Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences Edited by Gerald M. Friedman, Horst J. Neugebauer and Adolf Seilacher
3 Thomas Aigner
...
22 downloads
520 Views
23MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences Edited by Gerald M. Friedman, Horst J. Neugebauer and Adolf Seilacher
3 Thomas Aigner
Storm Depositional Systems Dynamic Stratigraphy in Modern and Ancient Shallow-Marine Sequences
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo
Author Dr. T h o m a s Aigner Universit~t TiJbingen Institut und M u s e u m f0r G e o l o g i e und Pal~ontologie SigwartstraBe 10, D-7400 TiJbingen, FRG
ISBN 3-540-15231-8 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg N e w YorkTokyo ISBN 0-387-15231-8 Springer-Verlag N e w York H e i d e l b e r g Berlin Tokyo
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved,whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means,and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payableto "VerwertungsgesellschaftWort", Munich. © by Springer-VerlagBerlin Heidelberg 1985 Printed in Germany Printing and binding: Beltz Offsetdruck, Hemsbach/Bergstr. 2132/3140-543210
"Nature vibrates with rhythms, climatic and d i a s t r o p h i c , those finding s t r a t i g r a p h i c e x p r e s s i o n ranging in period from the rapid o s c i l l a t i o n of surface waters, recorded in ripple-marks, to those l o n g - d e f e r r e d stirrings of the deep i m p r i s o n e d titans which have divided earth history into periods and eras. The flight of time is m e a s u r e d by the w e a v i n g of c o m p o s i t e rhythms - day and night, calm and storm, summer and winter, birth and death - such as these are sensed, in the brief life of man ... ... the s t r a t i g r a p h i c series c o n s t i t u t e s a record, written on tablets of stone, of the lesser and greater waves of change ~hich have pulsed through geologic time" JOSEPH
BARRELL
(1917)
P R E F A C E
It was only during the last few years, that the geological effects of storms and h u r r i c a n e s in s h a l l o w - m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s have been better appreciated. Not only were storm deposits r e c o g n i z e d to dominate many shelf sequences, they also proved to be valuable tools in facies and paleogeographical analysis. Additionally, storm layers form important hydrocarbon reservoirs. S t o r m - g e n e r a t e d sequences are now reasonably mell documented in terms of their facies a s s o c i a t i o n s in the s t r a t i g r a p h i c record. Much less is known, however, about the effects and the depositional processes of modern storms, and about the styles of storm s e d i m e n t a t i o n on basinwide scales. Accordingly, the goal of this study is two-fold: 1. it presents two case studies of modern carbonate and terrigenous clastics storm sedimentatioq. The models derived from these actualistic examples can be used to interprete possible ancient analogues. 2. it presents a c o m p r e h e n s i v e analysis of tional system (Muschelkalk) on a b a s i n - w i d e
an
ancient scale.
storm
deposi-
The underlying approach of this study is a p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d analysis of sedimentary sequences, an approach that ~as s u m m a r i z e d by Matthews (1974, 1984) as "dynamic stratigraphy". The i n t e g r a t i o n of actualistic models with a "dynamic" stratigraphic analysis helps to understand the dynamics of storm d e p o s i t i o n a l systems; these models have a potential to be applied to other basins and to predict the facies o r g a n i s a t i o n and the facies evolution in such systems.
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S First and foremost I would like to sincerely t h a n k Prof. Dr. A. S e i l a c h e r . Over the y e a r s off my s t u d i e s in TQbingen he acted as an adviser in an a l w a y s p l e a s a n t and f r u i t f u l a t m o s p h e r e , e a s a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e of g u i d a n c e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t , and h e l p e d me s h a r p e n i n g my own ideas. To come up with a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n is n e v e r a l o n e a p r o d u c t of o n e s e l f . There are a l w a y s many p e o p l e and i n c i d e n t s a l o n g the way that have helped oneway or the other. I s h o u l d s t a r t t h a n k i n g my p a r e n t s who h a v e a l w a y s g e n e r o u s l y s u p p o r t e d my p a s s i o n for r o c k s and fossils. Then there ~ere s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n o t a b l y H. F i s c h e r and H. Huber, who d i r e c t e d my a t t e n t i o n from c o l l e c t i n g s t o n e s to the geosciences. H. Hagdorn has always been a stimulating and invaluable Muschelkalk compagnion. Contacts with geological friends, fellow students, faculty and scholars from a b r o a d have had an i m m e n s e i m p a c t on me, as h a v e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to t r a v e l . One year of s t u d i e s in s e d i m e n t o l o g y with Dr. Ro Goldring and Prof. J.R.L. A l i e n at the U n i v e r s i t y of R e a d i n g / E n g l a n d has been a key e x p e r i e n c e . S i n c e I left R e a d i n g , Roland continued to try teaching me how to w r i t e in E n g l i s h in r e v i e w i n g m a n y p a p e r s and m a n u s c r i p t s , lhe o p p o r t u n i t y to do a Diplom-Thesis in Egypt, also supervised by Prof. Seilacher, and s u c c e s s i v e l y to join the S p h i n x P r o j e c t of the A m e r i c a n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r in E g y p t were scientific and personal experiences I do not w a n t to miss. D u r i n g s e v e r a l s t a y s at the S e n e k e n b e r g - I n s t i t u t e in W i l h e l m s h a v e n , Prof. Dr. H.-E. Reineck has most g e n e r o u s l y t a u g h t me p r i n c i p l e s of m a r i n e g e o l o g y and s u p e r v i s e d the N o r t h Sea work i n c l u d e d in this dissertation. Two expeditions with Prof. Dr. J. W e n d t into the M o r o c c a n S a h a r a w e r e s o m e t i m e s hot and dry, but they w e r e a l w a y s most e d u c a t i n g - and fun. I had the fine o p p o r t u n i t y to s t u d y m o d e r n carbonate environments of South Florida during a 9-month's stay at the U n i v e r s i t y of M i a m i , w h e r e Dr. H.R. W a n l e s s a c t e d as a m o s t g e n e r o u s and s t i m u l a t i n g supervisor ~ho had always time for me. M a n y f r i e n d s in M i a m i h e l p e d me b a t t l i n g a g a i n s t the h a z a r d s of marine work such as weather, boat problems, c o r i n g etc. N o t a b l y I want to t h a n k V. R o s s i n s k i , J. M e e d e r , P. H a r l e m , M. A l m a s i , R. P a r k i n s o n , F. B e d d o u r , and A. Droxler. Dr. R.N. Ginsburg kindly allowed me to use f a c i l i t i e s at F i s h e r I s l a n d S t a t i o n . The Rosenstiel School and the Senckenberg-Institute also provided technical assistance. Among the many c o l l e a g u e s that d i s c u s s e d p r o b l e m s with me or g u i d e d me t h r o u g h t h e i r f i e l d a r e a s , I w a n t to p a r t i c u l a r l y thank Dr. R. Bambach, Dr. J. B o u r g e o i s , Dr. P. D u r i n g e r , Dr. F. F G r s i c h , Dr. R. G o l d ring, H. H a g d o r n , A. Hary, Dr. S. K i d w e l l , Dr. R. M u n d l o s , and Dr. A. Wetzel. Dr. R. Hatfield m a d e some r a d i o c a r b o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , Prof. Dr. H. F r i e d r i c h s e n some isotope analysis, Prof. Dr. C. Hemleben provided a c c e s s to a w o r d p r o c e s s o r , H. H Q t t e m a n n h e l p e d with the SEM. P a r t i c u l a r l y I t h a n k W. Pies who h e l p e d much with rock cutting and thin sections and W. Wetzel who made m u c h of the p h o t o g r a p h s and r e p r o d u c t i o n s . F i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeins c h a f t (SFB 53) is also g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . Prof. Dr. A. S e i l a c h e r , Dr. R. G o l d r i n g , Prof. Dr. G. E i n s e l e , Prof. Dr. H.-E. R e i n e c k and Prof. Dr. J. W e n d t l o o k e d through the original version of the manuscript, H. Hagdorn checked p a r t s on c r i n o i d a l limestone. Dr. W. Engel and the Springer-Verlag is thanked for publishing my thesis as it s t a n d s in the L E C T U R E N O T E S s e r i e s . I am most g r a t e f u l to all t h o s e who made t h i s w o r k p o s s i b l e .
SUMMARY
This study comprises (1) two case h i s t o r i e s of storm sedimentation in modern shallow-marine environments, and (2) a c o m p r e h e n s i v e analysis of an ancient storm d e p o s i t i o n a l system on a basin-~ide scale. These examples are understood as a c o n t r i b u t i o n to "dynamic stratigraphy", the p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d analysis of s e d i m e n t a r y sequences, and are believed to be applicable to other s h a l l o w - m a r i n e basins. Basic physical processes during storm s e d i m e n t a t i o n to a general model of Allen (]982, 1984), three main
involve, a c c o r d i n g categories:
a) barometric effects due to gradients in a t m o s p h e r i c pressure to raised water levels at the shore (coastal water set-up).
leading
b) wind effects cause (1) onshore wind drift currents in n e a r s h o r e surface water, which are compensated by (2) offshore oriented bottom return flows (gradient currents). c) ~ave effects u n i d i r e c t i o n a l flows
set up oscillatory bottom lead to combined storm flows.
flows;
superimposed
Sedimentary responses to storm processes in modern shallow-marine environments of South Florida and the North Sea support this general model. Storm effects in shallo~, nearshore water are dominated by onshore directed wind drift currents. These cause the formation of onshore sediment lobes in nearshore skeletal banks of South Florida. Successive hurricane-generated "spillover lobes" c o n t r i b u t e as depositional increments to episodic and relatively rapid accretion and buildup of non-reef skeletal banks that coarsen and are i n c r e a s i n g l y winnowed upwards. Similar episodic buildup can be inferred for nearshore b i o c l a s t i c b~nks in the fossil record. Responses to storm processes in offshore shelf areas such as the German Bay (North Sea) involve seaward transport of sands and shells from coastal sand sources by offshore flowing bottom currents (gradient currents) and their deposition as offshore storm sheets (tempestites). Q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , such tempestites show systematic changes in their sedimentological and paleoeeological characteristics from nearshore to offshore. These p_roximalJty trends reflect the decreasing effect of storms away from the coastal sand source and ~ith i n c r e a s i n g water depth.
A large variety of storm responses, involving patterns found in actualistie analogues, are revealed by a basin-wide analysis of the Upper Muschelkalk (M. Triassic, SW-Germany), an i n t r a c r a t o n i c ancient storm d e p o s i t i o n a l system. In this setting, dynamic p r o c e s s e s are reconstructed based on a hierarchical three-level stratigraphic analysis: i. At the lowest level, individual strata record episodic storm events operating on a gently inclined carbonate ramp system. Paleocurrents suggest alongshore winds and storm tracks from the Tethys to the NE into the German Basin. Similar to a c t u a l i s t i c models (Swift et al., 1983), these are likely to have induced c o m b i n e d oscillatory/unidirectional geostrophic bottom currents in offshore areas (distal tempestites). At the same time, longshore wind stress will drive surface water landward (Coriolis effect), causing landward sediment t r a n s p o r t and a c c u m u l a t i o n of nearshore skeletal banks, in a fashion similar to modern examples from South Florida. Coastal ~ater set-up is compensated by offshore directed bottom return flows, much like
Vl
gradient currents in the present-day surge channels, through which sediment deposited as proximal tempestites.
North Sea. These b a c k f l o w s erode is funneled offshore to become
2. At an i n t e r m e d i a t e level, storm beds in the Upper M u s c h e l k a l k tend to be arranged cyclically into i-7 m thick coarseningand thickening-upwards facies sequences, that record an upward transition from distal to proximal tempestites, i.e. progressive shallowing. Different types of asymmetrical coarsening-upward cycles also show systematic changes in the m o l l u s c a n and trace fossil a s s o c i a t i o n s that reflect a change in s u b s t r a t e conditions. W i d e s p r e a d changes from soft into firm and shelly subatrates allowed in several instances for virtually instantaneous and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y w i d e s p r e a d c o l o n i s a t i o n of cycle tops by specific b r a c h i o p o d s and crinoids. The massive, often amalgamated, condensed and " e c o l o g i c a l l y f i n g e r p r i n t e d " tops of such cycles (e.g. Spiriferina-Bank, Holocrinus-Bank, see Hagdorn, 1985) serve as principal marker beds. Similarly, prominent marlstone horizons have long been used in lithostratigraphie correlation ("Tonhorizont alpha, beta etc."). Genetically, the marlstone horizons represent the transgressive bases, while massive units are the r e g r e s s i v e tops of minor t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycles. 3. At a still higher level, vertically stacked c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles c o n s t i t u t e a still larger overall cycle forming the entire Upper Muschelkalk. This overall t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycle is comparable in thickness and duration to the " t h i r d - o r d e r cycles" of Vail et al. (1977) and c o r r e s p o n d s to a large-scale late A n i s i a n / L a d i n i a n t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycle (Brandner, 1984), which is likely to be eustatically controlled. On the other hand, the d i s t r i b u t i o n of minor cycles and the general o r g a n ~ s a t i o n of the S o u t h - G e r m a n Basin corresponds well to the u n d e r l i n g Variscan structural zones. The "marginal ~' facies zones c o r r e s p o n d to the M o l d a n u b i k u m in the SE and the Rhenoherzynikum in the NI~, while the more rapidly subsiding "central" facies zone is situated ontop of the Saxothuringikum. Within the Moldanubian structural zone, minor cycles can be easily correlated over severa] ten's of km, but cycle patterns change in character in the adjacent s t r u c t u r a l zones and are often difficult to correlate. It thus appears that the S o u t h - G e r m a n i n t r a c r a t o n i c basin expresses the sutures of a former continental collision and that basin dynamics is controlled by an interplay of eustatic as well as structural movements. In conclusion, an integration of a e t u a l i s t i c models with a "dynamic '' stratigraphie analysis allows a better understanding of storm processes and their depoaitional products and provides a base to predict facies patterns over a range of shallow-water environments. Moreover, '~dynamic stratigraphy" as outlined here is a tool to reconstruct proeesse~ in shallow-marine basins, moving from the smallest (individual strata) to larger levels (whole basin sequence).
C O N T E N T S page Preface .......................................................... Acknowledgements ................................................. Summary .......................................................... I.
MODERN
STORM
1.
General
2.
Storm banks, 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.
2.6.
2.7. 2.8. 2.9. 3.
DEPOSITIONAL
processes
of
SYSTEMS: storm
111 IV V
ACTUALISTIC
sedimentation
MODELS .........
3
...................
sedimentation in nearshore skeletal South Florida ....................................... Introduction .......................................... Methods ............................................... Study area and previous work .......................... Geomorphology of Safety Valve banks ................... Sedimentary facies and bank stratigraphy .............. 2.5.1. Coralgal packto grainstone ................... 2.5.2. Halimeda packstone ............................. 2.5.3. Pellet~rich Halimeda-mollusc wackestone ........ 2.5.4. M o l l u s c wacke- to packstone with lithoclasts... 2,5.5, Quartz sand .................................... Evidence for storm sedimentation ...................... 2.6.1. Geomorphological evidence ...................... 2.6.2. Stratigraphic evidence ......................... 2.6.3. Biostratinomic evidence ........................
13 15 15 17 21
D y n a m i c s t r a t i g r a p h y and h i s t o r y of S a f e t y V a l v e b a n k s S t o r m e f f e c t s in S a n d y Key ( F l o r i d a Bay) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S u m m a r y and c o n c l u s i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 24 28
S t o r m s e d i m e n t a t i o n in o f f s h o r e s h e l f areas, G e r m a n Bay (North Sea) ..... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.
3.5.
Methods ............................................... Study area and previous work .......................... Storm stratigraphy: descriptions ...................... 3.4.1. Supraand intertidal storm ]ayers ............. 3.4.2. Shorefaee storm layers ......................... 3.4.3. Proximal storm layers .......................... 3.4.4. Distal storm layers ............................
Proximality
trends:
results
and
3.5.3.
3.6. 5.8. 4.
II.
Final
Percentage
on
of c r o s s - l a m i n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
actualistic
models
30 30 31 31 33 33 34 34 35
45 48
........................
Introduction .............................................. 1.1. Scope of study ....................................... 1.2, Hierarchical approach to dynamic stratigraphy 1,3. General setting and stratigraphy ..................... Previous work ........................................ 1.4. 1.5. Methods ..............................................
40 40 41 42
50
AN A N C I E N T S T O R M D E P O S I T I O N A L S Y S T E M : D Y N A M I C S T R A T I G R A P H Y OF I N T R A C R A T O N I C C A R B O N A T E S , U P P E R M U S C H E L K A L K ( M I D D L E TRIASSIC), SOUTH-GERMAN BASIN ................................ 1,
13
36 37 37
5.5.4. Storm layer thickness .......................... 3.5.5. A11ochthony in storm shell beds ................ Dynamic stratigraphy: storm processes ................. Applications .......................................... Summary and conclusions ............................... remarks
6 6 7 7 10 11 11 11 12
discussion
of statistical treatment .............................. 3.5.1. Percentage of sand ............................. 3.5.2. Frequency of storm layers ......................
3.7.
1
........
51 53 53 54 55 57 58
VIII
2.
3.
Stratification and facies types ........................... 2.1 General .............................................. 2.2 Peritidal strata ..................................... 2.3 Oncolitic wacketo p a c k s t o n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Massive oolitic packto grainstone .................. 2.5 Massive shelly packto grainstone ................... 2.6 Massive crinoidal limestone .......................... 2.7 Skeletal channel fills .............................. 2.8 .................................. Nodular ~ackestone 2.9 Nodular lime mudstone ... ............................ 2.10. Graded sketeLal sheets .............................. 2.11. Thin-bedded limestone/marlstone alternations ........ 2.12. Conclusions: storm-dominated stratification .........
74 76 78 85 92
Facies
97
3.1.
sequences
Vertica 3.1.i. 3.1.2. 3.1.3. 3.1.4. 3.1.5. 3.1.6. 3.1.7.
Oolite grainstone cycles ...................... Skeletal bank cycles .......................... Crinoidal bank cycles .........................
100 102 102
Nodular-to-compact cycles ..................... Thickening-upward cycles ...................... Conclusions: transgressive/regressive dynamics ......................................
105 107 lll
3.3.
Paleoecological
............................... ................................ ichnofacies ..............................
120
Paleocurrents ........................................ 3.4.1. Wave ripples .................................. 3.4.2. Cross-bedding ................................. 3.4.3. Surge channels and imbrication ................
123 123 125
3.3.1.
Ramp
3.3.2.
Ramp
Basin
trends
biofacies
Gutter
Conclusions:
4.1.
casts
Distribution
Hierarchy
4.3.
General
4.4.
Conclusions:
Dynamic
of
ramp
dynamics
.................
120 121
t28 128 131
........................................
]35
of
t35
minor
Lower part Upper part Discussion
4.2.
..................................
carbonate
organisation
4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3.
what
97 97
113 113 ]17
3.5.
So
.........
69 72
Lateral sequences: carbonate ramps .................... 3.2.1. Crinoidal ramps .............................. 3.2.2. SheJly/oolitic ramps ..........................
3.4.4.
5.
1 sequences: coarsening-upward cycles Oncolitic cycles ..............................
65 66
3.2.
3.4.
4.
..........................................
61
61 62 64
cycles
context
.........................
..................................
......................................
basin
straLigraphy:
cycles
of U p p e r M u s c h e l k a l k ( m o l ) . . . . . . . . . 135 of Upper Muschelkalk (mo2/3) ....... ]38 .................................... 141
dynamics
concluding
..........................
remarks ..................
144 l&7
150
152
?
.......................................................
155
Literature
.......................................................
159
P a r t
D E R N
S T O R M
I
D E P 0 S I
A C T U A L I
S T I
C
T I
0 N A L
M O D E L S
S Y S T E M S :
GENERAL
0 F
STORM
In
shallow-marine
to
control
addition~ that
during
Thus
the
or
distinguish
being
in the
Bourgeois,
1982;
on
The
to be
basic
categories,
physical
elements
by
modern
storm
first
be b r i e f l y
Allen's
(1982,
approaching
model
effects
widely
applied 1978).
wave 1980b;
"storm
commonly
base"
a
&
distinct
cross-strati-
wave
initiated Nelson,
(e.g.
Einsele
proposed
1981;
base"
by
considerable 1982;
1972;
wave
during 1984)
Dott
shows be
&
& Reineck,
are be used
the
rather
here.
sedimentation
fundamentals
as
1983)
and
probably
a comprehensive to our
strong
twice
conditions~
not
applicable
the
Aigner
of
storm in
may
base"
therefore
are r e a d i l y
storms
spectrum
"storm
(1982,
of w a v e - r e w o r k i n g
winter
et al.,
wiI1
sedimentation,
1984)
the
of
well
1972).
two
have
been
model.
Since
case
of A l l e n ' s
studies
model
will
reviewed.
model
assumes
coastline
s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n . the
depth
during
processes
Allen
of this
the
(Komar
and
bottom
1983).
base
which
shown
Johnson,
"hummocky
and
have
Morton,
a continuous
"fair-weather"
with
In
have
sequences
"storm
first
types
concepts (e.g.
shelves, wave
see
Walker,
(1979)
inferred
1965).
et al.,
has b e e n
a review
"fair-weather"
et al.,
the s u m m e r
seems
illustrated
of
Swift
concept"
1979;
been
shelf
Komar
shallow-marine
facies
Their
the
(e.g.
and
long Irwin,
environments
affect
base"
& Walker
between
modern
as d u r i n g
artificial
for
has
1917;
base
(for
Walker,
literature
variations:
there
terms
Hamblin
currents.
to
wave
wave
storm-generated
discussion
seasonal
able
deposits
&
base"
shallow-marine
models
formed
"wave
8arrell,
fair-weather
shelf
Hamblin
1982).
fication
Thus
versus
facies
of
However,
are
"fair-weather
zonation
density
(e.g.
modern
waves
ancient
1975;
Seilacher,
sequences,
"fair-weather"
"storm and
Accordingly,
deep
in
storms,
"normal"
Wilson,
rock
studies
to m o d e r n
S E D I M E N T A T I O N
sedimentation
below
PROCESSES
For
tides
basic
categories
of
storm
sedimentation
at
the
sake
and t h e
processes (Fig.
1):
simple
laminar
a perpendicular off s i m p t i c i t y ~
Coriolis-force and e f f e c t s
flows
angle
of
and w i t h
a
complications are
can be
not
considered.
distinguished
storm
constant due
to
Three during
BAROMETRIC effect
,..~WIND ~
set-up/~7
wind drift
WAVE effect
STORM PROCESSES
f
Fig. i. The complexity of phenomena during storm events can be simplified by distinguishing three main categories of physical processes: (i) Barometric effects c a u s i n g c o a s t a l w a t e r s e t - u p ; (2) w i n d e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g in onshore directed wind drift currents in surface waters, that are compensated by o f f s h o r e d i r e c t e d g r a d i e n t c u r r e n t s in b o t t o m waters; (3) wave effects that mobilize bottom sediment and m a k e s it a v a i l a b l e for l a t e r a l t r a n s p o r t . S i m p l e case of o n s h o r e b l o w i n g storm~ i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t i d e s and the C o r i o l i s effect not c o n s i d e r e d .
i.
Barometric
zontal at
the
shore
millibar em,
effect.
gradient
(coastal
corresponds
typical
Cyclonic
of a t m o s p h e r i c
to
cyclones
depressions pressure,
set-up).
Since
a difference
are
thus
accompanied
raising
a pressure
in s u r f a c e
raise
the w a t e r
level
the
combination
the
level
difference
of one
elevation
at the
by a h o r i water
coast
of a b o u t
one
for
1/2
about
m.
2. W i n d
a) to
The
effects
drag
of the
coastal
water
current
b)
The
drift
that
tilt
and
acts
current,
nearshore waters,
in
the
that
water
flows
(due
due
to
by
a
opposite
a water
sediment
botLom
not
further
in a n e a r s h o r e
contributes wind-drift
direction.
barometric
effect
and
near-bottom
return
flow,
drift
is an o n s h o r e
return
Lransport
sediment
processes:
only
to w i n d
body
to the w i n d - d r i f t
offshore
of two
results
(onshore)
surface
offshore
onshore
where
same
in
wind
but also
compensated
motion
a compensating
blowing
set-up,
is
combined
dominanLy
onshore
in the w a t e r
current
gradient the
involve
flow.
would current),
transport
should
windthe
(offshore).
Thus
near-surface
filow
Consequently~
be e x p e c t e d in c o n t r a s t prevail.
pre-
in s h a l l o w , to
deeper
3.
Wave
for
stirring-up
A
effects
cause
combination
of
currents
nearshore
sediments
following
would
viewed
as
a
his
concept:
A)
Storm
cause
offshore
two c h a p t e r s
support
mainly
test
on
with
modern
in n e a r s h o r e
onshore
sediment
that
are
unidirectional
deposit
(1982,
flows
responsible
sediments.
pulsating
and
of A l l e n ' s
sedimentation involves
oscillatory
bottom
wave-stirring
gradient
The
near-bed
and m o b i l i z i n g
combined them
as g r a d e d
storm 1984)
wind-induced that
transport
storm
layers.
sedimentation
model.
carbonate transport
flows,
Both
banks (due
of
could
examples
South
to o n s h o r e
be
indeed
Florida
wind
drift
currents).
B)
Storm
the
sedimentation
German
offshore
These
Bay
is d o m i n a t e d
flowing
gradient
basic
mechanisms
two
depositional second
in the
part
mechanisms alongshore
system of
this
outlined storms~
and
(M.
(2)
terrigenous
by o f f s h o r e
sediment
clastics transport
shelf (due
of
to the
current).
can
also
Triassic
study. here
offshore
In
be
recognized
Muschelkalk) that
are m o d i f i e d interaction
example, and with
in an
that
ancient
storm
is a n a l y z e d
in the
however,
somewhat
the
complicated
the C o r i o l i s
effect.
simple by
(1)
2
I N
.
S T O R M
S E D
N E A R S H 0 R E
S K E L E T A L
SOUTH
2.1.
The
effects
of
by
shore
(])
al.,
Similarly, for
the
skeletal
provide
skeletal
to
shore
this
an
actualistic
chapter
the
offshore
is
familiar
(e.g.
lobes
were
"barriers"
Much
less
is
carbonate
"sand
buildups and
in
in fans
Nummedale
sand
environments
to
is
found and
known,
et to
banks
however,
bodies"~
are
very
many
ancient
such
common
as in
shallow-
to
example
of
document
role
of
storms
as
a style
level-bottom
based
Sciences
vised
H.
Dr.
other
banks
Atmospheric by
in
on-
washover
oolite
1977).
skeletal
systems
spillover
is
in
and
by
storm
sedimentation
in
storm-generated
sequences
the
and
nearshore not
known
of
near-
settings;
skeletal
This
chapter
and
such
examine
more
such
of
caused
transport and
coastal
set-up),
sequences.
banks
with
storms
of
from
Hine,
carbonate
carbonate
object
1967;
of
oriented
(i)
(~ind
transport
198]), island
development
although
nearshore
marine
2.
effects
banks,
modern
before
(Ball,
barrier
involve
levels
sediment
Shinn,
onshore
water
sediment
Landward
(e.g.
the
environments raised
landward
with
1980).
about
(2)
currents.
associated
Bahamas
nearshore
layers
important the
in
dominantly
storm
commonly
i.
,
F L O R I D A
attack,
wind-drift
supratidal
be
storms
wave
consequently
The
B A N K S
Introduction
erosion
in
I M E N T A T I O N
on
Wanless.
of
work the
in of
development
storm
growth
sedimentation
that
contrasts
environments.
at
the
Rosenstiel
University
of
School Miami
of
where
Marine it
was
and super-
2.2.
Methods
Aerial
photographs
Bay)
covering
changes on the
partly
area
(Florida
al.,
was
surface
cores
and
15
partly
layers
X-radiographed.
skeletal
materials
Radiocarbon
2.3.
Study
shelf
Valve
to a now
refers
to the of
Numerous
in the
grass
severe
skeletal
storms
Wanless gical
south.
(1969)
features
sitional
and
The
of
belt
the
is about
dissect to From
bank
selection
of
Ginsburg also
the
et
made
contents remaining
preservation.
3 skeletal
a
Soldier Bay and
samples.
few
belt" and
belt
decameters
northern
part are
dense
also
are
i967).
a detailed
description
as well
as a
to the
Holocene
Indivi-
wider
hundred than
time.
of the
rise
the Sea-
substrata
particularly
reconstruction late
length.
several
bare
bar
("bars")
2B).
through
but
in
banks
(Fig.
(1967)
tidal
8-9 km
to
presents
(Warzeski,
response
a
which
Ball
The
generally
variable covers,
be
Limestone, 2A,B).
elongated the
forms
parallel
(Fig.
of
It
north-south,
Largo
into
Key.
the
of
Florida
Key
bar
southeast
inner
belt
3-4 km b r o a d
axis
surfaces
hurricanes
Key
faunal
for
taken~
Sandy
see
situated
strikes
"tidal
Jt
the
forms
area
and
Pleistocene
in the
and
from
is
Biscayne
of this
may
in
banks
as a small
given
present made
Biseayne
commonly
in the
history
been
briefly
work
material
has
genera
have
between
Valve
in w i d t h banks
(Thalassia)
of c o a r s e
for
of
channels
vary
and
margin
Valve
Safety
while
sieve,
Key
perpendicularly
banks
meters,
ridge
Safety
the
a 2 mm
on
Wanless,
were
through
axis
eastern
tidal
extending
The
sections the
skeletal
barrier
2A,B).
the
of
between
submerged
contours
ones
belt
Thin
storm and
were
see
A
method
to s t u d y
previous
submerged
(Fig.
belt
and
taken.
(for
order
studied
were
In the
In
determinations
Florida,
shallowly
dual
age
area
Safety
Miami,
sieved
~ater.
to d e t e c t
plane
localities
(for m e t h o d
were
resin
(Biscayne
strong
biota
30
deeper
cores
a
a small
their
surface
polyester
by
from
From
in s l i g h t l y
handpush with
and
complex
particularly
caused
studied
cores
on the b a n k
bank
examined,
Effects
Valve,
sections.
were
were
directly
as v i b r o c o r e s Bay),
skeletal
sediments
Safety
representative
skeletal
were
impregnated
1966)
from
40 y e a r s
the
partly
cores
The
The
In
Valve
hurricanes.
1983
as h a n d p u s h
]969),
last with
20,
ground.
surveyed.
Safety
the
associated
January
of the
made after
geomorpholo-
of
the
depo-
of sea
level.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Key Bisca'
Miami
.
FLORIDA
E
'
GULF
LU
iii
OF
><
Z ><
MEXICO
O CO oO
OO
=
ATLANTIC
A~I Soldier Key
m'IE 4" ~
1--~-I VALVE 1
SAFETY Biscayne Bay
2-
(
Atlantic
0 - ~
r Lo T
4-
6 8
~ ~
i. ~ ~
-"
,e
2
CARBONATE MUD6' .L_~~ ' CARBONATE SAND -T-QUARTZ SAND 2 km
~ "'"~ _o I c ~
:~:
C
~ig. 2. General setting of "Safety Valve" study area. A Location of Lhe Safety Valve tidal bar belt cask of Miami (black), between the Atlantic and Biscayne Bay. Arrows indicate path and ~ind circulation across the center of Huricane Betsy, after Perkins & Enos (1968). B) Overview of Safety Valve banks (stippled: shallo~ly submerged banks). C) East-West transect from the mainland (Miami) Biscayne Bay SafeLy Valve, simplified after Nanless (1969). Note ridge of bedrock (Key Largo Limestone) localizing the Safety Valve banks.
Ginsburg "algal
& James banks"
(1974)
a Porites/Goniolithon banktop
For
community
comparison,
Gulf
of M e x i c o
~as
affected
(1967).
included
of S o u t h
community
~ith
the
Florida
"Sandy
Hurricane
It r e p r e s e n t s
a
Key"
Halimeda,
area
Bay ~as Donna
good
Safety
Valve
in
distinguished
on w i n d m a r d
Thalassia,
from F l o r i d a by
the and
of
also
and
has
modern
bank
margins,
molluscs
skeletal surveyed been
their
banks (Fig.
of
on
: (])
and
(2)
a
etc.
briefly
example
revie~
t~o c o m m u n i t i e s
separating 3).
This
described a
by
carbonate
the area 8all ramp
system.
MODERN CARBONATE
RAMP
CO
Pleistocene
limestone
(slope 10'-12')
Fig. 3. G e n e r a l s e t [ i n g of " S a n d y Key" s t u d y area, a belt of skeletal banks and shell islands on a gently i n c l i n e d ramp s e p a r a t i n g the r e s t r i c t e d area of F l o r i d a 8ay from the o p e n - m a r i n e a r e a s towards the Gulf of Hexico~ where only a very thin v e n e e r of m o d e r n s e d i m e n t overlies Pleistocene bedrock (highly schematic). Water depths range between 1/2 m to a few m e t e r s in F l o r i d a Bay to some tens of m e t e r s and mare t o w a r d s the Gulf.
10
2.4.
Geomorphology
FouF
major
Safety
Safety
Valve
geomorphological
Valve
BANK
of
banks
(Fig.
banks
elements
can
be
distinguished
in the
4):
GEOMORPHOLOGY 130 • "
, ' . , , " "
'
"
.i '
"
.
' . ' . , '
",@
1 3 2 .
.
,
1 3 1 . .
,"
i"
ONBANK S A N D LOBES
--I
CHANNELS
•
'
,
•
,
'.
,.
,
•
•
99,
•
-,
",.. BA N K. ' ~ ~ 95
94
:iNTERiOR. , S. '.:..:-~:, : ..:/.;: >-
OFFBANK SPILLOVER ~/LOBES
rn
I.IJ Z >-
".
'
' I"
"
'
•
' ".
"
.
,
.
,
;
"
• "..
, , ". "
'
",,
;
. •
'
-
.
1 2 3
""121.'"
".
.
@
¢3
" •"
.
, .
O 0"3
Z (
m
m107
rn
.J
o * CORE
LOCATIONS
]
2
,
km
I
Fig. 4. Major g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t s of the Safety Valve: (i) tidal channels, (2) offbank s p i l l o v e r lobes s e a w a r d of tidal c h a n n e l s , (3) onbank sand lobes on seaward bank margins, and (4) bank interior areas. Numbers represent core l o c a t i o n s , e a s t - w e s t t r a n s e c t is sho~n in Fig. 6, that also gives an o r i e n t a t i o n on water depths.
i.
Channels
m
deep,
Wanless breaching
cuLLing
fairly (1969) the
the
main
straight,
noted banks.
that
body
of the
but
tend
many
of the
banks.
They
to b i f u r c a t e channels
were
are
generally
on the formed
bayward by
2-4 end.
storms
11
2.
Offbank
the
seaward
2oo-5oo lobes
spillover
m
formed
end
of s e v e r a l
in
width.
during
3. O n b a n k
sand
of
coalescent
about
lO00
and
&.
lobes.
m onto
As
Prominent
tidal
lobes
channels
Nanless
(1969)
of s k e l e t a l
are
2oo-looo
concluded
material
off
length
and
m in
that
these
spillover
bank
flats~
storms.
zone
width.
lobes.
From
the
the
seaward
lobes
of
banks
(Fig.
documented
below,
portions
skeletal 4),
of the
sand
each
and
gravel
lobe
these
lobes
are
also
Safety
Valve
contrast
extends
being
5o-200
formed
during
a
up to m
in
storms
hurricanes.
The bank
with
the
interiors coarse
that
may
2.5.
Sedimentar~
2.5.1.
This
represent
Coralgal
facies
prominent
sized
that
pack-
packed
often
rootlets). depositional
2.5.2.
This
into
Halimeda
facies
particles
Halimeda
plates
occurs
lobes.
with or
layers
to c h a n n e l s , Vibrocores
to
within but
from
mainly
their
forms
by m e d i u m
molluscs
large
mollusks
by
these
thickness
some Gravelmay
truncated lobes
to
be
sequences
form
decreases
mud c o n t e n t
the
sand
and
texture.
laq of f i n i n g - u p
evidenced
Their
seawedge-
from
the
increases.
5B)
of
mollusc
Goniolithon.
parallel
or
stratigraphy,
composed some
but
Halimeda,
{as
6).
while
primarily
corals
as thin
bank
(Fig.
"ponds",
channels.
grain-supported
the b a s a l
surfaces
bank,
muddiness
deeper
5A)
margins,
fragments
(Fig.
their
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d
Porites,
the
the
It
and m a r k
units
of H a l i m e d a of
adjacent
In
channel
coral
by
elongated
abandoned
(Fig.
clean-washed
packstone
is
amounts
of
erosion
grass
margins
lobes.
together,
shaped bank
some
sand
as
include
stratigraph~
to g r a i n s t o n e
a mostly
overlie
bank
along
such
and
of i n f i l l e d
and
fragments in
bioclasts
tightly
facies
occurs
gravel-sized
margin
remnants
onbank
Goniolithon
of the
seaward
fine
sand
shells
and
to
fine
gravel
sized
only
minor
contains
Imbrication
or
bedding
is
Halimeda
the
interior,
is most spillover
bank
common.
characteristic lobes
on the
orientation
and
along
of
offbank
seaward
bank
side
of
packstone margins
spillover of a t i d a l
12
channel the
(see Fig.
channel
Halimeda
4) show
pack-
seagrass
fining-up
sequences.
interfinger time
content
with
they
stratigraphy
vibrocores
to grainstone~
truncated
same
a layered
mouths,
where
roots In an
(Fig.
9E),
in
or
(Fig.
is
lags
the
quartz-carbonate and
Close
marked and
sand
layers
layers. while
by
overall
Halimeda
sorting,
to
~ell-sorted
clearly
skeletal
direction,
thickness
7).
amalgamated
layering
offshore
waekestone
decrease
display
At the
the
mud
increases.
Fig. 5± Main types of sedimentary facies (impregnated slabs from sediment cores). A) Coralgal grainstone with abundant Porites fragments from s t o r m - g e n e r a t e d sediment lobe on seaward bank margin. R) ~lellsorted Halimeda packto grainstone from offbank spiilover lobe. C) Pellet-rich H a l i m e d a - m o l l u s c wackestone from the bank interior facies. D) Burro~ filled ~ith Halimeda packstone.
2.5.3.
This
Pellet-rich
facies
of very oriented
predominates
intense and/or
penetrating for physical
Halimeda-mollusc
in the
bioturbation~ occur
the sediment layering
in
interior
Halimeda burrow
are most
is very
wackestone
fills
difficult
parts
plates
common
(Fig.
of the banks.
are
(Fig.
in this
5C,D)
mostly
5D).
Seagrass
facies,
to recognize.
Because
chaotically
and
rootlets evidence
13
,,SAFETY E
VALVE,,
SKELETAL
51
133
132
0 BISC~-=AYNE I~
'
'
BANK 98
core no.
96
97
95
94
$5
W
ATLANTIC HURRICANE
I ~RAY
BETSY
5)
\ 2
\
4 ¸
-F =rh =rh ~rh =rh
5
~g. 6. Distribution of sedimentary f a c i e s in c o r e t r a n s e c t a c r o s s n o r t h e r m o s t bank in the S a f e t y V a l v e (see Fig. ~). Note wedges of coralgal packto grainstone (black) extending from s e a w a r d bank m a r g i n into the bank ~ n t e r i o r .
2.5.&.
Mollusc
The
first
cene
bedrock
amounts rock
wacke-
few c e n t i m e t e r s
of
ation
This
consist
of m o l l u s c a n sand,
following
(transgression
2.5.5.
Beds
Quartz
of
variable onbank
the
wacke-
re~orked as
seems
lithoclasLs
and
Holocene
first
transgression
with
blackened
shells.
the
overlying
to p a c k s t o n e partly
blackened
to r e c o r d
of s e d i m e n t
over
appreciable
limestone
Halimeda
phase
Pleisto-
plates
of m a r i n e
bedare
sediment-
Pleistocene
bedrock
dm in t h i c k n e s s
and ~ i t h
lag).
sand
quartz amounts sand
as ~ell
facies
~ith
or d e c i m e t e r s
quartz
lithoclasts,
rare.
to p a c k s t o n e
sand, of
lobes
a
fe~
intermixed and
in
cm to s e v e r a l carbonate
offbank
skeletal
spillover
sand lobes.
occur
both
in
Well-developed
14
OFFBANK
SPILLOVERS
Fig. 7. L a y e r e d s e q u e n c e s in o f f b a n k s p i l l o v e r lobe location). Note thaL s k e l e t a l layers i n t e r b e d d e d vals become thinner~ m u d d i e r and less d i s t i n c t away mouth ( t o w a r d s the right).
(see Fig. 4 ffor with m u d d i e r interFrom the channel
15
fining-up within
sequences
(Fig.
a carbonate
introduced, obvious
most
island
of Key
together
complex
likely
source
9B),
bank
during
area
is
~ith
indicate
high-energy
a submarine
BJscayne,
about
1-2
km
for
sedimentation
their
that
exotic
this
events
sand
occurrence
was
laterally
(storms).
The
most
shoal
extending
from
the
barrier
east
(seaward)
of
the
Safety
Valve.
2.6.
Evidence
storm
Geomorphologie, for
the
stratigraphie
effects
of s t o r m s
and
biostratinomie
and h u r r i c a n e s
in the
data
provide
evidence
Valve
skeletal
Safety
banks.
2.6.1.
Geomorphologic
Day-to-day
current
transporting
velocities
gravel-sized
lobes
and
of
higher
a
evidence
spillover flow
in the
skeletal
iobes regime
must
Safety
material therefore
Valve
are
(Bali, result
during
which
similar
to those
capable [he
1967).
from
coarse
not
episodic
material
of
sand pulses
could
be
entrained.
Offbank
spillover
banks,
for which
during
intermittent
hurricanes tidal storm
return
Onbank
sand
barrier
islands.
exceptional be
the
time
skeletal and
period sand
hurricanes,
in
and
re~orked
an
gravel
are
Valve
from
especially
and
to ~ a s h o v e r s
Nummedale
1940
for water
sand
a series and
forming after
lobes.
1972
(Fig.
lobes
only
Hurricane
and
with
appear
(2)
clastics
attributed
proof
photographs
8).
Betsy
in B i s c a y n e
An a n a l o g o u s
Direct
of aerial
(1) the
storms.
associated
1980).
and
daily
through
set-up
generally
et al.,
by
include
hurricanes, einter
form
storms
Valve
direction
oolite
they
modified
Safety
offshore
mobile
that
severe
and
in the
storms
washovers
Safety
as
by s o u t h - m o v i n g
similar
comes
in B a h a m i a n concluded
such
compensating
caused
(e.g.
between and
events
(north-moving)
are
(1977)
mechanisms
flushing
for the
origin
Hine
surficially
Such
storms
inferred
hurricane
only
currents
lobes
and
high-energy
channels
onshore drift
are
(1967)
Possible
flows
Valve
during
southerly
can
are
processes.
Safety Bay
and
lobes
Ball
Barren after
(1965)
to
origin for
layers major
~hieh
a
covering of
storms passed
16
Fig. 8. Sequence of a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s of n o r t h e r m o s t b a n k in S a f e t y Valve. B o t t o m : p h o t o g r a p h t a k e n in ]gAo~ prior to Hurricane Betsy. Middle: photograph taken in 1967, after H u r r i c a n e B e t s y ; n o t e new s k e l e t a l sand l o b e s e x t e n d i n g From the s e a w a r d bank margin far into the bank interior (arrows). Top: photograph from 1972 showing b e g i n n i n g r e c o l o n i s a t i o n of the B e t s y sand lobe by seaorass and some new sand lobes. W i d t h of v i e w a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 km.
