State of the environment in Asia and the Pacific 2005

State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 2005

Synthesis

The Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific 2005 re p o rt ta ke s a ne w lo o k a t the imp lic a tio ns o f the ra p id e c o no mic g ro wth o f the Asia n a nd Pa c ific re g io n. It a rg ue s tha t g o ve rnme nts ha ve ma d e p ro g re ss in imp ro ving e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e b y d e ve lo p ing a nd imp le me nting e nviro nme nta l g o ve rna nc e fra me wo rks a nd a d o p ting mo re e ffe c tive re sp o nse s to c o mmo n e nviro nme nta l p o lic y o b je c tive s suc h a s p o llutio n c o ntro l. Ho we ve r, b e c a use o f the re g io n’ s limite d e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity a nd the imme nse p re ssure e xe rte d b y e c o no mic g ro wth a nd c ha ng ing c o nsump tio n a nd p ro d uc tio n p a tte rns, e nviro nme nta l d e g ra d a tio n c o ntinue s a nd e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility is a t inc re a sing risk. Fo r true e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility, a lo ng -te rm p e rsp e c tive , a g re a te r fo c us o n the e c o -e ffic ie nc y o f p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n a c tivity, inve stme nt in na tura l re so urc e s, mo re e ffe c tive d e c isio n-ma king o n a ll le ve ls a nd true me a sure s o f susta ina b ility, inte r a lia , a re ne e d e d . The re p o rt e la b o ra te s o n the a p p lic a tio n o f “ g re e n g ro wth” c o nc e p ts a nd a p p ro a c he s a s a ke y re q uire me nt fo r a c hie ving Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls 7 (e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility) a nd 1 (p o ve rty re d uc tio n).

Unite d Na tio ns

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC i

State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 2005 Synthe sis Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . E.06.II.F.18 ISBN: 92-1-120471-2 Co p yrig ht  Unite d Na tio ns 2006 All rig hts re se rve d Printe d in Tha ila nd ST/ ESCAP/ 2411

The d e sig na tio ns e mp lo ye d a nd the p re se nta tio n o f the ma te ria l in this p ub lic a tio n d o no t imp ly the e xp re ssio n o f a ny o p inio n wha tso e ve r o n the p a rt o f the Se c re ta ria t o f the Unite d Na tio ns c o nc e rning the le g a l sta tus o f a ny c o untry, te rrito ry, c ity o r a re a o r o f its a utho ritie s, o r c o nc e rning the d e limita tio n o f its fro ntie rs o r b o und a rie s. This p ub lic a tio n ha s b e e n issue d witho ut fo rma l e d iting . It fo llo ws the Unite d Na tio ns p ra c tic e in re fe re nc e s to c o untrie s. Whe re the re a re sp a c e c o nstra ints, so me c o untry na me s ha ve b e e n a b b re via te d . Re p ro d uc tio n a nd d isse mina tio n o f ma te ria l in this p ub lic a tio n fo r e d uc a tio na l o r o the r no n-c o mme rc ia l p urp o se s a re a utho rize d witho ut p rio r writte n p e rmissio n fro m the c o p yrig htho ld e rs, p ro vid e d the so urc e is fully a c kno wle d g e d . Re p ro d uc tio n o f ma te ria l in this info rma tio n p ro d uc t fo r sa le o r o the r c o mme rc ia l p urp o se s inc lud ing p ub lic ity a nd a d ve rtising is p ro hib ite d witho ut writte n p e rmissio n o f the c o p yrig htho ld e rs. Ap p lic a tio ns fo r suc h p e rmissio n, with a sta te me nt o f p urp o se a nd e xte nt o f the re p ro d uc tio n, sho uld b e a d d re sse d to the Dire c to r, Enviro nme nt a nd Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt Divisio n, Unite d Na tio ns ESCAP.

Environment and Sustainable Development Division United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Unite d Na tio ns Build ing Ra ja d a mne rn No k Ave nue Ba ng ko k 10200, Tha ila nd Online ve rsio n a va ila b le a t . Co ve r p ho to g ra p h c o urte sy Pa nsa Suna ve e .

Printe d o n p a p e r ma d e fro m fa st-g ro wing p la nta tio n tre e s using e le me nta l c hlo rine -fre e b le a c hing p ro c e sse s.

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Foreword “… in the interest of present and future generations, there is a need to shift the development orientation from a ‘grow irst, c le a n up la te r’ a p p ro a c h to o ne o f g re e n g ro wth …” Ministe ria l De c la ra tio n o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific , 2005

Asia a nd the Pa c ific is the mo st e c o no mic a lly d yna mic re g io n in the wo rld . In the la st d e c a d e , g ro wth in ind ustria l a nd a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n in Asia n a nd Pa c ific d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s ha s o utstrip p e d g lo b a l g ro wth ra te s, a nd b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2004, so me 270 millio n p e o p le e sc a p e d p o ve rty. Ho we ve r, e c o no mic p ro g re ss ha s b e e n a c hie ve d a t a hig h p ric e . The Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific 2000 re p o rt wa rne d tha t the p re ssure s e xe rte d b y e c o no mic g ro wth wo uld c o ntinue to d e g ra d e the na tura l e nviro nme nt; the 2005 re p o rt c o nfirms the se p re d ic tio ns. This re p o rt a lso sho ws tha t e ve n tho ug h o ne fifth o f the re g io n’ s p o p ula tio n still live s o n le ss tha n US$1 p e r d a y (PPP-a d juste d ), the re g io n is a lre a d y living b e yo nd its e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity. Why d o e s the g o a l o f susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt se e m so e lusive ? In Ma rc h 2005, re p re se nta tive s o f 52 g o ve rnme nts o f Asia a nd the Pa c ific c o nve ne d a t the Fifth Ministe ria l C o nfe re nc e o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p m e nt in Se o ul, Re p ub lic o f Ko re a . The y c o nc lud e d tha t e c o no mic p ro g re ss wa s b a se d o n inc re a sing ly unsusta ina b le c o nsum p tio n a nd p ro d uc tio n p a tte rns a nd w a s e xe rting se rio us e nviro nme nta l p re ssure . De le g a te s stre sse d tha t p o ve rty re d uc tio n re ma ine d a ke y p rio rity, b ut a t the sa me time the y a lso a c kno wle d g e d tha t a d justme nts we re re q uire d fo r the c urre nt p a tte rns o f g ro wth to b e mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le . “ Gre e n g ro wth”, o r e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth, wa s e nd o rse d a t the c o nfe re nc e a s a ne w p o lic y fo c us to re so lve the d ile mma p re se nte d b y the imme d ia te ne e d fo r e c o no mic g ro wth a nd p o ve rty re d uc tio n o n o ne ha nd a nd , o n the o the r, b y the lo ng -te rm ne e d to e nsure the p ro te c tio n o f na tura l re so urc e s c ritic a l to e c o no mic d e ve lo p me nt a nd huma n surviva l. The e ffe c tive re so lutio n o f this d ile mma e nta ils a c tio n to imp ro ve e nviro nm e nta l susta ina b ility tha t sup p o rts, a nd is sup p o rte d b y, e c o no mic p rio ritie s a nd so c ia l d rive rs o f e nviro nme nta l c ha ng e . This ye a r’ s re p o rt e mp ha size s tha t fo c using o nly o n a limite d numb e r o f imp ro ve me nts in e nviro nme nta l q ua lity (suc h a s the a ir q ua lity imp ro ve me nts tha t ha ve b e e n a c hie ve d in so me c o untrie s) d istra c ts

fro m the re a l issue – the susta ina b ility o f the re g io n’ s p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n p a tte rns. It b uild s o n a sse ssme nts o f the sta te o f the Asia n a nd the Pa c ific e nviro nme nt a nd p re se nts a lte rna tive s to a c hie ve the o b je c tive s o f the Rio Ea rth Summit a s re a ffirme d in the Jo ha nne sb urg Pla n o f Imp le me nta tio n. It ma inta ins tha t e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n is a n urg e nt p rio rity tha t c o uld b e e ffe c tive ly a c hie ve d in two wa ys – b y b uild ing e c o -e ffic ie nt e c o no mie s, a nd b y p ro mo ting p a tte rns o f e c o no mic g ro wth in whic h e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n sup p o rts e c o no mic g ro wth a nd vic e -ve rsa . This e d itio n o f the Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific re p o rt p re se nts g re e n g ro wth a s a uniq ue p o lic y fo c us a nd stra te g y fo r o p e ra tio na lizing the b ro a d c o nc e p t o f susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific . Fo r tho se in g o ve rnm e nt, the p riva te se c to r, p o lic y re se a rc h institutio ns a nd c ivil so c ie ty who a re c o nc e rne d a b o ut the susta ina b le d e ve lo p m e nt p ro sp e c ts o f Asia a nd the Pa c ific , I trust tha t the info rma tio n in this re p o rt will fa c ilita te c o lle c tive e ffo rts fo r re a listic a nd a c hie va b le p ro g re ss.

Kim Ha k-Su Unite d Na tio ns Unde r-Se c re ta ry-Ge ne ra l a nd Exe c utive Se c re ta ry Ec o no mic a nd So c ia l Co mmissio n fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific

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About this report The Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific 2005 (SOE 2005) is the fifth in a se rie s o f re p o rts p ub lishe d e ve ry five ye a rs sinc e 1985. Ea c h re p o rt ha s b e e n e a g e rly a ntic ip a te d b y g o ve rnme nts, c ivil so c ie ty o rg a niza tio ns, stud e nts, e d uc a to rs a nd o the rs inte re ste d in e nviro nme nt a nd susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt issue s in Asia a nd the Pa c ific . The re p o rt c o ve rs the me mb e r a nd a sso c ia te me mb e r c o untrie s o f the Unite d Na tio ns ESCAP tha t a re in the Asia -Pa c ific re g io n.

Why has this report been written? The SOE 2005 re p o rt ha s b e e n writte n to b rid g e the g a p in the d ia lo g ue b e twe e n tho se who a d vo c a te fo r imp ro ve d e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n a nd tho se w ho a d vo c a te fo r e c o no m ic g ro w th. It inc o rp o ra te s d isc ussio ns o n issue s a nd ind ic a to rs tha t a re inte nd e d to fa c ilita te mo re e ffe c tive c o mmunic a tio n b e twe e n the two . With the wid e ning invo lve m e nt o f inte rna tio na l, re g io na l, sub re g io na l a nd na tio na l o rg a niza tio ns, institutio ns a nd a g e nc ie s, e nviro nme nta l re p o rting a nd c o mmunic a tio n ha ve b e c o me inc re a sing ly so p histic a te d . The Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific re p o rt se rie s ha s p la ye d a n imp o rta nt ro le in this p ro c e ss. Ho we ve r, the re p o rt itse lf must e vo lve in o rd e r to b e tte r sup p o rt p o lic y d e ve lo p me nt a nd a d vo c a c y b y g o ve rnme nts a nd sta ke ho ld e rs. Ba se d o n a fe w c ritic a l the me s, it no w c o ve rs e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s in g re a te r d e ta il, links the se p re ssure s to the e nviro nme nta l situa tio n a nd d ra ws a tte ntio n to c o nc re te me a sure s fo r re d re ssing the situa tio n. This SOE re p o rt ha s b e e n sha p e d b y the re a litie s fa c ing the Asia n a nd Pa c ific re g io n. Susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt re ma ins a n a c kno wle d g e d p rio rity, b ut mo re tha n te n ye a rs a fte r the Rio Summit, ma instre a ming it into d e ve lo p ing p la nning c o ntinue s to b e a m a jo r c ha lle ng e . Ec o no mic g ro wth o b je c tive s still ta ke p re c e d e nc e o ve r e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n o r susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt o b je c tive s. In the c urre nt syste ms o f p ro d uc tio n, c o nsump tio n a nd p ro c e sse s o f so c ie ta l c ha ng e , the a c hie ve me nt o f Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a l 7 (MDG7) is b e ing sa c rific e d fo r tha t o f o the r d e ve lo p me nt g o a ls, d iminishing the lo ng te rm p ro sp e c ts fo r a c hie ving me a ning ful susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt. If the q ue stio n o f the susta ina b ility o f d e ve lo p me nt p a tte rns is no t a d d re sse d he a d -o n, the re g io n will b e c o me inc re a sing ly vulne ra b le to e nviro nme nta l a nd so c ia l stre sse s a nd will fa c e g ro wing c ha lle ng e s to susta ining its e c o no mic p ro g re ss.

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What does the report cover ? The SO E 2005 re p o rt juxta p o se s the ke y susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt re a litie s: hig h ra te s o f e c o no mic g ro wth ve rsus d e c lining e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility a nd limite d e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity ve rsus the b urd e n. Part I (Cha p te rs 1 a nd 2) sho ws tha t Asia a nd the Pa c ific is ho me to so me o f the fa ste st g ro wing e c o no mie s in the wo rld . This g ro wth is ta king p la c e in a re g io n o f re la tive ly limite d c a rrying c a p a c ity, b ut is still no t suffic ie nt to me e t p re se nt o r future ne e d s. This se c tio n d isting uishe s b e twe e n a c tio n ta ke n to imp ro ve e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e fo r p o llutio n c o ntro l p urp o se s, a nd a c tio n ta ke n to imp ro ve the e c o e ffic ie nc y whic h is c ritic a l fo r e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility. The p a tte rns a nd b a sis fo r g ro w th w hic h a re p la c ing inc re a sing p re ssure o n e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility a re d e sc rib e d , a nd e xa mp le s o f e ffe c tive a p p ro a c he s a nd ne w initia tive s to re d uc e e nviro nme nta l p re ssure a re p ro vid e d . Pa rt II (C ha p te rs 3 a nd 4) fo c use s o n the re la tio nship b e tw e e n e c o no mic g ro wth, c o nsump tio n a nd p ro d uc tio n p a tte rns, re so urc e use a nd e nviro nme nta l d e g ra d a tio n. By sho wing the wid e ly va rying tre nd s in e c o no mic g ro wth ve rsus c a rb o n d io xid e e missio ns a c ro ss the re g io n, a nd thro ug h e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rinting , it c o nc lud e s tha t the re a re ma ny p a ths to e c o no mic g ro wth. Ec o -e ffic ie nc y c o nc e p ts, c urre ntly p o p ula r whe n d isc ussing e nte rp rise -le ve l e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e , a re sc a le d up to p re se nt e c o -e ffic ie nc y a s a c ritic a l a p p ro a c h to re d uc ing e nviro nme nta l p re ssure e ithe r e c o no my-wid e o r b y se c to r. It a rg ue s tha t g re e n g ro wth, o r e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth, is a n urg e ntly ne e d e d a nd a c hie va b le p a thwa y fo r the fa st-g ro wing e c o no mie s o f the re g io n, a nd o ne whic h re q uire s g re a te r a tte ntio n to d e ve lo p ing e c o -e ffic ie nt p a tte rns o f c o nsump tio n a nd p ro d uc tio n a nd c a p ita lizing o n syne rg ie s b e twe e n e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n a nd e c o no mic g ro wth. Part III (Cha p te r 5) tra c ks p ro g re ss o n a c hie ving MDG7 (Enviro nme nta l susta ina b ility), a nd c o nc lud e s tha t p ro g re ss o n a c hie ving MDG 7 ha s b e e n g e ne ra lly limite d . Part IV (C ha p te rs 6 to 10) id e ntifie s the mo st c ritic a l e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s in e a c h sub re g io n a nd d e sc rib e s re le va nt inte rg o ve rnme nta l e nviro nm e nta l initia tive s. The re vie w sho w s tha t the re ha s b e e n sub sta ntia l p ro g re ss in institutio na l d e ve lo p me nt whic h sig nific a ntly a d d re sse s the imp ro ve me nt o f e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e s thro ug ho ut the re g io n. Ho w e ve r, id e ntifying im p ro ve m e nts in e nviro nm e nta l susta ina b ility is c o nsid e ra b ly mo re d iffic ult.

Anne xe s inc lud e se le c te d d a ta a nd a g lo ssa ry o f te rms use d in the re p o rt. The re p o rt is p ro d uc e d in two ve rsio ns: the Synthe sis a nd the ma in p ub lic a tio n, with e le c tro nic ve rsio ns a va ila b le a t .

The g e ne ro us fina nc ia l sup p o rt o f the Go ve rnme nt o f Ja p a n - a lo ng time sup p o rte r o f the Asia -Pa c ific SOE re p o rt se rie s, to g e the r with the c o ntrib utio ns o f o ur p a rtne rs, ADB a nd UNEP, the sta ff invo lve d , na tio na l SOE fo c a l p o ints, a s we ll a s nume ro us o the rs invo lve d in the re vie w a nd p re p a ra tio n o f the re p o rt, a re d uly a c kno wle d g e d .

How is the report intended to be used? G o ve rnme nt o ffic ia ls a nd p o lic yma ke rs, a g e nc ie s, a c a d e mic s a nd stud e nts, the g e ne ra l p ub lic a nd the me d ia will b e a b le to use the re p o rt to : ß d e ve lo p a n und e rsta nd ing o f the ke y e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s a nd thre a ts to e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility, a s we ll a s id e ntify ind ic a to rs fo r a sse ssing the se p re ssure s;

Ra e Kwo n Chung Dire c to r Enviro nme nt a nd Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt Divisio n, ESCAP

ß c o mp a re the situa tio ns o f the ir c o untrie s o f inte re st with tho se in o the r c o untrie s; ß de ve lo p ne w po lic y pe rspe c tive s o n e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility a nd se e ho w the y c a n b e a p p lie d ; a nd ß le a rn fro m the e xa mp le s o f c o untrie s tha t a re suc c e ssfully imp ro ving p ro sp e c ts fo r susta ina b ility (o r o the rwise ).

What data is used? The re p o rt, a s fa r a s p o ssib le , d ra ws o n we ll-e sta b lishe d institutio na l d a ta so urc e s. While the use o f institutio na l d a ta b y p ub lic a tio ns suc h a s this is a lmo st a lwa ys q ue stio ne d b y g o ve rnme nts a nd re se a rc he rs, suc h d a ta a re usua lly d e rive d fro m na tio na l so urc e s a nd fa c ilita te b ro a d inte r-c o untry c o mp a riso ns.

Who has been involved in the preparation and review of the report ? The o rig ina l d ra ft o f this re p o rt wa s p re p a re d in c o lla b o ra tio n with the Asia n De ve lo p me nt Ba nk (ADB) a nd the Unite d Na tio ns Enviro nme nt Pro g ra mme (UNEP) - tra d itio na l p a rtne rs in p re p a ra tio n o f the SOE. At the 5th Ministe ria l Co nfe re nc e o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific he ld in Ma rc h 2005, g re e n g ro wth, o r e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth wa s e nd o rse d a s a re g io na l p o lic y fo c us, a nd ESCAP und e rto o k sub sta ntia l re visio n o f d ra fts to re fle c t this d e ve lo p me nt.

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Acronyms and abbreviations

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ADB

Asia n De ve lo p me nt Ba nk

PPP

p urc ha sing p o we r p a rity

ASEAN

Asso c ia tio n o f So uthe a st Asia n Na tio ns

SAARC

So uth Asia n Asso c ia tio n fo r Re g io na l Co o p e ra tio n

CER

c e rtifie d e missio n re d uc tio n

SIDS

sma ll isla nd d e ve lo p ing Sta te s

CFC

c hlo ro fluo ro c a rb o n

SOE

Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt

CDM

c le a n d e ve lo p me nt me c ha nism

UNDP

Unite d Na tio ns De ve lo p me nt Pro g ra mme

CIS

Co mmo nwe a lth o f Ind e p e nd e nt Sta te s

UNEP

Unite d Na tio ns Enviro nme nt Pro g ra mme

CNY

China Yua n Re nminb i

USSR

Unio n o f So vie t So c ia list Re p ub lic s

ECE

Ec o no mic Co mmissio n fo r Euro p e

WHO

Wo rld He a lth Org a niza tio n

EDGAR

Emissio n Da ta b a se fo r Glo b a l Atmo sp he ric Re se a rc h

ESCAP

Ec o no m ic a nd So c ia l C o m m issio n fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific

FAO

Fo o d a nd Ag ric ulture Org a niza tio n o f the Unite d Na tio ns

FDI

fo re ig n d ire c t inve stme nt

GHG

g re e nho use g a s

GDP

g ro ss d o me stic p ro d uc t

HDI

Huma n De ve lo p me nt Ind e x

IEA

Inte rna tio na l Ene rg y Ag e nc y

IMF

Inte rna tio na l Mo ne ta ry Fund

IPCC

Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n Clima te Cha ng e

LDC

le a st d e ve lo p e d c o untry

MDG

Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a l

MCED

Ministe ria l Co nfe re nc e o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt

ODP

o zo ne d e p le ting p o te ntia l

ODS

o zo ne d e p le ting sub sta nc e s

OECD

Org a nisa tio n fo r Ec o no mic Co -o p e ra tio n a nd De ve lo p me nt

OFDA/ CRED

The O ffic e o f Unite d Sta te s Fo re ig n Disa ste r Assista nc e , Ce nte r fo r Re se a rc h o n the Ep id e mio lo g y o f Disa ste rs

PET

p o lye thyle ne te re p htha la te

Chemical formulae CO 2

c a rb o n d io xid e

NO 2

nitro g e n d io xid e

SO 2

sulfur d io xid e

Unit abbreviations km

kilo me tre

kg

kilo g ra m

m

c ub ic me tre

3

ha

he c ta re

to e

to ns o f o il e q uiva le nt

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Contents

Foreword

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About this report

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What have been the main drivers of environmental change in Asia and the Pacific?

1

Fast economic growth is the most important driver of environmental change in Asia and the Pacific. GDP growth in this region is outstripping world GDP growth, led by developing countries.

1

Despite the rapid economic growth, there are still many unmet needs. Underdeveloped infrastructure is a key development obstacle and one of the most significant poverty traps.

2

Can the region’s natural resource endowment continue to support the current economic growth patterns? Ecological footprinting shows that the Asian and Pacific region is already living above its ‘environmental means’. Despite its relatively low-impact consumption patterns, its carrying capacity is probably already being exceeded. There are increasing signs that environmental sustainability is at risk. In the context of rapid economic growth, what are the key threats to environmental sustainability?

2

2 4

The focus on improving environmental performance may be distracting attention from the declining environmental sustainability of economic growth patterns.

4

The signs of unsustainable growth – high future infrastructure costs, an increasing tendency to produce waste and continuing declines in natural capital.

4

The growth of pollution and resource-intensive industry

7

The intensification of agriculture

8

Urbanization and the spread of the global consumer society

10

Increased demand for raw materials, energy and water

12

Increased vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters; however, climate change mitigation action is becoming more and more compatible with energy security and economic objectives. 14

Is declining environmental sustainability a necessary consequence of growth? Economic growth and environmental pressure can be de-linked by promoting more eco-efficient growth patterns. As economies grow, more eco-efficient production may be observed, but greater eco-efficiency of consumption is more difficult to achieve. How can sustainable development be achieved in Asia and the Pacific?

17

17 18

Green growth presents a new policy focus to institutionalize more environmentally sustainable economic growth patterns. Adoption of greener growth patterns is more urgent and relevant in the context of fast-growing Asian and Pacific economies than anywhere else in the world. 18 How is the region performing with regard to its international commitments to Millennium Development Goal 7?

20

Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources

21

Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation

23

Target 11. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers

23

What are the key determinants of sustainable development in each subregion?

24

Central Asia and the Caucasus

24

North-East Asia

25

The Pacific

26

South and South-West Asia

28

South-East Asia

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What have been the main drivers of environmental change in Asia and the Paciic? 1.

The Asia a nd the Pa c ific re g io na l e c o no my c o ntinue d to g ro w a t a hig h ra te d uring 2000 to 2005. Ec o no mic g ro wth o f Asia a nd the Pa c ific le d a ll g lo b a l re g io ns in 2004, the ye a r in whic h the fa ste st g lo b a l g ro wth fo r a lmo st thre e d e c a d e s wa s re c o rd e d . In 2005, China o ve rto o k the Unite d King d o m to b e c o me the wo rld ’ s fo urth-la rg e st e c o no my.

