an extremely strong one.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The belief in the order and symmetry of the Universe of course goes back to the days before the Christian era. Pythagoras and the Pythagorean school asserted that the Universe must possess a geometrical order and that it must be intrinsically simple. That of course was not related to any attempt to vindicate the glory or power of an omnipotent God.

IKEDA: Returning again to Copernicus, one can see in his work the

influence of Neoplatonism’s heliocentric view. For instance, in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) (1543), Copernicus wrote that ‘the state of immobility is regarded as more noble and godlike than that of change and instability,’1 and that ‘In the center of all rests the sun. For who would place this lamp of a very beautiful temple in another place or better place than this wherefrom it can illuminate everything at the same time?’2 WICKRAMASINGHE: Western science is deeply rooted in the religious

and cultural traditions of the societies in which it developed. And that includes both Greek and Christian traditions, as you have rightly said. I think it was the Greek tradition that fostered argument, rigor and logic, and the Christian tradition that introduced a component of dogmatic belief. In a strange sort of way, it was the interplay between these almost opposite attitudes that led to the birth of Western science as we know it.

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The worldviews that dominated Western science at any given time may be perceived as cultural snapshots, capturing the varying stages of the interaction between religious views and Greek philosophy. Worldviews are of course ephemeral in character. In contrast, the scientific measurements that have been made over the centuries have a universal quality, starting from the earliest successful measurements of the size of Earth, the distances to the Sun and the planets, the size of atoms, the value π (pi), and the energy levels of molecules, atoms, nuclei and so forth. These are surely not in any important way particular to Western science, though of course they were discovered in that context. To these types of measurements must be added all the postIndustrial Revolution discoveries – from the steam engine to the atom bomb. These are just a few out of the very many purely factual discoveries of Western science. They could have happened in any culture – terrestrial or extraterrestrial – where the conditions were appropriate. IKEDA: I feel exactly the same way. Incidentally, if one were to follow

the roots of modern Western science’s method of observation – that is, analytic reductionism – back to their source, one would arrive at the atomism advocated by such Greek philosophers as Democritus and Epicurus. And as for the method of quantification championed by modern science, it seems that one can follow those roots as far back as the Pythagoreans of Greece. WICKRAMASINGHE:

You refer to the dominance of reductionism in Western science and to its origins in Greek philosophy. It is certainly true that reductionist philosophies were never as strong in the Orient – in India and China – though they could not have been nonexistent. The reductionist attitude is present in every child’s natural instinct to tear off the petals of a flower, or to break up a toy, simply to see what is there. I do not believe that these tendencies are present only in Western children. We know from our own experience that a young child in India or China or Japan would behave in exactly the same manner – he or she would take the flower apart. But perhaps the Oriental child would stare a little longer at the whole flower and absorb its beauty (a nonreducible quality) before attempting to dissect it. That difference possibly contributed to the delay of the Industrial Revolution in the Orient. It may also be that the level of satisfaction that prevailed with a purely agricultural way of life prevented reductionism from ever really taking hold in the East. Holistic as opposed to reductionist philosophies maintained their sway in the East longer because of this delay. More time was

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available to stop and gaze at the beauty of a flower, a living creature or a landscape. More time to write haiku. IKEDA: Now, however, the limitations of reductionism, the method

of reducing an object into quantifiable elements, have become the target of criticism. And at the same time, a comprehensive, holistic approach is much in demand. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think there surely is a quality within a whole living structure that our minds react to, but which we cannot yet reduce or quantify. The same extends to the quality of humanness. What a purely reductionist Western science has done for the world is to dehumanize society. Human beings are coming to be regarded more and more as cogs in a wheel, or components in a big social machine. This is surely not a desirable state to perpetuate. Although we cannot abandon the highly successful reductionist philosophy of science, we should bear in mind its inherent limitations as well.

The Crisis Confronting Science IKEDA :

In 1990, the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Leon M. Lederman, who has organized and directed many large-scale scientific projects in the United States, published a report entitled ‘Science: The End of the Frontier,’ a compilation of comments from researchers about their work. In the report, Lederman says: ‘The period from shortly after World War II to 1968 has often been referred to as the “golden age” of American science.’ I am interested in the document because it corresponds to the Bush report, ‘Science, the Endless Frontier,’ which helped form the US scientific research system after the end of the Second World War, and also because of its bearing on the Bush administration’s request to the Japanese government for help in funding the US government’s superconducting Supercollider (SSC) project. Reading Lederman’s report sets one to wondering how presentday technology, which calls for extraordinary sums of money, should be advanced in the future. In the 1960s, when this report was written, the support for science from the general public was almost unlimited. Nearly all the things we take for granted in the modern world are the blessings of science. Despite this, however, public opinion has changed, and criticism of science appears to have grown stronger.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I agree that science has suffered a major setback

in recent years, but I do not share in the widespread pessimism that exists regarding its long-term future. The momentum that science

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and technology have developed over the years is so great that it is virtually unstoppable. The benefits of science are self-evident and all-pervasive. It would not take much effort to convince people that the endeavours that led to the production of the microchip, the modern electronic computer and the laser – to name but a few – are worthy of continued support. But the public need to be constantly re-educated and re-informed about the worth of science. IKEDA:

The problem here is that the importance of basic science is somewhat difficult to perceive. Although today’s electronics technology is no doubt the fruit of James C. Maxwell’s (1831–1879) nineteenth-century discovery of eletromagnetism, I have my doubts whether researchers in Japan today are able to apply themselves with vision to the kind of research that will bear fruit 100 years from now. Considering the world’s future, I think it is essential, precisely when even a bit of economic leeway exists, to invest in projects – such as the promotion of and education in basic science – that are vital even though they do not produce immediate benefits.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The economic crisis we now face seems to have

made people increasingly impatient. If public money is to be spent, immediate results are demanded. But it is clear that the most worthwhile scientific discoveries in recent years were unplanned and that they came about quite unexpectedly. Research directed solely toward practical or industrial application is likely to prove of limited value. And unfortunately there is a trend now to concentrate on precisely this type of activity. If governments and the public are to continue supporting science, it must be seen on the whole to be a cost-effective venture. But in assessing value a long-term view must be taken. IKEDA:

Are there any other major obstacles in the way of the continued promotion of basic science?

WICKRAMASINGHE :

The biggest problem is that scientific bureaucracies have grown to unwieldy proportions, and the scientific endeavor has become increasingly inefficient. The pressure to publish in order to justify expenditure has led to a steep rise in the number of inferior scientific undertakings. In addition, research is often carried out in an oligopolistic fashion at state-affiliated research institutions that tend to be bureaucratic. At these types of places, the buds of new ideas that run contrary to the central ideology are nipped off before they have a chance to flower. Recently I have also heard many reports about the decline of university research.

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IKEDA:

Moreover, there has been criticism in some quarters of a decline in the ethical standards of researchers.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, that’s correct. Recently ugly priority disputes

have arisen as well as many cases of fraud and deception. Let me cite a few instances to illustrate this point. There was a terrible dispute between the American scientist Robert Gallo and the French scientist Luc Montagnier as to who first identified the AIDS virus. Fossil forgeries still continue to make headlines from time to time. The hype over the concept of cold fusion in 1990 led eventually to the exposure of very poor scientific method. The hopes for the 1.5-million dollar Hubble Telescope venture seemed at first to have been dashed when it turned out that the telescope mirror was ground according to the wrong specification, and moreover that it had not even been tested on the ground before being launched into orbit. Fortunately, the defect was finally corrected in a skillful maneuver carried out in space, but not without the expenditure of a vast sum of money, which might be seen as wanton wastage due to incompetence. The list is long and the damage to the name of science continues. The public’s image of science has become badly tarnished, so it is not in the least surprising that scientists are facing a period of attrition. IKEDA: What, specifically, should be done to remedy the situation? WICKRAMASINGHE:

One problem is escalating costs caused mainly by an undue emphasis on ‘large-scale science’ and on ventures that require costly equipment and excessive manpower. The time may well have come to stop and think, to change the emphasis in the direction of less costly basic science, to review old theories and simply to reassess the enormous quantities of data that are available at the present time. I personally think that pruning an overgrown scientific community will eventually lead to beneficial results; but in the short term there will be inevitable hardships to face and priorities will have to be reassessed. What seems important to me is that we not lose sight of the significance of science as a cultural pursuit. Scientists should at all times be given the freedom to explore the Universe and to continue adding to our great cultural heritage, a heritage which stretches over thousands of years.

IKEDA:

We are responsible now for solving a number of problems that have afflicted humankind throughout its history. How to eliminate poverty and disease; end social injustice; elevate the standard of education and cultivate artistic and intellectual

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sensibilities in the next generations; build a society where people can experience happiness; and realize our dreams with regard to the Universe – I believe that as we direct ourselves to the resolution of these problems, it will be vital to correctly assign a place to scientific endeavors.

The Various Forms of Science in the East and West IKEDA: Here I would like to examine the many forms of science other

than the Western one – in particular those of the Orient – that have appeared to date on our planet. Science in India, for example, made remarkable progress during the period from the beginning of the Buddhist era until the Muslim invasion in the early part of the second millennium. It is well known that the discovery of zero as a numerical value in India opened up unlimited possibilities in mathematics and became, via Arabia, a great stimulus in the development of the natural sciences in the West. The Japanese thinker and art critic Tenshin (Kuzuo) Okakura (1862–1913) wrote: … we catch a glimpse of the great river of science which never ceases to flow in that country. For India has carried and scattered the data of intellectual progress for the whole world, ever since the pre-Buddhist period when she produced the Sankhya philosophy and the atomic theory; the fifth century, when her mathematics and astronomy find their blossom in Aryabhatta; the seventh, when Brahmagupta uses his highly developed algebra and makes astronomical observations … In the era which we are considering [the sixth to seventh centuries], beginning with Asangha and Vasubandhu, the whole energy of Buddhism is thrown upon this scientific research into the world of the senses and of phenomena …3 Ancient Indian medicine (Ayurveda) and Buddhist medicine also sustained high standards. Thus it seems only natural that in the latter half of the eighth century AD, when Arabia began assimilating scientific knowledge from other parts of the world, it looked first to Indian science and thought. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Indian civilization, such as is evident from the ruins of Mohenjo Daro in the Indus Valley, dates to well before 3000 BC. It is clear from the archaeological evidence that a high level of technology and science must have prevailed. Unfortunately,

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there is no written record extant from this early time, for the earliest Indian writings in existence date to some time after 600 BC. A high level of intellectual and philosophical development is well documented in India from 600 BC onwards. The period of great development in Chinese science also roughly coincides with this period, which occurred only a little earlier than the rise of classical Greek philosophy. Both Indian and Chinese philosophers were essentially intuitive and introspective rather than reductionist and empirical. They both saw sense perceptions as being more or less illusory and attached little importance to observations of the external world. This was particularly so of Indian philosophers. The Upanishads asserted that everything in the world is a manifestation of brahma. This is a holist dictum par excellence. In spite of this, however, the Indians did develop a sophisticated atomic theory, but still they made no attempt to separate the observer from the observed. One might glimpse here a similarity to recent developments in quantum theory, where the observer and the observed are intimately interrelated. IKEDA:

As we mentioned earlier in our discussion about quantum theory, the concept of a mutual relationship existing between the observer and the observed is also strikingly similar to the Buddhist theory of knowledge based on dependent origination.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The great strength of Indian science was in mathematics, to which you have already referred. And here their greatest strength was in arithmetic and algebra rather than in geometry. Their cosmology, too, was exceedingly sophisticated, as we have already seen.

IKEDA:

In China too, grounded in the Han culture, people created an original form of science in nearly every period of human history. Chinese herbal medicine in particular is employed even today as a form of medicine based on the principles of yin and yang and the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal and water), a view of life different from that of modern Western medicine. It is said that within that tradition, the Chinese method of pulsetaking, for instance, influenced Europe by way of the Islamic world. And of course numerous other Chinese developments, such as papermaking, the printing process, the compass and firearms, were transmitted to Europe from the East.

WICKRAMASINGHE: It is a sobering thought that Indian and Chinese

science reached pretty high levels of sophistication long before Western science was born. Chinese astronomy may have begun as

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early as 2500 BC. There is evidence of a solar eclipse having been observed as early as 2136 BC. IKEDA:

One famous story describes how the ruler of the Hsia dynasty in ancient China ordered the Marquis of Yin to have the official in charge of astronomical affairs killed, for the latter had failed to predict the occurrence of a solar eclipse. The story appears in the Hsia dynasty section of the Shu ching or Book of Documents.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

At around the same time it is believed that the Chinese had determined the average length of the year to be 3651/4 days. It is clear from these facts that precise instruments for observation existed in China far earlier than anywhere else in the world. In spite of this, the Chinese do not appear to have developed models of the cosmos such as, for instance, the Greek system of revolving stars. IKEDA:

At present it even appears that, save in a few areas like medicine, the creative energy that once inspired Indian, Chinese, Muslim and other Oriental sciences has been lost. I think that one of our most important tasks today is to explore the reasons why these sciences became stagnant. Naturally one cannot discuss humanity’s science of the future without considering modern Western science, which has now spread into every region of the world. However, I believe also that in the diverse sciences and cultures of the East, which flourished in the context of worldviews and religions totally different from Western modern science, a precious legacy for a science for humanity can be rediscovered and put to work for the future.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think that Eastern sciences became stagnant for the simple reason that they became too intensely doctrinaire. They stubbornly refused to take account of facts and relied increasingly on the authority of books. This is, of course, a sure recipe for disaster. Science is concerned with the collection and systematization of facts, and when we arrive at a stage when facts are regarded as being of secondary importance – that is close to the end! At their peaks of attainment, both Indian and Chinese science preserved a kind of holistic, humanistic poise. That was certainly beneficial to the quality of their scientific achievements. It would be useful for Western scientists to remain aware of the undiscovered whole while dissecting a system either in their laboratory or in their mind’s eye. Also, it would be worth remembering that one reason Oriental science failed to make an impact worldwide was the rise of doctrinaire attitudes that were given precedence over facts.

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Western science, I think, is going the same way – it is becoming increasingly doctrinaire. IKEDA:

I am in agreement with your view that because Indian and Chinese scientists sometimes relied on authority, placed excessive importance on ancient documents and records, and either disparaged or ignored data culled from the observation of fact, they forfeited both creativity and progress. But isn’t it also a fact that, now that the limitations of the reductionist methods of Western science are clear, the importance of the Oriental holistic approach is growing?

WICKRAMASINGHE: This is true. The worldview that dominated both

Indian and Chinese thought might be described as ‘top-down.’ In general, the larger structure was regarded as being more important than the component substructures, even though the latter might be more immediately tangible. As we have already noted, this point of view led to the emergence of worldviews that are acceptable even today. But at the same time we must not forget that that worldview signally failed to result in any development akin to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, which would seem to have been a direct consequence of a ‘bottom-top’ view of the world. One beneficial aspect of an Oriental ‘top-down’ view is that it seeks, above all other considerations, to preserve the integrity of our terrestrial environment. Moreover, the basic human values that are preserved by even the most primitive societies of Asia are in many ways superior to those of the modern industrialized Western world. IKEDA: The holistic approach of Oriental science views the ecosystem,

which includes humanity, and moreover, the entire Earth, in the context of these mutual relationships. And I agree with your comment that essential human values are preserved because human life also is seen as encompassing both body and mind, and is viewed in the context of its relationship to society and to the natural environment. WICKRAMASINGHE: The danger of pursuing an exclusively ‘bottom-

top’ point of view is that one soon becomes obsessed with minutia, thus losing sight of more important, larger issues. And also science then tends to fragment into smaller and smaller areas of specialization. Each field of specialization produces experts, and experts in different fields often cannot communicate with each other. One might say there are far too many specialists and not enough general practitioners among the creative scientists of the present day. This situation could be altered with the assimilation of a holistic viewpoint into Western science.

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Chinese and Indian Medicine IKEDA: The mainstream in the field of medicine today is dominated

by Western medicine, which employs the methodology of modern Western science – the Cartesian paradigm that separates the physical and the spiritual. This sort of medicine has certainly proved to be very effective in surgery and in combating infectious disease. Recently, however, there has been a great deal of concern about both the limitations and the side effects of Western-style medicine. Specifically, we face such problems as the dangerous effects of prescription drugs, drug-resistant bacteria, degenerative diseases, psychosomatic illnesses, neurosis, mental illness and medical ethics issues. It is of great interest to me that, together with an increased awareness of the shortcomings of modern Western medicine, there is a growing curiosity in Japan about Oriental medicine. This is particularly true of Chinese herbal medicine. Although it has changed considerably in the long course of its history and the herbal medicine that was brought to Japan has been altered by the Japanese people, the view of life that comprises its foundation has always been utterly different from the methodology of modern Western medicine. While the latter is based on such specialities as anatomy, pathology and cytology, herbal medicine diagnoses and treats life as a whole in an overall, systematic way, according to such teachings as yin and yang, ch’i-hsüeh, the relationship between energy and blood, and hsü-shih, the relationship between void and substance. The teaching of yin and yang, for example, also sees the body as a microcosmos consisting of yin (‘negative’) and yang (‘positive’) in the context of the body’s mutual relations with the entire cosmos, and asks whether or not these two elements are maintaining an active balance. Both the teachings of energy and blood, and of void and substance are mutually complementary concepts. The five elements teaching, which is now usually combined with that of yin and yang, also comprehensively and systematically evaluates the interactions among the five elements – wood, fire, earth, metal and water – that comprise all things. Furthermore, underlying the practice of acupuncture and moxibustion is the theory that the human body is made up of various meridians and points. Medical opinion is divided over how these meridians and points function, but some researchers believe that they have an electrical function rather than an anatomical or histological one.

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Keisetsu Otsuka, a Japanese medical practitioner of herbal medicine, has neatly summarized its positive and negative aspects as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

effective and practical, formalistic, passive and stagnant, political character unified and integrated.

With regard to its effectiveness and practicality, for instance, Otsuka points out that the chief concern in the diagnostic process of herbal medicine is being able to determine whether a patient is predominantly yin or yang, substance or void. Of course it cannot be denied that the yin and yang teaching, particularly in connection with the five elements theory, has fallen into formalism and become stagnant. Nevertheless, new merit is being discovered both in Chinese herbal medicine, which examines and treats the individual human being as a whole (including both mind and body), and in the treatment methodologies of acupuncture and moxibustion. WICKRAMASINGHE:

As you have said, the Chinese developed a complicated worldview based on a theory of opposites – yin and yang. These could be identified in many ways – for example, as male and female, energy and matter, body and soul. The system of thought that developed along these lines was certainly elegant, but as far as the physical sciences were concerned it was also doomed to failure. The Chinese, like the Indians, did not attach much importance to empirical facts. They were viewed as being merely incidental and were easily disposed of by convoluted, abstract reasoning based on the principles of the yin-yang theory. The Chinese medical science of acupuncture also has an unquestionable practical validity. As an anesthetic aid for carrying out certain types of surgery it has been found useful even by Western surgeons. It is clear that acupuncture has no side effects, and one hears of patients walking out of the operating theatre even after surgery that is not entirely trivial. Yet the Chinese explanations offered for the efficacy of acupuncture are no more than a set of dogmas with no factual or empirical basis.

IKEDA:

In India, on the other hand, Ayurvedic medicine had developed. The Charaka Samhita and the Sushuruta Samhita are well known even in Japan as valuable medical documents. And it was also Ayurveda that Jivaka, the renowned physician and disciple of Shakyamuni, studied and incorporated into Buddhism.

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Jivaka studied this ancient Indian medicine, assimilated it from the perspective of Buddhist philosophy and established Buddhist medicine. This Buddhist medicine, along with the Buddhist sutras, has long treated the illnesses of the peoples of the Orient, including the Chinese and the Japanese. According to H. S. Sharma, professor of Buddhist studies at the University of Delhi, India, in Ayurvedic medicine good health is measured by, for instance, whether balance among the doridosha (three categories called vayu, pitta and kapa that define a person’s general characteristics)and the activity of the essential functions of the body’s components is being maintained, and by such things as whether the five senses and the spirit are vigorous. In other words, it seems that Ayurveda seeks for health in harmony of body and mind and in harmony among the body’s components. Buddhist medicine also, employing the five-element theory, teaches harmony between the Universe and the body, and between the body and the mind. And it considers the role of medicine to be the restoration of dynamic harmony at each of these levels. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I was brought up in a country where both the Ayurvedic and Western traditions prevail. I know of many Western physicians who unashamedly resort to Ayurvedic medicine when treating themselves and their families. The reasons are as you have stated – when Ayurvedic medicine works to cure a certain ailment, it does so respecting the integrity of the entire human organism. There are little or no side effects, as verified by thousands of years of clinical trial. Clinical trials for Western drugs scarcely stretch over a period of five years. In both Indian and Chinese medical practice the physician first identifies the ailment (call it ‘X’) from the symptoms (say x, y, z). Then ailment ‘X’ is seen to correspond to a remedy ‘A,’ which is in general a mixture of natural products – and this is promptly prescribed to the patient. The statement ‘A helps alleviate or cure X’ is based on an empirical correlation tested over thousands of years. In establishing correlations of this type both Indian and Chinese physicians have been eminently successful. Indeed Western science is now in the process of identifying and isolating active ingredients in Oriental remedies – no easy task, I might add.

IKEDA: You have been referring to the effectiveness and practicality

that are, as Otsuka pointed out, distinctive characteristics of Chinese herbal medicine. In herbal medicine, the diagnosis determines the treatment, and treatment depends on past records of efficacy. This approach contrasts with modern Western medicine, where the type of illness determines the treatment.

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In both China and India an extremely rich pharmacopoeia has been developed over a long period of empirical trial. In Chinese herbal medicine, for example, what are now traditional herbal prescriptions started out as simple folk remedies, which later, as their ingredients became diversified, were systematized and is now exceedingly wide ranging in its scope. WICKRAMASINGHE: As we have said Chinese physicians had a large

armory of drugs derived from natural products, and the tradition stretches back over many thousands of years. In the twenty-seventh century BC, the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung is said to have written the medical text Pen Ts’ao, containing some 8,160 prescriptions derived from natural products. Ginseng has been highly esteemed for thousands of years as an elixir of life. And the Chinese have long been aware that seaweed with a high iodine content is effective in the treatment of goitre. IKEDA: Analysis of the natural drugs used in herbal medicine is pretty

well advanced, and the principal components of these drugs have almost all been identified. For instance, former professor of Tokyo University Nagayoshi Nagai isolated a substance called ephedrine from the leaves of a Chinese shrub of the genus Ephedra, which are used in a common herbal treatment for such ailments as asthma. Because, however, ephedrine is not necessarily the same thing as the Ephedra compound, the other ingredients in the compound have also been isolated, and their interaction has attracted much attention. In the future, I think the special characteristic of herbal medicine, namely, that the overall effect of its natural drugs is brought about by the interaction of many components, will be fully accounted for. WICKRAMASINGHE: The ancient Indian pharmacopoeia was similarly

wide and varied, being derived mainly from plants, herbs and roots. The classic work Charaka Samhita (c. 500 BC), which you mentioned before, describes 500 medicinal plants classified as either purgative, laxative, tonic or aphrodisiac. Other remedies based on vegetable products were prescribed for a large variety of ailments. IKEDA: The Pali Buddhist medical text Vinaya-pitaka also mentions

a great number of medicinal herbs and plants. The ‘Mahavagga’ chapter in particular compares and notes in detail illnesses and the medicines that should be used to treat them, making this a truly precious text. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Western science is only now thinking about analyzing the active ingredients in many of the ancient prescriptions

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of India and China. Modern drugs to control blood pressure and certain potentially useful drugs for treating cancer have recently been extracted from Oriental herbal prescriptions. A great deal more should of course be done. IKEDA:

It is well known that the compound that was extracted from the Indian snake tree, one of the natural drugs in Ayurvedic medicine, has been developed as a modern medical drug for reducing blood pressure. I hope that research will continue to be carried out on the chemical components of Ayurvedic medicines.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

From a historical perspective, it may be seen that just when Western medicine became ready to develop a tradition of its own, great strides had already been made in both India and China. However, in neither country can medical theories concerning bodily functions be said to have developed beyond crude abstract theory. The theoretical framework of Chinese medical science as well as of Indian medicine has been defective. The lack of an analytical, reductionist approach in Oriental medicine led to its lagging behind in medical progress on the world scene. In addition to physicians there were also surgeons in the ancient world, and they surely dissected corpses and acquired some knowledge of basic anatomy. But their understanding of the operation of the body remained at a primitive level. Thus, although Chinese doctors used the pulse in exceedingly subtle ways as a diagnostic tool, they had no knowledge as to what caused it. I think that Indian and Chinese medical sciences deserve praise in that they attach great importance to the health of the human organism as a whole. Both regard illness as a functional disorder of one of the body’s constituent parts, and as such treatment is concerned with the recovery of the whole human organism. Incorporating Oriental medicine’s comprehensive holistic attitude into Western medicine would, in the long term, surely enhance the quality of modern medicine.

IKEDA:

I share your opinion that this surge of interest in Oriental medicine, which aims for a recovery of harmony achieved in a holistic and complementary way, has important implications for us in considering the future course of medicine. What kind of benefits do you anticipate from a study of Chinese herbal medicine? Would it not be the introduction of what in Oriental medicine is generally called the holistic approach of maintaining a dynamic harmony of body and mind – bringing to modern Western medicine?

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For instance, do you envision that present efforts in China to fuse Chinese herbal medicine and modern Western medicine will create new models for medicine and medical treatment? WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think medical practitioners in the Orient possessed a keen awareness of the remarkable self-regulating properties of the complex organism that is the human being. They realized that no single component of the body could be treated as if it were a separate entity because they knew that to do so would upset the delicate balance of the entire organism. Western scientists have come to understand the full implications of feedback effects on the functioning of the human body only relatively recently, though the general concept of maintaining a steady state in the internal environment of an organism was first discussed by the French physiologist Claude Bernard (1813–1878) in the nineteenth century. The concept that the entire body seeks to maintain stability by continually adjusting to changes in the external environment is referred to nowadays by the term homeostasis. Life or death depends on whether or not homeostasis is maintained successfully. Intermediate levels of homeostasis may be looked upon as determining the state of health or well-being of the individual. All this is conceded by modern medical science, but when it comes to practice it seems to us, as health-care consumers, that little attention is paid to such holistic considerations. The levity with which antibiotics are prescribed is a case in point. It seems to me that Western medical science could benefit from a keener awareness of the interconnectedness of the human organism, with greater emphasis on the health of the entire organism. In my view, the most successful aspects of both Western and Oriental medical sciences should be combined. Yes, I do think that such attempts as are being made in China will lead to the emergence in the future of a more powerful and versatile system of medical treatment.

Science and Buddhism IKEDA:

Incidentally, it is said that as a result of his participation in the planning of the NASA life-probe to Mars, James Lovelock, the British physicist, biologist and leading proponent of the Gaea hypothesis, gained a new appreciation of how rich in life forms this planet actually is. He realized that the Earth’s great sphere of life – not living beings alone, but the air, sea, soil and everything else too – forms a single vast system.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

I have heard that pictures taken from outer space showing Earth to be a vivid blue planet were what brought this message home to him. He is reported to have said that when he saw Earth, it looked so human, in that all the things that make up our planet – living and nonliving alike – were plainly mutually dependent on one another.

IKEDA: Lovelock called this concept the Gaea hypothesis, after the

Greek goddess of Earth. Buddhism teaches that this Earth itself, including not only animate things but also trees and grasses, mountains and rivers, is a single living organism. The animals, plants and microbes, as well as the air and the seas, interact (dependent origination), showing a model of how Earth should function as a whole living organism. I think we can call both the Buddhist view of Earth and Lovelock’s Gaea hypothesis completely holistic, ecological approaches. WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is true. According to Lovelock, Earth’s atmosphere is produced by living things, not by nonliving ones, and he believes it is the living things themselves, not the natural environment, that have made the appearance and evolution of life possible on this planet. In fact, the reason Earth is blue is that living things produce oxygen. The biosphere has the ability to control its natural environment. This is evidenced in the way the weather is controlled by the volume of clouds. When the Sun’s rays are too strong, the volume of clouds increases and excess sunlight is deflected off into outer space. Cloud volume is regulated by seaweed or, more specifically, by micro-organisms found in the world’s coastal waters. Clouds are formed as a result of the evaporation of surface water, which, on reaching the upper levels of the atmosphere, turns into ice crystals. Seaweed, which emits high levels of iodine into the atmosphere, is said by some to be an even bigger culprit than industrial chlorofluorocarbons in the depletion of the ozone layer. Whether these assertions are true or not requires the careful construction of models and detailed calculations. The sea is also involved in the problem of global warming. The timescale for changes in Earth’s temperature extends over several thousands of years, and for that reason there is still much doubt as to whether short-term changes indicate the same tendencies as will be evident in the ultimate outcome. Nevertheless, I think there is much evidence to support the validity of Lovelock’s assertions. I personally share his view that Earth is a living entity.

IKEDA:

The British physicist David J. Bohm, who was heavily influenced by Einstein and Krishnamurti, has set forth the

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‘holomovement’ theory. Although Bohm himself occupies a nonorthodox position, he nevertheless has people’s confidence because he wrote a textbook delving into quantum mechanics from the orthodox perspective, and I have heard that this text even now is like a Bible for those in the orthodox school. This theory of Bohm’s also sets forth an exceedingly holistic worldview. Bohm sees individual entities that at first glance appear separate as being, in their inner depths, intimately bound into an ‘indivisible whole,’ and he asserts that everything originates from that ‘whole.’ Bohm calls his theory holomovement to convey the sense of the indivisible whole pulsing at the base of the phenomenal realm, and he maintains the view that here not only time, space and matter, but also the human mind, or will, is woven into a harmonious state from which things materialize into the phenomenal realm. It seems to me that this, too, is an attempt to reach beyond reductionist thinking and to grasp the world in its entirety in a holistic way. WICKRAMASINGHE:

All these trends express a measure of dissatisfaction with reductionism in the present day. Professional scientists will not come right out and admit this, for their thinking has been conditioned for quite a long time by the Cartesian worldview. Only a handful of scientists regard their previously unquestioned worldview as being faced with a serious threat.

IKEDA:

I find it most interesting that the worldviews of these scientists are beginning to resemble the holistic worldviews of the Orient and the worldview of Buddhism. We have spoken of the parallels between Lovelock’s Gaea hypothesis and the Buddhist concept of dependent origination, but Bohm’s worldview also appears to be similar to the Buddhist Consciousness-Only doctrine and even to the Nine Consciousnesses doctrine taught in the philosophy of T’ien-t’ai and in Nichiren Buddhism. For instance, Bohm indicates that things manifest in the phenomenal realm from an indivisible whole throbbing at the phenomenal realm’s base. He calls the domain that may be observed in the phenomenal realm ‘explicit order.’ In contrast, he calls the domain that throbs in the depths of the phenomenal realm, but that cannot be observed in four-dimensional space-time, ‘implicit order.’ He also maintains that a ‘self-contained discipline’ exists within this implicit order. What one notices here is that while the levels of consciousness and the five senses correspond to Bohm’s explicit order, the alayaconsciousness is contained in the domain identified as implicit order,

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and moreover, that this appears also to be oriented toward what Buddhist intuition perceives as the ultimate entity of the Universe. Still however, as you also have pointed out, only a relatively small number of scientists and psychologists have begun to experiment with the holistic worldview. WICKRAMASINGHE: The transformation from a Cartesian to a holistic

worldview is not easy to achieve for the reason that the former more or less pervades all the institutions of the civilized world. The expansion of the European colonization of the East in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries nearly extinguished the indigenous holistic worldview of the Orient. It is only now that societies in the East are beginning to rediscover and reassert their traditional holistic worldview. A shift toward a holistic paradigm is needed not only in physics and biology, but also in the social sciences – in politics, for instance. We live today on an Earth where the individual components are all intimately interconnected. A sensible model of Earth must surely include a firm ecological perspective. Such a view is certainly gaining ground, and one could interpret this trend as a move toward a Buddhist worldview. IKEDA:

Also called the microcosm, the domain in the depths of human life is a vast world whose entirety one cannot even begin to grasp from the perspective of the mechanistic worldview based on the reductionist approach. Constantly in intimate contact with the macrocosm that unfolds in the form of the physical Universe, the human mind also sustains that same macrocosm from within. Serious study of the subconscious mind began in the West with the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Incidentally, via the medium of meditation and mystic intuition, today’s Jungian psychology has begun to show a keen interest in Buddhism. In addition, it appears to me that transpersonal psychology, which is evolving through its association with Jungian and other forms of psychology, is increasing its points of contact with Buddhist psychology, and that it has advanced to a horizon that shares the ultimate reality of the Universe with Buddhist religious experience. Here I should like to discuss some of the points of similarity I have noted between Buddhist philosophy on the one hand and modern depth psychology and transpersonal psychology on the other. First, regarding depth psychology, C. G. Jung (1875–1961), in order to place his form of psychology relative to Freud’s, set forth the following view. He held that what Freud had discovered was the realm of the personal unconscious, and that what he himself had discovered was the collective unconscious lying at its base.

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Moreover, Leopold Szondi (1893–1986) advocated the existence of a realm between the two called the familial unconscious. In my opinion, the territory that Western depth psychology is investigating overlaps what the fourth- or fifth-century Indian Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and others have already systematized in the Consciousness-Only doctrine: Freud’s personal unconscious corresponds to the realm of the mano-consciousness, and Szondi’s familial unconscious and Jung’s collective unconscious to that of the alaya-consciousness. Moreover, if one studies the transpersonal psychology Ken Wilber’s ‘spectrum of consciousness’ theory, one perceives that he is setting forth an argument like the Consciousness-Only doctrine. It also appears that, in moving beyond the Cartesian ego, he is orienting himself to something like the Buddhist concept of nonself. He identifies the individual ego with illusion, and from there appears to be trying to find his way to a universal true self. Wilber’s ‘ego’ level corresponds to the mind-consciousness, his ‘existential’ level to the mano-consciousness, and his ‘transpersonal’ realm to the alaya-consciousness. It also seems to me that with the word ‘mind’ he is attempting to point out the existence of a greater self, that is, a self fused with the ultimate reality of the Universe. WICKRAMASINGHE: The correspondences you have shown between

trends in modern psychology and Buddhist thought are striking indeed. I also believe that such correspondences are highly significant. If ancient Indian theories concerning the nature of matter were defective, their theories of psychology came close to perfection by modern standards. Sanskrit was a language ideally suited to the discussion of psychological matters. Over hundreds of years Indian scholars had developed a vocabulary of terms well designed to express states of mind. You have mentioned two of these terms – manoconsciousness and alaya-consciousness – and of course there are others. IKEDA: The Nine Consciousnesses theory calls the fundamental life

of the Universe, which also includes the alaya-consciousness, the amala-consciousness – amala meaning ‘fundamentally pure.’ In terms of the Ten Worlds theory, also a Buddhist doctrine, this fundamental great life corresponds to Buddhahood. The Ten Worlds theory points out the path to surmounting the Six Paths – the realms of hell, hunger, animality, anger, humanity and heaven – and advancing from the worlds of the Two Vehicles (voicehearers and pratyekabuddhas) and the world of bodhisattvas to Buddhahood, which shows the ultimate state of life, a state as vast as the Universe.

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From the perspective of this theory, our attention is drawn to Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970), who established transpersonal psychology. Analyzing the development of the major forms of psychologies in the West, he named Freudian psychoanalysis the first psychology, behavioral psychology the second, and then, having become dissatisfied with the fact that both have mechanistic tendencies, he advocated a third form, namely, humanistic psychology. I am convinced that we can find, in the process of self-actualization and in the peak experiences aimed at in Maslow’s humanistic psychology, a quest similar to that of Buddhist psychology’s Ten Worlds theory, in particular the quest to attain the Four Noble Worlds – the state of voice-hearers, of pratyekabuddhas, of bodhisattvas and of Buddhahood. What Maslow calls the motivational hierarchy is constituted of physiological needs, safety needs, security and love needs, esteem needs, the need for self-actualization, the desire to know and to understand, aesthetic needs and the need for growth. I believe the objective of this hierarchy is what the Ten Worlds calls the process of human revolution and self-perfection, which occurs as one leaves the Four Evil Paths (the first four of the Six Paths), passes through the worlds of humanity and heaven, and ascends toward the Four Noble Worlds. I also believe that the substance of the ‘peak experiences’ concept is actually an attempt to throw light on a part of the activities belonging to the states of bodhisattva and Buddhahood. In his later years, with the peak experience concept as a springboard, Maslow pointed out the existence of a level of consciousness or mind that transcends the individual and is vast and unbounded. In calling this realm ‘transpersonal,’ he brought about the birth of a fourth kind of psychology: transpersonal psychology. It is clear that Maslow too was trying to find his way to the fundamental great life of the Universe that transcends the individual ego. It was in this life state that he may be supposed to have been seeking an ultimate model of self-actualization. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Indian religious traditions were essentially introspective; they invariably involved meditation, probing into one’s inner mind with the object of some form of ultimate self-discovery. Buddhism, derived from Brahmanistic traditions, is no exception in this regard. I regard Shakyamuni as the greatest ‘pre-Jungian’ psychoanalyst who ever lived. All of his wisdom about the world came simply through a process of detached introspection. His discoveries about states of consciousness do indeed resemble in some ways the ideas of Jung and Maslow. These ideas, however, formed in the post-

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Industrial Revolution twentieth century, can only be a poor imitation of the real thing! Jung himself accepted that there was a close relationship between psychology and religion. He argued that although Christianity emphasized the development of the consciousness, other religious traditions were necessary to express elements of the archetypal unconscious. Buddhism is of course particularly rich in its psychological content, and I don’t find it at all surprising to see modern psychological theories coming closer to Buddhist thought. Once we, having exhausted every means available to us, attain a complete understanding of the mind, such an understanding may very well bear a strong resemblance to the teachings of Buddhism. IKEDA: Now that light has also been shed on Buddhist ideas by the

most advanced psychologies of our day, I would like to see the profound perspectives of Buddhism become the common property of all humanity. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Before we bring our discussion of cosmology and science to a close, I have a few questions I would like to ask you. I can see that you possess a deep insight into scientific matters. I feel I am conversing with someone who really appreciates what science is all about, and this is indeed a refreshing experience. Can you tell me how your own interest in science developed, and how you came to acquire such deep and penetrating insights as you have shown in the course of our dialogue?

IKEDA:

When I was very young, I was interested not so much in science itself as in the question of life and death, or, to be more specific, in what happens to people after they die. As I’m sure everyone did as a child, I often pondered, while lying in bed in the darkness of the night, what would become of me if I were to die right then and there. What with my eldest brother having been killed in action during the war, I felt an urgent need to clarify the question of life and death. It was as I continued to consider this question that my interest in science developed. As a youth I was very fond of books, and I voraciously read my way through various genres, such as literature, history, philosophy and science. However, the single greatest influence on me was Josei Toda, the second president of the Soka Gakkai and my teacher in life. I met him for the first time when I was 19; it was through him that I became acquainted with Nichiren Buddhism. Not long after, I was employed at the company he ran. From January 1950, I became so busy with my work that I had to quit night school. To compensate for this loss, Toda began to tutor me regularly. He taught me a wide variety of subjects,

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including the humanities, the social and natural sciences, and economics. An accomplished mathematician in his own right, Toda told me stories about scientists like Einstein and Gamow and their achievements. From these anecdotes I learned what kind of attitude one should assume toward the Universe and toward science; in other words, I was able to cultivate my own scientific insights. It is this education and training, received in my youth, that forms the backbone of my life. Looking back on those days, I realize now with a sense of deep gratitude that, based on the life philosophy of Nichiren Buddhism, he taught me the essence of what may be called the ‘study of the human being,’ and that he did this not just for my sake but for the sake of all humanity. Also, I learn a great many things from many people inside and outside the Soka Gakkai, whom I am fortunate to encounter in the course of my activities. It is said that one night’s dialogue surpasses ten years of reading. I have indeed been blessed with many opportunities to hold dialogues, both at home and abroad, with learned individuals such as Arnold Toynbee and Linus Pauling. Whenever I come in contact with the astute opinions and wellrounded personalities of the world’s top experts, I feel as if I were learning the ultimate in the human spirit. Even now, as we engage in our dialogue, I cannot help but be deeply impressed by your encyclopedic knowledge of and profound thoughts on the subjects of the Universe, science and life.