17
directly either
through
cover
winter
storm
of
in r e m o b i l i z i n g parts
of
this
or e r o d e
area
January
the
be a m a l g a m a t e d
in one
Other
sand
layers,
the
bank s t r a t i g r a p h y ( F i g .
the
are
bank
2.6.2.
i.
geometry,
interpreted
Stratigraphic
several
skeletal
some
dm
were
commonly
and
in d e e p e r
portions
underlying
seagrass
(Fig.
9).
is most
Erosion
(1967)
Florida
reported
Bay
to
the
the
Betsy
sand
that
lobes
may
miles/hour
and
a number
Betsy-layer
been
In
recorded
analogy
lobes
sand
lobe
smothering
of s t o r m s
in
can
composition
at d e e p e r
with
related
by p h y s i c a l
Fining-u P
the
levels
and
~ithin
surface
to h u r r i c a n e s
in
layer,
earlier
in
illustrated
in Figs.
truncation directly
of s e a g r a s s on a r h i z o m e
the
sediment
surface.
more
abundant
upwards
colonization
of
"graded
layers
Donna.
Onshore
Goniolithon the
bank
(and
of
the
of
transport.
roots
as the
of
that
fragments
swept
lobes)
implies
trun-
erosion Ball
et
rootlets
on
skeletal erosion
sequences cores is
of the
become
indicated
cm
increasingly
also
during
the
bank
of
Hurricane
(and
in
margins
onbank some
re-
described
be d o c u m e n t e d
geometry
surbelow
suggesting
(1967)
are
and are
erosion
]o-2o
banks
can
onshore
seaward
layers
of s t o r m
types
lies
al.
from
the
to
particles.
in all
et
transport are
result
fining-up
onto
cm
indicating
sequences~
Ball
a wedge-shaped
These
seagrass
seagrass
deposited
sediment
of
position
and
few
Sharp-based
normally
fining-up
unit.
lobes
as in s e d i m e n t
erosion
packed
hurricanes;
exposed
or by the
horizon
the
and
Donna.
as w e l l
Basal
sand"
Also,
spillover
and
types
a
rhizomes,
of b i o c l a s t i c
lobes
graded
skeletal
and P o r i t e s
offbank
erosion
Hurricane
ii.
sand
from
cores.
to s t o r m s
8ioturbation in
(bayl~ard)
interiors.
and/or
due
Several
£ and
in the
Densely
mollusc-Halimeda-Porites
thickness
interpreted
sand
i0).
of s e d i m e n t
accumulation
surface
in
rootlets
be
9,
(mostly
recorded parts
likely
sequences.
recognized
ranging
after
therefore
(Fig.
material
extensive
mudbanks
can
followed
sediment
reactivated
of s k e l e t a l
layers.
skeletal
cate
face
60
evidence
grainstone)
by
skeletal The
suggests
have 6).
packstone,
2.
This
as sand
of
layers
has
These
bottoms.
history.
Sh__arp-based
al.
2A).
lobe.
concentrations
bank
1983
similar
~edge-shaped
Fig.
vegetated
layers
cover.
in
these
20,
surficial
its s e a g r a s s
skeletal
(see
previously
sand
that into lobes
offshore)
18
SEQUENCES OF PHYSICAL EVENTS
sea~u~
A
HALIMEDA-W
D
seag sed ~ ~,
,
CORALGAL- MOLL.- P
FINING-UP HALIM.-W HALIM.- MOLL. - G .-~%
BIOTURBATED QUARTZ/CARB.
B HALIM.-W
SAND
':f-:A~ . ~ ,
LAYERED HALIM.- W
l I f ;A-:': ,,,,,%,
SAND
E
i I -~2~:?/ LAYERED
N~ ~=%'- I
HALIM.- G F I N I N G - UP
HALIMEDA- P
CORALGAL- MOLL: G
~l t
HALIM.-W
F I N I N G - UP ,~£~
roots rhizomes
CORALGAL- MOLL.-G
of s e a g r a s s
Fiq. 9 . Some common t y p e s o f s e d i m e n t a r y sequences found in the Safety Valve banks that indicate physical sedimentation. A) S h a r p - b a s e d (truncated seagrass roots) unit off c o r a l g a l - m o l l u s c packstone ~ithin H a l i m e d a w a c k e s t o n e . 8) S h a r p - b a s e d ( t r u n c a t e d s e a g r a s s roots) unit of layered quartz/carbonate sand w i t h r e n e w e d b i o t u r b a t i o n and s e a g r a s s c o l o n i s a t i o n at the top. C) Sharp-based fining-upward seouence of Halimeda packstone with Halimeda plates b e i n g o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l to b e d d i n g . D) Sparp-based finino-upward sequence of Halimeda-mollusc grainstone. Post-event recolonisation is indicated by seagrass r h i z o m e s at the top of the sequence. E) Amalgamation of sk~letal layers as i n d i c a t e d by two h o r i z o n s w i t h t r u n c a t e d s e a g r a s s roots. N = wackestone, P = packstone, G = grainstone.
19
SHARP-BASED SKELETAL UNITS
Fig. l O& Examples of sharp-based (arrows) skeletal units that indicate physical events in carbonate bank buildup. A) Thin layer of densely packed molluscan shell material, including double valved Codackia (core no. 131). B) Core (no. 130) from onbank sand lobe showing skeletal sand overlying truncated seagrass roots and rhizomes. C) Core (no. 94) from onbank sand lobe sho~ing layer of skeletal gravel ~ith basal imbrication of double-valved Codackia shells (the larger one was used for radiocarbon age determination). D) Sharp-based unit of Halimeda pack- to grainstone, erosively overlying Halimeda wackestone (specimen courtesy of H.R. Wanless). Scales in B,C,D = 1 cm.
20
FINING-UP
SKELETAL UNITS
Fig. ii. Fining-upward skeletal units indicating carbonate bank accretion by physical events. A) Fining-up molluscan paekstone; note preferred convex-down orientation of large pelecypod shells~ indicating rapid dumping (core no. $3). R) Fining-up molluse-coralgal packstone; note abundance of double-valved pelecypods (core no. i00). O) Sharp-based unit of fining-up eoralga] grainstone From onbank sand lobe; note basal lag of Porites fragments overlain by skeletal sand (core no. 127). Scales = 1 cm.
21
2.6.3.
(i)
Biostratinomic
Preservation
abundance such
as
of
Chione This
sition
A striking
during
one
seagrass
(double-valved
and
suggests
are
in skeletal
follo~ed
during
orbieularis
rather
by rapid
is the
pelecypods
(Fig.
IOA,C;
and
immediate
than
slow accumulation.
the product
the waning
layers
double-valved
winnowing
event
therefore
roots),
pelecypods)
Codackia
rapid
instantaneous
sequences
aspect
articulated,
eancellata
strongly
fining-up
(truncated
of fauna.
well-preserved,
IIA,B).
The
evidence
of
episodic
redeposition
stages
redepo-
erosion
of sediment
of the event.
PRESERVATION OF FAUNA IN SPILLOVER
LAYER
Fig. 12. D i f f e r e n c e s in c o m p o s i t i o n and p r e s e r v a t i o n at the base and at the top of a spillover layer. Note especially the extremely worn p r e s e r v a t i o n of Porites fragments in the basal lag as compared to the delicate preservation of Porites branches in the upper part of the layer. This pattern cannot be explained hydrodynamically but rather suggests post-event c o l o n i s a t i o n by the corals.
22
(2)
Post-event
centrated sand
lobes
are
colonies
of
skeletal
lags
skeletal Lima,
colonisatiom.
skeletal
directly
(Fig.
layers
gro~s
mostly
uncemented
substrates Bubb,
(Turmel
1975;
bottoms
of bank
during
hurricanes
&
interior
gravelly
shellgrounds. expand
(onbank
its sand
spillovers).
Wanless
recolonizes
such
but
the
bank
substrate
(pers.
comm.)
surfaces
after
of
habitat
in
an
1974;
onbank
has
directly
both
offshore
but
may
be
causes. banks gravel
Ebanks
sand of
the
seems onto
that
later
&
lobes
sandy
direction
observed
as
on m u d d i e r
into
Porites
area
such
and
abundant
bottoms
response~
storms,
sand
consistency
muddy
the
distribution
carbonate
& James,
the
of
ecological
skeletal
Generation
margin
and
have
it is less
seagrass-covered
lobes)
on
some
a
coral
within
peleeypods
Florida
Ginsburg
As a b i o l o g i c a l
of
Such
must
South
con-
in onbank
branching
top
13).
of
and
fragments
epibenthic
1977);
habitats.
usual
very
colonies
1976;
modifies
preserved
(Fig.
of many
Perkins,
in t r a n s f o r m i n g
sodically
parts
branched
interior
fiats
Anomia
layers lobes
Porites
the
abundant
and
& Swanson,
Enos
~ell
hydrodynamicalIy~
on ~ J n d w a r d
instances, spillover
to ~orn
Moreover,
more
Chlamys
be e x p l a i n e d
as
13).
showed
Porites
by
in c o n t r a s t
12;
cannot
several
in o f f b a n k
overlain
Porites
Aequipecten,
In
material
bank or
to epi-
the
bank
(offbank Porites
outcompeted
by s e a g r a s s .
_R i
•
mini| a
Fig. 13. Faunal c o m p o s i t i o n of' b o t t o m s and tops of o f f b a n k s p i l l o v e r layers. New faunal elements in the top parts of these layers (Aequipeeten, Chlamys) or higher abundance (Porites) indicates p o s t - e v e n t c o l o n i s a t i o n by e p i b i o n t s (asteri×) a s a response to the ne~,J s u b s t r a t e p r o v i d e d by the s p i l l o v e r layer.
23
2.7.
Di~namic
Based
on
overall bar
belt,
stratigraphy
geomorphological account in
on
relation
the to
and
history
features,
of
tdanless
development the
late
Safety
of
Holocene
Valve
(1969, the rise
1970)
whole of
banks
has
Safety
sea
given Valve
an
tidal
level.
125
Halimeda-mollusc
20 cm
Halimeda-moll. grainpackwackemollusc
assem.
I
stone
I mud-
$3
Fig, 14_~. Two coarseningand more winnowing-upwards sequences and associated changes in the faunal assemblages that are interpreted as shallowing-upl~ards trends in the bank history, C o r e s n o . $3 a n d 1 2 5 , H = Halimeda, c = corals, b = bivalves, g = gastropods, f = molluscan fragments, black = Goniolithon.
24
The
new
core
banks.
data
A number
of the
banks
further
or n e x t
winnowing-upward" fabrics the
and in
to
tidal
transition by a c h a n g e
from
to
a
shallowing-upward
trends
from
"mudbank"
into
skeletal
caps,
coralgal shaped The
especially
pack-
sand
lobe
Hurricane
Betsy
2o,
approximate events
Thus
we
tainly
idea
common
of
Gulf
extensive landward
formed
a
a
transition distinct
seaward
during
about
the
for
possible the
units with
Sandy
represents Florida
of M e x i c o
in
is in the
zone
of
of w e d g e -
hurricanes.
was
generated such
and
time
scale.
see
sharp-based
east
as
by the
Fig.
fining-up
date
frequency
of
several
an
major
lO0
marine
sand
a gently
of
years. but
3).
belt"
(Ball,
sloping
ramp
Hurricane
spillover
lobes
cer-
1967) towards
Donna
that
are
formed oriented
15).
l o b e s o f t h e Sandy Key depositional
sand
units
(Fig.
shallowing.
layers,
of
interval
experience,
17)
upward
basal
present
provides
recurrence
c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d sequences ( F i g s .
spillover
the
the
Bay)
from
(Fig.
subaeriai
the
from
on
[his
for h u m a n
(Florida
west
shell
lobe
6).
order
rare
in the the
subaqueous 1967;
history:
a "discontinuous
Bay
(Fig.
events
Key
sand
preservation
bank
on a g e o l o g i c a l
in
Codackia
the
off 980 ± 80 y e a r s
dealing
indicating
sequences
with
storms
is
Halimeda-
Such
are a r r a n g e d i n d i s t i n c t skeletal
instance,
to g r a i n s t o n e
and
surface later
more
depositional
situation The
and
of an a m a l g a m a t i o n
bank
double-valved
Cores From submerged s p i l l o v e r dm-thick
the side
for
to
history
margins.
by
in 3,
association.
lobes)
90 cm b e l o w
preserved
(Ball,
sand
reactivated
a
wedge,
effects
Key"
separating
seaward
S
molluscan
present
present-day
and
trends
in the b a n k
of
seaward
"coarsening
to p a c k s t o n e
is c o m p o s e d
the
storm.
an age
are
Storm
"Sandy
the
significant
individually
the
on
dating
gave
the
(onbank
(1965)
of a s k e l e t a l
surface
2=8.
layers
1983
Radiocarbon lag
at
history
near
In core
coralgal
the
to g r a i n s t o n e
skeletal
January
stage
14).
entirely
indicate a
show
wackestone an
dynamic taken
distinct
(Fig.
From
eventually
the
those
channels with
content
upward
and
especially
sequences,
faunal
accompanied molluscan
substantiate
of cores,
separated
In
addition,
by soil
several
horizons
were
belt 16D). 15;
show These 16A,R;
successive found
in
25
the
subaeriai
Ball's
(1967)
episodically during
storm
ebbed,
some
and shell
part
of the Sandy
inference, by
that
successive
flood of
tides the
islands
and
higher
could
Key
island.
These
the entire
sand
increments
of
onshore parts
subsequently
was
spillover
wind
were
observations
belt
drift.
eventually
lobes
When exposed
support
concentrated deposited
these
tides
and beaches
form.
SHALLOWING UPWARD SEQUENCES
spillover lobes
I--~l
~
grainst packst. wackest
~),;,
I
""-"-". ....
"~... 8"
"." ' ' .... .2'
,
I mudst.
":" "-", ": ::" .'- ...... ... "'.".
' .":
"..""',".Z': :..-'~'-'-'-'-'-"'-'-~."
:' .-:."'. ~.' :' ::. ".:~'-.:.):.:/".?
iiiH
*,.,,.,,,..
G U L~ ~ MEXICO
M
.........
o
]
_Fig. 15. The Sandy Key area is located at the western edge of Florida Bay. Arrows indicaLe paLh and wind circulation of Hurricane Donna according to Perkins & Enos (1968)o Hurricane Donna breached the shell island of Sandy Key and generated extensive bayward spillover lobes. Practically all sediment cores taken in this area (numbers 1-13) show shallowing-upwards sequences and record successive increments of hurricane-generated skeletal spillover layers, building up the hank
sequence.
26
Fig. 16. A) and B) Example of c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d sequence; note thick cap of skeletal grainstone (spillover lobe) that is colonized by rhodoliths (see close-up of Fig. C); core no. 4 in Fig. 15. D) Skeletal spillover layer with sharp base and w e l l - d e v e l o p e d fining-up sequence; core no. 2 in Fig. 15.
27
C O A R S E N I N G - UP W A R D
BOTTOM
F i g = 17. Core t h r o u g h Sandy Key bank s h o w i n g t y p i c a l coarsening-upward sequence ( c o r e no. 5 i n F i g . 1 5 ) . Note u p w a r d s t r a n s i t i o n from l a y e r e d l i m e mudstone t o t h i n layers of skeletal packstone (earlier storm spillovers), to bioturbated ~ackestone to the top spillover unit of skeletal pack- to grainstone produced by Hurricane Donna.
28
2.9.
Summary
and conclusions
(I) Storm
effects
directed
Mind-drift
Safety
Valve
stress
the
commonly
nearshore
currents.
(Biseayne
caused
lobes
in shallow
Bay)
and Sandy
formation
consist
water
In nearshore Key
sand
and gravel,
in contrast
spillover
lobes
in 8ahamian
oolite
The
stratigraphy
generated Thus
lobes
storm
non-reef
efifects
skeletal
also
Wanless,
(2)
Three
a) after lized
by This
of nearshore
bedrock
and
the
Sandy
b)
Progressive
production)
bank
margins.
(e.g.
These
a common 1973;
Wilson,
increasing
the
banks
lag:
(Fig.
and
stormgrowth.
and molding
environments
(see
in the s t o r m - a f f e c t e d
18):
"mudbank"
(see also
Basan,
phase
Turmel
1975)
stage,
]973;
of both
development
of beaches
and
by the
tops.
(2)
often
Turmel the
loca-
& S~anson~
Satiety
thus
rates
of storms
sand
lobes
Valve
margin
Safety
types
in
and
(l)
a
facies.
Shallowing-up banks
ancient in
seaward
into
Valve.
understandable
winnowing
skeletal
of carbonate
1976)
of carbonate
on the
differentiation
a windward
present
& S~anson,
(high
frequency
the
in many
of modern
environments the context
of
impact.
of h u r r i c a n e - g e n e r a t e d
lead eventually
evidence
of shoal
and
~ater
as subaqeous
cause
become
storm
and
shallower
effects
pattern
increments
show
carbonate
1977).
successive
in c o n s t r u c t i n g
distinguished
the early
material
facies,
shallowing
stages
be
into
processes
muddy
(e.g.
cation
may
topography
growth
upward
e) Further
role
nearshore
carbonate
is represented
Basan~
that
accretion
of
cross-bedded Hine,
implies
represents
skeletal
interior stage
These
larger 1967;
to bank
transgression
increased
aecreting
This
lobes. layers
banks
in
wind
Key banks.
and
sequences~
(Ball,
as the
onshore
sediment
to the much
onshore
1979a).
stages
stage
Bay)
significantly
play an important
the initial
1976).
banks
fining-upward
shoals
the studied
buildups
1978,
major
development
bank
of
contribute
such
oriented
sharp-based,
skeletal
by
skeletal
(Florida
of onshore
of
are dominated
and shell
to subaerial islands.
for vadose
sand
lobes
spillover
In the
diagenesis~
cause lobes
Fossil
pedogenesis
further
and to the
record,
such
and k a r s t i f ~
29
These
three
stage
into
trolled
stages a
illustrate
"shell
by h u r r i c a n e
crements
onto
(3)
conclusion,
In
the
contribute
carbonate
banks,
by b u i l d u p
such
storm-molded
Egypt
(Aigner,
SW-Germany
build-
t
EVENT
(see
island"
spillovers
transition stage.
This
deposited
from
an i n i t i a l
transition
episodically
"mudbank"
is l a r g e l y
con-
as d i s c r e t e
in-
banks.
hurricanes
islands
the
onshore to
the
wind
comparable
to the m o r e
of s u b m a r i n e carbonate
1982b; part
1983)
drift
construction
shoals.
banks and
are
and w a v e s and
familiar
Possible nummulite
erinoidal
banks
during
buildup
storms
and
of
nearshore
formation
of b a r r i e r
ancient banks in the
analogues
in the
Eocene
Muschelkalk
for of of
If).
ACCRETION
OF CARBONATE
BANKS
time
Fig. 18. Model for episodic sediment accretion by storm-induced onshore wind d r i f t as an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r for the b u i l d u p of n e a r s h o r e c a r b o n a t e banks. I n i t i a l " m u d b a n k s " may develop behind local paleohighs (e.g. initial Safety Valve b e h i n d Key L a r g o ridge) and b e c o m e s t a b i l i z e d by s e a g r a s s . Onshore directed wind drift during storms piles skeletal material as s p i l l o v e r l o b e s onto s e a w a r d b a n k m a r g i n s and w i t h time l e a d s to the d e v e l o p m e n t into " s k e l e t a l banks" (present stage of S a f e t y V a l v e ) . F u r t h e r i n c r e m e n t s of s t o r m a c c r e t i o n r e s u l t s in the f o r m a t i o n of b e a c h e s and "shell islands" (present Sandy Key area).
30
3
S T O R M
IN
BAY
The F l o r i d a
example
a dominant
currents,
caused
gradient
SHELF
AREAS
(NORTH
SEA)
storm
In c o n t r a s t ,
involve
transport
(i)
from These
water
processes
directed
by a d e e p e n i n g
currents.
nearshore
with
onshore
role.
settings
sediment
dealt
where
subtidsl
and
O N
Introduction
environments, play
M E N T A T I
O F F S H O R E
GERMAN
3.i.
S E D I
the
effects
of
of the
of
wave
the
coastal
to shelf currents
and
are
in drift
stirring
gradient
set-up
wind
shallow
nearshore
currents
and w a v e s
storms
seafloor base,
and
regions
offshore
(2)
lateral
by o f f s h o r e
compensate
often
in
by o s c i l l a t o r y
for
enhanced
flowing
wind-stress by
ebb-tidal
currents,
Apart
from
a variety
especially storms (a)
distance
source
for
effects
The storm
their
in the
from
decrease
of this
(2)
storm
layers
along
such
"proxima]ity
storm-depositional
This
chapter
Wilhelmshaven, from
Aigner
is
nearshore
sand
sheets;
increasing
chapter
to
the
sand
facies
(b)
of
sedimentary
controlled
by
serves
local
to p r o v i d e
with
gradient
storms, record
two
of
factors:
as a s e d i m e n t
waterdepth:
an a c t u a l i s t i c currents
demonstrate
systematic
coastal-offshore
transects~
trends"
nature
storm
depth.
is (i)
associated
the
1982),
be largety
the
storm
concerning
(Allen,
should
land:
with
sedimentation
environments,
factors
duration
offshore
offshore
object
of
may
be a p p l i e d
changes and to the
example
in more in the
(])
to
analysis
of
offshore nature show
of how
of a n c i e n t
systems.
based
supervised
& Reineck
on
work
at
by Prof.Dr.
(1982).
the H.-E.
Senckenberg-Institute Reineck,
and
draws
in
largely
31
Methods
3.2.
26 v i b r o c o r e s ,
varying
collected
along
German
Bay
(Fig.
using
detailed
analysis ment~
percentage
2.
frequency
quantitative
5.
thickness
6.
mean
degree
Study
The
study
between
is
3
"" - - ~ v /
area
and
area and
this
were
per
and
13
box
transects
study.
peels
Cores
(relief
casts)~ For
cores
across ~ere by
the
studied
grain
statistical
size
treat-
determined:
core;
(= storm
events)
per
cross-lamination
of shelly
of storm
w~thin
(using
previous
meter
against
core; total
situated island more
macrotidal are
sand
sand the
in some
in each
storm
layers;
core;
layers;
layers;
classification
of Reineek,
1963).
work
is
and
fauna
sands
of storm
storm
the
3m
tides
3 m,
by X - r a d i o g r a p h y .
thickness
sequences
to the m,
type
bidiurnal.
in of
the
inner
Helgoland
than
30 m.
with
open
Tidal
part
(Fig.
This tidal
currents
part
of the 19). of the
flats; trend
German
Mater
mean mainly
Bay,
depths
German
coast
tidal
range
WNW-ESE
and
#
STUDY AREA
composition
between
- "
layers layers
distribution
B~sum
belongs
partly
of b i o t u r b a t i o n
3.3.
I and
present;
and m a x i m u m
7. b e d f o r m
for
epoxy
of w a v e - r i p p l e
of sand
between
offshore-shoreface
used
parameters
of sand
4.
range
and
of sand
3. p e r c e n t a g e amount
were
logging~
following
i.
8.
west-east 19)
(sieving)
the
in length
.........
~o,.,
Fig. 19. vibrocores
Study area and b o x c o r e s
in the G e r m a n Bay, taken (from Aigner
North Sea, & Reineck,
with p o s i t i o n s 1982).
of
32
ONSET
I
f
PEAK
/ dl ~
WANING
f
3 0 KM i
i
Fig. 20. Current m e a s u r e m e n t s in the German Bay during a storm surge~ after Gienapp & Tomczak (1968). Note weak onshore currents during onset of the storm period, in contrast to strong offshore gradient currents during the peak and ~aning stages of the storm.
33
exceed
80 cm/sec.
dcminates blow m
from
are
this
most
During
Wave
from
W
and
frequent
for
the
sea
(Gienapp
The
sedimentary
(1967,
Facies coastal part
can
example stage
3.4.
be
set-up, 1968;
Reineck
omitted parallel
relic
of a m o d e r n
North
Bay,
where
sands
(Reineck,
"graded
a
shelf"
shoreline
storms wave
gradient
cm/sec
1973;
see
by
been
(3)
shelf
Fig.
1975). which
20).
Reineck
et
three
This wedge
therefore
be v i e w e d
1978)
in
(1)
particular
sediment
Johnson~
main
distinguished:
]969) (el.
and
detailed
Holocene may
al.
(1972)
profiles
mud.
6
at 2 m above
& Singh
In b e a c h - s h e l f
and
(DHI
consequently
have
of
currents,
Reineck
394-397);
mainly
heights
151
studied
pre-
which
in O c t o b e r - D e c e m b e r
reached
to shore zone,
and Sea,
Gienapp,
p.
here.
trending
winds
(1969),
(1980,
transition
German
overlaps
an
as an
advanced
of e q u i l i b r i u m .
Storm
stratigraphy:
3.4.1.
Supra-
Thin,
irregular
along
the
storm are
&
and
N-S
extensively
& Singh
(2)
the
Flowing
wind
was
Gadow
sand,
of the
eastern
& Tomezak,
running
Pleistocene
In the
coastal
by R e i n e c k
belts
to strong
offshore
facies
1968),
descriptions
due
in J a n u a r y - M a y
surges,
compensate
reviewed
of
NW,
direction.
storm
bed
attack
and
often
scale
the
intertidal
and
North
Sea
flooding
descriptions
coast
have
or
fan-shaped,
spillover
lobes
shell
long
1929;
21)
layers
discontinuous
(Richter,
lobate
storm
(Fig.
layers
been
recognized
H~ntzschel, thus
that
in s ~ r a t i d a i
1936;
resembling have
been
to
sediments
be
caused
Reineck,
on a much described
1962).
by They
more
modest
in the
Florida
example.
On the have
intertidal recorded
consist
flats,
several
of a sharp
graded),
types
erosional
(1977)
was
able
to make
of
tidal
flat
a case
erosion
(1962, of
1977)
storm
base,
parallel-laminated
depth layer.
Reineck
followed
sands
and
for
in-situ
was
equal
and
deposits.
a
by
Wunderlich Most
reworked
wave-rLppled reworking
to the
they
shells
(often
top.
Reineck
showing
thickness
(1979)
commonly
that
of a new
the storm
34
3.4.2.
Shoreface
storm
Vibrocores
from
sequences
ranging
of such
sand
turbation are
often units
Similar
the
present of
Bay
during
3.4.3.
Proximal
transition
relatively called
probably
The
analogues. paved
by
sands
which
(low-angle
and
of
by Bio-
sequences
amalgamations
of
Kumar
sand
Sanders and
of
can
sediments
be s u p p o r t e d
documented
in s e v e r a l
as
examples.
shoreface
has
ridges
(1976)
ancient
conclusion
(1983)
and
&
modern
landward
areas
of the
layers
of R e i n e c k
storm
et a i . ( 1 9 6 7 ,
cm
sands
area be
to a few
due
(Fig. found
surfaces
marks
may
layers,
proximal weakly
may
1980).
Due
to the
scale
of
hummocky
is not
possible.
also
graded. with
well
Harms small
sands
in
Laminations
be
1975;
sample
size
in
of the
lamination~
proximal
which
however,
beds
is most
"hummocky
may
common
are
inclined type
of
cross-stratiBourgeois,
relative
top
cm.
laminated
This
a definite
at the
often
several
1979;
be e n t i r e l y
irr-
ancient
slightly
& Walker,
vibrocores
cross-stratification,
Some
to
discordances.
to
may
these
often
of p a r a l l e l
often
be the
beds
of
surfaces
up
to
mud;
erosional,
These
by
may
storms.
surfaces
are
Hamblin
shelf
lasting
consist
internal
equivalent
et al.,
"proximal"
of
thickness
mostly
minor
such
are
be o b s e r v e d .
which
proximity
or long
guttered
ranging
tempestites
lamination)
(e.g.
storm
the
characterized
layers,
close
water
strong
is
sand
Hoeever,
deeper
of p r o x i m a l
1968) dm)
their
21).
resembling
Impact
to
in
exceptionally
fication"
cave-ripple
Wunderlich
(several
scoured
stratification
followed
storms.
zone
are
by
various
This
also
Internally,
from
record
storm
shell
bases
lamination.
parts
contacts
geologic
represent
basal
erosive
21).
deposits.
source
regularly
characteristic
The
layers,
upper
the
"proximal"
shoreface
the
storm
thick
occasionally
but
described
shoals
cm.
shell
of
study.
shoe
13o
by c a v e - r i p p l e
Erosive
(Fig.
been
shoreface
German
by
that
largely
shifting
paved
cores,
deposits"
speculated
commonly 5 and
be o v e r l a i n
bioturbated.
have
storm
facies between
often may
conspicuous
sequences
consists
sand
in most
slightly are
"shoreface
The
are
which
is m i n i m a l
such
by
coastal
in t h i c k n e s s
sequences
laminated
They
the
layers
to
the
statement
composed of many
of
beds.
35 STORM cores SHELF
STRATIFICATION MUD
TRANSITION
COASTAL
SAND
J
o
.~--'~.-~I~i I~ i- ~ ' ~ - ' -
I
\
\ \
"\
\
"',
~\
\
\
\,
1~0
"\
\
fl M )!. )1:2.
2
[Qminated
storm
very thin s e n d / s i f t wove - r i p p l e s
N
sand/silt
layers
storm
~ayers
x - {ominQtion
weak bloturbahon ~1; m o d e r o t e - s t r o n g ~
bloturbahon
very strong b~oturbohon
she~[ ~ayet S [~
mud
sequences graded sheL~y graded rhythmite cm "mud tempestite'~
~m
mud -blcmk e~ ]~
s~lt l~m~Qe
DISTAL
PROXIMAL
36
Fig. 21. Storm s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in the G e r m a n Bay. U p p e r part: logs of vibrocores collected along one of the nearshore-offshore transects from the coastal sand facies to the t r a n s i t i o n zone to the z o n e of s h e l f mud with d e c r e a s i n g n u m b e r and t h i c k n e s s of storm sand layers. Lower part: schematic diagram s h o w i n g p r o x i m a l and d i s t a l f a c i e s of t y p i c a l s t o r m sand s e q u e n c e s ( f r o m A i g n e r & R e i n e e k , ]982).
The
top
only
surface
been
Most
of
the
turbated
may
also
documented proximal
mud w h i c h
show in
beds was
mud-filled
ancient are
overlain
deposited
scours,
examples by
during
which
(Goldring a
thin
so
unit
the w a n i n g
far
& Aigner, of
stages
have 1982).
non-bio-
off the
storm
events.
J.4.4.
Distal
Thinner
iayers
(up to just
layers, as
storm
which
"distal"
a
of
sand
However,
source. in
the
effects
any
record
mostly
erosional,
spicuously
thin
in
as pure end
distal
As
in
3.5.
Proximality
silt
only
of s t o r m
were
layers
are
ripple
appear
mostly
sharply
seem
cut
to
vary
they
sandy
do-
enough
to
layers
are
non-erosome-
is
con-
part
is
mud.
through
towards
coastal
laminated,
the
to
water
also
Here,
cross-lamination
bioturbation They
the
storm
of n o n - b i o t u r b a t e d
that
referred
strong
may
equivalents,
blanket
mud
are
not
and
minor
layers zone.
sand/silt
deeper
from
of d i s t a l
storm
proximal
by a thin
be
away
transition
they
rhythmites,
may
lateral
cases
"mud-tempestites".
member
and
of the
some
mud,
further
The b a s e s
although
Finer-grained
the
which
show
distal
sand
waters
of n o n - b i o t u r b a t e d
preted
are
storms
rare.
and
of s h e l f
They
water.
overJain
Sequences burrows
zone
21).
of m i n o r
graded
typically
mostly
in d e e p e r
Internally~ as
and
tempestites~
such
shallower
leave
sional.
in the
(Fig.
proximal
cument
times
mm)
predominate
tempestites
equivalents
abundant
few
the
top
represent
an
underlying are
inter-
extremely
sedimentation.
trends:
results
and
discussion
of
statistical
treatment
The
systematic
coastal documented
sand
changes to
by m e a n s
in
the
proximal
nature and
of t r a n s e c t s
of
distal (Fig.
22A)
storm
stratification
("proximality and by m a p s
trends") (Fig.
23).
from are
37
3.5.1.
The
Percentage
percentage
distance
The
Frequency
that
22A,23). served
a)
in
likely can
b)
meters
thick.
the
core
shore
The
should
affect
as the
previous
tial
of
In w a t e r
storm
further
away leave
of
storm-
waters.
an
"optimum"
transition the
tend
to two
many
into
in
facies
frequency
to be h i g h l y
is,
a
(Fig.
of
pre-
factors:
amalgamated
storm
subsequent
yet
away
the
is
beds ones,
are which
the record
than
appear
sediment
the
as
"per
layers
per
responsible:
influx
from
near-
shore;
b)
water
erosion
and
suspension
same
the
time
"optimum", and
may
depth:
thus
"optimum", each
therefore
better
and
layers
than
post-event
the
of
storm
and
the
much
on
expressed
deci-
of
waters.
the
coast
several
of s t o r m
factors
depth,
shallower
of
be
beds
frequency
from
with
at
to
of s t o r m
probability
to r e w e r k i n g deeper
tend
Two m a i n
of p r e s e r v e d
effects
from their
shelf"
reduced.
in d e e p e r
events
the
the
In w a t e r
bottom,
capacity
to be due
that
frequency
decrease
due
seems
layers
areas,
decreases
optimum"
sea
(disregarding
storms
the
land:
decrease
records
the
sequences
continually.
follows.
potential.
storm
offshore
effects
"graded
out;
distal,
sources
with
progressively
offshore
shows
facies,
and to be r e w o r k e d
Therefore
"frequency
plained
storm
core
"cannibalistic",
area,
from
called
deeper
to
sand
mhieh
artificially
wave
sediment
~ater,
out
decreases
sand
coastal
becomes
distance
since
equivalent
singled
shoreface
core"
Towards
a)
be w i p e d
be
mud
to the d e c r e a s i n g towards
per m e t e r
decreases,
even
may
consistently
of
layers
in the
shallow
be
due
decreases
proportion
pattern
sands
layers
roughly
layers
longer
in the
meter
of s t o r m
probably to
no
meter
is
very
and most
is
core
the
This
~hich
Landward,
storm
23).
of s t o r m
meter
while
to t r a n s p o r t
frequency
zone
22A,
1978),
flows
per
land,
(Fig.
(Johnson,
3.5.2.
of s a n d
from
increases
induced
of sand
has the
the
be
ex-
more
storms
to
erase
tends
a low p r e s e r v a t i o n preservation
record
bioturbation).
in
deeper
water,
sea
bottom
and
more
poten-
complete
Nevertheless, fewer
their
and
fewer
transport
38
SHELF
MUD
iTRANSITION l CHANNEL
IllPROXIMALITY
"S ,
,
,
,
STORM S A N D S : HISTOGRAMS
o
5HOREFA CE
I
3
5
7
9
II
13
t5
~o
~m
thickness of siorrn sands • -
-
lo
T/ON
5o
% X-lamination
]
I.
30
!
25 20 ;5 ~0
max.
thickness
,
mean
1
,
,
,
I
,
,
thickness
C120
.............. T - ~
graded
2
4
6
@ 10
12
l&
50 100 10}turn
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
50 lO0 m m
2
& , 5
8
10
12
14
50ram
2
4
6
8
~O
12
~Z.
SOmm
0
I ./"
r
%
5
rhythmites
I
i
.....
3
5
I'5
bathymetry
]
!
f 'o A~ ~o
.~" distance
from
mainland
in k m
B
~g. 22. A) P r o x i m a l i t y t r e n d s as o b s e r v e d in vibrocores along nearshore-offshore transect. The p e r c e n t a g e and f r e q u e n c y or s t o r m sands, the percentage of wave-ripple cross-lamination and of graded rhythmites, the maximum and m e a n t h i c k n e s s of s t o r m l a y e r s d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r d e p t h and i n c r e a s i n g distance from land. Note also "optimum" of p r e s e r v e d s t o r m layer f r e q u e n c y in t r a n s i t i o n zone. B) H i s t o g r a m s s h o w i n g the t h i c k n e s s of s t o r m sands in selected vibrocores along a nearshore (top) o f f s h o r e ( b o t t o m ) t r a n s e c t . In the c o a s t a l sand f a c i e s (top) only few very t h i c k s t o r m l a y e r s are present (shoreface storm deposits). In the transition zone, thicker ( " p r o x i m a l " ) beds o c c u r in a d d i t i o n to a vast n u m b e r of thin and very thin ones, whereas in the zone of s h e l f mud, thin ( " d i s t a l " ) s t o r m l a y e r s are d o m i n a t i n g , but they p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s e in n u m b e r (from A i g n e r & R e i n e c k , 1982).
39 ++
/ I! / / /
i i
,+ P.: +"
'
+-
°+N
~o,.+.~,.,
.
< _o|II
",++:;
+
"~++
~m+. +
-
:'i' +
::::::::::::::.::::::::::m:::::::::::::
":~- ~+~,+. +.,+~+.+.+,+.+..........
+", +++
I O f
er
+
'
+~
~, ] +','
;
Z
"+
Y~ ~"+" " '" i-++=.~.,. + |
m
+
,
+ 0
++_+<
~ . . , i : + ++-+ :~++++~+? .+
Fig.
198~1.
23.
+ :J °"
Proximality
trends
-+++?+~/ +,
i+
shown
in
maps
(from
..
Aigner
0~0
+.+<+ mZ-m & Reineck,
40
capacity per
decreases,
unit
time,
and
resulting
in a d e c r e a s i n g
if s e d i m e n t a t i o n
rates
are
number
of s t o r m
comparable,
by
layers
unit
of
thickness.
Within
the
layers
is
transition
found
in an area
channel
(SOderpiep).
parallel
to
mouth
of
storms, out
From
of ~ave
ripples
and w a v e
amount
of
sand
areas
decrease
In very
shallow
are
less
the
storm
On
the
the
absence
3.5.4.
Storm
The one a
to
water,
thickness
given
facies,
a
storm still
are
addition
the
failed
leave
to
wave
the
may
same
in
areas
ripples
not
tidal
strictly
outside
suggest,
shelf
mud,
the
that
during
and
spread
~ater (Fig.
are
"eaten
up"
from
upper
~ater, to
the
total
frequency very
of
shallow
zone),
formed
then
but
wave-rippled
by s u b s e q u e n t
be due
percentage
a
23).
commonly
the
deeper
primarly
as the
(transition
22A,
most
the
against
pattern
abundance
because
in r e l a t i v e l y
probably
in
are
abundant number
record
layers
to the
however,
small
relatively any
of s t o r m due
histograms
sands")
to a vast
indicate
major
channels
cross-lamination
preserved
relatively
("shoreface
would tidal
offshore
deeper
distal
In g e n e r a l ,
there
a are
progradation
This
increase
distribution
area.
of
contours
of s t o r m
below
the
storm
storm
they
part
wave
absence
of
events.
of
base, oscil-
thickness
most
be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
the
ripple
is c o m m o n l y
hand,
layer
locality,
frequency
manner.
slightly
of r i p p l e s
flows.
mouth
through
basically
towards
sequences
latory
23).
towards
an
frequently
other
the
frequency
tongue-like
(Fig.
shows first
general
of m a x i m u m
of c r o s s - l a m i n a t i o n
tongues
shoreface
show
in a f a n - l i k e
layers:
zone
outside
transported
sand
storm
just
channel
Percentage
the
but
is m o s t l y
shelf
the
Similarly,
coast
this
on the
3.5.3.
the
sand
zone,
the
(Fig.
number
of thin
and
(i)
of t h i c k (2)
very
the
thin
the
complete
record
in d e e p e r
waters.
storm
The
found
to
sand
sand
layers
transition
zone,
tempestites") layers.
of the s m a l l e r (3)
are
over
coastal
thick
("proxima]
at any
of s t o r m s
patterns in
to very In
beds
considerably
strength
following
22B):
present. thicker
varies
unequal
zone
This
storms of
shelf
in may
which mud
41
exhibits and
only
a small
fine-grained
lacking
Both
core
mean show
22A,23). same
A
a
thicknesses general
map
pattern
storm
layers
which
thicker
in
given the
mean
& Reineck
DSrjes
(in
et
al.,
benthic allows
"tracers"
of
shell
1958)
maerofauna the
sediment
ALLOCHTHONY s h el f
Gadow
thickness
storm
the
m u d
use
are
beds
generally
are
of s t o r m
has
(Fig.
thin
practically
the
during
transition
sand
German
of
to
(1969)
storm
layers
offshore
(Fig.
shows
basically
the
layers.
24)
established
reworked
STORM
thicknesses
nearshore
beds
in of
transport
IN
maximal
by
in
zonation
the
from
Allochthony
Reineck
and
decrease
3.5.5.
of
of
tempestites");
here.
the
per
number
("distal
a zoological
Bay.
This
shells
in
zonation
well-established storm
layers
as
storms.
SHELL coastal
BED tidal
sand
flat
depth 10 m
20
distal parautochthonous
40
20 distance
10 k m f=
proximal mixed a t l o c h t h o n o u s / parautochth.
Fi 9. 24. H e w o r k e d s h e l l s in s t o r m l a y e r s can be u s e d as "tracers" for storm transport. P r o x i m a l s t o r m l a y e r s are d o m i n a t e d by a l l o c h t h o n o u s e l e m e n t s i m p o r t e d from tidal flats and tidal channels by offshore boltom return currents (gradient currents). The amount of al]ochthonous elements decreases away from the shore and distal storm layers are entirely composed of ~ i n n o w e d but p a r a u t o c h t h o n o u s softbottom assemblages (l = H y d r o b i a ulvae, 2 = C a r d i u m edule, 3 = Barnea candida, 4 = Spisula subtruncata, 5 = N u c u l a n i t i d a , 6 = A b r a alba, 7 = Abra n i t i d a , 8 : H a c o m a b a l t i c a , 9 = Angulus tenuis~ 10 : Venus f a s e i a t a , iI : g a s t r o p o d s , 12 = A l o i d e s q i b b a ) .
42
Pro×imal valves
storm
beds
include
together
with
allochthonous
candida,
Petricola
littorea, duced
Mytilus
from
several
duced
layers
shells
shells
These
data
storms
dereases
3.6.
Several shore
have
storm
1972),
(Hayes,
1967;
1981),
(4)
Hamblin
storm
surge
purely
wave-induced
(Nelson,
1982),
al.,
model
and
1983).
offshore situation.
action
and
enhancement
in this
case
(Reineck
i.e.
sediment
the German
Allen's
the N-S
(1982)
minor
spillover-like
sand
transport
layers,
generally
non-
forms.
transport
during
(Cook
1980b;
&
mechanisms
Wright
&
with
Reineck, et al., 1981),
a detailed
which tidal
is partly
Gadow
and storms coastline
supratidal shallow
at a
high winds
onshore
shell
layers
shoreface
1979), (7)
(6)
storm-
liquefaction (Swift
to
applicable
to the
however,
inter-
to be significant 1969).
laboratory"
for
from the W and NW,
angle. generate
flows
(5)
wave-stirring
a "natural come
ebb
1969),
flows
& Reineck,
mainly
blowing
these
appears
Walker,
storm
semiquantfitative
influence,
ebb currents
1967,1968;
with
&
current
storm-wave
currents
off-
currents
Brenchley
presented
the
currents
currents
with
to
(I) w i n d - d r i f t
geostrophie-oscillatory
onshore
the
conintro-
rip
Reineck,
be considered
direction~
within
&
combined
through
running
model,
same
1978;
transport,
winds
in the
a
of
imported
supply
density
Gadow
(Hoi~ard
et al.,
are
Walker,
1968;
(Johnson,
Bay may
acting
show
storm
but
sediment
(2)
storm-wave
Due to the strong
sedimentation: attack
them 1981),
of w i n d - i n d u c e d
present
In a way,
1967,
(1982)
explain
distal
for sediment
]979;
(8) combined
Allen
lateral
intro-
Samples
laterally
occasional
wave-induced
currents
for a combination
storm
of
currents
bottom
tansects
In
very
Among
Morton,
& Walker,
ebb currents
associated
that
combined
et al.,
respectively.