2.

The ra p id p a c e o f e c o no mic g ro wth ha s b e e n fue lle d b y the re g io n’ s rising sta tus a s a g lo b a l p ro d uc tio n c e ntre . Ind ustria l p ro d uc tio n inc re a se d b y 38 p e r c e nt in ESCAP d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s a nd 23 p e r c e nt g lo b a lly fro m 1995 to 2002. Re g io na l a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n inc re a se d b y o ve r 60 p e r c e nt fro m 1990 to 2002. Co mmo d itie s p ro d uc e d fo r e xp o rt c o ntrib ute to p o llutio n a nd o the r e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s in the p ro d uc ing c o untrie s; this re p re se nts o ne o f the mo st imp o rta nt d rive rs o f e nviro nme nta l c ha ng e in the re g io n.

3.

Re g io na l d e ve lo p ing c o untry ma nufa c turing a c tivity inc re a se d b y 40 p e r c e nt fro m 1995 to 2002 a nd is the b a sis fo r e xp a nd ing tra d e . Intra -re g io na l tra d e is b e c o ming mo re imp o rta nt. The va lue o f e xp o rts fro m re g io na l d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s a lo ne (with the no ta b le e xc e p tio n o f Pa c ific isla nd c o untrie s) mo re tha n d o ub le d d uring 2001 to 2004; imp o rts fro m within the re g io n ma d e up 50 p e r c e nt o f a ll imp o rts in 2002.

4.

Six o f the 17 fa ste st g ro wing Asia n a nd Pa c ific c o untrie s a re le a st d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s (LDCs). This inc lud e s a ll o f the re g io na l LDCs, with the e xc e p tio n o f the Ma ld ive s, Ne p a l a nd the Pa c ific LDCs.

5.

Ra p id e c o no mic g ro wth is fue lle d b y the d e ma nd s o f a n e xp a nd ing g lo b a l a nd re g io na l c o nsume r b a se . Ho use ho ld c o nsump tio n e xp e nd iture ha s b e e n g ro wing a t hig he r tha n g lo b a l ra te s in ma ny c o untrie s o f the re g io n — So uth-Ea st Asia n c o untrie s a nd C hina ho ld the to p five p la c e s re g io na lly in te rms o f e xp a nd ing ho use ho ld c o nsump tio n e xp e nd iture fro m 1990 to 2002. Ho we ve r, in p a rts o f Ce ntra l Asia , the Ca uc a sus, a nd the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n, ho use ho ld e xp e nd iture ha s c o ntra c te d fro m 1990 le ve ls.

6.

Ec o no mic g ro wth fo r p o ve rty re d uc tio n is still a n o ve rrid ing c o nc e rn, a nd this e mp ha sis is mo re tha n justifie d . Industrial production, manufacturing (index ,1995 = 100)

Ü Chapte r1 Fa st e c o no mic g ro wth is the mo st imp o rta nt drive r o f e nviro nme nta l c ha ng e in Asia a nd the Pa c ific . GDP g ro wth in this re g io n is o utstrip p ing wo rld GDP g ro wth, le d b y de ve lo p ing c o untrie s.

Agricultural production (index, 1989-1990 = 100)

140

170

130

160

120

150

110

140

100

130

90

120

80

110 100

70

90

60 1992

1993

Wo rld

1994

1995

1996

1997

ESCAP c o untrie s

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

De ve lo p ing ESCAP c o untrie s

1992

1993 Wo rld

1994

1995

1996

1997

ESCAP c o untrie s

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

De ve lo p ing ESCAP c o untrie s

So urc e : ESCAP (2005). Sta tistic a l Ye a rb o o k fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific , 2003, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.II.F.1 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns).

1

Ü Chapte r1 De sp ite the ra p id e c o no mic g ro wth, the re a re still ma ny unme t ne e ds. Unde rde ve lo p e d infra struc ture is a ke y de ve lo p me nt o b sta c le a nd o ne o f the mo st sig nific a nt p o ve rty tra p s.

Ne a rly 670 millio n p e o p le a re still living o n le ss tha n US$1 a d a y (PPP-a d juste d ),1 a nd o ve r 500 millio n p e o p le a re und e rno urishe d a c ro ss the re g io n. So uthe rn a nd So uth-Ea st Asia fa c e the mo st c ritic a l c ha lle ng e s. Ina d e q ua te he a lth se rvic e s whic h a re o fte n no t a c c e ssib le to a ll g ro up s in so c ie ty, a re re sp o nsib le fo r p re ma ture lo ss o f life , c o ntinue d vulne ra b ility to the thre a t o f c o mmunic a b le d ise a se a nd a mo ng the hig he st ra te s o f ma te rna l d e a ths in the wo rld . 7.

Na tura l d isa ste rs c a use ma jo r lo ss o f life a nd d a ma g e to infra struc ture a nd imp a c t o n future g ro wth p ro sp e c ts. Ne a rly 80 p e r c e nt o f a ll d isa ste rs g lo b a lly o c c ur in Asia a nd the Pa c ific , b ut insuffic ie nt inve stme nt ha s b e e n ma d e to p re p a re fo r a nd mitig a te suc h d isa ste rs.

8.

One o f the mo st impo rta nt po ve rty tra ps is unde rde ve lo pe d ho using , e ne rg y, wa te r, sa nita tio n a nd tra nspo rta tio n infra struc ture . So me 665 millio n pe o ple a re witho ut a c c e ss to impro ve d drinking wa te r a nd a ppro xima te ly 1.9 b illio n ha ve no a c c e ss to impro ve d sa nita tio n.2 The ADB e stima te s tha t the inve stme nt re q uire d to ha lve the pro po rtio n o f pe o ple witho ut susta ina b le a c c e ss to impro ve d wa te r a nd sa nita tio n wo uld b e US$8 b illio n a nnua lly, a nd to pro vide a c c e ss to a ll the unse rve d pe o ple o f the re g io n, a ro und twic e a s muc h, until 2015.3 In ma ny urb a n c e ntre s, b e twe e n 40 a nd 80 pe r c e nt o f re sid e nts live in po ve rty, with ina d e q ua te a c c e ss to she lte r, wa te r, sa nita tio n a nd e ne rg y se rvic e s. The re g io n’ s pe r c a pita e ne rg y c o nsumptio n is fa r lo we r tha n the g lo b a l a ve ra g e .

9.

La c k o f a c c e ss to e ne rg y, sa nita tio n a nd wa te r in b o th urb a n a nd rura l a re a s re sults in ill-he a lth, mo rta lity, ha rd ship a nd inc urs a hig h o p p o rtunity c o st. The me mb e rs o f a rura l no rth Ind ia n fa mily to g e the r c a n wa lk a d ista nc e ro ug hly e q uiva le nt to the d ista nc e b e twe e n Ne w De lhi a nd Ha no i in o ne ye a r, lo o king fo r fue l a nd wa te r,4 with mo st o f this b urd e n fa lling o n wo me n a nd c hild re n.

Can the region’s natural resource endowment continue to support the current economic growth patterns? 10.

Ü Chapte r1

The a b ility o f the re g io n’ s na tura l re so urc e b a se to susta in huma n a c tivity ind e finite ly, i.e . its c a rrying c a p a c ity is d e te rmine d b y two fa c to rs: its na tura l re so urc e e nd o wme nt a nd the p re ssure p la c e d o n it b y huma n a c tivity. “ Ec o lo g ic a l d e fic its” in ma ny c o untrie s a c ro ss the re g io n (a s e stima te d using the e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rinting me tho d o lo g y) 5 sho w q ua ntita tive ly tha t ma ny a re o ve r-e xp lo iting the ir o wn na tura l re so urc e b a se , a nd / o r thro ug h tra d e , a re using the na tura l re so urc e b a se o f o the r c o untrie s to sup p o rt the ir c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a nd e c o no mic g ro wth.

Ec o lo gic al fo o tprinting sho ws that de spite its re lative ly lo w-impac t c o nsumptio n patte rns, the Asian and 11. Ove ra ll, Asia a nd the Pa c ific is le ss g e ne ro usly e nd o we d with na tura l re so urc e s tha n so me o the r p a rts o f the wo rld . At the sa me time , the se re so urc e s must b e sha re d a mo ng a muc h hig he r numb e r o f p e o p le . The re g io na l Pac ific re gio n is alre ady living p o p ula tio n d e nsity is 1 1/ 2 time s the g lo b a l a ve ra g e a nd fre shwa te r a va ila b le p e r c a p ita is the lo we st o f g lo b a l abo ve its ‘ e nviro nme ntal re g io ns. The b io lo g ic a lly p ro d uc tive a re a p e r c a p ita is le ss tha n 60 p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l a ve ra g e a nd the a ra b le me ans’ . De spite its re lative ly la nd p e r c a p ita is le ss tha n 80 p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l a ve ra g e .6 lo w-impac t c o nsumptio n 12. Hig h p o ve rty le ve ls in so me c o untrie s me a n tha t the a c tua l re g io na l c o nsump tio n p re ssure s a re sma lle r, p e r patte rns, its c arrying p e rso n, tha n the g lo b a l a ve ra g e . No ne the le ss, the b io lo g ic a lly p ro d uc tive a re a re q uire d to sup p o rt c urre nt c apac ity is pro bably alre ady c o nsump tio n le ve ls a lre a d y e xc e e d s the a va ila b le a re a , p e r p e rso n, in a t le a st 18 c o untrie s o f the re g io n.7 Be c a use the na tura l re so urc e e nd o wme nt re ma ins re la tive ly c o nsta nt o r d e c line s und e r e nviro nme nta l p re ssure , be ing e xc e e de d. The re the size o f the huma n p o p ula tio n tha t c a n b e susta ina b ly sup p o rte d b a se d o n the c urre nt c o nsump tio n p a tte rns are inc re asing signs that a nd p re va iling te c hno lo g ie s, is d e c re a sing . e nviro nme ntal sustainability is at risk. 2

13.

Gro wing inte r-re g io na l tra d e me a ns tha t the e nviro nme nta l b urd e ns a re b e ing re d istrib ute d within the re g io n. Ho we ve r, ma ny ESCAP d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s whic h a re sho uld e ring the p ro d uc tio n-re la te d b urd e n ha ve a limite d c a p a c ity to ma na g e the a d ve rse imp a c ts o f the ir e xp a nd ing ro le in the g lo b a l e c o no my, a nd a re c o nse q ue ntly sub je c t to mo unting e nviro nme nta l p re ssure o n b o th the na tio na l a nd g lo b a l na tura l re so urc e b a se .

Per capita ecological footprint (2002)

Afg ha nista n Ba ng la d e sh Ca mb o d ia Ne p a l Pa kista n Ta jikista n Ind ia Ge o rg ia Vie t Na m La o PDR Sri La nka Mya nma r Arme nia Arme nia Philip p ine s Ind o ne sia Kyrg yzsta n Tha ila nd ASIA-PACIFIC Pa p ua N. Guine a DPR Ko re a Aze rb a ija n China Uzb e kista n Turke y WORLD Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Ma la ysia Mo ng o lia Turkme nista n NON-ASIA-PACIFIC Ka za khsta n Re p . o f Ko re a Ja p a n Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ne w Ze a la nd Austra lia

Glo b a l he c ta re s p e r p e rso n

Per capita biocapacity (2002)

Ne w Ze a la nd Mo ng o lia Austra lia Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ka za khsta n Turkme nista n Ma la ysia NON-ASIA-PACIFIC

Pa p ua N. Guine a WORLD Turke y La o PDR Kyrg yzsta n Mya nma r Ge o rg ia Aze rb a ija n Tha ila nd Ind o ne sia ASIA-PACIFIC Vie t Na m Uzb e kista n Ja p a n Isla mic Re p .o f Ira n China DPR Ko re a Ca mb o d ia Re p . o f Ko re a Philip p ine s Arme nia Ta jikista n Ne p a l Sri La nka Ind ia Pa kista n Ba ng la d e sh Afg ha nista n

Glo b a l he c ta re s p e r p e rso n

Per capita ecological deicits and surpluses (2002) Ne w Ze a la nd Mo ng o lia Austra lia Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ma la ysia Pa p ua N. G. Ka za khsta n La o PDR Ge o rg ia Mya nma r Turkme nista n Ca mb o d ia Afg ha nista n Kyrg yzsta n Vie t Na m Ind o ne sia Ta jikista n Ne p a l Ba ng la d e sh NON-ASIA-PACIFIC Pa kista n Aze rb a ija n WORLD Tha ila nd Philip p ine s Ind ia Arme nia ASIA-PACIFIC Turke y Sri La nka DPR Ko re a China Uzb e kista n Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Ja p a n Re p . o f Ko re a

Glo b a l he c ta re s p e r p e rso n

So urc e : Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk (2006). Da ta d o wnlo a d e d o n 14 Ma rc h 2006 fro m . No te s: The e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint is a me a sure o f ho w muc h p ro d uc tive la nd a nd wa te r is re q uire d to p ro d uc e a ll the re so urc e s c o nsume d a nd to a b so rb a ll the wa ste g e ne ra te d p e r ye a r, using p re va iling te c hno lo g y. The te rm “ b io c a p a c ity” re fe rs to the to ta l b io lo g ic a l p ro d uc tio n c a p a c ity p e r ye a r o f a g ive n a re a ; the e c o lo g ic a l d e fic it o r surp lus re fe rs to the d iffe re nc e b e twe e n the e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint a nd the b io lo g ic a l c a p a c ity (o r b io c a p a c ity) o f the sp a c e a va ila b le to the p o p ula tio n b e ing c o nsid e re d . Se e the we b site o f the Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk, a va ila b le a t .

3

In the context of rapid economic growth, what are the key threats to environmental sustainability? Ü Chapte r2 The fo c us o n imp ro ving e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e (ma inly fo r p o llutio n c o ntro l) ma y b e distra c ting a tte ntio n fro m the de c lining e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility o f e c o no mic g ro wth p a tte rns.

14.

Go ve rnme nt a c tio n ha s re sulte d in stre ng the ne d le g isla tio n a nd institutio ns tha t, in mo st c o untrie s ha ve re d uc e d the use o f o zo ne -d e p le ting sub sta nc e s, slo we d lo sse s o f fo re st c o ve r a nd re d uc e d a ir p o llutio n, in p a rtic ula r with re sp e c t to SO 2 c o nc e ntra tio ns.8 The se d e ve lo p me nts re fle c t sig nific a nt imp ro ve me nts in e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e , p a rtic ula rly with re sp e c t to p o llutio n c o ntro l.

15.

Ho we ve r, a c tio n ta ke n to imp ro ve e c o -e ffic ie nc y o f the p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n p a tte rns whic h ultima te ly d e te rmine the le ve ls a nd na ture o f re so urc e use a nd wa ste p ro d uc tio n, a re le ss e vid e nt. This ma y we ll b e e xp la ine d b y the c urre nt fo c us o n sho rt-te rm a c tio n to imp ro ve e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e ra the r tha n lo ng te rm p la ns a nd p o lic ie s to imp ro ve e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility.

16.

The re fo re , lo ng -te rm p ro sp e c ts c o ntinue to b e d iminishe d b y the rising e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s re sulting fro m e xp a nd e d c o nsump tio n a nd p ro d uc tio n a c tivity a nd re so urc e e xp lo ita tio n. The ne t re sult is d e c lining e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility.

The sig ns o f unsusta ina b le g ro wth – hig h future infra struc ture c o sts, a n inc re a sing te nd e nc y to p ro d uc e wa ste a nd c o ntinuing d e c line s in na tura l c a p ita l. Current infrastructure development is locking in future consumption patterns, and by consequence, future levels of environmental pressure.

4

17.

Urb a n se ttle me nts a nd na tio na l tra nsp o rta tio n infra struc ture a re b e ing e xp a nd e d witho ut g iving d ue a tte ntio n to the imp lic a tio ns fo r e ne rg y a nd wa te r use . A fe w c o untrie s a re sta rting to e xp lo it so la r a nd wind e ne rg y b ut c e ntra lize d , fo ssil-fue l b a se d e le c tric ity infra struc ture c o ntinue s to e xp a nd . In mo st p la c e s, e xp a nsio n o f a c c e ss to sa nita tio n se rvic e s is b a se d o n d e ve lo p e d -c o untry mo d e ls o f sa nita tio n a nd wa te r se rvic e d e ve lo p me nt, imp lying sig nific a nt future a d d itio na l wa te r d e ma nd . Urb a n p la nning d o e s no t usua lly p ro vid e fo r wa te r c a p ture o r wa ste wa te r syste ms a s use d in urb a n d e ve lo p me nt p la nning in Sing a p o re .

18.

The hid d e n e nviro nme nta l a nd e c o no mic c o sts o f the se unsusta ina b le p a tte rns o f infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt a re sub sta ntia l; p o llutio n a nd the a d d itio na l c o sts o f p hysic a l infra struc ture , a s we ll a s hig h future d e ma nd fo r e ne rg y a nd wa te r, a re imp o rta nt c o st b urd e ns tha t a re no t usua lly fa c to re d into c o st-b e ne fit a na lyse s. In the c a se o f the c o ntinue d d e live ry o f e ne rg y se rvic e s b a se d o n o il, hid d e n infra struc ture c o sts inc lud e the fina nc e s re q uire d fo r o il e xp lo ra tio n, e xtra c tio n a nd p ro c e ssing , infra struc ture fo r e ne rg y tra nsfo rma tio n, the c o st o f wa te r fo r c o o ling in the rmo e le c tric p la nts, the c o sts o f tra nsmissio n line s a nd infra struc ture fo r tra nsp o rta tio n o f o il, the c o sts o f sto ra g e a nd se rvic e s a nd infra struc ture a sso c ia te d with e nd -use a nd the c o sts o f p o llutio n c o ntro l.

19.

The he a lth, e nviro nme nta l a nd e c o no mic c o sts a sso c ia te d with a ir p o llutio n a rising fro m e ne rg y use a re o ne e xa mp le o f the c o st imp lic a tio ns o f infra struc ture c ho ic e s a nd urb a n d e ve lo p me nt; a typ ic a l me g a c ity (with a p o p ula tio n g re a te r tha n 10 millio n) c o uld e xp e c t the se c o sts to ra ng e b e twe e n US$100 a nd $300 millio n p e r ye a r.

Societies are developing in a fashion that may increasingly be geared towards producing waste and pollution. 20.

Wa ste a nd p o llutio n is a g ro wing p ro b le m a c ro ss the re g io n. Munic ip a l wa ste b urd e ns a re g ro wing a s inc o me s rise . Ac id ra in p e rsists in Ea st Asia , wa ste s fro m mine ra l e xtra c tio n a re a c c umula ting in Ce ntra l Asia a nd thre a te n wa te r sup p lie s, a nd c lima te c ha ng e p ro c e sse s a re b e c o ming mo re e vid e nt a s the a mo unt o f c a rb o n d io xid e in the a tmo sp he re (c ha ra c te rize d a s ‘ huma nkind ’ s mo st we ig hty wa ste p ro d uc t’ ) rise s fa ste r tha n c a n b e a b so rb e d b y g ro wing b io ma ss a nd o the r c a rb o n d io xid e sinks. Tra d itio na l a nd c ultura l a ttitud e s to c o nsump tio n a nd wa ste a re ra p id ly c ha ng ing a s so me so c ie tie s a nd yo uth c ulture s e nte r the g lo b a l c o nsump tio n ma instre a m a nd urb a n c e ntre s e xp a nd .

21.

Po lic ie s, le g isla tio n a nd p ro g ra mme s to sup p o rt re c yc ling re ma in the first-line re sp o nse o f mo st c o untrie s to the p ro b le m o f wa ste . Info rma l re c yc ling a c tivity fills the g a p whe re no fo rma l re c yc ling p ro g ra mme s e xist. So me c o untrie s, inc lud ing Sri La nka , ha ve initia te d wa ste re c o ve ry a nd c o nve rsio n p ro je c ts. Fa r fe we r c o untrie s ha ve initia te d wa ste minimiza tio n a nd d e -ma te ria liza tio n. Rising d e ma nd a nd p ric e s fo r virg in ra w ma te ria l ha ve sup p o rte d the d e ve lo p me nt o f inte rna tio na l tra d e in re c yc la b le ma te ria ls, i.e . mine ra ls a nd p a p e r in p a rtic ula r, with China a c ting a s a c e ntre o f g ra vity fo r this tra d e . The true c o sts o f wa ste d isp o sa l a re no t usua lly re fle c te d in the p o lic ie s o f d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s; the re is, the re fo re , little e c o no mic inc e ntive to re d uc e wa ste . Wa ste p ro d uc ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a re the re fo re in e xtre me d a ng e r o f b e c o ming e ntre nc he d .

Natural capital is declining. 22.

Pa ra d o xic a lly, the p ush fo r e c o no mic g ro wth b a se d o n unsusta ina b le p a tte rns o f re so urc e use ma y b e c re a ting a no the r p o ve rty tra p , tha t o f d e c lining e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility. Na tura l c a p ita l c o nsists o f the na tura l re so urc e e nd o wme nt tha t p ro vid e s a flo w o f e nviro nme nta l g o o d s a nd se rvic e s, inc lud ing re ne wa b le a nd no nre ne wa b le re so urc e s, a b so rp tio n o f wa ste a nd c ultura l a nd sp iritua l va lue s. Re ne wa b le re so urc e s a re und e r p re ssure in the re g io n; this is re fle c te d in the e ve r la rg e r a re a s o f la nd in va rio us sta g e s o f d e g ra d a tio n, the shrinking na tura l fo re sts, the inc re a sing ly vulne ra b le c o a sta l e c o syste ms a nd the d e c lining fishe rie s.

23.

La nd d e g ra d a tio n is still a c ritic a l issue a ffe c ting a g ric ultura l live liho o d s, no ta b ly in the a g ric ultura l re g io n o f the Ara l Se a Ba sin, a nd in So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia . In So uth-Ea st Asia , the ma jo rity o f a g ric ultura l la nd s a re se ve re ly a ffe c te d b y wind a nd wa te r e ro sio n, a s we ll a s b y c he mic a l a nd p hysic a l d e te rio ra tio n.

24.

Na tura l fo re sts a re b e ing lo st a t hig h ra te s in So uth-Ea st a nd So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia a nd so me Pa c ific isla nd s. At the sa me time , p la nta tio n fo re sts c o ntinue to a d va nc e d ra ma tic a lly. Pla nta tio n fo re sts in the ESCAP re g io n ma ke up mo re tha n 72 p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l p la nte d fo re sts, a lmo st 10 p e r c e nt o f the to ta l fo re st a re a o r so me five time s the a re a o f Ne w Ze a la nd . Ove ra ll fo re st c o ve r d a ta sho ws tha t lo sse s a re slo wing , a nd fo re st c o ve r, in so me c a se s is e ve n e xp a nd ing . Ho we ve r, this is no t e no ug h to c o mp e nsa te fo r the sig nific a nt d e c line in na tura l c a p ita l tha t the lo ss o f na tura l fo re st re p re se nts, a s d e fine d in se rvic e s re la te d to b io d ive rsity ha b ita t a nd no nwo o d fo re st p ro d uc t p ro visio n, wa te rshe d p ro te c tio n a nd c ultura l a nd sp iritua l sup p o rt. The se e nviro nme nta l g o o d s a nd se rvic e s o fte n c a nno t b e re p la c e d b y p la nta tio n fo re sts, whic h a re a lso mo re vulne ra b le to c lima te c ha ng e a nd d ise a se .

25.