The Fruits of Twentieth-Century Technology IKEDA: I think that we can also call our present century ‘the century

of technology.’ For instance, it was in this century, in 1903, that human beings first soared through the sky in an airplane. In 1942, humanity unleashed the power of the atom through nuclear fission carried out in a nuclear reactor. In 1953, DNA was found to have a double helix construction and from this point on the technology for genetic recombination developed dramatically. Among all the technological advances of the twentieth century, which in your opinion has bestowed the greatest benefit on and brought about the greatest changes for humankind? WICKRAMASINGHE: This is an exceedingly difficult question, simply

because the century has been so rich in discoveries and inventions, and because progress has been made across such a wide spectrum of disciplines, ranging from basic physics and biology to astronomy. However, my personal choice for top invention is the computer.

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IKEDA:

I have heard that it was actually in the nineteenth century that a machine was programmed in advance to perform automatic calculations. The lifelong efforts of the British mathematician Charles Babbage (1792–1871), with the help of his wife, Ada, to perform the calculations of integral calculus with machines are quite well known. With the mechanical technology of the day, however, they were unable to reach a point where they could solve complex differential equations.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is correct. The invention of the transistor in 1948 by Walter H. Brattain (1902–1987), John Bardeen (1908–1991), and William B. Shockley (1910–1989), and of largescale integrated circuits in the form of microchips in 1973 led in turn to revolutions in the field of computing, which eventually culminated in the emergence of the all-powerful personal computer (PC), capable of carrying out millions of transactions per second. The PC and the minicomputer now serve a multitude of everyday needs, and are used in home appliances, automatic bank telling machines and flight instruments, to name but a few of their applications. And, of course, supercomputers capable of performing trillions of operations per second have now been developed. Supercomputers have enabled scientists to study the structure of the Universe through computer-generated models. Computers have generally served to enhance efficiency in every walk of life. Life without them is almost unimaginable in the late twentieth century.

IKEDA:

The relationship between computers and information networking is also vital. In 1964, when financial institutions in Japan began to offer on-line, real-time banking, people were amazed at the speed of the new systems. Now, no matter where one is in the world, one can receive instant credit. People were also astonished when it became possible to make train reservations at ticket windows at a moment’s notice. I have heard also that it is because push-button telephones are made up largely of computer circuits that various other forms of information networking are possible.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

When the development of computers is considered in conjunction with that of communication satellites and optical fibers, what we have is a global network of electronic communication, and the possibilities become almost mind-boggling. The ease with which we can now converse across the world, over thousands of miles, link computers in a gigantic communication network known as the internet, and send facsimile messages and television pictures, is all too familiar.

IKEDA:

Professor, how do you think this technological revolution will affect the world?

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

The logical outcome of this trend in instant communication is that human society on the large scale will begin to function like a giant intelligent organism. After all, the most important distinguishing feature of individual human beings, compared with lower animals, is that they possess a brain and a nervous system that permits both highly efficient communication between somatic components and speedy information processing. In the same way, it may be possible for an electronically interconnected human society to be incomparably more efficient and powerful than one that is not.

IKEDA:

Then it will probably be important from now on to ensure that each individual can participate on an equal footing in such an intimate, organic society. It is vital that in a rapidly changing society, people can share the essential information that each individual possesses. Each individual is important.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The full scope of all these developments must lie in the future, and hopefully in the relatively near future. It is quite remarkable that the American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864) anticipated such a situation as early as 1851. In his novel, The House of the Seven Gables, he wrote: Is it a fact that … by means of electricity, the world of matter has become a great nerve, vibrating thousands of miles in a breathless point of time? Rather, the round globe is a vast head, a brain, instinct with intelligence!4 IKEDA: The year 1851 was still some ten years before the fundamental

laws of electricity, or the Maxwell equations, would be discovered. And it was not until much later that Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) proved the existence of electromagnetic waves and, by transmitting these waves, was able to send the power of electricity over thousands of miles and with its force cause objects to oscillate. I am astonished at Hawthorne’s penetration in anticipating Earth’s future at such a time. Now an information network stretches across the globe, and Earth itself functions like a living thing endowed with an exceedingly complex and highly developed nervous system. Surely in the century now just before us, we will spread this network sparkling with intelligence from this planet out into the vast reaches of the Universe. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I look forward with eager anticipation to the marvels of communication the twenty-first century will bring, and to seeing what kind of world this will create.

CHAPTER 3

The Eternity of Life

Life after Death and the Oneness of Body and Mind IKEDA:

I firmly believe that we will be able to call the twenty-first century the century of life. Due to rapid progress in science, issues in connection with life are generating debate in nearly every discipline and are increasingly in the spotlight. In the past, the question of the relationship between body and mind was primarily discussed as a philosophical and religious issue. In this century, however, with the development of brain science, the materialistic theory that even the activities of the mind can be reduced to the mechanisms of brain functions has become a mainstream view. In the last 20 years in particular, on the basis of results from research in the field of neurophysiology, the idea has been suggested that one can explain even the human mind in terms of the activities of brain molecules and neurons. From such a perspective, it is only natural to surmise that if the material entity that is the brain ceased to exist, the workings of the mind expressed therein would also cease and grounds for considering the possibility of life after death would be eliminated. Psychosomatic medicine and depth psychology, however, greatly emphasize the importance of the existence of the mind, and have begun to show proof of the interaction between the brain and the mind – in other words, not only the effect of the brain on the mind, but that of the mind on the brain. And more than a few depth psychologists believe, as Carl G. Jung did, in the existence in some form of life after death. Recently even some brain scientists have expressed the view that the mind is a nonmaterial entity separate from the brain and that the mind is associated with the material entity of the brain in a mutual relationship.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

You have now touched on one of the most central aspects of our dialogue. From conversations with colleagues I understand that recent studies of neurophysiology and psychology have certainly set the cat among the pigeons! Scientists following the Cartesian paradigm approached their research in neurophysi98

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ology and psychology in a way that excluded the existence of the mind or of consciousness as a distinct entity. In the latter part of the nineteenth century when scientists came to recognize the existence of consciousness, and it was hoped that, as experimental psychology developed and the structure and function of the brain were analyzed, people might ultimately understand the nature of consciousness. That of course was not to be. I would like to quote remarks made in 1943 by the distinguished British neurophysiologist Charles Sherrington (1857–1952) concerning the situation regarding research into the link between the brain and the mind. It is likely that even now the situation remains largely unchanged. In a book entitled Man and His Nature he wrote: Where it is a question of ‘mind’ the nervous system does not integrate itself by centralising upon one superpontifical cell. Rather it elaborates a millionfold democracy. They [the brain cells] weave an ever-changing pattern, never an abiding pattern, the workings of the enchanted loom …1 IKEDA:

Even if one opts to regard consciousness as a phenomenon resulting from the materialistic functioning of the brain, one’s own mind that thinks these thoughts remains as inscrutable as ever. The Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder G. Penfield (1891–1976), who studied under Sherrington, reminisced about his teacher in his book, The Mystery of the Mind: A Critical Study of Consciousness and the Human Brain: My teacher, Sir Charles Sherrington, received the Nobel Prize for his studies of reflexes and his analysis of the integrative action of the nervous system. His interest had been focused largely on the inborn reflexes, but, on retiring from the Chair of Physiology at Oxford in l935, at the age of seventy-eight, he turned from animal experimentation to a scholarly and philosophical consideration of the brain and the mind of man.2 Then Penfield quoted a statement concerning the conclusion his teacher had reached: That our being should consist of two fundamental elements offers, I suppose, no greater inherent improbability than that it should rest on one only.3 It appears that Sherrington was moving away from materialistic monism, which holds that the activities of the mind can be reduced to the workings of the brain, and tending toward the idea that the

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human being is composed of two fundamental elements, namely, the brain and the mind. In short, he seemed to be leaning toward the view that human life comes about as a result of both brain and mind. Penfield also referred to a quote by British physiologist Edgar Adrian (1889–1977), who along with Sherrington received the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine: ‘As soon as we let ourselves contemplate our own place in the picture, we seem to be stepping outside of the boundaries of natural science.’4 Penfield then indicated his approval of this statement, saying he was in perfect agreement with it. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Let me offer another relevant quotation. In quoting others, we are simply expressing what we ourselves would like to say in a more powerful, more succinct or better informed way. The philosopher Karl Raimund Popper and the physiologist John Caraw Eccles (in The Self and Its Brain, 1977) wrote: … the self is not a ‘pure ego,’ that is a mere subject. Rather, it is incredibly rich. Like a pilot, it observes and takes action at the same time. It is acting and suffering, recalling the past and planning and programming the future; expecting and disposing. It contains, in quick succession or all at once, wishes, plans, hopes, decisions to act, and a vivid consciousness of being an acting self, a centre of action.5

The astronomer Arthur Eddington once wrote, ‘Mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience; all else is remote inference.’6 Many scientists have expressed similar sentiments over the years, revealing a sense of bewilderment as to the precise definition of the mind and its operation. Despite the enormous progress witnessed in recent years in unraveling the detailed biochemistry and physiology of the brain, the phenomena of ‘mind,’ ‘consciousness’ and ‘self’ present a perpetual enigma. IKEDA:

Certainly recent developments in precision brain science have been astounding. Research is moving ahead on subjects such as the instincts, the loci of the emotions, thought and creativity, and the site of memory, and recently such topics as the differences in the activities of the right and left hemispheres of the brain have become matters of great general interest. As you pointed out, however, the question remains as to whether the mind itself can actually be reduced to the activities of a network of nerve cells and a variety of transmitter substances.

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WICKRAMASINGHE :

Some scientists would try to explain consciousness as an indistinct sort of ‘flux of electrochemical processes’ within the brain, but the degree of explanation possible for any mental phenomenon within this conceptual framework is rudimentary in the extreme. For instance, love and anger are identified with the activation of neural impulses in certain areas of the brain. Such identifications in no way characterize our subjective experiences. IKEDA:

In this regard, experimental attempts by psychologists to illuminate the depths of the mind itself have been carried on steadily in the West since Freud established psychoanalysis.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Psychoanalysis, as it developed at the turn of the century, began to focus attention on subjective experiences, but it failed to present a coherent logical scheme – a theory – to explain them. I think that an attempt to understand subjective experiences within a coherent framework and to link an appropriate theory of consciousness with our so-called objective models of the external world is an endeavour that is of paramount importance. I believe that scientists concerned with brain function are just beginning to think seriously about such matters.

IKEDA: In the example you cited above, all that was actually shown

was that when sexual arousal or anger occurs, activity in a certain area of the brain (the limbic system) increases. Based on this alone, I don’t feel that it is appropriate to claim that we have sufficiently elucidated desire and anger. Penfield reported startling results in experiments in the treatment of epileptic patients. He found that electrically stimulating certain parts of the patients’ temporal lobes restored their memories from their childhood on. These clinical experiments led him to conclude that, while the brain may be the body’s computer, the mind is its programmer. WICKRAMASINGHE: That is most revealing as far as the possible nature

of the brain–mind relationship is concerned. But I cannot help feeling that we are still very far from the truth regarding this problem and that our ideas are still too naive and childish. IKEDA: Earlier you mentioned the name of John Carew Eccles, who

received the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine. Based on the assumption that the world is divided into the two realms of matter and of mind (or self-consciousness), and that an intimate, reciprocal relationship exists between the brain, a part of the realm of matter,

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and the mind, Eccles too has been seeking in the cerebrum for the site of the point of contact between the two entities. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The truth is that scientists in general tend to follow the Cartesian reductionist paradigm. The results of much of their recent research, however, have been reinterpreted by a number of distinguished scientists, including Eccles, and found to contradict the reductionist-oriented assertions made by the scientists themselves. In other words, the results strongly suggest that ‘mind’ manifests itself as an entity distinct from the physical structure of the brain. If we examine the situation with this point in mind, we recognize that any efforts to grapple with this question via purely reductionist methods must end in failure.

IKEDA: Today psychoanalysis exerts considerable influence even in

the medical field and is one of the pillars supporting psychosomatic medicine. Claiming that the mind transcends the brain, Barbara B. Brown, an American neurophysiologist and doctor of psychosomatic medicine, has used biofeedback technology to prove that the mind actually controls the brain. If, like these individuals, we were to adopt the view that the actual existence of the mind transcends that of the brain, and that it is the mind that influences the brain, then the possibility would arise that the mind survives, in one form or another, even after the death of the brain, or the physical entity. In fact, Penfield, Eccles, Brown and others like them have actually been demonstrating the possibility of the continued existence of the mind after death. Though of course we must wait to see how things develop, it is worth noting that in recent years scholarly opinions pointing to the continued existence of the mind after death have been published (in areas like brain science, psychosomatic medicine and depth psychology) in a form that stands up to scientific scrutiny. It strikes me that science, which seems to have advanced by giving precedence solely to the goal of reducing all things to matter, is now turning to something new that includes a view of the actual existence of the mind and of the possibility of its continuation after death. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The trend of contemporary science is clearly moving in the direction of admitting the existence of an essentially nonorganic, nonmaterial superstructure to the brain that is identified with ‘mind.’ If that is acknowledged as fact, the persistence of mind after death must be regarded as a logical sequel.

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IKEDA :

The Buddhist teacher Miao-lo (711–782) of China established a doctrine called shikishin funi, or the oneness of body and mind. Shiki refers to all physical or material phenomena, and shin to all mental or spiritual phenomena. Miao-lo explained, ‘Generally speaking, [body and mind are indivisible] in one’s life. Specifically, however, [one’s life] is divided into body and mind.’7 Nichiren discussed the oneness referred to by Miao-lo from a still more profound point of view, stating as follows: Though it is difficult to settle on a fixed definition, if we were to attempt an explanation, we might define [‘one’s life’] as the fundamental life of living beings. When we meditate on and examine the matter carefully, we find that the fundamental life is non-disappearing and non-definable. It eludes definition as either good or evil, for it is the fundamental life that is both indistinct and profound. This is what is called the eighth consciousness.8 Nichiren then indicates the process by which the seventh consciousness (mano-consciousness), the sixth consciousness (mindconsciousness), and all the physical (shiki) functions come into being from this eighth consciousness (alaya-consciousness). Funi of shikishin funi is the abbreviation of nini-funi, which literally means ‘two but not two.’ Applying this doctrine to our own lives, since the bodily functions that manifest as physical phenomena and the mental functions that manifest as spiritual phenomena are considered to be separate on a phenomenal level, the relationship between these two entities is described as nini or ‘and yet two.’ Concerning the interrelationship between physical and spiritual phenomena, as we mentioned earlier, modern science has already shown actual proof of this. But Buddhism holds that a fundamental life exists at a deeper level than the phenomenal aspect that is divided into the functions of body and mind. It perceives that at a deeper level the physical and spiritual are merged into one, that is, funi or ‘not two.’ With the proviso, ‘if we were to attempt an explanation,’ Nichiren described this profound level of life as the eighth, or alaya, consciousness. Because it is the fundamental life that contains karma and that constantly repeats the cycle of birth and death, the alayaconsciousness is ‘nondisappearing.’ It seems to me that it is this life that is nondisappearing through birth and death that brain scientists and psychologists such as Jung have been seeking to approach from the side of the mind. Nichiren Buddhism teaches that ‘The oneness of body and mind is the ultimate reality of life.’9 ‘The ultimate reality of life’ here means

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what is referred to in the doctrine of the Nine Consciousnesses as the amala-consciousness and indicates the great fundamental life of the Universe. It also teaches that the life of the Universe itself is the entity of the oneness of body and mind, and that individual lives, sustained by this fundamental entity of the Universe, repeat an eternal cycle of birth and death. In this way, it seems to me that a path leads to the life of the Universe from psychosomatic theories too. WICKRAMASINGHE: I am of exactly the same opinion. As I understand

it there are various levels of consciousness, but the source of them all is the alaya or ‘repository’ consciousness. Supporting that, however, is what I would call the ubiquitous universal consciousness that pervades all living things. In other words, the amala or ‘fundamental pure’ consciousness. This theory of the Nine Consciousnesses is an exceedingly attractive concept, and possesses, I believe, a compelling logic.

Near-death Experiences and Conquering the Fear of Death IKEDA: As mentioned above, Buddhism teaches a philosophy of the

eternity of life. Since ancient times, debate concerning the eternity of life has been a basic theme of all ideologies, philosophies and religions. Recently, near-death experiences have been attracting considerable attention as one approach in the study of life. ‘Near-death experience’ refers to a situation in which, due to an accident or illness, an individual falls into a coma and fails to respond to stimuli. Whether their hearts had ceased beating or they were dependent on artificial breathing apparatus, those who have undergone such experiences invariably speak of such things as having watched what was occurring at the time, or as having separated from their bodies and encountering beings of light. Since Raymond A. Moody reported on near-death experiences in l979, follow-up research has shown that the basic patterns he described are pretty close to universal. Moody is an internist, but others – the psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, the cardiologist Michael B. Sabom and the parapsychologist Karlis Osis – have also published the results of their research. The near-death experience is an encounter with death and a look over its shoulder, but because the person regains consciousness and is able to speak about it, it is not an experience of death itself. However, if even a hint is found in near-death experiences that life

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exists after death, it seems to me we can no longer regard death as a mere biological or physiological phenomenon. It appears that through their research in near-death experiences Moody and Kübler-Ross ended up being convinced of the existence of life after death. One can also come fairly close to the meaning of these experiences by examining them in association with Buddhist teachings. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I believe that the near-death experiences that you have described and that are now exceedingly well documented may eventually provide us with an insight into life, consciousness and mind. What impresses me is the generally uniform nature of the experiences described. The common point here would seem to be an awareness of a self that has separated from the body.

IKEDA:

In connection with the common points of the near-death experience, Sabom classifies such experiences into two principal types: the out-of-body experience (the autoscopic, or self-visualizing, experience), and the transcendental one. The former is, as you have just mentioned, the experience of a self that has separated from the body, and the latter is distinguished by encounters with light and with other ‘spiritual beings.’

WICKRAMASINGHE:

In the ‘transcendental’ experiences catalogued by Sabom, one notices a particularity of the experienced states dependent on earlier religious experience. For instance, most Christian believers relate experiences including angels and other figures connected with biblical traditions. Do such details represent a true picture of the external nonsomatic world if there is one, or are they a subjective mental construct? I tend to think it must be the latter, which, if we postulated the existence of a nonsomatic mind, must mean that it is still perceiving earlier ‘states of experience’ if one may so describe them.

IKEDA:

Speaking from the Buddhist perspective, one can also take the view that some of the ‘seeds’ containing karmic deeds accumulated by the individual up to that point were manifesting themselves. It is said that in many near-death experiences, individuals review the events of their entire lifetime in the space of a single moment. At the very least, this phenomenon can be said to suggest the possibility that, rather than all of the body and mind’s functions being extinguished at death, they continue to exist in some form. From ancient through modern times, according to Japanese folklorists, numerous accounts have been recorded of experiences similar to near-death ones. The work Nihon ryoiki (A Record of

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Mysterious Incidents in Japan), for example, is one compilation of such accounts. Are there any such writings or traditional accounts in Sri Lanka? Do you know of accounts of such experiences in the United Kingdom or Europe? WICKRAMASINGHE:

I am not sure whether such publications exist, but one hears many accounts of near-death experiences, and they are being featured lately in television documentaries on the subject.

IKEDA: Some people assert that, rather than suggesting that life exists

after death, this sort of experience can be explained psychologically or pharmacologically. However, it appears that ultimately neither psychological, pharmacological nor neurological interpretations suffice to satisfactorily explain the import of near-death experiences. WICKRAMASINGHE :

These phenomena certainly merit further investigation, all the more so because at the moment the evidence is indecisive. After all we must not forget that the ‘organic’ brains of the individuals studied were not ‘dead’ at the time the experiences took place. Thus psychological or pharmacological explanations cannot be ruled out. Taken at face value, however, the data does indeed appear consistent with the hypothesis of a consciousness that leaves the body and has an independent identity and existence after death. A complete theory of consciousness must offer explanations of a range of transcendental-mystical experiences including the ‘near-death experience,’ which as you say is so well documented.

IKEDA:

In any event, if people today were to seriously strive to illuminate the issue of death, the fear and anxiety associated with it would diminish and this would also become an opportunity to surmount these feelings altogether.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think that death is feared mainly because of ignorance – ignorance as to its nature as an experience and ignorance as to what may lie beyond. We all approach this subject and our own eventual deaths from a standpoint of material beliefs and conditioning. We are immersed in an intensely materialistic world throughout our lives and value life only for its material attributes. In Buddhism this is indistinguishable from craving. We tend to view death as the final denial of all our material attributes, and so we fear it, just as we fear the loss of all our material possessions during our lifetime. In the distinctly irreligious, secularized world that we live in now this attitude toward death is perhaps more of a problem than it has ever been before.

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IKEDA :

People today are without question living in societies dominated by materialistic worldviews, desires and greed. As a result, they escape into secularism, making no attempt to examine the inner world of the mind or matters concerning death, and tend to end up living life only for the moment. Some people even experience situations where, on coming faceto-face with death, assailed at first by anxiety, anger and fear, they are utterly at a loss what to do. As you have pointed out, because they can perceive things only from a materialistic point of view, when death sweeps down on them, they first fear the loss of the material surroundings, wealth and assets and the associated fame and authority that they built up during this lifetime. Behind this fear of death, however, awaits an indescribable feeling of despair that Buddhism calls the sense of ‘annihilation’ – that is, the sense that with the physical disintegration of one’s body, one’s self will come to an end and disappear completely. Here also exists the need to turn our eyes toward the world of the mind, the realm of the spirit and the field of religion. Moreover now, due to the great strides made by science, the period of time people must spend fighting against death before their last moments has been lengthened considerably. With this development, the question of how terminal care should be carried out, in other words, the question of how to help modern people who are facing death overcome their fears and anxieties has become the greatest issue in modern medicine. At the same time, it also appears that medical professionals are now calling out for something that transcends materialism, that is, for a revival of a religious perspective oriented toward eternal life.

WICKRAMASINGHE: You have described present-day trends to restore

a spiritual-religious perspective in the area of the care of the dying. I believe this is important, whatever form it takes. Whether it is to consist of Christian spirituality or a knowledge of the Buddhist concept of karma is probably less important than that there be a general awareness of an enlarged perspective of life that transcends death. IKEDA: Buddhism classifies human suffering into three fundamental

types. For instance, in A Treasury of Analyses of the Law by Vasubandhu, the following list appears: the suffering of physical pain, the suffering of psychological and spiritual pain, and the suffering of existential or religious pain. Among these, the suffering of physical pain is caused by bodily anguish; the suffering of psychological and spiritual pain by loss or deprivation; and the suffering of existential or religious pain by the impermanence of existence as a whole. It is said that when death closes in on one,

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or when one awakens to the reality of one’s own death, these three types of suffering will bear down on one with great intensity. With regard to physical suffering, the recent development of pain clinics is seen to be highly promising. And the psychological and spiritual pain of the second type of suffering can be eased by providing people fully with such support as the cooperation of family, organized medical treatment and social assistance. However, to overcome the insecurity and fear associated with death that arises when one struggles with existential suffering, quivering at the approach of the extinction of one’s own self, the internalization of a view of life and death based on something eternal becomes essential. I believe that, along with medical advances and the maintenance of sound social systems, when people take a religious – specifically, Buddhist – view of life and death part of their lives, they will be able to transcend the despair and sorrow arising from the three sufferings, and to change the final chapter of their life to one of tranquillity and fulfillment. Kübler-Ross set forth the five-stage theory10 in connection with the process a patient generally follows on becoming aware that death is imminent. The first sensation to arise is a denial of one’s death itself. Next, when this can no longer be denied, anger at one’s fate or destiny bursts forth. Some people also begin bargaining with God or Buddha. When even this fails, people enter a deep state of depression. The form of the ultimate acceptance varies in character with the individual. This theory is apparently recognized in the West as presenting a typical pattern. And when we examine Leo Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Ilich we see that Kübler-Ross’s five-stage theory appears to apply almost perfectly. In Japan, however, the situation is somewhat different. That is, in many cases the process is dominated largely by feelings of depression. Nevertheless, when facing death, the experience of one’s mind being overwhelmed by sensations like anger and depression is similar. I believe the role of religious believers is precisely to involve themselves actively with suffering patients who have fallen into a state of anger or depression, and to do what they can to transform the remainder of the patient’s life from a state of suffering and sorrow to one of fulfillment, self-realization and, even, creative joy. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Of course the suffering of physical and psychological pain that you refer to can be combated by modern medical therapy, but the fear of death as a meaningless tragic end has to be allayed through a religious sort of education. In the Buddhist view the body is regarded as a receptacle for karma. To pass from one receptacle to the next, from one life to the next, should not then be regarded with great sadness or suffering. I believe that

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this Buddhist perspective will be exceedingly valuable in alleviating or even removing the suffering associated with death. IKEDA :

What you have just referred to is delved into in the Miscellaneous Agama Sutras as follows: The karmic effects exist, but the person who caused them no longer does. These components [the five components of life] will completely disappear, and different components will take on [the effects].11

In other words, through the power of karma, the effects of karma are carried over from the five components (encompassing both body and mind) of this existence to a different set of five components in the next. Furthermore, in the Lotus Sutra, though based on the doctrine of the transmigration of living things through the power of karma, this doctrine is reinterpreted actively and positively from the Buddha’s standpoint, and the Buddha is recorded as saying, ‘… as an expedient means I appear to enter nirvana.’12 This passage means that though the Buddha is eternal and always present, if he were to remain in this world continually, people would take his presence for granted and lose their feeling of reverence for him. In other words, it means that because people begin to neglect their human revolution achieved through Buddhist practice, the Buddha manifests the state of nirvana (his death) for them as an expedient means. The view of life and death of the Lotus Sutra demonstrated here is saying that, based on the concept of eternal life that expounds that the life of the Buddha is indestructible and ever present, death can be interpreted positively as an expedient means. In other words, it is saying that death exists as an expedient to direct people to the great eternal life that is the Buddha. Based on the fundamental law of the life of the Universe, Nichiren grasped the Lotus Sutra’s concept of life and death more profoundly and pointed out that both life and death are originally inherent in human life. He was saying that people’s matter-of-fact view of life and death as separate phenomena, falling into a belief either of eternalism (the idea that the soul exists forever) or of annihilation, trembling with the fear of death and attempting to escape it or, conversely, longing for death – all, he was saying, are deluded views that seek to avoid acknowledging the existence of the cycle of life and death. In contrast to these views, Nichiren elucidated an enlightened view of life and death. Both life and death are said to be opportunities fundamentally incorporated in the great, universal life of the

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Buddha that actually exists in the depths of people’s lives, and both exist for the purpose of perceiving the great life of the Buddha. The principle of the originally inherent cycle of life and death clarified in Nichiren Buddhism, while acknowledging the Buddhist teaching of transmigration through the power of karma, also transcends this, indicating the ideal of a cycle of life and death based on a great eternal life and on the fundamental law of the Universe. It is precisely this view of life and death, I believe, that will allow people to overcome the fear, despair and sorrow associated with death that are brought about by materialism and secularism, to make even death into a springboard from which to soar into eternal life, and to experience death with dignity.

On the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth WICKRAMASINGHE:

All the major world religions embody some version of an idea of eternal life. If one is cynical about it, one might say that this stems ultimately from our fear of dying. The Christian belief is of a ‘spiritual’ body that is to be resurrected after the ‘organic’ body has perished. Whereas the Christian concept perceives resurrection as a unique event, the Hindu and Buddhist ideas of rebirth imply a continuing, ongoing process. It is presented as an unrelenting law of the Universe.

IKEDA:

The ancient Indian doctrine of transmigration is thought to have been combined with the concept of karma and established, at the latest, by the time of the older Upanishads (900 BC to 550 BC). For instance, the doctrine of the Five Flames and Two Paths is expounded in the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya Upanishads. The Five Flames explains rebirth by dividing human beings’ fate after death into five stages; the Two Paths indicates the Divine Path, by which one enters the realm of brahma (ultimate reality), never to return to Earth, and the Ancestral Path, by which one is reborn in this world. The doctrine of karma is set forth in connection with that of atman (the ‘self’), preached by the philosopher of the older Upanishads, Yajnavalkya, to King Janaka. Here, the idea of karma – that good deeds produce good effects, and evil deeds, evil effects – becomes linked with the doctrine of rebirth. In the Upanishads, because the realization of the union of brahma and atman is the goal, the atman, that is, the self, is the subject that undergoes transmigration. Buddhism, however, not recognizing the existence of the atman, or substantial self, gives us a concept of transmigration and rebirth based on a doctrine of nonself.

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In the West, on the other hand, though it appears that philosophers like Socrates and Plato, and those of Pythagorian school, also had their own concepts of transmigration, these can be seen rather as the result of the influence of Oriental religious ideas like those of the Orphic movement. For instance, in ‘Phaedo’, written by Plato, Socrates, in a dialogue with Cebes and Simmias, clearly expounds the immortality of the soul and a doctrine of rebirth. In a dialogue concerning the existence of the soul after death, the following ideas of Socrates are set forth plainly: Things mutually associated through opposition arise from things that are related. That is to say, death is succeeded by birth, and birth by death. Socrates asserted, ‘I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead, and that the souls of the dead are in existence.’13 It is reported that Socrates, facing death, said, ‘Do not say that you have interred Socrates, but that you have interred his body,’ and then drank the cup of hemlock. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The point you make about the close similarity between Buddhist and Socratic views is intriguing. Both philosophies led to worldviews that were far-reaching in their scope and impact.

IKEDA: When the world of life after death is depicted by the various

religions and philosophies of East and West, as it is in Plato’s work, The Thousand-Year Journey of Er, such things as hell, heaven, judgment and a model of life after death are invariably mentioned. In The Thousand-Year Journey of Er, for example, Plato depicts the court of judgment that convenes after death, and has the souls who have just arrived describe what heaven and hell are like. Also mentioned are things like a lottery of fate presided over by a goddess and a river of forgetfulness. In the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Osiris, the lord of hell, appears as a judge of the dead, and the judgment is carried out by using a scale to weigh the deceased person’s heart. And everyone is aware of the existence in both Christianity and Islam of such concepts as heaven and hell and a final judgment carried out by a god. In the Orient too, in the Buddhism of both China and Japan, a pure crystal mirror that reflects each of the actions performed during life by the dead person is found in the place of judgment. A scene also appears in The Tibetan Book of the Dead, in which the past deeds of the dead are reflected in the mirror of karma. Moreover, one chooses one’s next life by passing through one of six gates (representing what Buddhism calls the Six Paths). This idea is similar to the lottery of fate depicted by Plato. When Er drinks the water of forgetfulness in The Thousand-Year Journey of Er, he loses all memory of what occurred in the past.

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This seems to me to correspond to the Buddhist teaching that, due to the shock one experiences when one is reborn – the suffering of birth, in Buddhist terms – all memories of one’s past life are extinguished. In a letter to one of his followers, Nichiren wrote, ‘Neither the pure land nor hell exists outside ourselves; both lie within our own hearts.’14 He is saying that both what Buddhism calls the pure land – the realm where the Buddha dwells – and the realm of the agony of hell are inherent in one’s own life and are states of life experienced in accord with one’s own karma. Buddhism teaches that after death, one experiences one’s own inherent good and evil karma, and that, as a result, the worlds of both heaven and hell are states of life created by one’s karma. Thus we see that the judgment depicted in most religions is actually one’s own decision made in accord with one’s individual karma. In Buddhism, this truth is represented metaphorically by the mirror of karma. WICKRAMASINGHE: The judgments after death and the concepts of

heaven and hell that you describe as common to all religions except Buddhism share a similar feature – an implication of retribution. One is warned that good deeds are rewarded and bad deeds punished. The more practical approach would be to encourage a manner of living and conduct that is socially acceptable. In a sense the ‘courts of judgment’ you describe are merely extensions of our own social or judicial institutions. The Buddhist ideas on these matters are fundamentally different, as the letter of Nichiren that you have quoted expresses. The universal law of karma can operate only within ourselves to modify the conscious entity that is supposed to pass from one incarnation to the next. Compared with the more primitive concepts of retribution and reward, the Buddhist view is subtler, embodying a philosophy of self-improvement. In many ways the karmic process is akin to biological evolution, a process that operates impartially and with inexorable rigor. IKEDA:

Scholars in the West have also been interested in the principle of karma taught in Buddhism.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Christmas Humphreys, a modern exponent of Buddhist philosophy in the West, wrote of the law of karma as follows: The Law is all-embracing. As is said in one of the most famous passages in the Dhammapada, ‘Not in the sky, not in the midst of the sea, not if we enter into the clefts of the mountains, is there

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a spot in the whole world, where a man may be freed from an evil deed …’ The Law is timeless, therefore, in that it will last for as long as there remains a single being in whom it can and must inhere. Its patience is inexhaustible – 15 This is certainly an attractive exposition of karmic law in almost poetic terms. The karmic law is thus equated to a law of nature, akin in some ways to physical laws such as Newton’s laws of motion. I find this aspect most appealing. Do you think the simple words of Christmas Humphreys do justice to a law of such great profundity? IKEDA: This passage from Humphreys certainly accurately expresses

one essential aspect of karma, and this aspect is a vital central element in the teachings of Shakyamuni. Shakyamuni, in the process of attaining enlightenment under the bo tree, first turned his mind to ‘the wisdom to recollect past lifetimes,’ and it is said that he ‘recalled one lifetime, two lifetimes, … hundreds of thousands of lifetimes, innumerable kalpas of formation of the Universe, innumerable kalpas of disintegration of the Universe and innumerable kalpas of formation and disintegration of the Universe.’ After surveying the cycles of birth and death in this manner, he became aware of the existence of karma that is passed on through past, present and future. The Buddhist scriptures record that Shakyamuni observed all manner of beings living out their lives in accord with their particular karma. Vasubandhu, an Indian scholar of the Consciousness-Only school, stated, ‘Even after a lapse of a hundred kalpas, karma never just disappears. When it encounters numerous external causes, it is invariably recompensed with effects.’16 As Vasubandhu said, karma engraved in the depths of life, rather than simply ceasing to exist, always manifests its effects when acted on by external causes. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Karma, as I understand it, is an indeterminate quality that connects one incarnation of an individual with another. It is a kind of causal thread that stretches across time in a chain of lives (samsara). I think of karma as a quality that, though undefined, is localized in the individual and that continually changes its form for as long as it exists. The changes of form must be dictated in some undefined way by the thoughts, deeds and experiences of life.

IKEDA:

As you have so keenly discerned, karma denotes the law of cause and effect inherent in life. The word ‘karma’ derives from the Sanskrit word karman, which means ‘action.’ Generally speaking,

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when one refers to action, one is implying physical deeds alone. But Buddhism employs this word in a broader sense, one that encompasses both the physical and the mental realms. To illustrate, first a good or evil intention forms in the mind. Second, when the intention is fixed, concrete action is taken. The good or evil intentions that arise in the mind are called mental karma. When these are transformed into concrete action that is expressed physically, the action performed by the body is called physical karma. Activities of speech are referred to as verbal karma. Thus the expression ‘karma’ actually encompasses three kinds of karma: mental, physical and verbal. The importance of the Buddhist concept of karma lies in its perspective that these three types of karma never just spontaneously disappear. Rather, the workings of one’s intentions and the effects of one’s actions are engraved as potential energies in the inner realm of one’s life. Each Buddhist school has a different name for this potential energy. It is identified by such expressions as, for instance, latent karma, nonmanifest form or karmic seeds. The expression ‘karmic seeds’ derives from the similarity between the potential energy present in the depths of people’s lives and that in plant seeds. These karmic seeds become karmic causes, remaining in existence as they store up karmic energy. When they become manifest after being acted on by causes outside of one’s life, they produce karmic results. This is what is known as the law of karmic cause and effect. While filled with its own karmic causes and manifesting these karmic effects, each individual life passes through the cycle of birth and death from past to present and on into the future in accord with this law of cause and effect. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I recall a distinguished Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar once telling me that a human being, according to Buddhism, is a psychophysical unit (namarupa). In its primitive state it is comprised of three components – the sperm and the ovum that make up the zygote along with the influence of a stream of consciousness from a ‘discarnate spirit.’ The union of these three components produces a conscious human being. This statement made a deep impression on me and has conditioned my thinking about life ever since.

IKEDA:

I believe that this is a reference to Buddhist obstetrics, which is taught in various Buddhist scriptures. In Buddhism, it is expounded that in addition to the sperm and egg, the manifestation of life in the state of intermediate existence is a prerequisite for the birth of human life. This is referred to as the union of the three factors. Here, ‘life in the state of intermediate existence’ indicates

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a life that is fused with the macrocosm. Going back a bit further, it indicates a human life that, having passed away in its previous existence, has fused with the life of the Universe itself. The life after death that in this manner has become one with the Universe is also referred to as ‘consciousness’ or ‘mind.’ With the union of the sperm and egg as an auxiliary cause, this life that has been immanent in the Universe makes its appearance in this world. Today, a number of scientists are engaged in research that suggests the veracity of rebirth. For instance, Ian Stevenson, professor of the University of Virginia, has been studying cases of children in India and other places who apparently remember past lives, and attempting to verify their claims objectively. WICKRAMASINGHE:

In support of rebirth one could cite anecdotal accounts, particularly in India, of young children seeking to make contact with an ‘earlier home.’ Such children are said to have directed observers to distant places and to homes where it is discovered that a death had occurred roughly at the time of their own birth. Furthermore they predict and identify many artifacts such as furniture and toys with remarkable accuracy. Such reports number in the thousands. They have been compiled and allegedly verified by several authors, but because of their essentially anecdotal character their reliability may be open to question. In my view the most powerful support for rebirth comes from well-documented cases of exceptional genius. The logic of karma and rebirth is one that involves the accumulation of experience sequentially from one lifetime to the next. In an infant prodigy we thus see not only the limited experience of a few early years, but the accumulated experience of many past lives. Let us look at two particular cases that would appear inexplicable from any other point of view: the case of the great Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) and that of the Indian mathematical prodigy Srinivasan Ramanujan (1887–1920). As a musical prodigy Mozart’s progress was truly phenomenal. By the age of three he was playing tunefully on a clavier. By the age of five he was composing simple pieces and by the age of eight he was composing prolifically in many different musical forms. In a short lifespan of only 35 years Mozart composed music that has been loved and admired by every generation that followed. Genetics alone can hardly explain this phenomenon. Almost as puzzling is the case history of Srinivasan Ramanujan, a mathematical genius born into abject poverty. Although he had no formal education, around age 20 he gained access to one single outdated textbook on mathematics. After studying this book he became determined to meet influential mathematicians in India to convince them that he had discovered new and startling results.

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For the most part they ignored his claims, but one of them, Ramachandra Rao, was so impressed with what he saw that he assisted Ramanujan in contacting the great Cambridge mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy (1877–1947). Hardy eventually invited Ramanujan to Cambridge, and it was from Trinity College, Cambridge, that word of Ramanujan’s mathematical genius spread throughout the world. Ramanujan was a pious Hindu belonging to the Brahmin caste. His discoveries in mathematics were most extraordinary. Often he would discover a formula or a theorem for which he was unable to supply a proof, and such proofs were later discovered by other more orthodox mathematicians who had the benefit of a formal education in mathematics. According to Ramanujan, the goddess Namagiri would appear in his dreams conveying important mathematical results. A nontheistic explanation may be found in the concept of rebirth. IKEDA: What are your thoughts about the many reported incidents

of people recalling past lives through hypnotic regression? WICKRAMASINGHE: From the experiments conducted under hypnosis

where people are said to recount details of earlier incarnations, one might infer that consciousness has a continuity that precedes birth and conception. If this is correct, the implications are profound and far-reaching. IKEDA:

No doubt it will become apparent that neither secularism, which postulates that life is limited to the present existence, nor its theoretical basis, reductionistic materialism, can satisfactorily explain this phenomenon.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is true. The concept of rebirth itself embodies a fundamental proposition concerning the world that at the moment can be neither proved nor disproved in rigorous scientific terms. It is perhaps in some way connected with the question of the nature of consciousness. We know for a fact that consciousness exists, but as yet we do not know if it could be reduced into basic components, or whether the stream of consciousness could ever be satisfactorily defined through experiment. I have thought a great deal about this because I come from a Buddhist background that accepts rebirth as a ‘fact.’ I cannot accept it unreservedly as a fact that has been verified and tested beyond doubt, but I do accept it pro tem as a valid hypothesis on which an exceptionally elegant philosophy of life can be built. And, as we have said, there is a great deal of circumstantial evidence that would appear to support it.