~innowed,
only
proposed
1972;
combinations
(Reineck
24).
Littorina
clearly
s t o r m processes
been
(3)
edule,
are
bi-
Barnea
shore.
events.
& Sternberg,
currents
view
include
of allochthonous,
(Fig.
~ith
from the
stratigraphy:
during
Gorsline,
et
the
away
mechanisms
(Creager
faunas
confirm
Dynamic
flats
parautochthonous,
soft-bottom
parautochthonous
latter
which
nearshore-offshore
the offshore
largely
ulvae
tidal
in the percentage
toward
are
displaced
across
or
The
Cerastoderma
and Hydrobia
channels
decrease
of winnowed
elements.
pholadiformis ,
edulis
tidal
storm
sistent
a mixture
are
According drift
to
currents
recorded
(Fig.
25)
and
zone
as
documented
in
in onshore by
43
_
g --I
0 I,r,,'
"o
03-0
03~
~
4J~
CG4~
t
ILl
&) E
Q3 CO ~
-0
~ o
~ 0
X
I-Z ~
m
o
o-o
~J c
.i
~
E
0
R
ILl
0 "r"
0
4-J CO CO ~ - ~ 03 ,~-I 007:3 © ~ 4 D (/]
0
~
O
o
c
~ ~
03 03
~
E'o
c ~4Jx3
co
,,,,,,J
i
,~ G) E 0 0
¢4 C~,'-~
¢4 4.a ID~ 0 q ~ ~ q--
~
o3
r-
o
~3 o O~
X 0
O, W.
~
O
,,-I
~Z
~ © '-~
~-
o3
03 COO
O
03 E ~ 43 03 © C0 O ¢4 ©
r-4~ 03 " ~
O3 0 3 4 J 4-)
4D E q-
o o
(D
It~
0
0 o
~
o
m,,~ ~ "o
44
Wunderlieh
(1983).
documented
by
25).
On
winds
create
stirring
shells
being
reworked
open
shelf
the
against
the
Gienapp
&
gradient
gradient
currents flow
offshore
velocities as p r o x i m a l
and
50-
~o
storm
intertidal
bottom~ for
measurements
have
as 151
(2)
strong
to t r a n s p o r t
]ayers
(Fig.
layers
flowing
that
sand
(Fig.
offshore
water
cm/sec (1)
set-up. such
with the
gradient
and
as
onshore
measured
confirm
and
flats
however,
coastal
(1973)
as high
currents,
SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
storm
sea
the
Gienapp
These
on tidal
channels,
compensating
gradient
sufficiently
erosion
main
velocities
direction.
to distal
into
wiLhin
and
found
causes
near
and
(1968)
flowing
are
and
currents
~ind-drift Tomczak
to n o r t h w e s t of
Wave
west model
current
to d e p o s i t
it
25).
STORM SAND LAYER
3O
o"
iNFERRED FLOW
EIB" " i)/~
~. ~
=l
i~
i "
VELOCITY
ClTI
(SUNDBORG
i
_ , o7)
30-1
10
20t
40 35 30
10
cmls
0
L
A
Fig. 26__. Grain size analysis (right> of one storm sand layer
(left> (middle>
and from
hydraulic the German
interpretation Bay.
45
The
mode
storm
17o-2oo
transport
of them
the
26),
suspension,
are
fine
from
to
very
have
shown
to go d i r e c t l y
into
suspension
McCave
storm
most
can be e s t i m a t e d
(1971)
and
~im tend
Since
(Fig.
in
Most
(1966)
1981). Hm
storm
layers.
Bagnold than
of
layers
of the
analyzed
storm
supporting
sands
here
earlier
fine that
are
appear
the
grain
sands quartz (see
assumptions
to
silts.
grains
finer
Wanless,
finer
than
been
of
of
also
largely
to have
size
200
transported
Reineek
& Singh
(]972).
3.7.
~he
AE~lications
proximality
reflect and
the
distance
parts
trends
from
of
mentary
faces,
and
facies
direction
mater
depth
ripple
more,
proximality
which source: to
the
should linear
, preferent~ally indicate (3)
impact
suggested and
marks
Bourgeois
other
may
shed
light
sand
sources
shoreline
and
on the be on
transformed two
should
parallel
factors: be to
(1)
the
same
of s t o r m
insight
the sedi-
can sand
sand, of the
storm
(1982)
and
be e s t i m a t e d
by
layers.
Further-
contour-type
the
nature
in
contours
bathymetry,
sur-
into
with
& Clifton
into
reflected
1982a).
out"
Orientation
associated
Hunter
of s t o r m
the
isochronic
source
parameters
top
Aigner,
the
and
for
nearshore).
further
currents
counter-
lateral
a tool
show
by
the
maps depth
to " e v e n
geometry.
give
(1980),
hydraulic
characteristics trends
may
may
storm
(i)
of
(cf.
bound
basin
and of b o t t o m
by
storm
and
mater
fossil
provide
in o r d e r
as a w e a k e r
and
attack
others,
(a h e a v y
areas
in
systems
preferred
may
of wave
wave
therefore
trends
and
As
been
increasing
understanding
trends,
scours
events.
should
of t r a n s e c t s
with
recognized
better
parameters
se~gnces
proximality
trends
depositional
has
in o f f s h o r e
by m e a n s
of s t o r m s
a
storm
approach
(2) p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c ripples,
Similar
sequences
of s t o r m
record
In l a t e r a l
shore.
ancient
above
effects
to
The s t a t i s t i c a l variability
documented
contribute
facies
analysis
27)
decreasing
should
vertical
(Fig.
of the
maps, sand
parallel
in c o n t r a s t
to
~. 27. Application of tempestite sequences to ancient storm depositional systems. Proximality trends help to understand lateral and vertical facies sequences and i n d i c a t e p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c t r e n d s . The s e q u e n t i a l and g e o m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t of s h o r e f a c e , proximal and distal t e m p e s t i t e f a c i e s may be used in b a s i n a n a l y s i s as a m o n i t o r of r e l a t i v e sea level f l u c t u a t i o n s .
46
APPLICATIONS a) facies analysis PROXIMALITY
TRENDS
-
~SENING
&
~ENING SEQUENCE
n
GRAIN SIZE
J BED THICKNESS AMALGAMATION ~
i
;
TEMPESTIT~ FREQUENCY
BIOTURBAHON . . . . . . .
parautochthonous
i
mixed fauna
;!
. . . . . . . . .
SHELL LAYERS
b) basin analysis MONITOR
OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES
?
STILLSTAND SHQREFACE ....
/
//"" Ol RELATIVE
AL
~"
RISE
a) high inpu t ....
t
.
.
.~ o~OGg AP~
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
~j1~'-~<~
.
.
.
.
.
non,marble
:,.~,/~/ ~
R_ELATIV_E
p p . O 7~.
?__~jj
,
./
I
47
channeled
point
contours;
(2)
sources,
and paleocurrent structing
data
size,
Proximality
should
familiar. ing
trends
sequences. They
of storm
followed tidal
the
to
storm
(Fig.
the
sequences. roughly
The
marks
Fig.
583)
while the
i.e.
of major
fining record
base
and thinning (Bourgeois,
Proximality
trends
of
cycles
facies
meters may
be
geometrical proximal
in
fluctuations stratigraphy lines
fossils remain
in
in
appear
- the
1981). range,
in
& Singh,
ripples
oscillatory
common
such facies
Reineck
denote
currents,
transgressive,
to be less
in
direct
transition
wave
Thick
be particularly
(both
order
fining-
that
distal the (Fig. (Vail
(provided surface
of
upward
in the geologic
in the meters
may
be
the
sequential
several
such
sequences
should
shed
record
caused
et
al.,
either
such 1977)
analysis, have
light
by further
should field
~ith on
markers
be available. in
as
a and
shoreface, small-scale
by relative
to be applied
studies
used
principles
by l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i c
exposures)
It
changes:
tempestites
For
of
sequences).
sequences
stratigraphic 27).
interpretation to a few tens
and c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d
sea level
of
useful
several
tempestite
of relative
to be tested
sequences.
27).
of
by
facies
& Reineck,
(cf.
ones,
be followed
paleotidal
and
of w a v e - i n d u c e d
(Fig.
thicken-
determined
waves
reach
the
relationships
and
cyclicity
storm
occurrence
sequences
should
speculated, monitor
be
last
storms
and
widely
1980).
in thickness
sensitive
time
maximal
(Howard
shoreface
of average
the
approximately wave
between
depth
are
by proximal
circumstances
may
recon-
vertical
of the shoreface
determine
~aves
of
sequences coarsening
of the coast to
for
shallo~-marine
in turn may
certain
(]971)
tool of
are overlain
which
of
isopach patterns
in the analysis
thickness
storm
boundary the
The
energy
of
potential
by an upward
deposits,
progradations
with
morphology
progradational
of Klein
range
a
and
is - under
wave
to the method
be
tempestites
27).
sequences
paleodepth
1980,
distal
by shoreface
fan-like
be valuable
are c h a r a c t e r i z e d
progradational
Similar
also
Regressive,
layers:
deposits
response
to
geometry
basins.
by
of such c o n t o u r - m a p s
appears
shape,
storm-depositional
facies
documented
Comparisons
sealevel
of
and or
seismic
isochronic by
index
These
predictions
ancient
tempestite
48
].8.
i.
Summary
Storm
and
conclusions
effects
involve
(])
sources
to
the the
compensate sediment
offshore
for n e a r s h o r e in
the
intercalated
with
2.
to
Similar
idealized North
wave-ripple blanket. in both
Laterally,
storm
in w a t e r - d e p t h several sands
with
the
blankets
several i.).
in d i s t a n c e
Proximal
chthonous
and
shell
beds
elements
wave-ripples. soft-bottom
Mud
are
of
(tempest~tes)
or
by
due
a
layer
by (D)
(C) a mud
authors
to c h a n g e s
storm
beds
low-angle
Faunas
regarded
amal-
are
wh~le up
sequences
tidal
and
by w i n n o w e d
of
lacking,
including
and
sands
are
laminated
degree
vertical
flats
be
in the
low-angle
various
tempestites"
mixed
dominated
(A) or
is c o m m o n l y
"complete"
can
by
topped by
of a high
tidal
following found
overlain
"Shoreface"
laminated
tempestites
the
systems.
"Proximal
of
are
parallel
division
From
layers
that
been
significantly
8ecause
consist
HCS),
~hich
land.
show
has
recognized
varies
absent.
are m m - t h i n
Shell faunas.
base.
imported
tempestites"
currents,
parallel-
(probably
mostly
often
mainly sand
sheets
, succeeded
(8)
depositional
wave-rippled
completely
thick
sand
base by
been
From
and
at the
upper
are
cm
"Distal
thick
few s h e l l s
gamation~ mud
and
Bay
coastal
th'e deposition
turbidites,
ripples
have
storm
gradient (2)
4 divisions
erosional
stratification
decimeters
in
with
and ~ a v e
ancient
from
muds.
followed
sequences
and
storm
discordances
lamination
as the G e r m a n
shells
Flowing
set-up,
offshore
sharp
such
and
Bouma-sequenee
internal
and
seaward
of
shells,
Comparable modern
by
succession
tempestites:
with
areas
sands
background
the
reworked
lamination
5.
the
shelf
of
water
form
vertical
Sea
with
in o f f s h o r e transport
to (see
allo-
channels.
silts
~ithout
parautochthonous as
extreme
end
members.
4.
Systematic
storm
layers
nearshore events with
profiles.
with (2)
thickness
(1)
and
percentage
grain
size
of
wave
quantitative have
reflect distance
water
decreasing
generally
and
trends")
These
increasing
increasing
continuously turbation
qualitative
("proximality
depth.
as well trend
increases. ripple
the from
The
changes
decreasing the
coastal
degree
shallow frequency
cross-lamination
in the
recognized
The p e r c e n t a g e
as the
From
been
nature
in
effects sand
of sand,
of s t o r m
source storm
of a m a l g a m a t i o n
to d e e p e r of s t o r m shows
an
of
offshore-
water, layers
and layer
show
a
while
bio-
and
the
"optimum"
in the
49
transition of
a
zone
major
parameters maps
of
follow
finally
From
in
offshore
is
general
coast,
over
lateral
m water From
of t h e s e
the
spread
7-]5
channel.
the
several
is d e r i v e d
crease
(around
tidal
also
and
in an
decreasing
adjacent
offshore
trend.
suggest
that
transported
through
tidal
shelf
bottom
transport
documented
by
the
storms
faunal
the
mouth
storms,
channels
in sand
and
is
The
de-
nearshore
to
manner.
from
these
patterns
during
in a f a n - l i k e
during
to
direction,
Isoline
parameters
the
sediment
depth)
there
composition
of s h e l l y
tempestites.
5.
Turbidites
in
a
although many
the
therefore
and
in m o d e r n of
sequences, storm
Facies tional
shelf
proximality and
even
contribute
graphic
record
has
of
should
of
to
under
ideal
to
as a m o n i t o r
to a b e t t e r 27).
useful
(i)
basins. estimate
proximal of
understanding
applicable It
For is
recognized
tool
in
basin facies
source
Maps
area
computed
the
geometry
of from and
In v e r t i c a l
prograda-
the
range
The
depth
sequential
and
relative
1970), Despite
In l a t e r a l
the
trends.
circumstances.
of s h o r e f a c e ,
be u s e d
a
basins
basins. trends"
reconstruct
shallow-marine be p o s s i b l e
be
systems.
indicate
paleobathymetric help
should
"proximality
prove
deep Lovell,
valuable.
shallow-marine
general
should
1970;
more
of a p p r o a c h
trends
should
reconstruct 1987;
proven
depositional
it may
(Fig.
to
storm
(2)
parameters
waves
the
deposits
relationships may
methods
that
organisation
metrical facies
similar
used
(Walker~
for r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
sequences
paleo-storm
of a n a l y s i s fan c o n c e p t
ancient
sands
proximality
successfully
way
suggested
analysis
thus
been
submarine
differences,
tempestites
here
have
quantitative
distal
sea
of c y c l i c i t y
level in
and
of geo-
tempestite changes the
and
strati-
50
4. F I N A L
R E M A R K S
0 N
A C T U A L I S T I C
The
principle
past"
is
one
In r e c e n t are
of the
years,
being
Ager,
of u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m ,
increasingly
1981;
Shea,
1982;
generally
accepted
significant
in
suggested
A
the
application
years,
analogous from
Since to
et al.
general
be
more
sedimentary
the
processes strictly
processes
second
part
applied that
analogous Bay
(North
of to the some
it
is
geology.
1980;
now
are
(1981)
the
approach
& Singh,
events
Ager
models
modern
ancient Shelf
of shelf
sequences seas"
more
extremely
consequently
may
seas
& Nio~
"we
In very be
could 1982)
and
simply
1965).
that
epeiric
(Nelson
sedimentation
because
(Irwin,
seas
Sea)
and
products
ancient
this
patterns
it
from
elements
epicontinental of
seems
modern
epicontinental
study,
aspects
shows
of s e d i m e n t
uniformitarian,
have recent
considered
be and
gathered, the
North
of the
skeletal
are
likely
arise,
justified
above
and
that
to d e e p e r - w a t e r however,
In the
to
from
the
models
banks
modern
settings
It
is
may
be
German
of the
influences
as
following
Basin.
skeletal
use
seas
actualistie
Muschelkalk
Floridan
banks
dynamics
"epeirie-like"
deposits.
N. T r i a s s i c modern
parallels
Modifications
effect.
on
and
to s h a l l o w - w a t e r
Muschelkalk. Coriolis
to
to
uniformitarianism".
epeiric
data
(Reineck
particular,
record;
key
uniformitarian
catastrophic
aetualistic
for
the
in s e d i m e n t a r y
the
In
is
1981).
to i n t e r p r e t
shown
concepts to
1983).
rare,
Bering
a guide
are
are
more
somewhat
(Nio
Dott,
present
and d i s c u s s e d
to e p i c o n t i n e n t a l
especially Sea
used
realized
"catastrophic
models
however,
widely
stratigraphic
problem
existing
"the
limitations
that
the term
particular
their no
most
however,
M O D E L S
of
Upper the
Part
A N
A N C I
E N T
II
S T O R M
D E P 0 S I
I
I
0 N A
S Y S T E M :
D Y N A M I C
O F
I
S T R A T I G R A P H Y
N T R A C R A T 0 N i
U P P E R
( M I D D L E
C
C A R B O N A T E S
M U S C H E L K A L K
T R I A S S I C )
S O U T H - G E R M A N
BASIN
53
1 .
1.1.
Scope
of study
Epicontinental descriptive processes
sequences
a refined
control
More
on
the
mostly
however,
the
stratigraphy.
(1974,
1984)
recent
significance
as
work of
This
"event-stratification"
Triassic basin
In
"dynamic
Upper
in w h i c h
contrast
continental ramps"
highest
to
by
the
trends.
very
The
susceptible
Consequently
major
This
to
and
of
of
the
to
protective
should
platforms,
of
on
Einsele
&
the
a broader with
the
epicontinental
many
inclined by
epi-
"carbonate
banded
coastline
downslope
dis-
with
into
the
deeper
from
rimmed
"drop-off"
break
and
continuous
reef
swell,
storm
of
barriers waves
makes
and
be h y d r o d y n a m i c a l l y with
but
focussed
develop
it into
shelves,
the
differ
of a
established.
gently
hypsographic
such
(e.g.
a shallow
passing
Ramps
effects
systems open
shore
a sharp
lack
ramp
shelves
the
has
further
are c h a r a c t e r i z e d
parallel
advanced
Similarly, 5]
and
summarized
exemplified
"drop-off"
Fully
terms
been
SFB
is well
represent
ramps
deposits.
absence
reef
near
is
SW-Germany,
patterns
deposits
low-energy
shelves
rimmed
Carbonate
in
is to
This
continental-margin
facies
greatly
has
dynamic
techniques
have
to i n c o r p o r a t e
stratigraphy
sequences
and
stratification
chapter
and
in
decriptive
1973).
energy
water,
Muschelkalk the
of
of this
the
Their
being
record
approach
and
stratigraphy".
carbonate
(Ahr,
tribution
object
approaches
TObingen
but
from
stratigraphy".
the
bedding
Phanerozoie.
far
processes
"dynamic
1982).
of
new
new
within
Seilacher,
approach
The
are
stratigraphic
theme
of
the
well-established~ seas
of s e d i m e n t a r y
decipher
scale,
throughout
cratonie
recently,
to
Matthews
a smaller
common
is
such
understanding
ability
process-oriented by
are
stratigraphy
that
understood.
our
I N T R O D U C T I O N
ramps
storms.
different
processes
from
playing
a
role.
chapter
ecologic
data
integrates from
stratigraphic,
the e p i c o n t i n e n t a l
Muschelkalk
in
order
accumulation
in this
to
type
sedimentologic
carbonate
reconstruct
the
of s t o r m - d o m i n a t e d
sequence
dynamics
and of
paleo-
the
Upper
of s t r a t i g r a p h i c
intracratonic
basins.
54
1.2.
Hierarchical
Roving
approach
progressively
stratigraphic
DEPOSIT.
from smaller
sequences
1 0 2 y.
scale,
three
in a bed-by-bed
larger
manner
BASIN
DYNAMICS
10 2
-
stratigraphy
to
are analyzed
FACIES
DYNAMICS
~ hours
to dynamic
levels (Fig.
of
28):
DYNAMICS
10 4 - 10 6 y.
10 4 y,
~ig. 28. Schematic diagram illustrating simple approach towards a "dynamic stratigraphy" of storm-dominated basins based on a hierarchical analysis of three levels of s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequences (from Aigner, 1984).
i.
At the
lo~est
depositional
units
Stratification construction processes~ patterns)
level,
of mode
over
and
and
of
biota
over
sheds
light
short
facies longer
types,
depositional of
are analyzed
time
bio-
elements
as the
of
and ichnofabrics
dynamics
transport,
(e.g.
substrate
smallest
stratigraphy. allo~
the re-
erosional/depositional
changes
and
colonisation
spans.
level, (facies
time
on facies
strata
as the basic building
facies
2, At an intermediate changes
individual
scales dynamics
lateral sequences)
and and
are analyzed. (e.g.
vertical
development
corresponding Such
sequential
transgressive/regressive
changes
and of
analysis cycles).
55
3.
At a still
higher
level,
and packaging
of facies
is
over
analyzed
and their
still
regional i.e.
(sealevel,
subsidence
General
According Europe
(1982),
(Fig.
characterized
geometrical
intervals. give
arrangement
depositional
The hierarchy
insights
scales
network
29A).
into
basin
of cycles the
of baselevel
basin changes
early
In some
into
basins
of grabens
Central
29
of
and
the
European
Germanic
Nestern
extension
troughs.
thus
facies
They
Basin,
reflect
intraeratonic
i.e.
Buntsandstein (3)
the
the Triassic
province,
and
Central
induced
of the Pangean
formed
German
evaporites,
and
that
disintegration
(1) continental
and
in
crustal
and
by the so-called
carbonates
(Fig.
Triassic
by regional
in the
subdivision
Muschelkalk
and
the whole
of different
reorganisation
notably
partite
time
and stratigraphy
of a complex
supereontinent basins,
within
etc.).
controlled
plate
sequential
patterns
effects
to Ziegler
subsidence global
the
setting
are
longer
distribution
dynamics,
1.3.
the
sequences
a
clasties,
continental
is
tri(2)
Keuper
redbeds.
The
Germanic
Muschelkalk
intracratonie Tethys
sea
Anisian free
basin, (Fig.
(Kozur,
and
Tethys
during
Middle
induced between
the
renewed
later
clear-water
Ladinian
marks
sedimentation.
Musehelkalk
and
Tethys
in
and
Restricted
Anisian
(Kozur,
During
the
of the German
transgression
to
with
Muschelkalk
"winter-storm ~
Basin
zone
caused
late
the
& was
the
deposition
of
(Kozur,
the Tethys
inof
sedimentation.
The
and
continental
(1983},
within
in their
with
in
reestablishment
marine Klein
and
basins
Anisian
with
carbonate
to marginal
Marsaglia
open
transgression marginal
Basin
and
the
in the early
connections
1974)
very
from
sealevel
its
Europe.
a transition
of the German
dominated"
the Lower the
shallow-marine
High
rise
conditions
According
semi-enclosed
relative
evaporiteso
Muschelkalk
a
by the Vindelician
communication
the Upper
latitude
A
Northwestern
open-marine later
]974)
Muschelkalk
1974), duced
29B).
communication
Central
represents
separated
the
the
paleo-
"hurricane-
paleo-storm
model
(Fig.
29A). The Upper provinces coastal
Muschelkalk from
clastics
its
shows
the
margin
northwest
to
of the
following,
very
generalized
its
center
(Fig.
29C):
Vindelieian
High
(1)
facies
a zone
(Schr6der,
of
1967),
56
(2)
a
zone
lagoonal including
thick
alternations shore,
of variable
aspects,
(3)
composed
belt
accumulations
of thin
basinal
width a
argillaceous
of
of partly
massive,
of skeletal limestones
dolomitic
nearshore
and oolitic and
rocks
sediments,
marlstones
~ith
carbonates
in
(4) off-
areas.
Fig. 29. General setting of the Upper Muschelkalk. A Plate tectonic r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Triassic world (after Smith et al., 1981, for Anisian); arrow: possible pathway of storms and hurricanes using paleostorm model of Marsaglia & Klein (1983). B) Paleogeography of the Muschelkalk (Anisian and Ladinian) in Central Europe (simplified after Ziegler, 1982). C) Strongly generalized organisation and overall facies provinces in the S o u t h - G e r m a n Basin during the upper part of the Upper Muschelkalk, d i s e o c e r a t i t e s - b e d s (compilation of data from Wagner, 1913 a,b; Schr~der, 1967; Frank, 1937; Sch~fer, 1973; Duringer, 1982). Due to missing outcrops, facies boundaries are hypothetic in some areas. S = Stuttgart~ F = Frankfurt (from Aigner, 1984).
57
Descriptive
lithostratigraphic
SW-Germany beds.
is based
Among
and widespread etc.,
cf.
comprise (e.g.
71-76).
a fe~ thin
units
Figs.
shore
(e.g.
The
and many
oolitic
units
distinct
offshore
ealcilutite
1.4.
Previous
SW-Germany,
Upper
about
shell
and beds
skeletal
and
SchalentrOmmerbank", prominent
in nearshore study,
the
areas
the term
poorly
in offskeletal
but become "marlstone"
indurated
argillac-
20 - 40 % clay.)
are based
work
(1957)
has been
correlation.
(1969),
Gwinner
(1971)
include
BrOderlin
concerned
Following
Wirth
Gwinner
(1970),
with
was
refined
(1970),
and
respectively.
of Wagner
mainly
by Paul Geyer
(1970),
(1976).
Bachmann
sub-
(1936), & Gwinner
Bachmann
Microfacies (1973)
In
(1913a,b),
(1961),
G~inner
& Hinkelbein
Skupin
work
Merki
(1969),
and on conodonts
(1974)
lithostratigraphic
pioneer
(1957),
Br~derlin
and
on ceratites
and by Kozur
lithostratigraphy
(1938-1970), Aust
brachiopod
are most
or yellowish
gamma"
are named
In contrast,
(In this
marker
prominent
beta,
beds
of thicker
"Mittlere
horizons
developed
78).
blue
by Wenger
MuseheJka]k
(1968),
best
zonations
most
and
Vollrath
number
4",
alpha,
marker
widespread
large
the more
of
work
summarized
division
"Tonhoriont
out shorewards.
(Fig.
gray,
with
Biostratigraphic were
are
for mostly
eous
a
marlstone
wedge
and
used
and
Musehelkalk
or on bioc]astic
horizons,
bioclastic
"Trochitenbank
less is
(e.g.
fhe
but exceptionally
71-76).
areas,
of marlstone
ones are numbered
Figs.
in the Upper
on thin marlstones
number
"Cycloides-Bank")
oolitic el.
either
the large
subdivision
&
studies
and
Sch~fer
(1973).
More were &
recently, studied
Mundlos
by Reif (1978),
dorn & Mundlos several storms
of has
fication"
the
these been
Upper
paleoecological
(1971, Aigner
(1982,
1982),
1983),
recognized,
presented
&
Muschelkaik
addition
to be responsible
emphasizing
1982).
for sedimentary
for
(1982,
events.
aspects
Aigner,
Hagdorn
(1978-1985), Mehl
of episodic
(Demonfaucon,
Duringer
and
the concept
reconstructions
Basin
to storms,
Hagdorn
(1979),
importance
Seilacher,
facies
(1977-1984),
(1978),
Bachmann the
and s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l
Aigner
& Futterer
papers
(Einsele
geologists
1984).In
various
of
events
1982;
1984)
In
such as
"event-strati-
Independantly, the
Hag-
(1982).
western
French side
Duringer,
considered
of
1982,
tsunamis
58
1.5.
41
Methods
quarry
logged logs
sections
in detail were
in the Upper
(Fig.
correlated
transects
through
More
than
1,O00
thin
sections)
30).
samples were
Facies,
trace
surveyed;
Hagdorn
(in prep.).
(hand
analyzed
fossil
Paleocurrent
data were
SW-Germany.
Specifically,
orientation,
cleaning
were
studied
specimens
SEM and searched
isotope
SW-Germany
literature,
were these
of n e a r s h o r e - o f f s h o r e
polished
Faunal a
about
associations
60
of about
mark
slabs;
structures,
comprehensive
from about
extracted
from
were
quarry
only
treatment
localities
lO0 beds,
i00
micro-
by
throughout
marked
with
their
walls
and
after
orientation.
Fine-grained
limestone
were
studied
under
the
for nanno-organisms.
For a few s a m p l e s ( h a r d g r o u n d s , carbon
etc.
samples
for sole
of
a series
of sedimentary
receive
collected
were
into
specimens,
~ill
throughout
on existing
Basin.
in terms
content
they
original
based
and assembled
the S o u t h - G e r m a n
briefly
Selected
Musehelkalk
Partly
composition
underbeds,
stei~kerns
was d e t e r m i n e d .
evidence strongly
suggested different
isotopes
showed
only
processes
(recrystallisation)
negligible have
origins
variation
etc.)
But a l t h o u g h for
these
suqgesting
distorted
any
oxygen
and
circumstantial samples, that
original
their
diagenetic isotopic
signal.
Specimens are deposited in the Institute and Museum Paleontology, University of TUbingen (no. 1629).
for
Geology
and
59
iSOPAC'HS SECTIONS 27.
19
37" %9 / 38"
31"
~3
//
.39
/
.28 • 32
//
./
/ /
15"
70
j
i
~
60
50
40
/
'~3/=u
/J
! 20
km
!
~2 F i g . 30. L o c a t i o n many; isopachs 2 = Ummenhofen~ Tiefenbach, 7 Kirchberg, ii = Heming (France),
of measured sections in Upper Nuschelkalk of SN-Geraccording to Sch~fer (1973). Sections: 1 = Steinb~chle, 3 = Garnberg, & = Gott~ollshausen, 5 = Neidenfels, 6 = = Lobenhausen, 8 = Forchtenberg, 9 = Nitzenhausen, i0 = HeldenmOhle, 12 = Bonndorf-Roll, 13 = Zimmern, 14 = 15 = MStzingen, 16 = Steinbach, 17 = Barenhalden-
mOhle, 18 = 8rettenfeld, 19 = NeiBlensburg, 20 = Gammesfeld, 21 = NilhelmsglGck, 22 = Schmalfelden, 23 = Ilsfeld, 24 = ROblingen, 25 = Netneck, 26 = Dettelbach, 27 = Aub, 28 = Darmsheim, 29 = lllingen, 3o = RoBwag, 31 = Heimsheim, 32 = Ehningen, 33 = Eltershofen, 34 = Helmbach, 35 = Nestheim, 36 = Berlichingen, 37=Bretten, 38 = ~tisheim, 39 = Malmsheim, 40 = Gemmingen, 41 = Gundelsheim.
61
2
S T R A T I F I C A T I O N
A N D
2.1.
F A C I E S
T Y P E S
General
Bedding
in
graphers. and
sedimentary
Early
work
classification
Kelly,
1956;
nature
rocks
has
long attracted
on stratification of
Shroek,
has
stratification
1948),
of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
although
geologists
focussed
types
some
(e.g.
(e.g.
description
McKee
attempts
have been made
and strati-
on the
& Weir,
1953;
in interpreting
Andree,
the
1916;
Brinkmann,
have
attempted
193o).
More to
recently,
studies
understand
are responsible Keegan, ments for 1977;
for bedded
1975;
Einsele
indicate certain
that
Hardie
great
detail
in
attributes according
order
beds,
of
to Lombard of
1. Bed-by-bed
strata,
might
events
the
dynamic
centering biological
be called
"stratinomy
deals
environ-
Gebelein,
It
therefore
and strata
processes around and
the
the
in
that facies
diagenetic
"stratinomie with
sequences...related
(e.g.
beds
&
significant
1980).
individual
physical,
be
that
Keary
in modern
may
Singh,
an approach,
all
(]978)
&
to study
understand
layered
approach"
analysis
units
represent
both
shortest
has the
depicts
(often
and
the
Reineek
Such
Studies
1975;
approach";
accumulation
to the dynamics
of the
environment"
a "stratinomie
graphic
to
i.e.
single
succession
depositional
Such
1977;
processes,
et al.,
of layering
sedimentation
promising
stratification.
of individual
and
and
Harms
1982).
types
and
and diagenetic
(e.g.
& Seilacher~
distinctive
& Ginsburg,
desirable
sedimentology"
biological
sequences
environments
seems
generate
in "comparative
the physical,
the basic time
the
identical
smallest to single
building spans
following
element
advantages:
reck-
of every
represented
and
sedimentation
within
time-stratievents)
sedimentary
that
facies
the s t r a t i g r a p h i c
record.
2. S t r a t i f i c a t i o n exposures,
but
types
also
are easily
in subsurface
recognizable, cores.
not
only
in
surface
62
3.
A
refined
to r e f i n e
understanding
more
general
of s i n g l e
"facies
models"
beds
as
and
paleoenvironmental
"facies
elements"
helps inter-
pretations.
4.
Stratification
be used well
5.
sequences
to d e d u c e
as b i o l o g i c
Similar,
settings
source,
"standard
if
not
facies
So
types" In
"standard models"
far,
elastic
rock
studies rocks
neglected. sedimentary phenomena Following
Harms
stratification
2.
extent
To what
].
Are
there
can
/4.
extent
Io w h a t
5. w h a t
2.2.
types
In
the
and
largely
study
have
1975),
to e s t a b l i s h for
(1975)
"standard
depositional
types
1975)
been
while
mainly
fill
and
the
gap
"standard
carried
carbonates
to r e c o n s t r u c t reflected
carbonate
in
sequence.
were
some
out
for
largely
aspects
of
stratification Particularly,
the
is p r i m a r y
processes
area,
restricted
(Fig.
be
indicators
reconstructed
?
based
on
related
to s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
and
to
?
modified,
as p r e s s u r e
of b e d d i n g
enhanced
or
obliterated
are
rather
rare
bet~r~een the
Middle
and
solution
planes
?
?
31)
carbonates to
dynamics
bedding
such
as e n v i r o n m e n t a l
?
patterns
processes
strata
be u s e d
depositional
is the s i g n i f i c a n c e
Peritidai
in s i m i l a r
Wilson's
guide
(Wilson,
dynamics
paleoecological
physical
by d i a g e n e t i c
al.,
characteristics
short-term
as
are a d r e s s e d :
l. How can
stratification
process,
occur
to
stratification
types"
storm-dominated
questions
types
analogy
quick
is an a t t e m p t
ecological
a
a
dynamics
et
following
and of
can o f t e n
1980a).
on s e d i m e n t
(e.g.
The
as
standard
microFacies
(Walker,
In
it is d e s i r a b l e
serve
a way,
depositional
stratification
record.
types", that
and
sequences
overprints.
identical
the
microfacies
interpretations. between
transportation
and d i a g e n e t i c
throughout
stratification
and m i c r o s t r a t i g r a p h i c
the
of the p e r i t i d a l
transitional
zone
suite
63
Upper
Muschelkalk.
Three
main
types
of
stratification
can be dis-
tinguished: ] . Flat
laminations:
laminae
being
mud-cracked many 1980).
They
structures (Logan
slightly
(Fig.
authors
eL al.,
31B)
(e.g. are
in
Finely
laminated
erenulated
resemble Aitken,
1964;
inter-
Hardie,
(Fig.
"cryptalgal 1967;
interpreted
modern
carbonates,
as and
1977;
31A),
&
Hardie,
laminites,
supratidal Shinn,
domed
limestones"
Reinhard algal
with
in
carbonate
individual
and
sometimes
described 1976;
by
James,
analogy
to
environments
1983).
Fig. 31. Peritidal s t r a t a . A) F i n e l y l a m i n a t e d c a r b o n a t e , i n t e r p r e t e d as a l g a l l a m i n i t e (UnLertalheim quarry). B) Mudcracks (arrows) in algal laminite (Nennig, Luxembourg). C) Several fining-upward pelm i c r i t e and m i c r i t e layers interpreted as s u p r a t i d a l s t or m layers (Zimmern quarry). D) Reworked c l a s t s o f a l g a l l a m i n i t e s i n a f i n i n g upward sequence ( " F l a t p e b b l e c o n g l o m e r a t e " ) ( N e n n i g , L u x e m b o u r g ) .
64
2. Mud-cracked
fining-up
and
pelmicrite
thin
algal
that sho~
laminites
ancient,
have
deposited
by storms
3. Limestone relatively (Fig.
laminites.
flat,
often
Such
2.3.
by
Shinn
analogy either
onto
laminated
supratidal
cracks,
(1983)
as
supratidal
Cm-
to
eroded
layers
lime
micrite
burrows
and
modern
and
mud layers
Flats.
dm-thick
layers
that may
and
counterparts
storm
fining-up
structures,
intraclasts,
represent
to modern
of
dessication
conglomerates:
layers
layers
Identical
and hurricanes
pebble
may represent tidal
tops
31C).
described
flat
In
Cm-thiek
at their
(Fig.
been
31D).
layers:
~ith
show grading
redeposited
(e.g.
algal
Shinn,
1983)~
lag
deposits
or basal
they in
channels.
Oncolitic
macke-
Description.
This
belt
along
and
consists
kokeni,
of
are
concentrations
~ackestones, as
cipient in
algal
the
Discussion.
between
often
they
belt
5
form
on
the
sorted
oolitic
and muddy
"lagoonal" tonous. basal
to
edges
oncoids
also
mittently,
of ponds
grainstone wacke-
~here
channel
deposits
demonstrate interrupted
episodic
that
by
oncoid phases
are with
growth
in-
irregularly multi-phase
are
typical ~here oncolite
landward Units
relatively
often
of burial
show
The typical
reworked
and
Oncolites
environments
autochthonous
hydrodynamic
also
activity.
environment). a
oncoid
intraclasts
show
position,
reflect
oncoids
structures
reveal
and channels.
in a similar
to packstone
or
oncolites
(back-bank)
Bed
packstones
envelopes. may
60C)
bodies
bioclasts
of boring
(1975),
(back-bank
higher
are generally
oncoids
by phases
back-reef
occurs
and
~ith
most
mieritic
mm
Wilson
quiet,
environment
However, lag
30
Fig.
1980).
sediment
grains
in fact,
narrow
Sphaerocodium
Peryt,
and muddy
Bioclastic
thick
(el.
abundant
1913b;
by unsorted
Larger
interrupted
of the Muschelkalk of
and
Basin
contain
sheet-like
gro~Lh;
in shape.
According
in a relatively
and c h a n n e l - l i k e
but
or at least
for s h a l l o w , r e l a t i v e l y
facies
lensoidal base,
grainstones.
or lensoidal
coatings,
that
(Wagner~
for oncolite
coatings
typically
Upper M u s c h e l k a l k
are dominated
sometimes
size
most
2 m beds
commonly near
nuclei
algal
spherical
of the
i/2
Microfacies
serve
occurs
Girvanella-oneoid
geometries
vary
facies
the margin
a
occur.
to packstone
of
~ith
a un-
law-energy
or parautoeh-
oncoids
activity.
forming
Multi-phase
tool< place
and bioerosion
inter-
(borings)
65
followed facies these
2.4.
by
renewed
of
the
reworking
Massive
most
Thick
common
Muschelkalk
1955a:
Fig.
more
gradual
stone.
argillaceous
where lO
Detailed bodies are
beds
surfaces
are
that
are
some
from m o d e r n al.,
sand
belts
Persian
are
probably
Gulf
& Purser,
interpreted ripples
Using
and
the
as
1973). shoals
sandwaves
approach
paleovelocities
1979;
of
and
in v e r y
Heller
of the
along
the best
banks
et al.
Muschelkalk
(el.
or
more
and
,
(NE),
(e.g.
Calcirods) sometimes
with
a meter
also
which
most
large-scale
than
rare
oo-
Bachmann,
rounded,
may
The
that
and
oosparites
longshore
although occur.
Top
hardgrounds and
encrusted
forms
small
have
been
described
(e.g.
Ball~
1967;
Loreau
& Logan,
1974;
Hine,
1977)
the
western for
agitated
to
margin
of
the p r e s e n t
oolitic
of c a r b o n a t e
(1980)
in
1982).
analogues
ooids
darker
sections
massive
shallow
pack-
to m o r e
grainstones
Hagan
Therefore,
into
limestones
~eathered
environments
deposited
show
Faint
Hagdorn,
oolitic
1969;
or
envelopes.
veneers
that
relief
and
directions
Fe-rich
showed belts.
- 0.8 mm
worn
mostly
organisms
and
shore-parallel
(Loreau
in
(W,NW)
show
0.3
decimeters
ostracina,
ooid
et
micritic
a few
by b o r i n g
Logan
between
distinct,
of V o l l r a t h ,
wacke-
clean
Upper
such
thinner-bedded,
generally
directed
(Bachmann,
authors
1973;
are
skeletal
of w e l l - s o r t e d
evident
from
Placunopsis
Similar
by s e v e r a l
is
offshore
and
patches
Discussion.
Purser,
and
colonized
biostromal
for
grainstone of the
(1982)
erosional
underlying
to
maps
within
light-coloured,
range
becomes
ranging
sharp
bivalve
oncolite
occupy
(see
Hagdorn
with
consist
debris
width
of
overlying
They
Paleoeurrents (E,SE)
and
pack-
province
commonly
in
sharp
well-developed
sets
onshore
modern
be r e s p o n s i b l e
facies
distinguished
from
diameters
shell
cross-stratification
by the
either
the u n d e r -
having
thickness.
be
are m a s s i v e ~
Ooid
(truncated)
to may
oolitic
they
km
mapping
can
and
limestone
600),
Molluscan
particles
of ooid
about
carbonates.
biosparites. 1973).
beds
transitions
with
analogy storms
to g r s i n s t o n e
Fig.
units
Oolitic
contrast
(l-5m)
7).
of such
pack-
belts,
shoal
bases
In
1977),
in the m a r g i n a l
(cf.
shore-parallel
elongated
coating. (Hine,
episodes.
oolitic
Description. are
algal
Bahamas
sand
the
example
grainstones deposited
& and
are
as m e g a -
water.
deduce
(diameter
0.3
hydrodynamics, - 0.8
mm)
range
66
between
40 - 70 c m / s e c .
currents (Ball,
in
the
1967;
Hine,
maintaining that
large
tidal
Hine
currents
entire shoals
migrate
Since
bank#ard
can
be
bb
in the
consist
only
in a s i m i l a r
fashion,
related
offshore
in
the
while
the
of
the that
of
storms.
events,
storm-
oriented
cross-
spillover
lobes).
cold
occasional
spillover
USA
(Bahamas),
large
such
and
concluded
of M u s c h e l k a l k
migration
eastern
Bank
during
sandwaves,
in
shown
movement
and
during
have
movement
of b a n k w a r d
megaripples,
alongshore
Oolite
tidal Bahamas
important
(1977)
body
conditions,
cross-stratification
shoals
Lily
dominant
Bank
to
sand
of
or the
are
Hine
wholesale
develop
is
and
in
cause
lobes
in Lily
indicate
oolite
to
197])
currents
(1967)
role
that
flux
(migrating
may
key
to v e l o c i t i e s
& Seibold,
tidal
Ball
fair-weather
spillover
oriented
paleocurrents Cambrian
a
found
energy
interpreted
orientation
Although
play
correspond
(Purser
shoals,
under
structures
landward
values
Gulf
insufficient
and
stratification The
sold
(1977) are
sandbody
generated
1977).
modern
hurricanes
geometry.
These
Persian
lobes.
offshore Longshore
shoals,
(Sternbach
shoals
similar
&
to
Friedmann,
1984).
2.5.
