Student Counseling in Japan: A Two-Nation Project in Higher Education

THIS IS A VOLUME IN THE

Minnesota Library on Student Personnel Work EDITED BY E. G. WILLIAMSON

The Institute on Student Personnel Services, Tokyo University

STUDENT COUNSELING IN JAPAN A Two-Nation Project in Higher Education

BY

Wesley P. Lloyd Director of the Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services, 1951-1952 Dean of Students, Brigham Young University

THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS - MINNEAPOLIS

Copyright 1953 by the UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. Permission is hereby granted to reviewers to quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine or newspaper.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 53-12730

PUBLISHED IN GREAT BRITAIN, INDIA, AND PAKISTAN BY GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, LONDON, BOMBAY, AND KARACHI

Foreword

OUT OF the culture of America there have developed in the colleges and universities activities and programs which seek to provide to the college student every possible opportunity to develop to the utmost his capabilities as an individual. Many of these activities have been specially organized and are known as student personnel services. In the reorganization of education which has occurred in Japan during recent years, a great deal of thought and study has been given to the contributions which Japanese higher education can make in solving postwar problems. When it appeared to a number of Japanese educators that the philosophy and practice of student personnel services in the United States might be of interest, the mission described in this volume was organized by several American organizations acting in cooperation with each other. The American Council on Education appointed an Advisory Committee which developed initial plans and nominated a director; the Department of the Army and later the Department of State, the Office of Education, and the University of Minnesota, all have played essential parts in the successful realization of the objectives of the project, and in the publication of this report. Publication of the director's final report was initially made possible by a contract between the Council on Education and the Department of State. With the termination of the mission and mounting evidence of interest both in this country and in Japan in having a report of considerably larger magnitude than had been envisaged, officials of the University of Minnesota acted promptly and generously to make additional sums available and the Department of State approved substantial modification of the contract to make possible this publication by the University of Minnesota Press. Dr. Edmund G. Williamson, dean of students at the University of Minnesota and chairman of the Advisory Committee appointed by the Council, has recognized from the outset

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a unique potential in this project, and surely the Council is joined by educators in Japan and America in its warm appreciation for his interest and support which have made this expanded report possible. I should also like to express gratitude, in behalf of the Council, to Dean Wesley P. Lloyd, director of the Institutes, and to members of the faculty group which worked with him in conducting the Institutes. Since his return to the pressing demands of his own office, Dean Lloyd has given generously of his time to prepare a full account of this important cooperative venture in the interest of the young people of America and Japan. ARTHUR S. ADAMS President, American Council on Education Washington, D.C. October 1953

Preface

IT IS indeed an exciting experience to anticipate a visit to other lands and other cultures, and especially is it enjoyable when one plays the role of a visiting educator. Regrettably few student personnel workers have enjoyed the prospect of transporting our experiences and experiments in individualizing higher education to other countries for review and appraisal by our international colleagues. Fortunately, such an experience was enjoyed by the Advisory Committee of the Japanese Institutes on Student Personnel Work. In our deliberations, it was our hope that our experiences in American colleges might prove helpful to our colleagues in Japan in their efforts to forge their own unique educational methods and programs. Dean Lloyd's report of this international project is adequate testimony to the soundness of the selection of the director and his selection of a staff. The report shows clearly that this unique opportunity brought forth the director's full potentiality, and it was a rich learning experience for him and his distinguished staff. We could have wished for no more effective representative of American student personnel work in this international exchange, and word from Japanese educators attests to the team's effectiveness as interpreters as well as teachers of American experiences. Now a complete and stimulating report of the year's adventure is open for review. And what a satisfaction it is to read of the highly successful endeavor. Dr. Lloyd documents the building of a new and broad-gauged bridge of mutual understanding and professional cooperation with our Japanese colleagues. And we confidently await new efforts of American educational leaders and student personnel workers to increase the traffic over this bridge in the exchange of persons, ideas, and experiences between our two nations. It is a source of great satisfaction to me personally to be able to vii

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include in our Minnesota Library on Student Personnel Work this story of a unique and successful program which pioneers in the international aspects of student personnel work. I am grateful to VicePresident Malcolm M. Willey of the University of Minnesota for making generous support, available and to the American Council on Education and the Department of State for the privilege of publishing this story in our Library. Helen Clapesattle, director of the Press, helpfully aided in preparing this book for the Library. And Jeanne Sinnen skillfully edited the manuscript to highlight Dean Lloyd's many provocative observations and interpretations of a most promising educational undertaking. E.G. WILLIAMSON, editor University of Minnesota October 1953