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IKEDA: Penetrating the depths of life, Buddhism, as you know, sheds

light not only on the ordinary sense consciousnesses, but also on the consciousnesses in the depths of our being. Buddhism has developed a doctrine that reaches from the mano-consciousness even deeper, to the alaya-consciousness and then to the amalaconsciousness (the fundamental pure consciousness) that is the great fundamental life of the Universe. Among these consciousnesses, Vasubandhu remarked of the alaya-consciousness, which constitutes the depths of the life of the individual, that, like a rushing torrent, it is in constant flux. He was pointing out that like a tumultuous stream the fundamental life that is the alaya-consciousness unceasingly undergoes transitions and transformations. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Your explanation reminds me of one of the topics we discussed in the previous chapter, namely, the somewhat curious situation that exists in modern quantum physics: when we make an observation on a quantum system, its state instantly changes in an undefined way. Well-understood laws of physics could be used to describe a quantum system with great accuracy at all times except at the moment of an interface with an observer when conscious input from the observer would appear to play a crucial role. This interaction between human consciousness and inanimate matter in quantum mechanics leads me to speculate that our consciousness might somehow be derived from a cosmic consciousness that may be regarded as all-pervasive. Although such a proposition is hinted at by some scientists, it exists at the moment only in the realms of speculation.

IKEDA:

The fundamental current that Buddhism calls the alayaconsciousness maintains the unique characteristics of the individual life. At the same time, sustained by the great fundamental life of the Universe, it weaves a pattern of eternal change in constant harmony with all phenomena, including inanimate matter. Your insightful conjecture with regard to an all-pervasive universal consciousness is extremely interesting and, I believe, offers a clue leading to a valuable concept.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I would be inclined to link the concept of karma

with the still undiscovered fundamental nature of consciousness. IKEDA:

This corresponds exactly, I believe, to what Buddhism, indicating the alaya-consciousness, also refers to as the ‘karma storehouse.’ Potential energies of both good and evil are stored as karmic seeds within this fundamental current of life. Not only

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that, but all the seeds that produce all the existences of the phenomenal world are encompassed herein. At death, all the elements that make up a human life, that is, the workings of the body and the mind, without a single exception, are transformed into potentials as karmic seeds in the alayaconsciousness. When this life next reappears in the phenomenal world, the karmic seeds in the alaya-consciousness manifest and carry on their performance of the physical and mental functions. WICKRAMASINGHE: Karma is beyond empirical verification and has

to be posited as a law of nature, not amenable to further discussion. A consequence of this cycle is that it explains the observed inequalities between living beings, for example the difference between rich and poor on our planet. IKEDA :

Because the law of karma naturally is also broadly encompassed in the Buddhist concept of dependent origination, one must never forget that in the process of the manifestation of karma, a great variety of environmental conditions relate in a complex way as ‘auxiliary causes.’ An even more important point is found in the fact that the essence of the karma theory illustrates the rule that, no matter what one’s karma, one can change it of one’s own free will. In other words, the Buddhist concept of karma is in no way what is ordinarily called fatalism or a mere simple philosophy. Some people labor under the illusions of fatalism or determinism, seeing only one aspect of karma – that karma from one’s past lives is encompassed in one’s present life. At the same time, however, according to the karmic law of causality, at each moment we create fresh karma. This means that at the present moment also, of our own free will, we are creating new karma and opening up the future. Thus, in Buddhism, humans are beings that, seeking freedom in the midst of inevitabilities, both base themselves on these inevitabilities and employ them as springboards to build a state of life in which they are utterly free. Consequently, by acting of their own volition to make good karma and transform negative karma, all human beings are equally able, regardless of their present circumstances, to open up the path to self-realization and selfperfection – the golden path to improving their destiny.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Critics of Buddhism often say that we have here a philosophy that is too self-denying and too pessimistic for material social progress. Had Buddhism dominated the world scene for too long, it is claimed that we might not have had machines or industry or technological progress. These are all outgrowths of human activities that are, it could be argued, more or less selfish.

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Also I have heard it said that the philosophy of karma leads in some instances to over-complacency and a lack of individual initiative. For example, if you had a toothache, you might say that it’s karma and suffer the pain rather than go to a dentist. This would of course be a very narrow interpretation of the law of karma as you have said. I recognize that these defects may well be limited to Theravada Buddhism, which lays great stress on the denial of the self. Mahayana Buddhism, such as you have in Japan, is more practically oriented and recognizes the value of society as a whole. Nevertheless, I would like to hear your response to critics who might say that Buddhism is not compatible with social or material progress. IKEDA: If, as in the extreme case you have just mentioned, one were

to interpret the concept of karma as fatalism and determinism, it would lead to little more than resignation, causing one to abandon one’s relations with the outside world and to lose the vibrancy and the positive spirit of life. Some people would even become selfcomplacent concerning their present circumstances. If, however, one examines the mechanism of creating karma, one can surely perceive that the principle of karma is expressing exceedingly dynamic movement that is the true nature of life. Here, the particularly important point to bear in mind is that karma is being formed at each moment in the course of life’s perpetual motion. In the present instant also, new karma is being fashioned; as it transforms karma from the past, it also changes into and begins working as a motivating power toward the future. As I mentioned earlier, this creation of new karma in accord with each individual’s free will and its influence on the future are occurring across the two aspects of body and mind, or what is called the three types of action – physical, verbal and mental. One’s mental attitudes indicate one’s direction in the future, while verbal activities constitute deeds that manifest attitudes of the mind and will in the phenomenal world. The effects of these actions of course extend from the individual out into society. Moreover, Mahayana Buddhism never denies self-centered motives that bring about progress. On the contrary, the essence of Mahayana Buddhism – that ‘earthly desires are enlightenment’ – teaches that no enlightenment exists apart from earthly desires such as cravings and ambitions. It shows the truly practical way to manifest wisdom for the sake of unlimited self-improvement and the betterment of society. As the criticism you mentioned also points out, impulses and desires of all sorts have been the driving force that broke down the status quo and built up our materialistic civilization. We must avoid, however, the tragedies that occur when the egotistic desires of each individual clash, plunging society into confusion, so that

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ultimately not only human beings’ bodies and minds but also the ecosystem is ravaged. For this reason too, I believe that a people’s movement based on the humanistic principles of Buddhism, in addition to becoming a force for the healthy advance of technological civilization, can become a major influence in the creation of a new civilization rich in morality and spirituality. WICKRAMASINGHE: I suppose that in the course of the karmic cycle

each individual is presented with the opportunity of perfecting himself. A logical extension would be that an entire society or even the entire human race would have the opportunity of progressively improving through successive generations of rebirth. IKEDA:

Exactly. Going beyond the individual, this will invariably give rise to a great wave leading to a transformation of the karma imprinted in the lives of families, peoples, nations and even humankind as a whole. With the profound principle of cause and effect as a springboard toward unrestricted improvement, I believe that the dynamism of the Buddhist doctrine of changing karma can become a vital concept in dispelling the shadow of the death of humanity as a species that has begun to loom darkly over our modern materialistic civilization, and in restoring the brilliancy of life.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I agree with your view that such a concept offers new hope to the modern world in what may be its darkest hour. The important lesson for society here is that our future, the future of our planet, rests entirely in our own hands. A similar perspective is not offered, at any rate as explicitly, by any other religion in the modern world.

Informing Patients of a Cancer Diagnosis IKEDA: I would now like to speak about concrete problems associated

with life and death – problems of life ethics. First let us take up the question of whether or not cancer patients should be informed about their diagnosis. The question arises because cancer is one of the most serious illnesses of our time, and its discovery almost invariably produces a strong fear of death. In the West, it is general practice for physicians to notify their patients of such a diagnosis. In Japan, on the other hand, many health professionals keep this information from the patient. However, because of such factors as the increase in recent years in our knowledge of cancer, the fact that when treatment commences, patients themselves become aware of the nature of their illness, and the fact that, due to improvements in treatment, the number of cases

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in which recovery is complete has grown dramatically, doctors too are widely divided on this matter. Also, although the number of patients who desire to be fully informed of their diagnosis is increasing, many families still say they would be reluctant in such a situation to disclose the news to a family member. What are your thoughts regarding informing the patient of a cancer diagnosis? WICKRAMASINGHE:

My own preference would be for complete frankness and openness in dealing with this problem. I think the patient should be told if he is diagnosed as having an illness like cancer. He should also be told how certain the diagnosis is, and what the chances of survival are after the proposed regime of treatment. If I were given a diagnosis of a terminal illness, the most important thing for me would be to have a reliable estimate of my survival time so that I might plan the rest of my life.

IKEDA:

Many cases exist where, because the patient was notified, he was able to live out the remainder of his life in a truly fulfilled way. I think the question of announcing the diagnosis has nevertheless become an issue because of the image cancer has as a disease leading to death if discovered too late, and because of the pain associated with cancer in its final stages. Consequently, on hearing the diagnosis, many patients are overwhelmed by a strong shock and, as a result, for some either the illness takes a dramatic turn for the worse, or the time of death is hastened. On the other hand, however, some people, overcoming their initial shock, proceed to confront their illness head-on. In commencing a cancer treatment program, cooperative relations between doctor and patient can be established more smoothly if the patient is aware of his or her condition. Further, the patient’s own powers of immunity will be strengthened and results of the treatment enhanced. Considering these factors, one cannot help but conclude that how one responds to such news must be determined on an individual basis, while carefully observing the circumstances of the patient and his or her family. Specifically, what would you suggest are the main factors to be considered?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think that truth is preferable to falsehood, knowledge to ignorance at all times. Having said this, I do of course appreciate that the doctor who reveals a cancer diagnosis to a patient must do so with sensitivity and with due attention to psychological considerations that might be relevant in any particular

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case. The truth should be told, but in a manner that does not instantly cause great agony. As a preparation for receiving information of this kind, just as in preparation for dying, an appropriate nonmaterialistic, religious perspective would be an invaluable asset. Buddhism regards birth, sickness, old age and death as no more than ever-changing facets of this world. Viewed in this way, even the sufferings associated with any of these conditions might diminish or perhaps even disappear. IKEDA:

Factors that could well be considered in the event that a patient must be informed of a cancer diagnosis are whether the cancer is in its first or last stages, the type of cancer, and the patient’s character. In other words, is the patient mature enough to stand up to the shock and does he or she possess a fully internalized philosophy regarding life and regarding life and death? One must also evaluate the family situation and ask whether any work on their part remains still to be done. I believe that the best way to inform each patient must be determined after careful consideration of these factors and in tandem with any planned course of surgery. Finally, the greatest assistance must be given so that, while the patient is putting the finishing touches on a fulfilled life, he or she can perceive the dignity of life and death. As you pointed out earlier, in order to transform the emotions such as sorrow, despair and resentment that rage in the patient’s heart when a cancer diagnosis is received, and to impart courage, serenity and hope, a spiritual, religious perspective is indispensable. And it would be extremely effective if those involved in the healing process and the patients themselves were to internalize the Buddhist view of life and death. In Sri Lanka, a Buddhist country, is it standard practice to inform patients of a cancer diagnosis?

WICKRAMASINGHE: In Sri Lanka as in Japan, it is my understanding

that patients on the whole are not told. This is perhaps surprising because the religious and cultural traditions in these countries would seem to have made people living there much better equipped to accept the facts of karma. But it seems that Western attitudes on these matters have prevailed, together with the prevalence of Western medical practices. IKEDA:

In Japan many doctors still cannot bring themselves to announce such a diagnosis, for they worry that the shock will be great, and that it will have a dramatic impact on the patient’s subsequent recovery. Also, though in Japan a view does exist of life and death based on the Buddhist concepts of karma and

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transmigration, the reality now is that in daily life most Japanese think little about questions of life and death, and consequently are unable to establish a sound life-and-death perspective. Here too is a reason doctors hesitate to announce a cancer diagnosis. WICKRAMASINGHE: I believe that a physician diagnosing a terminal

illness will usually confer with the next of kin to decide on how the news may best be broken. How quickly the individual eventually comes to terms with such a situation may be conditioned by the type of religious understanding you have described. In these circumstances it would seem especially important that the physician learn more about the patient’s background from relatives and follow a course of action that minimizes the initial shock of such news.

Brain Death and Organ Transplantation IKEDA:

Problems like those surrounding brain death and organ transplants, the comatose state and death with dignity have emerged at the meeting point between life ethics and modern medical treatment related to dying. Let us consider these problems now. First, concerning the issue of brain death, in my opinion the essence of this issue consists of three points. First is whether or not established standards for brain death can be seen as indisputably indicating the irreversible cessation of brain functions. Second is whether or not, from a medical point of view, the condition of brain death can be seen as the death of the human being. Third is whether or not what is medically acknowledged as brain death can be accepted as such by society. In my opinion whether or not brain death can be seen as the death of the person depends on the view of life and death held by the particular national group and by each individual.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The problems you mention have arisen mainly because of the vast improvements in medical technology that we have seen in recent years. It is now possible to keep patients with a severe brain injury ‘alive’ for long periods of time using artificial means such as heart-lung machines. An unconscious patient with minimal neurological responses would have his or her body working adequately as long as the machine is switched on. Switching off the machine is what gives rise to a modern medicolegal and ethical dilemma. What are the criteria for doing so, and what constitutes a rational definition of death that we can all agree on? Doctors need

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this badly, because otherwise they might be accused of ‘mercy killing’ in switching off a life-support system. A complete definition of death is difficult to arrive at for the reason that different organs can cease functioning at different times. Modern definitions for purely practical purposes have tended to focus on brain activity. A person may be regarded as dead if his or her brain has really died in an irreversible way. He would have no consciousness of his being, and such consciousness would not return however long the body continues to function in a purely organic way. IKEDA:

For our definition of ‘brain death’ in modern medicine we can refer to the following statement made at the International Brain Wave Institute in 1973: ‘Brain death is the irreversible termination of all brain functioning, including the functions of the cerebellum, the brain stem and the primary spinal cord.’ In other words, brain death is a state where all the brain’s functions have ceased and where this condition is irreversible.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The great difficulty is to know for certain that the presumed brain death is really irreversible.

IKEDA:

Yes, I agree. For this reason, the loss of brain function is confirmed by as wide a range of tests as possible (for example, is the patient in a deep coma, has spontaneous respiration ceased, are the brain waves flat, have reflex capabilities been lost?), and then, some hours after the patient’s condition has been judged as brain death – in Japan, six hours – the loss of functioning is confirmed once again.

WICKRAMASINGHE: There are international agreements being reached

on this matter, but how exactly is absolute irreversibility to be determined? Certain conditions that were thought to be irreversible in the nineteenth century are not completely so today. I gather from medical friends that the technical criteria used for determining brain death are being continually reassessed by the relevant professional bodies, both nationally and internationally. The international agreements, I presume, are reached in symposia that are informal and do not have any legal standing. Ultimately, any chosen set of criteria (such as those you have stated) must still be regarded as being subjective and somewhat arbitrary. IKEDA:

The standards set by the Japanese Welfare Ministry’s research group are among the strictest in the world, but even so a proposal is under consideration to add to the already required tests others such as measurements of encephalic circulation.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

If the brain is established by all the agreed medical criteria as being irreversibly dead, I would have to accept that the patient as a conscious self has ceased to exist. This definition is of course in general accord with the Buddhist view. If there is no consciousness, there is no being. Since consciousness and awareness of self are essential to the human condition, when these have departed from the body never to return, I would have to admit that the human being has ceased to exist. In terms of Buddhist belief such a condition can perhaps be interpreted as marking an event of rebirth.

IKEDA:

The earliest Buddhist scriptures teach that a person’s life activities are sustained by three factors: life-span, warmth and consciousness. Life-span means the natural span of a person’s life, and warmth, the presence of warmth, that is, body temperature. Consciousness means awareness or the cognitive functions. This ‘consciousness,’ however, includes not only what modern medicine calls consciousness, but also the more fundamental functions of cognition and perception. The Consciousness-Only school, carrying on this way of thinking, makes the function of consciousness of central importance in its view of death. That is, it holds that consciousness is the essence that unifies life-span and warmth. It also regards death as a return of the functions of the five senses, of the mind-consciousness and of the mano-consciousness that is the fundamental self, to the alaya-consciousness, the fundamental current of individual life. On the other hand, T’ien-t’ai of China, quoting from the Great Collection Sutra and from Nagarjuna’s Treatise on the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom, showed that life-span exists in the inhalation and exhalation of breath – in other words, in spontaneous respiration. From the Buddhist perspective, I also believe, like you, that the cessation of autonomous respiration – even though breathing may be artificially sustained with a respirator – and the extinction of ‘consciousness’ (its return to the fundamental current of the person’s life) can be taken as the person’s death. However, the question of whether or not brain death is recognized as the death of the person is greatly influenced by the religion and the view of life and death founded on it that are held by each nation and each individual. At present, it appears that in the great majority of nations in the world, and particularly in the nations of the West, people recognize brain death as the death of the person. Only a very few nations remain that do not accept brain death as actual death either medically or legally. The concept of brain death appears also to have been accepted in many Asian countries, including Thailand, the Republic of Korea and India. What sort of debate is taking place in Sri Lanka?

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And what sort of opinions do the Buddhists there express regarding this issue? WICKRAMASINGHE:

The differing attitudes to this problem in different cultures stem from differences of ideas as to the ‘seat’ of our ‘spiritual’ life. If this is thought to be located in the brain, associated with consciousness, then the modern medicolegal definitions would be easy to accept. If, on the other hand, it is felt to reside elsewhere – in the heart or throughout the body as Islamic traditions would have it – then total death of the organism would be required in order to pronounce death. I believe the tendency in Sri Lanka would be to accept the internationally accepted medicolegal definition of brain death. I have not heard any great indication of disagreement coming from Sri Lanka or any other predominantly Buddhist country in Southeast Asia.

IKEDA: In Japan, in addition to the Buddhist view of life and death,

a unique view of the soul from ancient times exists in the depths of people’s hearts; it has profoundly affected their response to the issue of brain death. People believe that, though the physical body disappears, the soul takes on another form and is eternal. Even after it has been determined that a person is dead, people believe that the soul and the body continue in an undivided state for a certain period and that during this period the soul abides in the body. Thus, for example, when a patient is declared brain dead, though people recognize that, reasonably speaking, absolutely no possibility exists for recovery, they are compelled by a deep-seated emotional urge to remain nearby and watch over the person who is approaching death, until his or her heart has stopped, and furthermore, until the body has grown cold. On the other hand, I believe that the main reason Japan has been unable to cope with today’s rapid advances in medical treatment technology is that people have not been seriously considering death based on rational thinking. In my opinion, the issue of brain death now presents Japanese people with a valuable opportunity to thoroughly discuss death from a variety of angles. I anticipate that as this discussion progresses the Japanese people as a whole will once more show serious interest in the Buddhist view of life and death. WICKRAMASINGHE: Next I would like to consider the issue of organ

transplants, which is closely related to brain death. I have no ethical objections to organ transplants, but I have reservations about the long-term success of the method of organ transplants as a cure for disease. Once the brain is irreversibly dead, I can see no overriding ethical reason why a cornea or kidney should not be transplanted

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into a person whose disease condition would be alleviated by such a transplant. But I believe that transplants of major organs have enjoyed only a limited measure of success for reasons that are perhaps quite fundamental. The human body regards the transplanted heart or kidney as an invader and naturally mounts a powerful immunological response. Subsequent survival of the patient is entirely dependent on administering drugs that depress the body’s immune system. The patient is often kept on such a drug regime for the rest of his life. The success rate of heart transplants has, I believe, been low the world over. Kidney transplants have enjoyed a better record, but they are not trouble-free, either. IKEDA: The question of organ transplants, as you have pointed out,

is shadowed by the issue of immunodepressants. Thus as a Buddhist I have the following thoughts about organ transplants. Though of course considerations are different for each organ, we must first pour all our energies into investigating the causes of disease. Greater research is needed in preventive medicine, which can halt diseases before they reach the stage where organ transplants are necessary. Second, we must exert ourselves in the development of replacements for every organ. For example, the development and improvement of artificial hearts is essential. Third, since some organ transplants, like that of the kidney, can be carried out even after cardiac death, we must strive for improvement in this kind of transplant. In addition to the course being set for the medicine of the future in the ways just mentioned, at present, for patients for whom no alternative exists but a transplant, I think it is appropriate that people cooperate with and assist each other. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I share your feeling that transplants should be used only as a last resort in dealing with disease. The greatest medical concern for the future must be to understand the primary causes of diseases that call for a transplant, and to thereafter deal with these causes with a view to preventing the disease from developing at all. Transplants involving mechanical components, where possible, would of course be preferable if only for the reason that there is no consequent immunological problem – the problem of rejection.

IKEDA:

In Europe and the United States, an information network of organ availability reaching beyond national borders is already in place, but in Japan, the number of patients who, unable to receive transplant surgery, await donors and undergo surgery in the

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West, particularly in the United States, Britain and Australia, has increased rapidly. I think perhaps the greatest reason that organ transplants have made little progress in Japan is the existence of an attitude toward the body peculiar to the Japanese. As was noted earlier, the ancient Japanese concept of the soul views the body (the corpse) and the soul as a single entity for a brief while after death. Because of this, the strong feeling that ‘until death occurs nothing painful should be allowed’ is an undercurrent in the psychology of the Japanese race. And on top of this is found the Confucian view of the body, so that people experience revulsion at the prospect of ‘spoiling’ the body (the corpse). In the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, for example, one finds the injunction that one receives one’s body, hair and skin from one’s parents and that the beginning of filial piety is to never dare harm them. This has had a profound effect on Japanese people’s behavior. I deeply feel, however, that concerning organ transplants too, the time has come when each individual, directly confronting his or her view of the body and of life, and constantly absorbing and studying the knowledge of modern medicine in a rational way, must determine his own attitude. And as individuals examine the view of the body that is a part of their national character and set out to establish their own views of life and death and of the body, I believe that the Buddhist view of life can play a vital role. Buddhism teaches that a person’s life is made up of five components: form, perception, conception, volition and consciousness. The first component, form, indicates the body, and the other four, the workings of the mind. Temporarily united during a person’s life, the five components carry out harmonious activities. Once, however, a person has for certain entered the realm of death, the workings of the five components break down. Then the body (form) disintegrates into the four great materialistic energies – earth, water, fire and wind – that are its major constituent elements. Consequently, no resistance against organ transplants like that of the traditional Japanese and Confucian views of the body exists in Buddhism. From the Buddhist perspective, organ transplants are one way of expressing the Buddhist spirit of the oneness of self and others and the Buddhist spirit of compassion. WICKRAMASINGHE:

When it comes to organ transplants, the most challenging issues arise with the possibility of brain transplants. The practical feasibility of such surgery is yet some distance away, but this subject is also being aired in some medical circles, notably in the United States. In theory such transplants may become possible at some point in the future, but the attendant moral, religious and

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ethical problems are enormous. A brain that is kept alive could retain within it the ‘mind’ and ‘consciousness’ to which we have already referred. Is it proper for us to transfer an individual’s self-awareness and mind into a totally different human body? I myself shudder at such a thought. IKEDA: I agree. I have heard that partial brain transplants have already

been attempted. Although at this point these appear to be experimental forms of treatment, and although they are called partial brain transplants, I cannot help but think that like psychotropic drugs or brain operations, such as the frontal lobotomies of the past, they will influence the personality. Once the brain cells of a person who has received a transplant have become firmly fixed and commenced functioning, the question will surely arise: ‘Exactly who is this person?’ I think that such transplants will lead to a breakdown of the individual’s basic, complete identity. In this sense, I feel it is also correct to say that a brain transplant is an act by which a human being abandons his or her own self and loses his or her humanity. A careful watch needs to be kept on the direction things take from the present stage of partial transplants. I also believe this is an issue that must be discussed especially thoroughly by an ethics committee formed of religious leaders and philosophers, and scientists and physicians from different fields in order to reach a societal consensus about what sort of brakes may be applied.

The Comatose State, Death with Dignity and Suicide WICKRAMASINGHE:

Let us move on to a discussion of the comatose state and the question of death with dignity. The whole issue hinges on whether a comatose situation is considered to be irreversible or not. I understand that clinical conditions for such irreversibility cannot be easily agreed upon. The list of conditions normally required before pronouncing death includes: nonreceptivity to external stimuli, no spontaneous respiration, no muscular movements, no brain waves (a flat EEG) and, further, the persistence of these conditions for at least 24 hours. However, in some situations, such as drug overdoses, I gather that the normal definition of death does not apply. Patients who would normally be pronounced dead can be revived after treatment over a length of time. This to me indicates that medical decisionmaking, which is often conducted in a purely mechanical manner, can indeed be fallible.

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IKEDA:

The comatose state, according to brain physiologists, is a situation that occurs when the cerebral cortex and limbic systems have been severely damaged, but the brain stem, at the very least, continues to function. The Japan Neurosurgery Society includes six items in its definition of comatose patients: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

are unable to move unaided; are unable to swallow food; are incontinent; if able to speak, are unable to make sense; are unable to understand anything but the simplest statements, such as requests to open their eyes, or clench their fists; and 6. though patients can follow objects with their eyes, they are unable to recognize them. When all six conditions persist for more than three months, a patient is considered to be comatose. And of course, because the patient is able to breathe on his or her own, this state is completely different from brain death. Also, it is reported that patients seem to respond to the voices of those nearby. When we examine reports by those who are actually in contact with the patients, they say that there is no hint of death, but that they experience a sense of overbrimming life in the patients’ presence. They mention their impression that even though the patients are unable to express their own will, they are apparently taking in what is happening around them with their entire bodies. WICKRAMASINGHE: My impression is that these situations are dealt

with in a more humane manner in Sri Lanka and in Japan than in the West. Patients, wherever possible, are kept longer on lifesupport systems in the hope that a comatose condition might eventually reverse itself. Recently a relative of mine in Sri Lanka met with a road accident and was in a deep coma for months. I remember visiting her in the hospital and feeling a life force despite the coma. I felt sure that she could sense my presence, though her condition was such that she could not communicate. After long and patient medical care she recovered to almost normal health. IKEDA:

How fortunate! May I ask how long it was before she recovered consciousness?

WICKRAMASINGHE: In the case I referred to the patient was in a coma

for about four months, well over the period in which it is generally thought a recovery is possible. The important point is that she recovered to lead a normal healthy life with no impairment of mental faculties.

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IKEDA: From the Buddhist perspective, it can be said that even though

the comatose patient has apparently lost consciousness, at the level of the fundamental ego (the mano-consciousness), he or she is struggling mightily to live. I believe that it is this deep-seated will to live that comes home to one so strongly in the patient’s presence. In connection with the comatose state, the issue of death with dignity has also become a topic of energetic debate. The term ‘death with dignity’ came into wide use only relatively recently. Previously, the issue was often discussed as ‘euthanasia.’ With regard to euthanasia, two forms – active and passive – are currently practiced. Active euthanasia can be defined as artificial intervention intended to hasten the death of the patient and as shortening the patient’s life-span in order to achieve a certain end. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Just as with capital punishment, I consider active euthanasia to be repugnant. I do not believe that any human being, be he doctor or jail-keeper, has the right to actively terminate the life of another for whatever reason.

IKEDA:

I too am completely opposed to active euthanasia. In connection with the current debate over passive euthanasia, however, or death with dignity, some extremely complex and delicate questions have arisen. Passive euthanasia can be defined, in brief, as an abandoning of efforts to prolong the life of a patient thought to be near death and as a limiting of medical treatment intervention to moderate the patient’s suffering. The term ‘death with dignity’ first came into widespread use with reports surrounding the case of the American comatose patient Karen Ann Quinlan. Indicating the abandonment of futile efforts to prolong the life of a patient for whom there is no hope of recovery, and the guarantee of the dignity appropriate to a human being, the expression means nearly the same thing as passive euthanasia. At treatment facilities in Japan, it appears that in many cases efforts to prolong life with the most sophisticated medical technology are continued nearly indefinitely. It is these very attempts that become the basis for desiring death with dignity for the sake of the person in a deep coma. In other words, some people determine that, rather than sustaining life in this state, it is better for the patient’s sake to choose death. Those who think this way insist that human beings have the right to choose death; this in turn has prompted a ‘living will’ movement so that people can state their refusal to continue life in a state where the reasoning faculties no longer function.

WICKRAMASINGHE :

As for passive euthanasia, my attitude is somewhat equivocal. If a medical practitioner believes that the life

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of a terminally ill patient could be prolonged marginally by a certain sort of treatment, but only at the expense of great pain or suffering, then he might possibly be justified in withholding the treatment. The ‘death with dignity’ argument might well be fitting in such a case. IKEDA:

I have great misgivings, however, about current trends in the United States and Europe, where, going beyond even ‘death with dignity,’ a view based on the ‘right of the individual to decide his or her own death’ has shot into prominence and degenerated into refusing treatment and refusing prolongation of life, and even into helping people die. These sorts of incidents are bound to occur when people insist exclusively on the individual’s right to decide his or her own death. To ensure that the assertion of the right to determine one’s death is not allowed to escalate into an acceptance of suicide, I believe it is essential to deepen our conceptual and religious understanding of what precisely ‘a truly dignified death for human beings’ means. I am convinced that, for those approaching death too, the Buddhist doctrine of the dignity of life will become the basis for a model of how to make the transition from life to death while maintaining one’s dignity. If one embraces the Buddhist concept of the dignity of life, I believe that from both intellectual and spiritual points of view one must check the escalation of the ‘rightto-die’ concept into a justification of suicide.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I agree. My attitude regarding suicide is decidedly

negative. Not only do I think it a cowardly act, not befitting human beings, but I also think it goes against the natural order of the living world. I describe suicide as cowardly, because it implies a lack of courage to face some difficult crisis in one’s life. I believe that crises are there to be faced squarely and that by facing these a greater understanding of the world will emerge. I said that it is against the natural order of the living world because I am not aware of any other instance where a living creature freely contrives to cause its own death. I believe that instances of suicide are also rare in the most primitive human societies. IKEDA:

Buddhism exists precisely so that, with the principle of the dignity of life as their base, people will summon the courage to overcome the sufferings of life. In Buddhism, based on the idea of the eternity of life, along with helping people understand that their present sufferings will never be solved by death, we reach out compassionate hands to bring hope and courage to those who, sunk

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in the abyss of despair and sorrow, have no choice but to think of suicide. It is my opinion that Buddhists must take concrete steps to draw persons confronting suffering who hover on the borderline between life and death back to the ‘side of life.’ It is exactly this kind of action that is the practice of the bodhisattva way, which demonstrates the manner of living worthy of human beings.

Artificial Insemination, In Vitro Fertilization, Fetal Diagnosis and Abortion IKEDA: I would like now to discuss the life ethics issues surrounding

birth. The advances of modern medicine have given rise to a multitude of life ethics questions like those concerning artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, fetal diagnosis and abortion. For instance, artificial insemination is classified as AIH if insemination is carried out with the husband’s sperm and as AID if carried out with another donor’s sperm. In Japan, AIH has already been done numerous times. With regard to AID, the question then occurs as to whether one should choose – AID or adoption. Concerning in vitro fertilization, naturally one must be able to ascertain its safety, that is, whether or not mutations will increase due to human interference. Ethical questions develop here as well. In Japan at present, in vitro fertilization is limited to married couples, and in these cases, genetic manipulation of embryos is never performed. But because the traditional family unit is breaking down, and the model of the husband-and-wife relationship is undergoing a transformation, grounds also exist that may allow for broader interpretations. The greatest problem here is how the fertilized egg should be cared for. Looking at what is happening around the world, one finds that already a child has been born from a fertilized egg that had been frozen for four months. Problems have also been reported in connection with surrogate mothers. It strikes me that we are now in a situation where society must make constant efforts to prevent the danger of these kinds of technologies playing a part in the process of human birth and even being applied to the manipulation of human life. Next, in order to build a social consensus about this issue, it is necessary, I believe, that each individual, considering the profound meaning of giving birth to life, asks himself or herself the fundamental questions: ‘Why do I wish to have children?’ and ‘For what purpose do I want children?’

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Regarding the matter of surrogate motherhood, for instance, one must ask why people desire a child so intensely that they even borrow the womb of a stranger. Moreover, when one considers that the mother’s womb is not simply a physical object, but rather is the place where the depths of a human being’s mind are formed, one realizes that the mother of the fetus performs an exceedingly vital role. After also examining the psychological and spiritual aspects of surrogate motherhood, in the end I cannot help but take a negative view. The perspectives of anthropology and life science are also necessary, but I feel that first and foremost we must never forget that, as Buddhism points out, a child is a messenger from the future, a being born into this world with a precious mission to fulfill. WICKRAMASINGHE: Artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and

fetal diagnosis are medical developments with which one cannot be entirely in sympathy. They are attempts to cope with social rather than medical problems, and some of the solutions offered carry unacceptable implications. Artificial insemination (AIH or AID), where fertilization takes place naturally within a human womb, is perhaps the least objectionable option. In vitro fertilization carries with it the implication that a fully fertilized human embryo might be placed in a test tube in deep freeze and experimented upon, and this I find abominable. I see all these developments as aberrations of technological progress in medical science. It is claimed that these procedures confer benefits of a social kind – e.g., enhancing the stability of an otherwise childless marriage. But they undoubtedly represent interference with one of the most fundamental processes of human biology, that of birth. Such interference should not be regarded lightly, without fully exploring religious-spiritual issues as well as long-term genetic implications for our species. The procedures being discussed here are biologically unnecessary – one might even say they are unbiological. As regards artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization versus adoption, I think the latter is infinitely preferable. Childless couples in the Western world or Japan would be performing a great humanitarian service if they were to participate in a program instituted to adopt children from developing countries. IKEDA: With abortion, though economic issues as well as those related

to the circumstances and systems of society are important, as fetal diagnosis becomes more accessible, the continued improvement of that technology will also generate important ethical issues. For example, when fetal abnormalities are discovered by amniotic fluid analysis or ultrasonic diagnostic techniques, what course of

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action will the parents decide on? That is, will they venture on an abortion? It has been my experience that the parents’ way of dealing with the fetus is greatly affected by their view of life and death and their attitudes in life. WICKRAMASINGHE: Whatever the circumstances might be, abortion

cannot be regarded lightly. Most objectionable of all is the use of abortion as a method of birth control. Although a fetus at 12 weeks may not be capable of an independent existence outside the mother’s womb, it can only be considered as a developing child possessing a good measure of consciousness. To terminate its life by such deliberate means is tantamount to murder. IKEDA:

In traditional Buddhist ethics, abortion is included in teachings prohibiting the taking of life. ‘The Ten Divisions of Monastic Rules,’ for example, states, ‘If a monk devises a method of abortion in order to dispose of the fetus, and if the fetus dies, this constitutes parajika.’17 Parajika indicates the gravest offense a monk can commit. Considering that Buddhist compassion extends even to the fetus, and based on this fundamental spirit, in principle I cannot but oppose today’s methods of induced abortion. In addition, with the utmost consideration being given to various laws and regulations, a carefully thought-out response suited to each individual is necessary. Realistically, I think that people should be urged to make use of methods of birth control.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Most religions have condemned abortion, and severe criminal sanctions existed to deter its practice in many countries of Europe throughout the nineteenth century. The first country in the modern world to deem abortion at the mother’s request legal was the Soviet Union – in 1920. Since then most developed countries have made abortion legal if certain predefined conditions are satisfied. In the United Kingdom a doctor has to be convinced that the continuation of the pregnancy will adversely affect either the psychological or physical health of the mother. In effect this makes it relatively easy to secure an abortion, almost on request. There are powerful anti-abortion lobbies at work in the UK, but these have not yet been successful in changing the law.

IKEDA:

In connection with abortion, an exceedingly pressing issue has developed because it is now possible to diagnose the condition of the fetus in the womb. Although abortion is sometimes resorted to as a means of protecting the mother’s health, the greatest problems today are presented by cases where the fetus itself is found to be affected by congenital diseases like chromosomal or metabolic

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deformities. At present, these abnormalities are detected at an early stage by amniotic fluid analysis and ultrasonic testing; in the future they may be detected by DNA analysis. If, for instance, a congenital abnormality such as Down’s syndrome were discovered, this could very well become the focus of a serious discussion about abortion. WICKRAMASINGHE: I have reservations about any form of interference

with the human embryo, particularly when decisions of life or death are to be made. One could invent a multitude of reasons that may appear altruistic, but in the final analysis we are intruding on the basic right of life for every human individual. Do we have the right to decide that a Down’s syndrome embryo should be aborted because we think the quality of its life does not meet our arbitrary standards? I hold the view that nature (or karma) should take its course in all such cases. My fear is that the present-day trend to abort ‘unsatisfactory’ fetuses would lead logically to even less acceptable practices including euthanasia. IKEDA: I am absolutely opposed to any view or attitude that would,

as you have just mentioned, apply qualitatively discriminatory standards to a fetus or a child with congenital abnormalities. I say so because the Buddhist philosophy of the dignity of life asserts that from the moment of conception each and every life form contains in its depths that sublimely respectworthy entity, the Buddha nature. Although there are various instances of Down’s syndrome, I have heard that in reality, even with the help of modern medicine, hope of sustaining life must sometimes be abandoned. This, however, is a problem of medical treatment technology. For parents, profound concerns exist about the birth of life, such as: ‘For what purpose is this child being born?’ and ‘Why has this child chosen us as its parents?’ And when we view things from the Buddhist perspective of life and death, I believe it is the adults’ responsibility to carefully consider, keeping in mind the Buddha nature of the fetus, what can be done for this child that will direct him or her along the path of greatest happiness. And I also believe we must make better arrangements so that not just the family alone but communities and society as a whole can provide support for children’s education, particularly as regards financial matters.

The Future of Genetic Engineering IKEDA:

The scientific technologies that appeared in the 1970s for artificially manipulating genetic structure, such as gene recombination, cell fusion and cell engineering employing nuclear

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implantation technology, are all developing rapidly. It is a veritable revolution in biotechnology. Genetic engineering in particular has spurred a technological revolution across a wide domain, its effects reaching the disciplines of medicine, biology, agriculture, industry, environment and energy. It seems probable that the positive aspects of this technology will produce significant contributions to the future of humanity, but we cannot ignore the possible influence of negative aspects. In order to make the best of the positive and to prevent the danger of doing damage to the dignity of life, attention to life ethics is indispensable. In any discussion of the merits and demerits of genetic engineering, I think it is necessary that we distinguish between the genetic manipulation of human life and that of other forms of life. Regarding the genetic manipulation of other forms of life, because of the danger presented by harmful micro-organisms or by possible negative effects on the ecosystem, the greatest point of concern is safety. When it comes to this technology being applied to human beings, however, apart from safety, ethical issues must also be addressed. Among these, the first issue to require clarification will probably be genetic diagnosis and treatment for disease. In the future, when genetic treatment becomes a reality, the treatment of certain kinds of genetic diseases will become possible, and a path may also be paved for the direct treatment of cancer. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Genetic engineering does indeed offer great hopes for improving the quality of life in the years to come. You have mentioned a range of beneficial applications of which the cure of cancer may be a prime example.

IKEDA: Some say that no attempt should be made, even for medical

purposes, at any human genetic manipulation whatsoever. In this event, however, we would also lose the benefits of any positive aspects. Here I believe we can look to Buddhist ethics for the concepts and ideas – the ‘brakes’ – to help keep us from crossing the line between the treatment and the remodeling of the human being. Professor, what are your thoughts on this point? WICKRAMASINGHE:

You are right in saying that some moral brakes are needed if we are to prevent ourselves from going too far in directions of obvious danger.