Massive
shelly.~ack-
Description=
Thick
are c l o s e l y
associated
and
lateral
seaward
higher
oolite
side
proportions be
clasts,
or they
oolitic
wackestones.
well-sorted
packstones
between
fine
more
Top
~ith
sections,
and
the
shelly
facies
60C);
and
pack-
are
in
Finer
similar
to
beds
abundant
micritic
envelopes.
coarse
calcirudites.
and
grains.
From
large-scale
cross-bedding,
the
includes may
by i n t r a underlying
of
the m a s s i v e relatively
envelopes
stratification
zone
from
Grain
following
on
Bases
floored
those
range
micritie
occurs
grained
transitions
vertical
a flanking
it
sometimes
skeletal
to g r a i n s t o n e both
forms
if
coated
scours,
gradual
surfaces
without
ealcarenites
weathered
pebbles
Massive
grainstones
sorted
In
show
this
(Fig.
erosional
32)
grainstone,
it is g e n e r a l l y
black
grainstones.
of m a s s i v e
belt
belt,
(Fig.
oolitic
Regionally,
with
may
the
facies
of
sharp
beds
with
of this
either
skeletal
(l-3m)
direction.
of the
landward
to g r a i n s t o n E
types
to p o o r l y
size
varies
can
be r e c o -
gnized:
a)
only
sition
fee
units
as m a r i n e
display sand
waves
(Fig.]2A);
suggesting
depo-
67
Fig. ]2. Main s t r a t i f i c a t i o n types in massive shelly limestones. A) Large-scale cross-stratification, interpreted as marine sand wave (Nennig quarry, Luxembourg). B) Superimposed sets of medium-scale cross-stratification~ interpreted as migrating m e g a r i p p l e s (Bretten quarry). C) S u p e r p o s i t i o n and amalgamation of thin skeletal sheets and wedges ( U m m e n h o f e n quarry). D) C l o s e - u p of b e d d i n g c o n t a c t b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l skeletal sheets off Fig. C): note stylo]ites and irregular seam of residual marl as a p r o d u c t of p r e s s u r e solution. E) Plan view of internal b e d d i n g plane with s t y l o l i t e owing his shape to a seastar "iden" E') Side view of the same s t y ] o l i t e (camera cap = ~ cm).
68
b)
more
both
series
c)
common
of the
are
planar
of m i g r a t i n g
vertical
sheet-like
superimposed
and
and
festoon
megaripples
lateral
geometries
to
sets
forming
suggesting shoals
amalgamation
form
of m e d i u m - s c a l e
types,
(Fig.
of w e d g e s ,
a composits
unit
cross-bedding,
deposition
a
32B);
lenses,
are
as
more
channels
and
common
(Fig.
parallel
bedded
32C);
d)
internally
more
sediment
bodies
skeletal
sand;
e)
thorougly
and
remnants
This
oolite
as s h a l l o w
below) banks,
shore
or
sand
part
have
Ruppel
& Walker
and
shell
shoreward
these
oriented
waves,
strati-
facies deeper
and
by
are
were,
the
Anderson
interpreted patterns
similar
as a s e r i e s
megaripples,
belt
than
Paleocurrent
banks belt
of
observed.
preferred
described
(1982)
skeletal
sand
can be
slightly
shoals.
banks
to p a c k s t o n e s .
the
been
in a s h o r e - p a r a l l e l
of
to the along-
spillover
lobes
blankets.
ramp where
in
analogue on
entire
during
in r e s p o n s e
the
skeletal
slope.
I) the
ments
types
banks
also
grainstone
and
that
modern
break
of,
deposited
A possible
I),
and
and
shallow
Teichichnus-spreiten
wacke-
oolitic
indicate
carbonate part
sand
the
seaward
facies
(1983)
skeletal
oolite
and
Similar
Holloway
layers
to n o d u l a r
characteristics of
faintly and
abundant
fining-upward
seaward
environment
banks.
(1972),
(see
Microfacies
or
blankets
with
packstones
is t r a n s i t i o n a l
position an
homogenous
suggesting
of s h a r p - b a s e d
Discussion.
suggests
less
occur,
bioturbated
lithofaeies
graphic
or
also
may
sands
According sand
to s t o r m
are
was
may
sand
(1967)
built
belt"
of F l o r i d a
concentrated
A similar
flows
"marine
edge
to Ball
belt
storms.
be the
western
Bay
in a belt
and
my
own
episodically
episodic
be a s s u m e d
the
a
modern
1967;
along
a
by d i s c r e t e and
see
small
observations
concentration for
of
(Ball,
(see
incre-
activation
Musehelkalk
shelly
banks.
The
finer-grained
and
bioturbated
facies
landward
of the
parts
of
shoalwater
by s t o r m
the
reworking
oolitic
(thin
but
facies
complex,
fining-up
massive
belt
that
was
layers).
skeletal
indicates only
more
episodically
packstone protected affected
69
Bedding
planes.
oolitic
Facies
entirely units
are
caused
are
clay
Internal
by,
may
be
terminology
see
cut
across
primary
such
bedding
planes
described elastic
calcarenite during
Taphonomic such
the
"idens"
stylolites.
on
such
2.6.
these
The
beds
have For
prominently Oolith",
named
microfacies
thoroughly can
Following
main
relatively
stratification
parts
Riffkalk")
are
(1964) in bio-
the
original
diagenetic surfaces
nature behave
1976)
this
and
was
seams.
& Semeniuk, of
rock
of as
surrounded
are
seastars
of
stylolites
outline
33)
packstone
towards
are
with
of the
massive, some
Muschelkalk
"Trochitenbank
the
Basin,
1,2,"
etc.)
m
thick
and
rare
many and
of used
correlation.
They
are
basin
(e.g.
"Marbacher
~here
margin
they
is h i g h e s t .
associated
0.5-5
wackestone
are
In t h e s e
with
the
most
often
oolitic
regions,
small
massive
and pele-
crinoidal
lime-
197B).
types
documented
be
(Fig.
(e.g.
content
bioherms
Since
a)
been
crinoid
(Hagdorn,
reader
central
Barrett
such
shape
foresets);
32E,E').
lithostratigraphic
stones
and
the
in may
stratification
solution
"Trochitenkalke"
the
developed
cypod/erinoid
(Fig.
skeletal
"Crailsheimer
the
coined
limestone
so-called
Within
markers
where
planes
of c r i n o i d - r i c h
grainstone.
as
example
that
erinoidal
Description. units
spectacular
planes
cross-bedding
% of the
on
of L o g a n
stylo-bedding
Massive
Fossils
"stylo-bedding"
in o r i g i n .
substantiates
massive residual
marl-partings
Stylo-bedding
4-16
of p r e s s u r e
certain
sp.)
produces
or
possibly
on w h i c h
mm-thin
(e.g.
(terminology
A
(Trichasteropsis
that
skeletal
cases
instances,
seams
form
diagenetie
estimated
further
planes:
many
This
some
of p o s t - d e p o s i t i o n a l
formation
evidence
bedding
resistant by
and
In
(1976).
bedding
entirely
example
in
to
32D).
sedimentary are
a similar
dissolved
Fig.
& Semeniuk
the m a s s i v e
by,
stylolite
concentrated
of L o g a n
within
solution.
by b e d - p a r a l l e l
("stylo-cumulates", the
planes affected
pressure
subdivided
minerals
bedding
commonly
referred types
complex (Fig.
of the by
"Trochitenkalk"
Skupin
to t h e s e
(1970) studies.
of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
patterns 33A,B),
of
and
can
be
low-angle
interpreted
have
been
Hagdorn
In w e a t h e r e d
established (1978),
the
sections,
the
recognized:
and
medium-scale
as m i g r a t i n g
bedForms;
cross-
70
33. Stratification types in massive crinoidal limestone. A) and Fig. B) Superimposed sets of medium to small-scale c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and planar lamination; height of both views about 1.5 m (A: Neidelfels quarry, foto B courtesy of H. Hagdorn). C) Sharp-based graded sequence of crinoidal debris. D) Wave-rippled bedding plane colonized by the bivalve Placunopsis ostraeina forming small biostromes (Neidenfels quarry). E) F) Bedding -planes affected by pressure solution: E) crinoid ossicles sittig on stylolite "pedestals", F) rip pattern of Lima "telescoped" into bedding plane and into crinoid ossieles (the shell itself is dissolved a~ay).
71
b)
rare
cm-
sequences
(Fig.
c) remnants cm-thick
d)
graded
these
both
layers
crinoidal
represent
limestones
have
consisting
storm
of
spillovers;
a massive
affected
(stylolitic
and in outcrop
fining-up
unstratified
by bioturbation.
strongly
scale
and
stratification
might
are
bases
deposits;
homogenized
limestones
ossieles)
sharp
as storm
that
in t h i n - s e c t i o n
crinoid
with
low-angle
are probably
crinoidal
solution,
interpreted
instances,
appearance;
layers
large-scale
crudely
Massive
dm-thick
33C),
of
in many
vidual
or
scale
by
contacts
(stylolite
pressure
between seams,
indistylo-
bedding).
Discussion. known
Massive
from shallow-water
the
Jurassic
rock
bodies,
and
1957,
1968;
Jenkyns,
The massive kalk
chthonous
1958;
were
been
"banks",
Hagdorn
parautochthonous,
shallow
agitated
while
water
Sedimentological
evidence
accumulation
cation
and
fining-up
physical
events.
example
are
microfacies than
largely
continous
crinoidal
Taking
Hagdorn's evidence
inferred
to system
processes.
however,
of these
(cf. that,
parts
]962;
of the
presented
massive
\IollCain~
1983).
Muschel-
as a c c u m u l a t i o n
physical
crinoid indicate
of allo-
convincing
accumulations on
are
paleohighs
sediment
was
1968).
in
in
(1968)
and rapid
the
present
poor
in most
episodic
rather
is rather
probably
indeed
cross-stratifi-
transport
textures
Clean-~ashed
to Cain
were
processes
ossicles:
and sorting
reworking
according
Brett,
deposited
depositional
Cain,
(e.g.
bars.
that
mud-supported
to
and
~ell-sorted
require
prolonged
are rare.
logical
complex
(1978),
of
since
physical
limestones
reworking,
(1965)
sequences
However,
types,
in the marginal
suggests
Paleozoic
or "biostromal"
& Soderman, ]978;
by linck
as subtidal
important
in the
Carozzi
some were
are
and sandwaves
Hagdorn,
that many
limestones
From the
as "reef-like"
"mounds",
1957;
limestones
crinoidal
environments
1971;
interpreted
evidence
ill-sorted
described
Ruhrmann,
biodetritus.
paleoecological largely
carbonate
Harbough,
1971;
crinoidal
Basin
commonly
have
"bioherms"~
rath,
very
and
have
(1978) together, been
pa]eoecological massive largely
of s h a l l o w - w a t e r
produced
bars,
and
crinoidal
banks
the
in-situ and
present
sedimento-
limestones
can
and molded
blankets
by
into
be a
physical
72
Since
direct
do not
seem
modern
Halimeda-sands
that
South-Florida (1)
their
(see
texture,
grains
and
massive
a) b e d d i n g crinoid
these
could
survive
template
for
shells
though
the
often
the
found
33F).
Such
plane
is
of
banks deposi-
bioclastic
(storms).
can
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by v a r i o u s
of the
is c o m m o n l y into
at
partly
&
ossicles
suggests of
sitting
secondary,
solution
on
appear
and
stylo-
to be more ]976)
even
they
serve
stylolites.
as
rib
bedding
this
type
pressure
a
Calcitic
as a t e m p l a t e .
its on
that
origin.
of p r e s s u r e
acted
dissolved,
res-
non-sedimentation
sedimentary
"front"
to have
crinoid
&
Semeniuk,
respective
seem
(Hagdorn
a biological
ossicles
a stylolite
also
ostraeina
reflect
types
(Logan
(i) or
ossicles
crinoid
as
bioherms
surface,
crinoidal
such
small
of p r i m a r y
Since
of
crusts,
they
solution
evidence
Al-
pattern planes of
is
(Fig.
bedding
solution
origin
planes").
channel
fills
Lensoidal
clastic
packstone~
calated
into
about
several
show
O.l-i
34)
m thick
limestones
a crude
types
clearly
(Fig.
or c h a n n e l - l i k e
alternating
commonly
are
muddy of
colonisation
(2)
(erosional
shape
Lima)
"telescoped"
Skeleta]
including
top
of Lima
least
events
Placunopsis
clearly
display
taphonomic
Description.
which
the
or
Because
are
33E).
(e.g.
("stylo-bedding
units
bivalve
33D).
pressure
columnar
shell
by b i o l o g i c a l
characterized
at
muddy
environments
generally
planes
bodies
of
crinoidal
accumulation
of p h y s i c a l
sand
banks
with
their
of b e d d i n g
factors
(Fig.
against
mollusc
2.7.
Fig.
commonly
pedestals
resistant
(2)
to shells,
planes
planes These
be
limestones:
fixosessile see
bedding
bedding
phenomena.
types
attached
to e n v i r o n m e n t a l
etc.),
lite
main
share
in-situ
impact
characterized
of the 1982;
largely
crinoid
may
shallow-water
Halimeda-banks context,
erinoidal
planes
biostromes
b)
Two
analogue
in n e a r s h o r e
I).
episodic
holdfasts
Mundlos, ponse
the
planes.
in the
occur
part
(7) their
(4)
of s h a l l o w - w a t e r
a potential
environmental
tional
Bedding
counterparts
to be known,
and
and
fining-up
of m o s t l y
derived
units
from
angular the
of
i-3o
skeletal m wide
and
intra-
are
often
inter-
marlstones
(Fig.
34).
These
sequence
skeletal
of
limestone
underlying
clasts,
sediment
pacl<stone some
while
of
others
73
seem
to be i m p o r t e d .
have
also
(about
been
E-W),
and p e b b l e
sediment
transport.
laterally
more
Discussion. ment
and
subtldal Davies were
have
as s t o r m
rip-scoured
zone
off
multiprovenanee
provides indicate
some
consistent
and
surge
were
offshore
(W,NW)
be a m a l g a m a t e d
a tidal
for
these
ancient
(1978)
channels
angularity regarding
rather
paleocurrents with
from
& Goldring
fills
orientations
to
form
packstone.
exclude
origin
described
channels
dominant may
of s k e l e t a l
a subtidal
channel
on/offshore
rocks
and
or rip
reported
Flat
environ-
channels. by
Sei]acher
channels by C o o k
Similar
Brenner (1982)
& and
respectively. (1970)
from
the
California.
clues
episodic
directed
channels
relationships
been
grainstone
show
indicates
broad
blankets
Kazmierczak
interpreted
offshore
The
indicate
channels
channels
imbrication
Stratigraphic
(]93),
cross-bedded
Most
Several
continuous
rather
Comparable
However,
observed.
a storm
than
of i n t r a c l a s t s the
dynamics
continuous
document
activation
offshore
surge/rip/gradient
and
flow
fining-up
of t h e s e
and
and
channels.
fills They
fill.
Offshore
sediment
transport
current-type
mechanism.
Fig. 34. E x a m p l e of an o n / o f f s h o r e o r i e n t e d c h a n n e l - f i l l , intercalated in upper part of a s h a l l o w i n g - u p w a r d s e q u e n c e , b e l o w s k e l e t a l shoal. L e n g h t of tape 1.8 m ( I l s f e l d q u a r r y ) .
74
2.8.
Nodular
wackestone
Description.
Skeletal
degrees
of
massive
are
somewhat
of
marlstone
mm-thin
a) one
end member
stratification (Fig. b)
an
can still
intermediate nodularity
but with
abundant
c)
the other without
unsorted
with
and
various
well
partings.
A
mudstone
and
only
a degree
to
recognized
and
belts.
strongly
proportions
can be recognized:
lime
seaward
facies
fabrics
such
(Fig.
continuous
graded
skeletal
that
primary
nodularity
35B'),
Nodular
different
1973; 1976;
al.,
Mullins
bination Form
of
et al.,
bioturbation
limestone
however,
a
solution)
appears
given
Kennedy
is
low
rocks
with
~ilson,
Many
the
of
burrowing important.
by Wanless
(1979b)
includes
bioturbated
with
nodules
is
mainly
recorded
1975; 1977;
(Fig.
or polished
caused
by
large
although
other
also
by
numerous
Bogacz
Baud,
35C).
present.
authors
et al.,
1968,
1976;
Logan
&
Wanless,
1979b;
Jones
et
authors
assume
of these
with
prominent
are
(e.g.
(submarine
Muschelkalk
to be more
totally
Teichichnus,
and e a r l ~ diagenesis In
358).
but
Thalassinoides
Garrison,
1980).
nodules.
combination
of
stratification,
) and on etched
environments
1974; &
nodular,
35A
have been
carbonate
Jenkyns,
Semeniuk, 1979;
(Fig.
and
(Fig.
individual
bioturbation
limestones
primary
stratification
between
as R h i z o c o r a l l i u m
from
F~rsieh,
strongly
planes
by bioturbated
of
of m a r l s t o n e
spreiten-structures
Discussion. many
represented
and mottles
and partings
pellet-aligned burrows
pods
on bedding
surfaces
is
fe~ remnants
includes
both
seen
stage and only
of primary
As
as
with
both
to grainstone
extremely
bioturbation be
associated
and
indication
lenses
to
rock
and
lenses
end member
marlstone
rock
by
pack-
biopelmicrites
mottles,
laterally
types
paleogeographically
coloured,
clayey
and
various
35A);
stronger
rocks
and oolitic
is interbedded
affected
display
vertically
of intergradational
packstone,
that
and occur
dark-gray
bioturbated,
spectrum
are
paekstones
of skeletal
units
35)
wackestones
nodularity
skeletal
and landward
These
(Fig.
nodular
late
Evidence
a
com-
cementation) wackestones,
diagenesis
(pressure
for pressure
solution
the presence
of microstylolites,
75
Fig. 35. Gradationa] s p e c t r u m of rock Fabrics in n o d u l a r w a c k e s t o n e . A) I n t e r b e d d e d thin skeletal p a c k s t o n e and lime mudstone, moderately bioturbated, with well-developed i n d i v i d u a l burrows~ e.g. T e i c h i c h n u s (A"). B) M o t t l e d and nodular wackestone ~ith only Few remnants of primary stratification but strong b i o t u r b a t i o n with "chaos" of interpenetrating Teichichnus-spreiten (B'). C) S t r o n g l y nodular wackestone eith individual nodules s u r r o u n d e d by r e s i d u a l m a r l s t o n e , clay seams and m i c r o s t y l o l i t e s (see p o l i s h e d section C" ). Remnants of primary s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and of i n d i v i d u a l b u r r o w s are p r a c t i c a l l y absent.
76
microstylolite bottom
terminology
The
seams,
boundaries
clay
of
of Logan
the
degree
and
solution" around
enhanced
by d i a g e n e t i e
Nodular
lime
Description. of
the
types clay
(Fig.
mudstone
lime
occurs
(Fig.
see
can
be
(1979b)
as
lamination
From
(Fig.
gradational
range
nodular
nodule
is
by
(Fig.
Sharp
contacts
surrounding
marlstane
Discussion.
Nodular
microstylolite limestones
can
characteristics:
seams
the
seams
pressure
wackestone
36C-E) and
lime
and
are
bedding
by
This
In
not
as e a s i l y
As
sedimentary
trace zones
nodules
of
some
dm's.
bioturbation
(above).
intervening
fine
Wanless
of
marl-
is g e n e r a l l y clay
instances
limestone
somewhat
and
of
that
a large
to
individual
share
so many
Wanless
as a p r o d u c t
in o r i g i n a l l y
be applied.
mm's
of thin
nodules
by
seams~ sutured
within
the
rare.
mudstones
described
nodules
display
generally
swarms
with
rarely
and
are
variety
mierites
between
facies
in
angular
bedded
large
micritic
possible
through between
to d i s t i n c t l y
Nodules
layering
anastomosing
matrix
nodular
in size
sometimes
boundary
and m a r k e d
of
seam
Clay
inhomogenities
spherical,
structures
to nodule
The
microstylolites
pretation
and
burrowing
it
limestones
for the
parts
nodular
36B).
of s e d i m e n t a r y
stylolites.
nodular
that
basinal
a
isolated
36A-E)
in the
36A).
to
(Fig.
irregular
but
described,
36A)
matrix
in
massive
(lenaoid,
remnants
observed,
identifyable
stone
marlstone
Figs.
instances
along
in more
gradationa]
nodules
some
factor
bioturbational
It
around
angular,
shows
factor.
residue
with
above
first
second
is
seams
shapes
the
and
relatively
of
and
in the
("non-sutured
alternations. between
variety
the
is w i d e s p r e a d
ranges
a
top
fabric",
36
and
in
is
is
deal
described
solution
insoluble ~e
Muschelkalk
"float"
gradational rock
processes.
Nodular
Upper
the
Thus
mudstone
limestone/marlstone
types
Pressure 1979b)
represent
interfaces.
and
1976).
bioturbation
Wanless,
solution
2.9.
of
35C')
("stylonodular
of rock
nodularity.
after
nodules
spectrum
type
of
(Fig.
& Semeniuk,
intergradational
development
seams
nodules
characteristics
(1979b)
that
of p r e s s u r e
continuously interpretation
layered is based
his
with inter-
solution slightly mainly
along shaly
on
Four
77
Fig. 36. Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of n o d u l a r lime mudstone. A) Slightly nodular m u d s t o n e , g r a d a t i o n a l to d i s t i n c t l y b e d d e d l i m e s t o n e / m a r l s t o n e a l t e r a t i o n s . Note that p r i m a r y l a y e r i n g can be t r a c e d from nodule to nodule (arrows). B) Isolated n o d u l e s f l o a t i n g in a m a r l s t o n e m a t r i x (A~B: D e t t e l b a c h q u a r r y ) . C) - E) V a r i a b i l i t y in size and shape of nodules~ note that nodule boundaries are g e n e r a l l y g r a d a t i o n a l and show swarras of clay s e a m s and microstylolites. F) G) Vertically embedded steinkern of G e r m a n o n a u t i l u s , s t r o n g l y d e f o r m e d by p r e s s u r e solution.
78
a) the
nodular
distinctly b)
lime
bedded
"gradational"
c)
tracing
evidence
mudstone
nodule
of
layers
boundaries
sedimentary
for p r e s s u r e
bedded
facies
shows
limestone/marlstone are
zones
layering
solution
into
continuous
of
across
deformation
nodular
transitions
to
alternations~
fabrics
mierostylolite several
of
seams~
nodules
originally
by m i c r o s t y l o l i t e
provides
more
evenly
formation
(Fig.
36A); d) s t e i n k e r n s viewed
as
shape.
These
solution has
Graded
sheets
sheets
These
that
surface
rests
are
lower
"classical"
Clifton,
1983).
Bedform
sequences
intraclasts
current elude within
the
amalgamated
be and
pressure
original
thickness
by
a
not
same
fining-up
is
shelly
37D).
may
layers,
tops
ripple
but be
(e.g. Many
Such when
composite traced
composed
separated
by
in
from
are
(i-2
m)
Hunter
&
of
imbri-
37C:
sharp,
overlain
They
sheets
are
1981).
often
(or
may
be
for
re-
Clear-cut
composite
a number
discrete
by Wave-
7 to 16 thus
events
laterally of
Hummocks
lag
Fig.
37E).
Allen,
beds
depositional
being
cross-stratifi-
layer,
(Fig.
may
layers
by w a v e - r i p p l e s .
indices
ripples
Some
length
a basal
represented
and
latter
]9827
(hummocky)
topped
observed.
wave
intraerosion
sheet-like.
37B s h o w s
at bed
several
locality, bad
Fig.
the
1982).
Bourgeois,
low-angle
have
been
of
Fig.
&
and
basal sediment
marks,
& Benton,
fining-up
common and
The
and of s m a l l e r
lamination,
lo~-steepness
event, at one
tool
Gray
limestone
of b i o c l a s t s
base.
bioturbated
and
Dott
sequence
low-angle
have
cm)
by
"ideal"
amalgamation
one
(2-io
variable.
followed
largely
homogeneous meters,
are
particularly
ripples
the
by
calciruditic
sequence
erosional
(e.g.
overlain
asymmetrical
presenting
sharp
ones
An
than are
cm thick
a fining-up
a
amplitude
base,
their
37A)~ while o t h e r s are more
(Fig.
the
slightly
by
1-30
(cf.
(HCS).
of
carl size
37)
casts
of
ripples
(Fig.
fossil
than
parallel,
up to a third
trace
and
are
erosional
deformation
or m u l t i d i r e e t i o n a l
"hummocky"
cation
strong
previously
gutter
36F,G) initial
of
across
hi-
(Fig. known
bodies"
cuts
display
cated
shom
generally
upon
commonly
mostly are
that
characterized
clasts
"test
away.
skeletal
Description.
Germanonautilus
commonly
indicate
dissolved
or
solution
steinkerns
and
been
2.1o.
of c e r a t i t e s
pressure
and
in-
episodes internally
just
a
few
of i n d i v i d u a l ,
bedding
planes.
79
Fig. 37. Stratification types in graded calcirudite sheets. A)Proximal tempestites with HCS. B) Slab of proximal tempestite. Note imbricated intraclasts at base, low-angle stratifiJed (HCS) graded sequence and bioturbated top. C) "Ideal" tempestite: sharp base, graded coquina, passing into parallel then low-angle lamination, wave ripples at top. D) Composite bed with several deposJtiona] increments. E) Graded skeletal packstone with w a v e - r i p p l e d top. F) Burrowed high-relief firmground with black pebbles overlain by a ealcirudite bed. G) - H) Large reworked limestone slabs~ encrusted by Plaeunopsis, at the base of a thick ealeiruite bed.
80
The
bases
of many such composite beds display h i g h - r e l i e f
and large re~orked these pebbles nisation
37G,H)°
These
as p r o x i m a l
storm
Mehl
beds
(1982).
or
Very
Lops
Borings
are
irregulare,
have
sheets
37F-H).
1981;
&
Bridges,
Dott &
analogues
1973;
Bourgeois,
previously
been
include
storm
from the Gulf of Mexico (Nelson,
1982)
and
1974;
by
and i n t e r p r e t e d
(1979,
have
1982~
been
&
1967;
Seilacher,
Morton,
in
1979;
Kreisa,
1982).
Modern
shelves such as
1981),
(part
from
(summaries
layers in Recent continental
the southern North Sea
1984)
recorded
deposits
Brenchley et al.,
Einsele
(Hayes,
and colo-
bioturbated
described
by Aigner
sequences
Ager,
1982;
of
and P l a n o l i t e s / P a l a e o p h y e u S o
Lempestites
similar
firmgrounds
encrustation
reworking
commonly
numerous ancient elastics and carbonate shelf Goldring
and
sides attest to repeated Bed
Rhizocorallium
Discussion.
and
(Fig.
from several
(Fig.
Teiehichnus,
pebbles
Bering
shelf
I~ Aigner & Reineck,
1982).
200"
SHELLS
m m
O:
INTRACLASTS
W I-W
100"
t7 ....
".
"
. . ' " .. .'. " : ": : " .".':'.
Z
:
". °,
tY
'°
. ,
10
=E
1
...............
10
BED Fig. 38. thickness
. . . . . . .
100
200
m m 10
100
200
THICKNESS Plot off maximum d i a m e E e r s of calcirudite beds.
off s h e t l s
and i n t r a c l a s t s
against
81
The
particular
allo~s
the
the
vertical
Fig.
370)
presence marks,
succession
of
both
current
storms
when
by
storm
As
in
thickness (Fig.
38);
tempestites
is
touch
(e.g.
gradient
controlled
carried
to a g i v e n
exerted
by the
flo~
point (cf.
and
(e.g. with
be
by
the
must
Sadler,
can
floor
and
tool
fabrics)
and of primary
of o s c i l l a t o r y
be
expected interact
the
and
during
~ith
uni-
currents).
turbidites
therefore
sequence,
Secondly,
transport,
:interaction
sea
beds
Firstly~
(bi/multidirectional
flows
the
these
"ideal" Flow.
sediment
a complex combined
the
grain-sheltered
(lateral
proportionally
can
in
waning
structures
~aves
limestone
varies it
Such
(e.g.
and
in
structures
to be r e c o n s t r u c t e d .
during
infiltration
suggests
currents
found
of s t r u c t u r e s
currents
flo~s.
directional
is
formation
wave-formed
lineation)
unidirectional
sedimentary
deposition
ripples,
caused
of
of t h e i r
indicates
wave
features
association
dynamics
Sadler,
maximum
inferred, f@ll be
grain
that
velocity
related
1982),
to
size
the of the the
tempestite of the
bed
thickness
of
largest shear
grain stress
1982).
Fig. 39. Preservation of trace Fossil tiers at the sole of tempestites. A) C r o s s - s e c t ~ o n of R h i z o c o r a l l i u m w a s h e d out and cast by a t e m p e s t i t i c c a l c a r e n i t e bed. 8) Cast R h i z o c o r a l l i u m , v i e w e d from bed base. C) Cross-section of T h a l a s s i n o i d e s b u r r o w s w a s h e d out and cast by g r a d e d c a l c i r u d i t e bed. D) Same s p e c i m e n as in C), view of bed base with T h a l a s s i n o i d e s n e t w o r k .
82
Beddinq are
planes.
al~ays
(Fig.
The
39B).
stick
possible
because
characteristic
for
vertical
than
applied degree
(Fig.
and
tier,
40).
This
to an e n t i r e
is ~as
~ay, by
sequence,
of s t r a t i g r a p h i c
are
the
washed
sediment
this
occurs and
indicates
bedding
incompleteness
cast of
deeper
amount
plane
method
i.e.
can
used
on a b e d - b y - b e d
a
1979;
irregulare
deeper
in
the
by an o v e r l y i n g a
few
erosion
cm~
lost
determine base
in
of m o r e
be q u a n t i f i e d . to
a
is
sho~
(Wetzel,
of s e d i m e n t
allo~s
as
This
they
Rhizocorallium
out
the m i n i m a l a
be
fossils
erosion.
tiered,
in the o r d e r
that
tempestites)
trace
can
storm
commonly
only
cast
fossils
of
Thalassinoides
Thalassionides,
represented
trace
depth
(proximal
and
Musehelkalk,
~hile
erosion
sheets
marks
within
In the
Rhizocorallium
seafloor
to cast
i0 cm
zonation
1982).
tool
cast
fossils
to a s h a l l o w
erosion
and
trace
belongs
If
out
minimal
& Bottjer,
tempestite,
scours,
the
Ausich
sediment.
of c a l c i r u d i t e
with
Washed
measuring
contrast
bases
erosional,
(Fig.
by Uhen the
41).
rlERS CK
SEDIMENTATION
STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD
EROSION a
b
Rhizocorallium
Thalassln
episodic vs. continuous
minimal erosion during event
incompleteness
Fig. 40. Infaunal tiering in trace fossil associations provides a m e a s u r i n g s t i c k for the d y n a m i c s of strat~graphie accumulation: (i) undisturbed versus interpenetrated tiers indicate episodic versus c o n t i n u o u s s e d i m e n t a t i o n (left). (2) W a s h e d out and cast t r a c e fossils belo~ event deposits indicate minimal erosion during the event (middle). (3) Thus strati rr~hic incompleteness can be determined q u a n t i t a t i v e l y (right).
83
PRE-EVENT TRACE CALIPER Fig. 41. Representative section in l i m e s t o n e / m a r l s t o n e alternation and some common styles of trace fossil preservation at the base of Lo a deep infaunal limestone beds. Because Thalassinoides belongs tier, east or truncated Thalassinoides burrows indicate deep event erosion (> lO cm). Rhizoeorallium, in eonLrast, is typical for a shallo~ tier, hence cast Rhizocorallium burroBJs indicate only minor erosion in the order of i-3 em. Subtraction of minimal erosion values (deduced from trace fossil preservation) from the measured section gives "de-eroded section" and quantitative values for stratigraphic shortening. Stratigraphie incompleteness of this sequence is about
1/3.
The
top
following three
surfaces
often
the event
("post-event
main
types (Fig. 42):
(and Thalassinoides); Spiriferina Lima);
fragl~s)
c) hardgrounds
Placunopsis represent called in
show
stylolites
biological
colonisation").
and
byssally
Such surfaces
oysters.
biological
are
of
brachiopods
(e.g.
(Pleuronectites,
Talpina and enerusted by
These
types
colonisation
of
"events"
surfaces
clearly
and may thus be
Many other bedding planes,
lime mudstones,
and microstylolites.
by
attached bivalves
bored by Caleiroda,
argillaceous
colonisation
a) firmgrounds burrowed by G l o s s i f u n g i t e s
"event bedding planes".
slightly
for
b) shellgrounds colonized
and terquemiid primary
evidence
particularly
are strongly obliterated by
In these eases,
fossils are highly dis-
84
torted called
and
often
hardly
"stylo-bedding
recognizable
(Fig. 48);
such surfaces
may be
planes"
Fig. 42. Post-event colonisation of tempestite tops indicating "event bedding planes". A) Firmground burrowed by Glossifung~tes and colonized by peetinids and oysters. B) Shellground colonized by braehiopods (here Spirifezina fraqlis). C) Hardground enerusted by Placunopsis ostracina and bored by Calciroda.
85
2.~I.
fhin-bedded
Description. parts thin
of
This the
slightly
sheets
Upper
see Fig.
43A).
"hummocks"
bases
display Fig.
44) have
(e.g.
types
as well
Fig.
these
Aigner,
2.10),
erosional
base,
lamination
that
bedform
distinct (Fig.
There
a3E;
see
Reineck
laminated
several
depositional
instances,
the
SEN,
most
for
bioturbation
near
the base
are
of
badly
have
at
bed
and display
(Fig.
show
preserved recorded
homogenous
to the under-
sedimentary
structures,
is gradational
tops thin
lime
tests
in some
beds
(Fig.
lags
except
47E).
mudstones
lime
that
436).
the
46).
debris
(Fig.
are
or
however,
gradational
and without (Fig.
except coarser
47C,D)
beds,
undulating
burrows
mudstones.
45).
nanno-organism
(Fig.
ether
rare
deformation
structureless
Many
are
include In
see Fig.
layers
with
rhythmites
however,
Other
marlstones
occasional
to nodular
of
appear
of shell
and overlying
A3C),
beds,
samples
47A,B).
(Fig.
motive
common,
stumping;
by
(Fig.
for s y n s e d i m e n t a y
structures,
topped
graded
(Fig.
sharp,
by parallel
"ideal"
laminations
occur
evidence
in the calc-
lamination, from this
event sheets
succession:
or
Many base
below
followed
Composite
may also
39A).
calcirudite
lag,
Most
are
marks,
erosive
variable
A3D),
1972). 43F).
ealcisiltite
boundaries
facies
(Fig.
and
but
and often
(Fig.
aureoles
"ideal"
ripple
~edges
prod
their
with
modifications
of the calcilutite
laminated
internally
been
fossils
also
cm
calci-
1-3 cm)
erosional
to
low-angle
~ave
Singh,
ball-and-pillow
Sehizosphaerella
In outcrops,
many
increments
calcisiltites
(convolutions,
zones
&
As
an
into
sequences
units
trace
are
and
bipolar
are diagenetic
43B shows
ctimbing
finine-up~ard
and
1-10
caleilutite
sheets.
are always
by a thin skeletal
upward
are
and
faintly
Under
Fig.
central
(argillaceous
limestone
1982).
and
lenses
attached
sequences
overlain
as undulous
Eder,
more
amplitude
(bounce
"underbeds"
develops
ripples.
such
bedded
layer
1982a;
arenite/calcisiltites.
wave
dm,
of washed-out
micritic
the
layers
include
few
of tool marks
in
43-48)
("Tonptatten-Fazies"):
marlstone
a
(Figs.
calcisiltite
Bed geometries
as casts
a3F);
(el.
(section
em-thin
irregularly
a cm-thick
surfaces
Basin
of e a l c a r e n i t e s / c a l c i s i l t i t e s
several
beds
widespread
calcarenite,
(~avelength
by slightly
alternations
is most
Muschelkalk
argillaceous with
dominated
Bed
lithology
alternate
lutites, small
limestone/marlstone
apparent
47F,G).
This
86
Fi~ 43. Stratification in thin-bedded calearenites/calcisiltites. A) Thin-bedded limestone/marlstone alternations ~ith gutter casts (arrows). B) "ideal" tempestite: sharp base, skeletal lag, parallel to lo~-angle lamination, ~ave-rippled top. C) Climbing ~ave-ripple lamination D) Graded ealcarenite. E) "Graded rhythmite". F) laminated ealcisi{tite with "underbed". G) Composite bed ~ith three depositional increments. H) Calearenite layer with blackened and bored hardground at top. l)-J) Post-event burrows: I) Teiehichnus, J) Rhizocorallium.
87
Fig. 44. The soles of many marks and prod marks the (arrows). B i p o l a r prod marks during storm erosion and t e m p e s t i t e s from other types unidirectional impacts).
Discussion. and
their
(section therefore suggest
In
are
2.10);
similar
a
be inferred.
flow
components
and
by
wave
thicker-bedded bedded
calcarenites
succession
rapid
tempestites are characterized by bounce latter t y p i c a l l y with b i p o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n s e m p h a s i z e the o s c i l l a t o r y flow component form an i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n to d i s t i n g u i s h of event d e p o s i t s (e.g. turbidites with
and
indicated
ripples.
bases
to
"proximal"
and
sedimentary the
depositional internal
bedform
multidirectional
and
sheets
vertical
are
(cf.
event.
the
Aigner,
that
sequences
prod into
these
"distal", 1982a).
can
Oscillatory
transitions
demonstrate
sheets
tempestites
one
sheets
mechanism
by hi-
or
structures
calcirudite
during
calcarenite/calcisiltite
equivalents
in
deposition
Lateral
calcirudite
calcisiltites, to those
storm-induced
Sharp
erosion are
and
similar
marks the
thinner-
deeper
water
88
Fig. 45. Soft-sediment deformation s t r u c t u r e s are rare in the Upper M u s c h e l k a l k and have only been o b s e r v e d in ealcisiltites and caleilutites. A) C o n v o l u t e l a m i n a t i o n in upper part of t e m p e s t i t e . B) M i n o r c o n v o l u t i o n s in fill of gutter cast. C) Isolated "ball and pillow". D) S l u m p i n g of thin c a l c i l u t i t e bed ( d i a m e t e r of c a m e r a cap = 5 cm)
In the tops one
caleJlutites, documents
event,
deposition facies
followed is
represent overbank stones
spills
silty
tempestites" (see
part
Whether
from
the
occur
or
sense
(1985)
in
with
basal
bed
during Event-
lags.
been
described
layers
are
deeper
The
by Brett
possible
may
analogous
storm-generated (1983).
modern
the
water.
tempestites"
channels,
similar
are
grained
offshore
surge
have
to
silt"Mud-
counterparts
1982).
they
remains
and
"proximal
Very
Bight
at
bed
eolonisation.
bases
fine
sea.
layers
whether
flo~s
storm
starts entire
calcarenitic/calcisiltitic
and
deep
Helgoland
structureless
bed
to thin
together
"proximal"
al#ays of the
post-event
storm
& Reineck,
event-deposits of R i c k e n
of
in the
the
deposition
by sharp
these
mudstones
from
bioturbation
transitions
that
I; Aigner
that
episodic
that
"f'~ne tails"
turbidites
and
by
and
calcilutites
fact
instantaneous
indicated
suggest
distal
Thin
also
context
tempestites most
the
also
with
gradational
represent
an open
boundaries
"diagenetic
question.
are
bedding"
also in the
89
Fig. 46. In few samples of calcisiltites, badly preserved tests of S c h i z o s p h a e r e l l a have been recorded under the SEM. S c h i z o s p h a e r e l l a is a presumably planctonic nanno-organism of unknown systematic position and occurs widely throughout the Jurassic (K~lin, 1980) but does not seem to be known from older rocks as yet. Its role as potential contributor to fine-grained carbonate should be further evaluated, but is hampered by r e c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n of micrites into microsparite.
Bedding
planes.
either
by
borers
(Teichichnus, shell
Bed tops
Fig.
8alanoglossites
Many
bedding
lites
on
as "test
these
tortion
bedding on
are
strongly
such
bodies"
in (i) ceratite burrows
planes
(Fig.
"normal"
millimeters
planes. steinkerns
(Fig. 48C,C').
bedding
or even more.
and
(Fig.
by pressure their
burrowers tops
burrowed
of
show by
and
in in
(stylo-
of distortion pressure
various
48A,A'),
often
solution
degree
48 shews
Due to pressure is
by bed
firmgreunds,
the amount
Fig.
or
Some
organisms,
470-D).
48B,B" ,8"" ),
planes
H)
43J).
some
affected
Fossils
by infaunal
43
Fig.
(Fig.
to estimate
stylo-bedding
Palaeophycus
1977),
and Glossifungites
and microstylolites).
be used
Fig.
Rhizocorallium,
(Aigner,
planes
colonized
(hardgrounds,
431;
pavements
are commonly
stages
(2) (3)
solution, in the
can
solution of dis-
Planolites/ ephiurids
sediment order
on loss
of several
90
Fig. 47. Stratification in t h i n - b e d d e d c a l c i l u t i t e s . A) F i e l d a p p e a r ance of e a l c i l u t i t e bed with bioturbation from top. B) Unspecific burrows (?Balanog]ossites, cf. Kazmierczak & Pszczolkowski, 1969) at bed top. C) Thick c a l c i l u t i t e bed with veneer of skeletal debris at base and intense b i o t u r b a t i o n from top. D) C a ] c i l u t i t e bed with skeletal lag and w e l l - d e v e l o p e d f i r m g r o u n d with G l o s s i f u n g i t e ~ - b u r r o w s at top, D') top view of f i r m g r o u n d . E) H o m o g e n o u s c a l e i l u t i t e bed with thin l a m i n a t e d c a l e i s i l t i t e at base. F)-G) H o m o g e n o u s calcilutites in cores: F) with r e l a t i v e l y sharp b o u n d a r i e s , G) with g r a d a t i o n a l boundaries and some b u r r o w s ; note strong c o m p a c t i o n of b u r r o w s in marl.
91
Fi~. 48. Fossils as test-bodies to deduce degree of pressure solution on "stylo-bedding planes" A) Steinkerns of ceratites~ relatively unaffected by pressure solution; A') "Ruins" of ceratite steinkerns caused by strong stylolithization. B) Undistorted P l a n o l i t e s / P a l a e o p h y c u s burrows, B') to B'') increasing degree of distortion by pressure solution. C) Unaffected ophiurids (Aspidura sp.); C') S t y l o l i t h i z e d remnants of ophiurids on pressure solution affected bedding plane (both specimens courtesy of H. Hagdorn)°
92
2.12.
Conclusions:
This
chapter
aimed
and
facies
types
questions
storm-dominated
stratification
to
the
(1) analyze
of
concerning
the
the
Upper
most
important
Muschelkalk
"stratinomy"
and
of these
stratification
(2) answer
deposits
a set of
(see
section
2.1.):
i.
Partly
based
on actualistic
the Upper
Musehelkalk
be
as environmental
used
"storm in
flats"
nodular
analogy
been
modern
shelly
molded
seem
(according
to
from
ealeilutitic
ranging
from
are
changing
grain
proximal~ty I;
decresing
trends
of storms
2.