Wa te r e xtra c tio n ra te s a re unsusta ina b ly hig h in a t le a st 16 c o untrie s o f the re g io n.9 Po o r wa te r q ua lity ma ke s me e ting wa te r re so urc e ne e d s e ve n mo re c ha lle ng ing , a nd o fte n c o inc id e s with lo w wa te r a va ila b ility. The vulne ra b ility o f c e rta in c o untrie s is furthe r e xa c e rb a te d b y hig h d e p e nd e nc y o n wa te r re so urc e s fro m o utsid e the c o untry. The me lting o f g la c ie rs linke d to c lima te c ha ng e thre a te n to re d uc e flo ws to the g la c ie r-fe d Ga ng e s, Ind us, Bra hma p utra , Me ko ng , Tha nlwin, Ya ng tze a nd Ye llo w rive rs, a s we ll a s the Amu Da rya a nd Syr Da rya rive rs. Ind ia , the Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n, Uzb e kista n a nd Pa kista n a re a mo ng the mo st vulne ra b le c o untrie s. 5

In China , Ind ia a nd Tha ila nd , a nd p o ssib ly o the r c o untrie s, wa te r sho rta g e s ha ve limite d ind ustria l p ro d uc tio n in lo c a lize d a re a s a nd to va rying d e g re e s. Wa te r sho rta g e s in China ha ve b e e n re sp o nsib le fo r a n e stima te d a nnua l lo ss o f so me US$28 b illio n in ind ustria l o utp ut in re c e nt ye a rs.10 Dro ug ht a lso a ffe c te d mo re tha n 600 millio n p e o p le a c ro ss the re g io n b e twe e n 1995 a nd 2004.

27.

Effo rts to re d uc e p o llutio n fro m p o int so urc e s suc h a s ind ustria l p la nts, a re b e ing re wa rd e d in ma ny c a se s. On the o the r ha nd , re d uc ing wa te r p o llutio n fro m no n-p o int so urc e s suc h a s a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n a nd d o me stic se we ra g e (whe re a c c e ss to sa nita tio n a nd wa ste wa te r tre a tme nt fa c ilitie s a re ina d e q ua te ), a nd g ro und wa te rc o nta mina ting so urc e s suc h a s se we ra g e syste ms a nd la nd fills is inc re a sing ly p ro b le ma tic a s e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s g ro w. Po o r wa te r q ua lity c o ntinue s to hind e r the a b ility o f c o untrie s to me e t rising d e ma nd fo r wa te r.

28.

G ro und wa te r, se e n a s the la st wa te r re se rve in p la c e s, is a t p a rtic ula r risk. The e xp lo ita tio n o f g ro und wa te r re so urc e s is le a d ing to ra p id lo we ring o f wa te r ta b le s a c ro ss China , Ind ia , the Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n, Pa kista n a nd the Philip p ine s; a nd d iminishe d g ra in ha rve sts a re re p o rte d in Ind ia a nd C hina . Po o r c o mmunitie s d e p e nd ing o n sha llo w d rinking wa te r we lls a nd urb a n c e ntre s suc h a s Ja ka rta tha t re ly o n g ro und wa te r a re p a ying the p ric e o f to o -ra p id e xtra c tio n. Surve ys o f g ro und wa te r use d in ind ustria l zo ne s in Ind ia a nd use d a s a so urc e o f urb a n wa te r in China sho w tha t the ma jo rity o f so urc e s a re c o nta mina te d o r unfit fo r d rinking .11 C o nta m ina tio n o f g ro und w a te r b y na tura lly o c c urring a rse nic ha s b e e n Water availability vs. water quality c o nfirme d in Afg ha nista n, Ba ng la d e sh, 70000 Aze rb a ija n Ind ia , Ne p a l, Mya nm a r, C hina , Vie t Ba ng la d e sh China Na m , C a m b o d ia , Tha ila nd , Pa kista n 60000 Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n La o PDR Ka za khsta n a nd the Isla m ic Re p ub lic o f Ira n. Ne p a l Estima te s fro m p ub lishe d c a se s sug g e st 50000 Ta jikista n Tha ila nd tha t a ro und 200 millio n p e o p le ma y Turkme nista n Bhuta n b e e xp o se d to he a lth risks a sso c ia te d 40000 Uzb e kista n with a rse nic -ta inte d d rinking wa te r o n a Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ca mb o d ia d a ily b a sis. Ano the r 129 millio n p e o p le 30000 in Ind ia a nd C hina ma y b e a t risk o f Austra lia Ma la ysia se rio us d e nta l a nd ske le ta l d e fo rmitie s 20000 fro m d rinking wa te r with hig h le ve ls o f Mo ng o lia Vie t Na m Ind o ne sia Ge o rg ia fluo rid e . While a rse nic a nd fluo rid e a re 10000 Philip p ine s Turke y na tura lly o c c urring c o nta mina nts, the Kyrg yzsta n Ind ia Ja p a n Arme nia Re p . o f Ko re a Pa kista n Sri La nka risk o f e xp o sure to the se c o nta mina nts 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 inc re a se s a s the re g io n b e c o m e s Wa te r q ua lity ind e x mo re d e p e nd e nt o n its g ro und wa te r re so urc e s.

29.

The re g io n is a sig nific a nt c o ntrib uto r to the g lo b a l d e c line o f b io d ive rsity re so urc e s. Se ve ra l c o untrie s o f the re g io n a re id e ntifia b le a s ha v ing p a rtic ula rly la rg e numb e rs o f thre a te ne d sp e c ie s; lo ss o f na tura l fo re st a c ro ss So uth a nd So uth-Ea st Asia is linke d to hig h numb e rs o f thre a te ne d sp e c ie s,

Wa te r a va ila b ility p e r c a p ita (m 3 p e r c a p ita , p e r ye a r)

26.

6

So urc e s: FAO AQUASTAT o nline d a ta b a se , a c c e sse d o n 18 Aug ust 2005 fro m ; Esty, Da nie l C., Ma rk Le vy, Ta nja Sre b o tnja k a nd Ale xa nd e r d e She rb nin (2005). Enviro nme nta l Susta ina b ility Ind e x: Be nc hma rking Na tio na l Enviro nme nta l Ste wa rd ship (Ne w Ha ve n, Ya le Ce nte r fo r Enviro nme nta l La w a nd Po lic y). Wa te r q ua lity ind e x b a se d o n d isso lve d o xyg e n c o nc e ntra tio ns (1993-2002), e le c tric a l c o nd uc tivity (1994-2002) a nd p ho sp ho rus c o nc e ntra tio ns (1994-2003). The lo we r the ind ic a to r va lue , the lo we r the a sse ssme nt o f o ve ra ll fre shwa te r q ua lity. Ba se d o n d a ta fo r the la te st ye a r a va ila b le in the time p e rio d ind ic a te d .

p a rtic ula rly b ird s. 12,13 The Pa c ific Oc e a n isla nd s o f Mic ro ne sia , Fiji, a nd mo st o f Po lyne sia ha ve a sig nific a ntly hig h p ro p o rtio n o f thre a te ne d sp e c ie s. Ma rine sp e c ie s a re p a rtic ula rly vulne ra b le in the no rthe rn Pa c ific Oc e a n, e a ste rn Ind ia n Oc e a n a nd so uth-we st a nd we st-c e ntra l Pa c ific .14 The ma jo r thre a ts to b io d ive rsity lo ss a re : ha b ita t d e struc tio n, d e g ra d a tio n a nd fra g me nta tio n a c ro ss the re g io n; tra d e in e nd a ng e re d sp e c ie s in So uth-Ea st Asia ; o ve r-e xp lo ita tio n o f ma rine sp e c ie s; a nd the intro d uc tio n o f a lie n a nd inva sive sp e c ie s. Pro te c te d a re a c o ve ra g e in So uth-Ce ntra l Asia , So uth-Ea st Asia a nd Oc e a nia still fa ll sho rt o f the 10 p e r c e nt g lo b a l ta rg e t.15 30.

The a re a o f ma ng ro ve fo re st lo st in the re g io n fro m 1990 to 2000 re p re se nts a p p ro xima te ly 60 p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l lo ss, ma inly fro m So uth-Ea st Asia .16 De struc tio n o f c o a sta l e c o syste ms is re sp o nsib le fo r furthe r d e c line s in fish sto c ks a nd ne g a tive imp a c ts o n the live liho o d s o f c o a sta l c o mmunitie s.

31.

Ap p ro xima te ly 60 p e r c e nt o f the re g io n’ s c o ra l re e fs a re e stima te d to b e a t risk.17 The re e fs o f So uth-Ea st Asia , the mo st sp e c ie s d ive rse in the wo rld , a re a lso a mo ng the mo st thre a te ne d with mo re tha n 80 p e r c e nt a t risk. Co ra l b le a c hing e ve nts linke d to c lima te c ha ng e we re re p o rte d in the la te 1990s a nd ha ve re c urre d in e a rly 2006.

32.

Mo unting e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s a re the re sult o f unsusta ina b le p a tte rns o f p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n linke d to fo ur ma jo r tre nd s: the g ro wth o f p o llutio n a nd re so urc e -inte nsive ind ustry, the inte nsific a tio n o f a g ric ulture , urb a niza tio n a nd c ha ng ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a nd a he ig hte ning d e ma nd fo r ra w ma te ria ls, e ne rg y a nd wa te r.

The g ro wth o f p o llutio n a nd re so urc e -inte nsive ind ustry 33.

Fa st-g ro wing d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s in the re g io n a re sho uld e ring a n inc re a sing ly g re a te r sha re o f re g io na l a nd g lo b a l e nviro nme nta l b urd e ns. Re g io na l ind ustria l p ro d uc tio n e xp a nsio n is o utstrip p ing g lo b a l g ro wth, a nd se ve ra l hig hly p o lluting ind ustrie s a re g ro wing mo re ra p id ly in re g io na l d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s tha n in re g io na l d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s.

34.

The “ p o lic y d ivid e ” tha t o fte n se p a ra te s g o ve rnme nt institutio ns re sp o nsib le fo r e c o no mic p la nning a nd ind ustry, a nd tho se re sp o nsib le fo r e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n is re fle c te d in the limite d a tte ntio n ind ustria l d e ve lo p me nt p la nning ha s p a id to the imp a c t o f a c o untry’ s ind ustria l sub se c to r c o mp o sitio n o n its e nviro nme nta l o utlo o k. This imp a c t is c o nsid e ra b le .

35.

So me o f the fa ste st g ro wing ind ustrie s in Asia n a nd Pa c ific d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s a re , in the a b se nc e o f hig h c o rp o ra te e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e a nd e ffe c tive na tio na l p o llutio n c o ntro l p o lic y, like ly to p ro d uc e re la tive ly hig hly to xic wa ste .18 The re is insuffic ie nt e vid e nc e tha t ind ustria l p a rks ha ve live d up to the ir p o te ntia l o f minimizing p o llutio n b y p ro vid ing c o st-e ffe c tive wa ste tre a tme nt a nd p o llutio n c o ntro l se rvic e s. Ha za rd o us wa ste p ro d uc tio n, ma na g e me nt a nd tra d e is a lso a g ro wing c ha lle ng e .

36.

Ra p id ly e xp a nd ing ind ustrie s a lso inc lud e ind ustrie s whic h a re kno wn to b e hig hly e ne rg y a nd wa te r-inte nsive . Fa st-g ro wing e ne rg y inte nsive ind ustria l sub se c to rs inc lud e the p ro d uc tio n o f tra nsp o rt e q uip me nt, c rud e ste e l, c he mic a ls, p e tro le um a nd rub b e r a nd p la stic p ro d uc ts. The p ro d uc tio n o f tra nsp o rt e q uip me nt invo lve s re la tive ly wa te r-inte nsive p ro c e sse s.

37.

Wa te r is a n inc re a sing ly sc a rc e c o mmo d ity in ma ny c o untrie s, b ut little , if a ny, a tte ntio n ha s b e e n p a id to the inte nsity o f wa te r use , o r wa te r p ro d uc tivity in the ind ustria l se c to r. Vie t Na m, G e o rg ia , Mo ng o lia a nd wa te rstre sse d Ce ntra l Asia n c o untrie s (with the e xc e p tio n o f Turkme nista n), ha ve a d o p te d p a tte rns o f ind ustria l wa te r use in whic h the y use mo re wa te r to p ro d uc e o ne d o lla r o f GDP fro m ind ustry tha n mo st o the r c o untrie s o f the re g io n.

7

38.

Cle a ne r p ro d uc tio n initia tive s, a lo ng with c o rp o ra te ra ting a nd d isc lo sure p ro g ra mme s a nd the a p p lic a tio n o f e c o no mic instrume nts ha ve b e e n hig hly suc c e ssful in re d uc ing p o llutio n in lo c a lize d a re a s. Ho we ve r, ma king the p a tte rns o f ind ustria l d e ve lo p me nt mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le re q uire s ind ustria l se c to r p la nning a nd inve stme nt p ro mo tio n tha t ta ke s into a c c o unt the inte nsitie s o f p o llutio n a nd re so urc e use , a s we ll a s risks to huma n he a lth a nd na tura l-re so urc e b a se d live liho o d s, e sp e c ia lly in c o untrie s with limite d c a p a c ity fo r p o llutio n mo nito ring a nd c o ntro l, a nd limite d na tura l re so urc e e nd o wme nts. Co untrie s with, fo r e xa mp le , limite d wa te r re so urc e s a nd p o llutio n c o ntro l c a p a c ity, c a n ill-a ffo rd to d e ve lo p ind ustria l se c to rs with hig h risks o f wa te r p o llutio n, suc h a s the fo o d o r c he mic a ls ind ustry.

39.

In mo st c o untrie s, the a mo unt o f SO 2 e mitte d a nd ind ustria l o rg a nic wa te r p o llutio n d isc ha rg e d fo r e a c h d o lla r o f GDP e a rne d in 2000 wa s lo we r tha n in 1990. But the se re d uc tio ns in p o llutio n inte nsity we re no t e no ug h to re d uc e the to ta l e missio ns o f the se p o lluta nts. A fe w c o untrie s ha ve ma d e sig nific a nt p ro g re ss in re d uc ing p o llutio n inte nsitie s, while so me c o untrie s a re inc re a sing the a mo unt o f p o llutio n p ro d uc e d fo r e ve ry d o lla r o f GDP e a rne d . Ce ntra l Asia n c o untrie s a re a mo ng the c o untrie s with the hig he st p o llutio n inte nsitie s o f the re g io n.

40.

Be c a use o f the p he no me na l g ro w th in ind ustria l p ro d uc tio n, the imp a c t o f fo re ig n d ire c t inve stme nt (FDI), in e nviro nme nta l te rms ha s la rg e ly b e e n ne g a tive . Ho we ve r, d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s ma y use the o p p o rtunitie s p re se nte d b y g ro wing d e m a nd fo r p rim a ry p ro d uc ts, Percentage change in industrial production by subsector (1995-2001) Offic e , c o mp uting , ra d io , te le visio n c ha ng ing inc e ntive s fo r inve stme nt & o the r e le c tric a l e q uip me nt Be e r in the re g io n re la ting to g ro wth in Crud e ste e l, ing o ts Tra nsp o rt e q uip me nt re g io na l c o nsum e r m a rke ts, a nd Che mic a ls, p e tro le um, rub b e r & p la stic p ro d uc ts Ce me nt the inc re a sing w illing ne ss o f FDICo tto n ya rn Fre sh p o rk o rig in a tin g c o u n trie s to a ssist Fre sh mutto n & la mb Ba sic me ta ls d e v e lo p ing c o untrie s to a v o id Re fine d sug a r Ra w sug a r ne g a tive e nviro nm e nta l im p a c ts, Fre sh b e e f & ve a l Cig a re tte s to ne g o tia te fo r c o nd itio ns tha t Fa b ric a te d me ta l p ro d uc ts No n-me ta llic mine ra l p ro d uc ts ma ximize the p o sitive e nviro nme nta l Co tto n wo ve n fa b ric s Fo o d , b e ve ra g e s & to b a c c o imp a c ts o f FDI inflo ws. Pa p e r, p rinting , p ub lishing & re c o rd ing me d ia

The intensiication of agriculture

8

We a ring a p p a re l, le a the r & fo o twe a r

Te xtile s Wo o l ya rn

Wo o d & wo o d p ro d uc ts

41.

Re g io na l a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n -40 -20 -60 100 0 20 80 40 60 120 140 inc re a se d b y so me 62 p e r c e nt fro m Asia -Pa c ific Asia -Pa c ific d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s 1990 to 2002;19 d uring this time g lo b a l a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n inc re a se d b y o nly 27 p e r c e nt. While the p a c e o f So urc e : ESCAP (2005). Sta tistic a l Ye a rb o o k fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific , 2003, Unite d Na tio ns a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n g ro wth ha s p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.II.F.1 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns). slo we d sinc e 1999 a nd the re g io n is a ne t imp o rte r o f a g ric ultura l p ro d uc ts, tra d e in a g ric ultura l p ro d uc ts, b o th imp o rts a nd e xp o rts, is e xp a nd ing .

42.

Gro wth in p ro d uc tio n a nd e xp a nd ing tra d e ha s c o ntrib ute d sig nific a ntly to inc re a sing p hysic a l a nd e c o no mic a c c e ss to fo o d , a nd the re fo re imp ro ving fo o d se c urity. Pe r c a p ita fo o d a va ila b ility ha s inc re a se d a nd the re ha ve b e e n o ve ra ll re d uc tio ns in the numb e rs o f und e rno urishe d . Ho we ve r, the re a re still so me 500 millio n und e rno urishe d p e o p le in the re g io n. In so me c o untrie s, the p a c e o f hung e r re d uc tio n ha s slo we d with so me

c o untrie s sho wing inc re a se s in the numb e r o f und e rno urishe d . Ag ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n p a tte rns a re a lso c ha ng ing in re sp o nse to c ha ng ing d ie ts a nd inc re a sing d e ma nd fo r me a ts, fish a nd d a iry p ro d uc ts, whic h a lso multip lie s the c o nsump tio n o f g ra in use d a s fe e d a nd wa te r. Ag ric ultura l c o mmo d itie s suc h a s jute , fib e rs, p a lm o il a nd rub b e r a lso sup p o rt stro ng a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n g ro wth. 43.

Dra ma tic inc re a se s in a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n ha ve b e e n a c hie ve d b y the inte nsific a tio n o f a g ro -c he mic a l a nd wa te r use ; the e xp a nsio n o f a ra b le a nd p e rma ne nt c ro p la nd re g io n-wid e ha s b e e n re la tive ly limite d e xc e p t in so me sma ll isla nd d e ve lo p ing sta te s suc h a s the Fe d e ra te d Sta te s o f Mic ro ne sia . The c o nsump tio n o f mine ra l fe rtilize rs p e r he c ta re o f a g ric ultura l la nd in the re g io n ha s inc re a se d b y so me 15 p e r c e nt, in c o ntra st to a d e c line in the re st o f the wo rld d uring 1991-2001. In 2001 the re g io n use d twic e a s muc h mine ra l fe rtilize r p e r he c ta re o f a g ric ultura l la nd a s the re st o f the wo rld .20 So me c o untrie s a re no w b e g inning to c ut b a c k o n using la rg e q ua ntitie s o f fe rtilize rs. In a t le a st 31 c o untrie s o f the re g io n, mo re tha n 60 p e r c e nt o f wa te r withd ra wa ls a re fo r a g ric ulture , with mo re tha n 90 p e r c e nt o f irrig a te d a re a using ine ffic ie nt surfa c e irrig a tio n syste ms whic h ha ve e xp a nd e d fa ste r in the re g io n tha n a nywhe re e lse . Whe re imp ro p e rly ma na g e d , irrig a tio n syste ms a re linke d to la nd d e g ra d a tio n, e utro p hic a tio n o f fre shwa te r b o d ie s, so il e ro sio n, mo sq uito -b o rne d ise a se s a nd inc re a se d wa te r d e ma nd .

Agricultural production change (1989-91 to 2002) Vie t Na m China La o PDR

400

120

Mya nma r Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n

100

350 300

So lo mo n Isla nd s

80

Ma ld ive s

60

Ca mb o d ia

Pa kista n Philip p ine s

40 20

200 0 150

-20

100

-40

Ne p a l

% change

250

Ba ng la d e sh Kirib a ti Re p . o f Ko re a Ma la ysia Ind ia Ne w Ze a la nd WORLD

-60 50

Tha ila nd Ind o ne sia

-80

Pa p ua N. Guine a

-100

Sri La nka Austra lia

fK o re Ja a pa Ne n C w h Ze ina a la Vie nd Ba t N ng a m la Ma d e sh Uz la ys be i k a Sri ista n La Pa nka DP kist RK an o re a Ind Ind i Isla on a e mi c R Tha sia e p ila n . d Ph o f Ira ilip p n Au ine s str a li a Sa Fiji mo Pa N a pu a N Ta e p a e w jikist l G an My uine an a La m a r o Mo PD Ka ng o R za lia C a khst mb a n od Bh ia Ma uta n ld i ve s

0

Na uru Sa mo a Uzb e kista n

Re p

.o

Kg mine ra l fe rtilize r p e r ha o f a g ric ultura l la nd

Mineral fertilizer use intensity (2002) and percentage change (1992-2002)

Fe rtilize r use inte nsity (2002)

To ng a Fiji Bhuta n Mo ng o lia Ja p a n

Cha ng e in fe rtilize r use inte nsity (1992-2002)

DPR Ko re a Va nua tu Ka za khsta n

So urc e : FAO (2004). Se le c te d Ind ic a to rs o f Fo o d a nd Ag ric ulture De ve lo p me nt in Asia Pa c ific Re g io n: 1993-2003 (Ba ng ko k, FAO Re g io na l O ffic e fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific ).

Ta jikista n Ma rsha ll Isla nd s -100

-50

0

50

100

Pe rc e nta g e c ha ng e

9

44.

As c o untrie s b e c o me d e p e nd e nt o n imp o rte d a g ric ultura l c o mmo d itie s to me e t the ir fo o d ne e d s, thre e o the r imp a c t a re a s a re a lso d isc e rna b le : the e ne rg y c o nte nt e mb o d ie d in imp o rte d fo o d , re sulting fro m tra nsp o rta tio n, d istrib utio n a nd sto ra g e o f fo o d ; tra d e in virtua l wa te r, i.e . wa te r lo st (fo r e xa mp le , a s ste a m) o r e mb e d d e d (a s wa te r c o nte nt o f b e ve ra g e s o r fruits, fo r e xa mp le ) in the p ro d uc tio n o f tra d e d g o o d s; a nd the p ro d uc tio n o f g re e nho use g a se s suc h a s me tha ne a nd nitro us o xid e .

45.

Org a nic fa rming is a n imp o rta nt re sp o nse to the multip le thre a ts to e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility p o se d b y inte nsive a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n. Ho we ve r, mo re e xp lic it p o lic y sup p o rt is ne e d e d . Only a ro und 2.2 p e r c e nt o f a g ric ultura l la nd in Austra lia wa s use d fo r o rg a nic a g ric ulture in 2004, the hig he st p ro p o rtio n in the re g io n. Bio te c hno lo g y is e xp e c te d to p la y a n inc re a sing ly imp o rta nt ro le in b o o sting a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tivity. At le a st five c o untrie s in the re g io n a re using g e ne tic a lly mo d ifie d c ro p va rie tie s to b o o st p ro d uc tio n; so me o f the se tra nsg e nic c ro p s (whic h inc lud e g e ne tic a lly mo d ifie d va rie tie s o f ma ize , c o tto n a nd so yb e a ns), ha ve b e e n ma rke te d a s p ro vid ing inc re a se d he rb ic id e to le ra nc e a nd re sista nc e to inse c t a tta c k.

46.

De c lining fish sto c ks a nd inc re a sing ly lo we r ma rine c a tc he s p e r unit e ffo rt ma ke a q ua c ulture a n a ttra c tive a lte rna tive to c a p ture fishe rie s. The re g io n a c c o unts fo r a n e stima te d 91 p e r c e nt o f g lo b a l a q ua c ulture p ro d uc tio n, with the ma jo r c o ntrib utio n fro m China whic h le a d s wo rld a q ua c ulture p ro d uc tio n, c o ntrib uting so me 70 p e r c e nt o f wo rld p ro d uc tio n. But a q ua c ulture p ro d uc tio n ha s a lso re sulte d in the lo ss o f ma ng ro ve fo re sts, la nd d e g ra d a tio n a nd wa te r p o llutio n.