IKEDA: The dangers that lie in eugenicists’ thinking about ‘improving’

human beings will probably also take shape in the course of attempts to clone and chimerize human beings. Already creatures such as a clone mouse, a chimera mouse and Dolly, the clone of an adult sheep, have been produced. As the technology improves, and

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scientists move closer and closer to applying those techniques to people, concepts that used to exist only in the realm of science fiction may indeed become a reality. On another front, as we discussed earlier, success has also been reported with partial transplants of brain structures. Though people have predicted that this type of research offers hope in such areas as the treatment of senile dementia and Parkinson’s disease, here too ethical questions demand an answer, and apprehensions will surely arise about the linking of eugenics concepts with brain improvement. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I would say that the cloning of humans would certainly be morally questionable. Even more dangerous would be the possibility that we may wish to produce a superhuman race through genetic manipulation combined with selective breeding. Such aspirations, if they do develop, would be alarmingly reminiscent of Adolf Hitler, and should be nipped in the bud at all costs.

IKEDA: Given that ethical ‘brakes,’ like those mentioned earlier, could

be applied, would you be interested in the promise that genetic engineering offers in such a variety of fields? WICKRAMASINGHE:

Yes, I would. It is very much a subject of the future. For researchers in the field, the development of genetic engineering means that it may be possible to map out a person’s entire genome. In other words, genetic engineering means that we will be able to create a list of the entire sequence of bases throughout the length of our DNA. Several scientists have predicted that the attainment of this goal is close at hand. I find this possibility very exciting, because it would mean complete knowledge of our essential biochemical identity as human beings. The only area then left to explore would be the realm of consciousness.

CHAPTER 4

Buddhist Pacifism

Dialogue in Accord with the Speech of the Sage – I WICKRAMASINGHE: You have published a series of dialogues dealing

with important contemporary issues. Perhaps the most famous of these is the dialogue with the historian Arnold Toynbee. I enjoyed this book enormously, and in it I sensed a dynamic interaction between two incisive and critical minds. Through dialogues such as this we might hope to approach some kind of objective truth about the nature of the world in a manner reminiscent of the Dialogues of Plato. What are your views about the value of dialogue as an expository art or literary form? IKEDA:

I hold and publish dialogues with persons who represent the wisdom of the world because I believe it is possible that the truth disclosed therein, transcending time and space, will shake people to their very souls and continually provide those in the vanguard of the times with fresh suggestions. It is said that for Socrates, dialogue was the task of committing his soul, and then baring and scrutinizing it. My hope is that in our dialogue we can concentrate thoughtfully on truth for the sake of the world and of humanity. In this connection, what comes to mind for me as a Buddhist is the dialogue that took place between King Menander, the GrecoIndian king who ruled in northwest India around the second century BC, and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Their dialogue has been preserved in Pali as ‘The Questions of King Menander,’ or Milindapanha, as well as in Chinese. In this century it has also been translated into English, German and French. Incidentally, it was in Sri Lanka that the Pali Buddhist scriptures were edited and preserved. It cannot be overemphasized how great a contribution the Pali scriptures in Sri Lanka and the Sanskrit scriptures in Nepal and their Chinese translations have made to the promotion of modern Buddhist studies. In ‘The Questions of King Menander,’ which is reminiscent of Plato’s Dialogues, there is something particularly fascinating about 139

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the dramatic way the encounter between Eastern and Western thought unfolds. King Menander, with his Greek-style education, opens the debate expressing the idea that the individual existence represents a substantial being. In response, speaking from the point of view of the Buddhist doctrine of nonself, Nagasena rejects the view that a substantial self exists. This dialogue, which begins with an ideological confrontation between Western logic and Eastern wisdom, closes with a moving scene in which both Nagasena and the king rejoice that they were able to debate together correctly without permitting egotistic attachments to emerge. Ordinarily the dialogue between King Menander and Nagasena is interpreted as a confrontation between the concept of substantial being that underlies the Greek spirit and culture, and the Buddhist concept of nonbeing. In my opinion, however, the Buddhist concepts that Nagasena reveals to King Menander are actually those of dependent origination and nonsubstantiality – that is, of life – which subsume the notions of being and nonbeing. Historically speaking, of course, the Abhidharma (study of the dharma) system of the early Buddhist schools took shape because of such opportunities as these encounters with Greek thought. This is why the doctrine developed by Nagasena appears superficially to be the Hinayana concept of nonself. It seems, however, that the power to change into the concepts of dependent origination and nonsubstantiality that are taught in Mahayana Buddhism was already inherent in the Hinayana concept. WICKRAMASINGHE: Your interpretation is a valid one for the reason

that King Menander’s reign over parts of India extended over the period 155–130 BC, when Mahayana Buddhism was just beginning to blossom. It would seem natural to assume that Nagasena was influenced by these trends and that such concepts as dependent origination and nonsubstantiality were included in the dialogue. I would also like to offer my own opinions concerning what is important about this dialogue. The fact remains that although Menander’s kingdom extended over a large part of India, he was primarily a Greek king who had inherited the traditions of classical Athens. Nagasena’s position was to protect the Buddhism of Shakyamuni and of King Ashoka. The confrontation represented here was between two of the greatest philosophies the world has known. I see the initial clash between Menander and Nagasena as symbolic of philosophical diversity, and the points of agreement that are said to have emerged as the dialogue progressed as symbolic of the power of rational argument.

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IKEDA: Nagasena develops his argument logically from the Buddhist

point of view, and King Menander, demonstrating wholehearted agreement, takes faith in Buddhism. As proof of his commitment, King Menander built a monastery that he named after himself, enshrining there an urn containing relics of the Buddha, with the reason for the dedication inscribed on the urn. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Historians know very little about the details of King Menander’s reign, which extended over a truly vast area. It is interesting to speculate whether his conversion to Buddhism made his reign as humane and benevolent as was Ashoka’s. Archaeological evidence from Menander’s coins, mostly of silver and copper, is thought to indicate great prosperity and a flourishing commerce at the time.

IKEDA:

Here I would like to focus on dialogue as an expository technique, as you have called it, or as a literary form. Nagasena says that the ideal form of dialogue, as a means of explaining the truths of the Universe and of human life, is the ‘speech of the wise.’ In ‘The Questions of King Menander,’ Nagasena precedes the actual debate with the following words: ‘Your Majesty, if you are prepared to debate in the speech of the wise, then I shall debate with you. However, should Your Majesty wish to debate in the speech of kings, then I shall decline.’1 The king then asks him to clarify the difference between the two types of speech. Nagasena replies: ‘In the speech of the wise, the parties never become angry over explanations, interpretations, criticisms, revisions, distinctions and fine demarcations made in the course of debate. This is the format by which the wise engage in debate …. By contrast, Your Majesty, in the speech of many kings, they insist that one view only prevails. If one refuses to go along with this, they declare: “Punish this person,” and order the punishment to be carried out against one. Your Majesty, there are actually many kings who debate in this manner.’ King Menander, understanding Nagasena perfectly, responds: ‘Reverend Sir, let us debate in the speech of the wise. I will not debate in the speech of kings. Reverend Sir, please set your mind at rest and debate candidly with me.’ Thus a rewarding dialogue ensues between the two concerning all sorts of issues. The term ‘speech of the wise’ indicates the standard necessary to realize a rational and fruitful dialogue. Since the time of Shakyamuni, this also has been the attitude of Buddhists, who have made a standard of impartial and unrestricted dialogue, that is, dialogue in which, in the pursuit of truth, one eagerly strives for illumination, in which one is fair-minded and magnanimous regarding criticism and revisions, and in which both

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parties commit their souls. I believe that dialogue in the speech of the wise is the form best suited for solving the perplexing questions that overshadow modern society.

Dialogue in Accord with the Speech of the Sage – II WICKRAMASINGHE: The dialogue between King Menander and the

Buddhist monk Nagasena that you have recalled could certainly serve as a model for contemporary dialogues between East and West. By ‘East’ I mean all countries including Japan that have a predominantly Buddhist philosophy, and by ‘West’ I mean all countries of the industrialized Western world that are nominally Christian. As in the Menander–Nagasena encounter we would begin with a situation where the two parties hold diametrically opposite views concerning the relevance and importance of materialistic values. The drawbacks of the materialistic approach and the inadequacies of a Cartesian reductionist worldview, as we have discussed earlier in our own dialogue, would not be too hard to convey to our Western partner. An important prerequisite, however, would be that the Westerner set aside any assumed status of power or authority, just as Nagasena insisted that Menander converse in the speech of the wise rather than the speech of kings. If the West continues to hold the reigns of economic power in the world, this prerequisite may be difficult to achieve. The fact that Japan has assumed a role of economic leadership makes me optimistic that a Spiritual Silk Road will indeed be established connecting East and West. Your economic preeminence is one of the most important facts in our modern world. Just as we all buy Sony or National Panasonic TV sets, we in the West may eventually ‘buy’ Eastern philosophy, including Buddhism, as a superior product. It would be ironical if a trade route based on a Japanese materialistic worldview were actually to succeed in spreading a distinctly nonmaterialistic philosophy. IKEDA:

I think what you have said about Japan’s economic growth forming a foundation for dialogue between East and West based on the speech of the wise is a subject that, as Japanese, we must be deeply aware of. As you say, interest in Japanese Buddhism has also increased. For instance, Professor Serge Kolm of France’s Higher Institute of Social Sciences, another scholar with whom I am presently conducting a dialogue, is of the opinion that the spiritual nourishment of Buddhism is behind Japan’s recent economic development. He also commented that Soka Gakkai International has realized cultural

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expansion while its members have been carrying on open dialogue with people around the world, without the movement having lost touch with either its original purpose or its convictions. As you know, Buddhism is a religion that has always spread through dialogue; it has never resorted to such war-like means as military power or violence. This is quite different from the history of Christianity and of Islam and may be said to be a prominent distinguishing feature of Buddhism. The world-famous French scholar of Buddhism, Sylvain Lévi, stated: ‘Buddhism is justified in laying claim to the honor of having conquered a portion of the world without ever having resorted to violence and without ever having resorted to force of arms.’2 Not once in the over 2,000-year history of Buddhism have Buddhists instigated a war. Shakyamuni attached uncompromising importance to spiritual and moral power, and aimed at social revolution without the exercise of force. He never initiated what is called a religious or holy war. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The emphasis on dialogue in Buddhism bears a striking resemblance to the importance given to philosophical dialogues in the classical Greek period. A great deal of Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism is expounded through dialogues between master and disciples, and the same, I believe, is true of Nichiren Buddhism, which evolved later in Japan. The tradition here is not dissimilar to that of the Socratic dialogue, though there is an added component in the form of a monologue or sermon.

IKEDA:

I agree. One of Nichiren’s most important writings is the ‘Rissho ankoku ron’ (On Securing Peace in the Land through the Propagation of True Buddhism), in which the guest, a political leader who is troubled about the current state of affairs in his land, and his host, a Buddhist who represents Nichiren himself, carry on a dialogue. In this work we observe the process by which the guest ultimately comes to understand and be moved by the host’s profound knowledge of Buddhism. Another of Nichiren’s works, ‘Conversation between a Sage and an Unenlightened Man,’ also takes the form of a dialogue, in which a Buddhist expounds the truth of the Universe and of human life to a person ignorant of Buddhism. It is my perception that in one sense Nichiren’s life itself was a struggle against the speech of kings based on the speech of the wise.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The lack of violence, or ahimsa, is of course an integral part of Buddhism, so it is perhaps not too surprising to find that this religion has a good record on the whole for propagation without war. But greed, which Buddhism seeks to combat, is a

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human failing, so one might expect some lapses into war to show up in a 2,500-year history. Indeed, of the century and a half that followed the death of the Buddha in 483 BC, little information seems to be extant, and there may well have been some wars fought in the expansion of Buddhist empires. Even the great Buddhist king, Ashoka, waged a bitter war to annex the kingdom of Kalinga on the coast of the Bay of Bengal, but after this he renounced war and became the greatest pacifist the world has known. Though minor conflicts may have broken out, the fact that no record of them remains seems to suggest that if they did exist, they were neither terribly savage nor the cause of a great deal of suffering. Waging a bloody battle in the cause of propagation fundamentally contradicts the most basic tenets of Buddhism. I see this as a natural consequence of the holistic worldview that is implicit in Buddhism. ‘Universal love’ means that precisely. It extends to all life. IKEDA:

In Buddhism the adversaries one must face are never other religious believers, but rather the earthly desires such as greed and anger that cloud, distort and weaken human lives. The aim of spreading Buddhism lies in clarifying the true nature of the fundamental sufferings that all human beings undergo, regardless of nationality or race, and in awakening in them the Buddha nature, or the eternal life of the Universe. The greatest weapons Buddhism has had for that purpose have been dialogue directed at people’s souls and the power of culture and the arts, such as painting and sculpture, which create great waves of religious sentiment. I believe that when this peaceful aspect of Buddhism is held up against Christianity and Islam, it becomes all the more distinctive.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I would like to hear your views regarding this issue. The major world religions were born in distinct cultures and at different times, and consequently there are considerable differences in their tenets of belief. Because religious beliefs are not amenable to analysis by reductionist methods, they are on the whole untestable. One set of beliefs cannot be regarded in objective terms as being either superior or inferior to any other. Followers of different religions often hold divergent views on many fundamental issues. Whenever such views are held and defended with great fervor, one finds that conflicts inevitably arise. Religious differences have led to wars throughout history, even in very recent times. Religious intolerance is again rearing its ugly head and posing a growing problem as we approach the year 2000. If we accept the principle that human beings must be free to follow the religion of

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their choice, how may we prevent clashes of religious ideology turning into bloody wars? IKEDA: Futurologist Alvin Toffler expresses the same misgivings in his book Power Shift.3 Toffler cites ‘holy frenzy’ as a huge force that

could sweep humanity toward a new Dark Age. This ‘holy frenzy’ indicates fundamentalism, which may be seen principally in Islamic and Christian countries and which is hostile to the secularization of society. In one sense, I think it only natural that in secularized societies that have lost sight of ‘the eternal’ and that are losing their moral sense, individuals should seek of their own accord for wisdom and attempt to satisfy their spiritual thirst. Nevertheless, I believe we must always be on our guard against religions that turn away from the progress of the times and of society and consciously fight against such tendencies. World trends are undeniably moving from violence to nonviolence, from suspicion to trust, from power clashes to dialogue. For the sake of the continued existence of humanity, we must firmly oppose the tendencies or the kinds of dogma, irrespective of the cultural soil from which such religious convictions spring, that run counter to this consensus of the people of the world. Religion exists for the sake of human beings, never the other way around. This is why I wish to stress the active use of dialogue rooted in compassion and forbearance – the speech of the wise – both among the people and among heads of state. Dialogue based on the speech of the wise, where people are able to explain, comment on, revise and distinguish each other’s respective ideas and beliefs – this kind of patient dialogue, where the parties never become angry, is the foundation for fostering religious tolerance. It is my firm conviction that dialogue, discussion and exchange based on mutual respect among cultures are praiseworthy proof of people’s humanity. As Plato says in ‘Phaidon,’ hating discussion is tantamount to hating human beings and rejecting dialogue and debate is tantamount to rejecting human beings. Exactly as Buddhism has perceived, when human beings discard their humanity, their violent and brutish nature bursts forth. That animality has donned the mask of ideology and self-righteous dogma and employed violence and military force to do away with human beings exactly as you pointed out earlier. The course that will secure humanity’s survival lies in people overcoming their animalistic nature with humanity centered on dialogue, discussion and exchange, and in conquering violence with nonviolence. From a long-range perspective, I would like next to emphasize the role of education. In a discussion I had with educators David L. Norton of Delaware University and Dayle M. Bethel of

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International University in the United States, we agreed that, as you too have mentioned, dangerous tendencies exist in religion. At that point I said that without the world of the intellect opened up by education, the danger exists that religion and belief may become blind faith, but that if, on the other hand, one has intellect, the source of illumination acquired through education, the spirituality one gains through religion shines even brighter. Both scholars agreed, and Bethel commented that when human beings possess both education and religion, they are endowed with eyes whose vision penetrates eternity. The kind of education I speak of here indicates the entire range of human intellectual and spiritual endeavors. Religion complements human beings’ spiritual endeavors and is the soil that fosters the spiritual fruits of humanity. It goes without saying that this kind of education should be based on the spirit of the speech of the wise. To the extent that this is true, I am convinced that the people’s spirit to criticize religious intolerance and inhumane dogma will be nurtured, and the arrival of the age of the people’s will, founded on the principles of nonviolence, tolerance and compassion, will be realized.

The Buddhist Mission for Peace WICKRAMASINGHE: You have devoted a great deal of your time and

energy to pacifist work. There are many organizations under your patronage that work ceaselessly toward the goal of world peace. I would like to inquire how you came to have such an abiding interest in and passion for the cause of world peace. IKEDA:

Two formative episodes that occurred when I was young became the driving force that inspired me to strive for peace. One was an experience in my childhood; the other was my encounter with Josei Toda, the second president of the Soka Gakkai, who was to become my lifelong teacher. When I was a boy, my father and eldest brother told me time and again about the dreadful atrocities Japan was perpetrating in the Korean Peninsula, in China and in Southeast Asia. My father had been conscripted in the early 1910s and was stationed for two years in what is today Seoul in the Republic of Korea. My eldest brother was sent to China as a soldier. Both my father and brother had what was in those days quite a humanitarian way of thinking. ‘Japan is merciless,’ they often said. ‘Such tyranny and arrogance! Those people are our fellow human beings, aren’t they? What Japan is doing is absolutely wrong.’ At that time I was in the fifth grade or thereabouts in elementary school. I engraved deeply in

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my young soul their anger against war and their indignation against Japan’s military aggression. My eldest brother was killed in action in Burma in 1945, the year the war ended. The official notice of his death reached us two years later, on May 30, 1947, a day when the white clouds streaming across the sky heralded the early summer. I shall never forget the sight of my mother, her back turned to us in sorrow. I found myself hating war and the foolish leaders who instigate it. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Your story is deeply moving. I can sympathize with the pain and suffering your mother must have endured when she heard the news of your brother’s death. What a truly heartbreaking waste of human life! How much grief must have torn her heart, and how many tears must have been shed by mothers all around the world?

IKEDA: These were questions that still occupied me when on August

14, 1947, at the age of 19, I met Toda. A friend of mine had invited me to attend a discussion meeting, and I had accepted. At that meeting I heard Toda explain simply and clearly profound truths of human life, albeit in a completely openhearted and relaxed manner. I felt immediately that he was a man I could trust. He was an individual who had opposed that reckless war, resolutely refusing to compromise even when pressured by the military-controlled state authorities and carrying through with his own convictions even when imprisoned. Toda was a man who had persevered through two years of imprisonment in his fight against the militarist government – this was a decisive factor for me. And Toda’s mentor, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, had proposed in his Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of Human Life), that one associate with ‘all nations of the world as neighbors,’4 with the awareness of oneself as a ‘citizen of the world.’ Makiguchi had fought against the narrow-minded Japanese militarist government; his precious life came to a close in prison. Toda, who succeeded to Makiguchi’s ideals, also said, ‘I myself believe in “globalism.”’ He keenly perceived that when individuals, transcending differences of nationality and race, and seeing from the perspective of humanity, developed an awareness of themselves as belonging to a ‘global nation’ and a ‘global community,’ from this soil would surely emerge peaceful and secure societies. In September 1957, before an assembly of 5,000 young people, Toda announced his Declaration for the Abolition of Nuclear Weapons. Based on the right of humanity to live, he astutely pointed out the evil nature embodied in nuclear weapons and in war itself. At the heart of this declaration was his profound insight

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that it is the evil devilish nature of authority that, in destroying peace, leads to the destruction of people’s happiness, and that unless one struggles ceaselessly against this invisible devilish nature nesting in human life, no hope exists either for true peace or happiness. Today, with the twenty-first century just before us, the greatest of humanity’s many pending problems is the abolition of nuclear weapons. I have seized every available opportunity to present proposals for peace, particularly at the United Nations General Assembly on Disarmament. The advent of the atomic bomb was a shock that alerted us to the fact that peace is a desperately urgent issue for all humanity. In our country the examples of Hiroshima and Nagasaki demonstrated that nuclear weapons can bring about the extinction of the human species itself and that these weapons are truly apocalyptic. If one considers the subject of peace in the twenty-first century from the global perspective of Buddhism – a view encompassing all humanity and the entire globe, including all of Nature too – as a concrete means of fighting against the devilish nature of authority, in cooperation with grass-roots movements, the best way would be for all nations to strengthen the functions of the United Nations. In 1948, the Third UN General Assembly unanimously adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The declaration provides in detail for basic individual freedoms and for basic rights in economic, social and cultural realms. It has great significance as a document that provided the postwar world with a model for the guarantee of human rights. Later, as is well known, the United Nations made the Declaration into a treaty with legal binding power and, in order to make its enforcement a duty, drafted the International Covenants on Human Rights. This was adopted at the 1966 General Assembly and opened ratification by each nation. With that precedent in mind, I once proposed that a ‘Universal Declaration Renouncing War’ be adopted as a UN resolution. I believed that it would be a valuable breakthrough on the road to the realization of lasting peace. WICKRAMASINGHE:

We must remember that the origins of the United Nations go back to the events of the Second World War when all the countries then fighting against Adolf Hitler resolved to work together. A London declaration of June 12, 1941, stated that all nations fighting against Hitler would work together with other free peoples to establish ‘a world in which, relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security.’ Ironically it was the war against Hitler that brought nations together.

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We should also recall that the League of Nations, an international organization very much like the United Nations, was established by the peace treaties that ended the First World War. This organization had very similar aspirations to the United Nations – its Covenant stated its purpose as being ‘to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security.’ In this aspiration the League of Nations signally failed; nowhere was this more evident than in the hostilities that led to the Second World War. With all these lessons behind us let us hope that the United Nations will be more successful in its mission. IKEDA:

For that reason too, aiming for the construction of peace from the grass-roots level, we insist on the importance of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) shouldering the task of laying the foundations of peace. In discussions at the government level, debate about tactics and strategies invariably takes precedence, and it is difficult to introduce people’s candid antiwar sentiments. Because of the NGOs’ special nature, they can more accurately reflect the feelings of the people.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The preamble to the UN Charter states: ‘We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind ….’ It is important, nevertheless, to recognize that the existence of the United Nations alone does not guarantee peace. All member nations, all affiliated NGOs, all of humankind must work tirelessly with unremitting effort to achieve the objectives of the United Nations.

IKEDA: Our organization, Soka Gakkai International (SGI), is also

officially recognized as an NGO at the UN Department of Public Information (UNDPI) and at the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations, and it appears that in the future the field of NGO activities will continue to expand. As you know, it was the nonaligned nations and NGOs that were behind the opening of the first special sessions of the UN General Assembly on Disarmament. In addition to their ability to realize the ideal of the renunciation of war, I believe the significance of NGOs based on transnationalism is great. Because the movement toward a world without war above all demands that people work autonomously wherever possible to build peace, SGI also aims to develop strong movements in the places where ordinary people spend their daily lives. I believe that one can find in the actions of NGOs a model of the bodhisattva way in the modern world. The actualization in the real world of a peace movement based on compassion and tolerance – the fundamental

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spirit of the Lotus Sutra – will surely lead to support for the United Nations based on a consensus of the people. Herein I sense the mission of Buddhists as bodhisattvas in the modern world. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I believe it is the duty of every human being on our planet to do whatever lies in his or her power to renounce war and to avert any possible approach to a third world war. I share your hopes that the United Nations can serve as an agency through which our individual aspirations may be achieved. Within this framework I also agree that nongovernmental organizations like your own SGI have a far more important, less partisan role to play than organizations connected with individual member states.

Religion for Humanity’s Sake WICKRAMASINGHE:

In your youth I take it that Buddhism was not a very popular religion in Japan. The vast majority of Japanese people must have espoused Shinto in preference to Buddhism. I would like to know how you first came to be interested in Buddhism, an attachment that eventually led you to become a preeminent scholar and religious leader.

IKEDA: By the time I reached adolescence, conventional Buddhism

had certainly ceased to hold any attraction for most people. This is not, however, the reason people were practicing only Shinto. The Japanese people superficially worshipped Shinto deities up until the end of the Second World War because this had been forced on them by the state under a system of thought control. However, the fact that after the war people turned around and discarded Shinto shows clearly that it was never something they accepted wholeheartedly. Nothing those in power impose on people can ever touch their hearts. And the reason the established sects of Buddhism had lost their appeal in Japan was that they had ingratiated themselves with the authorities for centuries and they were out of touch with the people. It was through Josei Toda, my mentor in life, that I came to be interested in Buddhism. Toda had carried through with his convictions even in prison, never yielding to pressure from the authorities, and Toda was a believer of Nichiren Buddhism. A Buddhist who always walked shoulder to shoulder with the people – it was above all this point that attracted me. As his disciple and as a believer in Nichiren Buddhism, I too have always conducted my activities in the very midst of the people.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

That is indeed a moving account. Toda has evidently had a profound influence on your life. Incidentally, why is it that religion has begun to attract such great attention in Japan these days?

IKEDA:

In over 50 years since the end of the Second World War, though the Japanese have become prosperous in material terms, it appears that their sense of spiritual hunger has increased nearly in direct proportion. Human beings find it difficult to go on living unless they perceive value in their own way of life. Thus surely in the depths of his or her heart everyone is seeking for a philosophy or religion that offers complete understanding and satisfaction.

WICKRAMASINGHE: That is correct. Of all the life forms that inhabit

our planet we can be reasonably sure that human beings alone have religion. It could be said that religious faith is actually a human instinct. IKEDA:

When I spoke with the educator Dayle M. Bethel, he said, ‘There are two kinds of religion: dogmatic ones that subordinate people to authority and ones that help produce people who can think things through for themselves.’ People are searching for a religion that will cultivate that power of self-control, one that will benefit them as human beings. Nichiren Buddhism teaches the way to express the essential power that deepens one’s perception of the depths of life and one’s self-awareness, and creates self-regulated individuals and societies. It is for this very reason, I believe, that it is attracting much attention, not only in Japan but from people around the world. But for a religion to spread, there must be people to spread it. And in order to educate people widely about a religion, a base for such work is essential. Nichiren wrote: ‘People of like mind should gather in one place to listen [to the teachings].’5 An organization of faith inevitably becomes necessary wherever believers encourage, edify and talk with one another, and wherever they act together on behalf of peace and prosperity. Toda recognized that without relationships of mutual encouragement no true deepening of faith is possible. One can say that today’s Soka Gakkai exists precisely because these places of human harmony exist. True religion takes root among the people.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I agree with Bethel. Buddhism appeals personally

to me because it is not a dogmatic religion. I would go so far as to say that it is the only major religion that places prime emphasis on self-reliance and self-knowledge, knowledge gained through one’s

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own effort. In this sense I think that Buddhism is fully compatible with the spirit of modern science. For me Shakyamuni and Nichiren are simply examples of men who have gained enlightenment through self-knowledge. Their teachings have acted as guiding lights for many centuries, inspiring a great number of people in Asia, including Japan. In my view, however, the important fact is that enlightenment in a Buddhist sense is not restricted to a few Buddhas scattered through the centuries, but rather is something we can all reach to varying degrees depending on the effort we put in. This must surely be a selling point for Buddhism. The way of Buddhism leads logically and inevitably to wisdom, inner peace, compassion, good will and peace on Earth. We have both had the good fortune to be exposed to these concepts from an early age, and so we accept them as self-evident truths. In the Western world the vast majority of people have not been so lucky. In view of the enormous social benefits that would accrue from Buddhist ideas, their spreading worldwide is a matter of the highest priority. I fully agree with you that an organizational framework is needed to carry out such work. In the ancient world the sangha (the community of monks) played exactly this role, but of course they have little relevance in the present. The Soka Gakkai, on the other hand, could replace the traditional role of the sangha. Being a lay organization, it is well placed to cross national and cultural barriers and spread the message of Buddhism to the widest possible audience in the world. I greatly admire the SGI for the work it does; I wish it every success. IKEDA:

I am very much obliged to you. I think what you have just said has vital significance for our future. I will do my best to ensure that the SGI lives up to your expectations. The SGI was founded in l975, when the Japanese Soka Gakkai and its sister organizations worldwide sent their representatives to a world peace conference in Guam. The purpose of the new organization was to spread the message of human dignity across the globe. Allow me to summarize here the reasons for the organization’s success. First, after Japan’s defeat in the Pacific War, the collapse of Shinto values left the Japanese people in an abyss of ideological chaos and nihilism. The Soka Gakkai’s values, worldview and perspectives on the meaning of human existence, which are based on Nichiren Buddhism, appealed to these people, especially the younger generations. Second, the SGI has provided modern interpretations for esoteric Buddhist principles. For instance, Buddhism offers concepts of life and of birth and death that illuminate the ultimate reality of human

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beings and of the Universe. The SGI has embraced these concepts and, taking contemporary scientific research and philosophical contemplation into account, has set them forth in ways that are intellectually convincing to the people of today. Third, the SGI teaches that one can establish a dynamic harmony between one’s religious practice and one’s daily life. As Miao-lo of China stated, ‘No affairs of life or work are in any way different from the ultimate reality.’6 It is nowhere else but in the midst of human affairs – be they political, economic, cultural or otherwise – that ‘the ultimate reality,’ or the fundamental principle of the Universe, manifests itself. Thus the SGI has helped people show, in their everyday lives, actual proof of the wisdom, compassion and beneficial power of Buddhism. Fourth, the SGI has tackled problems that concern the entire human race. Toda left behind a number of instructions for young people, of which the first and foremost was his appeal for the abolition of atomic and hydrogen bombs. Abiding by this will of his, I have striven for the realization of everlasting peace and have called on youth, our successors, to conduct antiwar and antinuclear campaigns whenever possible. As an example of the SGI’s emphasis on activities for peace, the United Nations’ ‘Nuclear Arms: Threat to Our World’ exhibition, cosponsored by the SGI, had a dramatic impact in the 16 countries and 25 cities where it was exhibited. The period from the second half of the twentieth century to the beginning of the twenty-first century is one in which we have been and will continue to be faced with global problems such as the nuclear threat, the destruction of the environment, growing disparities between industrialized and developing countries, and infringements on human rights. In that sense, we are at a unique crossroads in human history. The Soka Gakkai and its global network, Soka Gakkai International, will continue to carry out activities for peace, education and culture based on the principles of Buddhism. In this way the SGI will do its best to contribute to the establishment of lasting prosperity and eternal peace in the world.

Ashoka and Sri Lanka IKEDA: Makiguchi wrote Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of Human

Life) in 1903, when he was 32. In it he mentions Sri Lanka, along with islands like Hawaii and Hong Kong, as the vital island regions of the world. And from that time on he was interested in the crucial role of these islands. In this sense also I have special feelings for Sri Lanka, which means ‘Shining Isle’ and which is often referred to as an ‘island of gems.’

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There is something that I, as a Japanese, wish to tell you, who hail from that wonderful island of Sri Lanka. When the San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed ending the hostilities in the Pacific War, many countries demanded that Japan pay reparations. But Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon), a signatory to the peace treaty, chose to waive the right to demand reparations. At that time still a youth, I was quite moved at the news. The declaration by the Sri Lankan representative touched me deeply: ‘The war is over. Let us put an end to repaying hatred with hatred. In this spirit, Ceylon would like to contribute to world peace.’ This echoed the spirit of the Dhammapada: ‘Hatred never ceases through hatred in this world. By love alone hatred ceases. This is an eternal law,’7 and aroused an echo of great sympathy in many people. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I, too, believe that hatred should be overcome by love, not by hatred. Certainly this is an ideal we should all strive to live up to. Your reference to Ceylon’s intervention in the San Francisco Peace Treaty interests me because the person who expressed those sentiments that so moved you was none other than my good friend the late President J. R. Jayawardene. Jayawardene (JR as he is popularly known) was a school friend of my father’s, and I came to know him rather well when I was called upon to advise him on the setting up of the Institute of Fundamental Studies in Sri Lanka in the early 1980s. He was of course the first executive president of the Republic of Sri Lanka. JR was a devout Buddhist, a man of great integrity and a politician of considerable stature in twentieth-century world affairs. At the time you refer to, JR was Ceylon’s finance minister representing Ceylon in San Francisco. I remember him telling me one day that the Soviet representative Andrei Gromyko, when he brought up the matter of war reparations, had set his mind on dividing up Japan, in much the same way that Germany was divided up after the war. JR’s intervention and his impassioned ‘war is over’ speech went a long way toward precluding the imminent danger of a divided postwar Japan. The crucial section of his speech was as follows: We in Ceylon were fortunate that we were not invaded, but the damage caused by air raids, by the stationing of enormous armies under the South East Asian command, and by the slaughter tapping of one of our main commodities, rubber, when we were the only producers of natural rubber for the Allies, entitles us to ask that the damage so caused should be repaired. We do not intend to do so, for we believe in the words of the great Teacher whose message has ennobled the lives of countless millions in

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Asia, that ‘hatred ceases not by hatred, but by love.’ It is the message of the Buddha, the Great Teacher, the founder of Buddhism, which spread a wave of humanism through South Asia, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Siam, Indonesia and Ceylon, and also northwards through the Himalayas into Tibet, China and finally Japan, which bound us together for hundreds of years with a common culture and heritage. This common culture still exists, as I found on my visit to Japan last week on my way to attend this Conference; and from the leaders of Japan, Ministers of State as well as private citizens, from their priests in the temples. I gathered the impression that the common people of Japan are still influenced by the shadow of that great Teacher of peace, and wish to follow it. We must give them that opportunity.8 For this reason, I am told, he was regarded as something of a hero in modern Japan. During one of his visits a statue and a plaque depicting him were unveiled in Kamakura. It is amazing to reflect now how one man’s foresight affected the entire course of a nation’s history. IKEDA: Not once in its entire history has Sri Lanka invaded another

country. That is how much it has loved and cherished peace. There are countries with great power and countries with wealth in the world, but it is actually the peaceful countries and the tolerant countries that are great. Has not this also become the tradition in Sri Lanka, a country where Buddhism has been passed down through the ages? WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, I believe so. Sri Lanka is steeped in Buddhist

tradition, and it is impossible to escape that influence if one lives there. The island abounds in exquisite temples both new and old, and 2,000 years of Buddhism literally permeates the land. Buddhism is a religion characterized by gentleness and compassion. If one lives in Sri Lanka, one cannot help feeling that the island itself reflects these same qualities in a remarkable way – its climate is, on the whole, even and gentle, its luscious green landscape soothing. The sight of those gigantic stone statues of Shakyamuni that are set in the midst of vast open plains in Polannaruwa and Anuradhapura has never ceased to impress me. Through the gentle contours of such sculpture one can immediately sense the immense power of a religion of compassion. Those statues dominate the modern landscape just as Buddhism has dominated the island’s history. According to the Mahavansa, the story of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Vijaya from North India in the sixth century BC. It is said that the arrival of Vijaya and his 700 men in Sri Lanka coincided with the passing away of Shakyamuni. It is also stated that just before he passed away, Shakyamuni perceived this event

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and commended Vijaya to the protection of the god Indra. Shakyamuni is reported to have said that the island where Vijaya had arrived would become the Dhammadvipa – the island where Buddhism would be preserved unchanged through the ages. Allegorical though this story may be, the fact remains that Buddhism has indeed been preserved here, more or less unchanged. IKEDA:

Ashoka of India is renowned as a leader who gave the pacifism, tolerance and universality of Buddhism concrete form in government. Ashoka is said to have sent Mahinda, a relative (some sources say his son), to Sri Lanka as a peace emissary. It is also reported that Ashoka’s daughter (some say Mahinda’s younger sister) visited Sri Lanka, and there planted a cutting from the bo tree at the site where Shakyamuni attained enlightenment.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Historically, the next important development after Vijaya’s arrival was that of Mahinda in the third century BC. Mahinda preached a sermon on the subject of universal compassion on the summit of the famous rock Mihintale to the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa. Within years of this historic event the entire nation is said to have been converted to Buddhism. Soon afterwards, as you said, Ashoka’s daughter Sangamitta was also to arrive in Sri Lanka with a branch of the sacred bo tree. This branch was planted in Anuradhapura, where it still grows as a majestic tree revered by Buddhists in Sri Lanka and the world over.

IKEDA:

In March 1985, I had the opportunity to meet with E. L. B. Hurulle, then the minister of cultural affairs of your country. On that occasion he was kind enough to present me with several leaves from that historic tree.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I am very interested to hear this. A Sri Lankan Buddhist would keep the leaves of this bo tree as his sacred treasure. Incidentally, it is the oldest known tree in the world. The tree is preserved as one of the country’s most important archaeological monuments. I remember visiting this monument in Anuradhapura as a child and being filled with a sense of awe and wonder at the great influence that Buddhism has had.

IKEDA:

What are the distinguishing features of the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka after its introduction by Mahinda?

WICKRAMASINGHE:

A succession of Sinhalese kings from Devanampiyatissa onward built temples in Anuradhapura, fostering the spread of Buddhism and successfully staving off invasions from the Chola kings of India. Many of these ancient temples and

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shrines still survive. Anuradhapura remained the capital of Buddhist Sri Lanka until AD 1017. Then, for a short while, this northern province was annexed to the Chola empire, and the Chola rulers abandoned Anuradhapura and moved their capital to Polannaruwa. The Cholas were ousted by Vijayabahu I some 53 years later, but the Sinhalese kings who followed him kept Polannaruwa as their capital. In less than 100 years Polannaruwa had grown in stature to be the second Buddhist capital with many temples and palaces. A notable high point in the island’s history was the reign of Parakramabahu I from 1153–1186. During this time many impressive works of art and sculpture were commissioned. Amongst the great engineering feats of the period was the construction of a gigantic artificial tank, the Parakrama Samudra, which was used to irrigate hundreds of square miles. A striking aspect of Sri Lankan history is that despite the many waves of Hindu invasion from South India, Buddhism was never ousted. Each Sinhalese king prided himself as a custodian of the Buddhist religion. But eventually, as a result of such persistent invasions, Polannaruwa was also abandoned, and in 1591 the center of Buddhism moved to Kandy. Here it has remained more or less secure even after later conquests of the island successively by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British. The Temple of the Tooth in Kandy (which houses a tooth relic of Shakyamuni) still remains an important place of Buddhist pilgrimage. IKEDA:

Even today, in post-independent modern Sri Lanka, many Buddhist traditions and customs survive.

WICKRAMASINGHE: That is correct. Every important state occasion

is marked by the chanting of paritta (Pali Buddhist stanzas) and all the accompanying Buddhist ceremonies. Every morning, radio and television programs begin with a similar chanting of paritta. Even in private life Buddhist rituals and ceremonies loom large. Occasions of significance, such as moving into a new house or remembering deceased relatives, are marked by ceremonies that involve all-night chanting of paritta by Buddhist monks. I can recall these occasions vividly; they made a deep impression on me. In Sri Lanka full moon days (Poya days) are days when the more pious Buddhists go to temples to meditate and to offer incense and flowers at the sacred shrines. Poya days are national holidays in Sri Lanka. And on the night of the full moon in the month of Vesakha, the whole island is ablaze with the light of oil lamps and lanterns strung across streets and around houses to mark the birth, enlightenment and entrance into nirvana of Shakyamuni.