Aspects
of
a) The minimal by
(2)
shells.
the
based
(i)
the
the burrowing The
first
types
method
is
i.e.
they
the
sediment.
cast
Rhizocorallium
deeper,
by proximal of perhaps is often
at the
fossils
show
The
a few dm.
of bed and
in
layers
(see
reflect
the
They
tempestites
cast
can
(Fig.
and reflect
be
can
be
esti-
bottoms,
non-reworked
infaunal
because
In contrast,
can
50):
at tempestite
trace
vertical
deep-burrowing
by distal
distal
Such
water.
seafloor
a characteristic
tempestites
east
of
versus
possible
to
zonations.
characteristics
erosion
to "distal"
faunas.
and
offshore
re-
types
degree
storm
1982)
dynamics
of reworked
tiered,
order
in modern
Nelson,
of trace
depth
within
the
to trends
rock
content, and
and
that these
Proximal
intraclast
and p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c
of storm
and lateral
nearshore) 49).
paleocurrents
1982;
commonly
in
and
depositional
to have
Channel-fills
related
bed thicknesses,
burrows commonly
shallow,
on s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
amount
demonstrate
In
massive
likely
floms.
decreasing
towards
layers
reworking.
Vertical
(Fig.
Reineck,
for facies
storm
are
in can
indicate
bodies,
end members
similar
effects
reconstructed
and
are
storm
genetically
structures,
&
be used
of
bioclast
Aigner
thus
mated
in
layers
fining-up
sand
storms.
and
calcarenitic/calcisiltitic
(generally
size,
sedimentary
to by
(tempestites)
offshore)
expressed
episodic
types
events
storm
to grainstones
into
spectrum
"proximal"
deeper,
amalgamation,
part
sheets
continuous
(generally
erosion
storm
and thin
carbonate
pack-
caleiruditic
storm
a
record
in response
episodic
stratification
Supratidal
1976)~
shallow-water
and activated
present
changes
deposits
most
for episodic
indicators.
and crinoidal
record
transitions
analogues,
evidence
to Wanless,
back-bank
to
oolitic,
show
fossils zonation
of
Thalassinoides
are
deeper
storm
the shallow
tempestites,
are
erosion burrowing
refIecting
minor
93
TEMPESTITE
PROXIMALITY
• .O..~4;,;~-t;~C
calcilutite
calcisiltite
catcarenite
FACIES
calcirudite
GRAIN SIZE
II INTRACL. III AMALGAM. BED-O (non-erosion.)
tool marks
irreguL scoured
alongshore (smothered epifauna)
parautochthonous softbottorn f.
allochthonous mixed fauna
channeled
BED-BASE
offshore
PALEOCURR.
multiple reworking
FAUNA
Fig. 49. Generalized trends in vertical and "ideal" tempestite: proximality as a guide interpretations.
erosion
in
Pleuromya of
storm
Such
b)
are
(Kolp,
The
on
superimposed ferred,
(lateral dominant
e)
The
tool
Smith
sole
of
marks),
sediment
direction
followed
influx),
storm
of s t o r m
at bed
bases,
is
during
yet
during of
modern
1976).
ripples
a11ows and
components,
flows
can fully
initial
depth
of cm's.
structures
flow
oscillatory
(wave-rippled
biwhile
document thus
be
understood. storm
phases
unidirectional flows
in-
became
flows again
tops).
indicated
imbrication
order
found
imbrication)
is not
important
by a d o m i n a n c e
flows
in the
Wave
transport,
bivalve
average
& Sanders,
Combined
before
waning
flows.
mechanism most
Kumar
oscillatory
flows.
was
rates
burrowing the
Sedimentary
storm
sediment
complete
deeply
probably
1972;
represent
lateral
the
was
of
the
tempestites,
erosion
association kind
erosion
during
marks
seafloor with
unidirectional
wave
Since
into
& Hopkins,
marks
(e.g.
although
(bipolar
reworked
the
the
tool
features
Possibly
on
particular
directional
of a few cm.
not
compatible
]958;
speculations
other
order
erosion
values
storms
the
is n o r m a l l y
lateral v a r i a t i o n or for environmental
within
by
the
the
bed,
orientation and w a v e
of
ripples
94
aL bed
tops.
casts)
show
longshore proximal
d)
The
Prod
winds
grain
"distal"
low-velocity on
(1981)
with
flows
Flume
in the
cm/s,
based
on
rudites
indicate
may
maximal
pebble
curves
of S u n d b o r g
ment
with em/s,
cm/s,
grain
&
size
(1982)
present
calculations
and
are
Analogous
eL al., the
is
have
of wave
used
to
de-
principally
arise
From
the
the
flow
case,
are well
Gienapp,
in
agree-
storms 1973;
& Drake,
(e.g.
-
-80
cm/s,
1982;
20-60
yeL
Allen,
in
recent
form
the
to
case,
> 7.5
such
also
and
on
using
Sundquist
calculations behaviour
(2)
that
1984),
Lops
(1982)~
understood~
Allen,
likely
tempestite
hydrodynamic
index
(P.A.
some
For
the
ecological
characteristic
shallow
and
present
based
most
should (3)
seriously
of
of the not
be
superimposed affect
such
1981).
Shackley
destruction
(1)
on
Clifton
sufficiently
a vertical
are
&
In the
because not
be r e c o n s L r u c L e d
ripples
Hunter
(1984).
important
1977;
using
should
In any
Cacchione
Lheoretieally
(1980),
currents
recorded Lo
can
reconstructions
are
and
present-day
em/s,
- 50 cm/s,
morphology
Allen
(P.A.
during
calci-
cm/s
velocity-entrainment
tempestites
- 151
workers
1983).
however,
unidirectional
1977;
1976;
the
grains
measured
et al.
and
ripples
Storms
Muschelkalk
the
of B o u r g e o i s
for wave
3.
for
of
coarse
commonly
Flows.
are
et al.
order
several
complications
combined
by
"proximal"
in the
6o-400
sedimentology
However,
More
of
fluvial
off
inferences
and W a n l e s s
Very
are
of
deposited
by
erosion
order
been
1978).
velocities
critical
on the
Flows
shells
approaches
layers.
conditions
difficult,
carbonate
on
by
in
Musche]kalk,
pellets.
deposited
nature
sea
P.A.
with
shells
the
These (1977)
Similar
in
Larsen~
and
the
have
cm/s.
Futterer,
flow
velocities
eL al.,
and
approaches
both
and
to storm
flow
1957;
maximal
Forristall
Swift
e) Wave
Rees
experiments
(1967).
inferred
Sternberg
used
Flume
size
understood
velocities
are
probably
In
to
gutter indicate
Flows.
estimates
& Komar
and
were
paleovelocities
be a p p l i c a b l e
1-20
and
directed
some
(and
ripples
intraclasts
seem
of
tests
wave
velocities.
of Miller
Johnson~
of
allows
Lempestites and
offshore
Flow
order
foram~niferal
1911;
200
storm
experiments
calcirudites
poorly
largely
in t e m p e s t i L e s
minimal
of distal
orientaLions,
Imbrication
record
(Trusheim,
duce
bases
calcarenites/calcisiltites
based
20-60
the
accordingly.
size
of"
at
longshore
tempestites
magnitude
shelly
marks
bipolar
~aLer
& Collins~ the
dynamics
Formation
the
paleoecological
environments 1984),
on
(e.g.
sLorms
of b e n t h i c
seafloor
patterns.
Sch~Fer,
play
a
1970;
part
associations:
in
storm
95
scour
and
accumulates
layers
washes (e.g.
Aigner,
1977),
for
firm-,
shell-
new
response Upper
out
Huschelkalk, transported
in-situ
re~orked
shell
Post-event even
the
distal, tops~ at
faunas,
(see
part
bioturbation
basinal
sequences
?),
be i n f e r r e d
inhibited but
only
that
during possible
is
to
as
typically
distal
form
creating a
& Jablonski,
biological
]983).
ere
similar
shell
substrates
include
tempestites
assemblages,
I, Fig.
commonly
faunas time
associations
tempestites
storm-generated
it may
same
Kidwell
while
complete
times
control
hardground
parautochthonous
beds
at the
feedback",
proximal
partly
storm
and
("taphonomic
soft-bottom
yet
In the mixed,
dominated
to
North
by Sea
24).
reworked layers.
the
restricted
benthic
upper
Since
exclusively
co]onisation
background episodically
part
sometimes
storm
in
many
to t e m p e s t i t e
of the
conditions after
of,
bioturbation
seafloor
(oxygen,
was
salinity
events.
BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE
loo crn/s 0
[empestite dynamics Fig. 50. Summary of some dynamic factors that can be d e d u c e d from tempestites: (i) The p r e s e r v a t i o n of trace fossil tiers at the base of tempestites allows to estimate the amount of m i n i m a l e r o s i o n d u r i n g the event. (2) Tool marks at t e m p e s t i t e soles indicate the direction of storm flo~s. (3) The grain size of t e m p e s t i t e s g i v e s some ind i c a t i o n on storm flow v e l o c i t i e s . (&) The type of post-event faunas on tempestite tops sheds light on paleoecological factors such as s u b s t r a t e c o n s i s t e n c y and c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e .
96
4. of
Primary
bedding
"sutured
supported
For
instance,
5.
of
Bedding
record
solution"
pressure
"nodular" planes
off t w o
by p r e s s b r e
significant
positional
erosion
solution.
and
1979b) in
most
form
of
with
both
in
common
form
in g r a i n -
"non-sutured
argillaceous,
together
basinal
rock
bioturbation
(storm-stratified)
types: bed
tempestite
entirely
pressure
b)
basic
scoured
(e.g.
and
caused
-
solution
seam types. -
facies
has
into
a
fabrics.
eolonisation),
represent
in more
solution
(e.g.
surfaces
and
well-stratified
rock
are
by p r e s s u r e
(Wanless,
facies,
1979b)
primarily
erosional
sitional
be m o d i f i e d
water
(Nanless,
transformed variety
seam
shallow
solution"
may
stylo-bedding
gaps
solution. in the
a)
event
bases tops
with
planes Many
as well
tool
available
stratigraphie
non-deposition
bedding
that "normal" record as
by
planes
marks) for are
or
that depo-
biological modified
bedding caused
or
planes
by synde-
postdepositional
97
3 •
3.1.
Vertical
Detailed and
pervasive
in
physical changes.
these
Cycles are
basinal
NaJn
with
the
rare
in
0ncolitic
Descri_ption. parts
of
landward
The
the
basal
often
type
pebbles
become
fewer
and
increases
algal
coatings
such
sequences
and
and
bedded
may
pack-
The
mud-
and
geographic what
finingbeen
are and
recorded
and
or
5o
more
discussed thinning-
in the
deep
and
comprise
in
some
shell
bio-
oncolites
lensoidal
very
marginal
paleogeographically
dark,
rather
(Fig. by
argillaceous~
and b i o t u r b a t e d cases
with
(Teichichnus)
abundant
Upwards,
of micritic
and
(Fig.
and
in
occurs
debris.
formed
packstone
present
marlstone
may
52B).
upper
The i/2
52C).
-
2
show
around
incipient
portion
m thick
These
sometimes
or
form
more
and
unsorted
channel-like
layers
envelopes
lithoclasts
a
small
of
bed of cross-
sheet-like
bodies.
Discussion. grained
be
types
one
in-
cycles.
The p r o p o r t i o n
commonly
skeletal
units
52A),
some
small
is
Basin
marlstone
blackened
oncolite-rich
sediment
sequences
and t h i n n e r .
is o n l y
grainstone
mudsLone, (Fig.
have
3.
colours~
follo~ing
(e.g.
but
of beds,
lighter
common
cycles
in u p w a r d
52)
Muschelkalk
lime
wackestone
trends
trends
76).
(Fig.
of t h e s e
4.
a marked
Individual
2. t h i c k e n i n g
of the m o s t
area,
Fig.
51).
reveals
following
off s e q u e n c e s
of s e q u e n c e s
Upper
parts
black
shells
(see
size,
the
structures,
some
study
Muschelkalk
(Fig.
show
variety
opposite the
of o o l i t e
nodular
peloidal
the
cycles
This
mainly
of g r a i n
cycles
Upper
cyelicity
7 m thick)
motives,
region
of the
sedimentary
From
general
upward)
3.1.1.
and
i. c o a r s e n i n g
faunistic
here.
analysis
1
S E Q U E N C E S
coarsening-upward
sedimentary
between
direction:
of
sequences:
bed-by-bed
(mostly
crease
F A C I E S
upward and
grainstone
indicates
distribution
restricted,
change
~ackestone
of this
"lagoonaZ"
from
bioturbated
to b e t t e r an u p w a r d type
sorted
shallowing
of c y c l e
depositional
and
stratified trend.
suggests
environment.
finecoarser
The
a shallow, This
paleosome-
inference
98
Fig. 51. Many different types of asymmetrical coarsening-upward sedimentary cycles can be readily observed in weathered quarry sections. Most typical are : A) Oolite grainstone cycle (see Fig. 53). B) Skeletal hank cycle (see Fig. 54). C) Crinoidal hank cycle (see Fig. 55). D) Nodular-to-compact cycle (see Fig. 56). E) Thickening-upward cycle (see Fig. 57). F) Thinning- and fining-upwards cycles are rare in the study area.
99
CYCLE
-
X- bedded
oncolite channel
nodular wackestone & tempestites
nodular marly
-
40 20 cm =
0
Fig. 52. Detailed l o g t h r o u g h an o n c o l i t e cycle ~ith upward change in microfacies From nodular pelmicrite (A)~ to thin graded calcarenitescalcicudites (B), to massive oncolitic calcirudites. Explanation of s y m b o l s for a l l following logs: H = mudstone, N = packsLone, P = calcarenite~
= packstone~ G = grainstone; m = marl, I = calcilutite, r = calcirudite.(seetion no, 6, T i e f e n b a c h )
a
100
is
also
shallow and
supported nearshore
(2)
back-bank
These
cycles
gradually
Description. in
lime
into
This
type
parts
nodular
and
fabric
ubiquitous
The
basal
with
part
51A,
see also
1983),
and channels
b;agner,
1913b).
lagoonal
areas
in a prominent
belt
53)
(Fig.
common Basin
The basal
part
53A)
and reaches is
Nodularity
is
by
Remnants
~ith
dark-grey
a pronounced
caused large
of
generally
normally
commonly
particularly
grades
upwards
minor
marlstone
and nodularity
stratification common.
sorting
into
(intrabiomierites)
only
turbatJon
mere
Davaud,
in ponds
for
largely
by
pellet-filled
laminations
are
only
preserved.
and packstones or
&
typical
and channels.
Musehelkalk
of Teichiehnus.
are
to represent
is most
partings.
bioturbation,
spreiten-structures rarely
(Fig.
pelmicrite
and marly
1975;
ponds
of sequences the
that
Strasser
interpreted
2 and 6 m in thickness.
mudstone
1974;
(Nilson~
cycles
of
pebbles,
preferentially
oncolitic
grainstone
marginal
between
occur
therefore
shoaling
black
(Barthel,
that
environments
are
Oolite
(i) abundant
settings
oneolites,
~ithin
3.1.2.
by
such
and
mud
high,
the
abundance
(Fig.
decreases
of
bedded
538).
although
discontinuous
content
unsorted
are thicker
partings
is still
as em-thick
As lime
lighter-grey
that
without
The degree
remnants fining-up
upwards,
micritic
wackestones and
primary
sequences
the
envelopes
of bio-
of
degree
around
are of
shells
increases.
The upper
part
grey
yellowish
to
usually
of these
meniscus
most
Evidence
cement)
generally
is
sharp
is usually
cross-bedded
well-sorted;
envelopes.
cycles
of submarine present.
In Musehelkalk
top
units
been
have
Discussion.
Wilson's
although
All
sequence
named
(1975) they
surface
are
of
with
"Obere
cyclicity
of progressive
interpreted
as
many
This
is
micritic
(dripstone
these thin
Oolithbank"
cycles.
the
53c).
light
and
cycles
is
Fe-veneers
and
such and
cycleused
for
was not recognized.
change
shoaling-up
of
have
diagenesis
marked
shallowing-upward
"asymmetric
and
lithostratigraphy~
(e.g.
the general
patterns
indicate
Analogously
top
unit
(Fig.
rounded
and vadose
The
hardgrounds.
grainstone
are
and in a few instances
rare
correlation,
oolitic
bioelasts
a 1-3 m thick
within They
carbonate result
type
of
correspond
this
to
shelf of a rapid
cycles". rise
in
101
OOLITE-GRAINSTONE CYCLE
~HALLOW 1AMP )OLITE
TRANSITION
DEEPER RAMP CM
I0
I° 2O
mi
ar
F i g . 53. D e t a i l e d l o g t h r o u g h o o l i t e g r a i n s t o n e c y c l e ( o f . Note u p w a r d changes f r o m d e e p - r a m p b i o t u r b a t e d pelmicrites weakly bioturbated skeletal w a c k e s t o n e and p a c k s t o n e (B) bedded s h a l l o w ramp o o l i t i c g r a i n s t o n e ( C ) . S e c t i o n no. 73)7 WilhelmsglOck (from Aigner~ 1988).
Fig. 51A). (A) t h r o u g h into cross21 ( c f i . F i g .
102
relative
sea level
oolitic
shoalwater
sition
and in some
3.1.3.
Skeletal
Description. of
the
facies
The vertical
succession
(except
argillaceous,
thick
(l-3m)
these
massive
(section
cross-bedded,
of
may
nodular
"Mittlere
cycles
but
landward
in the marginal
limestone
structures, similar
bedded (Fig.
skeletal
at
wackestone that
the top
and includes
a high
cycles,
Schalentr~mmerbank")
pass
54C).
such
to
by
Just
a
below above
bed is commonly
proportion
in Upper
54A)
described
massive
many
from
overlain
as
and
grainstone
(Fig.
is
(Fig.
fills
The uppermost
grainstone
microfacies
to oolite
sequences
54B),
channel
present.
well-sorted
the
also
Commonly,
grainstone
be
seaward,
generally
to
As in oolite
(e.g.
but
to grainstone
skeletal
of
of non-depo-
54)
sedimentary
ooids).
top units,
2.7)
envelopes. beds
pack-
outbuilding periods
Muschelkalk.
the
thin-
thicker-bedded
seaward document exposure.
mainly
grainstone
variable
for
51B,
occur
oolitic
tops
subaerial
(Fig.
of the Upper
is
Cycle
local
sequences
with
fossils
cycles
cases
These
belt
by regressive
complex.
bank cycles
province
trace
followed
of
units
micritic
form marker
Huschelkalk
litho-
stratigraphy.
Discussion. change
As in the oolite
indicate
nodular
limestones
tempestites
and thin
shallow-water unit
3.1.4.
bars
Upper
skeletal
surge
channels
to represent
bank
This
cycles
type
Muschelkalk
developed
in more
Sequences
start
(Fig.
deeper
sheets
of
cycles,
sequences. water
all patterns
Basal
conditions
sand.
shallow
that
Channelized
and the uppermost
a very
of upward
argillaceous pass
into
beds
are
massive
shoaiwater
and
skeletal
complex
of
and banks.
Crinoidal
Description.
grainstone
shallowing
represent
storm
is interpreted
skeletal
the
upward
off
with
51C,
sequence
55)
occurs
("Trochitenkalk")
marginal
55) the basal
(Fig.
parts
basal
part
only
and
in the lower
is
most
part
off
prominently
of the basin.
argillaceous
units;
is in fact a thick
in the
marlstone
figured
horizon
example
with
few
103
SKELETAL BANK CYCLE %E
SKELETAL BANK
TEMPESTITES
OFF- BANK
Fig. 54. Detailed log through a skeletal bank cycle (cf. Fig. 51B) with upward change from bioturbated arenitic w a c k e s t o n e (A), to wellsorted arenitic grainstone with few mieritic envelopes (B), to wellsorted ruditic grainstone with abundant micritic envelopes. Section no. 5, Neidenfels (cf. Fig. 72).
104
CRINOIDAL BANK CYCLE CRINOIDAL BANK
CHANNEL FILL
PROXIMAL TEMPESTITES
DISTAL TEMPESTITES IN
MARLSTONE 40
0 Mld~
Fig. 55. Detailed log through a crinoidal bank cycle (cfi. Fig. 51C) with upward change from thin graded calcisiltite (A~ distal tempestite), to graded shelly sheets (B, proximal tempestite), to channeled skeletal packstone (C), to massive shelly/crinoidal limestone (D). Section no. 37, 8retten (el. Fig 71).
105
thin
limestone
nodules.
stone
layers
interbedded
represent upwards
typical
into
crinoid part
are
ossicles,
(section
amounts
presented oolitic
by
through
a
faunas
tially
burrows
found
Discussion.
crinoids
larger
other
that
habitats
parts
of the
massive
skeletal
settings, On
area but
weathered
the
also
sections,
For
have
(Fig.
this
upward
some
other
cycles
provided
the
attachment
of
it was
out
only
From 1985) The
been
is
Only
during
their and thus
used
more
colonize Formed
as litho-
6").
51D,
type
nearshore
occur
of
that
1978,
]ong
and
distal
conclusion.
the
Hence
spread
6").
(regression).
regression.
units
cycles"
between may
peak
preferen-
of these
winnowing
Hagdorn,
"Trochitenbank
Paleogeographica]ly,
intermediate
could
(cf.
to
and
part
shallowing
epibenthos.
during
(e.g.
to
are
indicates
this
crinoids upper
shellground
Glossifungites).
units
necessary
crinoids
and
"Trochitenbank
support
extensive
swells
"Nodular-to-compact
Descriptio[.
cycles.
the
basin
markers
basinal
caused substrate
on
the
response
by soft-
(Rhizocorallium
marlstones
in-situ to
is d o m i n a t e d
(e.g.
changes
55D).
changes
liliformis
from
recases
marked
hard-
in
large
is
in some
(Fig.
feeders
1965,
upper
include
and
feeders
firm-,
some
described
cycles
also
part
skeletal
and
feeders
£ixosessile
crinoid-rich
an
faunal
hard
stratigraphic
3.1.5.
and
level
or
shallowing
permanent
massive
and
Encrinus
tinck,
transition
ecological
energy
and
(e.g.
of a r t i c u l a t e d
the
shelly
crinoid
to
suspension
probably
higher
suspension
vertical
restriction
lower
further
the
as
these
show
includes
the
Mierofacies
fixosessile
part
Within
to g r a i n s t o n e
sediment
pass
include
Fills
massive,
lime-
limestones
and
present
mostly
thicker
may
ones.
of
ichnofauna
of
tops
distal
be
pack-
their
of
tempestites,
shallowing.
the
55A)
which
unit
thick
While
of
at cycle
The
proximal
general
m
and
These
channel
may top
burrows
upper
specimens
the
550) The
2
and
and
the
and
Complete
a
-
cycles.
assemblages
irrequlare),
firm,
]/2
macrofauna
these
bottom
most
Fig.
ossic]es.
(Fig.
55B),
to
more
marlstone.
skeletal
crinoid-mollusc-brachiopod
The b e n t h i c
The
small
2.7.;
of c r i n o i d
(Fig.
contrast
sequences,
the
tempestites
ones
in
increasingly
within
"distal"
"proximal"
of these
above
Upwards,
56)
of s e q u e n c e shoalwater
landward
of the
"modular-to-compact
is
common
complex
and
in more
oolite
grainstone
cycles"
are
easily
106
NODULAR-TO-COMPACT CYCLE
mlar Fig. Note ~ell
56. Detailed log through n o d u l a r - t o - c o m p a c t cycle (el. Fig. 51D). upward increase in the abundance and grain size of bioclasts as as increasing winnowing. Section no. 35~ Westheim.
107
recognizable and
(Fig.
strongly
51D).
turbation
decreases,
fication
is
Discussion. base
of
deeper
top
these
obscured
facies
and
shallower
3.1.6.
and
The
lower
most
part
gutter
Muschelkalk although
basal
marlstone
bioclast
The 57C)
upper
part
and
(Fig.
consist lenses.
of
a
tops 57D).
&
crusted.
The
trace
sequences.
While
irregulare
and
commonly displays
present
open
waekestones
skeletal
are
pack-
the
are
of
top
fossil their
are
content lower
part
up.
Glossif__jjngites-type
burrows.
as
been
of
a 20-50
mostly
em thick
wedges
and
pebbles
changes
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d
their
(Fig.
skeletal beds
and
channel-like
(Barthel,
commonly
The
further
fills
composite
in
limestones
thicker,
channel
and
beta",
marlstone
shallow
bored
markedly
1974; and
in
en-
these
by R h i z o e o r a l l i u m
burrows, part
alpha,
thin
57A-0).
and
beds
recognized.
(Fig.
by
often
thicker
marker
progressively
black
The t o p m o s t
shoals.
unit,
"Tonhorizont
layers,
Planolites/Palaeophycus further
used
interbedded
also
was
in m i c r o -
7 m in thick-
of the
into
abundant
somewhat
higher-energy, and
1 and
not
are
the
settings.
had
formed
including
1983)
a
Some
includes
amalgamated
pebbles,
into
blankets
marlstone
become
units
changes
thick
(e.g.
commonly
These
and/or
1978).
coarser-grained
sequences
Upward
percentage
beds
at
stratification
between
being
upward
limestones
sheltered
marine
cm
context
passes
and
number
Davaud,
strati-
57)
generally
horizons
cyclic
higher
Re~orked
Strasser
are
51E,
& Futterer,
limestone
cycle
paekstone
(Fig.
a 10-70
Upwards,
of some
of bio-
weathering
pelleta]
primary
skeletal
lithostratigraphy
horizon
content
nodular
primary
compact
nodular
a transition
in more
(Aigner
while
and
ealciruditic
a quiet,
incipient
sequences
their
marlstones.
decreases,
into
and
marly,
the d e g r e e
more
of T e i c h i e h n u s .
cycles
marlstone
Upper
a
in which
reflect
small
is g e n e r a l l y
widespread
increases
mudstones
reflect
abundant
casts
etc.),
and
with
These
are
and
bioturbated
environment,
Thickening-upward
ness
most
strongly
stratification
Descriotion.
from
by b u r r o w i n g
setting
rather
56A-D).
sequences
depositional
largely
with
and
are
content
producing
calcarenitic
(Fig.
Marly
parts marl
thickness
change
through
at the
bed
preserved,
Microfacies
(pelmierites) stones
basal
Upwards,
while
better
appearance.
Their
bJoturbated.
of these
Teichichnus sequences
is often
108
THICKENING-UPWARD ~TnA~,r,,~^T,~,,
, ,TU~,
CYCLE
INTERPRETATION
' ~
skeletal blanket
proximal tempestites & channels
distpl tempestites & gutters
cm
m
I
a
r
Fig. 57. Detailed log through a thickening-upward cycle (see Fig. 51E). Note upward changes from distal tempestites with gutter casts (A,B), into proximal tempestites (with surge channels, C) and finally into a cross-bedded unit of skeletal packstone (D). Section no. i~ Steinb~chle (from Aigner, 1984).
109
Like
the m i c r o f a c i e s ,
marked
changes
collected Gutter
From
casts
sequences.
various
parts
of one
in
lo~er
part
the
shoreline
(el.
and
bipolar
prod
longshore
but
and
imbrication
shore
sediment
Discussion.
casts
are
distal
tempestites), limestones with
storm-surge
amalgamation which and
has
in
incipient
Similar from
some
of low
net in
longshore
to the
lithofacies,
the
changing
quiet
softgrounds
(Seilacher,
blackened,
sedimentation the flow
in
led
surfaces
with
change
topmost
events
cases
deeper-water
grounds
indicate
upward
changes
horizon
thicker
is
and
flows
and
development
gutter (distal
coarser-grained associated
represents
relatively
indicate
interpreted
sheets
tempestites,
unit
off-
a complex
shallower
of s k e l e t a l
water, blankets
shoals.
to the
firmground
The
of
into
Channel
cycles.
limestone
proximal
show
larger
orientation.
storm-induced
changes
channels.
The
of
to
a
show
to
casts
marks
however,
all
marlstone
(bounce also
of t h e s e
sequences,
transition
of a n u m b e r
part
area.
parallel
tempestites
on-offshore
conditions.
upward
the
marks
sole
data
regional
are o r i e n t e d
Sole
show
paleocurrent
a wider
of d i s t a l
tempestites,
The b a s a l
water
over cycle
Upwards,
upper
previous
paleocurrents
58 s h o w s
]978).
more
expressions
while
mark
in the
trends.
deepest
a
in p r o x i m a l
in the
shallowing-upward represent
orientations.
transport
As
cycle
at the b a s e s
towards
fauna,
Fig.
of the
& Futterer,
casts)
shift
fills
to
Aigner
bipolar
and
and
these
the
scatter
stratification
within
bored and
hydraulic in d e e p e r ,
offshore
directed
(proximal)
water.
1967).
ichnofauna
to s h a l l o w e r - w a t e r The
non-deposition. during
offshore
sediment
association
and e n e r u s t e d
regime
reflects
water
pebbles
The
(distal)
transport
in
these
indicate
from to
change
event-agitated
of
paleoeurrents
shallowing
a
a
firmperiods show
a
a dominance
of
dominance
of
shallower,
nearshore
Fiq. 58. D e t a i l e d log of thickening-upward sequence traced over a regional ( K o e h e r - J a g s t ) area w i t h p a l e o c a r r e n t d a t a from v a r i o u s p a r t s of the same s e q u e n c e . In its lower~ " d i s t a l " park, gutter casts and sole mark directions are largely a l o n g s h o r e , p e r p e n d i c u l a r to wave r i p p l e c r e s t s . U p w a r d s ~ wave r i p p l e s show more interference patterns~ sole m a r k s s w i n g into o n / o f f s h o r e d i r e c t i o n but are m o r e v a r i a b l e , and i m b r i c a t i o n in the u p p e r m o s t p r o x i m a l beds i n d i c a t e s o f f s h o r e directed flow. SHA = S c h w ~ b i s c h Hall, CR = C r s i l s h e i m . S e q u e n c e b e l o w " T o n h o r i zont beta"
110 150-
PROXIMAL imbrication
SHA
LLI
,
0
5 km
,
RMEDIATE~..
Z
,arks
~I-"
,
UJ
Jl
,./~"~
,,
~I00
a mmm
Q.
l >S~~I'STA~,
,'" "
i"-
!
Z 50
bounce marks prod
0
~GUTTERCASTSL_~y__./~,
/ .J
U~
i
.-~.~
111
3.1.7.
Conclusions:
Although shore
the character
to
some
offshore
comprise
such
dark-to-light
colour
structures
upwards.
distinctly
longshore
reflect
changes
(2) episodic
made
start
many
with
of which
orientation
have
powerful
also been
and
All
In some
crinoids.
document
for
of
the
change
above
are
so
much
greater
accommodate
(e.g.
repeatedly
Since
many
over
large
mechanisms accordance preted rise
and
repetitions
individual parts
cycles
to
Wilson
as asymmetric in relative
build
sea
be
(see
main
(1975),
units
are
(e.g.
especially
facies
cycles
James~
and
sequences of
a
carbonate 1980;
carbonates
Enos,
tend
to
of s u b s i d e n c e
can
carbonate level,
accumulations thus
generating
be
correlated
cycles.
below), controls
example
can
regional for
the Muschelkalk
followed
geo-
brachio-
paleoeeology
rates
up to sea
transgressive/regressive level,
allowed
shallow-water 1975;
because
in the present
of Lhe basin
are likely with
rapidly
and
correlation.
average
of s h a l l o w i n g - u p w a r d
firm-
fixosessile
1985)
(e.g.
winnowed,
provided
top horizons
of
Consequently,
cycle
correlation
Shallowing-upward
than
many
represent
vertical
Wilson,
to
firm-
tops.
attention,
lithology,
pervasive
]980).
associations softgrounds
fingerprinted"
motif
see
sequences
vertical
in
from
permanent
at cycle
that
described
aL
James,
more
specific
cycles.
summaries
rates
Faunal
generally
cycle
upwards
(1) basal
had escaped
by
sedimentary
change
see Hagdorn,
accumulate
will
Such
from
sands
these
form a fundamental
(for
thickening-upwards, physical
to
"event-stratigraphie"
shallowing-upward of types
more
"ecologically
upward
within
accumulation 1983).
instanees~
Such
beds
markers
horizons
colonisation
59).
lithostratigraphie
(3) either
They
(Fig.
horizons
for l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i c
Holocrinus-Bank;
patterns
paleocurrents
variety
used
near-
sections),
cycle
offshore.
to
significance
-condensed
widespread
marker
to
from
marlstone
tend
carbonate
SchalentrOmmerbank").
and
and
conditions
and shellgrounds
top units
Spiriferina-Bank,
as
Paleoeurrents
genetic
graphically
"ideal"
upwards,
their
shellgrounds.
an
59)
varies
thin but w i d e s p r e a d
as c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d s ~
Although
pods
for
(Fig.
(see previous
changes
or to mobile
storm-amalgamated
sequences
trends
and shellgrounds
"Mittlere
dynamics
Basin
are used
in substrate
firm-
facies
the Muschelkalk
can be
commonly
("Tonhorizonte")
of vertical
in
generalisations
Sequences
and
transgressive/regressive
this
than
local
cyclieity.
sequences
cycles
by vertical
rather
caused
accretion
In
are
inter-
by a
rapid
and seaward
112
cycle dynamics
CU-SEQUENCEPALEOCURRENTSPALEOECOLOGY
prox,tempestites |.-
&
0
,
distaltempestites
marlstone /
N
II
Fig. 59. S u m m a r y on trends in lithology, pa]eoeurrents and faunas through an " i d e a l " c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d c y c l e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t e r m s of transgressive/regressive dynamics. For further explanation see text.
outbuilding cycles versus (see
shoalwater
the
entire
an e u s t a t i c
the
level
ments
is
served, meter
A
the
rough rise
control
gives
The
some
For the
on a v e r a g e
Published
Wilson,
of
any
distribution
clues
changes
be
time
1975).
required
cycle
regarding
in r e l a t i v e
Thus
time
for
of
rate
of
sea
scales
of
these
a tectonic sea
of
level
level
in the
such
cycle
sedi-
thickness order
the
of
obone
cycles.
for t h e s e
Huschelkalk
of U p p e r
440,000
cycles
that
shallow-marine sediment
the d u r a t i o n
bet~eeen
(198a),
total
60,000
similar
(generally the
and
by M a t t h e w s
thickness o f the
to p r o d u c e
thickness
periods
estimates
magnitude
%
of r e l a t i v e
of p o s s i b l e
gives
proposed
given
30-40
changes
would
estimate
deposition
of t h u m b "
to e x p l a i n
minor
or less
order
"rule
approximately
only
rough
based
prime
complex.
basin
below).
Using sea
of
within
are 20,000
forraation
Muschelkalk
years about and is
cycles
per in
cycle.
the
600,000
same years,
geologically
so
113
rapid,
that
For the
Upper
it mostly
those
transgressive
widespread,
falls beyond
Muschelkalk,
this
and
as markers
normal
regressive
both
biostratigraphic
consideration
for
units
litho-
resolution.
justifies which
and
the
are
for
use
of
particularly
time-stratigraphie
correlation.
3.2.
Lateral
Lateral Upper
sequences:
facies
changes
Muschelkalk
sorge
(1935),
Hagdorn
carbonate
were
from
(1978,
1982).
However,
model
Thanks
abundance
to
an
The
general
sediment
facies
bodies
fine-grained marlstones.
(Ahr, good
absent,
1973;
In
the
are
dominated
lower
regarded barrier
3.2.1.
a gently 1982
model (Fig.
Upper
a,b).
ooid
see
ramps
comprise
and
provide
of the
skeletal
interbedded
~ith
lime m u d s t o n e s
slump
break
be
Gulf
Jordan,
and into
deposits
can
Persian &
Upper
examined. and oolitic
~ithout
using
Read's
skeletal ramps),
only oolitic
60).
barrier
are
inferred provides 1983)
a
for
The
bank
sediment while
and shelly
present
and
in
material
examples
complexes"
bodies
those
can
"ramps
be with
].982 b) classification.
(Fig.61)
Muschelkalk
("Troehitenkalk")
lateral
limestones
the
(crinoidal
Fig.
with
complexes"
in
to
changes
ramp
Wilson
shallow-water
ossicles
The general
marlstones
1973;
Muschelkalk,
"ramps
crinoidal
grade
significant carbonate
(1973)
60A).
Description.
oolitic
units
sheets
The present-day
(Purser,
ramps,
crinoidal
many
interbedded
sediments
made
Klein-
dynamics.
nearshore
into
since
Sch~fer
Facies
into bioclastic
in the
(1913b),
has yet been
sections,
that
sloping
Upper M u s c h e l k a l k
as
(1970),
and their
finally
and
by crinoid
(shelly/oolitic
is
shallow-water
Read,
ramps
upper
and
Skupin
quarry
offshore
deposits
actualistic
carbonate
the
pass
Since
deeper-water generally
of
environments
Wagner
for depositional
laterally
pattern
sediments
by
no attempt
accounting
can be traced
to basinal
recognized
(1938-1970),
a comprehensive
Muschelkalk
coastal
already
Vollrath
ramps
basin
facies is
pass
center
succession
that
nearshore
offshore (fig.
in the
massive
into shelly
60B).
Facies
lower
Upper
and partly
limestones
types
grade
and
conti-
114
A
actualistic model: Persian Gulf
. - .. ~ C ~ D - .
•
- - + b
-'.
.
,,
'
.
,
''
"
•
"
- - -
_
Upper
N~
,
..
#
..
....,o o . . : ~ .., ."":.I~
Muschelkalk
B ~ ~ ~-~9.V--o _
_
...
, ~ •
CRINOIDAL
.. .., • - -~-/. ,.±~ _::;-~ --~,
facies
RAMP facies map
,
-.-=~,.;(%.-...
" "=,=,',. .". . W,?,,'.".
.
CARBONATE RAMPS
20km
.
.
, ~ (
.+
"-.. I .
.
.
~,~;:;.,:."-y" 6,°
!,~.i]".'-".-, '.:i-..
~
:'
.
[C SHELLY/OOLITIC RAMP ~ _ _ _ _ _ ~ i ~ ~t---;~o " ~ • ~-0 ~.E 9 ~ . ~ . _ , ,i/~ ] i : facies
facies
model
[ , ~ o , d
b~,=
model I
',~gooo=. I
Fig z 60. A) M o d e r n e x a m p l e of a c a r b o n a L e ramp from the P e r s i a n G u l f ( s i m p l i f i e d after W i l s o n & J o r d a n , 1983). B) G e n e r a l i z e d f a c i e s d i s t r i bution on Upper H u s e h e l k a l k c r i n o i d a l ramp ( " T r o c h i t e n b a n k 4" cycle, b a s e d on a c o m p i l a t i o n of data from V o l l r a t h , 1957, ]958; Hagdorn & Simon, 1981, S k u p i n , 1970, H a g d o r n , 1978, and p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s ) . C) G e n e r a l i z e d f a c i e s d i s t r i b u t i o n on U p p e r H u s e h e l k a ] k shelly/oolitic ramp (upper part of " R e g i o n der S c h a l e n t r O m m e r k a l k e " , b a s e d on a comp i l a t i o n of data from W a g n e r , 1913b; V o l l r a t h , 1955a; Schr6der, 1967; Hagdorn & Simon, 1981; and personal o b s e r v a t i o n s ) . A = Aalen, S = SLutLgarL. Black doLs are oncoliLes. NoLe Lhe similarity beLween actualistic m o d e l and M u s c h e l k a l k ramps b o t h in f a c i e s s u c c e s s i o n s and in d i m e n s i o n s (all maps d r a w n Lo Lhe same scale).
115
nuously of
and
~ithout
lateral
cycle
abrupt
changes,
Fig.
("Trochitenbank a
change 61
shows
4" cycle)
across
Seaward
of
recorded
in cores,
see
massive
erinoidal
limestones
]958)
occurs.
pack-
to
zone
1978).
the
includes
1 - 6 m thick
crinoidal
1981),
the
a
shallowing-up
(only
belt
Vollrath,
of
1957,
crinoid-mollusc-brachiopod of o o l i t i c
grainstone.
this
crinoid
content
decreases
Further
into
interbedded
transect.
prominent
~ith~n
Still
details
limestones
Riffkalk",
of
zones
occur
depict
nearshore-offshore
dolomitic
consists
packstone
Dolomitie
Upper
these
oolitic
nearshore
the
~ith
similar Safety wave
Valve
to pile (Fig.
62).
complex
Small
(Hagdorn,
and
basin,
lime
for
Paleozoie
of
sediment
chthonous part
by a
brachiopod
fine-grained
mudstone
Florida
landward
sand
and m a r l -
accumulation 1978),
was
of
~ould
transport, appears
simlar
to be
that
largely
in
such
in
form
in situ
actualistic
may
be
as
the
storms,
would
be
able banks
accumulation
Ruhrmann
transport
possibly
to p o s s i b l e
and
by
assumed
facilitate
crinoJdal
skeletal
ossicles
in
peleeypod/
episodic
currents
suggested He
banks,
depo-
erinoidal
of the
nearshore
crinoid
parts
ossicles
accumulation
During
drift
of
from
parts
skeletal
construct
also
belt
erinoidal
bank
I).
wind
marginal
a "lagoonal"
derived
seaward
nearshore
limestones.
landward
be
more
(see part
and
particles
(Hagdorn,
to
of the
of c r i n o i d a l
transport
crinoidal
barrier-like
oriented
debris
some
in
very
represent
Many
seem
of m o d e r n
crinoidal
of c r i n o i d
spite
lobes,
and
in the
probably
shoals.
dynamics
buildup
Landward
nearshore
and
occur
The
up s k e l e t a l
into
density
that
in S o u t h
stirring
protected
banks
complex.
to the
limestones
basin
accumulations
bioherms
shoalMater
erinoidal
Nuschelkalk
environment,
partly
crinoid
(see
one a
To
predominates.
sitional
In
other.
("Crailsheimer
also
offshore,
is d o m i n a n t .
Discussion.
and
and
each
& Simon,
complex
bioherms
Further
packstone
of
Hagdorn
grainstone
mollusc-brachiopod stone
off u n e x p o s e d
This
pelecypod-crinoid
into
the
(197]) low bull<
suspension. of and
spillover parauto-
counterparts
I).
~!g61. fransect through a crinoidal ramp: nearshore-offshore v a r i a t i o n of one s h a l l o w i n g - u p w a r d cycle in the lower part of the Upper Huschelkalk (NW-SE s e c t i o n t h r o u g h map in Fig. 608; " T r o e h i t e n b a n k 4 " c y c l e in Fig. 71). L o w e r part: v a r i a t i o n in field appearance of ] (F) to 6 m (H) t h i c k s h a l l o w i n g - u p w a r d cycle; note w e d g i n g out of m a s s i v e c r i n o i d a l bank f a c i e s at c y c l e top and increase in marlstone in lower part of c y c l e t o w a r d s the b a s i n ( q u a r r i e s : F = A s b a e h , G = G a r n b e r g , H = N e i d e n f e l s ) . M i d d e part: m i c r o f a e i e s v a r i a t i o n in cycle top unit ("Trochitenbank 4"). Width of fotos 2.5 cm. U p p e r part: schematic facies model for crinoidal ramp. Crinoidal bioherms not i n c l u d e d (see H a g d o r n , 1978).
116
117
CRINOIDAL RAMP DYNAMICS
rnarlstone
ternpestites distal - prox.(&crin.)
in-situ bioherms
crinoid banks
'lagoonal'
Fig. 62. Model for the s t o r m - d o m i n a t e d dynamic regime on crinoidal ramps. Onshore wind-drift currents in surface water pile crinoid debris (largely from crinoidal bioherms) into s h a l l o w - r a m p skeletal banks~ possibly similar to storm-generated accretion of nearshore carbonate banks in South-Florida (see part I). Nearshore water buildup is compensated by offshore directed bottom return flows that cause tempestites in the deep ramp. Proximal tempestites include crinoid ossicles imported from the nearshore, in contrast to distal ones, that are dominated by reworked but p a r a u t o c h t h o n o u s shelly faunas.