Urb a niza tio n a nd the sp re a d o f the g lo b a l c o nsume r so c ie ty

10

47.

Re g io na l urb a n p o p ula tio ns a re p ro je c te d to inc re a se b y so me 352 millio n p e o p le b e twe e n 2005 a nd 2015. So uth Asia will b e the e p ic e nte r o f this g ro wth o f urb a n c e ntre s: ho w the se c e ntre s use re so urc e s will d e te rmine future e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s.

48.

Evo lving urb a n life style s inc re a sing ly re fle c t g lo b a lizing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns c ha ra c te rize d b y e ne rg y a nd re so urc e -inte nsive a nd hig h wa ste -p ro d uc ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns. The se c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a re b e c o ming e ntre nc he d . While ma ny c o untrie s ha ve ye t to c o mp le te ly me e t b a sic ne e d s, the g ro wth o f “ d isc re tio na ry” a nd c o nsp ic uo us c o nsump tio n a c c o mp a nying inc o me rise s re p re se nts a c ritic a l thre a t to e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility a nd runs c o unte r to the tra d itio na l c ultura l va lue s o f ma ny Asia n a nd Pa c ific so c ie tie s. Urb a n life style s imp ly e xp a nd e d wa te r a nd e ne rg y d e ma nd , e xp a nd e d tra nsp o rta tio n infra struc ture ne e d s, a nd inc re a se d wa ste p ro d uc tio n, p e r p e rso n. Ne w wa ste stre a ms re fle c t c ha ng ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns — PET b o ttle s fo r d rinking wa te r, e -wa ste a nd p a c ka g ing fro m p ro c e sse d fo o d . De mo g ra p hic , inc o me a nd life style c ha ng e s re sult in sma lle r, b ut mo re e ne rg y-inte nsive ho use ho ld s. As a n e xa mp le , the d e ma nd fo r re frig e ra tio n is e xp a nd ing ra p id ly; p e r c a p ita sa le s o f re frig e ra to rs inc re a se d b y a s muc h a s 16 time s b e twe e n 1995 a nd 2000 in China a nd 22 time s in Tha ila nd a nd Vie t Na m. 21

49.

As life style s c ha ng e , fo o d c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a lso c ha ng e . Pe o p le in Asia a nd the Pa c ific a re c o nsuming sma lle r q ua ntitie s o f tra d itio na l sta p le s (e .g . ric e a nd ro o t c ro p s), a nd mo re whe a t a nd whe a t-b a se d p ro d uc ts. Ne w urb a nite s with rising inc o me s a re d e ma nd ing a n inc re a se d d ive rsity o f fo o d so urc e s, hig he r p ro te in a nd e ne rg y d e nse fo o d s. The se c ha ng ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns ha ve c o nse q ue nt imp lic a tio ns fo r e ne rg y use (fro m tra nsp o rt), a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n p a tte rns, nutritio n a nd he a lth.

50.

Pe o p le a re inc re a sing ly d e ma nd ing a nd b e ing a b le to a ffo rd p e rso na l mo d e s o f mo to rize d tra nsp o rt o f a ll kind s, p a rtic ula rly whe re tra nsp o rt p o lic ie s a nd und e rd e ve lo p e d ma ss tra nsit infra struc ture ind ire c tly p ro mo te the ir use . The numb e rs o f p a sse ng e r c a rs, fo r e xa mp le in use in so me fa st-g ro wing e c o no mie s o f So uth a nd So uth-Ea st Asia ha ve mo re tha n d o ub le d fro m 1990 to 2002. This ha s imp lic a tio ns fo r e ne rg y use — tra nsp o rt b y truc k c a n use 16 time s mo re e ne rg y tha n tra nsp o rting the sa me vo lume o f ma te ria l b y ra il. Ene rg y inte nsity (e ne rg y use d p e r p a sse ng e r) in ro a d tra nsp o rt in the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a ha s inc re a se d fro m 1.88 to e / tho usa nd p a sse ng e rs (thre e time s the le ve l o f ra il tra nsp o rt), to fo ur time s the va lue , b e twe e n 1995 a nd 2000. 22

Projected change in population, largest AsiaPaciic cities (2005-2015)

De lhi Dha ka

Passenger travel (index, 1993 = 100)

Ka ra c hi Mumb a i

160

Ja ka rta Ko lka tta

140 Me tro Ma nila Ista nb ul

120

Te hra n To kyo

100

Tia njin Mo sc o w Be ijing

80

Osa ka -Ko b e Sha ng ha i

60 1993

Se o ul -1.5

0.0

1.5

3.0

Millio ns

4.5

6.0

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Railway traffic (Passenger -kilometres)

1999

2000

2001

2002

Road traffic (Passenger cars)

Air traffic (Passenger-kilometres)

So urc e : Unite d Na tio ns De p a rtme nt o f Ec o no mic a nd So c ia l Affa irs Po p ula tio n Divisio n (2004). Wo rld Urb a niza tio n Pro sp e c ts: The 2003 Re visio n, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.XIII.6 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns); ESCAP (2005). Sta tistic a l Ye a rb o o k fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific , 2003, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.II.F.1 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns).

11

Inc re a se d d e ma nd fo r ra w ma te ria ls, e ne rg y a nd wa te r 51.

The e xtra c tio n a nd p ro c e ssing o f ra w ma te ria l a s inp uts to ma nufa c ture s, b uild ing s a nd infra struc ture , a s we ll a s to sup p o rt se rvic e s p ro visio n is o ne o f the ma in so urc e s o f e nviro nme nta l p re ssure .

52.

The inc re a sing d e ma nd fo r timb e r to sup p o rt b o th p ro d uc tio n o f wo o d p ro d uc ts fo r b o th d o me stic a nd e xp o rt ma rke ts, me a ns tha t the re g io n’ s na tura l fo re sts a re und e r sig nific a nt p re ssure fro m ille g a l o r ind isc rimina te lo g g ing a nd re p la c e me nt b y p la nta tio n fo re sts. Give n the d iffic ulty o f ve rifying the o rig in o f wo o d a nd wo o d p ro d uc ts, se ve ra l c o untrie s a re sig nific a nt imp o rte rs o f timb e r o f ille g a l a nd susp ic io us o rig in. Fo re st p ro d uc ts e xp o rts fro m Pa kista n, Sri La nka , Ind ia a nd the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n mo re tha n d o ub le d b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2001. With the e xc e p tio n o f the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n, the se c o untrie s’ na tura l fo re st c o ve r ha s b e e n re d uc e d sig nific a ntly. In 2002 the to ta l a re a o f fo re sts in the re g io n c e rtifie d b y the Fo re st Ste wa rd ship Co unc il a s me e ting sp e c ifie d fo re st ma na g e me nt p rinc ip le s a nd sta nd a rd s g e a re d to wa rd susta ina b le fo re st ma na g e me nt, o nly c o nstitute d so me fo ur p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l to ta l. 23

53.

Re g io na l iro n o re p ro d uc tio n whic h a c c o unts fo r the ma jo rity o f mine ra l p ro d uc tio n inc re a se d b y so me 40 p e r c e nt b e twe e n 1995 a nd 2004,24 while g lo b a l p ro d uc tio n o f iro n o re inc re a se d b y 30 p e r c e nt in the sa me p e rio d . Mine ra l p ro d uc tio n is g ro wing fa ste st in Tha ila nd ; its iro n o re p ro d uc tio n ro se a lmo st 20-fo ld in the sa me p e rio d . In Vie t Na m a nd Ma la ysia iro n o re p ro d uc tio n trip le d , a nd in Austra lia p ro d uc tio n inc re a se d b y 70 p e r c e nt.25 China a nd Ja p a n a re the two ma in ma rke ts fo r p ro c e sse d mine ra ls in the re g io n. China is no w the wo rld ’ s la rg e st a luminum a nd c o p p e r-c o nsuming c o untry.

Aluminium consumption

Aluminium monthly prices ($/ metric ton)

Ind ia

2,000

2001

2004

Russia n Fe d e ra tio n

1,800 Re p ub lic o f Ko re a

1,600 Ja p a n

Unite d Sta te s o f Ame ric a

1,400

China

1,200 Ja n ’ 00

Ja n ’ 01

Ja n ’ 02

Ja n ’ 03

Ja n ’ 04

Ja n’ 05

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

‘000 metric tons

So urc e : Wo rld Ba nk Co mmo d itie s Ma rke t Brie fs we b p a g e , a c c e sse d o n 14 Ma rc h 2005 fro m .

12

54.

Whe the r no n-re ne wa b le re so urc e s suc h a s o il a nd o the r mine ra ls a re in imme d ia te d a ng e r o f running o ut is still a ma tte r o f d e b a te ; a mo re imme d ia te d a ng e r is the a rtific ia l sc a rc ity c re a te d b y rising p ric e s. Rising e ne rg y p ric e s inc re a se the p ric e s o f o the r c o mmo d itie s suc h a s mine ra ls a nd nitro g e no us fe rtilize rs b e c a use o f the d ire c t a nd ind ire c t use o f e ne rg y in the ir e xtra c tio n, re fining a nd p ro d uc tio n p ro c e sse s. Ag ric ultura l c o mmo d itie s suc h a s e tha no l (a b io fue l), inp uts fo r ma king b io fue ls, suc h a s mo la sse s, a nd wo o d a nd na tura l rub b e r tha t c a n sub stitute fo r p e tro le um-b a se d p ro d uc ts a lso e xp e rie nc e p ric e inc re a se s a s e ne rg y p ric e s rise .

55.

Ene rg y c o nsump tio n in the re g io n ro se b y mo re tha n 40 p e r c e nt fro m 1990 to 2002; twic e the inc re a se o f g lo b a l c o nsump tio n in the sa me p e rio d . De sp ite c urre nt c o nc e rns a b o ut the inc re a sing e ne rg y c o nsump tio n o f la rg e , fa st-g ro wing d e ve lo p ing e c o no mie s suc h a s China a nd Ind ia , the re is still sub sta ntia l unme t d e ma nd . In 2002, the a ve ra g e p e r c a p ita e ne rg y c o nsump tio n in the ESCAP re g io n wa s o nly a b o ut 60 p e r c e nt o f the g lo b a l fig ure . An e stima te d 270 millio n p e o p le in Ea st Asia a nd the Pa c ific , a nd 500 millio n p e o p le in So uth Asia la c k a c c e ss to e le c tric ity se rvic e s. 26

56.

C o mb ustib le re ne wa b le s (b io ma ss) a nd wa ste is the so urc e o f 59 p e r c e nt o f the e ne rg y c o nsume d b y the re sid e ntia l se c to r in d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s in the re g io n, a s c o mp a re d with fo ur p e r c e nt in d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s. Ind o o r a ir p o llutio n fro m b urning b io ma ss fue ls is re sp o nsib le fo r a n e stima te d g lo b a l d e a th to ll o f 1.6 millio n

Energy use - percentage change 1990-2002 DPR Ko re a Ca mb o d ia Ja p a n

Production of electricity, gas and water (index, 1995 = 100)

Mya nma r WORLD Austra lia Ne w Ze a la nd

160

China Turke y

140

ASIA-PACIFIC Ne p a l Ind ia

120

Brune i Da russa la m Sri La nka Pa kista n

100

Philip p ine s Ba ng la d e sh Ind o ne sia

80

Vie t Na m Sing a p o re Tha ila nd

60

Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Re p .o f Ko re a Ma la ysia

-50%

0%

50%

100%

150%

So urc e : Wo rld Re so urc e s Institute (2005). Ea rthTre nds: The Enviro nme nta l Info rma tio n Po rta l. Ava ila b le a t .

Wo rld ESCAP c o untrie s De ve lo p ing ESCAP c o untrie s

So urc e : ESCAP (2005). Sta tistic a l Ye a rb o o k fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific , 2003, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.II.F.1 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns).

13

p e rso ns fro m ind o o r a ir p o llutio n p e r ye a r; 59 p e r c e nt a re wo me n o r g irls a nd 56 p e r c e nt a re c hild re n a g e d und e r five ; a ro und 26 p e r c e nt (420,000 p e o p le p e r ye a r) o f the se d e a ths o c c ur in Ind ia a lo ne .27 57.

Ene rg y inte nsitie s (e ne rg y use p e r unit G DP) a re hig h in ma ny c o untrie s a nd inc re a se d in c o untrie s suc h a s Ind o ne sia , the Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n, Ma la ysia , the Philip p ine s, the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a a nd Tha ila nd b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2002. Ind ustria l p ro d uc tio n in so me o f the mo st e ne rg y-inte nsive se c to rs (inc lud ing p ro d uc tio n o f iro n a nd ste e l) is g ro wing fa ste r in re g io na l d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s tha n in re g io na l d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s. As inc o me s inc re a se , d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s a re a lso fa c ing g ro wth in e ne rg y d e ma nd fro m the tra nsp o rt se c to r. Ene rg y use in this se c to r inc re a se d b y so me 14 p e r c e nt b e twe e n 1996 a nd 2003.28

58.

Exp a nd ing e ne rg y d e ma nd is d riving e ne rg y infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt p ro je c ts in e ve ry sub re g io n, fro m ma ssive hyd ro -e le c tric ity p ro je c ts to tra ns-b o rd e r na tura l g a s a nd o il p ip e line s. Ma ny p ro je c ts a re linke d to e nviro nme nta l c ha ng e s in e c o lo g ic a lly se nsitive a re a s, b io d ive rsity lo ss, d isp la c e m e nt o f c o m m unitie s a nd so c ia l Water withdrawal, Asia c o nflic t.

59.

In so me 29 c o untrie s o f the re g io n, a g ric ulture a c c o unts fo r o ve r 60 p e r c e nt o f wa te r usa g e ; in 820 15 o f the se c o untrie s, this se c to r use s mo re tha n 615 90 p e r c e nt o f wa te r withd ra wa ls. The p ro p o rtio n o f irrig a te d a re a s e xp a nd e d 25 tim e s fa ste r in 410 Asia a nd the Pa c ific tha n in the re st o f the wo rld 205 b e tw e e n 1990 a nd 2002, w ith m a jo r g ro w th in So uth-Ea st a nd So uth Asia b a se d o n re la tive ly 0 ine ffic ie nt surfa c e irrig a tio n syste ms.29 The g ro wth 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 in irrig a te d a g ric ulture fo r e xp o rt is like ly to ha ve Sib e ria a nd Fa r Ea st o f Russia No rth China a nd Mo ng o lia So uth-Ea st Asia So uth Asia ha d a sig nific a nt imp a c t o n o ve ra ll wa te r d e ma nd . Tra nsc a uc a sia Ce ntra l Asia a nd Ka za khsta n We ste rn Asia Tha ila nd ha s b e e n id e ntifie d a s the fo urth la rg e st ne t e xp o rte r o f virtua l wa te r g lo b a lly, e xp o rting a n e stima te d 233.3 b illio n m 3 o f wa te r a lo ng with its So urc e : Shiklo ma no v, I.A, (2004). “ Asse ssme nt o f wa te r re so urc e s in Asia wo rld -fa mo us a g ric ultura l p ro d uc e in a five -ye a r in the 21st Ce ntury” (unp ub lishe d re p o rt). p e rio d fro m 1995 to 1999.30 3

km p e r ye a r

1025

Inc re a se d vulne ra b ility to c lima te c ha ng e a nd na tura l d isa ste rs; ho we ve r, c lima te c ha ng e mitig a tio n a c tio n is b e c o ming mo re a nd mo re c o mp a tib le with e ne rg y se c urity a nd e c o no mic o b je c tive s. 60.

Mo unting sc ie ntific e vid e nc e a ffirms the re a lity o f c lima te c ha ng e . Huma n a c tivity is the p rima ry d rive r fo r the inc re a se d c o nc e ntra tio ns o f g a se s tha t ha ve a lre a d y b ro ug ht sig nific a nt c ha ng e s to the e a rth’ s c lima te .31 The imp lic a tio ns o f c lima te c ha ng e a re fa r re a c hing fo r ma ny c o untrie s o f the re g io n. Sma ll isla nd sta te s ha ve a lre a d y b e e n se rio usly a ffe c te d b y rising se a le ve ls. The Pa c ific isla nd s o f Tuva lu a nd mo re re c e ntly the Ca rte re ts isla nd s o f Pa p ua Ne w Guine a ha ve a nno unc e d p la ns fo r e va c ua tio n.

61.

The ra ng e o f p ro je c te d a nd c urre nt imp a c ts o f c lima te c ha ng e o n Asia n a nd Pa c ific c o untrie s32 inc lud e s: ß Inc re a sing fo o d inse c urity, a ffe c ting mo st o f the re g io n’ s fo o d b a ske t a nd c o a sta l a re a s;

14

ß Ac c e le ra te d e xtinc tio n ra te s; ß Cha ng ing ma rine p ro d uc tivity, influe nc e d b y c o ra l b le a c hing a nd imp a c ts o n ma ng ro ve s a nd se a g ra ss b e d s; ß Inc re a sing d ro ug ht in d e se rt e c o syste ms; ß Cha ng ing hyd ro lo g ic a l re g ime s a nd inc re a se d winte r flo o d ing , b ut d e c re a se d summe r flo w. Wa te r-stre sse d a re a s ha ve e xp e rie nc e d inc re a sing wa te r sc a rc ity a nd g ro wing c o mp e titio n fo r wa te r; ß Inc re a sing fre q ue nc y o f tro p ic a l c yc lo ne s; a nd ß Wa rme r a nd mo re humid c o nd itio ns ha ve inc re a se d the p o te ntia l fo r he a t-re la te d a nd infe c tio us d ise a se ; the inc id e nc e o f re sp ira to ry a nd c a rd io -va sc ula r d ise a se s in a rid a nd se mi-a rid a re a s; a nd ve c to r-b o rne d ise a se s in te mp e ra te a nd tro p ic a l a re a s. 62.

Re g io na l CO 2 e missio ns inc re a se d b y a lmo st 30 p e r c e nt b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2000, with mo st o f this g ro wth (in a b so lute te rms) o c c urring in India a nd China ; se ve ra l sma lle r e c o no mie s ha ve so me o f the fa ste st ra te s o f g ro wth in CO 2 e missio ns, c o rre sp o nd ing with the ir fa st-g ro wing e ne rg y c o nsump tio n. While a c c o unting fo r so me 40 p e r c e nt o f g lo b a l e ne rg y use in 2001, the re g io n c o nsume d 52 p e r c e nt o f g lo b a l c o a l-b a se d e ne rg y use .

63.

Asia n a nd Pa c ific d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s, with the e xc e p tio n o f China a nd Ind ia d o no t fig ure a mo ng the ma jo r g lo b a l c o ntrib uto rs to CO 2 e missio ns, the mo st imp o rta nt g re e nho use g a s. De sp ite the g ro wing a tte ntio n to fa stg ro wing d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s suc h a s China a nd Ind ia , the se c o untrie s’ p e r c a p ita CO 2 e missio ns a re up to 18 time s lo we r tha n tho se o f so me d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s.

64.

Pub lic e le c tric ity a nd he a t p ro d uc tio n a re the ma in so urc e s o f g re e nho use g a s e missio ns g lo b a lly, fo llo we d b y the tra nsp o rt se c to r, whic h is the fa ste st g ro wing c o ntrib uto r. De ve lo p ing Asia (no t inc lud ing the fo rme r USSR) e mits a b o ut 1 ½ time s mo re CO 2 p e r unit o f e le c tric ity p ro d uc e d (fro m a ll fue ls) tha n the wo rld a ve ra g e .33 Othe r so urc e s o f g re e nho use g a se s a re a lso imp o rta nt in the re g io n. The se inc lud e a g ric ultura l a c tivitie s whic h a re the p rinc ip a l so urc e s o f me tha ne a nd nitro us o xid e , d e fo re sta tio n a nd c o nve rsio n o f fo re sts to o the r la nd use s.

65.

The future suc c e ss o f g re e nho use g a s mitig a tio n in Asia a nd the Pa c ific will la rg e ly d e p e nd o n e ne rg y e ffic ie nc y a nd e ne rg y c o nse rva tio n; re fo re sta tio n e ffo rts; inte g ra tio n o f c lima te mitig a tio n p o lic ie s; d o me stic a ir p o llutio n a b a te me nt; a nd inte g ra tio n o f p o lic ie s re la ting to a g ric ulture , la nd use a nd e ne rg y syste ms. Ho we ve r, p e rha p s the hig he st imp a c t will b e o b ta ine d fro m infra struc ture inve stme nt a nd p la nning tha t e xp lic itly se e ks to re d uc e g re e nho use g a s e missio ns, whe the r in the c o nstruc tio n, tra nsp o rta tio n o r e ne rg y se c to rs.

66.

Ac tio n to mitig a te c lima te c ha ng e is b e c o ming syno nymo us with a c tio n o n imp ro ving e ne rg y se c urity a nd is inc re a sing ly c o mp a tib le with e c o no mic o b je c tive s. Imp ro ving e ne rg y e ffic ie nc y a nd c ha ng ing c o nsump tio n p a tte rns is b e c o ming mo re urg e nt, a nd mo re fe a sib le , in lig ht o f the re c e nt e le va te d e ne rg y p ric e s, the p ro ve n hig h re turns o n inve stme nts in e ne rg y c o nse rva tio n a nd e ffic ie nc y, a nd the a va ila b ility o f fina nc ing o p tio ns o ffe re d b y inte rna tio na l e missio ns tra d ing , jo int imp le me nta tio n a nd the c le a n d e ve lo p me nt me c ha nism (CDM) o f the Kyo to Pro to c o l. A to ta l o f 27 CDM p ro je c ts we re re g iste re d b y Asia n a nd Pa c ific c o untrie s a s o f De c e mb e r 2005. The se p ro je c ts we re e xp e c te d to re d uc e g re e nho use g a se s b y 18.9 millio n me tric to ns o f CO 2 e q uiva le nt a nnua lly. So me 90 CDM p ro je c ts fro m the re g io n a re in va rio us sta g e s o f p re p a ra tio n, a nd 24 c o untrie s ha ve a lre a d y id e ntifie d the ir De sig na te d Na tio na l Autho ritie s, the re b y fa c ilita ting the ir p a rtic ip a tio n in CDM a c tivitie s. The CDM’ s p o te ntia l is still la rg e ly unta p p e d a nd the re a re a numb e r o f institutio na l, fina nc ia l a nd p ro c e d ura l hurd le s to b e o ve rc o me .

15

67.

C e rtifie d e missio n re d uc tio n (C ER) fina nc ing ne e d s to b e ma instre a me d with o the r c o rp o ra te ind ustria l a nd infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt fina nc ing me c ha nisms, in o rd e r to g e ne ra te CERs o n a sc a le tha t c a n p o te ntia lly ma ke a sig nific a nt d iffe re nc e to to ta l G HG e missio ns. While g o ve rnme nts ha ve e xp re sse d sup p o rt fo r e ne rg y e ffic ie nc y, the re is g re a te r re luc ta nc e to mo ve to wa rd s a c tio n e xp lic itly g e a re d to wa rd s re d uc ing g re e nho use g a s e missio ns, e ve n if it is kno wn tha t the se e missio n re d uc tio ns a re a c o nse q ue nc e o f e ne rg y e ffic ie nc y me a sure s.

68.

Ap p ro ve d fo r the first time in Ap ril 2005, the unila te ra l CDM a p p ro a c h a llo ws a d e ve lo p ing c o untry to p la n a nd fina nc e its o wn G HG re d uc tio n p ro je c ts inste a d o f b e ing a p a ssive ho st to p ro je c ts id e ntifie d b y d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s. Unila te ra l CDM p ro vid e s a n a ve nue fo r d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s to p ro a c tive ly initia te g re e nho use g a s e missio ns re d uc tio n initia tive s while ta p p ing a ne w so urc e o f fina nc ing thro ug h CER p urc ha se a g re e me nts with e ntitie s fro m Anne x I d e ve lo p e d c o untry p a rtie s to the Kyo to Pro to c o l.