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IKEDA: Incidentally, Arnold Toynbee, Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi,

Johan Galtung and many other scholars with whom I have had dialogues all mentioned Ashoka, who greatly influenced the development of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, as the world’s greatest king. This is because it was specifically during the reign of Ashoka, the third king of the Maurya dynasty, that the pacifist ideals of Buddhism became a genuinely powerful force operating in society. After his conquest of the kingdom of Kalinga ten years after ascending the throne, Ashoka, reflecting on the misery and grief of war, announced his intention, based on the spirit of Buddhism, to renounce all war. In addition, he pushed through comprehensive welfare policies to assist people suffering from poverty and disease. These achievements should be specially noted in world history as examples of the realization of Buddhist pacifist ideals in the tangible arena of politics. The subjugation of Kalinga had been accomplished. But the sacrifices of war were horrendous. Innumerable cruel separations took place – parents torn from children, husbands from wives, friends from friends. Cries of grief went up from every household. Ashoka was tormented by feelings of keen remorse and anguish. ‘What is this war,’ he asked himself, ‘that destroys life and lives that should be happy?’ The cry of his spirit pierces to the depths of my heart, despite the time gap of over two millennia. I believe Ashoka recognized that victory attained by force is never true victory, but rather means defeat as a human being. WICKRAMASINGHE:

As you mentioned, Ashoka renounced war upon successfully annexing the kingdom of Kalinga, and for the rest of his life ruled according to the way of the dharma, to become the most humane monarch that ever lived. I, too, am a great admirer of Ashoka. The story of his life and work made a deep impression on me when I was young. I would like to quote from H. G. Wells’s The Outline of History to put Ashoka in context: For eight-and-twenty years Ashoka worked sanely for the real needs of men. Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan his name is still honored. China, Tibet, and even India, though it has left his doctrine, preserve the tradition of his greatness.9 IKEDA:

Ashoka recognized that true victory is victory attained in accordance with the Law (dharma). Thus he dutifully administered

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policies based entirely on the spirit of Buddhism. Though he had abandoned the use of military force and devoted himself to government in accord with the Law, this was a most difficult task. In the India of his day 118 ethnic groups controlled their own spheres of influence, and it is said that in northwestern India in particular there was constant conflict. Even the conquest of Kalinga and the subsequent unification of all India did not guarantee the security of Ashoka’s position. Ashoka publicly declared his commitment to peace and appealed to the people for their cooperation. To place this in context, I think we can point out that the ‘seeds of peace’ of Buddhism planted by Shakyamuni in the lives of the Indian people, having been carefully cultivated by numerous Buddhists, had blossomed splendidly into a universal spiritual culture. Sustained by the faith pulsing in people’s hearts, the light of peace and culture no doubt shone brilliantly in the India of that time. Neither feelings of racial superiority nor authoritarianism played a part in Ashoka’s outlook. What sustained him was simply his pride in and his awareness of himself as a practitioner of the Law. Though a member of the Maurya clan of Aryan stock, Ashoka never thought of himself as superior. Moreover, he ruled over all India using only the title of king of Magadha, a small state in eastern India. He never named himself ‘King of India’ or ‘Great King.’ There was absolutely no discrimination among nations, peoples or races in his inner world. We can surmise that he lived according to the sublime egalitarianism based on the spirit of Buddhism. Ashoka respected each of the indigenous cultures of the peoples under his rule and carried out administrative policies whose main objective was the good of the people. It is well known that the edicts he issued were engraved on rocks and pillars. About the contents of these edicts Sylvain Lévi commented: he ‘taught in simple and familiar language the highest lessons of goodness, of gentleness, of charity and of mutual respect that mankind had ever heard.’10 And we know that Ashoka esteemed local cultures because, for instance, among the engravings of his 14 major edicts, some in northwestern India make use of the Kharoshti system of lettering to communicate their message in the dialect of that region. Moreover, Ashoka considered himself a leader not only of India but also of the world; he dispatched peace emissaries to many countries. Earlier we spoke about his sending emissaries to Sri Lanka, but he also dispatched peace envoys to the Cholas and the Pandyas of South India and to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia and Greece. Thus, as spiritual leader of the entire world, he developed a thoroughgoing diplomacy of peace. In addition, I think we can judge Ashoka’s great achievements from various other angles, like the social welfare policies he promoted

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for people suffering from illness and poverty. In this way, he shaped the rich, intangible assets of tolerance, universality and globalism encompassed in Buddhist teachings into tangible policies, and even developed them into a civilization. For this achievement Ashoka should indeed be extolled as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I entirely agree with your assessment. Most of our knowledge of Ashoka and his reign is contained in four books: (l) the Ashoka Avadana, (2) the Dipavamsa, (3) Buddhaghosa’s ‘Commentary on the Vinaya’ and (4) the Mahavansa. The latter three are Sri Lankan texts and have been studied extensively by Pali scholars. There is much detailed knowledge about his reign and how he administered his kingdom. Although his authority as king was supreme, I see his rule as reflecting the benevolent power of the Buddhist dharma. It is a clear demonstration that the Buddhist worldview had once united diverse racial and social groups across a vast subcontinent, as you aptly pointed out. It is also noteworthy that Ashoka’s reign was marked by great prosperity, sublime works of sculpture, and good civil administration. Peace and humanity were achieved through Buddhism, it would seem, and not at the expense of material prosperity. If that could happen in Ashoka’s reign, hope exists that a similar phenomenon could unite the entire world in the future.

IKEDA: Though different in period, environment and dimension from

Ashoka’s efforts as king to realize the Buddhist concept of peace, now we too are initiating, from among the people, a movement grounded in Buddhism to promote peace, culture and education. This is also because it is our deep desire to establish among the people, on behalf of all humanity, a determined force for peace.

Peace of Mind WICKRAMASINGHE: I would like to discuss Shakyamuni’s stance on

peace, which formed the basis of Ashoka’s government and of Sri Lankan Buddhism. I see the desire to gain peace of mind as the primary quest that led to Shakyamuni’s enunciation of the Four Noble Truths and along with it an exposition of the Noble Eightfold Path. In his own highly privileged early life he witnessed a world of contrast and of conflict: affluence and abject poverty, asceticism and indulgence, sickness and health, youth and old age, life and death. He asked himself, What does all this mean? The attempt to answer this

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question in a fundamental way led to his enlightenment – to Buddhahood. IKEDA:

To be sure it is said that Shakyamuni attached great importance to peace of mind. Shanti, the Sanskrit word for peace, means ‘tranquillity.’ And it is thought that Shakyamuni taught dhyana, or meditation, as the practice to attain serenity of mind.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

A prerequisite for a stable state of world peace must be the search for inner peace in individual human beings. If individuals are at peace with themselves, then the whole nation will be in a state of peace and so will the entire world. I think states of war or belligerence between groups of people on our planet arise mainly from the thirst (tanha) for wealth, resources or power.

IKEDA: Buddhism comments on the essential nature of this problem

as follows: ‘When anger intensifies, war will break out. If greed increases, famine will take place. Should ignorance worsen, pestilence will burst forth. And because of these three calamities, earthly desires will multiply and distorted views will become even more rampant.’11 Buddhism points out that war, famine and pestilence, phenomena reflecting the confusion and decline of global society, originate fundamentally in the impurities of human life, such as the three poisons of greed, anger and ignorance, and misguided views and ideologies. Buddhism also clearly discerned at the base of the authoritarian evil nature of leaders earthly desires like the three poisons inherent in life, the hidden maneuverings of attachment, and the dominance of the devilish nature. Thus it is impossible to sever society’s karmic bonds through political or economic means alone. It is overcoming the impurities of earthly desires, which must also be called the diseases of one’s life itself, or purifying and reforming one’s life itself that is fundamental, and is the sure way to establish lasting world peace. This is a Buddhist principle and a basic aspect of our practice. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The modern world is more riddled today with conflicts than it has ever been. It is becoming increasingly materialistic and selfish. In addition to the inner conflicts for which Shakyamuni has commended the Noble Eightfold Path, there are external conflicts between rich and poor, between one nation and another, between one race and another. These conflicts cannot always be described as ‘war,’ but they often come close to fitting such a description. World peace might be difficult to achieve until a holistic paradigm such as is implied in Buddhism prevails. In any case I think world peace can only be assured if the individual members of our species first seek inward peace of mind.

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IKEDA:

Whenever I consider this matter, I recall a statement made by Mahatma Gandhi, who challenged British imperialism headon with his movement of nonviolent (ahimsa) resistance. Gandhi said, ‘Nonviolence is not a cover for cowardice, but it is the supreme virtue of the brave. Exercise of non-violence requires far greater bravery than that of swordsmanship.’12 Peace of mind, I believe, is actually a great state of life made possible by nonviolence, by the spiritual strength of compassion, and by a sustained manifestation of the spirit. While arms and violence or power bring out the evil in human beings, the struggle of compassion and trust that aims for a dynamic peace of mind fosters their inherent goodness. I am convinced that the true road to peace lies wherever people call forth and let shine the goodness and the positive spiritual force inherent in human life. WICKRAMASINGHE:

It would seem likely that a philosophy akin to ahimsa might serve us well in restoring a state of society wherein peace of mind can prevail. This perhaps will not come about easily because we are so deeply entrenched in an ethos of competition. Ahimsa, which in Sanskrit means noninjury, is regarded as an important ethical value in Buddhism. A Buddhist is admonished to refrain from taking life, human or animal. This precept is included in the five vows of allegiance (pancha sila) that most Buddhists of Sri Lanka take on a daily basis. The ascetic or monk who practices ahimsa goes to great lengths to avoid causing harm to any living being. In politics, as you have noted, the philosophy of ahimsa was followed by the great Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi in his practice of satyagraha, or nonviolent protest.

IKEDA:

The Lotus Sutra describes the conduct of Bodhisattva Fukyo (Never Disparaging), who transformed people’s minds through his devotion to nonviolence. It is recorded that, just as his name indicates, this bodhisattva never despised anyone, but instead showed the utmost respect for the Buddha nature inherent in people’s lives. In order to develop the goodness in people’s lives in a society warped by violence – direct, structural and cultural – Bodhisattva Fukyo dedicated himself single-mindedly to nonviolence and to revering the lives of all people. In the end, when they encountered the brilliance of character shown by Fukyo at the time of his death, people’s minds turned to virtue. I find in Fukyo’s behavior, and this applies to Gandhi’s also, the Buddhist’s exceedingly positive bodhisattva way.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Shakyamuni’s formula for abandoning earthly desires in the individual may not be so easy to achieve on a collective basis, except through the help of highly enlightened leadership. Since

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our leaders for the most part are elected democratically, individual attitudes of the right kind will hopefully prevail and be expressed by the leaders who determine the fates of nations. Attitudes of the right kind imply, of course, a holistic worldview. Present-day conflicts between nations can be justified only within the limited framework of mechanistic biological traditions. If we equate humans in essence to lower animals, as post-Darwinist biologists have done, then the doctrine of the survival of the fittest may be thought applicable without reservation to groups of humans. If this were so, then racism, the exploitation of the poor by the rich, class wars and wars between nations could all be justified. Indeed, neo-Darwinian sociologists had even chosen to defend Hitler and Nazism in this way. What is ignored, however, are the limitations of the reductionist viewpoint when applied to humans. I tend to be an optimist as to our long-term prospects. It is my belief that if our survival is seen as being contingent on a new worldview, then such a worldview will eventually arise. IKEDA: Buddhism teaches that the source of all earthly desires, such

as the three poisons, is fundamental darkness. But this actually indicates ignorance about one’s own life, all living things and the essential nature of the Universe; it indicates fundamental ignorance with regard to a philosophy of life and the world. According to Buddhism, limitations to people’s worldview develop and all earthly desires – like prejudice, discrimination, violence and greed – arise from fundamental ignorance of a holistic worldview. If so, what humanity urgently needs now is clearly a radical change of worldview and, based on that, the development of the innate goodness of human nature.

The Sanctity of Life WICKRAMASINGHE:

Today, we are much concerned about the ecological disasters that follow from extensive deforestation. Convincing certain countries to slow down or halt deforestation projects has proved exceptionally difficult. Particularly, the poorer nations of the world tend all too often to be blinded by the glare of short-term economic gains. It seems to me quite remarkable that preservation of plants and trees was accorded high priority by Shakyamuni Buddha and by Buddhist kings in India as well as in Sri Lanka. Buddhism does not go to the extreme of regarding plants in the same category with animals – as some Indian religions do – but the ‘Basket of Discipline’ is said to stress that destruction of plants by a Buddhist monk amounts to serious misconduct.

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It was recognized at the time that plants have useful agricultural and medicinal purposes, and, moreover, that the natural environment formed by plants exerts a powerful influence on the artistic and intellectual lives of human beings. Buddha attained enlightenment under the shade of a bo tree. When the Buddhist monk Mesiya, who attended on Shakyamuni Buddha, saw a grove of mango trees, he is said to have remarked: ‘This is indeed a congenial site for one who meditates; it is conducive to concentration.’ He thereupon asked the Buddha for permission to reside there. IKEDA:

The four main events of Shakyamuni’s life – his birth, his attaining enlightenment, his expounding the Law for the first time, and even his entering nirvana – all occurred in groves or under trees. And in the ‘Collection of Long Discourses’ it states: ‘In the same way, the Buddhist monk Gautama (Shakyamuni) forbade the cutting down of every kind of seedling and tree.’13 This indicates that Shakyamuni’s compassion extended not only to animals, but also to plants. He preached that one should neither indiscriminately cut them down nor harm even their seeds.

WICKRAMASINGHE: King Ashoka recognized that the destruction of

forests was detrimental to society and issued a decree (inscribed on a stone pillar that still survives) prohibiting the burning of forests. In the modern world we are of course acutely aware of the problems caused by the destruction of the greenbelt and of the rain forests. I think one cannot fail to admire the wisdom embodied in Buddhist teachings as regards these matters. What are your own views on Buddhist attitudes regarding the preservation of plants? IKEDA: In his book Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of Human Life),

Makiguchi discussed the relationship between plants and human life from various perspectives. After pointing out the practical uses of plants, he described the spiritual influence they have on human life. He wrote: ‘In short, plants stimulate one’s sensitivity to beauty, calm one’s urge to kill, and enrich one’s poetic spirit, thus cultivating one’s sentiments.’14 When we take into account the psychological and spiritual influence plants exert by nurturing peaceful feelings, together with the material aspect – the agricultural and medicinal products plants provide for human beings – and their role as producers in the global ecosystem, the meaning of Buddhism’s emphasis on the preservation of plant life becomes clearer. Buddhists in Japan often quote the passages: ‘All sentient beings possess the Buddha nature,’15 which expresses the sanctity of human life, and ‘The plants and

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the land all attain enlightenment,’16 which shows the sanctity of all living things. Both China’s Great Teacher T’ien-t’ai and Japan’s Nichiren taught the concept of the enlightenment of plants. This concept explains that the natural ecosystem itself, including plants, is able to achieve the same enlightenment as human beings. When people become aware of the principle of dependent origination – that all living things are mutually dependent and are involved in an endless chain of causeand-effect relationships – feelings of sympathy with nature and shared feelings of pain when nature is harmed will arise. This doctrine of the sanctity of life – which includes all living things – must become the prevailing view of Nature and a guiding principle in life for people in contemporary society, and particularly for those living in industrialized countries. When people perceive, in the course of their daily lives, the oneness of Nature and human life that is explained in Buddhism, government policies to protect forests and other plant life will also become more effective. In other words, we must aim for a change in the lifestyle of people in industrialized nations, and shift our entire economic structure from one of waste to one of recycling, based not on the satisfaction of desires by the conquest and looting of Nature, but on a spiritually rich life enjoyed together with Nature. Incidentally, there is no denying that war is an act that radically destroys the sanctity of human life, and even Ashoka, as we discussed earlier, went so far as to reject the use of military force in accordance with the precept against destroying or harming life. Another distinctive feature of the concept of the sanctity of human life is the great influence it brings to bear on the question of punishment for criminal offenses, and in this connection Buddhists in India have flatly rejected capital punishment. WICKRAMASINGHE: I, too, find capital punishment repugnant in the

extreme. It can only be justified in terms of social revenge against a miscreant, and revenge with such absolute finality is barbaric in my view. Revenge goes against the grain of Christianity as much as against Buddhism. Resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.17 Against this background I find it difficult to understand why capital punishment is meted out in several Christian countries. I see it as a perverse expression of the ultimate authority of state. No human being or group of humans in my view has any right to take the life

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of another. In a way one can view this as a case of the state usurping the role of God, the logic being that human life is God-given and only God has the right to take it away. But if the authority of the state is derived from God, one could attempt to justify such brutality. It is worth reflecting that even lower animals do not kill for sheer revenge. Killing does take place, of course, but only if there is a strong biological purpose – either to eliminate sexual competition or for predation. Capital punishment is thought to date back to prehistoric times, even before humans evolved social groups larger than the single family. Death was ordered for such crimes as incest, a lack of chastity, or violation of a taboo. Even in social systems of great sophistication that arose much later, the death penalty was retained. Offenders were stoned to death by the Hebrews; in ancient Athens Socrates was made to take poison for ‘corrupting the young’; in Rome criminals were thrown to lions and serpents. I find it strange that such brutal conduct was possible in civilized societies. The first civilized society in which capital punishment was totally abolished was India in the reign of Ashoka. IKEDA:

To illustrate how the Buddhist idea of the sanctity of life once pervaded all of society in Japan too, I would like to mention that capital punishment was not carried out even once during the four centuries of the Heian period (794–1185). During the Heian period in Japan, Tendai Buddhism established its headquarters on Mt. Hiei, north of Kyoto, and, basing itself on the Lotus Sutra, brought about a flowering of Buddhist culture. The basic spirit of the Lotus Sutra is the idea that one vehicle exists to lead all people equally to Buddhahood; it is to awaken and reveal the Buddha nature shining in the depths of all people’s lives. Because this spirit of the Lotus Sutra was widespread during the Heian period, legal codes also were carried out in accordance with it. Thus, even though a person’s crime deserved the death sentence, the sentence would be commuted; the most severe judgment handed down was banishment to a distant island. It is said that no example of this kind exists in any other civilized society in the history of humanity. On the occasion of our dialogue together the late historian Arnold Toynbee listed two reasons why capital punishment should be abolished: 1. no one has the moral right to deprive another of life, and 2. taking life is irrevocable, but while life still exists, every human being – even those who have committed the most terrible of crimes – possesses the potential for moral restitution.

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As a Buddhist I firmly believe that regardless of any argument that may exist in its favor, capital punishment should be abolished. Those who advocate the continuance of capital punishment claim that it is a deterrent against crime. I find, however, that this argument includes the notion of revenge and of setting an example to other would-be offenders by taking life. Retaliation stemming from a deep-seated grudge only invites new retaliation, creating a vicious circle. And regarding the notion of setting an example, I do not think the exploitation for the purpose of something other than life, of lives worthy of dignity because they are endowed with the Buddha nature, should be permitted. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Like you I cannot accept any argument that commends capital punishment as a social necessity. The deterrent argument is perhaps the strongest, but it is known to be flawed. No hardened criminal is ever deterred by punishment, because he commits a crime in the belief that he will not be caught. It is said that when hanging was public in England, a chaplain once remarked that of the 167 men whom he ministered to at the gallows, 161 had previously attended one or more hangings. More recent statistics in the United States concerning a marginal reduction in the homicide rate in states with capital punishment are somewhat equivocal and open to various interpretations. In countries retaining the death penalty today, the crime to which this is generally applied is murder. The argument that one is putting to death an individual (who may even be a psychopath) who can murder many more persons is not strong enough in my view. There is surely no social benefit to be gained from the death penalty that life imprisonment could not effect. It is crime in general and murder in particular that is the social problem to be dealt with – not the criminal. In the case of a psychopath I believe that every effort should be made to solve the underlying problem if it can be identified, and to rehabilitate the offender. In crimes that have their root in adverse social and economic conditions, it is these problems that should be addressed, not revenge against the offender.

IKEDA :

The issue of capital punishment brings to mind the International Military Tribunal for the Far East held in Tokyo beginning in 1946. It was set up by the victors in the Second World War to pass judgment on the defeated nations for their responsibility for the war. Of the 25 Class A war criminals brought to trial, seven were sentenced to death by hanging. Having fully taken into account the misery of the Pacific War, Josei Toda pointed out, based on the spirit of Buddhism that embraces genuine dignity of life, that ‘the death sentence is

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absolutely wrong; life imprisonment would perhaps be more appropriate.’ In addition, Judge Radhabinod Pal of India, who argued that the defendants were innocent, intuitively perceived the illegality of this trial, and in his dissenting opinion developed a detailed judicial analysis of the dangers of an irrational court demanding that people be put to death. I have written about these events from the standpoint of a Buddhist believer in my book The Human Revolution.18

Buddhist View of Society WICKRAMASINGHE:

The goal of Buddhism is presented as nirvana – the ultimate freedom from the bonds of desire and suffering. An ideal Buddhist society is composed of persons following a path directed toward this goal, persons who are in the process of shedding egotistic ties. We could thus expect such societies to espouse such altruistic virtues as selflessness and service to others. Many of the problems that face modern societies stem from an excess of selfishness. Too often we think of ‘me’ and ‘mine,’ ‘my benefit,’ ‘my progress.’ Not often enough are we mindful of the feelings of others.

IKEDA: According to the Buddhist concept of dependent origination,

all entities exist because of mutually interdependent relationships, and without other entities, one’s own existence would not be. Consequently, as you have just pointed out, if one bases one’s actions solely on thoughts of ‘me,’ ‘mine,’ ‘my benefit,’ ‘my progress,’ this runs counter to the fundamental law of life. Not only does such behavior have an adverse effect on the people in one’s environment, but also it produces negative results for oneself. Buddhist life philosophy perceives that the place where a human being’s egoism is set in motion is the fundamental self-consciousness, or the mano-consciousness, the seventh of the Nine Consciousnesses. Buddhism teaches that from this fundamental self-consciousness, which lies at the base of the conscious self and which clings unremittingly to itself, arises discrimination against others and egoism. Four types of delusion are at all times a part of this manoconsciousness: ignorance concerning the self; false views concerning the self; pride in one’s self; and self love. ‘Ignorance concerning the self’ means to be ignorant of one’s true self; this is synonymous with fundamental darkness. In reality, human beings carry on their lives in the Universe while maintaining mutual relationships with all other living things. However, when one is dominated by this ignorance, one is deluded into thinking that one is living solely on

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one’s own powers. From this arises misconceptions as to the equality between oneself and others, and a sense of discrimination develops that is difficult to eradicate. This changes into jealousy, hatred and anger. ‘False views concerning the self’ means to mistake one’s lesser self for one’s true, greater self. From this arises the prejudice that only one’s own narrow views are correct; one then ceases to listen to others’ opinions. ‘Pride relating to the self’ develops when one exalts this lesser self and becomes arrogant. This is the mind that makes light of others. ‘Love of the self,’ which is also known as ‘greed for the self,’ refers to a strong attachment to one’s lesser self. This is an egotistic craving in which one single-mindedly loves only oneself. From ignorance concerning the self and extreme love of self wells forth the desire to deceive others. A mind of this kind aims to deceive others with seemingly virtuous behavior to gain honor and profit. To overcome the egoism that is expressed in such a variety of forms, Buddhism urges an awareness of the alaya-consciousness that pulses beneath the mano-consciousness, and of the amalaconsciousness – the ninth of the Nine Consciousnesses – which is the fundamentally pure consciousness, the life of the Universe itself. As our insight into the inner realms of life deepens, it becomes possible for our consciousness of our lesser self to expand to one of humanity on Earth, then to one of the life of the Earth, and finally to one of the life of the Universe. The worldview inherent in this sort of consciousness will, I believe, change into a holistic one in accordance with the theory of dependent origination. WICKRAMASINGHE:

We have already talked at length about the sickness of egotism, but I wonder if you would share your thoughts about how we can build a society that tries to free itself of egoism, or about a practical social philosophy that could stem from Buddhism.

IKEDA:

No word is found in Buddhism that corresponds precisely to ‘society,’ but the word ‘world’ or ‘realm,’ indicating a broader concept, does exist. And in the ‘Treatise on the Sutra of Perfect Wisdom’ and other Buddhist works, this ‘realm’ is grouped into the realm of the five components, the realm of living beings and the realm of the environment. Among these, I believe we can say that the expression ‘society’ indicates almost exactly the realm of living beings. I would like to explain this realm from two perspectives. First, what does Buddhism’s principle of dependent origination tell us about the foundation of social evils? Second, I would like to extract from the sutras the process by which peaceful societies have emerged.

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Buddhism holds that the foundation of evils in society is grounded in the accumulation of the earthly desires and egoism of the living beings who comprise it. The behavior of the people who make up society is engraved in that society, that is, the realm of living beings. Human behavior encompasses three kinds of karma – of thought, word and deed. If we classify this karma from the perspective of the individual and of society, individual karma would be ‘noncollective’ and the shared karma of peoples and nations, ‘collective.’ Karma is carved out by human beings, but while the self-directed aspect it possesses forms noncollective karma, its other-directed aspect in societies and races forms collective karma. WICKRAMASINGHE:

What is the process that leads to ‘social evils’ or ‘societal suffering,’ in the context of collective karma?

IKEDA: The Sutra on Dependent Origination19 describes how social

evils develop from greed. In this process, first, greed gives rise to desires, then attachment to gain appears, and finally violence and uncountable other evils are triggered consecutively. Here the link with greed is shown to be the basis of the social evil of violence. WICKRAMASINGHE:

If we can eradicate greed, a society free of violence should be possible.

IKEDA:

That is correct. And that is why the sutra teaches that this is the only fundamental way to overcome the problem of violence. I would now like to discuss the process by which social evils result from conception, the third of the five components I mentioned earlier. According to the Sutra on Strife,20 conception can lead to a body and mind steeped in greed and evil views, followed by a chain reaction that produces desire, conflict, argument, sorrow, stinginess, arrogance and duplicity. Conception here refers to the mental functions that create ideas, images and concepts. In other words, conflict or violence ultimately develops from limitations of the human cognitive faculties. For example, the reductionist way of thinking based on dualism, unless we understand its limitations, will also only produce various sufferings. Recently we witnessed the collapse of the ideology of Communism, heralding the end of the age when a specific ideology could dominate. Viewed from this perspective, humanity has at last severed a part of the chain originating in conception that led us to conflict. However, when we consider the conflicts erupting between religions and ethnic groups, we see that due to the images or conceptions they each have fabricated, prejudice is still being bred against other ethnic groups, and conflict between religions continues.

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It also appears that the chains leading from greed to conflict have not yet been completely cut away from people’s minds. WICKRAMASINGHE: What does Buddhism say about the process for

creating a peaceful society, a society free of greed, conflict and war? What we should all aim for is a society that has tolerance and peace as built-in virtues. IKEDA:

A Buddhist scripture called the Sutra of the Practice of the Wheel-turning Sage Kings relates a story about a land ruled from the distant past by wheel-turning kings. The seventh king of this country, however, failed to protect the correct law, and, as a result, government fell into chaos, people began to fight, and famine occurred. So as to end the famine, the king opened the national treasuries and storehouses, and distributed food and money, but the people only began to steal and murder all the more. This was ultimately because their spiritual strength and sense of morality had decayed. At that time, a man of wisdom appeared among the people and, embracing the spirit of compassion, began himself to practice nonviolence and to call upon others to take action together with him. Gradually people appeared who sympathized with his attitude to life and his aspirations, and they followed suit; this spread to include many people. I feel that the scripture is teaching us the process by which the collective karma of the people and society may be changed, with the starting point of the compassionate actions of one person of wisdom. Here I believe we can see one sort of process whereby a peaceful society emerges because of the accumulated power of the good collective karma of the people.

Shakyamuni and Mahayana Buddhism WICKRAMASINGHE: A ‘Buddha,’ in its simplest interpretation, means

a person who is incomparably wise and fully enlightened. In the Buddhism that I was taught as a child, Prince Siddhartha was portrayed as a real human being who reached the state of Buddhahood, or enlightenment, and eventually entered nirvana. He was a royal prince born into a society torn with strife – poverty and caste and race discrimination were everywhere. His own early life was, however, one of absolute luxury which he described to his monks in the following terms: I was delicately nurtured, exceedingly delicately nurtured, delicately nurtured beyond measure. For instance, in my father’s

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house there were three lotus ponds: one for blue lotuses, one for red, another for white – all for my pleasure. No sandalwood powder did I use that was not made from Kasi. My jacket was made of Kasi cloth, and so was my tunic and cloak. By night and day a white canopy was held over me lest heat or cold, dust, chaff or dew should touch me. I had three palaces: one for winter, one for summer, one for the rainy season. In the four months of the rains I was waited on by minstrels, women all of them; and I did not leave my palace in those months.21 He renounced this life of pleasure to seek enlightenment. The fruit of his untiring efforts over the years was the realization of the true nature of things, and the discovery of a path that could lead to freedom from suffering. The Buddha held that the cause of suffering is the result of wrong attitudes: it is our craving or desire that makes us suffer. Although Shakyamuni Buddha set out a Noble Eightfold Path that could free us from suffering, he often exhorted his monks to discover the way for themselves, as, for instance, in his last words to his disciple Ananda in the Sutra of Great Nirvana: Self is the lord of self, for who else could lord be? Be ye lamps unto yourselves. Look not for refuge to any beside yourself.22 IKEDA:

Just as you have said, in response to Ananda’s entreaty to preach one last time, Shakyamuni speaks in the Sutra of Great Nirvana about the ‘beacon of the self’ and the ‘beacon of the Law.’ Shakyamuni taught that it is none other than one’s self and the Law that are the guiding lights that illuminate the darkness of life and death. And the true self referred to by Shakyamuni is the self realized in the course of one’s actions in accordance with the Law of the Universe and of life. Shakyamuni also said, in a statement made just before his death, that since all phenomena are transient, one should diligently apply oneself to the perfection of one’s practice. His leaving behind such a statement perfectly demonstrates the special character of Buddhism, which points to the path of endeavor and diligence to perfect oneself as a human being and to achieve self-realization. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I find this philosophy of self-reliance most attractive, and moreover highly relevant for our present dogmaridden age. A corollary is of course that Shakyamuni Buddha cannot be unique: there must have been Buddhas before him and there will be many after.

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IKEDA:

You are absolutely right. One calls a person who has awakened to the truth of life and the Universe a ‘Buddha.’ It is thought that many Buddhas have appeared in this Universe, expounded the Law and saved living beings. Mahayana Buddhism teaches that many Buddhas have made their advent. Here I would like to follow the currents of Buddhist history from the time of the death of Shakyamuni to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhist records indicate that following Shakyamuni’s death, people’s respect and admiration for him deepened and questions arose about the meaning of his death, and from this developed the theory of the Buddha’s ‘three bodies.’ At first it was said that the Buddha, as the eternal and indestructible ‘body of the Law’ who is one with the Law of life and the Universe, appeared in this world to save the people in the physical form of Shakyamuni – in other words, as ‘the manifested body.’ Later, when the Buddha, who jointly possessed the two kinds of body – ‘the body of the Law’ and ‘the manifested body’ – became widely revered, the idea of the ‘bliss body,’ or the spiritual strength to perceive the truth, developed. And along with the theory of the bodies, or aspects, of Buddhas, a theory evolved concerning the appearance of Buddhas. First, the concept of past Buddhas developed, in which it is held that Shakyamuni and various other Buddhas also appeared in the past. Then the concept of future Buddhas emerged, in which it is said that Bodhisattva Maitreya will be reborn in this world as a Buddha in the future. The concepts of Buddhas in other worlds and of becoming a Buddha in the next life also arose. For instance, Amitayus (or Amitabha) Buddha is said to dwell in the western region of the Universe, Akshobya Buddha, in the eastern region of the Universe, and bodhisattvas, to be reborn in the Tushita heaven before attaining Buddhahood. Finally, a concept of present-lifetime Buddhas took shape in which it is taught that Buddhas exist throughout the ten directions of the Universe.

WICKRAMASINGHE :

Mahayana traditions have exploited the multiplicity of Buddhas most effectively. I would like to ask you whether in your opinion Shakyamuni Buddha has a special place in Buddhism, any different from the other Buddhas that occur in Japanese traditions of later times.

IKEDA:

The Lotus Sutra is the scripture that incorporates and unites the theories of the three bodies of the Buddha and of the appearance of the Buddhas. This scripture is respected as a pivotal text in Japanese Buddhism too, and has long had many followers. In the sixteenth and most important chapter, entitled ‘The Life Span of the Thus Come One,’ Shakyamuni reveals that he has been

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a Buddha since the infinite past, that he has all along been preaching in this mundane world and leading people to enlightenment, and that he has appeared as various Buddhas in order to save all living beings and preached the Law in accord with his listeners’ capacity. He states that the reason he is now about to leave this world is that, although the life span he has attained by practicing the bodhisattva way is of infinite duration, through the means of his death he can teach and instruct people. Here, principally in the sixteenth chapter, the concept of the original Buddha of the remote past is revealed. In connection with this concept, T’ien-t’ai of China commented that because it is shown in the ‘Life Span’ chapter that Shakyamuni has appeared as various Buddhas in response to the capacity of the people he will teach and enlighten, all the Buddhas who appear in Mahayana Buddhism are here united in the one Buddha, Shakyamuni. Based on this, T’ien-t’ai called the Shakyamuni revealed in the ‘Life Span’ chapter the original Buddha and stated that he simultaneously embodies the Law body, the manifested body and the bliss body, and that he is the Buddha whose true nature lies in the bliss-body aspect. In other words, the ‘Life Span’ chapter identifies the historical personage of Shakyamuni as the original Buddha, presenting him as the manifestation in historical reality of the suprahistorical or original Buddha. Accordingly, it teaches that the Buddha’s life span is infinite. This is the concept of the original Buddha of the remote past. The distinguishing characteristic of the Lotus is the fact that it unites all Buddhas in the original one and perceives eternal life, or an infinite life span, in the person of the historical figure Shakyamuni. In this way, the concept of the original Buddha of the remote past revealed in the ‘Life Span’ chapter incorporates and unifies the Mahayana concepts of the three bodies and of the appearance of Buddhas; this new concept clearly reveals the outstanding personality of Shakyamuni, who is endowed with both eternity and reality, and filled with great compassion to save the people. Nichiren agreed fundamentally with this interpretation of T’ien-t’ai, but he also pointed out that the basis of this eternal original Buddha is the ultimate Law that caused all Buddhas to become Buddhas.

Meaning of Shakyamuni’s Reticence WICKRAMASINGHE:

Shakyamuni Buddha’s stand on many fundamental issues remained somewhat equivocal. In a dialogue reported in the ‘Collection of Medium-Length Discourses’ between a monk named Malunkyaputta and the Buddha, the monk asks the Buddha why he did not answer such questions as: Is the world

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eternal, or is it not? Is the world finite, or is it infinite? Does life reside in the body or in the soul? Do beings continue after death or do they not? IKEDA:

Shakyamuni was always reticent about these kinds of questions.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Yes, remarkably so. On one occasion the Buddha

replies thus: ‘Imagine a man walking through a jungle. Halfway through he is shot by a poisoned dart. If the poisoned dart remains in the body, he will die. The injured person says: “I will not pull out this dart until I know who shot it, whether he is tall or short, fat or lean, young or old, of a high caste or low.” ‘I tell you, Malunkyaputta,’ continues the Buddha, ‘that man will die before he knows the right answers.’ IKEDA:

This allegory of the poisoned dart is often mentioned to illustrate the basis for Shakyamuni’s reticence. In a well known paper on this subject, Troy Wilson-Olgan23 speculates that perhaps the true reason for Shakyamuni’s silence was to prevent people from losing sight of truly important issues and from agonizing over useless and trivial questions.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

That appears to be so. However, it puzzles me that Shakyamuni was more concerned with human suffering and its causes than with a clear exposition on these important matters. Later interpretations of Buddhism, on the other hand, give expression in the form of explicit answers to some of these questions, which we have seen elsewhere in this dialogue to be consistent with modern scientific points of view. I would like to hear your views about Shakyamuni’s reticence on these important questions concerning the nature of the world.

IKEDA:

Those who see Shakyamuni’s reticence as passive and pessimistic insist that Shakyamuni disliked metaphysical speculation, that enlightenment cannot be expressed in words, and that Shakyamuni placed more importance on actual practice for enlightenment than on philosophical speculation. With regard to this question I would like to introduce an episode known as ‘Brahma’s Entreaty.’

WICKRAMASINGHE: I believe you mean the tale related to an incident

in the ‘Great Grouping,’ immediately after Shakyamuni had attained enlightenment, when for a period of five weeks he experienced the bliss of enlightenment. After this euphoric state passed, Shakyamuni grew despondent thinking that the truth to which he had been

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enlightened could not possibly be understood by people steeped in greed and anger, and he lost all will to preach. Brahma, ruler of the world, then appeared to ask Shakyamuni to preach the truth to which he had been enlightened. IKEDA:

Yes, that’s right. Shakyamuni told Brahma that he could not muster the will to preach because he believed that the people, who were tormented by greed and anger, were probably unable to recognize the truth of enlightenment.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

Nonetheless, Brahma implored him a second time, and Shakyamuni again refused. When Brahma asked him a third time, Shakyamuni observed all living things in the world through the eyes of his enlightenment. After realizing that the world was populated with a diverse array of humanity – pure, corrupt, clever, dull, good-natured, ill-tempered, those easy to teach and those difficult to teach – he at last decided to preach the Law. Having reached this decision, he cries to Brahma: ‘The gate of amrita (sweet dew) has opened to all things that have ears. Discard [your own] faith!’ Hearing Shakyamuni’s determination to preach the Law, Brahma bows to him and takes his leave with the thought: ‘I was able to encourage Shakyamuni to preach the Law.’ The significance of Brahma’s entreaty has been interpreted in many ways over the centuries. How do you view this episode?

IKEDA: I believe that the dialogue between Shakyamuni and Brahma

expresses Shakyamuni’s inner conflict when, seated beneath the bo tree, he vacillates intensely about whether or not he should teach the people the truth to which he has awakened, before finally deciding he will do so. I feel this way because Shakyamuni, who in his inner world was already one with the Universe, and who lived as if the life of the Universe were his own, probably agonized over one thing – how to lead people steeped in earthly desires to a ‘creative awakening.’ Accordingly, Brahma’s appearance indicates the personification of the fundamental creative energy contained in the life of the Universe. Thus what the myth ‘Brahma’s Entreaty’ aims at, out of profound compassion for all living beings, is to boldly articulate Shakyamuni’s difficult-to-express enlightenment. Herein lies the beginning of Shakyamuni’s preaching, and herein Buddhism is born. Shakyamuni preached in order to lead people to enlightenment. When to this end words were ineffective, he purposely remained silent. In short, reticence was a positive expression of his will. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Besides the nature of the physical world, were there many other questions on which Shakyamuni remained silent?

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IKEDA:

Actually, the questions on which Shakyamuni was reticent were those favored by a group of itinerant priests known as Paribbajaka. The ‘Collection of Discourses’ says that the members of the forces opposed to Brahmanism (including the Paribbajaka) argued and held debates that ultimately increased the degree of confusion. The theses that some asserted were true, others insisted were false. No doubt it was questions about selected theses that could be either true or false depending on one’s point of view on which Shakyamuni was silent. With the wisdom of the Middle Way produced by his enlightenment, Shakyamuni perceived that fundamental ignorance existed in the form of deep-seated desires and egoism in the lives of both the Brahmanists and the forces opposed to them. Actually, it was precisely this fundamental ignorance that caused people’s transmigration through suffering. And, as we mentioned earlier, fundamental ignorance is nothing other than ignorance of the holistic worldview indicated in Buddhism. When one considers the background of Shakyamuni’s silence in this way I think its profound meaning becomes clear. The ‘Collection of Discourses’ points out that some people were absorbed in argument for argument’s sake and that their winning those arguments only resulted in their being consumed with a desire for fame. These were not arguments to save others that welled forth from a compassionate spirit; they were arguments sullied with the deepseated egoism of fundamental ignorance and earthly desires. Participating in such arguments would actually have increased the degree of fundamental ignorance. Shakyamuni’s great silence, by thoroughly checking such arguments, enabled people to perceive the earthly desires in the depths of their lives, and cut off the source of fundamental ignorance and greed. Herein lies the positive meaning of the reticence arising from Shakyamuni’s compassion. Shakyamuni’s words transcended conventional opinions stained by earthly desires. Similarly, I like to think that his silence was an extremely positive expression of compassionate action that could cut off fundamental ignorance. And wherever people were receptive to Shakyamuni’s will and cut through their fundamental ignorance, the inherent wisdom to perceive the truth welled forth, and they were able to display a vast body of wisdom based on the holistic worldview that you mentioned.