Acknowledgments

STUDENT Counseling in Japan is a report on a unique project in higher education, the Japanese Universities Institutes on Student Personnel Services. The Institutes emerged from the creative work of educational leaders in Japan and the United States and demonstrated the beneficial results of united effort in education. A description of the year's work is incomplete without recognizing at least a few of the people and agencies who were largely responsible for the project and who provided favorable conditions for it. The project was made possible through the forward-looking, cooperative work of Colonel D. F. Nugent, administrative officer of the Civil Information and Education Section of the Supreme Command Allied Powers, and Dr. Teiyu Amano, then minister of education for Japan. Other officials of the Ministry (see Appendix II) and their staffs worked diligently on major and minor problems within their areas of responsibility. President Kyokei Suzuki, chairman of the national Steering Committee in Japan, and other members of that committee attended to preliminary arrangements and continued in full and realistic support of the project throughout the year. In the United States, Colonel Robert Outsen, chief of the Reorientation Branch, Office for Occupied Areas, Office of the Secretary of the Army, Department of the Army, and Colonel R, B. Hagen and Colonel W. B. Allison, of the Reorientation Branch, all performed effective administrative work leading to the success of the Institutes. When the project was transferred to the Department of State, officials of that department gave it full encouragement and support. To the American Council on Education and particularly to the Advisory Committee with Dean E. G. Williamson as chairman, recognition is given for several months of careful study and effective planning in setting up the general framework in which the Institutes operated. Dean ix

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Williamson, together with Willard W. Blaesser of the U.S. Office of Education and Dean Daniel Feder of Denver University, gave valuable technical aid in the early planning of the project and continued with active support and counsel throughout the year. Special mention should be made of the support and encouragement to the Institutes given by Presidents Risaburo Torikai and Shunjiro Hattori of Kyoto University, President Isao Kikuchi of the University of Kyushu, and President Tadao Yanaihara of the University of Tokyo. These presidents in turn acted as chairmen of the regional steering committees and extended courtesies and friendship in full measure. The local Institute directors and chiefs of business sections gave meticulous attention to all matters relating to the operation of the Institutes. The three local directors and their faculties gave constant attention to and reliable counsel on ways of focusing the work toward its greater meaning for colleges and universities of Japan. The adviser-interpreters on whom the American faculty depended for numerous services worked with uncommon efficiency and loyalty and shared with others the achievements of the project. Dr. Arthur K. Loomis, chief of the Education Division of CIE, and members of his staff, Thomas McGrail and William Neufeld, worked with the Steering Committee and gave valued advice in establishing the Institutes. These acknowledgments would be incomplete without recognition to the five members of the American faculty and the administrative assistant, who left homes and families for a year to assist with the Institutes—Henry Borow, Leona Felsted, Gordon Klopf, Chester Ruedisili, Maurice Woolf, and Eldred Olsen. These members of the staff taught on the basis of personal study and investigation of the specific problems which they faced in a new land. Showing little concern over long hours of Institute work, they demonstrated industry, integrity, and zeal, which gave meaning to their mission and confidence to the participants with whom they worked. They returned to the United States with established professional friendships in Japan that will last through the years and will assist them in keeping aware of the long-range developments of student personnel work in the colleges and universities of that country. The author is greatly indebted to all who read the manuscript and gave valuable criticism and suggestions regarding its content and form. These include Dr. E. G. Williamson, chairman of the Advisory Committee and editor of the publication, and Newbern I. Butt, library and

Acknowledgments

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research associate of Brigham Young University. All members of the American faculty read the manuscript and made useful suggestions in terms of their practical experience with the project. The contributions of the author's wife, Lillie Lloyd, both to the educational mission and to the report were of a nature and high quality that cannot be expressed fully, but are gratefully acknowledged. The total project represents a composite of the efforts of delegated organizations and personnel in Japan and the United States to which genuine appreciation is given. WESLEY P. LLOYD Brigham Young University December 1953

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Contents

Chapter STUDYING STUDENT NEEDS IN JAPANESE UNIVERSITIES

3

An International Project, 4. First Steps, 5. The Year in Review, 7. Two-Way Lessons, 7.