Share of per capita CO2 emissions by sector (2002)

CO2 emissions per unit of GDP (2002) Uzb e kista n Mo ng o lia Aze rb a ija n Turkm e nista n Isla m ic Re p ub lic o f Ira n C hina Kyrg yzsta n Ind ia Vie t Na m Ta jikista n Ma ld ive s Ind o ne sia Pa kista n G e o rg ia Ma la ysia Tha ila nd Bhuta n Philip p ine s So lo m o n Isla nd s Re p . o f Ko re a Austra lia Ba ng la d e sh Sri La nka Arm e nia Fiji Sa mo a Pa p a u Ne w G uine a La o PDR Sing a p o re Ne p a l Ne w Ze a la nd Va nua tu Ja p a n C a m b o d ia

Pub lic e le c tric ity

Ne p a l Austra lia Brune i Da russa la m Ka za khsta n Sing a p o re Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ja p a n Re p . o f Ko re a Turkme nista n Aze rb a ija n Ma la ysia Uzb e kista n Ne w Ze a la nd China Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Tha ila nd Turke y DPR Ko re a Ind ia Ind o ne sia Kyrg yzsta n Arme nia Philip p ine s Pa kista n Vie t Na m Sri La nka Ta jikista n Ba ng la d e sh Ge o rg ia Mya nma r 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

Una llo c a te d

Othe r Ene rg y Ind ustire s

Ma nufa c turing

Tra nsp o rt

Othe rs

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Me tric to ns o f CO 2 p e r millio n c o nsta nt 1995 $US

So urc e : Wo rld Re so urc e s Institute (2005). Ea rthTre nd s: The Enviro nme nta l Info rma tio n Po rta l. Ava ila b le a t ; Inte rna tio na l Ene rg y Ag e nc y (2004). CO 2 Emissio ns fro m Fue l Co mb ustio n 1971-2002: 2004 Editio n (Pa ris, OECD/ IEA). No te s: Una llo c a te d e missio ns – the sum o f e missio ns fro m ind e p e nd e nt e ne rg y p ro d uc e rs; Othe rs – e missio ns fro m c o mme rc ia l/ institutio na l a c tivitie s, re sid e ntia l, a g ric ultura l a nd o the r unsp e c ifie d so urc e s b ut inc lud e d in the Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n C lima te C ha ng e g uid e line s.

16

69.

The Asia n a nd Pa c ific re g io n is the mo st d isa ste r-p ro ne re g io n in the wo rld , a c c o unting fo r a ro und 80 p e r c e nt o f a ll na tura l d isa ste rs wo rld wid e a nd so me 90 p e r c e nt o f d e a ths fro m na tura l d isa ste rs sinc e 1900.34 Amo ng the mo st d e struc tive a nd fre q ue nt ha za rd s ha ve b e e n fla sh flo o d s, e a rthq ua ke s, sto rm surg e s a nd d ro ug hts. Pro lo ng e d d ro ug hts in So uth Asia (ma inly in Afg ha nista n, Pa kista n a nd Ind ia ) ha ve c o mp ro mise d fo o d se c urity a nd c a use d wid e sp re a d fa mine a nd fo o d sho rta g e s.35 Fro m 2000 to 2004, o ve r ha lf a b illio n p e o p le (o ne in e ig ht p e rso ns) a c ro ss Asia a nd the Pa c ific we re a ffe c te d b y d ro ug ht. An a lmo st e q ua l numb e r we re a ffe c te d b y flo o d ing in the sa me time p e rio d . Ove r 176,000 p e rso ns we re liste d a s kille d a nd a lmo st 50,000 missing in the De c e mb e r 2004 tsuna mi in the Ind ia n Oc e a n a nd So uth-Ea st Asia ,36 while o ve r 79,000 p e rso ns d ie d in the Oc to b e r 2005 e a rthq ua ke in Pa kista n.

70.

De fo re sta tio n, so il e ro sio n, o ve rg ra zing , o ve r-c ultiva tio n a nd o the r unsusta ina b le a g ric ultura l p ra c tic e s a nd the d e g ra d a tio n o f na tura l b uffe rs ha ve a mp lifie d the e ffe c ts o f na tura l ha za rd s. Co mmunitie s she lte re d b y c o a sta l b uffe rs e .g . sa nd d une s o r ma ng ro ve s, we re fo und to ha ve suffe re d sub sta ntia lly le ss d a ma g e in the De c e mb e r 2004 tsuna mi.

71.

O the r huma n inte rve ntio ns a lso inc re a se the vulne ra b ility o f so c ie tie s to d isa ste r. The g ro wth o f re g io na l me g a c itie s e xp o se s the inhe re nt vulne ra b ility o f und e rg ro und sp a c e s, inc lud ing sub wa ys a nd p a rking lo ts to flo o d s, fire s a nd e a rthq ua ke s.

72.

It is e stima te d tha t e a rly wa rning syste ms ha ve a c o st b e ne fit ra tio o f 10 o r 15 to 1.37 Ja p a n ha s d e mo nstra te d the b e ne fit o f a ve ry we ll e sta b lishe d d isa ste r p re p a re d ne ss syste m. Simila r o b se rva tio ns ha ve a lso b e e n no te d , b ut o n a mo re lo c a lize d sc a le , in the Philip p ine s, Ind ia a nd Ba ng la d e sh. At the sa me time , the ne e d ha s b e c o me a p p a re nt fo r inte g ra te d risk ma na g e me nt a p p ro a c he s whic h sup p o rt d isa ste r ma na g e me nt, a s we ll a s p ro mo te d e ve lo p me nt tha t re d uc e s ra the r tha n inc re a se d isa ste r risks.

Is declining environmental sustainability a necessary consequence of growth? 73.

The re g io n’ s e c o no mie s a re ta king wid e ly d iffe ring g ro wth p a ths, with va rying e nviro nme nta l c o nse q ue nc e s. De linking e c o no mic g ro wth fro m re so urc e use , p o llutio n a nd irre ve rsib le e c o syste m c ha ng e is a c ritic a l re q uire me nt o f e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility. A c lo se r lo o k a t the tre nd s o f CO 2 e missio ns a s c o mp a re d with GDP tre nd s sho ws tha t so me c o untrie s, e .g . C hina a nd Ma la ysia , ha ve ma na g e d to slo w the ra te o f C O 2 e missio ns while the ir e c o no mie s c o ntinue to g ro w. In o the rs c o untrie s, no ta b ly Tha ila nd a nd Ind ia , the g ro wth o f CO 2 is tig htly linke d to GDP g ro wth. Po llutio n c o ntro l a s a ke y d e te rmina nt o f e nviro nme nta l p e rfo rma nc e is a lso fo und to imp ro ve a s inc o me s inc re a se , a s sho wn b y the Enviro nme nta l Pe rfo rma nc e Ind e x.38

Ü Chapte r3

Ec o no mic g ro wth a nd e nviro nme nta l p re ssure c a n b e de -linke d b y p ro mo ting mo re 74. While d isc ussio ns in the p riva te se c to r ha ve fo c use d o n e c o -e ffic ie nc y a t the le ve l o f the e nte rp rise o r firm, e c o -e ffic ie nt g ro wth g re a te r a tte ntio n to e c o no my-wid e o r se c to ra l e c o -e ffic ie nc y, is ne c e ssa ry. Po te ntia l e c o no my-wid e a nd p a tte rns. As e c o no mie s se c to ra l e c o -e ffic ie nc y me a sure s o ffe r a b a sis fo r mo nito ring , o ve r time , o r c o mp a ring b e twe e n c o untrie s, the g ro w, mo re e c o re la tive e nviro nme nta l imp a c ts o r re so urc e use o f e a c h “ unit” o f g ro wth, a nd a re the re fo re e sse ntia l ind ic a to rs o f e ffic ie nt p ro duc tio n the c ha ng ing o r re la tive e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility o f e c o no mic g ro wth p a tte rns. ma y b e o b se rve d, b ut 75. A fe w ind ic a to rs (e ne rg y use , C O 2 a nd SO 2 e missio ns p e r unit o f G DP, fo r e xa mp le ) se e m to ind ic a te tha t g re a te r e c o -e ffic ie nc y a ltho ug h e c o -e ffic ie nc y g a ins a re a c hie va b le in p ro d uc tio n a c tivity, p a rtic ula rly with re sp e c t to p o llutio n c o ntro l o f c o nsump tio n is mo re a t the firm le ve l, the sa me d o e s no t ho ld fo r c o nsump tio n a c tivity. As c o nsump tio n p re ssure s ind ic a te d b y p e r diffic ult to a c hie ve . 17

76.

In c re a se s in c o n su m p tio n a re ne e d e d in the le a st d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s a nd d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s to me e t b a sic ne e d s – c o nsump tio n le ve ls a re e xp e c te d to inc re a se a s e c o no m ie s g ro w fro m the lo w e st inc o m e le ve ls. Ho w e ve r, a m o ng c o untrie s a t the sa me le ve l o f so c io e c o no mic de ve lo pme nt, a s indic a te d b y the Huma n De ve lo p me nt Ind e x ( HDI) , the re a re w id e ly d iffe ring c o nsump tio n-re la te d e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s, a s ind ic a te d b y the e c o lo g ic a l fo o tprint pe r c a pita . Hig h c o nsump tio n le ve ls a re no t a lwa ys syno nymo us with hig h le ve ls o f so c io e c o no mic de ve lo pme nt.

Ec o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint p e r c a p ita (2001)

c a p ita re so urc e use a nd wa ste a nd Ecological footprint per capita vs. Human Development Index p o llutio n e missio ns, fo r e xa mp le , g ro w 10 a s a re sult o f inc re a se d inc o me s, the Unite d Sta te s o f Ame ric a p ro g re ss ma d e o n imp ro ving e c o 9 e ffic ie nc y o f p ro d uc tio n p ro c e sse s is 8 c o mp ro mise d .

Australia

Sweden

7

Denmark 6 New Zealand 5

Germany Russian Federation

Canada France Switzerland United Kingdom Netherlands Japan

4 Republic of Korea

Turkmenistan Malaysia

3 Kazakhstan Mongolia

2

Iran

Chile

Turkey

Uzbekistan Papua New Guinea Thailand Indonesia China Azerbaijan Cambodia Lao PDR. Philippines Pakistan India Armenia Viet Nam Nepal, Bangladesh Sri Lanka, Kyrgyzstan,

1

0 0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

Huma n De ve lo p me nt Ind e x (2001)

So urc e : Ec o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint p e r c a p ita : Da ta p ro vid e d b y the Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk, July 2005; Huma n De ve lo p me nt Ind e x; UNDP, Huma n De ve lo p me nt Re p o rt we b site o nline d a ta b a se , a c c e sse d o n 2 Fe b rua ry 2006 fro m .

How c a n susta ina ble development be achieved in Asia and the Paciic? Ü Chapte r4 Gre e n g ro wth p re se nts a ne w p o lic y fo c us to institutio na lize mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth p a tte rns. Ado p tio n o f g re e ne r g ro wth p a tte rns is mo re urg e nt a nd re le va nt in the c o nte xt o f fa stg ro wing Asia n a nd Pa c ific e c o no mie s tha n a nywhe re e lse in the wo rld. 18

77.

Ra p id e c o no mic g ro wth ha s e na b le d sig nific a nt e c o no mic a nd so c ia l p ro g re ss in the re g io n, b ut the g o a l o f susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt re ma ins e lusive . De ve lo p ing e c o no mic g ro wth p a tte rns whic h d o no t c o mp ro mise e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility is a n urg e nt g lo b a l p rio rity, a nd is mo st re le va nt to the d yna mic Asia n a nd Pa c ific re g io n. Enviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth, o r g re e n g ro wth, wa s e nd o rse d b y g o ve rnme nt d e le g a te s fro m mo re tha n 50 re g io na l c o untrie s in Ma rc h 2005 a s a ne w p o lic y fo c us a ime d a t re so lving the c urre nt c o nflic t b e twe e n e ffo rts to re d uc e p o ve rty a nd e ffo rts to re d uc e e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility – i.e . to b uild syne rg ie s b e twe e n e c o no mic g ro wth a nd e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility.

78.

Gre e n g ro wth is g ro wth in GDP tha t ma inta ins o r re sto re s e nviro nme nta l q ua lity a nd e c o lo g ic a l inte g rity. Gre e n g ro wth d e c o up le s ne g a tive e nviro nme nta l imp a c t fro m e c o no mic g ro wth p ro c e sse s. Gre e n g ro wth is a b o ut a n e vo lutio n to wa rd s a susta ina b le e c o no my in whic h the first p rinc ip le is tha t e c o syste m g o o d s a nd se rvic e s, a nd the re fo re the ir susta ina b le use , a re c ritic a l to lo ng -te rm e c o no mic a nd so c ia l via b ility. It is p re c ise ly b e c a use the e c o no mie s o f d e ve lo p ing a nd le a st d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s must c o ntinue to g ro w to me e t huma n ne e d s, b e c a use the ir c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a re no t ye t fully e ntre nc he d , a nd b e c a use a fo c us o n g re e n g ro wth c a n re d uc e b o th p re se nt a nd future c o sts o f d e ve lo p me nt, tha t it is p e rha p s mo st re le va nt to the se c o untrie s.

79.

Build ing e c o -e ffic ie nt e c o no mie s tha t e xp lic itly fo c us o n c re a ting we a lth, no t mo re wa ste , is the first ste p to g re e n g ro wth – e ffic ie nt re so urc e use a nd wa ste minimiza tio n must b e the first p rio rity o f LDCs a nd e c o no mie s in tra nsitio n while , fo r the fa st-g ro wing d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s a nd d e ve lo p e d c o untrie s, e c o -e ffic ie nt c o nsump tio n will b e a n imp o rta nt wa tc hwo rd in the q ue st fo r g lo b a l susta ina b ility, no t le a st b e c a use the se c o untrie s’ c o nsump tio n p a tte rns imp a c t o n the p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n p a tte rns in o the r c o untrie s. De ve lo p ing infra struc ture to a vo id p o te ntia l hid d e n infra struc ture c o sts a nd to “ ha rd -wire ” e c o -e ffic ie nt c o nsump tio n p a tte rns is a c o nc e rn to a ll c o untrie s. At the sa me time , e nshrining mo re e q uita b le a c c e ss to re so urc e s suc h a s wa te r in p ub lic p o lic y c a n le a d to g re a te r e c o -e ffic ie nc y a ll ro und .

80.

Gre e n g ro wth is a lso a b o ut c a p ita lizing o n syne rg ie s b e twe e n e c o no mic g ro wth a nd e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n. This me a ns a c tive ly p ro mo ting b usine ss o p p o rtunitie s whic h le a d to e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n, me e ting the e ne rg y a nd wa te r ne e d s o f the lo we st inc o me g ro up s using e nviro nme nta lly frie nd ly te c hno lo g ie s, a nd inve sting in na tura l c a p ita l to inc re a se e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity. Ind ig e no us kno wle d g e , tra d itio na l life style s a nd c ultura l va lue s c a n se rve a s a stro ng fo und a tio n fo r a c tio n in the se a re a s.

81.

Pro te c ting e nviro nme nta l re so urc e s in a ma rke t e c o no my in whic h the y a re no t a p p ro p ria te ly va lue d re q uire s ta rg e te d inc e ntive s. The a p p lic a tio n o f e c o no mic instrume nts suc h a s g re e n b ud g e t a nd ta x re fo rm is o ne wa y o f p ro mo ting g re e ne r inve stme nt a nd mo re e c o -e ffic ie nt p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n. Mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le d e c isio n-ma king a nd p ub lic p o lic y re q uire a re a listic va lua tio n o f e c o no mic a nd so c ia l p ro g re ss, inc lud ing a sse ssme nts o f na tura l c a p ita l. Initia tive s suc h a s the d e ve lo p me nt o f g re e n GDP b y se ve ra l re g io na l c o untrie s ho ld muc h p ro mise .

82.

The re a re se ve ra l b a rrie rs to g re e n g ro wth, b ut ma ny p o sitive ste p s hint a t the intrig uing p o ssib ilitie s fo r d e c o up ling e c o no mic g ro wth fro m e nviro nme nta l p re ssure a nd simulta ne o usly imp ro ving huma n we lfa re . Sup p o rt fo r suc h initia tive s must b e institutio na lize d thro ug h p ub lic p o lic y. As e c o no mie s g ro w a nd c ha ng e , the ir a c c o unta b ility fo r the e nviro nme nta l imp a c t o f the ir c o nsump tio n p a tte rns a nd fo r sup p o rting mo re e c o -e ffic ie nt p ro d uc tio n p ro c e sse s in jurisd ic tio ns tha t ha ve c o me to sup p o rt the se life style s sho uld a lso inc re a se . Gre e n g ro wth will re q uire re g io na l a nd inte rna tio na l c o o p e ra tio n, a nd c o untrie s like Ja p a n a nd the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a ha ve ta ke n a c tio n to sup p o rt g re e n g ro wth in the re g io n. China ha s ta ke n se ve ra l b o ld ste p s, whic h p o lic yma ke rs, susta ina b ility p ro p o ne nts, a c a d e mic s a nd o the r inte re ste d o b se rve rs will b e wa tc hing c a re fully, a nd it will b e a b le to sha re the se e xp e rie nc e s in a fe w ye a rs’ time .

19

The Millennium Development Goals Go a l 1. Era d ic a te e xtre me p o ve rty a nd hung e r Go a l 2. Ac hie ve unive rsa l p rima ry e d uc a tio n Go a l 3. Pro mo te g e nd e r e q ua lity a nd e mp o we r wo me n Go a l 4. Re d uc e c hild mo rta lity Go a l 5. Imp ro ve ma te rna l he a lth Go a l 6. Co mb a t HIV/ AIDS, ma la ria a nd o the r d ise a se s

Go a l 7. Ensure e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility Go a l 8. De ve lo p a g lo b a l p a rtne rship fo r d e ve lo p me nt

Ü Chapte r5

20

How is the re gion pe rforming with re gard to its inte rnational commitments to Millennium Development Goal 7? 83.

The Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium De c la ra tio n wa s a d o p te d in Se p te mb e r 2000 b y the la rg e st-e ve r g a the ring o f wo rld le a d e rs. Thro ug h this d e c la ra tio n, g o ve rnme nts a nd the inte rna tio na l c o mmunity c o mmitte d to the p ursuit o f the Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls (MDGs) whic h fo rme d the b a sis fo r the d e ve lo p me nt o f “ the mo st b ro a d ly sup p o rte d , c o mp re he nsive , a nd sp e c ific p o ve rty re d uc tio n ta rg e ts the wo rld ha s e ve r e sta b lishe d .” 39 The se e ig ht d e ve lo p me nt g o a ls a re p rima rily d ire c te d a t c utting wo rld p o ve rty in ha lf b y 2015.

84.

An a g re e d fra me wo rk o f ta rg e ts a nd ind ic a to rs se rve s a s a b a sis fo r mo nito ring p ro g re ss to wa rd s the g o a ls.40 In 2005, the Unite d Na tio ns Wo rld Summit a sse sse d g lo b a l p ro g re ss o n imp le me nting the MDGs.41 Also in 2005, re g io na l ministe rs c o nve ne d in Ja ka rta to a sse ss p ro g re ss o n the full suite o f g o a ls a nd ind ic a to rs, a nd e nd o rse d the Ja ka rta De c la ra tio n o n Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt G o a ls in Asia a nd the Pa c ific , re a ffirming re g io na l c o mmitme nt to the g o a ls.42

85.

Asse ssme nt o f p ro g re ss o n the se ve nth MDG – e nsuring e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility – using the inte rna tio na lly a g re e d fra me wo rk o f ind ic a to rs a nd ta rg e ts sho ws tha t no c o untry ha s a c hie ve d sig nific a nt p ro g re ss to wa rd s this g o a l. Only in the a re a s o f inc re a sing the ra tio o f p ro te c te d a re a s, slo wing o r re ve rsing lo ss o f fo re st c o ve r a nd inc re a sing the p ro p o rtio n o f p o p ula tio n with a c c e ss to imp ro ve d wa te r43 ha s the re b e e n sig nific a nt re g io na l p ro g re ss. The fo rmula tio n o f na tio na l susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt stra te g ie s is a wid e ly a c c e p te d ind ic a to r fo r ta rg e t 9, whic h re la te s to inte g ra ting the p rinc ip le s o f susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt into c o untry p o lic ie s a nd p la ns. As o f 2004, o nly fifte e n c o untrie s ha d fo rmula te d a nd a d o p te d the se imp o rta nt stra te g ie s. Se ve ra l stud ie s re vie w the re a so ns why; p ro mine nt a mo ng the m a re the c o mp le xitie s o f o p e ra tio na lizing we ll-a c c e p te d susta ina b le d e ve lo p me nt p rinc ip le s in a d e ve lo p ing c o untry c o nte xt.

86.

The MDG s hig hlig ht the ine xtric a b le links b e twe e n huma n we ll-b e ing , the rig hts o f ind ivid ua ls to b e ne fit fro m d e ve lo p me nt a nd the imp e ra tive to p ro te c t the e nviro nme nt a s a b a sis fo r huma n d e ve lo p me nt. The Mille nnium

Ec o syste m Asse ssme nt re a sse rte d tha t the sta te o f the na tura l e nviro nme nt wa s a d o mina nt fa c to r in the fig ht a g a inst p o ve rty.44 Enviro nme nt-he a lth-p o ve rty d yna mic s me a n tha t the p o o r usua lly b e a r the he a vie st b urd e n o f e nviro nme nta l d e g ra d a tio n, b e ing the mo st susc e p tib le to c o mmunic a b le d ise a se s (in p a rtic ula r tho se re la te d to p o o r sa nita tio n a nd e nviro nme nta l c ha ng e ), a nd in c o nse q ue nc e the lo ss o f live liho o d s a nd inc o me -e a rning c a p a c ity. The b e ne fits d e rive d b y rura l c o mmunitie s fro m b io d ive rsity re so urc e s a nd the na tura l e nviro nme nt, b o th d ire c tly a nd ind ire c tly, a re sub sta ntia l b ut a re no t a c c o unte d fo r in tra d itio na lly a p p lie d me a sure s o f e c o no mic g ro wth. Hung e r is still c o nc e ntra te d in rura l a re a s, mo stly a ffe c ting tho se who d e p e nd la rg e ly o n the c o nsump tio n a nd sa le o f p ro d uc ts d e rive d fro m na tura l re so urc e s.45 In e ffe c t, in d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s in p a rtic ula r, it is unlike ly tha t a c hie ving MDG1, re la ting to p o ve rty re d uc tio n, c a n truly b e a c hie ve d unle ss MDG7, re la ting to e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility, is a lso a c hie ve d .

Sing a p o re Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Ka za khsta n Uzb e kista n Kyrg yzsta n To ng a Mo ng o lia Turkme nista n Ba ng la d e sh Arme nia Aze rb a ija n Turke y China Philip p ine s Austra lia Ind ia F. S. o f Mic ro ne sia Ne p a l Tha ila nd Na uru Sri La nka Vie t Na m Timo r-Le ste

1990

Va nua tu

2000

So lo mo n Isla nd s 0

20

40

60

Fo re st c o ve r - % o f la nd a re a

80

100

1994

0

10

20

Pro te c te d a re a - % o f to ta l a re a

30

2004

40

Goal 7 Ap ril 2005 fro m .