Buddhism and the Arts WICKRAMASINGHE:

Now I would like to bring up a specific issue concerning the role of art in religion – more particularly, in Buddhism. We know that man’s faith in religion through the ages

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has led to the creation of art, sculpture, literature and music of great sublimity. Without this great heritage it is abundantly clear that our world would be a poorer place to live in. In my early years I was surrounded by a great deal of Buddhist art – paintings and sculpture. The gentle contours of Buddha statues in Anuradhapura and Polannaruwa never failed to move me. I feel sure that such sculpture must have an effect of moulding the character and personality of the people who live amidst them. In a sense, the message of Buddhism is transmitted across the centuries through art. IKEDA: I agree. There are indications that lay believers were deeply

involved in the early beginnings of Buddhist art. The earliest Buddhist art takes the form of stupas, holy trees, dharma wheels, icons and other symbolic representations. Later it found its way into works depicting Buddhist myths and legends. Early stupas, as can be found in Sanchi, feature images from the Jataka (stories of the previous lives of Shakyamuni) and of the god Yakshi, and depict scenes related to the Buddha’s preaching of the Law. Images of Shakyamuni himself do not appear on these works. Instead, pictures of dharma wheels, bo trees, Shakyamuni’s footprints and a jeweled throne were used to symbolize him. One reason for this, I believe, stems from the concept of the impermanency of all phenomena. After he entered nirvana, Shakyamuni’s immediate disciples, much as they loved and revered him, refrained from depicting him in sculpture and from painting him, choosing rather to represent him symbolically. We can surmise that the various symbols were employed as a means of expressing the concept of impermanence expounded by Shakyamuni. As is often the way with human nature, however, a few centuries after Shakyamuni’s death – any direct disciples familiar with his voice and person long since dead – the people’s reverence for him intensified, as did contemplation concerning the ‘bodies of the Buddha,’ which we discussed earlier. This speculation focused on the twofold aspect of Shakyamuni: though he died in the impermanent aspect of his physical, manifested body, in terms of the eternal aspect of the body of the Law he is unchangeable, without appearance or disappearance. Later the concept of bliss body was developed as an aspect of Shakyamuni linking the two properties of impermanence and permanence. As the disciples’ reverence for Shakyamuni who embodied the eternal Law intensified, I think the desire to give expression to their adoration also grew. The rise around this time of Mahayana Buddhism also seems to have prompted a need to present Shakyamuni in concrete form in order to convert a greater number of people to Buddhism. Concrete images of Shakyamuni can be

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found in Gandhara, where he appears in depictions of legendary preachings of the Law. This image later is taken out of the realm of legend to become an object of worship in its own right. This transformation is thought to have taken place from around the end of the first century to the second century AD. The kingdom of Gandhara, founded by King Kanishka of the Kushana dynasty, has been called the crossroads of ancient civilizations. At the time of its greatest prosperity four large empires dominated in the world. In addition to the Kushana kingdom, there was Rome in the West; China in the East (the Early and Later Han dynasties); and the Parthian Empire, centered in the Iranian plateau and extending from North India to Mesopotamia. Gandhara flourished as a strategic crossroads through which the culture and goods of these great empires passed. Gandhara had been a part of the Persian cultural zone from before the time of Alexander’s conquests, and the founders of the Kushana dynasty were Bactrians, who had preserved Greek culture in a nearly pure state. From Gandhara to Rome, a region that comprised the Hellenistic world, ran a network of caravan outposts established by the nomadic peoples. Goods traveled east and west along the Silk Road that linked these outposts, and this led to the growth of a flourishing cultural belt. A unique Buddhist culture blossomed in Gandhara. It was in the midst of this culture that the images of Shakyamuni appeared. Statues and the like, which gave physical expression to Shakyamuni’s sublime personality, no doubt inspired a surge of ardent faith among the people. The influence of the gradually evolving philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism on the Hellenistic world must also have been immense. The ‘Commentary on the Doctrines,’ compiled in the reign of King Kanishka, says that the Buddha speaks with one voice, but the sentient beings understand his words according to their own kind. The ‘sentient beings’ referred to here are an assembly of Chinese, Shaka, Yavana, Dravida, Malava, Kashgar, Tocharian and Bukhara (Sogdiana) peoples. These citizens of the world are called, in Buddhism, ‘people of the four directions.’ The cosmopolitan, universal spirit Immanuel Kant summed up with the term ‘citizen of the world’ was thrillingly alive and shining in the ancient Hellenistic world. It is not difficult to imagine that a global awareness that transcended national borders and ethnic and racial differences was nurtured among the people as a result of their profound contemplation, through the image of Shakyamuni, of the eternal body of the Law. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Taxila, the capital city of the kingdom of Gandhara (situated in North India) is a place I would dearly love

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to visit, to see for myself the grand synthesis of Greek, Indian (Buddhist) and Iranian cultural influences. The statues of Shakyamuni, draped in Roman attire, are said to be of exquisite beauty and grace. I see the Gandharan culture of the second and third centuries AD as a logical continuation of the Menander–Nagasena dialogue we discussed earlier. IKEDA:

King Menander visited Taxila in the second century BC, during the Parthian era. The fact that he travelled all the way to this place leads one to conclude that it must have been a flourishing center of Buddhism.

WICKRAMASINGHE: This part of India was surely a cultural crossroads

for several centuries to come. In the period you mention, Buddhism would seem to have flourished, producing art, sculpture and architecture of extraordinary beauty. One could see the adoption into Buddhism of Hellenistic traditions, including shrine worship, the offering of flowers, the building of statues and so on. With the absorption of different cultures and religious traditions into Buddhism it is also easy to see how Mahayana Buddhist traditions came to evolve. IKEDA:

Around the same time, images of Shakyamuni were also produced in Matoura in western India and later this practice spread throughout the subcontinent. Shakyamuni’s message – the philosophy of and prayer for eternal life – continued to spread, though the shape and form as well as the facial expressions of his image, changed as it was conveyed through different cultures on its journey through Central Asia toward Dunhuang.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

A few years ago I visited the gigantic caves of Ajanta and Ellora in India and was struck by the tremendous power of the Buddhist art that survives there. These caves offered refuge to Buddhist monks for some 800 years starting from the second century BC. Buddhist scholastic studies were pursued there throughout a long period of turbulent history when Muslim and Hindu kings after Ashoka sought to eradicate the influence of Buddhism. A very large number of exquisite granite paintings adorn the chambers of the Ajanta caves and trace the development of Buddhist thought from early Theravada (Hinayana) traditions to the later Mahayana form. The experience of visiting these caves is one I cannot forget. I would like to hear about your own experience of Buddhism through the medium of art.

IKEDA:

In 1985, the Tokyo Fuji Art Museum, which I founded, held a widely acclaimed exhibition of Dunhuang artifacts. This

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exhibition was realized through the great efforts of many friends in China, including Chang Shuhong, former director of the Dunhuang Institute and co-author of a dialogue titled The Light of Dunhuang. The exhibition marked the first time that priceless Buddhist scrolls and writings from Dunhuang had been displayed in Japan. A mural, which was completed over a period of more than one millennium, spanning from the Beiliang era (AD 397–439) to the Yuan era (AD 1271–1368), has been uncovered in Dunhuang. The scale of this mural is truly awesome, depicting cultures and eras from a rich diversity of countries including India, Tibet and China. Needless to say, the subject matter of much of Dunhuang art comprises Shakyamuni, bodhisattvas and episodes from the sutras; it pulses with dynamic creativity inspired by prayer and reverence for the eternal. What particularly interests me is the influence exerted by the introduction of the Lotus Sutra. From the illustrations of the parable of the three carts and the burning house, which appears in the ‘Simile and Parable’ chapter, and of the parable of the phantom city and the treasure land, in the ‘Parable of the Phantom City’ chapter, I sensed that the teachings of the Lotus Sutra were vibrantly alive among the people. The ‘Cultivating the Land during Rain’ cave mural, which depicts the story in the ‘Parable of the Medicinal Herbs’ chapter, where the Buddha’s great compassion is likened to rain, brilliantly expresses the principle of absolute equality in terms of rain that falls impartially on all living things. Jataka are also depicted in great number on murals at the Mogao caves in Dunhuang. These fables indicate that Buddhist compassion is of such a profound and generous nature that it nurtures all living things – encompassing the entire community in which all equally share the same dignity of life. The ‘Illustrations of the Vimalakirti Sutra’ cave mural, depicting an early Tang-dynasty Mahayana scripture, is another work imbued with rich and intricate expressive powers – the facial expressions of Vimalakirti and Bodhisattva Manjushri themselves brilliantly convey the content of this sutra. Like the Buddhist art of Ajunta and Ellora that you have expressed your admiration for, the works found in Dunhuang overflow with the energy of profound Buddhist principles and with the passionate religious conviction that inspired their creation. The significance of Buddhist art, that is, of the expression of Buddhism through the medium of art, lies in its ability to move people’s hearts profoundly and to bring into everyday life Buddhist teachings that identify with the eternity of life and with the Universe, thus fostering creativity, courage and compassion.

CHAPTER 5

The Creation of a Global Civilization

The Present in the Context of the History of the Human Race WICKRAMASINGHE: Here I should like us to consider, by examining

humankind’s past, how it has come to be confronted with perhaps the worst crisis in its history. To put things in perspective, let us note that our particular branch of the hominid sequence – Homo sapiens – first arose in Africa some 90,000 years ago. The great Mesopotamian civilization flourished about 5,000 years ago, probably a little ahead of the great civilizations of the Indus Valley and China. Then came the civilizations of Athens, and India – the great Buddhist era around 500 BC – then the Romans, and finally the Christian civilization that has dominated the world scene from the Middle Ages to the present. This is of necessity only an imperfect sketch of the chronicle of man, but enough, I think, to set the scene for placing more recent developments in proper perspective. Our earliest ancestors 90,000 years ago began as hunters and food gatherers, leading on the whole a nomadic way of life. At this stage we were only little better than our primate predators in our ability to explore the environment in which we lived. Then about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago, shortly after the end of the last Ice Age, we began to practice agriculture, and that led to the development of more settled social structures and to the emergence of villages and towns. This so-called Agrarian Revolution was rather slow to spread from its point of origin somewhere in Iraq or Iran; but eventually it did spread and expand to dominate our history for thousands of years. The Agrarian Revolution led to the expansion of trade and industry, and to art, literature and music – in short, to a civilized way of life. The India of Shakyamuni and Ashoka and the Athens of Socrates may be seen as the eventual result of the first major revolution in human history. IKEDA:

Various documents have referred, since ancient times, to the fertility of Indian soil and the Greek historian and diplomat Megasthenes (c. 350–c. 290 BC) noted that rivers and rainfall 182

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abounded in India and that two grain harvests occurred there each year. Some scholars say that it was against the background of this abundance that the kingdom of Magadha prospered and that during the Mauryan dynasty of Ashoka large-scale colonization was carried out. It is easy to imagine urban societies flourishing on the basis of such rural abundance, and that in the midst of that liberal ethos a glorious flowering of ideas and culture would occur. WICKRAMASINGHE: The next revolution that affected the relationship

between human beings and their environment in a profound way was the Industrial Revolution, which occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The discovery of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen and the use of coal as an energy source to fuel such engines changed the course of human history in a dramatic way. In using coal for energy we were really unlocking and releasing stored-up chemical energy held in the remains of plants that had covered the Earth in the Carboniferous era some 300 million years ago. Before that plants had been used as fuel for cooking, and animals and humans had been utilized for transportation and labor. Humanity suddenly had free access to a supply of energy much more powerful than the energy it could derive from these previous methods. As time passed, coal production increased rapidly. Living standards improved, populations soared and as the greed for energy and power exceeded all bounds, the world was plunged into an abyss of materialism. The peril that faces us today is a direct result of these events. IKEDA :

The perils of modern civilization range throughout a multiplicity of dimensions – affecting the minds and bodies of individuals, society, peoples, nations, the ecosystem and Earth. Among these perils, the nuclear threat deeply concerns the survival of the human species. Though we now live in a post-Cold War period, the number of countries possessing nuclear weapons is expected to continue to increase, and the danger of localized nuclear warfare persists.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I share your horror of nuclear weapons and of nuclear war. I find it inconceivable that we have so quickly forgotten the lessons of Hiroshima. The development of nuclear weapons can only be seen as a perverse aberration of scientific and technological progress. Even in the case of a controlled detonation of nuclear weapons in which a small fraction of the human population would be exterminated, we now recognize that a ‘nuclear winter’ lasting for decades would descend upon the entire Earth.

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IKEDA:

Our current energy and environmental problems are the warnings of an ominous future that have arisen from the abyss of materialism. Nuclear power generation is a related theme, but since the accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, many countries have begun to reassess their nuclear power programs. Although these problems are usually debated in terms of environmental impact and safety, at the same time, the fundamental issue is, as you have pointed out, a question of greed and values.

WICKRAMASINGHE :

The attitudes that emerged following the Industrial Revolution led to a gradually increasing neglect of the environment. The ethic that prevailed was simply one of profit- and power-seeking. Poets deplored it: Ill fares the land, to hast’ning ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay …1

But their voices were not heard. IKEDA:

Poets speak of the cries of their souls, but these cries are not heard by those who pursue profit and power. Only those who are aware of the great expanse of the sky and who sense the eternity of life understand the whole. And the current critical situation of the global ecosystem itself is proof of the fact that Earth’s life zone is composed of a complex, multilayered life system.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

I fully agree. The lack of regard for the environment and the ever-increasing pollution of our atmosphere are clearly taking their toll. Human industrial activities in excess of reasonable limits have caused alarming changes: there is a hole in the protective ozone layer of our atmosphere that is growing larger, and evidence has been found of an increase in Earth’s temperature due to a greenhouse effect caused by atmospheric pollutants. These problems are at last being acknowledged by governments around the world, and it may be hoped that further pollution at unacceptable levels would be stemmed.

IKEDA: On the one hand, industrialized countries such as Japan have

produced cultures of consumption and greed. On the other hand in the Third World, in addition to a population explosion, famine and extreme poverty are spreading globally. Russia and the nations of Eastern Europe also have serious economic problems. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Many countries are now facing economic genocide and enduring the most abject conditions of poverty and deprivation. This situation is at least in part due to the ‘unbridled

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appetites’ of the richer countries of the world. A tragic irony of our present world scene is that countries now approaching a state of economic genocide include areas in North Africa, the Middle East and Asia that in times past were cradles of civilization for the entire world. IKEDA:

In order for us to overcome the gravest crisis in the history of human civilization, ideas and action based on a perspective that includes the entire globe and all humanity are necessary. In short, the time has come when the people of the world must transcend personal egoism and the egoism of peoples and nations and, based on a global perspective, create a global civilization. And to build humanity’s civilization of tomorrow, dialogue and exchange between East and West, North and South are required at all levels. I feel that a particular need exists for the ideas and philosophies originating in India and China that have characterized the history of the East. The reason is that now the human mind has been warped and sickened by various stresses, and is even beginning to show a tendency to fragmentation and weakening. Industrialized countries face the danger that techno-stress will increase still further, and that as a result of psychosomatic and mental illnesses, human life will fracture from within, and its life force will ebb away.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

To assure us a safe entry into the twenty-first century, it is imperative that we revise our current ethic, which amounts to an ‘unbridled appetite’ for energy. Asian philosophy, such as is embodied in Buddhism, could offer us a guiding light to illuminate the way.

IKEDA: I also believe that the cultures of the East are endowed with

rich wisdom that can contribute to overcoming the crises of Western scientific civilization and creating the coming human civilization. The present day is referred to as the age without a philosophy, but in the past, around 500 BC, there occurred in human history what Karl Jaspers called an ‘axis age,’ when great philosophers and religious leaders, who made the spiritual history of humanity, appeared nearly simultaneously in countries such as China, India and Greece, becoming the source of the ideas and philosophies that have existed up to now. WICKRAMASINGHE:

You are right in saying that something quite remarkable happened to human beings the world over in the few hundred years around 500 BC. A great flowering of the human spirit occurred independently in the Mediterranean, in Athens and Alexandria, and in India and China.

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IKEDA: Although many ideas and philosophies emerged in later ages,

none influenced humanity to the same degree as those of the individuals who appeared during the ‘axis age.’ WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think it is probably because further developments were simply not necessary. Socrates, Shakyamuni and Confucius made a complete set of fundamental philosophical discoveries and there was no room for further improvements. My guess would be that further progress in the Space Age will provide a new set of basic philosophical ideas that will continue to influence the human race in the centuries ahead. We may now be on the threshold of another ‘axis age’ in human history.

IKEDA:

I think we can definitely say we are now at a huge turning point that should be called a ‘second axis age.’ If we define Jaspers’s ‘axis age’ as a period in which people became aware of themselves as individuals, the present age is one in which people become aware of themselves as individuals of a certain species, that is, an age in which a need exists for individuals who base themselves on an awareness of the human race. In short, people are hoping for world citizens who, transcending individual egoism as well as racial and national egoism, base themselves on a global perspective. Cosmopolitans who have awakened to an awareness of humanity through the fresh and vivid philosophy and ideas that will open up in the Space Age. Wherever the circle of solidarity among such individuals widens, the dawn of a global civilization will surely gleam. I believe that Eastern culture, in particular the global and ecological views of life and the world that Buddhism encompasses, can perform a vital service by producing a new set of basic philosophical ideas for the Space Age.

Nuclear Arms: Absolute Evil IKEDA:

We have identified the cultural context of the dangers humanity faces, but I would now like to examine the individual problems in greater detail. In 1983, after the findings of the members of the TTAPS group (an acronym formed from the surnames of the participants) about Earth following a nuclear war were published, the phenomenon called ‘nuclear winter,’ which was introduced therein, made a strong impression on people the world over. I also read the TTAPS text and consider it one of the most important research reports in the long history of science.

WICKRAMASINGHE: There is now general agreement that a ‘nuclear

winter’ lasting for decades would occur all over Earth. This is due

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to the veil of small particles that would inevitably hang over the entire planet following a major nuclear explosion and that would block out sunlight for a long time. Even plants and animals that survive the holocaust would inevitably suffer because photosynthesis would be interrupted globally, and food chains would be cut. The full horrors of a nuclear holocaust can scarcely be contemplated with sanity. IKEDA:

The system of subjugation by force that makes nuclear arms the weapons of last resort is, in a sense, the consequence of the control of human beings by machines and political mechanisms that has advanced steadily via Western scientific and technological progress. If we take a closer look, however, we see that the militaryindustrial complex – which is sustained by military strength and in which lies hidden horrific destructive power – is itself controlled by the evil influence of nuclear arms and authority. The extension of the so-called concept of nuclear deterrence may very well terminate in a terrible tragedy, orchestrated by the evil influence of nuclear arms, in which human beings are nonexistent.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Bertrand Russell’s denunciation of nuclear war

and protest against the Bikini H-bomb tests in an emotive radio broadcast in 1954 has an ever-increasing relevance in the present day: For countless ages the sun rose and set, the moon waxed and waned, the stars shone in the night, but it was only with the coming of Man that these things were understood. In the great world of astronomy and in the little world of the atom, Man has unveiled secrets which might have been thought undiscoverable. In art and literature and religion some men have shown a sublimity of feeling which makes the species worth preserving. Is all this to end in trivial horror, because so few are able to think of man rather than of this or that group of men? Is our race so destitute of wisdom, so incapable of impartial love, so blind even to the simplest doctrines of self-preservation that the last proof of its silly cleverness is to be the extermination of all life on our planet?2 This speech was followed by the famous Russell-Einstein condemnation of nuclear weapons signed by Nobel laureates the world over. IKEDA: The 1954 Russell-Einstein statement of protest had a great

effect on peace and nuclear disarmament movements. I also would like to label nuclear arms an ‘absolute evil,’ as Bertrand Russell did

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before. Balance achieved through the absolute evil of nuclear weapons will never result in peace. WICKRAMASINGHE: The feelings that underlie your quest for nuclear

disarmament and world peace were impressed on me with great force when I visited the Peace Museum in Hiroshima. The exhibits displayed there – fragments of human remains, burnt satchels, lunch-boxes, clothes of primary school children – fill us with horror, and remind us of one of the most tragic episodes of human history. I am still haunted by visions of young schoolchildren scrambling out from burning classrooms, raw skin hanging from their backs, running home through a city in flames. My heart was filled with sadness as well as shame. Sadness for the mindless slaughter with slow lingering deaths of thousands. Shame to admit that I belong to a species that can inflict such cruel, calculated torture on fellow members, fellow humans – because those who dropped that bomb knew full well, even to the smallest detail, the consequences that were to follow. I think a visit to the Hiroshima museum must be strongly recommended to anyone who doubts your message of peace. Even after half a century the horrors of that day of August 6, 1945, are recorded so as to remind us that such things must never happen again. I fear for our future and for the future of our children and our grandchildren. Such fears could only be allayed by a carefully planned international program of arms reduction and of bilateral (or multilateral) disarmament. The US government has defined deterrence as follows: The prevention from action by fear of the consequences. Deterrence is a state of mind brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction …3 The argument for having nuclear weapons on both sides for deterrence is frequently stated, but I do not believe that long-term safety or stability would ensue if a policy of deterrence is vigorously pursued. It is stated that nuclear weapons once discovered cannot be undiscovered, a fact which cannot be disputed. It is also implied that both the United States and its allies face a serious threat to their lives and freedoms that they need to defend. Threat there may well be, but I do not believe it to be serious enough to place the future of our entire species in jeopardy. IKEDA:

With the arrival of the post-Cold War era, we have finally entered a phase of steady arms reduction. The pace of arms reduction has picked up, particularly since US president George Bush’s arms reduction proposal of September 1991 and Russian

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president Mikhail Gorbachev’s positive response to it. This appears to have represented what may be called a historic turning point in the struggle for nuclear disarmament. However, even if the United States and Russia further reduce their nuclear stockpiles, this does not mean they have abandoned their reliance on nuclear deterrence. WICKRAMASINGHE:

We are living in very interesting times. Even as we speak, the political map of the world is being redrawn. Changes are occurring with great speed. Russian president Boris Yeltsin has recently announced proposals for major reductions in nuclear stockpiles, and has even called for a Russian–Western alliance to defend the planet against the perils of nuclear war. All these are hopeful signs, but there are still storm clouds looming ahead. The economy of the emergent Russian Commonwealth is so exceedingly fragile that there is a real danger that President Yeltsin’s best intentions can be thwarted at a moment’s notice by the military, which is still very powerful in Russia. The fate of the new world order that is now being so widely discussed may indeed hang by a very slender thread. Another major problem is that the technology and raw materials needed for making nuclear weapons are now available to many countries, even those in the so-called Third World. In such a situation the more powerful nations consider it prudent to fall back on the deterrent argument. With more of the smaller nations joining the nuclear arms cult, the risk of a madman in some remote part of the world deploying such weapons without warning is as stark as it is real. This danger may well exceed that of any major US–Russian confrontation in the near future. The risk of accidents also increases as time goes on.

IKEDA: I would like to introduce a quote concerning civil wars fought

with nuclear weapons, from a recent book published in Japanese entitled Jissaisei no jidai (The Age of Pragmatism) by John Kenneth Galbraith, with whom I have spoken on several occasions, and Shigenobu Kishimoto: The most overwhelming current danger is the prospect that these weapons could fall into the hands of irresponsible, barbaric people …. Because these nuclear weapons are widely scattered throughout the United States and the Soviet Union, it is certain that now this must be the greatest source of anxiety …. I do not believe it is unrealistic to attempt to employ measures that could prevent internal disputes from degenerating into nuclear civil wars.4

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Galbraith then proposed that a joint US–Soviet committee of specialists be created, under the jurisdiction of the United Nations, to collect and dispose of these weapons of death according to a definite timetable. There is a real danger that the nuclear weapons scattered throughout the Russian republics could fall, in the current political turmoil, into the hands of some madman. For this reason alone the issue of nuclear control as pointed out by Galbraith is extremely urgent. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I agree. This problem has become all the more acute following the dismantlement of the former Soviet Union, with a possible weakening of central control over nuclear weapons.

IKEDA: Although the march toward nuclear disarmament is picking

up speed, the currently erupting regional disputes caused by territorial claims or racial and religious conflicts, and the continuing proliferation of nuclear weapons, show that the threat of nuclear war still hangs heavy over humanity. If this nuclear threat were to be evaluated from the perspective of the theory of civilization, it surely would be found to represent one of the catastrophes facing our Western scientific and technologically oriented civilization. The new weapons systems of today, based on nuclear power, are spin-offs of space research and development. Chemical and biological weapons also are products of our scientific, technologically oriented civilization. WICKRAMASINGHE: It could be said that if the scientific technology

that led to the invention of nuclear weapons had never been developed, then the world would be a safer place. But although I abhor nuclear weapons, I cannot agree with this line of thinking, for it is impossible to restrain the human quest for knowledge. Of course, scientists should not be criticized when their discoveries are used for evil purposes – it is the duty of our representatives in the political realm to use the results of scientific discoveries in a responsible manner. IKEDA:

As you say, the human need to seek the truth must never be suppressed. Science and technology have opened up a vast domain of knowledge extending from outer space to the atom. This is wholly due to the great efforts of scientists in pursuit of the truth. But what is really needed today is the human wisdom to determine how to put scientific results to use for the happiness and prosperity of humanity. Put another way, I think the crisis of modern civilization lies in the loss of inner moral and ethical brakes, of the virtuous power

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of the spirit, against an external assault concentrated in the absolute evil of nuclear weapons. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The science that has brought us literally to the brink of nuclear war was based almost entirely on the Cartesian philosophy of reductionism, the persistent neglect of res cogitans and the steady abolition of religious and moral values. Moral and ethical considerations that are sometimes reintroduced as an afterthought are almost invariably polemical and without effect. Christianity shone like a beacon through the centuries to guide the destinies of European nations from the Middle Ages till the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. It inspired art, music, literature and philosophy. It also served a social purpose because it held families and social groups together. The rich donated money to the Church, and this was in turn handed to the poor. The Church thus served as the leveler. People who were able to believe that sinners were punished with everlasting damnation adhered to good for fear of punishment. The Church as a social institution became very powerful and remained so until such time as its dogmas came to be challenged. We have already mentioned that Galileo and Copernicus presented the first challenge to Christian dogma in the mid-seventeenth century, and Darwin brought about a major confrontation with the Church in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Between the time of Copernicus and Darwin there was also the emergence of Protestantism and the rise of Skepticism. Basic Christian beliefs about the nature of the Universe and of man continued to be steadily eroded as reductionist science progressed and exposed the contradictions within Christian dogma. Whether such contradictions pose a real problem for science or whether they stem from limitations of the reductionist approach could be questioned. But the fact remains that the social influence of Christianity as a civilizing and restraining force has diminished over the last few decades. Churches are emptying, and we are left with a society stripped of moral values. Human beings are becoming increasingly amoral as the years go by, and here I perceive an imminent danger. Without moral values a human being’s actions resemble those of a primitive hominoid – who was a predator pure and simple. The difference now is that our predator is armed with nuclear weapons lethal enough to destroy all life on our planet. It is imperative in my opinion to reintroduce the Cartesian res cogitans into our worldview. Whether this means a return to Christian values or not remains to be seen. My guess is that Christianity will not yield the holistic worldview that is needed in our approach to the twenty-first century. I am always impressed

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by groups of young people in the West who are turning for hope to Eastern philosophies, philosophies in which peace and compassion are accorded the highest regard. I believe that Buddhism is a supreme example of a philosophy in this category. The holistic worldview implied in Buddhism makes it a natural candidate for a religion that can guide us safely through the twenty-first century. IKEDA:

I think the key to the world of the twenty-first century lies in humanity’s regaining a moral and ethical outlook by basing itself on religion. This is because political and economic proposals centered on the United Nations for arms reduction and nuclearfree security systems will bear fruit for humanity only when supported by a people’s peace movement that can create a global society that has restored the ‘power of the spirit,’ that is, the virtuous heart.

Coexistence with the Earth’s Ecosystem IKEDA:

Today, as in the past, the greatest destroyer of the global environment is war, but here I would like to discuss the ways in which modern human beings’ daily activities themselves are bringing about the destruction of Earth’s life systems. And the greater part of this destruction may be traced to the life-styles and actions of the people in industrialized countries. At this moment, for example, forests are being destroyed at an astonishing rate – in particular tropical rain forests. Rapidly spreading desertification is another problem, as is the yearly erosion of fertile soil, the base of agriculture. Modern scientific civilization itself, based on fossil fuels like petroleum, has increased the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, leading to a warming effect on Earth and a melting of the polar ice caps that, it is said, could cause a rise in the level of the world’s oceans. These factors are also being studied as the causes of freak weather patterns. And recent warnings about the destruction of the ozone layer are increasing in tone and frequency.

WICKRAMASINGHE: A proper assessment of the environmental crisis

surely needs to be made. The hole in the ozone layer is a fact, and we can be almost certain that CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) used by industry are responsible for it. If we do not check this problem soon, the hole will spread over Earth, and harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun will penetrate the atmosphere and cause damage to us all. As regards the cause of the melting of the ice caps, I am myself not certain how much of the global heating is due to anthropogenic greenhouse gases and how much to a decrease in a naturally occurring

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veil of extraterrestrial dust that is known to always exist around Earth. The thickness of this layer fluctuates due to natural causes because Earth is passing through an interplanetary cloud of variable density. We cannot do much about the extraterrestrial component of the greenhouse effect, but we can certainly exercise restraint in our use of fossil fuels. This is also important if we are to extend our use of fossil fuels over a couple of centuries. The stores of such fuels will not last indefinitely, and it would be prudent to economize until safer nuclear energy or another energy source might become available on a large scale. IKEDA:

I agree with efforts to develop ‘clean’ energy sources and to conserve conventional energy supplies. In addition, we should make the most of advanced technology to eliminate pollution, and we should recycle resources and energy.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The biggest drain on our fossil fuel reserves comes

from our use of oil for freighters, cars and airplanes. I believe that in the twenty-first century we would do well to cut down drastically on automobile use and globe-trotting and spend more time in our homes and leisure centers, which should be within walking distance from where we live. Most of our work and business ought to be carried out from our homes with the aid of elaborate videophone and computer links which are inexpensive in terms of energy. We could link up with one another to conduct dialogues such as this, and also have links to data bases, telescopes, etc. The time we save in traveling we would be able to devote to more important matters such as the ‘contemplation of the Universe.’ IKEDA: It’s a matter of a change of life-style, isn’t it? The shortcomings

of today’s high consumption-oriented society are apparent everywhere. But I believe that a truly humanistic and affluent society is one that is endowed on the spiritual side as well with abundant powers of development. It would be wonderful if scientific technology and communication systems could be used so that people could live truly fulfilling lives as human beings. People should aim to establish a life-style in which they can discover the pleasures and joys of living in such things as, as you have suggested, speculation about the Universe and poetic sentiments toward nature, a happy family circle and places of recreation warm with humanity, and intellectual adventures challenging the legacy of humanity through reading.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

Our immediate priority is to assess the environmental situation in an objective way. Facts must be accepted and dogmas rejected. In my view science as a whole faces a crisis from being over-cluttered with dogma. The situation is so bad at the present moment that if facts go against a prevailing dogma, they are ignored. This is an exceedingly dangerous trend. Science must always respect empirical facts, and intellectual honesty must be paramount. A society that fails to distinguish between propositions of the world that are true and those that are false is doomed to extinction in the short run. The collapse of the Roman Empire can be attributed to a very similar neglect of facts. Leaders in the Western part of the Roman Empire were the first to turn away from the facts of growing poverty and of a growing economic crisis, and the West was also the first to fall. The Byzantine Empire, which was more cognizant of reality and facts, survived well into the Middle Ages.

IKEDA: It seems to me that the general awareness of the present state

of environmental problems and the scientific forecasts that may be derived from this awareness are still inadequate. Understanding more correctly the mechanism of weather changes, the role of the forests, atmosphere and oceans in maintaining the global environment, the current state of living things and the circumstances of their decrease, and the impact of humanity on the global environment will become increasingly important as time goes on. The exhibition ‘War and Peace,’ held at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City in autumn of 1990 and sponsored by the Soka Gakkai, showed waterfowl with beaks malformed by environmental pollution caused by harmful chemicals. These birds could no longer feed themselves. Diving into the water, they tried to pick up food, but because their beaks did not close, they drowned. Some of my young friends said that this exhibition made them deeply aware that these malformed water birds hint at what may befall human beings in the near future. Nearly 1,000 chemical substances have been produced through the advances of science, but only a very few of them have been recognized as poisonous. Among the poisonous ones, some, like PCBs, accumulate in the bodies of living things, threatening their survival. In Japan, during the outbreak of Minamata disease, a kind of mercury poisoning caused by industrial pollution, some scientists altered and concealed data to the advantage of the industrial concerns involved. And pharmaceutical companies also occasionally falsify data concerning medicines. The most important thing for science is certainly faithfulness to the facts.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think the only way to put science back on its tracks is to make scientists aware of the perils of abandoning the pursuit of truth. Your example of the deformed waterfowl has a poignancy that is difficult to match. Facts like this should be brought more often to public notice. Our duty as human beings is to do everything in our power to prevent ecological disasters of this kind from escalating and enveloping our species and our planet.

IKEDA:

As James E. Lovelock explained in his Gaea hypothesis, at the same time all the biospheres on Earth, mutually related through countless feedbacks, weave a pattern of absolute equilibrium, Earth itself, including the atmosphere, oceans and soil, and maintains homeostasis, or conditions that are optimal for life. The actions of human beings in our modern civilization are breaking apart Earth’s delicately interwoven and multilayered life system, pushing it to a point where recovery is impossible.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

The subtle balance between nature and life that you refer to has built into it a natural protective device that ensures that if something goes even slightly wrong, the system recognizes it and is able to check it. The same corrective process should work when human intelligence intervenes, but along with man’s ability to manipulate the environment and change it in drastic ways there should also be a heightened awareness of mistakes when they do occur. Above all there is an imperative need for honesty in appraising the fruits of science and technology. Short-term personal gain must be sacrificed in the interests of longer-term hopes for our preservation and survival. I am optimistic that truth will ultimately prevail. There is a level of pain beyond which scientific dishonesty and self-deception will have to be abandoned. We can only hope that the waterfowl deformity does not extend to many other species before our hearts can be touched. Alternatively, a new spiritual force, a new morality, could intervene to restore honesty to science. This could happen as science becomes more and more a concern of the man in the street, and he is of course basically honest and eager to know what is true.

IKEDA: Human beings’ system of values and their concept of nature

are sources that produce fresh spiritual and moral power, and I would here like to strongly emphasize the importance of the Eastern concept of nature. The way of life brought about by modern scientific civilization sometimes expands people’s desires for the sake of convenience and transforms them into greed, tending toward a concept of nature and a value system that encourages the control and subjugation of nature. In contrast, Eastern values

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recognize the dignity of the natural ecosystem and, rather than causing the expansion of human beings’ own materialistic desires, cultivate a philosophy of coexisting with nature by sublimating these into something spiritual, and of living within nature. The peoples of India and Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China and Japan have created a way of life that, rather than simply satisfying materialistic, instinctive desires, allows one, while basking in the wonders of nature and the cosmos, to bring to bloom the flowers of art, learning and culture. Buddhism articulates the ideal way for human beings to live in the cosmos and in the natural world in the form of various doctrines, and presents these as guidelines for life. For instance, Miao-lo of China systematized the principle, in accordance with the Buddhist concept of nature, that although life and its environment are two independent phenomena, they are in essence one. They are called ‘two’ because environment and living beings display a creative state in which they interact and affect one another. Since the emergence of the human race, human beings have produced cultural and social environments from within the midst of their interactions with the natural environment. But even though on a phenomenal level living beings and their environment can be distinguished, at their base they are ‘not two,’ but are united as one. Both human beings and their environments, fused internally, are grounded in the ultimate Law of the Universe. Thus, at present, when Earth’s ecosystem is facing great danger, the principle of the oneness of life and its environment, which explains that the destruction of the external environment in itself means the collapse of one’s own life or self-destruction, and that the inner collapse of individuals invariably leads to the destruction of the environment, presents a vital perspective that urges the transformation of our way of life itself. If we contemplate the wonders of the Universe and consider that human beings live amidst the exquisite harmony of Earth’s ecosystem, the path we must take is clear. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I cannot agree with you more. These are grave problems which we have brought upon ourselves by our persistent lack of regard for the environment. I think this concept of the ‘oneness of life and its environment’ is elegant; it encapsulates the worldview that we must seek to establish before it is too late. We cannot afford to continue our callous conduct, behaving like arch predators without morals. Such unthinking creatures would eventually destroy this planet for us and for other living beings as well!

IKEDA:

Among the many environmental problems, population growth is an urgent concern that must be dealt with immediately.

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I say this because overpopulation is at the root of other worries including resource and energy depletion and food shortages. It is not too much to say that population growth is now explosive, particularly in developing nations. The reduction in the infant mortality rate as a result of medical advances may be cited as the fundamental cause. Many of the children who have survived, however, suffer from extreme malnutrition. WICKRAMASINGHE:

Historically, populations have been kept in check by the intervention of wars, pestilence and famines. If we succeed in averting large-scale war, and if we also further succeed in overcoming the worst effects of epidemics by appropriate medical measures, then we must inevitably face the consequences of a steady rise in population.

IKEDA: The world’s population is apparently approaching the limit

that can be supported by Earth’s resources. What do you think about this situation? WICKRAMASINGHE: The present world population is reckoned to be

over five billion, and by the year 2000 it is estimated that it will rise to the six-billion-plus mark. Judging by present-day trends, one could infer that the world population will double every 30 years, which means that by the year AD 2030 it will have exceeded the 12-billion mark. This is an important number because it may be near an absolute limit that Earth could support. The biosphere of Earth is essentially maintained through the utilization of sunlight by algae and plants that are at the bottom of our food chain. Keeping 12 billion people alive in reasonable health requires tremendous energy, and one could argue that a 12-billion population would be close to the farthest limit allowing survival. This calculation assumes of course that resources are equally distributed, which is far from the truth. In the real world we would expect that by the year AD 2030 an even larger fraction of the world’s population than at present would live on the brink of starvation and death – a depressing prospect indeed. IKEDA:

Aurelio Peccei, founder of The Club of Rome, in addition to pointing out that difficult issues, such as deeply ingrained procreation customs and the complex entanglement of human beings’ rights and responsibilities, cloud the population problem, remarked as follows: These multiple requirements will probably present a permanent moral, political and social conundrum. But they do not eliminate the need, in our present worldwide straits, for enlightened,

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effective family planning and population policies adopted by, or with the support of, the people themselves. And they should not obfuscate the implicit rule of life that no species can allow itself to multiply to the extent that its own existence might be endangered.5 I am in complete agreement with Peccei. I firmly believe that a human being’s every act should be based on a respect for life, and I believe that family planning that takes place before conception does not violate this principle. WICKRAMASINGHE:

More effective measures to control population through family planning must be devised, and possibly enforced, on a worldwide scale. The alternatives to a concerted effort to limit the world population are extremely grim. It is of course possible that a future epidemic (such as AIDS) may serve as a population check, but this is not something we would wish for. Another possibility discussed in some circles is that we may be forced to venture out into space to establish space colonies that might become independent and self-sustaining. I myself do not believe that this is anything more than a fantastic speculation, an escape from facing a stark reality.

IKEDA: I also think that because the population explosion continues

in developing nations, aid from the industrialized nations to eliminate poverty in these countries is an urgent necessity. We must end this vicious circle in which poverty in developing nations makes children a necessity to ensure a labor force, and the high birth and death rates simply accelerate the poverty. I believe aid that helps these developing nations become prosperous – including financial, technical and educational aid – will ultimately become an effective way to alleviate the population explosion.