Chapter 2. THE EDUCATIONAL SETTING

9

The Need for Change, 10. Student Attitudes, 12. Traditional Emphasis on the Academic, 14. Enlightened Supervision and Participation, 17.

Chapter 3. EARLY PLANNING

19

Setting up the Project, 19. Work of the Committees, 20. Selection of the American Faculty, 24. Financial Basis of Operation, 24. Goals to Be Accomplished, 25.

Chapter 4. ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES AND OPERATION

27

In-Residence Preparation for the Institutes, 28: Interpreting the Institutes to Japanese Educators, 29; Orientation of the American Faculty, 34; Curriculum and Method, 36; The Library and Its Use, 37; The Language Problem, 39. The Institutes in Operation, 40: Scheduling, 42; Registration and Orientation, 44; Academic Procedure and Method, 46; Recreational Activities, 52; Faculty Meetings, 53; Characteristics of the Three Institutes, 56.

Chapter 5. ACADEMIC CONTENT OF THE INSTITUTES...

65

The Lectures, 66: Group Procedures, 67; Objectives of the Institutes, 67; Philosophy of Student Personnel Services, 69; The Scope of Student Personnel Services, 69; Student Activities, 70; The Concept of Counseling in Higher Education, 71; University Admissions, 72; Student Personnel Records, 74; Orientation, 75; Tests and Measurements, 76; Educational Counseling, 77; Faculty Advising, 78; Counseling with Reference to Personal Problems, 80; Discipline, 82; Vocational Counseling and Placement, 83; Student Personnel Services for Women in Higher Education, 87; Financial Assistance, xiii

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88; Student Housing, 88; Administrative Organization of Student Personnel Services, 89; Research and Evaluation, 91; Afternoon Assemblies, 93. Academic Work during the Third Month, 94.

Chapter 6. INSTITUTE-RELATED PROJECTS AND ACTIVITIES

97

Visits to University Campuses, 97. University Presidents' Conferences, 98. Conferences for Deans of Students, 103. National and Local Professional Organization for Student Personnel Services, 105. Report to Professional Associations in America, 108. Korean Conference, 111. Individual InstituteRelated Work of the American Faculty, 112: Student Groups, 112; Work with Japanese Psychologists, 114; Women's Activities, 117; Added Administrative Work and Personal Counseling, 118; Continued Activities with Institute Participants, 119.

Chapter 7. EVALUATING THE PROJECT

124

Evaluation by the Regular Participants, 124. The Results in the Universities, 132. Effect on National Educational Agencies, 138. Evaluation by Administrative Officers of the Institutes, 138.

Chapter 8. NEXT STEPS IN STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES IN JAPAN

140

Recommendations of the American Faculty, 140: Recommendations Relating to National Agencies, 141; Establishment of Opportunities for Technical Training, 145; Local Campus Organization, 147; Financial Aids to Students, 150; Student Activities, 151; Contributions from the Field of Psychology, 153; Student Transfer, 153; Coordination between Secondary Schools and Universities, 154; Placement of Graduates, 154; Student Personnel Work in Coeducation, 155; Conferences for University Presidents, 155; Coordinating Efforts between Japan and the United States, 156. Beyond the Recommendations, 156.

Chapter 9. FROM PHILOSOPHY TO PRACTICE

159

Changing Emphases in the United States, 160. Practical Application, 161. Gains to the University, 163.

Appendixes I. Explanatory Statement on the Meaning of Student Personnel Services II. Steering and Advisory Committees HI. Faculty Members and Adviser-Interpreters

169 171 173

Contents

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IV. Participants in Institutes for Student Personnel Services V. Participants in the Presidents' Conferences

174 179

VI. Participants in the Deans' Conferences

186

VII. Letter from the Chief, CIE, to University Presidents

190

VIII. Newsletter

192

IX. Constitutions of Japanese Personnel Associations

194

X. Program for Regional Workshops

196

XI. Participants in Pusan Conference

198

INDEX

199

ILLUSTRATIONS The Institute on Student Personnel Services, Tokyo University

FRONTISPIECE

Faculties and participants in action, Kyoto Institute

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Discussion group, Kyushu Institute

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Joint faculty meeting, Kyushu Institute

53

Opening session of the presidents' conference, Tokyo University...