Pa kista n Ma ld ive s

F. S. o f Mic ro ne sia So lo mo n Isla nd s Va nua tu Ba ng la d e sh Ma rsha ll Isla nd s Kirib a ti DPR Ko re a Sa mo a Sing a p o re Ka za khsta n Vie t Na m Ge o rg ia Re p . o f Ko re a Kyrg yzsta n Pa p ua Ne w Guine a Philip p ine s Turke y Turkme nista n Ind ia Mya nma r Uzb e kista n Aze rb a ija n Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Ind o ne sia Ja p a n Pa kista n Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Arme nia Co o k Isla nd s China Sri La nka La o PDR Austra lia Ne p a l Ta jikista n Tha ila nd Ne w Ze a la nd Niue Ca mb o d ia Ma la ysia Bhuta n To ng a Brune i Da russa la m

Do wnlo a d e d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se o n 20

Ta jikista n

So urc e : UNEP Wo rld Co nse rva tio n Mo nito ring Ce ntre .

Indicator 25. Proportion of land area covered by forest

Afg ha nista n

Indicator 26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area

Gre e n g ro wth is a c ritic a l a p p ro a c h to a c hie ving b o th MDG7 a nd MDG1, whic h re la te s to p o ve rty re d uc tio n. The c urre nt p ursuit o f e c o no mic d e ve lo p me nt fo r p o ve rty re d uc tio n p la c e s the se g o a ls a t c ro ss p urp o se s; g re e n g ro wth a p p ro a c he s se e k to re c o nc ile the m.

mille nniumind ic a to rs.un.o rg / unsd / mi/ mi_g o a ls.a sp >.

88.

Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se o n 20 Ap ril 2005 fro m
Give n the d e b a te a b o ut the a p p lic a b ility o f the a g re e d fra me wo rk o f ind ic a to rs to a ll c o untrie s, the a p p ro a c h o f so me c o untrie s, suc h a s Ca mb o d ia , in d e fining the ir o wn fra me wo rks o f g o a ls a nd ta rg e ts is instruc tive . In o the r c o untrie s, suc h ta rg e ts sho uld b e c a re fully d e fine d to d ire c tly a d d re ss the p re ssure s p la c e d o n e a c h re so urc e , using a c a re ful a sse ssme nt o f the c urre nt situa tio n, the p o lic y a nd re so urc e re q uire me nts fo r me e ting e a c h ta rg e t a nd the sc a ling up o f suc c e ssful a p p ro a c he s.

So urc e : FAO STAT d a ta b a se .Do wnlo a d e d fro m the Unite d

87.

Ta rg e t 9. Inte g ra te the p rinc ip le s o f susta ina b le de ve lo p me nt into c o untry p o lic ie s a nd p ro g ra mme s a nd re ve rse the lo ss o f e nviro nme nta l re so urc e s

21

0

200

400

600

800

1200

1400

1990

Ne p a l

2001

Turkme nista n Ba ng la d e sh Ind ia Ka za khsta n C hina Re p . o f Ko re a Ind o ne sia Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Tha ila nd Philip p ine s Ma la ysia Pa kista n Vie t Na m Sri La nka Kyrg yzsta n Mya nma r Brune i Da russa la m Ta jikista n Sing a p o re Pa p ua Ne w G uine a Ma ld ive s Austra lia Sa mo a So lo mo n Isla nd s Fiji Ne w Ze a la nd Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ja p a n -5000

15000

35000

55000

75000

95000

O DS C o nsump tio n (O DP me tric to ns)

1990 0

5

10

15

2002 20

25

CO 2 p e r c a p ita (me tric to ns)

So lo mo n Isla nd s La o PDR Ba ng la d e sh Ne p a l Va nua tu Kyrg yzsta n Ind ia Uzb e kista n Ind o ne sia Vie t Na m Sa mo a Sri La nka To ng a Mo ng o lia Aze rb a ija n

.

Indicator 28. Consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP metric tons)

1000

Ene rg y sup p ly ( a p p a re nt c o nsump tio n; kg o il e q uiva le nt) p e r $1,000 ( PPP) G DP

Ma rsha ll Isla nd s

22

2002

Philip p ine s G e o rg ia Fiji Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Sing a p o re Ne w Ze a la nd Ma la ysia Re p . o f Ko re a Ka za khsta n Ja p a n Austra lia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Po p ula tio n using so lid fue ls a s a % o f to ta l p o p ula tio n (2003) No te : 2000 va lue s: Arme nia =26, Ca mb o d ia = 95, Turkme nista n = 5

mille nniumind ic a to rs.un.o rg / unsd / mi/ mi_g o a ls.a sp >.

1990

Sri La nka Ba ng la d e sh

fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se o n 1 Ma y 2005 fro m
Philip p ine s

info rma tio n a na lysis c e nte r o f the U.S. De p a rtme nt o f Ene rg y (DO E). Do wnlo a d e d

Ind ia Ja p a n

C e nte r fo r Atmo sp he ric Tra c e G a se s, is the p rima ry g lo b a l-c ha ng e d a ta a nd

Tha ila nd

The C a rb o n Dio xid e Info rma tio n Ana lysis C e nte r, whic h inc lud e s the Wo rld Da ta

Arme nia

unsd/ mi/ mi_g o a ls.a sp>.

Austra lia

Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center(CDIAC), .

C hina Ne w Ze a la nd

No te s:

G e o rg ia

So urc e :

Pa kista n

Mille nnium Indic a to r Da ta b a se o n 1 Ma y 2005 fro m
Vie t Na m

Austra lia Brune i Da russa la m Sing a p o re Pa la u Na uru Ka za khsta n Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Ja p a n Re p . o f Ko re a Turkme nista n Ne w Ze a la nd DPR Ko re a Ma la ysia Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Uzb e kista n Tha ila nd Aze rb a ija n Ma ld ive s Mo ng o lia China Niue Fiji Co o k Isla nd s Ind o ne sia Ind ia To ng a Arme nia Kyrg yzsta n Philip p ine s Sa mo a Vie t Na m G e o rg ia Pa kista n Ta jikista n Sri La nka Pa p ua Ne w G uine a So lo mo n Isla nd s Va nua tu Ba ng la d e sh Kirib a ti Bhuta n La o PDR Mya nma r Ne p a l Afg ha nista n

So urc e : Wo rld He a lth Org a niza tio n, Wo rld He a lth Re po rt. Do wnlo a de d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns

Ma la ysia Ind o ne sia

Indicator 28. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita

Re p . o f Ko re a

Indicator 29. Proportion of population using solid fuels

Ne p a l Sing a p o re

fro m .

Kyrg yzsta n

Do wnlo a d e d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se o n 20 Ap ril 2005

Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n

Wo rld Ba nk in its p ub lic a tio n in p rint a nd CD-ROM “ Wo rld De ve lo p me nt Ind ic a to rs” .

Ta jikista n

Aze rb a ija n

o n 1 Ma y 2005 fro m .

Ka za khsta n

Russia n Fe d e ra tio n

So urc e : Wo rld Ba nk, Wo rld De ve lo p me nt Ind ic a to rs (a nnua l), up d a te d a nnua lly b y the

Turkme nista n

da ta b a se (Na iro b i). Do wnlo a de d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Indic a to r Da ta b a se

Uzb e kista n

So urc e : UNEP Pro d uc tio n a nd Co nsump tio n o f Ozo ne De p le ting Sub sta nc e s 1986-1998 a nd

Ta rg e t 9. Inte g ra te the p rinc ip le s o f susta ina b le de ve lo p me nt into c o untry p o lic ie s a nd p ro g ra mme s a nd re ve rse the lo ss o f e nviro nme nta l re so urc e s

Indicator 27. Energy use (kg oil equiv.) per $1,000 GDP (PPP)

Goal 7

120

Afg ha nista n Ne p a l Ba ng la d e sh Pa kista n C a mb o d ia Fiji La o PDR Mo ng o lia Ta jikista n Kirib a ti Ind ia Kyrg yzsta n Uzb e kista n Vie t Na m Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Bhuta n Philip p ine s Turke y C hina Va nua tu Re p . o f Ko re a Ka za khsta n Mya nma r Ind o ne sia Pa p ua Ne w G uine a Sri La nka Timo r-Le ste Sa mo a G e o rg ia So lo mo n Isla nd s Aze rb a ija n Ja p a n Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Na uru F. S. o f Mic ro ne sia Ma rsha ll Isla nd s Tha ila nd Ma la ysia Brune i Da russa la m Turkme nista n Arme nia Austra lia To ng a Ne w Ze a la nd DPR Ko re a Tuva lu Pa la u Ma ld ive s Sing a p o re

1990 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Slum p o p ula tio n - % o f urb a n p o p ula tio n

70

2000 80

90

100

0

20

40

60

80

Po p ula tio n with a c c c e ss to imp ro ve d sa nita tio n (%)

100

120

c hild info .o rg >. Do wnlo a d e d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se

o n 20 Ap ril 2005 fro m .

Sa nita tio n Co lla b o ra tive Co unc il. Glo b a l Wa te r Sup p ly a nd Sa nita tio n Asse ssme nt,

2000

2000 Re p o rt, G e ne va a nd Ne w Yo rk. Up d a te d d a ta a va ila b le a t
mi_g o a ls.a sp >.

Da ta b a se o n 20 Ap ril 2005 fro m
c hild info .o rg >. Do w nlo a d e d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Ind ic a to r

Sa nita tio n Co lla b o ra tive Co unc il. Glo b a l Wa te r Sup p ly a nd Sa nita tio n Asse ssme nt,

2000 Re p o rt, G e ne va a nd Ne w Yo rk. Up d a te d d a ta a va ila b le a t
1990

So urc e : Wo rld He a lth Org a niza tio n a nd Unite d Na tio ns Child re n’ s Fund . Wa te r Sup p ly a nd

100

Indicator 31. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural

80

Afg ha nista n Ca mb o d ia La o PDR Ne p a l F. S. o f Mic ro ne sia Ind ia So lo mo n Isla nd s Timo r-Le ste Kirib a ti Vie t Na m China Pa p ua Ne w Ba ng la d e sh Ind o ne sia Ta jikista n Pa kista n Aze rb a ija n Uzb e kista n Ma ld ive s DPR Ko re a Mo ng o lia Kyrg yzsta n Turkme nista n Bhuta n Ka za khsta n Mya nma r Philip p ine s Ma rsha ll Isla nd s G e o rg ia Turke y Pa la u Arme nia Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Russia n Fe d e ra tio n Tuva lu Sri La nka To ng a Fiji Tha ila nd Ja p a n Austra lia Sa mo a

Goal 7 Ta rg e t 10. Ha lve , b y 2015, the p ro p o rtio n o f p e o p le witho ut susta ina b le a c c e ss to sa fe drinking wa te r a nd sa nita tio n

Goal 7 Ta rg e t 11. By 2020, to ha ve a c hie ve d a sig nific a nt imp ro ve me nt in the live s o f a t le a st 100 millio n slum dwe lle rs

mi/ mi_g o a ls.a sp >.

60

Ind ic a to r Da ta b a se o n 20 Ap ril 2005 fro m
40

Live s o f 100 Millio n Slum Dwe lle rs. Do wnlo a d e d fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium

20

Po p ula tio n with a c c e ss to imp ro ve d wa te r (%)

So urc e : Wo rld He a lth Org a niza tio n a nd Unite d Na tio ns Child re n’ s Fund . Wa te r Sup p ly a nd

0

o rg / md g >) a nd UN-HABITAT (2003), G uid e to Mo nito ring Ta rg e t 11: Imp ro ving the

2002

1990

So urc e : Unite d Na tio ns HABITAT, Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt G o a ls
Indicator 30. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural Indicator32. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (Using the urban share of slum population as a proxy indicator)

Afg ha nista n Ca mb o d ia Pa p ua Ne w G uine a La o PDR Timo r-Le ste Ta jikista n Va nua tu Mo ng o lia Bhuta n Kirib a ti So lo mo n Isla nd s Turkme nista n Vie t Na m Ba ng la d e sh G e o rg ia Kyrg yzsta n China Aze rb a ija n Ind o ne sia Sri La nka Mya nma r Ma ld ive s Ne p a l Pa la u Philip p ine s Tha ila nd Ma rsha ll Isla nd s Ka za khsta n Ind ia Sa mo a Uzb e kista n Pa kista n Re p ub lic o f Ko re a Arme nia Isla mic Re p . o f Ira n Turke y Tuva lu F. S. o f Mic ro ne sia Ma la ysia Russia n Fe d e ra tio n DPR Ko re a Ja p a n Austra lia Ne w Ze a la nd To ng a

23

What are the key determinants of sustainable development in each subregion? Ü Chapte r6

24

Ce ntra l Asia a nd the Ca uc a sus 89.

Ce ntra l Asia a nd the Ca uc a sus is d ivid e d b y the Ca sp ia n Se a into two d istinc t a re a s. The Ca uc a sus, c o mp rising Arme nia , Aze rb a ija n a nd Ge o rg ia a nd lo c a te d to the we st o f the Ca sp ia n Se a , is mo re stro ng ly c ultura lly a nd e thnic a lly a sso c ia te d with Euro p e . C e ntra l Asia , to the e a st o f the C a sp ia n Se a , is ma d e up o f Ka za khsta n, Kyrg yzsta n, Ta jikista n, Turkme nista n a nd Uzb e kista n. Afte r a p e rio d o f e c o no mic a nd so c ia l turb ule nc e , the se c o untrie s a re a mo ng the fa ste st g ro wing e c o no mie s in the re g io n, b e ne fiting fro m so a ring c o mmo d ity p ric e s, stro ng e xp o rts a nd tra d e with the re viving Russia n Fe d e ra tio n e c o no my. Rising o il p ric e s a nd a c c e le ra ting e xp lo ra tio n a c tivity a re filling the tre a surie s o f o il p ro d uc e rs Aze rb a ija n, Ka za khsta n a nd Turkme nista n.

90.

De sp ite re c e nt se rvic e s se c to r g ro wth, the e c o no mie s o f the se c o untrie s a re still we ig hte d in fa vo ur o f the e xp lo ita tio n o f na tura l re so urc e s, ma inly thro ug h mine ra l e xtra c tio n a nd a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n, with so me ma nufa c turing a nd , in the c a se o f Kyrg yzsta n a nd Ta jikista n, hyd ro -e le c tric p o we r. Ec o no mic a nd p o litic a l tra nsitio ns ha ve le ft g a p s in fina nc ing , in p a rtic ula r fo r infra struc ture , wa te r, e ne rg y a nd so c ia l se rvic e s, whic h ha ve slo we d o r re ve rse d so c io -e c o no mic p ro g re ss. Po ve rty ra te s ha ve b e e n re d uc e d in Ka za khsta n a nd Turkme nista n, b ut in o the r c o untrie s the re ha s b e e n a ma rke d inc re a se in p o ve rty a nd a re d uc tio n in so c ia l se rvic e s a nd so c ia l p ro te c tio n.

91.

In this sub re g io n, the future s o f e ne rg y a nd wa te r re so urc e s a re c ritic a lly inte rlinke d . The Ara l Se a a nd its a sso c ia te d rive r syste ms a re sha re d b y C e ntra l Asia n c o untrie s a nd a re the b a sis o f the e c o no mic a lly a nd c ultura lly sig nific a nt a g ric ultura l a c tivity a nd , c ritic a lly, a so urc e o f hyd ro -e le c tric ity. The la me nta b le situa tio n o f the Ara l se a a nd its o nc e -thriving c o a sta l c o mmunitie s is no w re c o g nize d a s a symb o l o f the e nviro nme nta l, e c o no mic a nd so c ia l c o nse q ue nc e s o f e xc e e d ing e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity. De sp ite hig h a wa re ne ss a nd c o mmitme nt to a c tio n sinc e the e a rly 1990s, the Ara l Se a wa s still shrinking a s a re sult o f e nviro nme nta lly unsusta ina b le a g ric ultura l wa te r use re g ime s te n ye a rs la te r. The g ro wth o f a g ric ulture the re fo re c a me a t the e xp e nse o f the Ara l Se a fishe rie s a nd lo c a l c o mmunitie s. An a mb itio us a nd c o stly p la n b y Ka za khsta n to ra ise the le ve l o f the Ara l Se a ma y re d uc e sa linity le ve ls e no ug h to re sto re the fishing ind ustry. Ka za khsta n’ s La ke Ba lka sh is sho wing sig ns o f suffe ring the sa me fa te a s the Ara l Se a .

92.

One imp o rta nt c ha lle ng e to g re e n g ro wth in this sub re g io n is the limite d inve stme nt c a p a c ity whic h p re ve nts the se c o untrie s fro m imp ro ving the e ffic ie nc y o f the ir e ne rg y a nd wa te r use . The inc re a sing fre q ue nc y o f na tura l d isa ste rs o f a nthro p o g e nic o rig in, sp re a d ing e nviro nme nta l d a ma g e linke d to o il e xp lo ita tio n, still sig nific a nt p o ve rty re d uc tio n ne e d s, g ro wing e nviro nme nta l re me d ia tio n a nd c le a n-up c o sts a nd d e te rio ra ting e nviro nme nta l infra struc ture a nd urb a n e nviro nme nts a ll und e rline the ne e d fo r a c tio n to p ro mo te mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le g ro wth p a tte rns.

93.

Gro wing sta ke ho ld e r a wa re ne ss ho ld s sig nific a nt p ro mise fo r imp ro ving future e nviro nme nta l p ro sp e c ts. This g ro up o f c o untrie s is uniq ue in the re g io n a s sig na to rie s to the Co nve ntio n o n Ac c e ss to Info rma tio n, Pub lic Pa rtic ip a tio n in De c isio n-Ma king a nd Ac c e ss to Justic e in Enviro nme nta l Ma tte rs (Aa rhus Co nve ntio n). The imp le me nta tio n o f the p rinc ip le s p ro mo te d b y this c o nve ntio n p ro vid e s a n o p p o rtunity fo r imp ro ving g o ve rna nc e p ro c e sse s,

e ve n in a re a s b e yo nd e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n. Sub re g io na l c o o p e ra tio n o n e nviro nme nta l issue s is ma inly a d d re sse d thro ug h the fo rums o f the Inte rna tio na l Fund fo r Sa ving the Ara l Se a , a nd its sub sid ia rie s, the Inte rsta te Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt Co mmissio n a nd the Inte rsta te Co o rd ina tio n Wa te r Co mmissio n. The Inte rna tio na l Fund fo r Sa ving the Ara l Se a is c o o rd ina ting the d e ve lo p me nt o f a Re g io na l Enviro nme nta l Ac tio n Pla n fo r Ce ntra l Asia , sup p o rte d b y UNEP, whic h wa s o ffic ia lly la unc he d in Se p te mb e r 2001. The fra me wo rk o f the Sp e c ia l Pro g ra mme fo r the Ec o no mie s o f Ce ntra l Asia , initia te d b y ESCAP a nd ECE, sup p o rts the Ce ntra l Asia n sta te s in d e ve lo p ing sub re g io na l c o o p e ra tio n, c re a ting inc e ntive s fo r e c o no mic d e ve lo p me nt a nd fo r the inte g ra tio n o f the se sta te s into the e c o no mie s o f Euro p e a nd Asia , a nd c o uld p o te ntia lly se rve a s imp o rta nt fo rum fo r c o o p e ra tio n p ro mo ting mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic a c tivity. Clima te c ha ng e , whic h thre a te ns to re d uc e wa te r sup p lie s, ma ke s the se a rc h fo r jo int so lutio ns to wa te r re so urc e s ma na g e me nt mo re urg e nt.

No rth-Ea st Asia 94.

The No rth-Ea st Asia sub re g io n is c o mp rise d o f C hina , the De mo c ra tic Pe o p le ’ s Re p ub lic o f Ko re a , Ja p a n, Mo ng o lia , the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a a nd the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n.46 A la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the la nd a re a is sub je c t to d e se rtific a tio n o r lie s in a rid re g io ns, sub sta ntia lly re d uc ing its e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity. No rth-Ea st Asia n c o untrie s ha ve b e e n suc c e ssful in re ve rsing fo re st lo sse s, inc re a sing the a re a s p ro te c te d fo r b io d ive rsity c o nse rva tio n, imp ro ving a ir q ua lity in se ve ra l c itie s a nd re d uc ing the c o nsump tio n o f o zo ne -d e p le ting sub sta nc e s. Ho we ve r, e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s c o ntinue to g ro w. The ma in so urc e s o f the se p re ssure s a re the p ush fo r a c c e le ra te d e c o no mic g ro wth, hig h a nd rising inc o me s, urb a niza tio n, c ha ng ing life style s a nd re la tive ly hig h e ne rg y inte nsitie s in so me c o untrie s. The e nviro nme nta l situa tio n o f the De mo c ra tic Pe o p le ’ s Re p ub lic o f Ko re a , a s re c e ntly d e sc rib e d b y UNEP,47 sho ws tha t, d e sp ite its limite d e c o no mic a c tivity a nd sub sta ntia l re so urc e b a se , the c o untry still fa c e s c ha lle ng e s c o mmo n to o the r d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s.

95.

The ma in c ha lle ng e to g re e n g ro wth in this sub re g io n lie s in the ra p id g ro wth o f c o nsump tio n whic h ha s fue lle d the d e ma nd fo r e ne rg y, wa te r a nd ra w a nd se mi-p ro c e sse d ma te ria ls, inc lud ing e nviro nme nta lly se nsitive c o mmo d itie s. The d e ma nd fo r ra w ma te ria ls, p a rtic ula rly fro m the Chine se e c o no my, is d riving mine ra l p ro d uc tio n thro ug ho ut the re g io n a s we ll a s the tra d e in re c yc la b le ma te ria l. The e xp a nd ing e ne rg y use o f Ja p a n, the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a a nd China , p a rtic ula rly in the tra nsp o rt se c to r, is a so urc e o f p o llutio n a nd g re e nho use g a s e missio ns whic h a re g lo b a lly imp o rta nt. The e c o no mie s o f the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n a nd Mo ng o lia a re still re la tive ly d e p e nd e nt o n sup p lying e nviro nme nta lly se nsitive c o mmo d itie s suc h a s mine ra ls, fo ssil fue ls a nd luxury fle e c e . Ove rg ra ze d la nd s in Mo ng o lia a re site s o f a c c e le ra te d d e se rtific a tio n p ro c e sse s whic h ha ve c o ntrib ute d to the inc re a sing fre q ue nc y a nd inte nsity o f d ust a nd sa nd sto rms. The mo st se rio us e nviro nme nta l thre a t to No rth-Ea st Asia ’ s ma rine e nviro nme nt a nd c o a sta l e c o no mie s is no w o il sp ills fro m the hig he r vo lume o f ta nke r tra ffic a nd numb e r o f o ffsho re o il rig s. Fo llo wing a d ra ma tic inc re a se in the ma rine fish c a tc h up to a b o ut 2001, the re ha ve b e e n g e ne ra l d e c line s in c a tc h linke d to o ve r-fishing .

96.

So me 48 p e r c e nt o f No rth-Ea st Asia ’ s p o p ula tio n live s in c itie s.48 Urb a n p o p ula tio n g ro wth is c ha ng ing No rth-Ea st Asia n so c ie tie s. Ag ing a nd ina d e q ua te infra struc ture thre a te ns huma n he a lth in ra p id ly urb a nizing Mo ng o lia a nd the De mo c ra tic Pe o p le ’ s Re p ub lic o f Ko re a , a nd rising munic ip a l wa ste a ffe c ts a ll c o untrie s. One o f the fa ste st g ro wing wa ste stre a ms is tha t o f e -wa ste . Ac id ra in p e rsists d e sp ite re c e nt re d uc tio ns in SO 2 e missio ns a nd re d uc e d a mb ie nt c o nc e ntra tio ns in ma ny urb a n c e ntre s. NO 2 e missio ns a ttrib uta b le to fue l c o mb ustio n fo r tra nsp o rta tio n p o se mo re o f a c ha lle ng e a nd the c o nc e ntra tio ns o f this a c id ifying g a s e xc e e d WHO g uid e line thre sho ld s in ma ny c itie s.

Ü Chapte r7

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Ü Chapte r8

97.