Challenges of Dealing with AIDS IKEDA:

AIDS is showing signs of running rampant worldwide. Its spread may even be compared to the pestilence of the Dark Ages. It truly represents today’s disease of civilization. An April 1992 estimate by the World Health Organization (WHO) set the number of AIDS patients at 484,000, and the number of those infected with the HIV virus that causes AIDS at 40 million. The number of reported cases per 100,000 population is highest in the United States, but the number of actual cases in sub-Saharan Africa is said to be even greater. Patients in Asia at present seem to be fewer than in the United States and Africa, but

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their number is growing rapidly, particularly in south Asia, and in Japan too they are gradually increasing. Moreover, it is predicted that in the future the HIV infection will rage on a worldwide scale. Perhaps we can say that AIDS presents an even greater threat to humanity than cancer. WICKRAMASINGHE: On the African continent the disease is beginning

to cripple the economies of some sub-Saharan countries. At a recent international conference on AIDS it was suggested that in parts of Africa more than one person in ten might currently be infected with the virus. This is indeed a frightening statistic, implying that we may be headed for large-scale depopulation of some parts of this continent in a very short time. In other parts of the world, too, the incidence of AIDS is steadily rising, giving cause for grave concern. In a WHO Bulletin published on April 1, 1992, the incidence rate per 100,000 population is given as 84.7 for the United States, 9.6 for the United Kingdom, 0.4 for Japan and 0.1 for Sri Lanka. Medical and social services in many nations throughout the world are being stretched to the limit because of the explosive increase of AIDS cases. IKEDA:

The spread of AIDS became a problem on a global scale when patients were identified in New York and Los Angeles in the middle of 1981. Because at first all of the patients were male homosexuals, it was seen as a disease associated only with gay men. But from September 1982, when it became clear that the cause was a virus of unknown origin that leads to a dysfunction of the immune system, the disease has been called acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Later, when the AIDS virus itself was discovered, the world was deeply shocked to learn that AIDS is a disease that develops after being transmitted from person to person. Although at present the incubation time (the period between contracting the virus and developing symptoms) varies among patients, it usually ranges from five to ten years, and once symptoms appear, a very high 90 percent of patients succumb to the illness within a fiveyear period.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The history of medical science over 1,000 years

or more shows that from time to time epidemics develop quite suddenly, and then vanish with equal suddenness. We now know that such epidemics are caused by micro-organisms, either bacterial or viral. The most destructive epidemics, such as smallpox, are known to be caused by a virus that spreads rapidly through contact with an infected individual. The origins of this virus are puzzling, particularly if we note that smallpox has appeared and disappeared repeatedly in the past with a periodicity of about 600 years. During

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the period between smallpox episodes, which usually extends over a few centuries, where does the virus reside? This is a most difficult question to answer, but I would like to suggest that the virus remains deep-frozen in a cometary reservoir somewhere beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Such a point of view was expounded by Fred Hoyle and myself, although I should say that this is still a minority viewpoint and is still controversial. IKEDA: In general, the pattern of AIDS transmission can be broadly

divided into two major types. One type is seen in the United States, an industrialized nation. In this country the AIDS virus appears to have spread rapidly probably in the late 1970s. At that time, the majority of those infected were homosexual men, but in the 1980s, the disease also spread widely among intravenous drug users. Another type of transmission is seen in the spread of AIDS in Africa. Scientists conjecture that the virus began to spread there from the latter half of the 1970s, and in Asia from the latter half of the 1980s, and that its transmission occurred through heterosexual sex. As for the appearance of the AIDS virus, the theory of an African origin is thought to be most plausible. WICKRAMASINGHE: The origin of the AIDS virus remains somewhat

of a mystery. A popular belief is that an AIDS-type virus resident in a population of green monkeys in Africa changed its structure through mutation and crossed the species barrier to infect humans. I am not too happy about certain aspects of this theory and would myself prefer to consider two other possibilities: 1. the virus came from a comet, or 2. it was synthesized artificially and somehow escaped from a laboratory. To discuss origins is interesting but does not help in solving the most challenging problems caused by AIDS. IKEDA:

I agree entirely. Various forms of treatment are now being experimented with, including preventive vaccines, antiviral substances and immunotherapy, but at present, it seems that no effective method of treatment has been established.

WICKRAMASINGHE: Laboratories around the world are now actively

trying to discover vaccines and an effective form of treatment, but so far no significant breakthroughs have been made. The difficulty in combating this disease arises from two unusual features that characterize the virus. It is communicated at present mainly through sexual contact, which may imply that the mechanism

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of human reproduction itself carries with it the risk of removing rather than adding individual human beings to the population. Another frightening feature of the AIDS virus is that it strikes at the heart of our immune system, which is indispensable for combating infections of any kind. IKEDA:

My concern now is the rapid transmission and spread of AIDS from mothers to their unborn children. This vertical transmission, from mother to child, raises exceedingly grave issues, in the sense that not only the present generation but also unborn children are sacrificed. As you have mentioned, many organizations are spending large sums not only to prevent the outbreak of AIDS and research treatments for it, but also to deal compassionately with AIDS patients and to promote education and distribute information about the disease. Governments worldwide are also making great efforts to present people with correct information about prevention and to eliminate prejudice and discrimination against those infected. In Japan, the first patients were mainly hemophiliacs, but recently the number of persons who have contracted the disease through homosexual or heterosexual activity is growing, and people’s awareness of AIDS has also increased.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

We must hope that all reasonable measures will be adopted to stem the spread of this epidemic, and that eventually some form of preventive vaccine or cure will be discovered.

Youth and the State of Education IKEDA:

In all ages and in all nations, the education of youth is a subject of the greatest importance. Adults bear the responsibility to consider what and how they should teach and what they should pass on to those who will carry the burden of the future. In recent years, unfortunately, delinquency, school violence, truancy, apathy and teenage suicides – the so-called youth problems – have become everyday events; the decay in our educational system is now much discussed from various angles. In schools and at home, this problem has been addressed with great seriousness in many different forms, but the fact of the matter is that no certain remedy has yet been uncovered.

WICKRAMASINGHE: I see education as involving a process that takes

place on both the social and individual levels. On the social level there must be a transfer of the society’s cultural heritage from one generation to the next, and a simultaneous ongoing reappraisal and

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augmentation of traditional values in relation to new information. On the individual level there must be communication of experience between teacher and child, with the teacher always respecting the individuality of the child and regarding him or her as an equal. Because what happens on an individual level constitutes the actual mechanism of education, education at this level is perhaps the more important of the two. IKEDA:

I am not a specialist in education, and I have no intention of debating the value of the different educational methods or systems, but as one who sincerely desires the healthy development of our youth, I would like to mention one point in which I strongly believe. The leading role in all education must be played by people: both teachers and students. Fundamentally, education occurs in the course of person-to-person communication. The success of the two sorts of education you have mentioned – individual and social – depends on the people who make them work. In Plato’s ‘The Seventh Letter,’ for example, we find the following statement: For it [the essence of his teachings] does not admit of exposition like other branches of knowledge; but after much converse about the matter itself and a life lived together, suddenly a light, as it were, is kindled in one soul by a flame that leaps to it from another, and thereafter sustains itself.6

Plato is referring to the way the very heart of his philosophy is communicated, but in his remarks we can also see a reflection of his precious experience of education at the feet of Socrates, one of humanity’s great teachers. The interaction between teacher and student is a highly spiritual activity, and in Plato’s words I find an important suggestion based on an apprehension of the essence of education. WICKRAMASINGHE: As you have said, the Socrates–Plato relationship

should be looked upon as an ideal, but it is an ideal that may not easily be achieved. A fundamental aim should be to provide the opportunity for every child to develop his or her diverse potentials to the fullest possible extent. In this broad sense, my opinions do not differ from what you have stated. IKEDA: Regarding each young person as an individual and, through

sincere engagement with that individual, communicating something to him or her is perhaps more basic to education than the mere transmission of knowledge; but contemporary education has let that

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all-important human factor fall by the wayside. One of the basic reasons for the growing problems in education in recent years is to be found here, in my opinion. In anthropology, three major factors that modern civilization had originally overlooked – the undeveloped, the child and the unconscious – have been the great discoveries of the twentieth century. Certainly the discovery of children – in other words, the recognition of children as autonomous individuals with their own personalities – and then the responding to that discovery make up a major turning point that contemporary education has finally arrived at. WICKRAMASINGHE: As to the question of whether modern educational

systems meet these requirements, I must say I think they do not. Good teachers with the right commitment to education are too few and far between. In many Western countries such as Great Britain, education is not considered the priority that I think it ought to be. The morale of teachers, particularly in the public sector (state-funded schools), has been at a low ebb for several years. The result is that the young are given a poor education on the whole. Education in most cases amounts to no more than an uncritical transmission of a body of factual or technical knowledge. The most important ingredients in the educational process – dialogue, communication with teachers on a deep level, freedom of inquiry – are largely lacking. And this, I believe, is a failing that exists throughout the modern industrialized world. The situation at universities, I am sorry to say, is not significantly better. All that our universities are concerned with is producing doctors, engineers, lawyers and accountants with the appropriate technical skills. These individuals are to serve merely as mechanistic cogs in the colossal industrial machine that we call the state. Many of the problems we face today could in some measure be related to failures in our educational system. The failure to develop powers of critical appraisal in individuals through the educational process may show up as lack of good judgment on a collective scale. I regard the neglect of education by any society as the greatest crime it can commit against itself. IKEDA:

Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, the first president of the Soka Gakkai, was an educator who wrote Education for Creative Living. The American specialist in comparative education Dayle M. Bethel quoted Makiguchi in a speech he made here in Japan as follows: We must offer children and young people assistance so that they may obtain the key that opens the door to knowledge. If we can provide them with that key, they will be able to open the treasure

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house of knowledge by themselves. Then they will be able to secure what they need.7 The ‘key’ mentioned here is the concept of the ‘creation of value’ that forms the backbone of Makiguchi’s educational system. Bethel indicates that the most praiseworthy feature of this system is its commitment to helping students exploit and develop their potential to the greatest extent possible. I call that kind of education, which makes the development of our human nature its hub, a ‘humanitarian education,’ and I would like to build a consistent educational model of that sort that extends from kindergarten through the college level; I have devoted myself to realizing that goal. Education is a noble enterprise that determines the direction of the distant future. It may not be as conspicuous as politics and economics, but it is one of the most basic foundations of society. I have endeavored to cultivate human beings, in the firm belief that this is my ultimate duty in life.

The Family IKEDA: A problem of modern society intimately associated with the

confusion in school education is the weakening of family bonds. The family institution is seriously threatened by a range of problems, including conflict between mothers-in-law and daughters-in-law, divorce, lack of communication between parents and children, and family violence. We see these problems to an alarming degree in Japan, too. Parents are considered the most important teachers of children; but, in many cases, the ties between parents and children have weakened. Parents now treat their children gingerly, and communication is difficult to achieve. We even hear reports of extreme cases in which children attack their parents physically. The family is the basic unit of culture. When the family does not fully perform its function, this is a sign that a society is facing a crisis. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The family is a social unit that goes back to prehistoric times. It is the basic social unit even among the lower primates. The great antiquity of this relationship implies to me that it must in some way be integral to our nature, and so the modern trends you described are to be deeply deplored. The need to maintain a strong family structure stems at least in part from a biological fact. The relatively long gestation period in the human and the protracted period of breast-feeding (particularly common in primitive societies) lead to a mother–child bond of great strength.

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It is this basic bond that acts like a cement to weld larger social groups, even entire nations, together. Throughout the history of human civilization in all parts of the world one could see the family unit – either the limited nuclear family comprising mother, father and children, or an extended family – playing a vital role in preserving our cultural heritage. Until relatively recently the family played perhaps the most important role in teaching the child skills and values that need to be handed down to the next generation. In modern times the teaching function has been delegated to centralized educational institutions, with disastrous consequences as we have seen. IKEDA: Through my contact with a great number of families, I have

come to feel quite strongly that the way parents live and build their home exerts a profound influence on their children – the formation of their characters, their ways of thinking and their life-styles. Parents can transmit their spiritual heritage and value systems to their offspring only through their own behavior. Today, however, many Japanese families are being spiritually ‘desertified’ through distorted relationships and family breakups. Parents and children, husbands and wives, are finding it difficult to communicate with feelings of love and trust. The British poet T. S. Eliot noted that true culture is measured by the degree we feel for others; and the American psychologist William James said that all those who live a worthwhile life are devoted to the welfare of other people. It should be clear that the desiccation of human relations brought about by the disintegration of family bonds represents a major crisis that could lead to spiritual chaos and erode the foundation of all human culture. The destruction of the family seems to be a problem common to all of the industrialized countries, and I would like to ask your opinion on this subject. WICKRAMASINGHE: As materialism has progressed in the twentieth

century, the family structure has weakened, ultimately reaching a point of imminent collapse. To my mind all the major social problems – defiance of authority, apathy, urban terror – are direct consequences of this weakening of family unity. For a long period in human history the family served as a miniature model of society as a whole. It was the basic economic unit; it was the unit of administration where the parents’ authority was respected. Today, with the collapse of this basic structure, there follows the chaos, violence and hooliganism we see around us. In addition to violence and anarchy, our society seems to be characterized by a lack of concern for the old, the sick and the poor. What kind of world are we leaving to our children and our grandchildren?

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I consider it our paramount duty as civilized human beings to recognize these grave problems and to do what is in our power to restore the love between husband and wife, and parent and child; this seems to me to be integral to our survival through the twentyfirst century. IKEDA: Homes are places where we rest and store up energy for the

next day. You have just emphasized the importance of ‘feeling for others.’ I also think we cannot overemphasize the important role the family plays in cultivating this capacity to share one’s heart, and in fostering a sense of sympathy and altruism. I feel that the key to restoring harmony to the family is for each person – parents and children, husbands and wives – to recognize the individuality and worth of the other family members and from there to work to rebuild relationships based on love, respect and trust. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think religion can play an important role. Before the modern industrial-materialistic revolution gathered momentum, the Church played an important part in keeping families and larger social groups together. With the declining influence of the Christian religion the spiritual bond that served so well for centuries has almost completely dissolved. I believe it is of vital importance to reintroduce some form of religious bond. If a family can agree on any reasonable set of religious or spiritual values, it certainly would help to reunite its members in a lasting way. Buddhism does indeed place great emphasis on the family unit, and respect for one’s parents is integral to its philosophy. In family matters a Buddhist worldview could serve us well.

IKEDA: The Buddhist scriptures contain many teachings concerning

family ethics. In these teachings, the ethics of conduct between parents and children, and husbands and wives, are explained and expanded on based on Buddhist views of ‘dependent origination’ and ‘repaying debts of gratitude.’ Buddhism states that each person is able to be born and live as a human being because of the support of his parents, family and all living beings, and therefore owes his parents and indeed all people a great debt of gratitude. The ties between parent and child, and between husband and wife, are especially strong. The Buddhist teachings were explained in order to infuse these bonds with a spirit of love and trust. Moreover, the special characteristic of Buddhist family ethics is that they not only explain the correct conduct of children toward their parents but indicate in exactly the same way how parents should treat their children. Buddhism also explains the correct reciprocal conduct in the relationship between husband and wife. This is because its ethical codes are based on the principle of dependent

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origination. I have high expectations for the role that Buddhist family ethics can play in a free and equal democratic society.

Contemporary Society and the Correct Way of Life WICKRAMASINGHE: During the first few decades of this century, there

was an impassioned movement to obtain for women the same rights that men enjoyed. From an era in which women possessed no political rights whatsoever, truly amazing progress has been made even in countries such as India and Sri Lanka. Of course, there are also goals that have yet to be realized. I am very happy that these changes have occurred, but there is one thing that concerns me – namely, women in many western European countries are abandoning the traditional roles of wife and mother in order to take jobs and follow careers. IKEDA: It is my belief that, before being wives and mothers, women

must be individual human beings. At the same time, however, I think that in order to live fulfilling lives as individual human beings, it is important that they fully display their special abilities as women. This includes the potential, that only women have, to become wives and mothers. WICKRAMASINGHE:

When one considers the importance of the traditional roles of wives and mothers, I view the effects of the abandonment of these with a touch of fear. It is premature to say what the results may be, but there exists a real danger that society could be negatively affected. The responsibility of rearing children, for instance, should not be taken on by nurseries even with the best specialists in the field.

IKEDA:

In Japan as well, at one point many were saying that true liberation for women would entail arranging for some social institution to replace mothers and the home, thereby freeing women from the burden of child-rearing. However, recently there is a renewed feeling that the most important thing for children is their mother’s love.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

We are entering a time when a new generation of children, who have been raised ‘artificially,’ are starting to make their way out into the world. In this kind of world, it seems to me that the words ‘love’ and ‘compassion’ will lose their meaning. What are your views on this important subject?

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IKEDA: It is no exaggeration to say that the future of human society

depends on the education parents lovingly give their children at home. The teaching and training received by children from their mothers and families, especially during infancy, help them develop not only physically but psychologically and spiritually as well. In other words, this training cultivates qualities including sentiment, affection, openness and insight. As you have pointed out, if children are raised in an artificial environment, it is extremely difficult for them to develop traits such as human affection, gentleness and basic trust. On the other hand, if there is someone to provide a child with love, even if it is not his or her mother, it will be possible for that child to develop into a humane person. For this reason, I believe it is necessary to build a society in which women are able to display their individual abilities and also to engage in effective child-rearing. A society where equality of the sexes exists implies a place where all men and women have an equal opportunity to display their unique talents, and where remuneration is equal as well. With regard to the issue of child-rearing, it means the establishment of a system in which the position of mothers is guaranteed both socially and economically. The real problem is a society in which women feel that they must sacrifice their roles as mothers in order to display their individual abilities. We must work to create a society in which women can take pride in the role of imparting the culture of humankind to children, the ‘messengers from the future.’ Along with the children’s issue, we are also facing the immense challenge of the rapid aging of society. As the average age of men and women increases, the question of how to live out a fulfilled old age will become an important subject, I think. WICKRAMASINGHE:

The tendency of Western societies to reject their old must give cause for great concern. More and more elderly people are forced to spend the last years of their lives in the dismal surroundings of old people’s homes. They are invariably looked on as an economic burden. This is a record that must fill us with shame. I sincerely hope that the twenty-first century will see a reversal of these trends.

IKEDA: I agree. In the Western-style, production-oriented societies

of today, there are a limited number of places where the elderly can work. The question of what to do after retirement – of how to support oneself economically and how to live a useful, fulfilling life – is a source of great concern for many people. What do you think needs to be done in order to create a society in which the elderly can live meaningful lives?

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

I believe it is a fundamental duty of society to ensure that its aged population live happy and fulfilled lives. The assumption that this sector of the population cannot contribute to the well-being of the rest is surely flawed. Their greater experience of life and their wisdom could be deployed to benefit the rest. In traditional Indian and Sri Lankan homes of which I have experience, there still exists some form of an extended family system where grandparents live in close proximity to the younger generations. The old people play a crucial role in educating and guiding the young. The mutual benefits to both sides are obvious. The presence of the elders enriches the family and imparts a measure of emotional security that is not often found in the Western world. It is my firm belief that a well-integrated family unit that accepts contributions of both young and old is the foundation on which a new social order has to be built. In the spring of 1984, The New York Times8 published an article entitled, ‘The Aging Mind Proves Capable of Lifelong Growth,’ that caused quite a stir. A section of the feature describes two types of human intelligence: a ‘fluid intelligence’ defined as ‘a set of abilities involved in seeing and using abstract relationships and patterns,’ and a ‘crystallized intelligence,’ which indicates ‘the ability to use an accumulated body of general information to make judgments and solve problems.’ The crystallized intelligence is less affected by the degeneration of the nervous system than the fluid intelligence, and its functions can actually improve with age in some cases. In terms of the right and left hemisphere model, the crystallized intelligence corresponds to the functions of the right hemisphere of the brain, and the fluid intelligence to those of the left hemisphere. Data indicates that the functions of the right half of the brain do not decline with age, and there are cases where older people are more adept at various tasks. Accordingly, it is possible for the capacity for mental activity and creativity, which is seated in the right hemisphere, to continue to develop as one ages. The functions of the right half of the brain are demonstrated through traits such as intuition, insight, creativity, judgment, and the ability to generalize based on one’s experience. I agree with you that we must build a society in which older people can fully use their abundant experience and the resulting wisdom, in the form of creativity, insight and judgment for the sake of younger generations and cultural development. You spoke earlier of the three-generation family, in which the wisdom and rich experience of the elderly help educate youngsters and the whole family. In Japan, where almost all families are now two-generation nuclear families, a number of experiments are now being conducted to determine how to effectively utilize the abilities

IKEDA:

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of the elderly. These include employing older people in an extensive range of activities – as part-time school instructors, teachers of calligraphy, gardening, poetry and painting, and in waste-recycling work and carpentry. The goal is to create a system in which the abilities of the elderly can be used for the benefit of society in a way that enables older people to lead fulfilling lives themselves. When the elderly feel needed by their families and society and are respected for their accumulated experience and deep insight, they will be healthy in body and mind, and able to live worthwhile and purposeful lives. It is extremely important to avoid a situation in which the happiness of old people is blocked by society and where they suffer for having too much time on their hands in their later years. Speaking of free time, there are many middle-aged people who suffer because they don’t know what to do with their spare time when their working hours are cut down before they reach retirement age. Many men and women find that not only a reduction in work hours but also increased efficiency and the growing use of office automation have given them more free time. The question of how to spend this time is tied up with the subject of how people should live their lives. The opportunity to confront these questions is a benefit of the scientific technology of modern society. WICKRAMASINGHE:

With machines to look after all the dull chores of our lives a new development could be an increase in leisure. This newfound leisure must be channeled into creative pursuits of which there are no shortage – philosophy, poetry, music, art, astronomy, mathematics – to name but a few. The technology to access the entire fund of human knowledge and literature through the internet in our homes is already available. The potential for amusement, education and discovery is indeed vast with an exceedingly wide range of choices available to us.

IKEDA:

By using our leisure time to work toward self-actualization and display our creativity, we will be able to polish our characters and enjoy rich spiritual lives. As you say, the many creative pursuits, including philosophy, poetry and knowledge-gathering, are extremely significant. Through cultural and artistic exchanges with people in our respective communities and with people in the fields each of us is particularly interested in, we will also be able to involve ourselves in various activities such as the protection of nature, the prevention of pollution, and the promotion of peace. Involvement in such a diverse range of activities will probably give rise to a new kind of people’s culture. There will be many, however, who overindulge in the conveniences of modern high-tech culture and lose their sense of discipline; these people will become lazy and hedonistic, and eventually ruin themselves.

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WICKRAMASINGHE: I think that the correct way of life for the twenty-

first century has to be sought within the framework of what we have already discovered. Of course, all these discoveries were achieved through the sweat and toil of many generations, and we should never forget that. Our educators must continue to place our scientific and technological attainments in a historical perspective. Their duty as teachers must be to impress on children how difficult it has all been. A sound, technologically oriented education is also of the essence. From now on, we should take our vending machines, telephones, fax machines, computers and the internet all for granted and strive to evolve a life-style that leads to the greatest possible intellectual fulfillment. I see the various informational tools at our disposal simply as extensions of our senses. By the time the twenty-first century dawns the materialistic ethic will hopefully have weakened. The machines around us will be considered as having no value except in relation to the ‘creative wealth’ they are able to generate within us. The expected expansion of leisure combined with the vast resources of knowledge and technology at our disposal offers great hope for the future. Looking back over the pages of history, we can see that similar situations have occurred at least twice before: first during the Agrarian Revolution and later in the Industrial Revolution. In each instance, the increase of leisure did not lead to decadence or inactivity, but rather produced a great surge of creative activity and led to a flowering of the human spirit. There is no reason to think that this will not happen again. IKEDA:

It is important for people to devote their spare time to selfactualization and making contributions to society and humanity. A line from the 16th chapter of the Lotus Sutra, titled ‘The Life Span of the Thus Come One,’ states that this world is itself the place where living beings enjoy themselves at ease. This means that the purpose of our lives is to create a society where this is possible. Actually, I believe that self-actualization and contribution to humankind are inseparable – that true fulfillment and happiness as a human being are found in a life devoted to serving all living beings. Out of this type of creative activity on the part of the people will emerge a human culture, or culture of the people, that far surpasses any spiritual advancement we have seen in the past.

WICKRAMASINGHE:

A paramount requirement is of course world peace. I would like here to quote my favorite passage from Bertrand Russell’s BBC broadcast of December 23, 1954, and to say that I agree with his sentiment entirely:

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I will have men forget their quarrels for a moment and reflect that if they will allow themselves to survive, there is every reason to expect the triumphs of the future to exceed immeasurably the triumphs of the past. There lies before us, if we choose, continual progress in happiness, knowledge and wisdom. Shall we instead choose death because we cannot forget our quarrels? I appeal as a human being to human beings: remember your humanity and forget the rest. If you can do so the way lies open to a new paradise. If you cannot nothing lies before you but universal death.

The Age of Democracy and Human Rights IKEDA:

Looking back over developments in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe from 1989 on, I am deeply impressed by the fact that just before the turn of the century, history has once again made a dramatic shift. As an event symbolic of this, I was particularly moved by the liberation of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. In October 1961, two months after the wall dividing East from West was completed, I visited West Berlin and stood before this Gate. Thus I was all the more stirred by the strength of the people’s will, that thrust aside the historical oppression this wall had represented for 28 years. When one experiences such a powerful movement of the people, it seems as if one hears a cry therein that people have the right to live a life worthy of human beings. The will of people demanding the dignity befitting human beings has developed into democratic revolutions in Eastern Europe, the suppression of the coup attempt in the Soviet Union in the summer of l991, the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, and the struggles for democracy in Burma. It is my strong impression that this flow toward democracy has now begun to stream in a great sweep throughout the world, knocking down the walls of ideology, ending the Cold War, and bringing about the arrival of an age of cooperation and solidarity. I believe this is a definite movement away from war and confrontation toward peace and harmony. This flow toward an era of democracy will eventually overtake all nations and peoples of the world, and has ample potential to spread until it becomes the mainstream of human history. And as this flow toward democracy swells, perhaps the concept of human rights, as humanity’s conviction endowed with universal value, will again enter the spotlight. That is, the key concept of democratization is exactly the concept of human rights that should be developed based on traditional rights of freedom.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

You have driven home an important point in a powerful way. Freedom is a fundamental requirement for human beings. It is part of our nature – our natural inheritance. From the moment we are born we strive incessantly to express our freedom in a multitude of ways; we learn without restriction, we explore our environment, we reach out for the stars. The most basic type of freedom is of course the freedom to live in a dignified way – without poverty or persecution. At present such freedom is sadly denied to well over four-fifths of the world’s total population, people who live on the brink of starvation. And we must not forget that large numbers of people live under highly repressive regimes where freedom of self-expression is virtually nonexistent. On the eve of the twenty-first century such a record is not one we can be proud of.

IKEDA:

In the struggle for human rights in the Third World, the biggest issues are the dependency structures of new colonialism and dictatorial, authoritarian political structures. Thus the idea of human rights also has gradually expanded in economic and social significance from its sense of civil and political rights at the time of the French Revolution. This concept came to fruition in 1948 at the United Nations in the form of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and in 1966 in the form of the International Covenants on Human Rights. With these covenants, the United Nations can now exercise its authority regarding problems a single country alone cannot possibly solve, such as apartheid and discrimination against women or minority peoples. Today what is needed is an even broader concept of human rights that includes in its vision primarily the issue of peace, as well as issues such as poverty, environmental destruction and discrimination. If we analyze the historical development of the concept of human rights, we could call the fundamental right to freedom, whose main point was the protection of the rights of the individual from the authority of the state, first generation rights; the fundamental right to survive, which demanded from the state a guarantee of people’s daily livelihood, second generation rights; and today’s human rights, which require, like peace and the environment, international solidarity that transcends the state, third generation rights. Third generation solidarity rights include the right to development, to peace and to self-determination, and rights concerning the equitable distribution of food, housing and wealth. Wherever one finds these rights being won in a tangible way, one finds that the rights of freedom and survival are also guaranteed. Now the people of the Third World are seeking solidarity with the people of the world, giving rise to a struggle for human rights that are a universal value essential to human dignity.

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WICKRAMASINGHE:

As you say, popular movements to restore the natural right of freedom for human beings are gathering momentum by the day. I agree with you that this right cannot be denied any longer. Just as when gas pressure builds up under the crust of a planet as bacteria multiply, the surface must eventually explode to free the gas and release the pressure, the force of a struggle for freedom cannot be contained. The liberation of the Brandenburg Gate was certainly a dramatic victory for the people, and similar events occurred also in Romania and Poland. Yes, the forces of freedom are on the march in the closing part of this century. I still think, however, that all these great victories in Europe were marred by later events in China where hundreds of young freedom fighters were brutally mowed down by government tanks. In South Africa, however, where black people previously were treated like animals, extraordinary events have occurred. The release from prison of Nelson Mandela, champion of the anti-apartheid movement, was itself miraculous, but then an even greater miracle took place. Mandela was elected as the first black president of South Africa and democracy was wholly restored. Even in 1992, just a mere two years before the election, this final development was still seen as a faraway dream. The realization of this dream in May 1994 was the joy of the entire world.

IKEDA:

This fresh start for South Africa transcends the dimension of an incident in a single country, in which a long-oppressed people attained freedom. It signifies a setting forth on a journey whose ultimate purpose is that all people on Earth regain human dignity. I recall a crisp, clear fall day, October 31, 1990, in Tokyo, when I spoke with Mandela, who had only recently been released from prison. I greeted him with about 500 young persons, among them Soka University students, outdoors in the exhilarating sunlight. Mandela responded with radiant smiles to the young people’s cheers of ‘Viva Mandela!’ From age 44 to 71, he spent his days in prison, a period spanning 28 years, or 10,000 days. In the harsh prison environment Mandela, cherishing his noble ideals, lived on and on, never yielding. How can those ideals be transmitted to and cultivated in the next generation? During our dialogue that day, too, education was the main theme. Along with making several concrete proposals, such as that Soka University accept exchange students from the African National Congress (ANC) and that we present South African educational institutions with books, school supplies and gym equipment, I said frankly, ‘A single tall tree won’t make a jungle. Even if one outstandingly talented person like Mandela exists, if others don’t

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grow, your work will never be completed.’ Mandela answered delightedly, ‘You are absolutely right.’ With the thought that, as one human being to another, I would like, while showing my appreciation for his labors, to encourage this champion of humanism, I sent Mandela a poem that read in part as follows: ‘When a single seed of conviction / sinks its roots deeply into the soil / numberless young sprouts will / without fail spring forth / promising the arrival / of the season of rich fruition.’ Now, due to the struggles and hardships of Mandela and the people of South Africa, new seeds have been planted. I am earnestly praying that these great ‘seeds,’ overcoming numerous obstacles, will without fail sprout everywhere, and call for solidarity among human beings. The distinguishing characteristic of third generation human rights is solidarity. What is most needed now is a revolution in consciousness throughout the whole of humanity that will establish a concept of human rights in each individual, and concrete action. In the expectation that the network of solidarity will expand, leading to the construction of a global society at whose core is a sense of value founded on humanism, the SGI too will spare no effort in continuing to heighten the tide of democracy rising in every corner of the world to a sense of human community. WICKRAMASINGHE:

As a passport to a prosperous twenty-first century for the human race, an absolute requirement must be to construct a global society that transcends values based on nationalism and racism. Such values must be rejected as being outmoded and should be replaced by a new internationalist, humanist perspective. The material resources of our planet must be thought of as belonging to the human race as a whole, and a way has to be devised to distribute these resources in an equitable way.

The Mission of Astronomy to Develop a Sense of Human Community ‘An arrow pierces every person’s heart’9 – these were the words of Shakyamuni, who had seen through to the essence of Indian society in his time, which against the background of the rigid and utterly worn-out ancient Vedic culture was absorbed in war, strife and argument. Shakyamuni’s ‘arrow’ signified people’s self-awareness, which fueled the fierce flames of desire. Shakyamuni saw that unless one could pluck out the arrow of egoism piercing deep into people’s hearts, no fundamental way could be found to transform the dangers of a human world filled with suffering. We must recognize

IKEDA:

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that at the root of the dangers facing Western technological civilization today is an ‘arrow,’ that is, egoism and controlled by desires. Serge Kolm of France described the problem in the following way: ‘Modern people suffer from the disease of self. Their societies now suffer because of each individual’s self. “Ego” is the name of this disease …. We must identify what exactly is this thing called an individual, and in order to escape from this disease we must identify its exact cause. This is the principal object of Buddhism …. The destination of Buddhism is the liberation of the human being.’ WICKRAMASINGHE:

If egotism is not combated, the consequences are likely to be grave. Individual egotism (selfishness) gives rise to similar phenomena in bigger social groups – tribal egotism, racism and nationalism in its most invidious forms. The reigning ethic is: grab as much as possible for yourself, for your racial group, for your national group, to the exclusion of any global considerations that embrace all humans. The logical conclusion would be suspicion, confrontation, even war in the extreme limit. Today, we see that many nations of the world are locked in conflict, precisely for the reasons we have discussed. These tensions can be alleviated only if their basic cause – the arrow – is recognized and removed.

IKEDA:

I am in perfect agreement with your assessment that, in addition to conquering the deep-seated egoism of individuals, we must also overcome the egoism of social groups, as reflected in tribalism, racism and narrow-minded nationalism. I believe that we must conquer the egoism nesting in such groups at all levels of society and realize the ideal of a ‘global community’ based on a universal human consciousness.

WICKRAMASINGHE: The ideal of a ‘global collective’ is certainly worth

pursuing as a high priority. I believe that egotism must be uprooted and replaced by a deep and genuine concern for the well-being of humankind as a whole. In very primitive societies interdependence between members was confined to small units comprised perhaps of a few families. In those days tribal loyalties served human society well. Today the entire world population is becoming increasingly interdependent to a point where the well-being of any particular nation must be regarded as intimately linked to the fortunes of people living in the remotest parts of the globe. The emergence of a ‘global collective’ outlook is in my view inevitable, and it may also be necessary for our survival.

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IKEDA: According to the philosopher Henri Bergson10 (1859–1941),

it is impossible to change a closed society into a global open one through a progressive expansion of sentiments corresponding to a gradual broadening of vision. Bergson suggested that the individuals who compose society must make a qualitative leap from closemindedness to open-mindedness, and commented that a dynamic religion could provide an indispensable opportunity for this. In order to form a global community, the hearts of our world citizens must always be open and directed outward. For this purpose, I have consistently pointed out that a need exists for religious opportunities that will stimulate the liberation of the spirit that underlies each person’s identity. When I met with Norman Cousins, a well known advocate of world federation, he asserted that there were two types of national sovereignty – ‘absolute’ sovereignty centered on military control and ‘relative’ sovereignty in the form of jurisdiction over the activities of society – and that ‘absolute’ sovereignty should be dissolved. I also think that the evil side of national sovereignty, in the form of the employment of military might, must be limited and that we must establish a movement for a world without war. Such a path would itself represent great progress toward creating a global community. But in order to continue steadily along this path, the cultivation of people’s awareness of themselves as world citizens who have transcended national frameworks is essential. The awareness that supports a global community actually is an awareness of human community that has transcended the egoism rooted in individualism, ethnocentrism, nationalism and regionalism. I believe that from this sense of human community, the wellspring of the spirit that lies deep in the human mind, will well forth an allencompassing worldview that can bring about the formation of a global community, humanistic values and the concept of basic human rights. And I believe that by illuminating the ‘inner cosmos’ in the depths of human beings, Buddhism can serve as a religious and moral base for establishing a sense of human community. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I think there might be more than one way to remove the scourge of egotism. Your proposal through the acceptance of Buddhist doctrines is one. Buddhism is well equipped to put our individual existences into a cosmic perspective. Another way to achieve the same end may well be through education in the facts of geology and astronomy. Remember that our species Homo sapiens has existed only for 90,000 years of Earth’s total history of 4.5 billion years. Could an egotist survive if he really absorbs this knowledge? I think not. To contemplate the immense vastness of the Universe, stretching over billions of

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light-years, the billions upon billions of stars within it, vast numbers of life-bearing planets that must surely exist, the widespread occurrence of life’s building blocks – all this must be a sobering educational experience. In addition, the view that the entire history of human civilization has been directly influenced by events in the Universe outside is supported by quite a lot of evidence. For instance, there is evidence to support the view that about 15,000 years ago a huge comet with an orbit crossing that of Earth broke up, disintegrating into several billion fragments. Since then, every 1,600 years these fragments have pummeled Earth in violent meteor showers. The first of these meteor showers brought about the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago. Some communities that had started to form around that time were destroyed by falling meteorites. This is the reason why people in ancient times came to fear meteors as harbingers of ill fortune. These views were elaborated on by the British astronomers William Napier and Victor Clube in 1990. Such events suggest that it is absolutely impossible for humanity to change its destiny as it pleases. It is thought that human history has been punctuated throughout by various shocks originating from beyond Earth. Fred Hoyle and I have speculated that the end of the first Egyptian dynasty, the birth of the Judaic religion and the onset of the Dark Ages in Europe were all connected with falling meteors. Within the meteoric cycle we are considering, the current age corresponds to a period in which the chance of colliding with cometary meteors is at its lowest. Even so, events such as the comet collision that occurred at the turn of the century in Siberia cannot be ignored. In 1908, a cometary fragment measuring 100 meters across landed in central Siberia along the Stony Tunguska River, flattening several thousand square kilometers of forest. Rare occurrences such as these serve to remind us anew that the danger of colliding with meteorites and comets has not disappeared. In 1994 the comet Shoemaker-Levy split into a multitude of pieces and crashed headlong into the planet Jupiter. This event was a grim warning of what might happen to Earth in the future. The calculations are still uncertain, but there is growing evidence to suggest that a Tunguska-style event could occur perhaps once or twice in a century. The Shoemaker-Levy–Jupiter collision has drawn attention to the question of possible collisions of Earth with similar objects, and it is interesting that NASA has set aside a budget of a half million dollars for a detection program with a view to possibly destroying small cosmic objects before they strike Earth. We may be influenced by the Cosmos in far more subtle ways as well. As living beings we are undoubtedly connected to the vast Universe in many ways, and are being affected even now by events occurring on its expansive stage. Perhaps our immediate

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environment, the incidence of epidemic disease and even the evolution of life are controlled by factors that are external to Earth. IKEDA: The Universe encompasses dreams and adventure, eternity

and the expanses of a boundless life. The Universe is also a world of wisdom for the human beings investigating its wonders. Humans’ state of life expands infinitely when they contemplate the Universe, and feelings of compassion for the irreplaceable Earth and for humanity are stimulated. In addition, their sense of the human being as a child of the Universe and as a microcosmos deepens. If humanity would live reflecting on the history of Earth and looking upward at the immense heavens, I am certain it would recognize the foolishness of its narrow-minded quarrels and the importance of peace. If people proceeded with respect for the majesty of eternity, they would come to understand the utter futility of things like confrontations among their small egos. From this perspective too, I feel that astronomy and the study of the Universe have a noble educational role to play in directing and awakening humanity to its common goal. WICKRAMASINGHE:

I wholeheartedly agree. Astronomy is unique among the sciences in providing a means to form a unifying worldview. We have seen earlier that the development of astronomy can be regarded as a natural response to a basic human urge to explore the external world. This endeavor – the study of astronomy – has historical antecedents that are deeply rooted in diverse cultures throughout the world. The humblest beginnings of astronomy must date back to the very dawn of civilization, but it began to acquire a degree of sophistication at around 7000 BC when the transition was made from a hunting and food-gathering mode of life to an agricultural one. The study of the heavens helped early human beings understand certain astronomical phenomena like the seasons, and this in turn assisted in planning agriculture and generally in improving their standard of living. Astronomy also played a vital role in navigation, thus helping our early ancestors travel across the seas and explore hitherto unknown regions of our planet.

IKEDA: Astronomy came into being in agricultural lands like ancient

China, Babylonia, Egypt and India. In China, astronomy is said to have advanced, centered on the calendar, from the Yin dynasty in the fourteenth century BC on, and written records of the dates of solar eclipses are also extant from about the seventh century BC on. WICKRAMASINGHE:

What you have pointed out is indisputable historical fact. A brief glance at the history of astronomy shows how truly international this pursuit has been.