The general
decrease
ecological
as
Sea, of
crinoids the
also
parts
of the basin. bank
brachiopod
Fig.
22).
Principally
Devonian
3.2.2.
ramps"
composed
lateral have
been
of shelly
Offshore
particles
facies
ramps
does
not
and oolitic
parts crinoid
directed
from shallower
to deeper
bioherms
by
marginal
seaward
deeper
of
(see Hagdorn,
that may
the
environments 1978,
be interpreted
Laporte
(1969)
from
the
Wilson
(1975)
from
the
Basin.
(Fig.
part
and
has
offshore
limestones
by
distal
Muschelkalk
decreasing
of
as somewhat
sequences
recorded
to
In the
shallower,
capacity
to small
Formation
In the upper complex
1985).
related
of the Williston
Shelly/oolitic
shoalwater
reasons.
in
are interpreted
colonies
Helderberg
Description.
from proximal
Brachiopod-dominated
similar
Mississippian
1978,
decreasing
to transport
complex
with
as "crinoidal
lived mainly
the
flows
ossicles
sedimentological
(Hagdorn,
reflects
storm-generated
crinoid
as
seem to have
basin
content
in crinoid
well
63)
of the Upper include sedimenL.
Huschelkalk,
crinoid
ossicles
the
nearshore
but
is largely
118
Fig.
60C
facies
shows types
('Kornstein data
personal
of p a r t l y
recognized. distinct in
Fig.
63
area
pebbles
shows
at the
the
abundant
generally offshore
rocks most
into
overall
of
major
shallowing-upward
cycle
a zone
of
and
published clastics,
oncolites
can
well-developed
oolitic
to g r a i n s t o n e s . lime
of
of c o a s t a l
scattered
abundant
sheets,
zonation
on a c o m p i l a t i o n
with
belt
pack-
variation 60C.
wacke-
basin
These
grade and
be
in
grainstones,
mudstones
a
that
laterally marlstones
micritie
decrease
to
coated
the
zone
Further
as well
mud
grains
size
increases.
and
thin
black
oncolitic
offshore,
the
fine-
and
skeletal
as grain
content
calearenites,
across
unsorted
of w e l l - s o r t e d
well-sorted
Still
envelopes
while
with
a
into
envelopes.
pellet-rich
sequences and
into c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d
way
seaward
of m i c r i t i c
section,
pass
and
bioturbated
packstones
give
pass
in m i c r o f a c i e s
Strongly
to
margin
These
that
abundance
based
Following
of a n a r r o w
in Fig.
grainstones.
with
74)
skeletal
the
skeletal
grainstones,
are
and
2 - 5 m thick
center.
represented
grained
to
thin
the b a s i n
Fig.
dolomitized
seaward
interbedded
toward
el.
landward
pass
distribution
observations.
Oncolites
zone
turn
into
regional
an a p p r o x i m a t e l y
I cycle",
and
an area
the in
packoolitic
packstone sorting
of
and
particles
In
the m o s t
fining-up
layers
predominate.
Discussion. pack-
The
facies
to g r a i n s t o n e s
similar
to
the
Persian
zone
of
banks
is
Holocene Gulf
most
belt
carbonate
(Loreau prominent
interpreted
with
thick
is i n t e r p r e t e d
sand
& Purser,
bodies
1973,
oncolite
as s h a l l o w
cross-bedded
as s h a l l o w
ramp
ramp from
Wilson
&
development to
lagoonal
oolitic
and
shoalwater modern Jordan,
landward facies.
ramps
shelly complex such
1983). of the The
as The
oolite partly
Fig. 63. Transect through a s h e l l y / o o l i t i c ramp: n e a r s h o r e - o f f s h o r e v a r i a t i o n of one s h a l l o w i n g - u p w a r d cycle in the upper part of the Upper Muschelkalk (N~@-SE s e c t i o n t h r o u g h map in Fig. 60C; " K o r n s t e i n I" c y c l e in Fig. 74). L o w e r part: l i t h o l o g i c v a r i a t i o n of cycle; note that s h a l l o w ramp s h o a l w a t e r c o m p l e x w e d g e s out b a s i n w a r d ( t o w a r d s the left) and gets replaced by thin-bedded limestone/marlstone alternations. Middle part: m i c r o f a c i e s v a r i a t i o n in c y c l e top unit ( " K o r n stein I"); note c h a n g e From b i o t u r b a t e d s h e l l hash with small black pebbles (F, back-bank) to ruditic grainstone with o n c o i d s (E) to o o l i t i c g r a i n s t o n e (D)~ to w e l l - s o r t e d t h e n p o o r e r s o r t e d s h e l l y packstone (C and B), to laminated c a l c a r e n i t e (A). W i d t h of fotos 2.5 cm. Upper part: s c h e m a t i c f a c i e s m o d e l For s h e l l y / o o l i t i c ramp.
119
Z m l
oE ,L,,,~U
rn
=E
0 ...I ...,I "I-
=E <1:
,~,~
i
,,,..I
0 =E
>..
,,,.
LLI
"'
m
E3
~,
,
~,,~]~t
~
,~,,
120
dolomitized coastal behind
the
1981).
as
the
shoals
mud
shallow
stones.
of
in
3.3.
and
the
sand
fossil
The
zonation
gu]f
trends
(Fig.
Systematic
changes
nearshore
to
offshore
(1978,
1982).
from
(i)
by H a g d o r n
(Fig.
64)
Rapidly
byssate
in the
sand
Epifaunal
and
by
a
and m a r l to
modern
to some
1981,
ramps
1982).
such
Upper
He r e c o g n i z e d
Upper
of
benthic
Huschelkalk the
associhave
following
been basic
Nuschelkalk:
feeeders
(Myophoria,
Entolium)
~rigonodus)
in mobile
and
substrakes
bodies.
firm-
of
Further
Discussion.
In m o d e r n
and h a r d g r o u n d
Coenethyris)
infaunal
as M y o p h o r i a ,
(Hoernesia)
assemblaqes
in an
softbottom Paleonucula,
(Placunopsis ,
intermediate
assemblages Entalis)
zone;
(mostly
and
byssate
deposit reeliners
offshore.
boundaries
shelves, between
1975).
The M u s c h e l k a l k
trends
of
a
storm-dominated
ramp
and
changing
1982):
similar
& Read,
composition
in the
(Bakevellia,
Plagiostoma,
(3) a d o m i n a n c e
distinct
represented mudstones
1983)
Harkello
in the
deposit
feeders
shell-,
Pleuronectites,
feeders
upper
burrowing
suspension
of c a r b o n a t e
(2)
is
and
between
biofacies
aions
pattern
environment
water
64)
Description.
documented
sorting
& Jordan~
(e.g.
inter-
deeper
lime
the
& Simon,
are
in s l i g h t l y
latter with
Hagdorn
Decreasing
is r e m a r k a b l y
(Wilson
record
sand
and
environment
packstones
a Lransitional
ramp.
Facies
(cf.
banks.
interbedded
zone
to l a g o o n a l
shelly
of m o l l u s c
ooid
deep
the o n c o l i t e
complex
facies,
indicates
Persian
From
Ramp
blankets
content
Paleoecological
3.3.1.
bank
agitated
lateral
the
described
oolite
tempestites
This
ramps
between a protected
bank/shoaIwater
and
ramp
dominance
paekstones
to r e p r e s e n t
of the
constantly
increasing the
seem
barrier
Seaward
preted than
to
wacke-
clastJcs
substrate
wave
base
animal are
also
setting
conditions
and
storm
communities
wave
(D~rjes
undersLandable with
toward
decreasing the
in
base
& Hert~eck, the
effects
offshore
mark
(cf.
context of s t o r m s Hagdorn,
121
(i) and
.shallow thus
ramp
carbonate
constantly
colonized
by r a p i d
(2)
transitional
The
ramp
probably
the
wave
scouring faces
lead
that
ramp These
with
some
to t e m p e s t i t e
tops.
Ramp
could
sand
bodies
frequent
with
or
and
wave
storm
shelly,
for b y s s a t e
base
only
be
epifauna.
"fair-weather"
Here~
wave
the
deep
base
and
reworking
Firm
or
hard
fixosessile
and sur-
epifaunal
probably
only
reached
characterized coarser
therefore
deeply
during
mostly
The
by s h a l l o w
suspension
restricted
exceptional
muddy
sediment.
inhabited
burrowing
largely
by
substrates
muddy
feeders.
to p o s t - e v e n t
back-
infaunal
deposit
Epifauna]
colonisation,
i.e.
iehnofacies
Description.
A
bathymetric
comprehensive
gradients
was
applied
by n u m e r o u s
in
facies
analysis.
into
was
shelf
Across
Muschelkalk
While
environments
marked
trends,
1966;
Ager
to
& Wallace~
abundant
and
been
(1967).
to be
scheme
a
provides
ichnofacies,
refined
ramps,
zonations
1970;
most
sea
fossils
Seilaeher
proved
Seilacher's
have
trace
of by
and has
to d e e p
carbonate
similar
zonation
developed
workers
continental
shallow
(1)
above
areas
attached
between
storms.
largely
these
carbonate
tempestites
are
were
are
(Fig.
zone
storm-introduced
associations
most
between
the
were
areas
sediments
division
flexibly
opportunities
areas
for rare
3.3.2.
were
feeders.
(3) Deep
feeders
zone
to p r o x i m a l
storms.
ground
or
average
provide
suspension
except
of
bodies
Consequently
burrowers
represents
base
sand
agitated.
by
trace Jn
FOrsich,
characteristic
scheme
valuable
later
tool
a general
zonations
sub-
across
workers.
fossil
the
1975).
across
His
associations
Jurassic In this
(e.g.
Farrow,
context,
lebensspuren
show
are
only
the
considered
64):
Projected
probably except (2)
for In
lagoonal
environments
deposit
feeders
are
that
mostly left
thoroughly few
reworked,
distinct
traces~
Teichichnus. the
relatively borings
to
by m o b i l e
shallow
rare. such
ramp
Occasional
as C a l c i r o d a
shoalwater
complex,
hardgrounds
kraichgoviae
are
(Mayer~
trace penetrated
1952;
Voigt~
fossils by 1975).
are small
122
Fig± 64. Paleoecological trends reflecting changes in substrate p r o p e r t i e s and in e n e r g y levels across an "ideal" carbonate ramp. Biofacies change from shallow ramp " s h ~ f t i n g b o t t o m " to " s h e l l - and h a r d b o t t o m " to deep ramp "softbottom" assemblages (after Hagdorn, 1782). Ichnocoenoses in the s h a l l o w ramp are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b o r i n g s and burrows of suspension feeders such as G__llossifungites and Thalassinoides , but give way to a d o m i n a n c e of s e d i m e n t f e e d e r s such as T e i c h i c h n u s and R h i z o c o r a l l i u m a s s e m b l a g e s in the deep ramp.
(])
In
the
transitional
surfaces
display
F~rsich,
1974)
diameter).
1974)
between
Glossifungites Thalassinoides
Otherwise
Teichichnus FOrsich,
and
areas
spreiten
(:
shallow
and
deep
R hizocorallium
burrows
(mostly
these
areas
are
with
minor
Rhizoeorallium (sensu
scoured
jenense
targer
characterized
and P l a n o l i t e s / P a l a e o p h y c u s
ramp,
sensu
types, by
abundant
irregulare Pemberton
1-3 cm
(sensu &
Frey,
1982). (4)
Limestone/mar]stone
Rhizocorallium
irregulare,
alternations Bedding
of t h e
planes
deep ramp a r e are
often
dominated covered
by
with
123
different
types
Planolites
type
Palaeophycus
type
Balanoglossites also
occur
fossils
of
burrows",
active
tops
smaller
(cf.
see
&
mudstones.
cm)
which
are
of
the
others
of
the
Pemberton
Kazmierczak
of lime
(0.5-2
of
structures),
backfilling,
burrows
the
some
backfilling
(without
type
on
are
"stick
(with
& Frey,
3982).
Pszczolkowski,
Other
less
Thalassinoides,
1969)
frequent
trace
Granularia
and
Phycodes.
Much
Discussion. substrate feeding
however,
duelling
as p o s t - e v e n t
reflects
an
on
in
(e.g.
Planolites,
erosional
and
availability substrates
changing
a dominance
PhEcodes)
in deep
during
depositional
the
toward
ramp
events, occur
deep
ramp
the
shallow
of s t o r m - s c o u r e d
in s h a l l o w e r
of
background
Balanoglossites)
within
structures
reflect
ramp:
sofitgrounds
substrates
dwelling
shelly
Lrends the
Glossifungites~
Firmer
increasing
of s t o r m - r e w o r k e d
across
quiet
episodic
burrows
Faunas
An i n c r e a s e
levels
relatively
Following
these
biofaeies,
energy
(Rhizoeorallium,
indicates
sedimentation.
ments.
and
structures
settings
the
like
properties
environramp
firmgrounds
and
water.
Paleocurrents
3.4.
In the
following,
are
presented
part
of the
Upper
shelly/oolitic
Wave
3.4.1. Nave
bases
and
well
ments some
data
from
Generally~
"swing
wave
Lend
Towards
ramp.
on " p r o x i m a l " ,
to
more around"
for
parLs
be
into
and
from
of the
crests
oriented
marginal
abouL
data
therefore
thicker are
measurement.
derived
ripple
from
of the
60
are
refer
localities
from
the
mainly
upper
to
the
often
form
65)
operations
oLher
Most
of c a r b o n a t e
accessible 65 are
collected
and
(Fig.
of quarry
data
of maps.
Muschelkalk
fields
of Fig.
Basin
type
ripples
ripple
the
paleocurrent
in a series
in
orientations
therefore
sheets
commonly
Stratigraphically,
around
the
sequence
more
almost
areas,
skeletal
spinosus-zone,
are
also
central
parts
perpendicular
however, oblique
wave and
well-exposed most
although
included.
of
to
the
the
ripple
almost
measure-
Musehelkalk
shoreline.
crests
parallel
tend to
to
the
124
VE IPPLF
-. :-. 7- ;:i,::!i.::. ?
. .i -
.
....
,
.
,
.
-
• .
•
'
.
.
.
..
" "
*
..
•
. .
•
.
. -_
-
I'
~
•
~
. "
.
•
.
*
-" •"
.
.. ."
" ", . . . ". .
_
~
u
.
~
M E A S U R E M E N T S
• -
. --
•,
.-
.
.
-
t ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ~ 4
w-÷÷÷4.,l,4,4,4,~4,~4.,{.4
~. , ÷ 4 - ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ + 4 - + 4 - + ÷ + ~ +
.
•
÷÷ .÷ ~, ÷~ +, ~l +, 44 -, ~÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ~÷ ÷h ÷~ ÷. ¢4 ÷. ÷~ ÷. +h ÷÷ ÷~ .. ~4 . ÷ ÷ ~
*
f~÷÷
' ,
~÷÷4 4-.b÷÷4
.÷÷,,.÷.{.÷..~4-4-4-+4-÷÷÷.,,,,,.÷÷~,÷÷,~,~÷,¢,÷÷÷.~
' ~' .
. -
.
~.÷4- ÷ ÷÷÷44-÷÷.1.÷÷~.. ~ 4-1.÷÷÷÷÷++~ t.÷.l,4-÷÷÷÷4-÷÷÷÷÷÷.1.÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ ~-÷÷4-4.,~.÷÷÷4-4-÷÷÷÷÷.b4.~-÷÷,b÷÷4*~'~÷÷~ ~.÷ ÷÷÷÷4-÷4-÷÷÷÷÷.c..1,÷÷4-,I.÷4".1.÷~÷÷+~ ~÷.'~.~.b4-4-÷÷÷÷.b÷.b÷÷.l..I.4.÷÷÷~÷÷+~÷~÷~
#
"
". . .*
.
W..I,÷.I..I.÷.I~÷,I,÷÷÷~4-÷÷÷÷÷÷4,~,W,.W,~@÷~÷4 •
.
.
.
l.÷.~÷.n,4-4-÷÷÷.1-÷.I..~.~..~.÷4.4-÷~+÷÷÷÷+~4 ,~++÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷4-4-÷÷÷÷÷÷÷.~÷4,4,4-4.÷÷~4 ~ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ * ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ 4 - ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ + ÷ ~ q
.
~ .
-
,
4,+.4-÷÷÷÷÷÷÷.b.b04.4.4.÷÷*÷4.÷÷÷÷~4 " ,b4,.b4-÷+÷÷÷÷÷.b.b4.4.4.4-÷÷÷÷÷÷~÷4 ~.÷,t,÷.b.b÷,b÷÷÷÷h'b~"b÷'b4-4-++÷÷÷÷÷+~4 .4.4-~,.b4.÷4.÷÷÷÷÷÷÷~',~÷4-4-4-~'÷÷+÷÷÷+÷4
"
." "
"
..
.~÷÷,~÷4-÷÷~÷÷÷÷4.÷÷÷÷÷÷÷~'÷4'÷4-÷÷~4
.
.
..
..
.
"..."
" - "
. -
-
I
. • 2
'. . . , " .. ,
. - . _
,
-
'
.
-
, ".
,
" ~ .
•
; : •'J
...........................
,
,,
' ".*
.
,
-
•
•
-
~ITI W
"~
.
•
• .
. •
2 0
:
- . . ..
.
~
- . , .
" .
.
. •
~
," .
-
•
. ,. •
I
..
.
-
-
,
•
•
,
•
.
..
• .
.
.
"
.
•
•
.
-
.
.
,. .
-z
~
7--: : •
.
:"":i""":
. -'-
F i g . 65. N a v e - r i p p l e o r i e n t a t i o n (mostly From zone) i n d i c a t i n g longshore oscillatory flo~.
~ ' ~ b~ ÷÷+ ÷
,I.,@,÷.1.4..i,,i,4-,~.(.4,4.÷4.4.~,~÷4.4
•
÷ ÷ 4.4. ÷4 ÷.F~4
,÷÷,~.F4.÷4.÷÷~.4.,b÷4-b÷÷÷÷~'~÷+÷÷÷÷~
,,+++÷÷',+',",',4-++',4-+','÷',,"","÷""÷+~
around
the
SpJnosus-
125
shoreline. winds
This
and storm
dominantly Coriolis water
pattern tracks
alongshore
force,
for nearshore line.
Wind
predicted Fig.
ripple
and storm
Winds
from
recorded
in
(Blendinger,
the
measure
Fig.
sho~s
66
oolitic
trOmmerb~nke" other
since
foresets shore body
it
dip
From
the
to the coast-
the NE can also
&
Klein
Triassic
pers.
surface
accounting
(1983;
have
comm.)
and
be see
also
been
in
the
give
cut
a much
difficult rock
surfaces picture.
mostly
of the
of the Upper
consistent
with
the NE,
indicates
mostly
taken
the other
from massive der
Schalen-
alongshore
were
data.
onshore
from
also
Clearly,
(E,SE),
energy
and
quarries;
few m e a s u r e m e n t s
Musehelkalk
fe~
in
"Region
der Oolithb~nke";
to#ards
to recognize
better
measurements
to grainstones
were
This
very
or
flux
inmost off-
and sand
migration.
As pointed fication assign
out by several patterns
in
general
indicators,
between suggestive
Longshore
orientation in direct
onshore
to nearshore
Johnson,
of
response
set-up
1978),
are
driven
to
to
during
paleocurrent
orientation
~ould
hydraulic
thus winds
would
events.
record and
to
uni-
and ~ a v e - r i p p l e
parts
storm
other
The
currents.
longshore
in marginal
difficult
of w i n d - d r i v e n
~ind/storm-driven foresets
cross-strati-
often
circulation.
relationship
direction
a of
sands
a dominance
foreset
foresees
water
(e.g.
a tidally
and
favours
especially migration
versus
context
however,
relationship
authors
shallow-marine
to a w i n d - d r i v e n
modality,
while
(Zankl,
freshly
intervals
they
toward
Due to the
thus
or parallel
Tethys
generate
drive
of the ~ind~
in the Riddle
often
"Region
alongshore
(NW,W).
is
pack-
and
waters. would
of Marsaglia
longshore
would
66)
cross-bedding
stratigraphie
cluded
model
Alps
generally
or skeletal
winds
oblique
from the
dominantly which
offshore
the right
the South
(Fig.
cross-bedding sections
in
NE,
1985).
above~
weathered
indicate
to the
blowing
orientation
Northern
Cross-bedding
indicated
to
the paleostorm
Dolomites
As
trains
tracks
to
seem fethys
alongshore
(landward)
wave
using
29A).
3.4.2.
wave
however,
eastward
would
from the
is
regime. sand
storm
represent
The
the
body
tracks, response
126
CROSSEDDING
\
,ili!ii
~
.:~.. i.:i ~i.i ~i!.~i,~/~!~.iii"i~i-~ ~-~.~
•
' •
I
!
;.-,
~÷÷*~÷*÷**÷*÷÷÷*~*÷*.4-~**÷÷÷*÷÷4
i.
..-....'~)
'*÷***+***÷******÷÷*÷4-~**÷÷***÷*
~ •
" "'
?
.
****************************** ~*÷÷÷***÷*÷*~**÷÷*÷4.~**÷****** ~*******÷÷*÷*÷**÷*÷÷4-~÷*÷~***~* ,*÷**~÷*÷*÷÷÷÷÷*+**÷4-~4.÷~÷**~*
Fig, 66. Cross-stratification measurements from massive shelly and oolitic limestones indicating dominantly longshore (northeastward) sand body migration~ but also onshore and some offshore transport,
127
CHANNELS MBRICATION
\
:•<
:i.":j', U:" ..::,i '%1' >" ':
• •
•
-
. ' .
"
"
•
• ..
.
• .
•
•
•-.
• . •
-.
~
. .
•
.
.
. .
~
.
.
•
.
. . . .
.
.
.
. •
..
°.
..
~
.
~
I
K
~
. ,,,,,,,
!
• ,. -
F~± 67. indicating
"
. .
-
°'.-" .
•. .
.
.
• • .
. . . •
. ~
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
•
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ + ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
~
÷
÷
+
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷
. .
÷
÷
~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ * ÷ ÷ * ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ " ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ,.
.
÷
÷
- ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ + ÷ + ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷
. ~
~
÷
. . ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷
~
• ." "
•.
.
..
÷
~ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷
..
•.
. •
.
.
~
..................................
.
• . • 0
•
:
, ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ~
:
• ' . ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
~ .
.'
..
. - , ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ~ ÷
.~
.--
•.
2
•
.
• •
•
.i
•
~
.
.
"
•
.~ .
.L
.
•
. . •.
~. .
.
•
. .
• .
-
•
, . .
:. ° •
. .. . .
"
"
.
.
.
• .
.
~. .
..
•
. *
.
/
. •
"
•
"
•
•
.
. .
•
-
:. •
,
. .
'
•
•
•
.
L•
. .
.
.
.. " . . . ' . .
. .
-
'
. •
. •
.
•
...~.
-
.
.
Orientation of channel fills o f f s h o r e d i r e c t e d flows.
" .
.
..
"
•
and
. .
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
~
÷
÷
+
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
÷
÷
÷
÷
~
÷
*~ ÷÷ ~÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ + ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷÷ ÷* ~÷ ÷~ ÷÷ ÷~ ÷+ ÷÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
" . . •
÷
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
.
. ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~ ~ ÷ ~ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ~
imbrication
of i n t r a c l a s t s
128
3.4.3.
Surge
Relatively section
channels
small
2.7.)
orientation
to
storm
3.4.4.
Gutter
Gutter
They
nations
and their
tempestites tained
that
their (Fig.
69).
currents
In
The
with
of
details
small
shows
the
This
are inter-
(backflow
compensate
of for
analogous
1978).
of
marks
on
casts
distal
it is main-
exposure from
but
(1) their
branching,
for tidal the
alter-
to
(1982)
can be inferred
corresponds
gutter
meter-long
Futterer,
of subaerial
absence
typical
and prod
the
often
&
limestone/marlstone
throughout
orientation
but
to Duringer
near
migration
by bounce
channels
that
sequences
contrast
orientation
which
these
l~ater masses
see Aigner
thin-bedded
subaqueously.
NE-SW
less al~ays
transport.
type)
are not indicative
lateral NE-SW
expressed
tempestites
fills
68,
(2)
or
pebbles
69)
offshore
runnels
formed
and
68,
68D).
context,
distinct
current
fill-sediment
these
clearly
meandering
the
flowing
more
of
(see
Channel
storms.
sediment
(Fig.
stratigraphic
during
(see Fig.
within
systems,
fills
sections.
NW-SE),
Imbrication
by offshore
(Figs.
are
runnels
occur
~ere
casts
casts
erosional
depositional
channel
of quarry
flow and sediment
current/gradient set-up
skeletal
(E-W;
shoreline.
caused
67)
in a number
onshore-offshore
of storm
water
(Fig.
deep)
- 1 m
Found
oriented
being
surge/rip
nearshore
m long,
the
offshore
as
imbrication
been
is always
In the context preted
(1-30 have
perpendicular indicates
and
strong
channels,
and
(3)
South-German
Basin
to the dominant
paleo-
the
distal
soles
of
are interbedded
(el.
Fig.
a3A).
Although
the physics
(see
1982),
the p a r t i c i p a t i o n
by
two
casts
e.g.
of gutter
stood
factors:
Whitacker,
Blocs
(1982)
gutter
casts
in
axis of the gutter
However, ripple
Liassic
(Fig.
internally lamination
marks
bipolar,
are commonly
Aigner flow
at the basal
in
agreement
gutter
casts.
perpendicular
is not &
components erosion
with (2) Wave or
yet
fully
Futterer,
is
surfaces
observations ripples
slightly
under-
1978;
Allen,
indicated of gutter made
at the top
oblique
to
by of the
68C).
structures, (Fig.
formation
1973;
of o s c i l l a t o r y
(1) prod
are commonly
cast
68E)
such indicate
as
imbrication superimposed
and
climbing
unidirectional
129
Fig. 68. Some characteristics of gutter casts. A) - B) Field appearance either at base of tempestites (A), or isolated gutter cast within marlstone (B). C) Wave ripples at gutter cast top, ripple crests perpendicular to axis of gutter. D) Cross-section through gutter cast, note similarity to tempestite sequence. E) Axial (longitudinal) section through gutter east ~ith climbing ripple lamination and R h i z o c o r a l l i u m - s p r e i t e from top.
130
GU'I
/
. . ,o~., .. ...~::;:: Fig. 69. Orientation indicating longshore
:i;ii.~,i~i::~:::?~::~ii :ii!~:i:~'iiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiii!ii!
of gutter casts(from flow.
aFound
the
s~inosus-zone)
131
(alongshore) sectioned Gutter
flow
gutter
cast
superimposed
are
typical indicate
support
3.5.
The
of
(2)
on
principally
tracks
Swift from
SU-NE
flows planes
1983). to
also
they
Again,
they
NE
and
paleocurrents
indicated
as r e p o r t e d
flows~
as
the
other
(14
flow).
of c o m b i n e d
Tethys by
are
gutter
components
et al., the
the
southwestward
product
indicated
on b e d d i n g
has
dynamics
been
facies
data
Muschelkalk
to the
ramp
lateral
paleocurrent
processes
be the
of
8
unidirectional
storm
longshore
chapter
with
(4)
and
(e.g.
carbonate
of this
sequences and
fill
by
by M a y e r
the
(1955)
(1960)
Conclusions:
aim
therefore
pattern
Fossils
by S e i l a c h e r
the
northeastward,
flows
hydraulic
In a d d i t i o n ,
orientaLion and
storm
alongshore
Lhe
(above).
may
oscillatory
for
during
showed
formation
with
would
components
casts
in
to
patterns,
carbonate
(3)
to
(i)
vertical
paleoecologica]
reconstruct
ramps.
type
70)
integrate
order
shelly/oolitic
(Fig.
]hese
of r a m p s
rock trends
the
dynamic
reconstructions
in the
Upper
refer
Musehel-
kalk.
The
dynamics
carbonate ramps
of
ramp
shelves
extremely
storms.
and
controlled
by
relatively
uniform
seem
the
thin
context
of
barrier events.
thick
fining-up
and
units)
only
(e.g.
take
day-to-day complexes
makes
waves
details
the
largely
storms.
topography
The
of such
distribution
nearshore-offshore also
and
of
are
as
and wide
are
of
changes
understandable
in
sediment
bodies
were
almost
formation
of s p i l l o v e r
lobes,
place
were
episodically
only
transitional
often
composite proximal
such
conditions
In the
represent
rimmed
system.
oolitic
changes
the
sea-floor
Marked
from This
swell,
erganisation
predominance
ramp
belts.
of
both
events
sloping
units.
ramp
major
channels)
the
high-energy ramp,
shallow
low-energy
that facies
markedly
reef
effects
asociations
of a s t o r m - d o m i n a t e d
the
behind
the
of b e n t h i c
agitated,
Relatively
gently
depositional
Although
the
high-energy
and
constantly cutting
for
to d i f f e r
protective
overall
favoured
composition
appear lack
understandable the
episodic
to have
relatively in the
ramps
susceptible
It is t h e r e f o r e
stratification
ramps
systems
in that
zone
units
in
the
episodically between
during
Storm
area
interrupted
shallow
(amalgamation
tempestites.
storms.
lagoonal
and of
surge
by
deep
several channels
132
funneled
sediment
stone/marlstone
toward
the
offshore.
alternations
sedimentation
interrupted
The
deep
rep.resent by
distal
ramp
and
basinal
autochthonous
tempestites
lime-
background
and
gutter
cast
erosion.
An i n t e g r a t i o n reconstruct ramps by
(Fig.
Swift
apparent, German to have Basin
of in
70). et
Bight
sequences the
(1983)
alongshore the
NE.
from
I).
From
the
Storm the
This
paleocurrent regime
to a l o n g s h o r e the
against
part
and
hydraulic
parallels
contrast (see
towards
ramp
Close
al.
that
been
facies detail
Atlantic
tracks
Tethys
wind/storm
storm
flows
of
North
onshore
in the
in the
is i n f e r r e d
allows
present
Shelf
largely
data
on t h e
documented America
storms
Muschelkalk
South
from
the
into
to
carbonate
in are
the
orientation
are the
likey
Germanic of wave
direction
(
Fig. 70. Model For the s t o r m - d o m i n a t e d hydrodynamic regime on Upper Muschelkalk carbonate ramps, in a n a l o g y to a c t u a l i s t i c m o d e l s (Swift et al., 1983). A l o n g s h o r e winds and storms (from the fethys in the SW to the NE) induce c o m b i n e d g e o s t r o p h i c b o t t o m flows (gutter casts and distal t e m p e s t i t e s ) , but the C o r i o l i s effect forces surface water to the right (landward). This leads to nearshore water build-up ( f o r m a t i o n of s p i l l o v e r s ) which is compensated by offshore directed bottom return Flows (erosion of surge channels and d e p o s i t i o n of proximal tempestites).
133
ripples, Wind
bipolar
and
paleostorm patterns
model
Swift
et
al,
explain
base
of
gutter
the
tracks
distal
&
would
induce
erosion
and
the
landward,
most
70).
right
of
up o n s h o r e
wind
currents
in s h a l l o w
from is
South
Florida
compensated
currents the
in the
Atlantic
flows well
are
on
that
ancient
ramps
of the
provide allows
the
Sea
Shelf
I).
(Swift
and
~ork combined
the
flow
first
detailed
Muschelkalk ancient
reconstructions
(el.
Such
would
be
for
time
drive
by
the
Ekman
caused
flows
would
would
lead
to m o d e r n of
acting
to
the
examples
surface
similar
water
to g r a d i e n t
do~nwelling
offshore
bottom
surge
set
in
return
channels
as
tempestites.
Swift the
et al.
(].983)
typical
response
Epicontinental
carbonate
support
of s storm
the
stress
storm
Shelf,
flows at
responsible
coastal
storms.
strongly
example
bottom
Atlantic
same
that
in p r o x i m a l
to
wind
wind
similar
to
1983).
currents
the
at the
flows,
oriented
Atlantic
seas
also
transport
I) or
et al.,
epicontinental Upper
part
geostrophic
surface
water
return
imbrication
in
directed
Landward
bottom
(see
~ould
in a way
by o n - o f f s h o r e
marks
their
speculated of
North
sole
part
offshore
documented
as by
Based
(see
by
banks,
with
component)
the wind,
Onshore
skeletal
agree
North
probably
sea
effect).
of
the
However,
(Coriolis
accumulation
and
a combined
in
transport
drift
using
predicted
oscillatory
Muschelkalk
to the
foresets.
also
oscillatory/unidirectional
(: are
cross-bedding
Triassic.
as
combined
(Fig.
along
water
just
are
(198]),
Middle
tempestites
cast
Klein
impacts
and
South
Alpine
Such
bipolar
casts
the
direction
1983). the
northeastward surface
from
alongshore
would
gutter
from
of M a r s a g l i a
storm
with
marks,
tracks
recorded
Alongshore flow
tool
storm
this
inference
depositional
of its h y d r a u l i c
regime
system
(Fig.
70).
and that
135
4 .
4.1.
In
Distribution
order
minor
4.1.1.
over
part
Upper
mudstones
kalke";
see
1957;
Skupin, of t h e s e
that
they
Detailed has
can
revealed
1969,
1970).
units be used
as m a r k e r
a marked of
cycles,
thickening-upward have
in
a lime
some
oF
developed
over
ten's
many
In
of Fig.
marginal
summary,
and
the
entire
coarsening-up,lard
cycles,
trend
and
72).
and
72 h o w e v e r , the more
represents
see
and
Most
bssinal
a minor
they
of
over
becomes
minor
a
lime
erinoidal
Towards
be
difficult
bank
a marlstone
thicker
can
All
thick
nodular
of the
72)
and
the more
correlated
basin.
In the
between
the
sections.
of the of
parts
m
These
~ith
the c y c l e s most
71,
skeletal
a
become
showing
noted.
1-7
with
or
Wirth,
areas.
Figs.
3.1.).
start
~ith
numbered
6"),
larger
(cf.
terminate
correlation
part
and
cycles,
section
limestones
part
shelly
1958;
("SchalentrLimmerbank").
some
each
over
bank
("Rlaukalk')
crinoidal
in
"Brockel-
not p r e v i o u s l y
mudstone
layer
named
asymmetrical
crinoidal etc.,
]957~
transects
that
(Fig.
of km,
two
lower of
and
"Brockelkalk
eorrelatable
eyclicity
unit
the
have
4",
however,
or s h e l l y
prominently
more
cycles
("Brockelkalk")
("Trochitenbank")
workers
stacked
(e.g.
common,
("Mergelschiefer'),
1955a~b,
along
of
Basin.
"Irochitenb~nke")
Vollrath,
sedimentary
cycles
or
("Blaukalke"
vertically types
of the
alternation
mudstones
beds
packaging assembled
South-German
subdivision on an
"Trochitenbank
of s e c t i o n s
various
margin,
mainly
Previous
(e.g.
and
are
(mo])
("SchalentrLimmer-"
1928;
logs the
lime
of
transect
Muschelkalk
nodular
cycles
basin
through
limestones
consist
mudstone
arrangement 30),
and
re-logging
sequences
Fig.
transects
is b a s e d
Aldinger,
each
(el.
lithostratigraphic
Musehelkalk
crinoidal
geometrical
areas
off U p p e r
well-established
lime
the
larger
0 R G A N I S A T I O N
cycles
nearshore-offshore
Lower
of the or
of m i n o r
document
cycles
several
The
to
B A S I N
sequence
which
sho~s
consists a
transgressive/regressive
of s u c c e s s i v e
shallowing-upwards pulse.
136
40
137
38
31
29
39
28
Bn12 Sch.2Spl.2-Br.ll .
\
I --!
Br. 6 Tr. 7 - -
Br.5 Tr. 6 - BI.2
' /
......
I/
---
~
r
=- ....
~-~
r\ L~
/
r<
Tr. 5
BI,1
J
Tr. 4 - -
M. 3 Tr. 3 - 5
Tr. 1 - -
Fig. 71. Log transect through lower part of the Upper Muschelkalk ("Trochitenkalk") slightly oblique to depositional strike~ showing correlation of vertically stacked coarsening-upward sequences (black arrows). Lithostratigraph~c nomenclature according to Skupin (1969~ ]970): Tr. = "[rochitenbank" (crinoidal limestone bed), M. : "Mergelschiefer" (marlstone), B1. : "Blaukalk" (lime mudstone)~ Br. : "Brockelkalk" (nodular lime mudstone), Spl. = "Splitterkalk" (splintering ]imestone)~ Sch. : "SchalentrOmmerbank" (shelly limestone), Spirif.b. : S p i r i f e r i n a - B a n k (marker bed). For location see Fig. 30, legend see Fig. 72.
137
41
3
36
5
rj
== .
11
.... ~_
//~ "~; ~:,:#9 I
©
~i
._=
LITHOLOGY
shelly p a c k s t o n e
~';;'~':~:ooid grainstone •:~':-~ o n c o i d ~ -
~
STRUCTURES
packst,
lime m u d s t o n e marlstone
X-
bedding
GRAIN
SIZE
~
calcilutite
M
wave-ripples
calcarenite
gutter
calcirudite
nodular
casts
0 1 2 3
Ist.
4
channel
5 • ,~-~': c r i n o i d a l limest.
Fig. 72. Nearshore-offshore Musehelkalk ("Trochitenkalk"). be
well
correlated
in
LransecL through lower parL of Lhe Upper Note that c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles can
shallower
(logs
no,
(logs no. 3, 30, 41), but that correlation between the Lwo zones. LiLhostratigraphic Skupin (1969, 1970).
11,5)
and
in
deeper
is eomewhaL nomenclature
areas
difficult following
138
~.i.2.
Upper
Similar
to
distributed oolitic
p a r L of Upper the
lower
marlstone
units
Muschelkalk
part
of
horizons
the
(mo2/3)
section
(see
("Tonhorizonte")
("SchalentrOmmer/Oolithb~nke")
above),
and have
some
massive so
widely shelly/
far b e e n
used
21 34
19 Tonh.~
Tonh. 5
m
1 0
Tonh. c~
Tonh. ~
r r Tonh./'3 ~Jg.
73.
Log t r a n s e c t
in
marginal
facies
province
off t h e
upper part
of
the Upper Muschelkalk showing excellent crrelation off v e r t i c a l l y s t a c k e d c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d c y c l e s . The b a s e of many c y c l e s is f o r m e d by thin but widespread mar]stone h o r i z o n s (Tonh. = " T o n h o r i z o n t " ) that are b e i n g used as l i b h o s t r a t i g r a p h i c m a r k e r s . For l o c a t i o n of transect see Fig. 30.
139
descriptively sections
as l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i c
along
several
marlstone
horizons
tops
of
successive
whole
of
the
identified logs
Laterally,
be c o r r e l a t e d especially
over
those horizons,
the bases,
since
the
\
--~
!I
36
~
~
however,
shelly/oolitic
These
units
of
up
the
hence
a
cycles
sho~
of that
units
cycles;
consists
cycles.
marlstone
re-logging
revealed,
stack can
also
the of be
in
gamma-ray
little
difficulty
1985).
coarsening-upward many
ten's
starting can
even
~-~_~
.,---.~
Tonh. ~
the
sequence
of
with
cycles km one
be traced
~ ~
~, Z
Detailed
73-76)
coarsening-upward
Musehelkalk
stein I ---,
Tonh. ~
and
(shallowing-upward)
& Simon,
these
markers. (Figs.
asymmetrical
in wells,
(Brunner
marlstone
form
Upper
coarsening-upward
transects
o
can
(Aigner,
with
1984).
of the most over
I\
much
\'~\ 1
of
Some
prominent the
cycles, and
basin.
named Corre-
2
~
,,
_ ~
''~'~
L
1
\\\ \ ~ ,-2T-?~
Tonh.$
=--
I 5
Tonh.~ ~ _ ~
['""! ~
......
Tonh,~B ~
Fiq. 74. Log t r a n s e c t t h r o u g h upper part of the Upper M u s c h e l k a l k from marginal to basinal areas. Note that c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d c y c l e s can be ~ell c o r r e l a t e d in the m a r g i n a l (on Moldanubikum) and in the more basinal zone (on Saxothuringikum), but c o r r e l a t i o n is less c e r t a i n between these two paleotectonic units. For l o c a t i o n of t r a n s e c t see Fig. 30.
140
lation (see
is
Fig.
basin, 74),
of
areas
inverted:
in more from
correlation
sometimes
because
basinal
problematic
In t r a n s e c t s
however,
and
line
least 73).
almost
they
are
76
of
many
impossible
changes
of Fig.
in
no.
dominated
cycles
cycle 25,
by
parts
to more
(Figs.
the
(logs
marginal
marginal
off the
central
becomes
75,76)
many
a
the (Fig.
distinct
Moreover~
cycles
fiining-up~ards~
of
difficult
along
patterns.
26)~
Muschelkalk
parts
become
in deep totally
thinning-upwards
trends.
The
line
to ~hich
corresponds Variscan a
majority ~ell
of
to
cycles
the
can
boundary
blocks
(Holdanubikum
and
relationship
to u n d e r l y i n g
paleotectonic
in the not
the
fairly
lo~er
Upper
as p r o n o u n c e d
37
Huschelkalk as in this
Saxothuringikum,
(see part
be
see
structures
section
of the
readily
between
4.i.1.,
correlated
t~o Fig.
underlying 77A).
is also
Fig.
72),
Such
apparent although
sequence.
38 aB;"
~
I
32 / ~i~
32 ....
29 40
A
28
//
LITHOSTRATIGAPHY Mittlere SchalentrLimrnerb. Untere Schalentr.b.
j~lf
i~J31 Obere Oolithbank Untere Oolithbank
Tonh.
/ Tonh. ~
5 m
I Tonh.
~- SAXOTHURINGIKUM] [ M O
DANUBI
KU
~
0
M
Fig. 75. Log t r a n s e c t through upper part of Upper Muschelkalk. Although coarsening-upward cycles sho~ e x c e l l e n t c o r r e l a t i o n on the M o l d a n u b i a n zone~ cycle p a t t e r n s become very different on the Saxothuringian zone ~hich makes c o r r e l a t i o n very d i f f i c u l t . For l o c a t i o n of t r a n s e c t see Fig. 30.
141
11
17
5
20
10
25
27
D
26
i
?
/
//
i
5
m
[MOLDANUBIKUM
i
Fig. 76. N e a r s h o r e - o f f s h o r e t r a n s e c t b e t w e e n the w e l l - d e v e l o p e d marker beds of the "Hauptterebratetbank" and t h e " S p i r i f e r i n a - B a n k " . Correlation of coarsening-upward c y c l e s on t h e Holdanubikum is excellent, but very difficult with the logs on the S a x o t h u r i n g i k u m . Note inv e r t e d , f i n i n g - and t h i n n i n g - u p w a r d c y c l e s are p r e s e n t in the two deep b a s i n a l s e c t i o n s no. 25 and 26. For l o c a t i o n of t r a n s e c t see Fig. 30.
4.1.3.
Discussion
Vertical
stacking
of s h a l l o w - m a r i n e Goodwin
&
widely
used
their
finer
of
shallol~ing-upward
carbonate
sequences
Anderson,
1980a,b;
as a tool
for
resolution
Enos,
cycles
(e.g. 1983).
chronostratigraphic compared
to
is a very
Uilson, Such
1975;
common James,
sedimentary
correlation,
the e v o l u t i o n
motif 1980,
cycles
are
because
of
of most
organisms
142
upon
which
1979;
biostratigraphy
Busch
back"
correlation
(Ager,
1981;
Although
is based 1984).