La rg e -sc a le urb a niza tio n a nd ind ustria liza tio n ha ve re sulte d in lo c a lize d sho rta g e s o f fre shwa te r re so urc e s in C hina , Ja p a n, Mo ng o lia a nd the Re p ub lic o f Ko re a , e sp e c ia lly in time s o f d ro ug ht. In C hina , g ro und wa te r e xp lo ita tio n ha s lo we re d wa te r ta b le s b y up to d o ze ns o f me tre s in so me a re a s, sinc e the 1960s. Altho ug h the De mo c ra tic Pe o p le ’ s Re p ub lic o f Ko re a is we ll-e nd o we d with wa te r, wa te r p o llutio n ha s p ushe d the issue o f wa te r re so urc e s ma na g e me nt up its d e ve lo p me nt a g e nd a . Lo w le ve ls o f a c c e ss to sa nita tio n a nd hig h ra te s o f urb a niza tio n in Mo ng o lia a nd China , to g e the r with limite d o r d e c lining tre a tme nt o f wa ste wa te r, a d d to the lo a d o f o rg a nic p o lluta nts fro m ind ustry e nte ring a lre a d y stre sse d wa te r c o urse s. The a b ility o f the sub re g io n, a nd o f China a nd Mo ng o lia in p a rtic ula r, to me e t wa te r ne e d s ma y b e furthe r c o mp ro mise d b y the imp a c ts o f c lima te c ha ng e , whic h a re a lre a d y imp a c ting o n lo c a lize d ra infa ll p a tte rns. 49, 50

98.

De sp ite the hig h le ve ls o f e nviro nme nta l p re ssure a nd limite d e nviro nme nta l c a rrying c a p a c ity tha t c ha ra c te rize this sub re g io n, the re is a stro ng justific a tio n fo r ta king a n o p timistic vie w o f No rth-Ea st Asia ’ s future . So me c o untrie s ha ve d isting uishe d the mse lve s b y e sta b lishing inno va tive p o lic ie s to mo ve b e yo nd p o llutio n c o ntro l to wa rd s imp ro ving the e nviro nme nta l susta ina b ility o f p ro d uc tio n a nd c o nsump tio n p a tte rns. Ja p a n, with its la unc h o f the 3R initia tive in Ma rc h 2005, ha s e xte nd e d the p ro mise o f a susta ina b le future to the wo rld . China ha s the hig he st re ne wa b le e ne rg y use in the sub re g io n a nd ha s p la c e d the d e ve lo p me nt o f a “ Re so urc e Sa ving So c ie ty” hig h o n its p o lic y a g e nd a . Sub re g io na l c o o p e ra tio n o n e nviro nme nta l issue s is ma turing , thro ug h sub re g io na l g ro up ing s suc h a s the No rth-Ea st Asia Sub re g io na l Pro g ra mme fo r Enviro nme nta l Co o p e ra tio n, with its c o o p e ra tive wo rk p ro g ra mme a nd c o re fund s. Altho ug h sub re g io na l e nviro nme nta l c o o p e ra tio n is still ve ry muc h c e ntre d a ro und na tura l re so urc e ma na g e me nt a nd p o llutio n c o ntro l, e ffo rts to e xp a nd the c o o p e ra tio n to o the r a re a s, suc h a s e ne rg y se c urity a nd e c o -e ffic ie nc y a re g ro wing . The se c o o p e ra tio n fra me wo rks p re se nt sub sta ntia l sc o p e fo r a c tio n to p ro mo te mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le p a tte rns o f e c o no mic g ro wth.

The Pa c ific 99.

The Pa c ific sub re g io n inc lud e s Austra lia , Ne w Ze a la nd a nd so me o f the wo rld ’ s sma lle st isla nd sta te s a nd te rrito rie s in thre e e thnic a nd b io -g e o g ra p hic g ro up ing s: Me la ne sia , Po lyne sia a nd Mic ro ne sia . In a g lo b a lizing wo rld , Pa c ific sma ll isla nd d e ve lo p ing Sta te s (SIDS) a re fa c ing d e c lining c o mp e titive ne ss, the e ro sio n o f tra d itio na l life style s, a nd a we a ke ning o f c o mmunity-b a se d d e c isio n-ma king p ro c e sse s tha t imp a c t o n the use o f na tura l re so urc e s a nd fo o d se c urity. The va st d ista nc e s b e twe e n p o p ula te d c e ntre s a nd o ute r isla nd s a nd the d isp ro p o rtio na te ly hig h c o st o f p ub lic a d ministra tio n a nd p ro vid ing b a sic se rvic e s a d d to the d e ve lo p me nt c ha lle ng e s in the re g io n. O ve r the p a st d e c a d e , the e c o no mic p e rfo rma nc e o f the Pa c ific SIDS ha s b e e n mixe d , b ut g e ne ra lly p o o r. De sp ite the slo w e c o no mic g ro wth ra te s, the na rro w a nd fra g ile re so urc e b a se me a ns tha t the e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s a sso c ia te d with e c o no mic a c tivity a nd p o p ula tio n g ro wth a re b e c o ming unsusta ina b ly hig h. Ac hie ving g re e n g ro wth in this sub re g io n the re fo re p re se nts uniq ue c ha lle ng e s.

100. The sp e c ia l c a se o f the SIDS wa s re c o g nize d a t the Rio Summit, c o nso lid a te d a t the Ba rb a d o s Co nfe re nc e o n Sma ll Isla nd De ve lo p ing Sta te s in 1994 a nd a t the Sp e c ia l Se ssio n o f the Unite d Na tio ns Ge ne ra l Asse mb ly o n Sma ll Isla nd De ve lo p ing Sta te s in 1999, a nd re a ffirme d a t the Inte rna tio na l Me e ting to Re vie w the Imp le me nta tio n o f the Pro g ra mme o f Ac tio n fo r the Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt o f Sma ll Isla nd De ve lo p ing Sta te s in Po rt Lo uis, Ma uritius in Ja nua ry 2005. The la tte r me e ting a d o p te d the Ma uritius De c la ra tio n a nd Ma uritius Stra te g y fo r the Furthe r Imp le me nta tio n o f the Pro g ra mme o f Ac tio n fo r the Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt o f Sma ll Isla nd De ve lo p ing Sta te s.

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101. Po p ula tio n g ro wth, urb a niza tio n, a nd c o a sta l d e ve lo p me nt a re no w a g ro wing c ha lle ng e thro ug ho ut the re g io n. The Fe d e ra te d Sta te s o f Mic ro ne sia , with sma ll la nd a re a s a nd g e ne ra lly hig he r p o p ula tio n d e nsitie s, is und e r p a rtic ula rly inte nse p re ssure re la te d to la nd use c ha ng e s. Wa ste wa te r, ind ustria l e fflue nt a nd ha za rd o us a nd munic ip a l wa ste s p re se nt inc re a sing c ha lle ng e s to the limite d infra struc ture a nd fina nc e s o f the se c o untrie s. Ina p p ro p ria te sa nita tio n te c hno lo g ie s (suc h a s p it la trine s) thre a te n the fre shwa te r sup p ly. 102. The ma jo r sha re o f the GDP o f the sub re g io n is e a rne d b y a g ric ulture (inc lud ing fishe rie s a nd fo re stry) a nd mining , with so me c o untrie s fo c using o n fina nc ia l se rvic e s. The re ha s b e e n sig nific a nt a g ric ultura l e xp a nsio n in so me c o untrie s, suc h a s the So lo mo n Isla nd s. In g e ne ra l, a g ric ultura l p ra c tic e s tha t re d uc e so il c o ve r, a nd tha t re sult in so il e ro sio n a nd se d ime nta tio n in c o a sta l a re a s, a re mo re o f a p ro b le m tha n inte nsity o f a g ro -c he mic a l use in the SIDS. The sub re g io n ha s inc re a se d the vo lume o f ro und wo o d p ro d uc tio n b y so me 40 p e r c e nt b e twe e n 1992 a nd 2002. This p ro d uc tio n is ma inly b a se d o n fo re st p la nta tio ns in Austra lia a nd Ne w Ze a la nd . The re ha s b e e n sig nific a nt fo re st c o ve r lo ss in c o untrie s suc h a s Sa mo a a nd the Fe d e ra te d Sta te s o f Mic ro ne sia . 103. Sub siste nc e fishing a c tivity is mo ving a wa y fro m tra d itio na l te c hniq ue s a nd inc re a sing ly re lying o n unsusta ina b le fishing p ra c tic e s. Hig h ra te s o f e xp lo ita tio n furthe r thre a te n the susta ina b ility o f the Pa c ific fish sto c k, in p a rtic ula r the c o ra l re e f fishe rie s whic h a re a c ritic a l b a sis fo r sub siste nc e fishe rie s. The Pa c ific sub re g io n inc re a se d its fishe rie s e xp o rts fro m 1991 to 2001 b y so me 34 p e r c e nt in vo lume a nd 56 p e r c e nt in va lue , fro m the p re vio us d e c a d e . The numb e rs o f thre a te ne d sp e c ie s a re ma d e g lo b a lly sig nific a nt in the lig ht o f the hig h numb e r o f e nd e mic sp e c ie s fo und in this sub re g io n. All o f the c o untrie s in the sub re g io n ha ve e xp e rie nc e d a d e c line in ma ng ro ve fo re sts, inc re a sing the isla nd s’ vulne ra b ility to c yc lo ne s a nd sto rm surg e s. 104. Due to the limite d la nd a re a a nd na rro w e c o no mic b a se , na tura l d isa ste rs, p a rtic ula rly tho se re la te d to c lima te c ha ng e , ha ve a d isp ro p o rtio na te ly hig h imp a c t o n the Pa c ific SIDS. Vulne ra b ility to na tura l d isa ste r is inc re a sing a s c yc lo ne s a nd sto rm surg e s b e c o me mo re fre q ue nt a nd a s tra d itio na l life style s, p ra c tic e s a nd ind ig e no us kno wle d g e , o nc e a p p lie d to mitig a te the imp a c t o f d isa ste r a nd to sp e e d re c o ve ry, a re e ro d e d b y so c ia l c ha ng e . The e ffe c ts o f c lima te c ha ng e a re a lre a d y b e ing fe lt. While se a le ve l rise s le a d to sa ltwa te r intrusio n in the fre shwa te r a q uife rs whic h se rve a s the ma in so urc e o f fre shwa te r o n ma ny isla nd s, g ro wing a nthro p o g e nic p re ssure s a nd the la c k o f infra struc ture to d e a l a d e q ua te ly with inc re a se d wa ste wa te r le a d s to the ir furthe r c o nta mina tio n. 105. C o o p e ra tio n a mo ng the Pa c ific SIDS a nd b e twe e n the SIDS a nd the ir la rg e r ne ig hb o urs is fa c ilita te d b y a we ll-o rg a nize d sub re g io na l institutio na l c o o p e ra tio n fra me wo rk tha t ha s fo c use d o n c a p a c ity-b uild ing , the d e ve lo p me nt o f p o lic y a nd p la ns, c o o rd ina ting na tio na l a nd re g io na l a c tio n a nd e nviro nme nta l a sse ssme nt. Sub re g io na l c o o p e ra tio n e ffo rts a re ma nife ste d in the wo rk o f the Pa c ific Isla nd s Fo rum, the Pa c ific Re g io na l Enviro nme nt Pro g ra mme a nd the C o unc il o f Re g io na l O rg a niza tio ns in the Pa c ific . Sig nific a nt d e ve lo p me nts o f the p a st d e c a d e in the re g io n inc lud e the e nd o rse me nt o f the Pa c ific Pla n fo r Stre ng the ning Re g io na l Co o p e ra tio n a nd Inte g ra tio n in Oc to b e r 2005 b y Pa c ific Isla nd s Fo rum le a d e rs a nd the Pa c ific Re g io na l Oc e a n Po lic y, e nd o rse d in Aug ust 2002. Ho we ve r, the g a p b e twe e n sub re g io na l c o mmitme nt a nd c o o rd ina tio n, a nd na tio na l a c tio n o fte n re ma ins wid e , a nd re q uire s g re a te r fo c us o n mo re e ffe c tive a nd re le va nt c a p a c ity-b uild ing , p a rtic ula rly with re sp e c t to e xp a nd ing o p p o rtunitie s fo r imp ro ving huma n we ll-b e ing a nd we lfa re tha t a re a lso lo w in e nviro nme nta l imp a c t.

27

Ü Chapte r9 So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia 106. The sub re g io n o f So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia c o ve rs Afg ha nista n, Ba ng la d e sh, Bhuta n, Ind ia , the Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n, the Ma ld ive s, Ne p a l, Pa kista n, Sri La nka a nd Turke y. Mo st c o untrie s o f the re g io n a re in va rio us sta g e s o f e c o no mic , so c ia l a nd p o litic a l re fo rm, with p o ve rty-re d uc tio n e ffo rts a nd infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt re c e iving sig nific a nt sup p o rt fro m d e ve lo p me nt b a nks. While ma ny o f the se c o untrie s a re still ma inly a g ric ultura l, the re ha s b e e n ra p id g ro wth in ind ustria liza tio n. Ind ia is o ne o f the fa ste st g ro wing la rg e e c o no mie s in the wo rld . Ind ia , Turke y, Ba ng la d e sh, Sri La nka a nd Ne p a l mo re tha n d o ub le d the ir e xp o rts d uring the p e rio d 1990 to 2002. At the sa me time , p o ve rty a nd hung e r still a ffe c t a la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the sub re g io n’ s p o p ula tio ns, a nd c hild re n a nd mo the rs a re p a rtic ula rly a t risk c o mp a re d to o the r p a rts o f the re g io n. 107. In c o ntra st to o the r sub re g io ns, p o p ula tio n g ro wth c o ntinue s una b a te d a nd the sub re g io n’ s to ta l p o p ula tio n is p ro je c te d to swe ll b y so me 130 millio n p e rso ns b e twe e n 2005 a nd 2010. The sub re g io n ma y we ll b e the e p ic e ntre o f the g lo b a l urb a niza tio n p he no me no n. In o nly 10 ye a rs (b e twe e n 2005 a nd 2015), so me 159 millio n p e rso ns will swe ll the ra nks o f urb a n re sid e nts. Dha ka , Ka ra c hi, De lhi a nd Mumb a i a re a mo ng the fa ste st g ro wing c itie s in the wo rld . Me e ting wa ste ma na g e me nt, sa nita tio n, wa te r, tra nsp o rta tio n, e ne rg y a nd ho using ne e d s will re q uire sig nific a nt ne w inve stme nt a nd is ma d e a ll the mo re urg e nt b y the hig h vulne ra b ility o f the se c o untrie s to e nviro nme nta l he a lth thre a ts, a s we ll a s the c ha ng ing c lima te a nd we a the r p a tte rns. 108. De sp ite the ra p id g ro wth o f its c itie s, So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia is the o nly sub re g io n p ro je c te d to re ma in p re d o mina ntly rura l in 2030. With the e xc e p tio n o f Bhuta n, a ll c o untrie s o f the re g io n inc re a se d a g ric ultura l p ro d uc tio n b y 18 to 60 p e r c e nt b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2002. Unsusta ina b le a g ric ultura l p ra c tic e s, wa te r sc a rc ity a nd la nd d e g ra d a tio n a re ma jo r thre a ts to the susta ina b ility o f the rura l se c to r. Pa kista n, Sri La nka a nd Ba ng la d e sh ha ve ste a d ily inte nsifie d the ir use o f a g ro -c he mic a ls; in 2002, the c o nsump tio n o f mine ra l fe rtilize r p e r he c ta re o f a g ric ultura l la nd o f e a c h c o untry wa s sub sta ntia lly mo re tha n the g lo b a l fig ure .51 Ag ric ulture a nd d e fo re sta tio n a re the mo st fre q ue ntly c ite d c a use s o f la nd d e g ra d a tio n, whic h a ffe c ts mo re tha n 50 p e r c e nt o f the la nd a re a o f the sub re g io n a nd is c o nc e ntra te d in Turke y, Ind ia , Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n a nd Sri La nka . 109. Po o r wa te r q ua lity, lo w wa te r a va ila b ility p e r p e rso n, hig h d e p e nd e nc e o n wa te r use fo r a g ric ulture a nd the imp a c ts o f c lima te c ha ng e me a n tha t ma ny o f the se c o untrie s a re a mo ng the mo st vulne ra b le to lo ng te rm wa te r sc a rc ity in the wo rld . Whe re la nd d e g ra d a tio n c o inc id e s with wa te r sc a rc ity, the e ffe c ts o n rura l c o mmunitie s a re d e va sta ting . The multi-ye a r d ro ug ht tha t sta rte d in the la te 1990s ha s d e stro ye d live liho o d s in Afg ha nista n, Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n a nd Pa kista n a nd c a use d sig nific a nt c ro ss-b o rd e r p o p ula tio n d isp la c e me nts. Na tura l fo re sts a re ra p id ly d e c lining in Ind ia a nd Pa kista n, whic h lo st up to o ne third o f the ir na tura l fo re sts d uring 1990 to 2000, while Sri La nka lo st up to 20 p e r c e nt o f its na tura l fo re st, re p re se nting a sig nific a nt lo ss o f na tura l c a p ita l a nd a g lo b a lly sig nific a nt lo ss o f b io d ive rsity. To ta l fo re st c o ve r lo ss ha s, ho we ve r, b e e n slo we d b y the ra p id e xp a nsio n o f p la nta tio n fo re sts in mo st c o untrie s e xc e p t Sri La nka a nd the Ma ld ive s. Bio d ive rsity lo sse s a re c o ntinuing d ue to inc re a sing p o p ula tio n p re ssure s, c ha ng ing ha b ita ts a nd ille g a l a c tivity. 110. This sub re g io n ha s o ne o f the mo st we ll-d e ve lo p e d e nviro nme nta l c o o p e ra tio n p ro g ra mme s in the re g io n a nd e a c h c o untry ha s a sub sta ntia l le g isla tive b a sis fo r e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n. The So uth-Asia C o -o p e ra tive Enviro nme nt Pro g ra mme se rve s a s the ma in fo rum fo r sub re g io na l e nviro nme nta l c o o p e ra tio n. This fo rum ha s b e e n re sp o nsib le fo r the d e ve lo p me nt o f the So uth a nd So uth-We st Asia n Se a s Ac tio n Pla n, und e r whic h a ma rine p o llutio n c o nting e nc y p la n, a nd the Ma lé De c la ra tio n o n Co ntro l a nd Pre ve ntio n o f Air Po llutio n a nd its Like ly Tra nsb o unda ry Effe c ts fo r So uth Asia wa s issue d . In the Isla ma b a d De c la ra tio n o f Ja nua ry 2004, me mb e r sta te s o f

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the So uth Asia n Asso c ia tio n fo r Re g io na l Co o p e ra tio n (SAARC) stre ss the ir c o mmitme nt to the SAARC Enviro nme nt Ac tio n Pla n a nd ma nd a te the e xp e d ite d c o mmissio ning o f the wo rk o n d ra fting a Re g io na l Enviro nme nt Tre a ty. Se ve ra l b ila te ra l a g re e me nts a d d re ss tra nsb o und a ry e nviro nme nta l issue s, ma inly re la ting to wa te r re so urc e s. 111. Fro m the g re e n g ro wth p e rsp e c tive , a c tio n to c re a te e c o no mic inc e ntive s fo r p ro te c tio n o f the na tura l re so urc e b a se to e nsure the c o ntinue d flo w o f e nviro nme nta l g o o d s a nd se rvic e s is p e rha p s the mo st urg e nt in this sub re g io n. At the sa me time , hig h p o p ula tio n g ro wth ra te s me a n tha t a g re a te r fo c us o n re d uc ing future e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s, inc lud ing the d e ma nd fo r e ne rg y a nd wa te r, thro ug h urb a n p la nning a nd infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt tha t e xp lic itly se e ks to ma ximise e c o -e ffic ie nc y a nd huma n we lfa re , is ne e d e d . The c urre nt und e rd e ve lo p e d sta te o f the sub re g io n’ s infra struc ture c a n b e turne d into a n o p p o rtunity to c re a te ne w, mo re e nviro nme nta lly susta ina b le e c o no mic g ro wth p a tte rns.

So uth-Ea st Asia

Ü Chapte r10

112. The So uth-Ea st Asia n sub re g io n c o mp rise s the te n me mb e r c o untrie s o f the Asso c ia tio n o f So uthe a st Asia n Na tio ns (ASEAN) to g e the r with the ne wly ind e p e nd e nt c o untry o f Timo r-Le ste . The se a re no w so me o f the mo st d yna mic e c o no mie s in the re g io n, d e sp ite the imp a c t o f the 1997 fina nc ia l c risis. Ke y so urc e s o f e nviro nme nta l p re ssure inc lud e a re la tive ly hig h le ve l o f ind ustria l a c tivity in na tura l-re so urc e -b a se d ind ustrie s a nd rising c o nsump tio n. The e xp a nd ing to urism se c to r a nd re la te d infra struc ture a re a lso a d riving fo rc e in c ha ng ing la nd use , p a rtic ula rly in c o a sta l a re a s. Ac c e ss to imp ro ve d wa te r a nd sa nita tio n, a s we ll a s the issue s o f tra nsp o rta tio n a nd re la te d a ir-p o llutio n a nd o f so lid wa ste ma na g e me nt, a re a ll urg e nt c ha lle ng e s, while hung e r still a ffe c ts a sig nific a nt p ro p o rtio n o f So uth-Ea st Asia n p o p ula tio ns. 113. So uth-Ea st Asia ’ s so c ie tie s a re c ha ng ing a s d yna mic a lly a s the ir e c o no mie s. The to ta l urb a n p o p ula tio n is e xp e c te d to g ro w b y mo re tha n 1/ 3 in the ne xt 10 ye a rs. So uth-Ea st Asia ha s e xp e rie nc e d the fa ste st g ro wth ra te s in p e r c a p ita e ne rg y use in the re g io n. The g ro wing e ne rg y d e ma nd a nd the re la tive ly ric h na tura l re so urc e b a se in so me c o untrie s ha ve le d to a sig nific a nt tra d e in e ne rg y a nd re la te d infra struc ture d e ve lo p me nt. The se d e ve lo p me nts imp ro ve the e ne rg y sup p ly b ut, witho ut c a re ful p la nning a nd c o nsulta tio n, c a n a lso thre a te n rura l c o mmunity he a lth a nd live liho o d s. Ra p id ly e xp a nd ing e ne rg y use in a ll se c to rs is re sp o nsib le fo r rising p o llutio n lo a d s a nd the va ria b le suc c e sse s in re d uc ing a ir p o llutio n in urb a n c e ntre s. 114. The va lue o f e xp o rts o f a g ric ultura l p ro d uc ts fro m So uth-Ea st Asia ha s g ro wn b y mo re tha n 50 p e r c e nt o ve r the p a st d e c a d e , a g ro wth la rg e ly a c hie ve d b y ma ssive a g ric ultura l inte nsific a tio n. All o f the c o untrie s in the sub re g io n a re e xp e rie nc ing la nd d e g ra d a tio n fro m imp ro p e r a g ro -c he mic a l use , whic h a lso a ffe c ts fa rme r he a lth a nd wa te r q ua lity. Pe rio d ic tra nsb o und a ry ha ze e ve nts, in p a rt re la te d to o il p a lm p la nting a c tivity still c o ntinue , d e sp ite the e sta b lishme nt o f the Re g io na l Ha ze Ac tio n Pla n a nd the ASEAN’ s Ha no i Pla n o f Ac tio n whic h c a ll fo r a full imp le me nta tio n o f the 1995 ASEAN Co o p e ra tio n Pla n o n Tra nsb o unda ry Po llutio n. 115. Ille g a l fo re st re so urc e e xp lo ita tio n, inc lud ing ille g a l lo g g ing , e nc ro a c hme nt fo r d e ve lo p me nt, a nd c o nve rsio n to a g ric ulture , c o ntinue s to b e a p ro b le m. Tha ila nd , the Philip p ine s, Ind o ne sia , Mya nma r a nd Ma la ysia lo st sig nific a nt p ro p o rtio ns o f the ir na tura l fo re st a re a b e twe e n 1990 a nd 2000. Da ta re c e ntly re le a se d b y the FAO sho ws tha t na tura l fo re st lo sse s ha ve a c c e le ra te d d ra ma tic a lly, with se ve re na tura l fo re st lo ss in Vie t Na m a nd Ca mb o d ia d uring the ye a rs 2000 to 2005. The sub re g io n is a lso re c o g nize d a s a ho tsp o t fo r ille g a l tra d e in b io d ive rsity. Afte r No rth-Ea st Asia , the sub re g io n is o ne o f the mo st imp o rta nt p ro d uc e rs o f a q ua c ulture p ro d uc ts in the wo rld , the p ro d uc tio n o f whic h is a sso c ia te d with la nd d e g ra d a tio n, so il a nd wa te r c o nta mina tio n fro m a ntib io tic s a nd lo ss

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o f ma ng ro ve fo re sts. So uth-Ea st Asia is a lso the se c o nd b ig g e st e xp o rte r a nd c o nsume r o f fish a nd fish p ro d uc ts in the re g io n. Ove rfishing ha s le d to a re d uc tio n in fish sto c ks in ma ny wa te rs. Ma ng ro ve fo re sts a nd c o ra l re e fs, whic h a re e sse ntia l b re e d ing g ro und s fo r ma rine fish sto c ks, ha ve suffe re d g lo b a lly sig nific a nt lo sse s. 116. The d istinc tio n b e twe e n na tura l a nd huma n-ma d e d isa ste rs is b e c o ming inc re a sing ly d iffic ult to ma ke in So uthEa st Asia , a s the lo ss o f p ro te c tive na tura l fe a ture s inc re a se s vulne ra b ility to na tura l d isa ste r (a s sho wn b y the De c e mb e r 2004 tsuna mi). 117. Tra nsb o und a ry e nviro nme nta l issue s suc h a s ha ze p o llutio n, the d e ve lo p me nt o f the Me ko ng Rive r b a sin, c ro ssb o rd e r d e fo re sta tio n, wild life tra d e a nd the e xp lo ita tio n o f c o a sta l a nd ma rine re so urc e s re q uire jo int a c tio n b y c o untrie s. ASEAN’ s fra me wo rks fo r e nviro nme nta l c o o p e ra tio n fulfill this func tio n a nd e njo y a hig h d e g re e o f p o litic a l sup p o rt a t the sub re g io na l le ve l a nd ha ve re sulte d in so me p o sitive initia tive s, inc lud ing se ve ra l le g a l instrume nts a nd p o lic y sta te me nts. 118. Eve n tho ug h the c ha lle ng e s a re va st, the re is a so lid b a sis fo r a c tio n fo r p ro mo ting g re e n g ro wth. In o rd e r to imp ro ve the lo ng -te rm o utlo o k fo r So uth-Ea st Asia , mo re e ffe c tive a c tio n a t the na tio na l le ve l to a d d re ss the ro o t c a use s o f e nviro nme nta l p re ssure s a nd to c ha ng e the p a tte rns o f g ro wth tha t a re b e c o ming inc re a sing ly e nviro nme nta lly unsusta ina b le , p a rtic ula rly w ith re sp e c t to the e nviro nme nta l imp a c t o f ra p id ly rising c o nsump tio n, will b e ne c e ssa ry to imp ro ve the lo ng -te rm o utlo o k fo r So uth-Ea st Asia .