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The Mesopotamians who inhabited the plains between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris had developed a long and distinguished tradition of astronomy over the many centuries leading up to the destruction of Nineveh in 612 BC. Detailed observations of constellations and planets were recorded on clay tablets – records which are of interest to astronomers even in the present day. Many remarkable contributions to astronomical thought have been made by other nations in the ancient world, including the Mayans, the Greeks, the Indians and the Chinese as you mentioned. Right from the outset we see that astronomy is a science that could not be confined to any national or ethnic boundaries. It is truly transnational and must always remain so. The major developments in astronomy from the time of Newton to the end of the Second World War have occurred almost exclusively in countries in Western Europe and North America. From 1945 onward the former Soviet Union, Japan, Australia and latterly India and China have come to the fore to join the list of countries with a serious commitment to astronomical research. In the modern world, which is increasingly dominated by materialistic considerations, the question is often asked: Why astronomy, and of what practical use can it be? To the latter question it is customary to give an apologetic negative reply. But such an answer is fundamentally incorrect. Although in matters connected with acquiring more food or clothing or energy, astronomy may not directly help, it has other, equally important contributions to make. Astronomy is an integral part of humankind’s cultural heritage and has for this reason to be respected and preserved. Even in a poor country like India, to ignore the pursuit of astronomy would be to sever its links with history and with an intellectual tradition that stretches back over thousands of years. The same would also be true for China and for the Middle East. IKEDA:

It seems that the role astronomy plays has expanded with the arrival of the Space Age. For instance, even before the relaxation of tensions between the former Soviet Union and the United States, countries from both East and West cooperated in collecting and exchanging data on the visitation of Halley’s Comet in 1986, thus reaping considerable benefits. Turning one’s eyes toward the immense spaces of the Universe and, while conversing with the dazzling constellations, cultivating an awareness of the Universe, an awareness of the life of the Universe, naturally stimulates feelings and a consciousness of solidarity as a human of Earth. I believe it is worth seriously reexamining the positive significance the existence of the Universe will have in the future for the history of human civilization.

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WICKRAMASINGHE: Astronomy today is a truly international academic

discipline. You have cited the instance of international cooperation in connection with the studies of Halley’s Comet in 1986. As you point out, here was an example of astronomy bridging the rivalry and hatred among nations and leading them to work toward a common goal. Such cooperation will surely increase in years to come. The fund of knowledge acquired through the collective efforts of many countries cannot be regarded as belonging to one individual nation or another. It enriches the entire human race, and must surely help build a harmoniously united population on a global scale. Earth is now being made to suffer constantly due to the bickering of humans, but when viewed from the new perspective that will emerge from the development of space science, these wranglings will be seen as being quite trivial indeed. IKEDA:

I also believe that when humanity develops a detailed and profound knowledge of the Universe, this will bring about an unprecedented revolution in its awareness. Over 100 astronauts have already experienced life in outer space, and because of their vivid experiences there, they gained an awareness of humankind as belonging to Earth and an awareness of Earth as a life form. Because they had acquired the extensive perspective of viewing Earth from outer space, their awareness of belonging to nations and ethnic groups changed to one of belonging to Earth. Similarly, the advance of astronomy and unfolding of cosmology will expand humanity’s awareness so that it encompasses the entire Earth, and, while forming a consciousness of human community, will encourage still further development toward an awareness of the life of Earth that will desire coexistence with the ecosystem. In this way, astronomy will broaden our understanding of the ‘external cosmos,’ or the phenomenal universe. Buddhism, on the other hand, explores the ‘internal cosmos’ unfolding within the lives of human beings, reaching even to the great life that is the origin of the Universe. This life that is as vast as the Universe is the wellspring that gives birth to the external cosmos. And the bodhisattva way taught in Buddhism will encourage groups of human beings who live with the life of the Universe as their greater self to rise up from among the people. Here becomes possible the formation of the free and richly compassionate bodhisattva character that, basing itself on the fundamental life of the Universe, with Earth as its stage, is able to achieve solidarity with others. It is these bodhisattva-like individuals, I believe, who will be the world citizens endowed with a worldview and a sense of ethics appropriate to taking responsibility for a global community. I am convinced that the cooperative activities of astronomy, cosmology and Buddhism will excite an awakening of the spirit

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toward a global civilization and that we can anticipate the appearance of bodhisattva-like people who will be active as cosmopolitans. In light of the significance astronomy holds for humanity, I pray that your research will produce increasingly important results and that, by revealing the true nature of the Universe, you will be able to fulfill your noble mission of heralding a splendid Space Age in the new millenium.

Notes

Chapter 1 1. Songs from My Heart, translated by Burton Watson (Tokyo: Weatherhill, Inc., 1978). 2. The Complete Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, with an introduction by John Morley (London: Macmillan 1950). 3. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 46, p. 56. 4. Dengyo Daishi zenshu, vol. 5, p. 59. 5. Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu (Tokyo: Soka Gakkai). 6. Genesis, 1: 16–17. 7. The Lotus Sutra, translated by Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). 8. B. S. De Witt, ‘Quantum Mechanics and Reality’ in Physics Today, September 1970. 9. Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Practical Reason, Britannica Great Books, vol. 42. 10. The Lotus Sutra, translated by Burton Watson. 11. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 8, p. 832. 12. The Poetical Works of William Blake (London: Oxford University Press). 13. ‘Chance and Necessity’ by Jacques-Lucien Monod, translated from the French by Austryn Wainhouse (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1971). 14. Ibid. 15. Haruhiko Noda, Seimei no kigen (Tokyo: Nippon Hoso Kyokai, 1966). 16. Ibid. 17. Charles Darwin, ‘Notebooks on Transmutation of Species, 1837–39’ (Darwin Manuscript Library, Cambridge University). 18. Irving Stone, The Origin (London: Corgi Books, 1980).

Chapter 2 1. Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, Britannica Great Books, vol. 16. 2. Ibid. 3. Kazuo Okakura, The Ideals of the East with Special Reference to the Art of Japan (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co. Inc., 1970). 4. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The House of the Seven Gables (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1967). 223

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Chapter 3 1. Sir Charles Sherrington, Man and His Nature – the Gifford Lectures, 1937–38 (Cambridge University Press, 1940). 2. Wilder Penfield, The Mystery of the Mind (Princeton: Princeton University Press). 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Karl Popper and J. C. Eccles, The Self and Its Brain (New York: Springer International, 1977). 6. A. S. Eddington, Science and the Unseen World (Cambridge University Press, 1929). 7. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 33, p. 918. 8. Showa shintei Nichiren Daishonin gosho, vol. 1. 9. Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu. 10. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970). 11. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 2, p. 92. 12. The Lotus Sutra, translated by Burton Watson. 13. The Dialogues of Plato, ‘Phaedo,’ translated by Benjamin Jowett, Britannica Great Books, vol. 7. 14. Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu. 15. Christmas Humphreys, Karma and Rebirth (London: Curzon Press, 1983). 16. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 31, p. 783. 17. Ibid., vol. 23, pp. 9–10.

Chapter 4 1. The Questions of King Milinda, translated from Pali by T. W. Phys Davids (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969). 2. Sylvain Lévi, L’Inde et le Monde (Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honor, Champion, 1926). 3. Alvin Toffler, Power Shift (New York: Bantam Books, 1990). 4. Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of Human Life) (Tokyo: Daisan Bunmeisha, 1983). 5. Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu. 6. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 33, p. 683. 7. Dhammapada (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass). 8. Quoted from J. R. Jayawardene’s speech (September 6, 1951). 9. H. G. Wells, The Outline of History (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1929). 10. Sylvain Lévi, L’Inde et le Monde (Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honor, Champion, 1926). 11. Nichiren Daishonin gosho zenshu. 12. M. K. Gandhi, My Non-violence (Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publishing House, 1960). 13. Nanden daizokyo, vol. 6, p. 97. 14. Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of Human Life) (Tokyo: Daisan Bunmeisha, 1983).

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15. Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 12, p. 767. 16. Appears in some documents as a passage from the non-extant Chuingyo, or the Sutra of Intermediate Existence. 17. St. Matthew, 5: 39. 18. Daisaku Ikeda, The Human Revolution, vol. 2 (New York: Weatherhill, 1974). 19. Nanden daizokyo, vol. 7, pp. 6–7. 20. Nanden daizokyo, vol. 24, pp. 334–9. 21. Sayings of the Buddha (Kandy, Sri Lanka: Wheel Publications). 22. Mahaparinippana Sutra (Sutra of Great Nirvana), 2.26. 23. Troy Wilson-Olgan: ‘The Silence of Buddha,’ Philosophy East and West, IV, 2, 1954.

Chapter 5 1. Oliver Goldsmith, The Deserted Village, The Oxford Library of English Poetry, ed. J. Wain (London: Oxford University Press, 1986). 2. Quoted from the BBC’s radio program commemorative of Bertrand Russell’s 90th birthday in 1962. 3. US Government Press Release on defense policy. 4. John Kenneth Galbraith and Shigenobu Kishimoto, Jissaisei no jidai (The Age of Pragmatism) (Tokyo: Shogakukan, 1991). 5. Aurelio Peccei and Daisaku Ikeda, Before It Is Too Late (Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd., 1984). 6. The Dialogues of Plato, ‘The Seventh Letter,’ translated by J. Harward, Britannica Great Books, vol. 7. 7. At the Soka Gakkai Education Division’s First General Meeting of Humanitarian Educators, on August 8, 1990. 8. The New York Times, dated February 21, 1984. 9. Sutta-Nipata (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass). 10. Henri Bergson, Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France).

Index

Abhidharma system of Buddhist schools, 140 abortion, 134–6 acupuncture, 83, 84 adoption, 134 Adrian, Edgar (1889–1977), 100 Africa AIDS cases, 198–9 rise of Homo sapiens, 182 Agrarian Revolution, 182 ahimsa, lack of violence, 143, 162 AIDS, 198–201 origins of, 200 treatment of, 200–1 Ajanta caves, 180, 181 alaya-consciousness (eighth), 90, 92, 103, 104, 117–18 and egoism, 169 amala-consciousness (ninth), 92, 104, 117, 169 Altair (Cowerd) Star, 42, 43 Amarasekara, Douglas, 3 American Indians, records of 1054 supernova, 72 ANC (African National Congress), 214 Andromeda Nebula, 18 anger, 161 anthropic principle, 69 anthropocentricity, of Christianity, 69, 71, 73–4 antimatter, 68 Apollo 11 space mission, 45 Arabia, science in, 74, 79 Aristarchus of Samos, 33 artificial insemination, 133–4 arts, Buddhism and, 177–81 asamkhya, Buddhist number, 38 Ashoka, King, 140, 164 abolition of capital punishment, 166

renunciation of war, 144, 158–9, 165 and Sri Lanka, 156, 158 astronomy history of, 219–20 role for, 220–2 atman (‘self’), 110 atomic spectroscopy, 43–4 Australia, fossil microorganisms, 56 ‘axis ages’, in history, 185–6 Ayurveda (Indian medicine), 79, 84–5, 86, 87 Babbage, Charles (1792–1871), 96 Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), 64 bacteria, earliest, 56 balance see equilibrium Bardeen, John, 96 Basho, poet, 3, 52–3 Bergson, Henri (1859–1941), 217 Berlin Wall, fall of, 212 Bernard, Claude (1813–1878), 88 Bethel, Dayle M., 145–6, 151, 203–4 big bang theory, 16–32 and age of galaxies, 24 and background radiation, 21–2 and evolution theory, 62–3 and synthesis of elements, 20 birth control, 135 Blake, William, 52, 53 Blyth, Edward, evolution theory, 58 bo tree, 156, 164 bodhisattvas, 92, 133, 221–2 NGOs as model of, 149–50 227

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body Buddhist view of, 128 Confucian view of, 128 Bohm, David J., holomovement theory, 89–90 Bohr, Niels (1885–1962), 41, 65 Bólyai, Janós (1802–1860), 40 Bondi, Hermann, 29 Brahmanism, 177 Brahma’s Entreaty, 175–6 brain and aging, 209 and comatose state, 129–31 and eugenics, 138 and near-death experience, 106 relationship with mind, 98–104 transplants, 128–9 see also mind, human brain death definition, 123–4 irreversibility, 124–5 brain science, 98 developments in, 100 Brattain, Walter H., 96 Broglie, Louis V. de (1892–1960), 41 Brown, Barbara B., 102 Bruno, Giordano, 29 Buddha see Shakyamuni Buddha Buddhas, multiplicity of, 172–4 Buddhism and the arts, 177–81 classification of suffering, 107–9 components of life, 128 and concept of nature, 196 Consciousness-Only doctrine, 90, 92, 125 and definition of brain death, 125 dialogue in, 141–2, 143, 144 and dignity of life, 132–3, 136 and family unit, 206–7 and fear of death, 106, 107 and Gaea hypothesis, 89 and globalism, 217 indivisibility of body and mind, 103–4 influence on Hellenistic world, 179–80

karma, 105, 107, 108–10 karma and rebirth, 110–20 life-Universe equivalence, 63, 221–2 medicine, 79, 84–5 mission for peace, 146–50 pacifism, 143–4, 161–2 poetry of, 4–5 and possibility of life on other worlds, 50–1 practice of, 15 pursuit of knowledge, 14 and sanctity of life, 163–8 and science, 88–95 and social and material progress, 118–20 Soka Gakkai interpretation of, 152–3 in Sri Lanka, 155–7 Ten Worlds theory, 92–3 Universe and human mind in, 6–7 view of abortion, 135 view of society, 168–71 view of Universe, 28, 32–9 world systems concept, 32–3 see also dependent origination; Hinayana Buddhism; Mahayana Buddhism Burbidge, Geoffrey and Margaret, 20, 23, 30 Burma, struggle for democracy in, 212 Bush, George, arms reduction proposal, 188 Butler, Paul, 43 Byzantine Empire, 194 cancer, informing patients of diagnosis, 120–3 capital punishment, 165–8 deterrent value of, 167 carbon isotope (C-13), 56 Carr, Gerald P., 45, 51–2 Cartesian worldview see reductionism chemical elements, origins of, 19–20, 23, 62 Chih-i see T’ien-t’ai

INDEX

child curiosity of, 14 and education, 201–4 importance of teenage years, 9–10 influence of environment, 8–9, 10 relations with mother, 207–8 China democracy in, 214 early astronomy, 219, 220 early science in, 80–1 herbal medicine, 80, 83–4, 85–6, 87–8 records of 1054 supernova, 72 chlorofluorocarbons, 89 Chola, rulers in Sri Lanka, 157 Christianity concept of resurrection as unique, 110 declining influence of, 206 dogmatism of, 15, 72–3, 74 fundamentalism, 145 geocentricity in, 33–4, 71, 72, 73 influence on science, vii–viii, 70–4 power of Church, 61, 191 and revenge, 165 social purpose of, 191 cloning, 137–8 ‘closed box’ problems, viii–ix, 72–3 Clube, Victor, 218 coal, for energy, 183 comatose state, 129–31 comets collision in Siberia (1908), 218 Halley’s, 220–1 Shoemaker-Levy, 218 Communism, collapse of, 170, 212 computers, 95–6, 193 conception and birth control, 198 ethics of, 133–6 and genetic engineering, 136–8 Confucius, view of body, 128 consciousness, 92 and brain function, 100–1 fundamental nature of, 117

229

and near-death experiences, 104, 105 and origin of life, 57–8, 114–15 and reductionist science, 69–70 six consciousnesses in Buddhism, 68–9 spectrum of, 92 and unconscious, 91–2 see also alaya; amala; mano; mind; observation Consciousness-Only doctrine, in Buddhism, 90, 92, 125 Copenhagen interpretation, of quantum theory, 67 Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473–1543), 17, 70, 71, 74, 191 cosmic (interstellar) dust, 12–13, 62 ‘cosmic religious sense’, Einstein’s, 53 cosmology Chinese, 80–1 early, 17–18 history of astronomy, 219–20 Indian, 80 as speculation, 28 see also astronomy; big bang theory; steady-state; Universe Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard, 158 Cousins, Norman, 217 Crab Nebula, 71–2 darkness, fundamental, 163 Darwin, Charles, evolution theory, 58–61 Darwinism, social, 61–2, 163 De Witt, B., 41, 42 death and comatose state, 129–31 definition of brain death, 123–6 with dignity, 131–3 fear of, 106–10 five-stage theory, 108 judgment after, 111–12 life after, 98–104 near-death experiences, 104–6

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death penalty, 165–8 deforestation, 163, 164, 192 democracy, flow towards, 212–15 Democritus, 75 Dengyo (767–822), 15 dependent origination Buddhist doctrine of, 68, 80, 90, 140 and family values, 206–7 and social evils, 169–70 Descartes, René (1596–1650), 64–5 desertification, 192 determinism, 118 deterrence death penalty, 167 nuclear weapons, 188 deuterium (element), 20, 55 dialogue Brahma’s Entreaty, 175–6 Shakyamuni Buddha and Malunkyaputta, 174–5 value of, 139–42, 145 dimensions, possible, 39–42 Dirac, Paul, 10, 65 discoveries, factual, 71, 75 DNA discovery of double helix, 95 and genetic engineering, 138 Dunhuang, Buddhist art from, 180–1 dust cosmic, 12–13, 62 extraterrestrial layer, 193 Dyson, Freeman John, 63 Earth and Gaea hypothesis, 89 population limit, 197 earthly desires, Buddhist renunciation of, 161–3 East, dialogue with West, 142 Eccles, John Carew, 101–2 ecology, 163 economics, of modern science, 77–8 ecosystem, crisis of, 184, 192–8 Eddington, Arthur, 8, 9, 100 education cosmic perspective for, 217–18

role of, 145–6, 201–4 technology in, 211 ego, 100 in Wilber, 92 see also self egoism ‘arrow’ of, 215–16 and globalism, 216–17 and society, 168–70 Egypt, Book of the Dead, 111 Einstein, Albert ‘cosmic religious sense’, 53 space-time dimension, 40 special theory of relativity, 10, 40–1 theory of relativity, proved by solar eclipse, 9 electricity, 97 electromagnetism, 10 and photons, 27 elements in Buddhist medicine, 85 in Chinese herbal medicine, 80, 83 see also chemical elements Eliezer, C.J., 10 Eliot, T.S., 205 Ellora caves, 180, 181 energy fossil fuel, 183, 193 gravitational, 27, 36 nuclear, 50, 184 enlightenment, in Buddhism, 119 Epicurus, 75 epidemics, 199–200 see also AIDS equilibrium, intermittent, 61 in Gaea hypothesis, 195 ethical brakes on science, 129, 137, 138, 190 ethics of abortion, 135–6 among scientists, 78 Buddhist, 137 of conception, 133–6 of euthanasia, 131–2 medical, 120–3, 126–7 see also res cogitans ethnic conflict, 170 Euclid, geometry of, 40

INDEX

eugenics, 137, 138 euthanasia active, 131 passive, 131–2 Everett, Hugh, parallel Universe, 41–2 evolution, theory of, 53–63 and big bang theory, 62–3 Darwinian, 58–61 purpose in, 57 explicit and implicit order, 90–1 extraterrestrial life, possibility of, 42–51 facts importance of scientific, 194–5 neglect of, 194 family, centrality of, 204–7 famine, 184, 197 fatalism, 118 fetal diagnosis, and abortion, 134–6 fifth dimension, possibility of, 39–42 fig-tree shale (South Africa), 56 Flower Garland Sutra, 7 fossils, 56 incompleteness of record, 60–1 fourth dimension (space-time), 39 Fowler, William A., 20, 23, 47 France, meteorite fall (1836), 73 free will, and karma, 118 freedom, as fundamental requirement, 213 Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939), 91, 92 Friedmann, Alexander (1888–1925), 19 fuels, fossil, 183, 193 Fukyo, Bodhisattva, 162 fundamentalism, religious, 145 Gaea hypothesis, 88–9, 195 galaxies, 18–19, 38 age of, 24 see also Milky Way Galbraith, John Kenneth, Age of Pragmatism, 189–90 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), 17–18, 28, 70

231

challenge to Christian dogma, 191 reductionism of, 64–5 trial, 71, 72 Galle, Gottfried (1812–1910), 18 Gallo, Robert, 78 Galtung, Johan, 158 Gamow, George, big bang theory, 16, 19–20, 30 Gandhara, kingdom of, 179 Gandhi, Mahatma, 162 genetic engineering, 136–8 genius, 115–16 geocentric cosmology, 33, 71, 72, 73 ginseng, 86 global warming, 184, 192–3 globalism and democracy, 215 global collective, 216 of Space Age, 186 God, 53, 70–1, 73 Gold, Thomas, 29 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 189 gravitational energy, 27, 36 gravitational forces, and multidimensional space-time, 40 gravitons, 27 Greece astronomy in, 220 civilization, 182 cultural links with Buddhism, 179–80 see also Greek philosophy greed, 143, 161, 170 and industrialization, 183, 184 Greek philosophy dialogue in, 143 and modern science, 74–6 self in, 140 transmigration in, 111 Greenland, oldest rocks, 56 Gromyko, Andrei, 154 Guth, Alan, inflationary model of Universe, 24–6 haiku poetry, 3–4, 5, 52–3 Halley’s Comet, 220–1 Hardy, Godfrey H., 116 harmony, in Oriental medicine, 85, 87

232

SPACE AND ETERNAL LIFE

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804–1864), 97 Heisenberg, Werner, 65, 66 heliocentric cosmology, 33 helium (element), 20, 24, 36 Hertz, Heinrich (1857–1894), 97 Hinayana Buddhism, 38, 140, 143 Hiroshima, 148, 188 history ‘axis ages’, 185–6 cycles of meteor showers, 218 perspective of, 183–6 Hitler, Adolf, use of social Darwinism, 61–2, 163 holism, 70, 82, 191–2 and Gaea hypothesis, 89 holomovement theory, 89–90 in Indian philosophy, 80 movement towards, 91 in Oriental philosophy, 75–6 holomovement theory, 89–90 homeostasis, 88, 195 Homo sapiens, rise of, 182, 217 Hoyle, Fred, 10–11, 47 and cosmic background radiation, 22, 23 ‘cosmic religious sense’, 53 and cycles of meteor showers, 218 and formation of planets, 54–5 and iron whiskers, 30–1 rejection of Christian dogma, 12, 15 steady-state Universe theory, 11, 12, 29–32 and survival of viruses, 200 Hubble, Edwin P., recession of galaxies, 18–19 Hubble Space Telescope, 19, 44, 78 human rights concept of, 212 International Covenants on, 148, 213 Humphreys, Christmas, 112–13 Hurulle, E.L.B., 156 Huxley, Thomas, 60 hydrogen, 36 hypnotic regression, 116

ichinen sanzen principle, 5 immunodepressants, 127 in vitro fertilization, 133, 134 India abolition of capital punishment, 166 ancient civilization, 182–3 Ayurveda medicine, 79, 84–5, 86, 87 doctrine of transmigration, 110 early astronomy in, 220 early science in, 79–80 family life, 207, 209 religious traditions, 93 individuals, and technology, 97 Industrial Revolution, 61, 75, 183 infant prodigies, 115 inflationary model of Universe, 24–5 phase transition, 25–6 information networking, 96–7 intelligence aging and, 209 and life, 37–8 intermittent equilibrium, theory of, 61 internal and external worlds, 36 Shakyamuni Buddha’s concept, 34 intuition mystic, 91 in science, 5 IRAS (infrared rays astronomical satellite), 43 iron whiskers, 22, 23, 30, 31 Islam, fundamentalism, 145 James, William, 205 Japan AIDS cases, 198–9, 201 ancient near-death experiences, 105–6 brain death debate, 124 Buddhism in, 166, 173–4 cancer diagnosis in, 120–1, 122–3 capital punishment in, 166 concept of soul, 126, 128 defeat of, 6

INDEX

Japan contd definition of comatose state, 130 economic power of, 142–3 family life, 209–10 Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 148 Minamata disease, 194 organ transplants, 127–8 Oriental medicine in, 83 records of 1054 supernova, 72 religion in, 151 role of women, 207 Shinto religion in, 150, 152 star legends, 42–3 technology in, 96 Tendai Buddhism, 166 view of death in, 108, 122–3 Jaspers, Karl, 185 Jataka fables, 181 Jayawardene, J.R., president of Ceylon, 154–5 ‘jiffy’, in space-time, 27 Jivaka, Buddhist physician, 84–5 judgment after death, 111–12 Jung, C.G. (1875–1961), 91–2, 93–4 and life after death, 98 Jupiter, 17–18, 43 formation of, 54 kalpa, Buddhist concept of, 35–8 Kant, Immanuel, 179 karma Buddhist concept of, 105, 107, 108–10 changing, 120 creating, 119 criticisms of, 118–19 law of, 112–13 mental, physical and verbal, 114, 170 and rebirth, 110–20 karmic seeds, 105, 114, 117–18 Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630), 70 Kishimoto, Shigenobu, 189 knowledge emphasis in education, 202–3 quest for, 14 scientific progress and, 190

233

Kolm, Professor Serge, 142, 216 Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth, 104, 105, 108 Large Magellanic Cloud, 22, 32 League of Nations, 149 Lederman, Leon M., Science: The End of the Frontier, 76 leisure, increasing, 210–11 Lévi, Sylvain, 143, 159 life Buddhist definitions of, 125 dignity of, 14–15 extraterrestrial, 42–51 intelligent, 37–8 in interstellar particles, 45–6 and nature, 195–6 previous, 115–16 sanctity of, 163–8 see also origin of life life after death, 98–104 and judgment after death, 111–12 rebirth and karma, 110–20 life-style, need to modify, 193–4 life-Universe equivalence, Buddhist, 63, 221–2 light, bending of, 9 lithium (element), 20 Lobatchevsky, Nikolai I. (1792–1856), 40 Lotus Sutra, 5, 38, 50–1, 109 influence on art, 181 in Japanese Buddhism, 166, 173–4 and leisure, 211 ‘Life Span of the Thus Come One’, 173–4 and mission for peace, 150, 162 Lovelock, James E., Gaea hypothesis, 88–9, 195 MacKay, David S., NASA, 46, 48 Magadha, kingdom of, 183 Mahayana Buddhism, 140, 180 concept of Universe, 38–9 and existence of life on other worlds, 51

234

SPACE AND ETERNAL LIFE

Mahayana Buddhism contd images of Shakyamuni in, 178–9 multiplicity of Buddhas, 173–4 and progress, 119 world systems concept, 33 see also Lotus Sutra Mahinda, envoy to Sri Lanka, 156 Maitreya, Bodhisattva, 173 Makiguchi, Tsunesaburo on education, 203–4 first president of Soka Gakkai, 10, 147, 153, 164 Malunkyaputta, dialogue with Shakyamuni Buddha, 174–5 Mandela, Nelson, 214–15 mano-consciousness (seventh), 92, 103, 117 and egoism, 168 and will to live, 131 Marcy, Geoff, 43 Mars, Viking mission to, 46–7 Maslow, Abraham, transpersonal psychology, 93 mass density, of Universe, 26 materialism and fear of death, 106 in Japan, 142 and social structure, 205 mathematics, in early India, 79, 80 matter waves, 41–2 Maxwell, James C. (1831–1879), 77 Maya people, astronomy, 220 Mayor, Michel, 43 measurement scientific, 75 of time, 35–8 of year, 81 mechanics, classical, 65, 66 medicine Buddhist, 79, 84–5 Chinese herbal, 80, 83–4, 85–6, 87–8 Indian (Ayurveda), 79, 84–5, 86, 87 Oriental pharmacopoeia, 86 preventive, 127

see also brain death; cancer diagnosis; organ transplantation meditation, 91, 93, 161 Megasthenes (c.350–290 BC), 182–3 memory, and rebirth, 112, 115–16 Menander, King dialogue with Nagasena, 139–42, 180 reign of, 141 Mercury, 44 Mesiya, 164 Mesopotamia, 182 astronomy in, 220 meteorites denied by Christian dogma, 72–3 end of collisions with Earth, 55–6 from Mars (ALH 84001), 47–8 showers of, 218 Miao-lo (711–782), 153, 196 shikishin funi doctrine, 103 microbial life evidence from Mars, 46–7 on Neptune, 49 microorganisms fossil, 56 and ozone depletion, 89 microwave radiation, low-wave background, 20–2, 30 ripples in, 21, 22–3 Milky Way galaxy, 18, 25, 35 life cycle, 38 Milton, John, 13 mind, human continuation after death, 102 relationship with brain, 98–104 and Universe, in Buddhism, 6–7 and Western psychology, 91–2 see also brain; consciousness Mohenjo Daro (Indus valley), 79 molecular spectroscopy, 44–5 momentum, and uncertainty principle, 66–7 Monod, Jacques-Lucien, Chance and Necessity, 56–7

INDEX

Montagnier, Luc, 78 Moody, Raymond A., 104, 105 Moon, 17, 45–6 meteoric bombardment of, 55–6 Poya holidays in Sri Lanka, 157 moral values, 191–2 see also ethics; religion motherhood, surrogate, 134 moxibustion, in Chinese medicine, 83, 84 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 115 Nagai, Nagayoshi, 86 Nagasena, dialogue with King Menander, 139–42, 180 Napier, William, 218 Narlikar, Jayant, 23, 24, 30 NASA and evidence of microbial life, 46–7, 50 meteor detection program, 218 national sovereignty, absolute and relative, 217 nature, Eastern concept of, 195–6 nayuta, Buddhist number, 38 Neptune, 18, 48–9 neurophysiology, 98–9 Newcomen, Thomas, 183 Newton, Isaac (1642–1727), 64, 70 Nichiren Buddhism, 95, 150–1 life and death, 109–10 nine consciousnesses, 90 oneness of body and mind, 103–4 Nichiren Daishonin (1222–1282), 15, 109–10, 152, 165 use of dialogue, 143 nine consciousnesses theory, 90, 92, 104 nirvana, 109 Noble Eightfold Path, 160, 161, 172 Noda, Haruhiko, 57 non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 149 nonsubstantiality, in Buddhism, 140

235

Norton, David L., 145–6 nuclear energy extraterrestrial civilizations’ use of, 50 risks of, 184 nuclear reactions, within stars, 20 nuclear weapons, 147–8, 183 absolute evil, 186–92 ‘nuclear winter’, 183, 186–7 nucleosynthesis, 20 observation, and quantum theory, 67–8, 80, 117 Okakura, Tenshin (1862–1913), 79 older people, role for, 208–10 organ transplantation, 126–9 brain, 128–9 mechanical components for, 127 Oriental philosophy, 75–6 see also Arabia; China; India; Japan; Sri Lanka Oriental science, 79–81 stagnation of, 81–2 origin of life, ix, 53–4 and consciousness, 57–8 and possibility of extraterrestrial civilizations, 49–50 see also evolution oscillating theory of Universe, 26–7 Osis, Karlis, 104 ozone layer, hole in, 184, 192 Pal, Judge Radhabinod, 168 Pali Buddhist scriptures, in Sri Lanka, 139 particles theory, 65, 66 Pauling, Linus, 95 peace, 211–12 Buddhist mission for, 146–50 and Buddhist pacifism, 143–4, 158–9 to control nuclear energy, 50, 51 of mind, 160–3 Shakyamuni Buddha’s stance on, 160–1 Peccei, Aurelio, 197–8

236

SPACE AND ETERNAL LIFE

Penfield, Wilder G., 99, 101 Penzias, Arno A., 21, 30 pharmacopoeia of Oriental medicine, 86 Western analysis of, 86–7 phase transition, in inflationary model of Universe, 25–6 philosophy associated with ‘axis age’, 185–6 separated from theology and science, vii, 73 photons, 27 physics, birth of, 64 Planck, Max (1858–1947), quantum theory, 65, 67 planets detection of, 43 formation of, 44, 54 Voyager probes to, 48 plants Buddhist view of, 163–5 spiritual influence of, 164–5 Plato, 111, 145 Dialogues, 139 on teaching, 202 Thousand Year Journey of Er, 111–12 poetry, 2–3 connection with science, 5–8 English, 4, 13–14 haiku, 3–4, 5, 52–3 of Industrial Revolution, 184 poisons, 194 Poland, 214 pollution, 184, 194 Popper, Karl Raimund, 100 population growth, 184, 196–7 Pound, Ezra, 4 poverty, 184–5 need to address, 194, 198 pratyekabuddhas, 92, 93 psychoanalysis, and brain function, 101, 102 psychology and Buddhism, 94 Buddhist (Ten Worlds theory), 92–3 depth, 98

Western, 91–2, 93 punishment, 165 capital, 165–8 purpose, in evolution theory, 57 Pythagoras, 74, 111 quantum theory, 65–8 Copenhagen interpretation, 67 and general theory of relativity, 27 and modern technology, 42 and observation, 67–8, 80, 117 reconciled with special relativity, 10–11 Queloz, Didier, 43 Quinlan, Karen Ann, 131 Ramanujan, Srinivasan, mathematical genius, 115–16 rebirth concept of, 116 and karma, 110–20 reductionism, 64–5, 191 analytic, 75, 87 and brain-mind relationship, 102 and dialogue, 142 limitations of, 69, 76, 82 in Oriental philosophy, 75 relativity, Einstein’s theory, 16, 65 proved by solar eclipse, 9 and quantum mechanics, 27 and recession of galaxies, 19 see also special relativity religion and definition of death, 125 dogmatism in, 151 and family unit, 206–7 and globalism, 217 as human instinct, 150–3 importance of, 14 and moral values, 192 and psychology, 93–4 see also Buddhism; Christianity religious experiences, 105 religious intolerance, 144–5, 146, 170 res cogitans divorced from science, 65, 69 need to reintroduce, 191–2

INDEX

revenge, 165–6 Riemann, Georg (1826–1866), 40 rocks, oldest, 56 Roman Empire, fall of, 194 Romania, 214 Russell, Bertrand, 211–12 denunciation of nuclear war, 187 Russell-Einstein statement (1954), 187–8 Russia instability of, 189, 212 poverty, 184 scientific cooperation with West, 220–1 Rutherford, Ernest, 65 Ryle, Martin, 30 Sabom, Michael B., 104, 105 Sagan, Carl, 49 Saicho see Dengyo San Francisco Peace Treaty, 154 satellites, artificial, 21 Saturn, formation of, 54 Schrödinger, Erwin, 65 science and Buddhism, 88–95 connection with poetry, 5–8 crisis confronting, 76–9 doctrinaire attitudes in, 81–2 Eastern and Western forms of, 79–82 ethical brakes on, 129, 137, 138, 190 and Greek philosophy, 74–6 influence of Christianity on, vii–viii, 70–4 and philosophy, vii, 73 reductionist, 64–5, 69, 75–6 see also astronomy; medicine; technology scientific bureaucracy, 77–8 seaweed, 86, 89 Second World War Japan’s role in, 6, 146–7 Military Tribunal for Far East, 167–8 origins of United Nations, 148 self ‘atman’, 110 denial of, 119, 140

237

and ego, 100, 216 greater and lesser, 169 and mano-consciousness, 168 see also ego self-realization, 172 senses, Buddhist theory of, 68–9 Shakespeare, William, 13 Shakyamuni Buddha, 33, 38, 140, 152, 163, 164 and arrow of egoism, 215–16 and consciousness, 93–4 images in art, 178–9 internal and external worlds, 34 and karma, 113 life of, 171–3 pacifism of, 143, 160–1, 162 poetry to express enlightenment, 5 reticence of, 174–7 and Sri Lanka, 155–6 Sharma, H.S., 85 Sherrington, Charles (1857–1952), 99–100 shikishin funi doctrine, 103 Shinto religion, Japan, 150, 152 Shockley, William B., 96 Shoemaker-Levy comet, 218 Siddhartha, Prince (Buddha), 171–2 see also Shakyamuni Buddha Smart, W.M., 8 Smoot, George, 23 society Buddhist view of, 168–71 and centrality of family, 205–6 role of education in, 201–2 Socrates, 111, 139, 166, 186, 202 Soka Gakkai International, 10, 142–3, 149–50, 152–3 and ANC students, 214–15 solar eclipses 2136 BC, 81 (1919), 9 (1955), 9 Sombrero Hat galaxy, 18 soul, Japanese view of, 126 South Africa democracy in, 212, 214–15 fig-tree shale, 56

238

SPACE AND ETERNAL LIFE

Space Age international work on astronomy, 220–1 philosophy of, 186 prospects for, 221–2 space colonies, 198 space-time, 26–7, 39 continuum, 40–1 special relativity reconciled with quantum mechanics, 10–11 and space-time continuum, 40–1 Spencer, Herbert, social Darwinism, 61 Spitzer, Lyman, 54 Sputnik I satellite, 21 Sri Lanka, 1–2 AIDS cases, 199 brain death debate, 125–6 Buddhism in, 155–7 cancer diagnosis in, 122 family life, 207, 209 history of, 155–7 King Ashoka and, 156, 158 Pali scriptures in, 139 treatment of comatose state in, 130 stars age of, 24 life cycles of, 36–7 see also Sun steady-state theory of Universe (Hoyle), 11, 12, 29–32 and evolution theory, 63 Stevenson, Ian, 115 suffering existential, 107–8 physical, 107, 108 psychological and spiritual, 107, 108 suicide, 132 Sumeru, Mt., Buddhist concept of, 32–3, 51 Sun, 35 and formation of planets, 54–5 life cycle, 36–7 sunspots, unrecorded, viii, 71 supernova, 37 AD 1054, viii, 71–2

in Large Magellanic Cloud, 22, 32 Sutras see Flower Garland; Lotus Szondi, Leopold, 92 Taxila, capital of Gandhara, 179–80 teachers, role of, 202, 203, 211 technology, 42, 190 benefits of, 95–7, 211 electronics, 77 Ten Worlds theory, of Buddhism, 92–3 Tendai Buddhism, Japan, 166 Theravada Buddhism, 119, 143 thermal energy, 36 Third World family planning in, 198 human rights struggles, 213 nuclear capability in, 189 poverty, 184–5 Tibetan Book of the Dead, 111 T’ien-t’ai (538–597), 15, 90, 125, 165 multiple Buddhas, 174 time and big bang theory, 24–5, 27, 29–30, 62–3 Buddhist concept of kalpa, 35–6 space-time, 26–7 Toda, Josei, 9, 10, 16, 94–5, 146 campaign against nuclear weapons, 147–8, 153 Nichiren Buddhist, 150–1 and war crimes, 167–8 Toffler, Alvin, 145 Tokyo Fuji Art Museum, 180–1 Tomonaga, Shin’ichiro, 63 Toynbee, Arnold, 95, 139, 158 on capital punishment, 166 transcendental experiences, 105 transistor, invention of, 96 transmigration, 109, 110 transpersonal psychology, 93 TTAPS group, 186 uncertainty principle (Heisenberg), 66–7, 68

INDEX

unconscious collective, 91 familial, 92 personal, 91, 92 United Kingdom abortion laws, 135 AIDS cases, 199 education, 203 United Nations, 148, 213 and nuclear disarmament, 148, 149 United States AIDS cases, 198, 199 arms reduction proposals, 188–9 definition of nuclear deterrence, 188 organ transplants, 127, 128 scientific cooperation with Russia, 220–1 scientific research system, 76 treatment of comatose state in, 131 Universe Buddhist view of, 28, 32–9, 63 Christian view of, 70–1 effect on human life, 218–19 evolutionary theory of, 63 expanding, 24–5 finite or infinite, 29 harmony and rhythm of, 51–3 mass density of, 26 and mind, in Buddhism, 6–7 mini-bang theory, 24, 30 oscillating theory of, 26–7 parallel, 41–2 ‘seed’, 25, 62 see also big bang theory; cosmology; steady-state universities, 203 Upanishads, Indian doctrine of transmigration, 110 Uranus, 48, 49 Urey, Harold C., 55 Vairochana Buddha, 33 Vasubandhu Buddhist world systems concept, 32

239

Consciousness-Only doctrine, 92 on karma, 113 Vega (Weaver Star), 42, 43 Vijaya, arrival in Sri Lanka, 155–6 Viking space mission, 46 Vimalakirti Sutra, illustrated, 181 violence, 161, 170 and nonviolence, 143, 162 viruses, survival of, 200 voice-hearers, 92, 93 Voyager spacecraft, 18 missions to planets, 48–9 Wallace, Alfred Russell (1823–1913), 69 war Ashoka’s, 144 cruelty of, 10 and religious conflict, 144 see also nuclear weapons waves matter, 41–2 in particle theory, 66 weather, 89, 192–3, 194 Weinberg, Steven, The First Three Minutes, 63 Wells, H.G., on Ashoka, 158 West, dialogue with East, 142 Wheeler, John, oscillating theory of Universe, 26–7 Wilber, Ken, spectrum of consciousness, 92 Wilberforce, Bishop Samuel, 60 will to live, 131 Wilson, Robert W., 21, 30 Wilson-Olgan, Troy, 175 women, modern role for, 207–8 Wordsworth, William, 13–14 World Health Organization (WHO), and AIDS, 198–9 worldviews see holism; reductionism; Universe wormholes, in space-time, 26–7 Yajnavalkya, Upanishad philosopher, 110 Yeltsin, Boris, 189 yin and yang, 80, 83, 84 Yukawa, Hideki, 4