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Meeting of the Tanaka Institute of Educational Research, Tokyo... 115 Meeting of Kansai region psychologists during the Kyoto Institute.. 115 Regional conference in Kyushu, sponsored by the Ministry of Education

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Regional conference in Okayama, sponsored by the Ministry of Education

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STUDENT COUNSELING IN JAPAN

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CHAPTER 1

Studying Student Needs in Japanese Universities

AS EACH Japanese student entered the conference room, he bowed respectfully to his professors. He bowed also to members of the American faculty who were visiting the Japanese university. This gesture of respect was more than an introductory greeting—it was a symbol of the dominant spirit and tradition of Japanese education. Historically, the student in Japan has shown deep and ceremonious respect for the professor. It seemed to the American visitors that the present-day students, both in gesture and in word, were paying utmost deference to their professors. Yet to the Japanese professors, who in earlier years had become accustomed to even more complete evidences of respect, it must have seemed that the students were demonstrating a newly found measure of individual importance and unbridled freedom. The conference had been called to promote an informal exchange of ideas between faculty members and students. The students were asked to express themselves frankly and openly, without attempting to agree at all points with their seniors. This kind of conference, so familiar to American educators, was not as common in Japan, and the conventionally minded students were not entirely at ease as they sat around the table. They were schooled in the exacting technicalities of Oriental education, with its emphasis on the formal lecture. Japanese professors had not adopted as readily as had many American professors the informal group and conference procedures that make it so easy and natural for teachers to learn from students. It was not customary in the universities of Japan for student groups to put to their professors in informal and friendly fashion challenging questions about their campus life: questions and comments of a kind that could reveal the complete intellectual resources of both teacher and student without embarrassment to either. 3

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Although the students and the professors naturally moved with care in the new educational situation, the conference demonstrated the willingness, even eagerness, of Japanese educators to explore the possibilities of American educational method and to test its effects in contrast to those of the East. This conference was, in fact, but one part of a yearlong experiment in international cooperation in the field of higher education: the Japanese Universities Institutes on Student Personnel Services.

An International Project These Institutes were a unique development in the history of student personnel work. For the first time two nations brought together a faculty from each nation for a year's project devoted to the single task of improving student personnel services in the colleges and universities of one of these nations. The usual practice is for a university to invite one or more faculty members from another country to present before its students or faculty a series of lectures. But in this project an entire nation, Japan, under the leadership of its Ministry of Education and in cooperation with national educational agencies of the United States, established a program for the technical training of faculty members from each of its colleges and universities. Such a far-reaching program did not just happen. The story of the Institutes began several years before the Japanese students met with Japanese and American professors in the sunlit conference room in the summer of 1951. After the close of World War II Japanese university officials and students were among the first to take advantage of the reopening of communication between their nation and the United States. In increasing numbers they visited American colleges and universities, observing with particular interest features, such as student personnel services, that had not been highly developed in their own country. They were especially impressed by the friendly, informal, and effective relationships between professors and students in the United States. In universities of all nations student problems have been regarded as central to any genuine educational program. But for centuries the philosophic approach to these problems has taken precedence over the scientific. It took the complexities of twentieth-century culture, with its blasting of untenable absolutes regarding human nature and social organization, to give birth to student personnel services. And it took the establishment of a democratic nation, where millions rather than

Studying Student Needs

5

thousands of people were given some part in the choice of their own vocational and educational programs, to provide a favorable environment to encourage the growth of those services. Such an environment demands that the student's individual aptitudes, abilities, and needs be studied with the aid of reliable and scientifically constructed personnel tests and measurements and that technical counseling be provided on the basis of the findings. This, many of the colleges and universities in the United States have done. As a matter of fact, among the major contributions of the United States to higher education are the scientific study of students and their needs and the establishment of major administrative units to ensure the effective functioning of student personnel services. The Japanese visitors to American universities and colleges observed the results of these services in student-faculty relationships, and they felt even more strongly than they had before the need for an appraisal of their own system of higher education. The words of Tadao Yanaihara, president of the University of Tokyo, indicate the perception that characterized many Japanese administrators: It is needless to mention that the university is an institution to educate the future leaders of our people and therefore professional scholarship and technical training are important. But at the same time, it is also quite clear that the above mentioned alone are not sufficient. We often observe instances where professional knowledge and techniques are given to those without any training in moral character, healthy common sense and law-abiding spirit, bringing about great misfortune and harmful influence to the student and to his community. . . . As our civilization becomes more and more mechanical, there is a tendency for professional knowledge and techniques to treat man as a machine. In order to restore humanity from such mechanized influence, university education must be reconsidered from a new angle. Here I believe lies the basic spirit of student personnel services in the university; student health improvement, financial assistance, educational and vocational counseling, political activity guidance, student-faculty government, extracurricular activities, etc. These should all be given attention as a great problem in higher education and should never be considered as separate clerical routine works.