(Irwin,
Dixon
most
small-scale for
& Rollins,
1965;
et al.,
authors
agree
trans/regressive
an e x t e n s i v e tribution
list
cycles
discussed
in part
eustatic
fluctuations sea
I).
that
level
1975; been
caused
cycles the
The
Wilson
generally
allocyclic sea
intrabasin
correlation"
of this
autocyclic
type
wide
tectonics
gives
areal
mechanisms
or
record
mechanisms (1975)
controls
level~
"kick-
concept.
underlying
in debate.
local
absolute by
"event
"minor"
are
Somerville, called
is a s i m i l a r
pulses,
alternative
of
also
1984);
1984)
hypotheses.
excludes
The
Wilson, has
Cant,
episodes
of p o s s i b l e
of such
(e.g. method
Matthews,
1981;
transgressive/regressive
such
relative
This
dis-
(such
include
(2)
(1)
changes
(e.g.
as
in
differential
subsidence).
While
glacio-eustatic
sea
climatically
induced
theoretically
conceivable.
recorded
by many
lO0,O00
year
(e.g.
authors
Climatically within
safely
correlated
best
developed
only
the
see
Rhenoherzynikum, Cycles
structural seems
can
zones,
very
basin
shallowing-upward
cycle
study
patterns
variable difficulty Possible taken
into
77)
see
logs ~ell
than
In
area. are
along
amalgamation account.
of
the
should
Triassic,
level
are
100,000 well
years
~ith
Milankovitch
belts
along
the
theory
"stable"
(1982)
parts and
basin
cycles
of
along
Cycles
of
30
of the
basin
these
of
Luxembourg 12-]5
be
which
the
margins
two
two m a r g i n s
cycles
to
margins, across
Muschelkalk
stacked of
Muschelkalk
tend
(on (on
the
recorded
than
are
margin
of the
each
at
can be
southeastern
Muschelkalk
individual cycles
the
between
to more
central
cycles
unit.
1982)
within
Upper
correlatable
northwestern
Demonconfau,
in c h a r a c t e r
the more
along
the
Demonconfau
the
be
Huschelkalk
paleotectonic
correlation
the
different
to c o r r e l a t e
same
in c o n t r a s t
In
of
agree
by
Upper
correlated
margin),
cycles,
the
facies and
cycle
difficult.
(northwestern
present
marginal
while
in the sea
order
3.7.1.)
however, but
the
Fig.
be
the
predicted
basin,
within
in the
in
unlikely global
1982).
cycles,
an entire
the H o l d a n u b i k u m ,
Basin.
cycles
are
of
section
& Fischer,
controlled
least
changes
Cycles
(see
climatic
Schwarzaeher
level
fluctuations
much adds
entire has
also
the
Basin, more to the basin. to be
143
@
•
•
..
:
A
I
11w
~
, 50 km ,
Fig. 77. Evidence for paleotectonic controls in the i n t r a c r a t o n i c Upper M u s c h e l k a l k Basin. A) The line to ~ h i e h c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles can be readily correlated corresponds fairly ~ell to the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the two V a r i s c a n zones of the Holdanubikum and the Saxothuringikum. Dots are m e a s u r e d s e c t i o n s (see Fig. 30). B) and C) The o v e r a l l f a c i e s p a t t e r n s of the Upper H u s e h e l k a l k (8) trace underlying Variscan structural zones (C): marginal facies on M o l d a n u b i k u m and R h e n o h e r z y n i k u m r e s p e c t i v e l y , c e n t r a l facies on Saxothuringikum. Note that 8) and C) are d r a w n to the same scale.
The
relation
(Fig.
77A)
of c y c l e suggests
patterns that
on the o b s e r v e d
cyclicity.
Model
a more
I assumes
subsidence minor
rates
fluetuations
"episodio"deepening gression. average level~ each
or
of
Since
resulting structural
in unit
tectonics
had
an i m p o r t a n t
two m o d e l s
can
be p r o p o s e d :
stable
three
in
subsidence one
they
structural
At least
less
carbonates
Variscan
intrabasin
the
on
subsidence,
to u n d e r l y i n g
global
structural
structural
tend tend
"regressive" behaved
rates block,
to a c c u m u l a t e to r a p i d l y
sea
and
level
units.
at
different a scenario,
could
account
for
a minor
trans-
rates
repeatedy
the
control
causing
shallowing-upward
differently~
but
In such
zones
greater build
cycles.
resulting
than
up to sea Because
shallowing-
144
upward
cycles
correlation present
Model
on all
II
4.2.
pattern
Viewing ionai
the
part
are
Far out (Fig.
1978), upper
part
creasing
78).
has
middle
Upper
shown
maximum
changes would
fluctuations~
be
three
of g l o b a l produce
with
structural
as a whole,
two
facies
southeastern
one
in the
of the
part by
bodies
sand
basin
center,
eastern
the
south
an o v e r a l l
- as
a in
block,
shelly
1974),
in
shows
and
upper
amounts
towards
in the
with
the
the
shift
& Simony crinoidal
Germany.
of
represents
These
facies.
aerial
by in-
western
(Hagdorn of
of
(Hagdorn,
correlation
the w i d e s t
thus
the
younger
NN in N o r t h e r n
transgressive
bodies
carbonates
of the b a s i n
to the
there
"sand"
large
become
a shift
deposit-
margin,
HuschelkaIk
both
reported
Muschelkalk
(Kozur,
include
bodies
margins
(1933)
one
8iostratigraphic
crinoidal
the
basin
and
Upper and
major
carbonate
lower
oolitic
Huschelkalk.
Upper
The
extension
the
time
of
a general
re-
transgression.
the
upper
trend.
This
skeletal
and
oolitic
as they
dicated
along to
towards the
the
individual
shallow-water
sand
from mark
the
when
lower
and
gressive
marine
units~ might
them.
Along
Kleinsorge
of the
contrast,
basin
of
For m i n o r
level
calcareous
that
from
Facies clearly
of m a r i n e
sea
sequence
the basin,
1937)
part
Between cycles
mechanisms
on each
between
dominated
Similarly,
patterns
the
relative
These
distance
limestone
allows two
cyclicity
in the
are
(Schneider, 1981).
in a d d i t i o n
periods
into
of the
ceratites
unit. some
subsidence
between
apparent.
debris
but
differential
Husehelkalk
distinct
crinoidal
each but
of c y c l e s
Upper
phases two
extend
In
of
correlation
Hierarchy
are
but
interplay
within
difficult,
zones.
similar
I - a different
a faint
correlated
mostly
structural
The
different
but
be
units,
level.
model
be well
assumes
structural sea
can would
the
lagoonal the
overall
gradation
become
basin
is
mud-
of the
Upper
highlighted
units
that
younger, southern
the
basin
center.
Similarly,
is m a r k e d
by
siltstones
has
progradation
progressively
lhe o v e r a l l
Facies
and
Muschelkalk
by
extend
dolomitic
regression of
part
regressive
margin,
from
along
that
represent
the
trend
is also
a restricted
the n o r t h e r n
southward
thick
into
where
("Trigonodus-Dolomit")
the
of
further
progrades
basin
margin,
(basinward) prodelta
in-
pro-
deposits
145
OVERALL T / R - C Y C L E
UPPER MUSCHELKALK STRATIGRAPHY
ramp
sequ
-
open
-7
S~
~:~"~
facies
model
t,,= oi
"~l
I=.
t-
.o
g!
F
open
Fig. 78. In the established Upper Huschelka]k l i t h o s t r a t J g r a p h y of SW-Germany (left, after Geyer & Gwinner, 1968), marlstone horizons (black, most prominent in the basin center) can now be regarded as transgressive bases, the massive skeletal/oolitic units (stippled, most prominent at the basin margins) as the regressive tops of minor t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycles. These asymmetrica] minor cycles form the punctuations ("sawtooth pattern") of the overall, nearly symmetrical Upper Muschelkalk transgressive/regressive cycle best recorded along the southeastern basin margin . The ramp depositional model provides a key to understand both the small-scale and the large-scale facies patterns (from Aigner, 1984).
heralding
the deltaic
Kleinsorge, as a whole
1935; can
be
conditions
Kozur,
of the succeeding
197a).
regarded
as
indicated
in
Thus, an
the Upper
overall
Lower
Keuper
Muschelkalk
(e.g.
sequence
transgressive/regressive
cycle.
As
schematically
almost
symmetrical
composed
of
development
successive
above.
This means
ments
did
not
that take
"minor"
Fig.
78,
this
along
the
SE
basin
coarsening-upwards
the overall place
overall
transgressive
gradually,
but were
and
cycle
shows
an
and
is
margin
cycles
as described
regressive
punctuated
move-
by episodic
146
pulses
oF a lower
minor
cycles,
overall of
more
regression,
stacked
lower
order.
the
mud-
minor
for
proximal
trend
instance,
cycles
to w a c k e a t o n e
within
However,
overall
become
parts
a
is often
the
upper
more
of each
sequence apparent
pack-
prominent cycle,
i.e.
to
of
(Fig.
successive 79).
grainstone
at the the
During parts
expense
of the
cycles
become
in a p p e a r a n c e .
CYCLE HIERARCHY
Fiq. 79. A) The s u p e r p o s i t i o n of m i n o r c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles (blank arrows) becomes apparent in w e a t h e r e d o u t c r o p s . Note that the upper, m a s s i v e (pack- to g r a i n s t o n e ) parts of individual cycles are progressively more p r o m i n e n t from b o t t o m to top of this s e q u e n c e , at the e x p e n s e of the lower (mud- to w a c k e s t o n e ) p a r t s of each cycle. This indicates an o v e r a l l r e g r e s s i v e c y c l e of a h i g h e r o r d e r (black a r r o w ) . G a r n b e r g , s e c t i o n no. 3 in Fig. 30 and Fig. 74. B) In some quarries, the overall, nearly symmetrical transgressive/regressive c y c l e of the e n t i r e U p p e r M u s c h e l k a l k is o b v i o u s . G u n d e l s h e i m , section no. 41 in Fig. 30. Scale bars = 5 m.
147
The
approximately
passed al.
about
(1982)
"third-order of
Vail
were
Since
a
in sea
(1984)
General
within
an
history
adresses
corded
as
in
form
observed
Busch
the
&
Carbon-
by
from
Ramsvarious
recognized 1984)
Tethys
Upper
]ongterm
the
different
but
a
in
and
onto
is
the
that
Triassic
the also
Arabian
a eustatic
Muschellka]k
brief
Basin.
Muschelkalk
of c r a t o n i c
of open
cycle.
cycles
may be
taken
as
cyclic parts
of the
basin
to 8 a l l y "time
episode
represents
et
al.
slice"
(1980)
sheds
and at
an
(1983)
& Snelson's
development
the
and w i d e s p r e a d 1984). of
In the
of
same
stable
sea
zones,
relative basin.
units
level
light
the
same
that
can
history
sedimentary
Upper
small-scale
structural
record
This
of K i n g s t o n
tectonically
in ~ h i e h
influence of m a j o r
basin
depositional
questions.
"studios"
et al.,
the
according
Upper
widely
Cisne
movements
dominated
within
Cretaceous
in the P a c i f i c .
South-German
of w e l l - d e f i n e d
we
not
the
aspects
are
(e.g.
have
these
rates
basin"
sensitive
cycles
tectonic
a,b)
it is p o s s i b l e
in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
a variety
basins
used
the
overall
represents
of the
sag b a s i n "
general
Cratonic
for
scheme
context
Nevertheless,
some
of
the
is
(Brandner,
1982),
that
of
on the
described
(1980
transgression
spreading
et
duration
while
of c y c l e s been
Harland
in the
(1983),
encom-
sequences.
al.,
suggested
"intracratonic
scheme.
has
margin
eL
cycles
Anderson
region
generated
Muschelkalk
the
"interior
be
Druckman
to i n c r e a s i n g
Upper
time
carbonate
of
In e x p a n d i n g
hierarchy
&
scale
cycle
of m a g n i t u d e
Ryer
of c y c l e s
Goodwin
the s o u t h e r n
level
by
a six-order
by
time
lower-order
cycles"
hierarchy
Huschelkalk
order
(1977).
"minor",
Anisian/Ladinian
along
Brandner
on
defined
epicontinental
(e.g.
related
and
(1977),
to the
et al.
Alpine-Mediterranean
craton
The
of Vail
and
late
observed
4.3.
al.
Upper
the s t r a t i g r a p h i c
"fourth-order
A similar
entire
rise
is c o m p a r a b l e
(1979)
Paleozoic
the w h o l e
using
et
iferous.
of
. This
(1984)
bottom
m
5 m.y.
cycles"
called
Rollins
80
differential
~hich sea
and
Muschelkalk,
have
level
is refaunal
however, paleo-
modified,
if
fluctuations
148
W
E
clas~t~~ ' / ~ , a~ [,}:-"%lit ic o ~ ,~o~'~-",t-'~.,~/banks ,o I \i,
30JM
",:>~'&~[oSlitic open-marine limestone & marlstone
..,
/ /
[~,0" /
..... : .
~:i'~. ~ / / ~,'~ < ~:last,cs ' : ~ ( ! : b a n k s / / .O~ . / / '.,
crinoidal///
\lO0 KM ~ , ~
UPPER
\
MUSCHELKALK
\ \.
/
BASIN SAXOTHURINGIKUM ~ 0 _ _ Strongly generalized W-E section through South-German Upper Muschelkalk i l l u s t r a t i n g the influence of Variscan p a l e o t e c t o n i c zones on overall basin organisation. Inserted map shoes location of crosssection in relation to p a l e o g e o g r a p h y (according to Ziegler, 1982), and to Variscan zones (according to Behr et al., 1984). S = Stuttgart, B = Berlin. (Based on a c o m p i l a t i o n of data from Birzer, 1936; Demonconfau, 1982; Geyer & Gwinner, 1968; Haunschild & O t t , 1982, Hary et al., 1984; Schr~der, 1964; T h e o b a l d , 1957).
VarJscan
tectonic
elements
correlation
matrix
of minor
underlying
Variscan
zones
can
be
recognized
sha]lowing-upeard (see Fig.
77),
(2)
in the
paleohighs
(e.g.
"Sierker
Sch~elle",
Demonconfau,
influence
local
facies
patterns,
and
orqanisation blocks
with
nubikum
the
incides
chile eith
Variscan
the
most
is
still
as "templates"
already
pointed
Saxothuringikum organisation throughout
out and
and the
Saxothuringian multitude
rapidly
elements
seen
during
persisted
the history
Krimmel
subsidence Triassic.
of gravimetric
that
central
over
Generally, according
of
facies
Variscan
(northeestern basinal
a long
They also
bhe
zone
co-
time
Basin.
As
between
the
the overall
basins
subsidence
(their
seem to have
boundary
has controlled
patterns
further
on the Molda-
of the South-German
(1980),
and magnetic
that
80).
topography).
the M o l d a n u b i k u m
crust,
77,
to
of local
the overall
situated
the
that related
to underlying
being
subsiding
have
1982)
Rhenoherzynikum
(Figs.
in modern
by
zones
and
in is
NE-strike
(3) in that
is linked
facies
margin)
the S a x o t h u r i n g i k u m
paleotectonic
influence
Muschelkalk
marginal
(southeastern
margin),
served
of the Upper
(1)
cycles
from the was
to Behr
et al.
anomalies
as
Zechstein
highest
(1984) ~ell
facies
as
over
displays
a
electric
149
and
seismic
discontinuities,
genous
Holdanubian
Recent
re-evaluations
have
indicated
boundaries German margin
of V a r i s c a n
that
"zonal
(sutures)"
Basin
might
lineaments,
basins
(cf.
started
in r a p i d l y
follow
Variscan
mechanisms
(Behr
similar
Miaii,
The
entire
South-German
basins
cooling
1,50,
170 ,
the
of t h e r m a l
Basin
to
1000-
homo-
the
Ziegler
subsided
in
as
the
in o t h e r
and
(1982),
plate South-
of a n c i e n t
understood
for
values
to P e r r a d o n
plate
cratonic Basin
grabens the but
has that
subsidence could
in
ca.
160 m.y.
with
average
are
typical
for
intra-
(1983)
T~i, a s s i ~ P e r m
190
regarded
South-German
troughs
little
tectonics
anomalies.
These
according
plate
be
observed
in
Permian
still
of
reactivation
2,30,
250,
(UNCORRECTED)
SOUTH-GERMAN BASIN
characteristically
Jan I 270
/
SUBSIDENCE 500-
geophysically
Subsidence
has b e e n
Early
are
J u r a s s i c 130
might
1984).
reflect
of 20 m / m . y . . that
terms
boundaries
According
basins
the
cratonic
to the
in
Sedimentation
strike.
involve
zones
to w h a t
I984).
subsiding
of t h e s e
rates
contrast
et al.,
therefore
part
subsidence
in
crust.
2~0
tm.y.
/
1500-
./
2000~~ t /
/
2500
/ 3000 m
./'"'"~"
"data: GEYER & GWINNER
1968
KRb'MMELBEIN 1977 ODIN 1982
Fig. 81. Uncorrected and very c r u d e South-German intracratonic basin. KrSmmelbein (1977) and G e y e r & G w i n n e r Odin (1982).
s u b s i d e n c e c u r v e for the e n t i r e Sediment thicknesses from (1968), age d e t e r m i n a t i o n s from
150
persist (e.g.
for
100-200
Michigan,
subsidence
curve
compaction,
characteristic
for
trend
rates.
categorize
contraction model"
(Haxby
stratigraphy"
German
and
the
Basin
subsidence
Conclusions:
The
entire
basin
activation
of plate
collision,
l~ithin
Muschelkalk
was
largely
factors
sea
level
The
initial
was c a u s e d
late
Anisian.
Muschelkalk ramp
of m a r i n e
allo~ed
storms
a key
cycles.
"crustal
stretching
of
"dynamic
important
history
of
as the
to
the
result
Variscan
fully South-
of
of a re-
continental
the h i s t o r y
Muschelkalk rise
Jn the is
Sea
in sea
gently
of the
Upper
paleotectonic
eommoly
level
facies
of
Formed
1975).
stacking
of
transgressive/regressive
the
pre-Upper carbonate
during
initial
pre-existing
of
has
German
during
the b a s i n
evolution. ramp
the
a
This
paleolatitude
in
into
inclined
development
carbonate
Vertical
allo~
"thermal
interplay
but
the
the
gradually
do not
82).
it
role
of
by
base
a
the
be
the
(cfi. W i l s o n ,
with
it s h o w s
basins.
basin,
eustatic)
as
the
regarded
Upper
resulted
together
overall
the
an
levelled
system,
shifts
coarsening-upwards the
has
For
aspects
would
from
by
(Fig.
of the
almost
to play
trans/regressive
produces
controlled
transgressions
topography
be
inherited
changes
topography
can
uncorrected
82)
intracratonic
by a ( p o s s i b l y
depositional
stages ramp
sutures
The
(Fig.
Basin
transgression
Basin
nor
of i n t r a c r a t o n i e
dznamies
this
and
data
m/m.y. crude
either
on
modelling
20 a very
followed
into
1976),
of
shows
Nevertheless
limited
~ork
mechanisms
South-German
and
al.,
Further
as an e x a m p l e
4.&.
the
81
Basin,
isostasy.
pattern
mathematical
rates
Fig.
subsidence
and
et
1978).
and
initial
diagram
subsidence
model"
subsidence Basin).
South-German
eustacy
of high
the
average
Williston
the
This
(McKenzie,
understand
with
bathymetry,
decreasing to
m.y.
Illinois,
Small-scale
produced
these
"minor"
minor
cycle
has
cycles
off
the
entire
of
the
Upper
Upper Muschelkalk.
Subsidence
patterns
Huschelkalk
and
largely
emphasize
paleotectonic
Different
patterns
nubikum,
Saxothuringikum
histories
off
overall
trace
facies
underlying
controls
in this
off s m a l l - s c a l e
relative
and sea
organisation Variscan type
of
level
fluctuations
zones
intracratonic
trans/regressive RhenoherzynJkum
structural
cycles
in each
basin.
on the
indicate of the
and
Molda-
different Variscan
151
zones. by
Fluctuations
minor
imposed
in relative
differential
small-sale
sea
level
subsidence
eustatic
sea
level
of
were
probably
former
changes
plates,
cannot
caused
mainly
although
super-
be e x c l u d e d .
iiii~i~ii:~ii!:i ....... iii!iii]!ili!i!!i~i!ii:iiii!~i:?::!i> iiiii~iii!iil jilhiili!ii:~i!ii ji!iii:iii!i:i~ii!i:i ~~=r~
~iiiiiii!iiiiii~i~ili iiii:{!i:~ ii::!!ii!~ •
/
EUSTATIC SEALEVEL
ba sin dynamics Fig. 82. S t r o n g l y s c h e m a t i c s u m m a r y on the two main factors controlling i n t r a c r a t o n i e basin d y n a m i c s as e x e m p l i f i e d by the Upper M u s c h e l kalk: (1) the Ladinian rise and fall in (most likely eustatic) sealevel (Brandner, 1984) causing the initial t r a n s g r e s s i o n and final r e g r e s s i o n of the Upper N u s c h e l k a l k sea; (2) p a l e o t e c t o n i c influences, recorded in different subsidence, facies and cycle p a t t e r n s over a n c i e n t (Variscan) s t r u c t u r a l zones. Since these probably represent former plates (Behr et al., 1984), e p e i r o g e n e t i c m o v e m e n t s in this c r a t o n i c basin reflect reactivation oF sutures from the Variscan continental collision.
152
5
D Y N A M I C
.
S T R A T I G R A P H Y
C O N C L U D I N G
In order
to r e c o n s t r u c t
ancient
storm
sequenceshave
(l) At
the
of
depositional been
lowest
carbonate
ramp
episodic,
level,
setting
in
in
stress
deep
drove
with ramp
surface
lobes
set-up
compensated
was
responsible
sediment
the
was
Upper
funneled
levels
of
of
an
stratigraphic
types
Muschelkalk
largely
Due
erosion
tool
effect,
nearshore
directed
to
the
bottom surge
become
the
result can
storms
and
be
cause
gutter
cast
however~
#ind
water
skeletal/oolitic
of storm
offshore
moving
marks
Coriolis
causing
ramp
within
hydrodynamics
Alongshore
to the
landward
are
whose
(bipolar)
by o f f s h o r e the
stratigraphy"
stratification
details.
longshore
shallow
for
three
processes,
areas.
in
"dynamic
83):
different of
water
spilIover
were
(Fig.
considerable
tempestites
erosion
of the
system,
analyzed
storm-related
reconstructed distal
aspects
R E M A R K S
set-up
banks.
The
and ~ater
return
flows,
that
channels
through
~hich
deposited
as
proximal
types
m~nor
tempestites.
(2)
At
an
intermediate
asymmetrical lithology, cycles
thin in
coarsening-upward microfacies,
can
regressive but a
be
shifts
regressive
complex,
that
of the
sequences
by
seaward
ramp
system.
outbuilding
of the
exposed the
are
in
sudden
Most
trends
in These
transgressive~ cycles
start
shallowing shallow places.
appearance
(l-Tm)
recorded.
small-scale
Gradual
by
of
distinct
faunas
horizons.
subaerially
documented
with
and
repeated
carbonate
marlstone
became
are
various
paleocurrents
explained
widespread
gressions
level,
ramp
shoalwater
Renewed
of
~ith
culminated
a new
trans-
marlstone
horizon.
(3)
At a still
upward
cycles
overall cycle cycles over
higher form
possibly that
provide
hierarchy
and
for
of the
cyclicity
stacked
litho-
and More
minor
a "sawtooth"
of of the
basin.
allows
and
controlled,
the whole
a basis
parts
vertically
punctuations
eustatically
comprises
large
level,
the
Upper
within
an
transgressive/regressive Muschelkalk.
time-stratigraphic specifically,
us to u n d e r s t a n d
coarsening-
pattern
the
Many
correlation
recognition dynamic
minor
of this
causes
of
153
DYNAMIC
STRATIGRAPHY : interpretation
J
w
hydrodynamic
STORM
model
]
:
EVENTS
facies
model
:
TRANS/REGRESSIONS
I
basi.
model
BASEL E VEL
'BIOGRAPHY'
Fig. 83. Summarizing diagram on the reconstruction of dynamic processes based on the analysis of three levels of stratigraphic sequences (el. Fig 28). (1) Depositional dynamics are dominated by various effects of storms operating in a carbonate ramp setting. (2) Facies dynamics reflect repeated t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e shifts of the carbonate ramp generating asymmetrical coarsening-upward cycles. (3) The whole basin sho~s a hierarchy of cycles: minor, short-term c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles are superimposed on a major, longer-term trans/regressive cycle. Basin dynamics are controlled by an interplay of eustatic and tectonic factors (from Aigner, 1984).
the
purely
used
in the Upper
sidence
and
upwards
cyles
descriptive
facies
collision
patterns
trace
reactivation
of
Basin.
plate
a controlling
In conclusion,
the hierarchical
is
strategy
a
simple
oriented
analysis
reconstruct
some
storm-dominated should
of
Variscan sutures factor
towards
basin,
but
the
general
overall
of minor
coarseningzones.
Thus
continental
outlined
stratigraphy", This
sub-
dynamics.
analysis
recorded
settings.
so far being
the
the Varisean
for basin
basins.
processes
in other
from
"dynamic
sedimentary the
also
both
paleotectonic
stratigraphic
of
be of value
subdivision
However,
and the d i s t r i b u t i o n
underlying
former
is also
lithostratigraphic
Huschelkalk
study in
principles
an
here
the processattempted
to
intracratonic
recognized
here
SO
At the end such what
?",
a study,
which
significance
are
? This
it might
the
final
briefly
some
of
systems,
their
general
the
WHAT
?
be healthy
general
to ask
results
section
is
principles
an
and
question
what
attempt
recognized
implications,
the
is the broader
to
in
highlight
storm
and possible
"so
very
depositional
avenues
for
future
research.
i.
Numerous
sequences and
carbonate
of continental
comprise
sediments. ments
storm
beds
Tempestites
show
the
structures: tional
tool
clastic
material,
from modern
followed
cross-stratification), and
(D)
2.
The
particular
tional
tool
marks,
(lateral
sediment
tempestites deposits
tool
marks
shallow-marine
with
a graded
bi-
environ-
of sedimentary or
layer
multidirec-
of sand or bio-
lamination
lamination
commonly
background
starts
(hummocky
and ~ave
ripples,
at tempestite
tops
in the sequence.
with
of
sedimentary
superimposed
wave
ripples) In
structures
oscillatory
and
spite
significantly
different
superficial from
suggests
(bi/multidirec-
unidirectional
of
from
wave
graphical
can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d
ancient
sequences.
(prod casts, ripple
present-day
gutter
marks
latitudinally
on
(Klein
Onshore
components
similarities,
density-driven
storms
(e.g.
transport
washovers,
event
in
in the
and possibly
etc.)
at
their
tops.
Predictions
storm
systems
which
even
can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d tempestite
and
from
soles
are
based
global
paleo-storm
pre-
and on
paleogeo-
systems
can
be
1983).
present-day
currents
spillovers).
from,
tracks
casts
from
& Marsaglia~
wind-drift
Storm
defined
reconstructions~
oriented sediment
with
succession
low-angle
wave-ripple
transport).
directions for,
modelled
(A)
storm-dominated
(turbidites).
3. Storm
4.
are
by
association
flows
vertical
and/or
shallow-marine
are
interbedded
commonly
Bioturbation
downward
storm
dicted
(C)
a mud blanket.
combined
base,
(R) parallel
clastics seas
and ancient
"ideal"
erosional
marks,
terrigenous and epeiric
(tempestites)
follo~ing
sharp,
and decreases
and shelves
in
nearshore In
turn,
German
the surface zone
Bay)
produce
onshore
water,
causing
landward
storm
layers,
(supratidal
the coastal
water
set-up
is compen-
156
sated
by offshore
bottom
water
on-offshore
Longshore or
storms,
Coriolis
in contrast,
(Swift
effect
transport
of surface
welling
and
In this
case,
offshore
5.
In
a
of storm
water
depth
tempestites
and
return
(proximal)
grain
size,
Fossils
can
transport:
proximal
tempestites
significant
lateral
characterized
applied
6.
by
On
a
the source
Naps
areas
computed
sizes,
7.
of
shapes,
In basin
from
off
changes
and
8.
to their
Due
beds storm
cannot
tectonic
down-
boundary
zone. areas,
direction,
due
as
increasing
Accordingly,
individual
by a decrease
directions
tracers
contain
the
to
mixed
assemblages
as well and
for storm
as
faunal sediment
faunas
distal
in
due
to
tempestites
are
indicating
in-situ
trends
also be
proximality
can
intervals.
a
useful
tool
sands,
and
(2)
the
they
thus help
sequences
basin
trends.
basins.
record
thickening-upward
whole
indicate
to reconstruct
of s h a l l o w - m a r i n e
tempestite (e.g.
paleogeogra~
because
paleobathymetric
parameters
and o r g a n i s a t i o n s
vertical
for
systems,
monitors
trans-
sequencBs). sea
level
movements.
geometry
be expected
layers,
the
landward
coastal
intraclast-content
while
basis,
over
(or
by the
in offshore
expressed
influx,
fluctuations
cycles
and
used
proximality
analysis,
coast.
depositional
of storm
geometries
gressive/regressive The packaging
are
storm
where
(distal)
commonly
stratigraphic
trends
reconstructions (i)
statistical
bottom
set-up
hemisphere,
by
significantly
paleocurrent
be
sediment
is caused
in the coastal
trends,
parautochthonous
to thicker
Proximality
also
which
are expected
the
structures,
the
the right,
offshore
bioclast-
contents.
reworkin9.
to
from
sedimentary
geostrophic
zones.
show marked p r o x i m a ] i t ~
thickness,
to
flo~
varies
changing
the
N-America,
with
be c o m p e n s a t e d
paleoeurrents
distance
in
a scenario,
off
In the northern
water
may again
stratification
combined
the shore,
1983).
in nearshore
nearshore
nature
bed
flows
shelf
associated
against
bottom
alongshore
and on-offshore
alongcoast
surface
water
in Atlantic
field
et al.,
drives
currents) In such
prevail.
cause
of the sea surface effect
(gradient transport.
(e.g.
by the pressure
Coriolis
flows
sediment
should
Nuschelkalk)
driven
set-down)
return
seaward
paleocurrents
Triassic
flows,
directed
causing
however,
(thin
sheets,
to provide forming
often
significant thicker
patchy),
individual
reservoirs.
and laterally
more
storm
Amalgamated persistant
157
sand blankets reservoirs.
interbedded with shelf muds, Such
sand
are
intervals of minor t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e of c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d s
sequences.
9.
also
Storm
beds
are
Individual tempestites local
scale,
while
useful
excellent
i0.
In
e.g.
at
markers.
the
but only
on
or -condensed
They are especially if they are
tops
stratigraphy.
coarsening-upwards
correlation,
mostly epibenthic
pa!eoecologic
minor
hydrocarbon in regressive
for a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
storm-amalgamated
of
regional
for " e v e n t - s t r a t i g r a p h i c " specific,
cycles,
provide very sharp time signals, composite
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y at the tops often
potential
bodies are to be expected mainly
a
units,
cycles, powerful
are tools
"fingerprinted"
by
faunas.
analyses,
distinguished
from "post-event"
tempestites,
however,
might
"background" faunas.
be
remorking and lateral shell influx
faunal assemblages can be
The faunal spectrum
of
shelly
distorted
by (often repeated)
that
consequences
has
for
storm paleo-
community reconstructions.
]].
Storm
stratification
of the stratigraphieal event
deposits
conditions implying
leads a
high
record,
as
compared
to
a
12. Further
a)
flume
experiments
elastic particles
effects
transitions
with
cycles
expression
of
background
"catastrophic"
incompleteness.
picture This also
studies.
studies
of combined
different
cooperation
products
to turbidites
composed
or
potential of
along
several
flows under different
materials
(including
bin-
;
of cycles
for
sedimentologists,
present-day
ecologists
storms,
marine
to
including
monitor possible
(off-shelf transport);
of storm beds
causes
between
m e t e o r o l o g i s t s and
of
c) further field studies and understand
periods
focus on integrated
oceanographers,
and
preservation long
stratigraphic
and modelling and
interdisciplinary
geologists,
in assessing the texture
:
as
hydraulic conditions
b)
of
high the
episodic
evolutionary
research should
such
fhe to
highly
degee
limits h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
avenues,
is also significant
the
computer
modelling
of
(such as coarsening-up hierarchy
and
in storm depositional
different cycles)
asymmetric
systems;
scale
to better
stratigraphic
158 d)
Further
graphy"
in
simulation changes, would the
examples of i n t e g r a t e d storm of
depositional
controlling
paleolatitude
be the
evolution
factors,
and
establishment
basin analysis
systems, such
paleo-storm of " b a s i n
of a p a r t i c u l a r
combined
that
basin.
with
mathematical
subsidence,
regimes.
models"
sedimentary
as
and " d y n a m i c s t r a t i -
The enable
sea
level
ultimate
goal
us to p r e d i c t
L I T E R A T U R E
AGER, D.V.(1974): Storm deposits in the Jurassic of the Atlas. - Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 15: AGER, Press,
D.V. (1981): The nature of the s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l New York, 122 pp. (second edition)
Moroccan 83-93.
record.
High
- Halsted
AGER, D.V. & WALLACE, P. (1970): The distribution and significance of trace fossils in the uppermost Jurassic rocks of the Boulonnais, Northern France. Geol. J., Spec. Issue No. 3: 1-18. AHR, W.M. (1973): model. Trans. 221-225.
The carbonate Gulf Coast
ramp: Assoc.
AIGNER, T. (1977): Schalenpflaster Crailsheim (W~rtt., Trias, mol) mentologie. N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., AIGNER, T. (1979): SW-Deutschland).
an alternative to the shelf Geol. Soe., 23rd Ann. Cony.:
im Unteren Hauptmuschelkalk bei - Stratinomie, ~kologie, SediAbh., 153: 193-217.
Schill-Tempestite im Oberen Muschelkalk N. 3b. G e o l . P a l ~ o n t . , A b h . , 157: 3 2 6 - 3 4 3 .
(Irias,
AIGNER, T. (1982): Calcareous tempestites: s t o r m - d o m i n a t e d stratification in Upper Muschelkalk limestones (Middle Trias, SW-Germany). In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 180-198. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. (1982a) AIGNER, T. (1982): E v e n t - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in nummulite a c c u m u l a t i o n s and in shell beds from the Eocene of Egypt. In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 248-262. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. (1982b) AIGNER, T. (1983): Facies and origin of example from the Giza Pyramids Plateau (Middle 3b. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 166: 347-368.
nummulitic buildups: Eocene, Egypt).
an N.
AIGNER, T. (1984): Dynamic stratigraphy of e p i c o n t i n e n t a l carbonates, Upper Musehelkalk (M. Triassic), South-German Basin. - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 169: 127-159. AIGNER, T., HAGDORN, H. & MUNDLOS, R. (1978): Biohermal, and s t o r m - g e n e r a t e d coquinas in the Upper Muschelkalk. - N. Pal~ont., Abh.:, 157: 42-52.
biostromal 3b. Geol.
AIGNER, T. & FUTTERER, E. (1978): Kolk-T~pfe und -Rinnen (pot and gutter casts) im Muschelkalk - Anzeiger fur Wattenmeer ? - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 156: 285-304. AIGNER, T. & REINECK, H.-E. (1982): Proximality [rends in modern storm sands from the Helgoland Bight (North Sea) and their implications for basin analysis. - S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., 14: 183-215. AIGNER, T. & REINECK, H.-E. the shoreface of the barrier bergiana marit., 15: 87-92.
(1983): Seasonal variation of wave-base on island Norderney, North Sea. - Sencken-
AITGEN, J.D. (1967): Classification and environmental significance of cryptalgal limestones and dolomites, with illustrations from the Cambrian and Ordovician of southwestern Alberta. - 3. sed. Petr., 37: 1163-1178.
160
A L D I N G E R , H. (1928): B e i t r ~ g e zur S t r a t i g r a p h i e und Bildungsgeschichte des T r o c h i t e n k a l k s im n B r d l i c h e n W Q r t t e m b e r g und Baden. T h e s i s Univ. TObingen. ALLEN, 3.R.L. (1982): Sedimentary structures: their character and physical basis. D e v e l o p m . S e d i m e n t o l . 30 A and B. E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r dam, A: 593pp, B: 663pp. ALLEN, J.R.L. (1984): Some g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of s t o r m s their relevance to p r o b l e m s of s t o r m s e d i m e n t a t i o n . - Brit. Sed. G r o u p Meetg. S t o r m Sed., C a r d i f f , A b s t r ~ : 3. ALLEN, P.A. (198]): c o n d i t i o n s from wave ALLEN, example
P.A. from
ANDREE, Rdsch.,
K.
ANDERSON, gressive Montreal,
Some guidelines in reconstructing ancient r i p p l e marks. - Mar. Geol., 43: M 5 9 - M 6 7 .
(1984): the S w i s s
Reconstruction M o l a s s e . - Mar.
(1916): Wesen, 351-397.
6:
and Res.
Ursachen
of a n c i e n t Geol., 60:
und A r t e n
sea
sea c o n d i t i o n s w i t h 455-473.
der
Geol.
Schichtung.
E.J. (1972): Sedimentary structure and regressive calcarenites. 24th Sect. 6: 3 6 9 - 3 7 8 .
an
a s s e m b l a g e s in t r a n s Int. Geol. Congr.
AUSICH, W.I. & BOTTJER, D.J. (1982): f i e r i n g in s u s p e n s i o n - f e e d i n g c o m m u n i t e s on soft s u b s t r a t a t h r o u g h o u t the Phanerozoic. Science, 216: 1 7 3 - 1 7 4 . AUST,H. (1969): Lithologie, bereiches Muschelkalk-Keuper W O r z b u r g , lO: 1-155.
P a l ~ o n t o l o g i e des Abh. Naturwiss.
Geochemie und in Franken.
BACHMANN, G.H. (1973): Die karbonatischen Bestandteile Muschelkalks (Mittlere Trias) in SQdwest-Deutschland D i a g e n e s e . - Arb. Inst. Geol. P a l ~ o n t . Univ. S t u t t g a r t , N.F. BACHMANN, SCHLOTHEIM
G.H. (1979): Bioherme der M u s c h e l und ihre D i a g e n e s e . - N. Jb. Geol.
des und 68:
GrenzVer.
Oberen ihre 1-99.
P l a c u n o p s i s o s t r a c i n a v. Pal~ent., Abh., 158:
381-407. BACHMANN, G.H. F O h r e r , Bd. 54,
& GWINNER, M.P. ( 1 9 7 1 ) : N o r d w O r t t e m b e r g , 168 pp. Gebr. B o r n t r a e g e r , B e r l i n , Stuttgart.
Slg.
geol.
!
BAGNOLD, R.A. ( 1 9 6 6 ) : from g e n e r a l p h y s i c s .
An approach to the sediment transport problem U.S. G e o l . S u r v . P r o f . Paper 4 2 2 - I : 37 pp.
BALL, M.M. (1967): C a r b o n a t e 3. sed. Petr., 37: 5 5 6 - 5 9 1 .
BALL, M.M., effects 583-597.
of
SHINN,
E.A.
Hurricane
& Donna
sand
bodies
of F l o r i d a
STOCKMANN, K.W. in
South
and
(1967):
Florida.
the
Bahamas.
The geological J. G e o l o g y , 75:
BALLY, A.W. & S N E L S O N , S . (1980): R e a l m s of s u b s i d e n c e . In: A.D. (Ed.), Facts and principles of world petroleum occurrences. Soc. P e t r o l . Geol., Hem., 6: 9-94. B A R R E L L , 3. (1917): R h y t h m s and the m e a s u r e m e n t s Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 28: 7 4 5 - 9 0 4 . BARRETT, P.J. (1964): Residual seams shell c a l c a r e n i t e s , Te K u i t i Group. - J.
and sed.
-
of g e o l o g i c a l
MIALL - Can.
time.
-
c e m e n t a t i o n in O l i g o c e n e Petr., 34: 5 2 4 - 5 3 1 .
161
BARTHEL, K.W. (1974): Black pebbles, coral islands. - Proe. 2nd Int. Reef Comm.: 395-399.
fossil end Coral Reef
recent, on and near Symp., 2. Great Barrier
BASAN, P.B. (1973): Aspects of sedimentation and development carbonate bank in the Barracuda Keys, South Florida. J. sed. 43: 42-53. BAUD, A. certains 415-424.
(1976): facies
Les terriers de Crustaces du Tries carbonat6.
decapodes Eclogae
of a Petr.,
et l'origine geol. Helv.,
de 69:
BEHR, H.J., ENGEL,W., FRANKE, W., GIESE, P. & WEBER, K. (1984): The Variscan Belt in Central Europe: main structures, geodynamic implications, open questions. - Tectonophysics, 109: 15-40. BIRZER, F. (1936): Eine Tiefbohrung durch des mesozoisehe in FOrth in Bayern. - Zbl. Min. etc., 1936,(B): 425-433.
Deckgebirge
BLENDINGER, W. (1985): Carbonate deposition, strike-slip tectonics and igneous activity in the Ledinian of the central Dolomites, Italy. Thesis Univ. TObingen. BLOOS, facies event York.
G. (1982): Shell beds in the lower Lies of Southern Germany and origin. In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and stratification: 223-239. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New
BOGACZ~K., DZULYNSKI, S., GRADZINSKI, of crumpled limestone in the Middle Tow. Geol.~ 38: 385-394.
P. & KOSTECKA, A. (1968): Origin Triassic of Poland. Rocs. Pols.
BOURGEOIS, J. (1980): A transgressive shelf sequence exhibiting hummocky stratification: the Cape Sebastian Sandstone (Upper Cretaceous), S o u t h w e s t e r n Oregon. J. sed. Petr., 50: 681-702. BRANDNER, R. (1984): Tries der NW-Tethys.
Meeresspiegelschwankungen - 3b. Geol. B.-Anst., 126:
und Tektonik 435-475.
in
der
BRENCHLEY, P.3., NEWALL, G. & SANISTREET. J.G. (1979): A storm surge origin for sandstone beds in an epicontinental platform sequence, Ordovician, Norway. Sediment. Geol., 22: 185-217. BRENNER, R.L. & DAVIES, D.K. (1973): S t o r m - g e n e r a t e d coquinoid sandstone: genesis of high-energy marine sediments from the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming and Montana. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 84: 1685-1697. BRETT, C.E. (1983): Sedimentology, facies and depositional environment of the Rochester Shale (Silurian, Wenlockian) in Western New York and Ontario. - J. sed. Petr., 53: 947-971. BRINKMANN, R. Fortschr. Geol.
(1930): Pal~ont.
Ober die XI, H. 35:
Schichtung 187-219.
und ihre
Bedingungen.
-
BRUDERLIN, M. (1969): Beitr~ge zur Lithostratigraphie und Sedimentpetrographie des Oberen M u s c h e l k a l k s im s O d w e s t l i c h e n B a d e n - W @ r t t e m berg. Teil I: L i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i e . Jber. Mitt. oberrh, geol. Ver., N.F. 51: 125-158. BRODERLIN, M. (1970): Beitr~ge zur L i t h o s t r e t i g r a p h i e und Sedimentpetrographie des Oberen M u s c h e l k s l k s im sUdwestlichen Baden-W~rttemberg. Teil II: S e d i m e n t p e t r o g r a p h i e . - Jber. Mitt. oberrh, geol. Ver., N.F. 52: 175-209.