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End Notes 1.

ESCAP e stima te a s a t 2004.

2.

“ Imp ro ve d sa nita tio n” re fe rs to fa c ilitie s tha t hyg ie nic a lly se p a ra te huma n e xc re ta fro m huma n, a nima l a nd inse c t c o nta c t. Fa c ilitie s suc h a s se we rs o r se p tic ta nks, p o o r-flush la trine s a nd simp le p it o r ve ntila te d imp ro ve d p it la trine s a re a ssume d to b e a d e q ua te , p ro vid e d tha t the y a re no t p ub lic . “ Imp ro ve d wa te r” re fe rs to p ip e d wa te r, p ub lic ta p , b o re ho le o r p ump , p ro te c te d we ll, p ro te c te d sp ring o r ra inwa te r. Imp ro ve d wa te r so urc e s d o no t inc lud e ve nd o r-p ro vid e d wa te r, b o ttle d wa te r, ta nke r truc ks o r unp ro te c te d we lls a nd sp ring s. Unite d Na tio ns De ve lo p me nt Gro up (2003). Indic a to rs fo r Mo nito ring the Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns De ve lo p me nt Gro up ).

3.

ADB (2005). Asia Wa te r Wa tc h 2015 (Ma nila , ADB).

4.

Ba se d o n a surve y c o ve ring 10,265 rura l ho use ho ld s fro m 118 villa g e s, in d ry d e se rt zo ne s a nd mo unta ino us e c o syste ms. Pa rikh, Jyo ti, Kirit Pa rkh, Vija y La xmi, Shya Ka rma rka r a nd Pra mo d Da b ra se (2003). Ec o no mic Ana lysis o f Rura l Po llutio n a nd He a lth Imp a c ts in No rthe rn Ind ia : A Multi-institutio na l p ro je c t, in Jyo ti K. Pa rikh a nd T.L. Ra g hu Ra m, e d s., Re c o nc iling Enviro nme nt a nd Ec o no mic s: Exe c utive Summa rie s o f EERC Pro je c ts, (Mumb a i, Ind ira Ga nd hi Institute o f De ve lo p me nt Re se a rc h).

5.

Ec o lo g ic a l fo o tp rinting a sse sse s re so urc e s c o nsume d a nd wa ste g e ne ra te d b y a g ive n p o p ula tio n a nd c a lc ula te s the b io lo g ic a lly p ro d uc tive a re a ne e d e d to p ro d uc e the re so urc e s c o nsume d a nd a b so rb the wa ste s g e ne ra te d (te rme d the “ e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint” ). Bring ing the e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint a nd the b io p ro d uc tive a re a to the sa me unit o f me a sure me nt a llo ws d ire c t c o mp a riso n o f the d e ma nd fo r e c o lo g ic a l se rvic e s a nd the ir a va ila b ility, a nd so , the e stima tio n o f e c o lo g ic a l d e fic its a nd re se rve s o r surp luse s. Fo r mo re info rma tio n se e the Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk we b site a t , a nd Cha mb e rs, N., C . Simmo ns a nd M. Wa c ke rna g e l (2000). Sha ring Na ture ’ s Inte re st: Ec o lo g ic a l Fo o tp rints a s a n Ind ic a to r o f Susta ina b ility (Lo nd o n a nd Ste rling , Ea rthsc a n Pub lic a tio ns Ltd .).

6.

Ba se d o n da ta fro m FAOSTAT o nline da ta b a se , a va ila b le a t , the Glo b a l Fo o tprint Ne two rk we b site a nd Shiklo ma no v, I.A, (2004), “ Asse ssme nt o f wa te r re so urc e s in Asia in the 21st Ce ntury” (unpub lishe d re po rt).

7.

Ba se d o n a na lysis o f d a ta fo r 21 Asia -Pa c ific c o untrie s (d a ta fo r 2001), the G lo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk c o nc lud e d tha t the e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rint o f the re g io n wa s 1.7 time s a s la rg e a s its o wn b io c a p a c ity. Se e Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk (2005). Asia -Pa c ific 2005: The Ec o lo g ic a l Fo o tp rint a nd Na tura l We a lth (Gla nd , Glo b a l Fo o tp rint Ne two rk), a c c e sse d o n 31 Ma rc h fro m .

8.

Ma ny c itie s ha ve re p o rte d imp ro ve me nts in a ir q ua lity in the la st te n ye a rs, p a rtic ula rly in re d uc ing SO 2 c o nc e ntra tio ns, b ut le ve ls o f a ir p o llutio n re g ula rly e xc e e d WHO a nd na tio na l sta nd a rd s. Sma ll p a rtic ula te s (PM10) a re the p o lluta nts o f ma in c o nc e rn, b ut ve hic ula r NO 2 e missio ns a re a lso c a use fo r c o nc e rn. In o ve r 50 p e r c e nt o f re p o rting c itie s, a ve ra g e a nnua l c o nc e ntra tio ns o f susp e nd e d p a rtic ula te s a nd NO 2 ha ve e xc e e d e d WHO sta nd a rd limits. Ba se d o n d a ta fo r 15 c itie s (susp e nd e d p a rtic ula te ma tte r), 19 a nd 17 c itie s fo r NO 2 a nd SO 2 re sp e c tive ly. Da ta fo r 2000-2003 a s p ro vid e d in Huize ng a , C, G. Ha q , D. Sc hwe la , H. Fa b ia n a nd M. Aje ro (2004). Air Qua lity Ma na g e me nt Ca p a b ility in Asia n Citie s (Cle a n Air Initia tive fo r Asia n Citie s Se c re ta ria t a nd Sto c kho lm Enviro nme nt Institute ).

9.

Ba se d o n the wa te r e xp lo ita tio n ind e x (WEI), i.e . the ra tio o f the me a n a nnua l to ta l d e ma nd fo r fre shwa te r to the lo ng te rm a ve ra g e o f a nnua l re ne wa b le fre shwa te r re so urc e s. WEI va lue s g re a te r tha n o r e q ua l to 20 a re sa id to ind ic a te situa tio ns o f wa te r stre ss in whic h wa te r withd ra wa ls le a ve e c o syste ms with d iminishe d c a p a c ity to susta in the mse lve s a nd in whic h c o untrie s e xp e rie nc e inte rmitte nt o r c hro nic wa te r sc a rc ity. WEI va lue s a b o ve 40 ind ic a te hig h stre ss le ve ls. Se e the Euro p e a n Enviro nme nt Ag e nc y (2003). “ Ind ic a to r Fa c t She e t (WQ01c ) Wa te r Exp lo ita tio n Ind e x,” Ve rsio n 01.10.03, a c c e sse d o n 10 No ve mb e r 2005 fro m .

10.

Wa te r Re so urc e s a nd Hyd ro p o we r Pla nning a nd De sig n Ge ne ra l Institute , Ministry o f Wa te r Re so urc e s, China (2004). “ On China ’ s Ac tio n, Pro b le m a nd Co unte rme a sure in Effic ie nt Wa te r Use ”, p re se nta tio n a t the ESCAP Ad -Ho c Exp e rt Gro up Me e ting o n Wa te r Use Effic ie nc y Pla nning , Ba ng ko k, Tha ila nd , 26-28 Oc to b e r 2004.

11.

Ag e nc e Fra nc e Pre sse Ne ws Se rvic e , Be ijing (2005). “ Bub b ling Ec o no my Me a ns Wa te r Wo e s in C hina ” , Ya ho o Ne ws we b site , Frid a y 30 De c e mb e r 12:56 AM ET, a c c e sse d o n 17 Ja nua ry 2006 fro m .

31

32

12.

Ind o ma la ya re fe rs to the b io g e o g a p hic re g io n e nc o mp a ssing the So uth-Asia n sub c o ntine nt a nd So uth-Ea st Asia , inc lud ing lo wla nd Ta iwa n Pro vinc e o f China a nd Ja p a n’ s Ryukyu Isla nd s.

13.

Re id , W. (2004). “ Sp e c ie s, e c o syste ms, a nd huma n we ll-b e ing : Le sso ns fro m the Mille nnium Ec o syste m Asse ssme nt” , p a p e r p re se nte d a t the Third Wo rld Co nse rva tio n Co ng re ss, Ba ng ko k, 2004.

14.

IUCN (2004). A Glo b a l Sp e c ie s Asse ssme nt (Gla nd , Switze rla nd , a nd Ca mb rid g e , Unite d King d o m, Wo rld Co nse rva tio n Unio n).

15.

In 1992 the IUCN Wo rld Pa rks Co ng re ss se t a ta rg e t fo r p ro te c te d a re a c o ve ra g e a t 10 p e r c e nt o f the wo rld ’ s la nd a re a . This ta rg e t wa s la te r e nd o rse d b y the Wo rld Summit o n Susta ina b le De ve lo p me nt in 2002.

16.

ESCAP e stima te b a se d o n d a ta fro m FAO (2003). The Sta te o f the Wo rld’ s Fo re sts 2003 (Ro me , FAO).

17.

ESCAP e stima te b a se d o n d a ta fro m Sp a ld ing , M.D, C. Ra vilio us a nd E.P. G re e n (2001). Wo rld Atla s o f Co ra l Re e fs (Be rke le y, Unive rsity o f Ca lifo rnia Pre ss).

18.

The ind ustria l sub se c to rs whic h a re c la sse d a s hig hly to xic ity-inte nsive inc lud e the c he mic a l p ro d uc tio n a nd synthe tic re sins a nd p la stic s ind ustria l sub se c to rs. The line a r a c ute to xic ity ind e x p ro d uc e d b y the Wo rld Ba nk ind ic a te s re la tive a c ute to xic ity (ind ic a ting a c ute imp a c t o n huma n he a lth, ra the r tha n to xic ity o f a c hro nic o r lo ng -te rm na ture ) o f se le c te d ind ustria l se c to rs, b a se d o n Unite d Sta te s o f Ame ric a . c o e ffic ie nts o f p o llutio n inte nsity (p o llutio n p ro d uc e d p e r unit p ro d uc t) a nd we ig hte d b y a c ute to xic ity fo r o ve r thirty ind ustrie s in the la te 1980s. Se e Bra nd o n. C. a nd Ra me sh Ra ma nkutty (1993). To wa rd a n Enviro nme nta l Stra te g y fo r Asia , Wo rld Ba nk Disc ussio n Pa p e rs No . 224. Cha p te r 4 p p . 65-73 (Wa shing to n, Wo rld Ba nk), a c c e sse d o n 18 No ve mb e r 2005 fro m .

19.

Re fe re nc e is ma d e to a n FAO ind e x b a se d o n na tio na l a ve ra g e p ro d uc e r p ric e s (1989-1991=100) a s we ig hts fo r c o mp uta tio n o f a g g re g a te p ro d uc tio n o f e a c h c o untry o r a re a .

20.

FAO (2004). Se le c te d Ind ic a to rs o f Fo o d a nd Ag ric ulture De ve lo p me nt in Asia -Pa c ific Re g io n: 1993-2003 (Ba ng ko k, FAO Re g io na l Offic e fo r Asia a nd the Pa c ific ). FAO’ s d e finitio n o f the Asia a nd the Pa c ific re g io n d o e s no t inc lud e Arme nia , Aze rb a ija n, Brune i Da russa la m, Ge o rg ia , the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n, Sing a p o re a nd Turke y.

21.

Euro mo nito r (1997 a nd 2002). Co nsume r Asia 1997 a nd Co nsume r Asia 2002 (Lo nd o n, Euro mo nito r Plc .).

22.

ESCAP (2004). End -use Ene rg y Effic ie nc y a nd Pro mo tio n o f a Susta ina b le Ene rg y Future , Ene rg y Re so urc e s De ve lo p me nt Se rie s, No .39, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.II.F.11 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns).

23.

FAO’ s d e finitio n o f the Asia a nd the Pa c ific re g io n d o e s no t inc lud e Arme nia , Aze rb a ija n, Brune i Da russa la m, Ge o rg ia , the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n, Sing a p o re a nd Turke y.

24.

Exc lud ing the Isla mic Re p ub lic o f Ira n, the Russia n Fe d e ra tio n a nd o the r Co mmo nwe a lth o f Ind e p e nd e nt Sta te s c o untrie s. Ba se d o n d a ta fro m the Inte rna tio na l Iro n a nd Ste e l Institute (2005). Ste e l Sta tistic a l Ye a rb o o k 2005 (Brusse ls, Inte rna tio na l Iro n a nd Ste e l Institute ).

25.

Inte rna tio na l Iro n a nd Ste e l Institute (2005), ib id .

26.

Sa g hir, J. (2005). “ The g lo b a l inve stme nt c ha lle ng e . Fina nc ing the g ro wth o f re ne wa b le e ne rg y in d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s” in Re ne wa b le Ene rg y Wo rld, July-Aug ust 2005.

27.

WHO Me d ia C e ntre we b site “ Ind o o r a ir p o llutio n a nd he a lth” a c c e sse d o n 15 Fe b rua ry 2005 fro m .

28.

Ba se d o n Inte rna tio na l Ene rg y Ag e nc y d a ta .

29.

Ba se d o n d a ta fro m FAO (2004), o p .c it.

30.

Se e Ho e kstra , A.Y, a nd P.Q. Hung (2002).Virtua l Wa te r Tra d e : A q ua ntific a tio n o f virtua l wa te r flo ws b e twe e n na tio ns in re la tio n to inte rna tio na l c ro p tra de , IHE De lft Va lue o f Wa te r Re se a rc h Re p o rt Se rie s, No . 11, Se p te mb e r 2002, (De lft, IHE De lft).

31.

Fo r the mo st re c e nt g lo b a l a sse ssme nt o n c lima te c ha ng e , se e Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n Clima te Cha ng e (2001), Clima te Cha ng e 2001: Synthe sis Re p o rt, An a sse ssme nt o f the Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n Clima te Cha ng e (Unite d King d o m, IPCC).

32.

As id e ntifie d b y the Wo rking G ro up II o f the Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n C lima te C ha ng e . IPC C (2001). Te c hnic a l Summa ry, Clima te Cha ng e 2001: Imp a c ts, Ada p ta tio n a nd Vulne ra b ility, Re p o rt o f Wo rking G ro up II o f the Inte rg o ve rnme nta l Pa ne l o n Clima te Cha ng e (Ge ne va , IPCC).

33.

Ba se d o n Inte rna tio na l Ene rg y Ag e nc y d a ta .

34.

EM-DAT: The OFDA/ CRED Inte rna tio na l Disa ste r Da ta b a se , Unive rsité Ca tho liq ue d e Lo uva in, Brusse ls, Be lg ium. Do wnlo a d e d o n 30 June 2005 fro m , Da ta ve rsio n: v05.06.

35.

Asia n Disa ste r Pre p a re d ne ss Ce ntre (und a te d ). “ Disa ste rs in Asia a nd Pa c ific : a n Ove rvie w”, a c c e sse d o n 21 Ma rc h 2006 fro m .

36.

Numb e r o f d e a ths -176,630 a nd 49,778 liste d a s missing (a to ta l o f 226,408). Da ta re c e ive d fro m the se c re ta ria t o f the OFDA/ CRED Inte rna tio na l Disa ste r Da ta b a se , Unive rsité Ca tho liq ue d e Lo uva in, Brusse ls, Be lg ium in July 2005.

37.

Unite d Na tio ns Unive rsity (2006). “ The hid d e n vulne ra b ility o f me g a c itie s to na tura l d isa ste rs – Und e rg ro und sp a c e s” Unite d Na tio ns Unive rsity Ne ws Re le a se , 12 Ja nua ry 2005, a c c e sse d o n 22 Ja nua ry 2006 fro m .

38.

Se e the we b site o f the Ya le Ce nte r fo r Enviro nme nta l La w a nd Po lic y, “ Enviro nme nta l Pe rfo rma nc e Me a suring Pro je c t,” a c c e sse d o n 11 Fe b rua ry 2006 fro m .

39.

Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium Pro je c t (2005). Inve sting in De ve lo p me nt: A Pra c tic a l Pla n to Ac hie ve the Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt G o a ls (Ne w Yo rk: Ea rthsc a n Ltd .), a c c e sse d o n 19 De c e mb e r 2005 fro m .

40.

A fra me wo rk o f 8 g o a ls, 18 ta rg e ts a nd 48 ind ic a to rs to me a sure p ro g re ss to wa rd s the Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt g o a ls wa s a d o p te d b y a c o nse nsus o f e xp e rts fro m the Unite d Na tio ns Se c re ta ria t a nd IMF, OECD a nd the Wo rld Ba nk. Se e “ Ro a d Ma p to wa rd s the Imp le me nta tio n o f the Unite d Na tio ns Mille nnium De c la ra tio n” , re p o rt to the Unite d Na tio ns G e ne ra l Asse mb ly (A/ 56/ 326), a c c e sse d o n 15 Fe b rua ry 2006 fro m .

41.

Unite d Na tio ns (2005). The Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls Re p o rt 2005 (Unite d Na tio ns, Ne w Yo rk), a c c e sse d o n 15 Fe b rua ry 2005 fro m .

42.

Re g io na l Ministe ria l Me e ting o n Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls in Asia a nd the Pa c ific : The Wa y Fo rwa rd 2015, 3-5 Aug ust, 2005 Ja ka rta , Ind o ne sia .

43.

“ Imp ro ve d wa te r” re fe rs to p ip e d wa te r, p ub lic ta p , b o re ho le o r p ump , p ro te c te d we ll, p ro te c te d sp ring o r ra inwa te r. Imp ro ve d wa te r so urc e s d o no t inc lud e ve nd o r-p ro vid e d wa te rs, b o ttle d wa te r, ta nke r truc ks o r unp ro te c te d we lls a nd sp ring s. Unite d Na tio ns De ve lo p me nt Gro up (2003), o p . c it.

44.

The Mille nnium Ec o syste m Asse ssme nt is a n inte rna tio na l initia tive sup p o rte d b y the Unite d Na tio ns, d e sig ne d to me e t the ne e d s o f d e c isio n ma ke rs a nd the p ub lic fo r sc ie ntific info rma tio n c o nc e rning the c o nse q ue nc e s o f e c o syste ms c ha ng e fo r huma n we ll b e ing a nd re sp o nse o p tio ns. The a sse ssme nt wa s c o nd uc te d fro m 2001 to 2005 a nd its re p e a t is a ntic ip a te d . Se e a c c e sse d o n 18 Fe b rua ry 2005.

45.

FAO (2004). Sta te o f Fo o d Inse c urity in the Wo rld 2004: Mo nito ring p ro g re ss to wa rds the Wo rld Fo o d Summit a nd the Mille nnium De ve lo p me nt Go a ls (Ro me , FAO).

46.

ESCAP is the se c re ta ria t fo r the No rth-Ea st Asia Sub re g io na l Pro g ra mme o n Enviro nme nta l Co o p e ra tio n, a n inte rg o ve rnme nta l o rg a niza tio n o f whic h the se c o untrie s a re me mb e rs.

47.

UNEP (2003). DPR Ko re a : Sta te o f the Enviro nme nt 2003 (Pa thumtha ni, UNEP), a c c e sse d o n 15 Ja nua ry 2005 fro m .

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Ba se d o n Unite d Na tio ns Po p ula tio n Divisio n d a ta . Unite d Na tio ns De p a rtme nt o f Ec o no mic a nd So c ia l Affa irs Po p ula tio n Divisio n (2004). Wo rld Urb a niza tio n Pro sp e c ts: The 2003 Re visio n, Unite d Na tio ns p ub lic a tio n Sa le s No . 04.XIII.6 (Ne w Yo rk, Unite d Na tio ns).

33

34

49.

Da he , Q. (2005). “ Clima te c ha ng e a nd Enviro nme nta l Evo lutio n in We ste rn China a nd Re sp o nse Stra te g y”, p re se nta tio n a t the 5th Ministe ria l Co nfe re nc e o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific Symp o sium o n Glo b a l Cha ng e , Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt, 24-25 Ma rc h 2005, Se o ul, Re p ub lic o f Ko re a .

50.

Ts.Bo rjig d kha n, Ad ya sure n (2005). “ Imp a c ts o f Glo b a l Clima te to the Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt o f Mo ng o lia ”, p re se nta tio n a t the 5th Ministe ria l C o nfe re nc e o n Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt in Asia a nd the Pa c ific Symp o sium o n G lo b a l C ha ng e , Enviro nme nt a nd De ve lo p me nt, 24-25 Ma rc h 2005, Se o ul, Re p ub lic o f Ko re a .

51.

FAO (2004), o p . c it.