162
BRUNNER, H. & SIMON, T. (1985): L i t h o l o g i s c h e G l i e d e r u n g von Profilen aus dem Oberen M u s c h e l k a l k im n 6 r d l i c h e n B a d e n - W O r t t e m b e r g anhand der natOrlichen Gamma-Strahlungsintensit~t der Gesteine. 3ber. Mitt. oberrh, geol. Ver., N.F. 67. BUSCH, R.M. strata using 12: 4 7 1 - 4 7 4 .
& ROLLINS, H.B. (1984): Correlation of C a r b o n i f e r o u s a h i e r a r c h y of t r a n s g r e s s i v e - r e g r e s s i v e units. Geology
CACCHIONE, D.A. & DRAKE, D.C. (1982): M e a s u r e m e n t s of s t o r m - g e n e r a t e d b o t t o m s t r e s s e s on the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf. J. geophys. Res., 87: 1952-1960. CAIN, J.D.B. (1968): e c o l o g y of c r i n o i d a l CANT, D.3. Cretaceous
(1984): epeiric
A s p e c t s of the d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t and limestones. Scott. J. Geol., 4: 191-208.
D e v e l o p m e n t of shoreline-shelf sand bodies sea deposit. - J. sed. Parr., 54: 541-556.
CAROZZI, A.V. & SODERMAN, Mississippian (Borden) c r i n o i d a l sed. Parr., 32: 397-414.
paleo-
in
a
Petrography of some 3.G.W. (1962): Stobo, Indiana. J. l i m e s t o n e s at
CISNE, J.L. GILDNER, R.F. & RABE, B.D. and s e a - l e v e l : s y n t h e t i c e c o s t r a t i g r a p h y .
(1984): E p e i r i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n - Lethaia, 17: 267-288.
COOK, D.O. (1970): The o c c u r r e n c e and off S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a . Mar. Geol.
g e o l o g i c a l work 9: 173-186.
COOK, D.O. & GORSLINE, port by s h o a l i n g waves.
Field o b s e r v a t i o n s 13: 31-55.
D.S. (1972): Mar. Geol.,
of
rip
currents
of sand
trans-
CREAGER, J.S. & S T E R N B E R G , R.W. (1972): Some specific problems in understanding b o t t o m s e d i m e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n and d i s p e r s a l on the continental shelf. In: D.J.P. SWIFT, D.B. DUANE & O.H. PILKEY (Eds.), Shelf sediment t r a n s p o r t : p r o c e s s and pattern: 447-449. Dowden, H u t c h i n s o n & Ross, S t r o u d s b u r g , Pa. D E M O N F A U C O N , A. (1982): Le M u s c h e l k a l k s u p ~ r i e u r de la Vallee de M o s e l l e Grand D u c h ~ de L u x e m b o u r g . Thesis, Univ. Dijon, 206 pp. DEUTSCHES 8stlicher DIXON, Upper Assoc.
HYDROGRAPHISCHES Tail. Hamburg.
INSTITUT
(1975):
la
Nordsee-Handbuch,
B.A., N A R B O N N E , G.M. & JONES, B. (1981): Event correlation S i l u r i a n rocks of S o m m e r s e t Island, C a n a d i a n Arctic. Bull. Petro Geol., 65: 303-311.
in Am.
DOR3ES, J. & H E R T W E C K , G. (3975): Recent b i o c o e n o s e s and ichnoeoenoses in shallow-marine environments. In: R. FREY (Ed.), The study of trace fossils: 459-491. - Springer, Berlin, H e i d e l b e r g , New York. DOTT, R.H. Jr. (1983): E p i s o d i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n How rare is rare ? Does it m a t t e r ? - 3. sed. DOTT, R.H. Jr. & BOURGEOIS, J. s i g n i f i c a n c e of its v a r i a b l e b e d d i n g Am.~ 93: 663-680. DRUCKMAN, Y., southern margin the Jordan Rift DURINGER,
P.
S6dimentologie
average?
(1982): Hummocky stratification: sequences. - Bull. Geol. Soc.
HIRSCH, F. & W E I S S B R O D , T. of the Tethys in the Levant Valley. - Geol. Rdsch., 71: (1982):
- how normal is Petr., 53: 5-23.
(1982): The T r i a s s i c and its c o r r e l a t i o n 919-936.
et p a l 6 o 6 c o l o g i e
of the across
du M u s c h e l k a l k
163
sup6rieur et de la Lettenkohle (Trias Germanique) France. Diachronie des facies et reconstructions ments. - Thesis, Univ. Strasbourg, 96 pp.
de l'est de la des p a l ~ o e n v i r o n -
DURINGER, P. (1984): Tempetes et tsunamis: des depots de vagues de haute energie i n t e r m i t t e n t e dana le M u s c h e l k a l k superieur (Trias germanique) de l'est de la France. Bull. Soc. geol. France, 1984, (7), t. XXVI, no. 6: i177-1185. EBANKS, W.J. & BUBB, J.N. Matecumbe Keys tidal bank, 422-439.
(1975): Holocene South Florida.
carbonate sedimentation, 3. sed. Petr., 45:
EDER, W. (1982): Diagenetic r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of carbonate, a process in forming limestone/marl alternations (Devonian and Carboniferous, Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, W. Germany). In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 98-112. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. EINSELE, fication.
G. & SEILACHER, A. (Eds.) (1982): Cyclic and event - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 536pp.
ENOS, P. (1983): Shelf. In: P.A. (Eds.), Carbonate depositional Hem., 33: 267-295.
SCHOLLE, D.G. environments.
ENOS, P. & PERKINS, R.D. (1977): Quaternary Florida. - Geol. Soc. Am., Mem. 147, 198 pp.
strati-
MOORE
BEBOUT & C.H. Am. Ass. Petr.
sedimentation
Geol.,
in
South
FARROW, G.E. (1966): Bathymetric zonation of Jurassic trace fossils from the coast of Yorkshire, England. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 2: 103-151. FLOOD, R.D. (1981): Distribution, morphology, and origin of sedimentary furrows in cohesive sediment, Southampton Water. Sedimentology, 28: 511-529. FORRISTALL, G.Z., HAMILTON, R.C. & CARDONE, V.3. (1977): Continental shelf currents in tropical storm Delia: observations and theory. - J. phys. Oceanogr., 7: 532-546. FORSICH, F.T. (1973): Thalassinoides and the origin of nodular stone in the Corallian Beds (Upper Jurassic) in Southern England. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Mh., 1973: 136-156. FORSICH, 16-28.
F.T.
(1974):
Ichnogenus
Rhizocorallium.
Pal~ont.
FORSICH, F.T. (1975): Trace fossils as environmental indicators Corallian of England and Normandy. - Lethaia, 8: 151-172. FRANK, M. Mitt. geol.
lime- N.
Z., 48:
in
(1937): P a l ~ o g e o g r a p h i s c h e r Atlas yon S B d w e s t d e u t s c h l a n d . Abt. w~rtt, statist. Landesamt, 17: 1-111.
FUTTERER, E. (1978): Studien ~ber die Einregelung, Anlagerung bettung biogener Hartteile im Str~mungskanal. N. 3b. Geol. Abh., 156: 87-131. GADOW, S. & REINECK, H.-E. (1969): Ablandiger fluten. - S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., i: 63-78.
Sandtransport
the
-
und EinPal@ont.,
bei
Sturm-
GEBELEIN, C.D. (1977): Dynamics of recent carbonate s e d i m e n t a t i o n ecology, Cape Sable, Florida. - E.J. Bill, Leiden, 120 pp.
and
164
GEYER, O.F. & GWINNER, Baden-WUrttemberg. Stuttgart, 228 pp.
M.P. E.
(1968): Einf~hrung Schweizerbart'sche
in
die Geologic yon Verlagsbuchhandlung,
GIENAPP, H. (1972): W e l l e n m e s s u n g e n im Seegebiet der 8ucht). - Helgol. Wiss. Meeresunters., 23: 261-267.
Piep
(Deutsche
GIENAPP, H. (1973): StrBmungen w~hrend der Sturmflut vom 2. November 1965 in der Deutschen Bucht und ihre Bedeutung for den Sedimenttransport. - S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., 5: 135-151. GIENAPP, H. & TOMCZAK, G. (1968): S t r 6 m u n g s m e s s u n g e n in der Deutsehen Bucht bei Sturmfluten. - Helgol. Wiss. Meeresunters., 17: 94-107. GINSBURG, R.N., BERNARD, H.A., MOODY, R.A. & DAIGLE, E.E. (1966): Shell method of impregnating cores of u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sediment. sed. Petr., 36: 1118-1125. GINSBURG, building 7.2-7.22.
R.N. & JAMES, N.P. communities in the
GOLDRING, R. & BRIDGES, P. sed. Petr., 43: 736-747.
(1974): Western
(1973):
The - J.
Spectrum of Holocene reefAtlantic. - Sediments IV:
Sublittoral
sheet
J.
sandstones.
GOLDRING, R. & AIGNER, 1. (1982): Scour and fill: the significance of event separation. In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 354-362. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. GOODWIN, P.W. & ANDERSON, E.J. (1980): Punctuated aggradational cycles: a general hypothesis of s t r a t i g r a p h i c accumulation. - Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr. with Progr., 12: 436 (1980 a). GOODWIN, P.W. & ANDERON, E.J. (1980): Application of the hypothesis to limestones of the H e l d e r b e r g Group. - Soc. Econ. Min., Eastern Section, Field Conf. Guidebook 1980: 1-32. (1980b)
PAC Pal.
GRAY, D.J. & BENTON, M.J. (1982) Multidirectional paleocurrents as indicators of shelf storm beds. In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 350-353. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. GWINNER, M.P. (1970): Revision der l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i s e h e n Nomenklatur im Oberen H a u p t m u s c h e l k a l k des n6rdliehen Baden-WOrttemberg. N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Mh., 1970: 77-87. GWINNER, M.P. & HINKELBEIN, K. (1976): Stuttgart und Umgebung. geol. FUhrer, 61, 148 pp. Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart.
- Slg.
HAGAN, G.M. & LOGAN, B.W. (1974): Development of carbonate banks and hypersaline basins, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: B.W. LOGAN et al. (Eds.), Evolution and diagenesis of Quaternary carbonate sequences, Shark Bay, Western Austraiia. - Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., Mem. 22: 61-139. HAGDORN, H. (1978): M u s c h e l / K r i n o i d e n - B i o h e r m e (mol, Anis) yon Crailsheim und Sehw~bisch Hall N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 156: 3]-86.
im Oberen Muschelkalk (SOdwestdeutschland). -
HAGDORN, H. (1982): The "Bank der kleinen Terebrateln" (Upper Muschelkalk, Triassic) near Schw~bisch Hall (SW-Germany) a tempestite c o n d e n s a t i o n horizon. In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: 263-285. - Springer, Berlin,
165
Heidelberg,
Ne~ York.
HAGDORN, H. (1985): Immigration of crinoids into the German Muschelkalk Basin. In: U. BAYER & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Sedimentary and Evolutionary cycles: 237-254. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. HAGDORN, H. & MUNDLOS, R. (1982): A u t o c h t h o n s c h i l l e im Oberen Muschelkalk (Mitteltrias) SOdwestdeutschlands. - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 162: 3 3 2 - 3 5 1 . HAGDORN, H. & MUNDLOS, R. (1983): Aspekte kalk-Cephalopoden. Teil l: Siphozerfall Geol. Pal@ont., Abh., 166: 369-403.
der Taphonomie yon und F~llmechanismus.
Muschel- N. Jb.
HAGDORN, H. & SIMON, T. (1981): Oberer Muschelkalk. In: H. BRUNNER et al., S c h i c h t e n f o l g e und geologische Bedeutung der f h e r m a I w a s s e r b o h r u n g Aalen i. - Jh. Ges. Naturkde. W~rtt., 136: 56-61. HANTZSCHEL, W. (1936): Die Schichtungsformen rezenter Ablagerungen. - S e n e k e n b e r g i a n a leth., 18: 316-356.
Flachmeer-
HAMBLIN, A.P. & WALKER, R . G . (1979): S t o r m - d o m i n a t e d s h a l l o w - m a r i n e deposits: the F e r n i e - K o o t e n a y (Jurassic) transition, southern Rocky Mountains. Can. J. Earth Sci., 16: 1673-1690. HARBOUGH, Bull. Am.
J.W. (1957): M i s s i s s i p p i a n bioherms Assoc. Petr. Geol., 41: 2530-2544.
of Northeast
Oklahoma.
HARDIE, L. A. (Ed.) (1977): Sedimentation on the modern carbonate tidal flats of Northwest Andros Island, Bahamas. Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies in Geology, no. 22, 202 pp. HARDIE, L.A. & GINSBURG, environmental significance HARDIE (Ed.), Sedimentation Northwest Andros Island, Geology, no. 22: 50-123. HARLAND, W.B. Science Ser.,
R.N. (1977): Layering: the origin and of lamination and thin bedding. In: L.A. on the modern carbonate tidal flats of Bahamas. Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies in
et al. (1982): A geologic time Univ. Press Cambridge, 131pp.
scale.
HARMS, J.C., SOUTHARD, J.B., SPEARING, D.R. Depositional environments interpreted from structures and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n sequences. - S o c . Course no. 2, 161 pp.
-
Cambridge
Earth
& WALKER, R.G. (1975): primary sedimentary Econ. Pal. Min., Short
HARY, A., BOCK, H., DIfTRICH, D. & WAGNER, J.F. (1984): Trias in Beckenund Randfazies im Luxemburger Gutland. - Jber. Mitt. oberrh. Geol. Vet., N.F. 66: 85-94. HAUNSCHILD, H. & OTT, W.-O. (1982): Profilbeschreibung, Stratigraphie und Pal~ogeographie der Forschungsbohrung DinkelsbOhl fOOl. Geologica Bavarica, 83: 3-55. HAXBY, W.F., TURCOTTE, D.L. mechaniesi evolution of the 57-75. HAYES, coast. HELLER, in ooid
& BIRD, Michigan
3.M. (1976): Thermal Basin. Tectonophysics,
M.O. (1967): Hurricanes as geological agents, - Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., 51: 937-942. P.L., KOMAR, P.D. & PEVEAR, genesis. - J. sed. Petr., 50.:
D.R. (1980): 943-952
south
Transport
and 36:
Texas
processes
166
HINE, A.C. (1977): Lily Bank, Bahamas: history sand shoal. - J. Sed. Petr., 42: 1554-1581 HOLLOWAY, S. (1983): The shell-detrital Marbel Formation (Bathonian) of southwest Assoc., 94: 259-266.
of
an
active
oolite
c a l c i r u d i t e s of bhe Forest England. - Proc. Geol.
HOWARD, J.D. & REINECK, H.-E. (1981): D e p o s i t i o n a l facies of highenergy beach-to-offshore sequence: comparison ~ith low-energy sequence. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 65: 807-830. HUNTER, R.E. & CLIFTON, H.E. (1982): Cyclic deposits and hummocky c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of probable storm origin in Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Cape Sebastian area, Southmestern Oregon. - J. sed. Petr., 52: 127-143. IRWIN, M.L. (1965): sedimentation. - Bull. JAMES, science
N.P. (1980): Canada, Repr.
General Am. Assoc.
theory of Petr. Geol.,
Shallo~ing-upward Ser. i: I09-119.
epeiric clear 49: 445-459.
sequences
in carbonates.
(1971): Speculations on the genesis JENKYNS, H.C. limestones in the Tethyan Jurassic. - Geol. Rdsch., 60:
~ater
Geo-
of crinoidal 471-488.
JENKYNS, H.C. (1974): Origin of red nodular limestones (Ammonitico Rosso, Knollenkalk) in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Jurassic: a diagenetic model. Spec. Pub1. int. Ass. Sediment., I: 249-271. JOHNSON, Geology,
R.G. (1957): 65: 527-535.
Experiments
on
the
burial
of
JOHNSON, H.D. (1978): Shallo~ siliciclastie seas. In: (Ed.), Sedimentary environments and facies: 207-258. Oxford, Edinburgh, Boston, Melbourne. JONES, 8., OLDERSHAW,A.E. & NARBONNE, G.M. of rubbly limestone in the Upper Silurian Canada. Sedim. Geol., 24: 227-252.
shell.
- J.
H.G. READING - Black~ell,
1979):
Nature and origin Bay Formation of Arctic
Read
K~LIN, O. (1980): S c h i z o s p h a e r e l l a punctulata DEFLANDRE & DANGEARD: ~all ultrastructure and preservation in deeper-~ater carbonate sediments of the Tethyan Jurassic. Eclogae geol. Helv., 73: 983-1008. KAZMIERCZAK, J. & P S Z C Z O L K O W S K I , A. 1969): Burrows of e n t e r o p n e u s t a in Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) of the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland. AcLa Palaeont. Pol., 14: 299-315. KAZMIERCZAK, J. & GOLDRING, R. (1978): Subtidal flat-pebble conglomerate from the Upper Devonian of Poland: a multi-provenant highenergy product. - Geol. Mag., ll5: 359-366. KEARY, R. & KEEGAN, structure, a mechanism
B.F. (1975): S t r a t i f i c a t i o n by infauna debris: and a comment. - J. sed. Petr., 45: 128-131.
KELLEY, V.C. 289-300.
Thickness
(1956):
of
strata.
-
J.
sed.
Petr.,
a
26:
KENNEDY, W.J. & GARRISON, R.E. (1975): Morphology and genesis of hardgrounds and nodular chalks in the Upper Cretaceous of Southern England. - Sedimentology, 22: 311-386. KIDWELL,
S.M.
& JABLONSKI,
D.
(1983):
Taphonomic
feedback.
Ecological
167
c o n s e q u e n c e s of shell accumulation. In: M.3.S. TEVESZ & (Eds.), Biotic i n t e r a c t i o n s in recent and fossil benthic 195-248. - Plenum Publ. Corp. KINGSTON, D.R., DISHROON, C.P. classification system. - Bull. KLEIN, range.
(1983): Global basin Geol., 67: 2175-2193.
G. de V. (1971): A sedimentary model for determining - Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 82: 2585-2592.
KLEINSORGE, H. (1935): Oberen Muschelkalk in Staatsinst. Hamburg, 15: KOLP, dureh
& WILLIAMS, P.A. Am. Assoc. Petr.
P.L. McCALL communities:
paleotidal
Pal~ogeographische Untersuchungen 8ber den Nordund Mitteldeutschland.. - Mitt. Geol. 57-106.
O. (1958): Sedimentsortierung und Umlagerung am Meeresboden Wellenwirkung. Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., 102: 173-178.
KOMAR, P.D., NEUDECK, R.H. & KULM, L.D. (1972): Observations and significance of deep water oscillatory ripple marks on the Oregon continental shelf. In: D.J.P. SWIFT, D.B. DUANE & O.H. PILKEY (Eds.), Shelf sediment transport: processes and pattern: 601-619. - Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg~ Penn. KOZUR, Freib.
H. (1974): Forschungsh.,
Biostratigraphie C 280: 7-56.
der
germanischen
Mitteltrias.
KREISA, R.D. (1981): S t o r m - g e n e r a t e d sedimentary structures in subtidal marine facies with examples from the Middle and Upper Ordovician of Southwest Virginia. - J. sed. Petr., 51: 823-848. KRIMMEL, (Trias) Stuttgart,
V. in
(1980): Epirogene Pa1~otektonik zur Zeit des Keupers S~dwest-Deutschland. - Arb. Inst. Geol. Pal~ont. Univ. N.F. 76: 1-74.
KROMMELBEIN, K. (1977): Geologic. - Enke-Verlag
8rinkmanns AbriB Stuttgart, 400 pp.
KUMAR, N. & SANDERS, J.E. deposits: modern and ancient LAPORTE, sequence New York
der
Geologie.
Historische
(1976): C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of shoreface storm examples. - J. sed. Petr., 46: 145-162.
L.F. (1969): Recognition of a within an epeiric sea: Helderberg State. - Soc. Econ. Pal. Min., Spec.
transgressive carbonate Group (Lower Devonian) of Publ., 14: 98-119.
LINCK, O. (1965): Stratigraphische, stratinomische Betrachtungen zu Encrinus liliiformis LAMARCK. Baden-W~rtt., 7: 123-148.
und Jh.
6kologische geol. L.-A.
LOGAN, B.W., REZAK, R. & GINSBURG, R.N. (1964): Classification environmental significance of algal stromatolites. - J. Geology, 68-83. LOGAN, shelf,
B.W. et al. (1969): Mexico. - Am. Assoc.
Carbonate sediments Petr. Geol., Mem, 11:
and reefs, 1-196.
and 72:
Yukatan
LOGAN,B.W. & SEMENIUK, V. (1976): Dynamic metamorphism, processes and products in Devonian carbonate rocks, Canning Basin, Western Australia. - Geol. Soc. Australia, Spec. Pub1. No. 6, ]38pp. LOMBARD~ A. (1978): Sedimentology. In: R.W. FAIRBRIDGE & J. BOURGEOIS, (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Sedimentology: 703-707. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa. LOREAU,
J.P.
& PURSER,
B.H.
(1973):
Distribution
and
ultrastructure
of
168
Holocene colds Gulf: 279-328.
in the Persian Gulf. In: B.H. PURSER (Ed.), - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
The
Persian
LOVELL, J.P.B. (1970): The p a l a e o g e o g r a p h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of lateral variation in the ratio of sandstone to shale and other features in the Aberystwyth Grids. Geol. Mag., 107: 147-158. MARKELLO, 3.R. & READ, 3.F. (198]): Carbonate transitions of an Upper Cambrian intrashelf Formation, Southwest Virginia, Appalachians. 573-597.
r a m p - t o - d e e p e r shale basin, Nolichucky Sedimentology, 28:
MARKELLO, J.R. & READ, J.F. (1982): Upper Cambrian intrashelf basin, Nolichucky Formation, Southwest Virginia Appalachians. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., 66: 860-878. MARSAGLIA, Paleozoic i17-142.
K.M. and
& KLEIN, Mesozoic
MATTHEWS, R.K. (1984): Yersey, 2nd ed., 489 pp.
G. de V. (1983): The paleogeography storm depositional systems. - J. Geology,
Dynamic (lst ed.
stratigraphy. 1974).
MAYER, G. (1952i: Lebensspuren Hauptmuschelkalk (Trochitenkalk) Pal~ont., Mh., 1952: 440-456.
von des
MAYER, G. (1955): Eine interessante H a u p t m u s c h e l k a l k von Bruchsal. Beitr. 14: 114-118. McCAVE, Holland.
I.N. (1971): - Mar. Geol.,
Sand waves I0: 199-225.
in
MEHL, Jh. -
the North
Sea off the coast
for stratification 64: 381-390.
(1978): Some remarks on the development planet. Sci. Lett., 40: 25-32.
P. (1961): Der Obere M u s c h e l k a l k geol. Helv., 54: 137-219.
New
Schichtfl~che aus dam Mittleren naturk. Forsch. SW-Deutschl.,
J. (1982): Die T e m p e s t i t - F a z i e s im Oberen geol. L.-A. Baden-WQrtt., 24: 91-109.
MERKI, Eclogae
Prentice-Hall,
Bohrorganismen aus dem Unteren Kraiehgaues. - N. Jb. Geol.
MeKEE, E.D. & WEIR, G.W. (1953): Terminology cross-stratification. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., McKENZIE, D.P. basins. - Earth
-
of 91:
MIALL, A. (1984): Principles of sedimentary Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 490 pp.
and
of sedimentary
Muschelkalk
im 6stlichen
of
SQdbadens.
Schweizer
basin
Jura.
analysis.
-
-
MILLER, M.C. & KOMAR, P.D. (1977): The development of sediment threshold curves for unusual environments (Mars) and for inadequately studied materials (foram sands). - Sedimentology, 24: 709-721. MORTON, R.A. (1981): Formation of storm currents in the Gulf of Mexico and the North Ass. Sediment., 5: 385-396.
deposits by Sea. ~ Spec.
MULLINS, H.T. et al. (1980): Nodular carbonate slopes: possible precursors to nodular limestones. 50: I17-131.
wind-forced Pub1. int.
sediment on Bahamian - J. sed. Petr.,
NELSON, C.H. (1982): Modern shallow-water graded sand layers from storm surges, Bering Shelf: a mimic of Bouma-sequences and turbidite systems. - J. sad. Petr., 52: 537-545.
169
NELSON, C.H. & NIO, S.D. (Eds.)(1982): The n o r t h e a s t e r n Bering Shelf: new perspectives of e p i c o n t i n e n t a l shelf processes and depositional products. - Spec. Issue Geol. en Mijnbouw, 61: 1-I14. NIO, S.D., SHOTTENHELM, R.T.E. & WEERING, Tj.C.E. van (Eds.) (1981): Holocene marine sedimentation in the North Sea Basin. Spec. Publ. int. Ass. Sediment., 5, 515 pp. NUMMEDAL, D. et al. low-profile Gulf Coast Soc., XXX: 1 8 3 - 1 9 5 . ODIN, Sons,
S. (1982): 1040 pp.
PAUL, Mitt.
W: (1936): bad. geol.
(1980): Geologic response to hurricane impact on barriers. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol.
Numerical
dating
in
Der H a u p t m u s c h e l k e l k am Landesamt, 11: 123-146.
stratigraphy.
sOd6stlichen
- John Wiley
Schwarzwald.
PEMBERTON, S.G. & FREY, R.W. (1982): Trace fossil nomenclature P l a n o l i t e s - P a l a e o p h y c u s dilemma. J. Paleont., 56: 843-881. PERKINS, area Geology,
R.D. & ENOS, P. (1968): geologic effects and 76: 710-717.
PERRODON, syst~mes 7:
A. (1983): p~troliers.
&
-
and the
Hurricane Betsy in the Florida-Bahama comparison with Hurricane Donna. J.
Geodynamique des bassins Bull. Centre Rech. Explo
s~dimentaires et Prod. Elf-Aquitaine,
645-676.
PERYT, T.M. (1980): Structure of "Sphaerocodium kokeni Wagner" a Girvanella oncoid from the Upper Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) of WGrttemberg, SW-Germany. - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Mh., 1980: 293-302. PURSER, B.H. (Ed.) (1973): The Heidelberg, New York, 471 pp.
Persian
Gulf.
-
Springer,
Berlin,
PURSER, B.H. & SEIBOLD, E. (1973): The principal e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors influencing Holocene sedimentation and diagenesis in the Persian Gulf. In: B.H. PURSER (Ed.), The Persian Gulf: 1-9. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. RAMSBOTTOM, W.H.C. (1979): Rate of transgression and regression in Carboniferous of NW Europe. J. geol. Soc. London, 136: 147-153. READ, J.F. (1982): Carbonate platforms of continental margins: types, characeristics Tectonophysics, 81: ].95-212 (1982a).
passive and
READ, 3.F. (1982): Carbonate platform models: facies, depositional processes and diagenesis. Geol. Fall Educ. Conf., Denver: 1-36 (1982b).
the
(extensional) evolution. -
tectonic controls, Am. Assoc. Petrol.
REES, E.I.S., NICHOLAIDOU, A. & LASKARIDOU, P. ( 1 9 7 7 ) : The e f f e c t s of s t o r m s on t h e d y n a m i c s o f s h a l l o w w a t e r b e n t h i c a s s o c i a t i o n s . In: B.F. KEEGAN, P. O'CEDIGH & P.J.S. BOADEN (Eds.), Biology of benthic organisms. Proc. llth Europ. Symp. Mar. Biol., 465-474, Pergamon Press, Oxford. REIF, W.-E. (1971): Zur Genese des M u s c h e l k a l k - K e u p e r - G r e n z b o n e b e d s SOdwestdeutschland. - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 139: 369-404.
REIF, W.-E. SW-Germany)
(1982): - storm
Muschelkalk/Keuper bone-beds (Middle c o n d e n s a t i o n in a regressive cycle. In:
in
Triassic, G. EINSELE
170
& A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, REINECK, Mus., 92: REINECK, Nordsee. REINECK, Nat.
u.
H.-E. (1962): 151-172. H.-E. - Abh.
Die Orkanflut
(1963): Senckenb.
H.-E. Mus.,
(1969):
99:
and event New York.
stratification:
vom 16.
Februar
Sedimentgef5ge im Bereich naturf. Ges., 5o5: 1-138. Zwei
Sparkerprofile
299-325.
1962.
- Nat.
der
s~dlichen
sQdSstlich
u.
Helgoland.
9-14.
REINECK, H.-E. (1977): Natural indicators of energy level sediments: the application of ichnology to a coastal problem. - Geol. J., Spec. Issue 9: 267-272. REINECK, H.-E. & SINGH, graded rhythmites in 123-128.
I.B. (1972): storm layers
Genesis of shelf
of mud.
in recent engineering
laminated sand - Sedimentology,
and 18:
REINECK, H.-E. & SINGH, I.B. (1980): Depositional sedimentary environments. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 549pp (2nd Ed.). REINECK, H.-E., GUTMANN, W.F. & HERTWECK, G. s~dlich Helgoland als Beispiel rezenter S e n e k e n b e r g i a n a leth., 48: 219-275.
(1967): Das S c h l i c k g e b i e t Schelfablagerungen.
REINECK, H.-E., D~RJES, J., GADOW, S. & HERTWECK, G. (1968): Sedimentologie, F a u n e n z o n i e r u n g und F a z i e s a b f o l g e vor der OstkQste der inneren Deutsehen Bucht. S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a leth., 49: 261-3o9. REINHARDT, J. & HARDIE, L.A. (1976): Selected examples of carbonate sedimentation, Lower Paleozoie of Maryland.Maryland Geol. Surv., Guidebook no. 5: 1-55. RICHTER, R. (1929): GrSndung und Aufgaben M e e r e s g e o l o g i e "Senckenberg" in Wilhelmshaven. 1-30.
der F o r s c h u n g s s t e l l e - Nat. u. Mus.,
RICKEN, W. (1985): Diagenetische Bankung Kalk/Mergel-Wechselfolgen. Thesis Univ. TQbingen. RUHRMANN, G. Krinoidenkalke Pal~ont., Mh.,
Sedimentologie
(1971): Riff-ferne Sedimentation im Kantabrischen Gebirge (Spanien). 1971: 231-248.
fur 59:
von
unterdevonischer N. Jb. Geol.
RUPPEL, S.C. & WALKER, K.R. (1982): S e d i m e n t o l o g y and distinction of carbonate buildups: Middle Ordovician, East Tennessee. J. sed. Petr., 52: 1099-1071. RYER, T.A. (1983): of coal in some
T r a n s g r e s s i v e - r e g r e s s i v e cycles Upper Cretaceous strata of
and the occurrence Utah. - Geology, ii:
207-210.
SADLER, P.M. (1982): Bed-thickness Sedimentology, 29: ]7-51.
and
grain
size
of
turbidites.
-
SCH~FER, K.A. (1973): Zur Fazies und P a l ~ o g e o g r a p h i e der SpiriferinaBank (Hauptmuschelkalk) im n~rdlichen Baden-W~rttemberg. - N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Abh., 143: 56-i10. SCH~FER, wechsel.
W. (1970): Aktuopal~ontologische - S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., 2: 85-102.
Beobachtungen.
9. Faunen-
171
SCHNEIDER, Saarlandes 185-257.
E. ( 1 9 5 7 ) : und der
Beitr~ge zur angrenzenden
SCH~NENBERG, R. & NEUGEBAUER, Europas. - Rombach, Freiburg, SCHR~DER, B. B1. NO-Bayern,
Kenntnis Gebiete.
des Trochitenkalkes des - Ann. Univ. Sarav., 6:
J. (1981): Einf8hrung 340 pp. (4th ed.).
(1967): Fossilf8hrende 17: 44-47.
Mittlere
SCHWARZACHER, W. & FISCHER, A . G . ( 1 9 8 2 ) : perturbations of the Earth's orbit. (Eds.), Cyclic and event stratification: Heidelberg, New York.
Trias
A.
(1967):
Bathymetry
die
Geologic
im Ries.
- Geol.
Limestone-shale bedding and In: G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER 72-95. Springer, Berlin,
SEILACHER, A. (1960): Str6mungsanzeichen im Notizbl. hess. L.-Amt Bodenforsch., 88: 88-106. SEILACHER, 413-428.
in
of trace
HunsrUckschiefer.
fossils.
-
SEILACHER, A. (1982): Distinctive features of sandy G. EINSELE & A. SEILACHER (Eds.), Cyclic and event 333-449. - Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Mar.
Geol.,
5:
tempestites. In: stratification:
SHACKLEY, S.E. & COLLINS, M. (1984): Variations in sublittoral sediments and their associated macro-infauna in response to inner shelf processes; Swsnsea Bay, U.K. Sedimentology, 31: 793-804. SHEA, 3.H. i0: 455-460. SHINN, MOORE Geol.,
(1982):
Twelve
E.A. (1983): Tidal (Eds.), Carbonate Mem. 3 3 : 1 7 1 - 2 1 0 .
SHROCK, R.R. (1948): York, 507 pp.
fallacies
of uniformitarianism.
fiat. I n : P . A . SCHOLLE, D . B . depositional environments. -
Sequence
in layered
rocks.
SKUPIN, K. (1969): L i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h i s c h e des N e c k a r - J a g s t - K o c h e r - G e b i e t e s . - Jber. N.F. 51: 87-118. SKUPIN, suehungen Gebietes.
Profile Mitt.
K. (1970): Feinstratigraphisehe im Unteren Hauptmuschelkalk Arb. geol.-pal~ont. Inst. Univ.
-
Mc
Geology,
BEBOUT & C.H. Am. A s s o c . P e t r . Graw-Hill,
New
aus dem T r o c h i t e n k a l k oberrh, geol. Ver.,
und mikrofazielle Unterdes Necker-Jagst-KocherStuttgart, N.F. 63: 1-173.
SMITH, 3.D. & HOPKINS, T.S. (1972): Sediment transport on the continental shelf of W a s h i n g t o n and Oregon in light of recent current measurements. In: D.J.P. SWIFT, D.B. DUANE & O.H. PILKEY (Eds.), Shelf sediment transport: Process and Pattern: 143-180. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa. SMIIH, A., continental
HURLEY, A.M. & BRIDEN, J. (1981): Phanerozoic paleow o r l d maps. - C a m b r i d g e U n i v . P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e , 102 p p .
SOMERVILLE, 3.D. (1979): A cyclicity limestones east of Clwydian Range, correlation. - Geol J., 14: 69-86.
in the early North Wales,
BrSgatian (D2) and its use in
STERNBACH, L . R . & FRIEDMANN, G.M. ( 1 9 8 4 ) : Deposition of marginal to the Late Cambrian Proto-Atlantic (3apetus) York and Alabama; influence on t h e i n t e r i o r shelf. Soc. M i n . , C o r e W o r k s h o p n o . 5: 2 - 1 9 .
ooid shoals Ocean i n New Econ. Pal.
172
STERNBERG, R.W. & LARSEN, L.H. on the Washington continental M37-M47.
(1972): shelf:
Frequency a note.
of sediment movement Mar. Geol., 21:
STRASSER, A. & DAVAUD, E. (1983): Black pebbles of the Purbeckian (Swiss and French Jura): lithology, g e o c h e m i s t r y and origin. Eclogae geol. Helv., 76: 551-580. SUNDBORG, A. (1967): morphology. I. General 333-343.
Some views
aspects of fluvial sediments and fluvial and graphic methods. Geogr. Ann.:
SUNDQUIST, B. (1982): P a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c marks in a Ludlovian grainstone sequence Stockh. F6renhandl., 102: 157-166.
interpretation of Gotland.
SWIFT, D.J.P., FIGUEIREDO, A.G. Jr., FREELAND, G.L. (1983): Hummocky c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and megaripples: double standard ? - J. sed. Petr., 53: 1295-1317.
of wave Geol.
rippleF6ren.
& OERTEL, G.F. a geological
THEOBALD, N. (1952): Stratigraphie du Trias moyen dans L'A]l~magne et le nord-est de la France. Ann. Univ. brOcken, 64 pp.
le sud-ouest de Sarav., Saar-
TRUSHEIM, Mollusken.
Ablagerung
F.
(1931): Versuche Senckenbergiana, 13:
~ber Transport 124-139.
und
von
TURMEL, R.J. & SWANSON, R.G. (1976): The development of Rodriguez Bank~ a Holocene mudbank in the Florida Reef Tract. - 3. sed. Petr., 46: 497-518. VAIL, P.R. MITCHUM, R.M. & THOMPSON, S. III. graphy and global changes of sea level, relative changes of sea level. - Am. Ass. 83-97. VOIGT, E. (1975): Tunnelbau Pal~ont. Z., 49: 135-167.
rezenter
und
(1977): Seismic stratiPart 4: Global cycles of Petr. Geol., Mem., 26:
fossiler
Phoronoidea.
-
VOLLRATH, A. (1938): Zur S t r a t i g r a p h i e und Bildung des Oberen Hauptmuschelkalks in Mittel- und WestwQrttemberg. - Mitt. Min.-Geol. Inst. TH Stuttgart, 33: 69-80. VOLLRATH, A. (1955): Zur Stratigraphie des Hauptmuschelkalks W~rttemberg. - Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-W~rtt., i: 79-168. (1955a)
in
VOLLRATH, A. (1955): Zur Stratigraphie des T r o c h i t e n k a l k s in BadenW~rttemberg. - Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-W~rtt., i: 169-189. (1955b). VOLLRATH, A. (1955): Stratigraphie des Oberen Hauptmuschelkalks (Schichten zwischen Cycloides-Bank und Spiriferina-Bank) in BadenWQrttemberg. - Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-W~rtt., I: 190-216. (1955c) VOLLRATH, A. (1957): Zur Entwicklung des T r o c h i t e n k a l k s zwischen Rheintal und Hohenloher Ebene. Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-WOrtt., 2: i19-134. VOLLRATH, A. (1958): Beitr~ge zur P a l ~ o g e o g r a p h i e des Trochitenkalks in B a d e n - W Q r t t e m b e r g . - Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-W~rtt., 3: 181-194. VOLLRATH, und ein Landkreis 133-148.
A. (1970): Ein vollst~ndiges Profil des Oberen Muschelkalks neues Mineralwasser bei Ummenhofen, Gemeinde Untersontheim, Schw~bisch Hall. Jber. Mitt. oberrh, geol. Ver., N.F. 52:
173
WAGNER, G. (1913): Beitr@ge zur Kenntnis des oberen H a u p t m u s c h e l k a l k s in Elsass-Lothringen. - Cbl. Min. Geol. Pal~ont., 1913: 551-589 (1913a).
WAGNER, G. (1913): BeitrAge zur S t r a t i g r a p h i e und B i l d u n g s g e s c h i c h t e des Oberen H a u p t m u s c h e l k a l k s und der Unteren Lettenkohle in Franken. Geol. Pal~ont. Abh., N.F. 12: 275-452 (1913b). WALKER, R. (1967): r e l a t i o n s h i p to proximal sed. Petr., 37: 25-43.
Turbidite and distal
sedimentary structures and depositional environments.
WALKER, R. (1970): Review of the geometry turbidites and t u r b i d i t e - b e a r i n g basins. In: sedimentology in North America. Spec. 219-251. WALKER, Reprint
R. (180): Facies and Set., i: 1-7. (1980a)
facies
WALKER, R. (1980): Shallow-marine Ser., i: 75-89. (1980b)
models.
sands.
WANLESS, H.R. (1969): Sediments of Biscayne depositional history. Inst. Mar. Atmos. Rept. 62-6, 260pp. WANLESS, H.R. (1970): Influence bars of "lime" mud and sand, Petr. Geol., Abstr., 54: 875.
and facies L. LAJOIE Pap. geol.
o r g a n i s a t i o n of (Ed.), Flysch Assoc. Can., 7:
Geoscience
Geoscience
their J.
Canada,
Canada,
Reprint
Bay distribution and Sci. Univ. of Miami, Tech.
of p r e - e x i s t i n g bedrock Biscayne Bay, Florida.
topography on Bull. Am. Ass.
WANLESS, H.R. (1976): Intracoastal sedimentation. In: D.J. STANLEY & D.J.P. SWIFT (Eds.), Marine sediment transport and environmental management: 221-239. - John Wiley & Sons. WANLESS, H.R. (1978): banks, South Florida.
Storm-generated stratigraphy of carbonate mud - Geol. Soc. Amer., Abstr. with Progr., I0: 512.
WANLESS, H.R. (1979): Role of physical growth. - Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., WANLESS, H.R. (1979): Limestone response and dolomitization. - J. sed. Petr., 49:
s e d i m e n t a t i o n in c a r b o n a t e - b a n k Abstr., 63: 547. (1979a) to stress: pressure 437-462. (1979b)
WANLESS, H.R. (i98l): F i n i n g - u p w a r d s sedimentary in seagrass beds. J. sed. Petr., 5]: 445-454. WANLESS, H.R., BURTON, E.A. & DRAVIS, J. (1981): carbonate fecal pellets. - J. sed. Petr., 51: 27-36. WARZESKI, - Biscayne 34-38.
R.E. (1976): Storm s e d i m e n t a t i o n Bay Symp., Univ. of Miami Sea
WENGER, R. (1957): 108: 57-129.
Die
germanischen
sequences
solution
generated
Hydrodynamics
in the Biscayne Bay Grant Spec. Rpt.
Ceratiten.
of
region. No. 5:
- Palaeontographica,
A,
WETZEL, A. (1979): ~kologische und s t r a t i g r a p h i s c h e Bedeutung biogener GefQge in quart~ren Sedimenten am N W - a f r i k a n i s c h e n Kontinentalrand. Meteor-Forsch.-Ergebn., Reihe C, No. 34: 1-47. WHITACKER, J.H. McD. (1973): "Gutter casts", a new name for scourfill-structures: ~ith examples from the L l a n d o v e r i a n of Ringerike
and and
174
Malm6ya, WILSON, Berlin,
southern
Norway.
Norsk
geol.
3.L. (1975): Carbonate facies Heidelberg, New York, 471 pp.
WILSON, 3.L. BEBOUT & C.H. Am. Ass. Petr.
Tidesskrift,
in geologic
53:
4o3-417.
history.
-
Springer,
& JORDAN, C. (1983): Middle shelf. In: P.A. SCHOLLE, D.Go MOORE (Eds.), Carbonate depositional environments. Geol., Mem, 33: 297-343.
WIRTH, W. (1957): Beitr~ge zur S t r a t i g r a p h J e und P a l ~ o g e o g r a p h i e des Trochitenkalkes im n o r d w e s t l i c h e n Baden-WQrttemberg. - Jh. geol. L.-A. Baden-W~rtt., 2: 135-173. WRIGHT, H.E. & WALKER, R.G. (1981): Cardium Formation (Upper Cretaceous) at Seebe, Alberta - storm-transported sandstones and conglomerates in shallow-marine depositional environments below fair-weather wave-base. - Can. J. Earth Sci., 18: 795-809. WUNDERLICH, F. (1979): Die Insel Mellum (sQdliche Nordsee). Dynamische Prozesse und SedimentgefSge. I. SSdwatt, O b e r g a n g s z o n e und Hochfl@che. - S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., 11: 59-113. WUNDERLICH, F. (1983): Sturmbedingter Sandversatz vor den Ostfriesischen Inseln und im Gebiet des GroBen Kneehtsandes, Deutsche Bucht, Nordsee. S e n c k e n b e r g i a n a marit., 15: 199-217. ZIEGLER, P.A. (1982): and Central Europe.
Triassic rifts and facies Geol. Rdsch., 71: 747-772.
patterns
in
Western