First Steps Recognizing the significant pioneering in this field that had been accomplished by universities in the United States, a number of leading Japanese educators expressed the hope that American specialists might in some way be able to assist them in organizing student personnel serv-

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ices in Japan. That hope was translated into practical plans through the efforts of Colonel D. F. Nugent, chief of the Civil Information and Education Section of the Supreme Command Allied Powers (CIESCAP), and officials of the Japanese Ministry of Education. In the summer of 1950 Colonel Nugent and Ministry officials, after listening to the ideas of many educators, drew up a preliminary draft of the Institutes project and took the necessary steps to assure funds for the major expenditures. Next the CIE and the Ministry of Education, through SCAP, turned to educational agencies in the United States for aid in selecting qualified personnel to organize and carry out the program and for technical advice in setting up the project. Early in 1951 representatives of the American Council on Education, the United States Office of Education, the Department of State, and organizations for international education met to review the proposal of SCAP and to prepare a revised draft of the project. At this time also the president of the American Council on Education appointed an Advisory Committee to select a faculty and make the necessary arrangements. In Japan a Steering Committee was formed by the Ministry of Education. On the suggestion of Colonel Nugent, this committee was charged with the major planning for the Institutes in order that they might treat most adequately the practical problems faced by Japanese educators. With the Ministry of Education, a Japanese Steering Committee, Japanese university officials, and an American Advisory Committee at work with specific responsibilities, the project was launched under realistic and favorable conditions. In May the American Advisory Committee selected a director for the Institutes and by the middle of June had approved the five faculty members and one administrative assistant to complete the American faculty. During the summer months the director and his staff made their preparations: a library was collected, Japanese universities were visited, preliminary schedules were set up. The Ministry of Education and the Steering Committee were busy too. Japanese faculties were selected to work with the American team, and the dates and places for the Institutes were decided upon. Together the Japanese and Americans began a full-scale campaign to acquaint all Japanese universities with the program and to encourage them to select highly qualified participants.

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The Year in Review The formal schedule of the Institutes opened in September with the first of three sessions, each approximately three months in length. The sessions were held successively in Kyoto, Fukuoka, and Tokyo. Approximately eighty Japanese faculty members attended each. In a carefully planned program that emphasized group methods, the participants in each Institute studied the philosophy of student personnel services and its administrative organization, admissions, university records, orientation, student activities and organizations, tests and measurements, educational counseling, vocational counseling, counseling with reference to personal problems, discipline, faculty advising, placement, services in women's education, student financial aids, student housing, and research and evaluation. Although the Institutes were established mainly to furnish academic training to selected faculty members, it soon became evident that other, related work was needed. Conferences were held for university presidents and other administrative officers. On invitation of Japanese universities the American faculty made approximately one hundred visits to campuses in many other parts of the country. During these visits discussions were held with presidents, chiefs of business sections, and deans of faculties on the subject of organizing and operating improved programs for student personnel. In addition to these major Institute activities, some members of the faculty consulted with psychologists and their professional societies to stimulate work in applied psychology as it affects counseling and guidance. Others assisted student and faculty groups in the practical work of creating improved campus interrelations and of developing more intelligent and effective leadership among students. At the end of the year there were heartening indications that the Institutes had done their work well. Letters from participants affirmed their interest; presidents and other educators were generous with praise. Moreover, enthusiasm had been translated into action: more than one hundred colleges and universities had already made some change in their offerings in student personnel services. Two-Way Lessons The benefits were not all on one side. Though the original purpose of the Institutes was to assist in university organization and procedures in Japan, it soon became apparent that the universities of the United

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States, where the pioneering had been done in student personnel work, could learn much from the remarkable culture and educational developments of the Japanese. In times when fundamental changes are needed in institutions of higher learning, any nation that demonstrates a readiness to make the transition presents an example that has implications for other nations. In 1951-52 the Japanese system of higher education demonstrated both the ability and the willingness to make needed changes. These changes may be studied with profit by universities of all nations. This volume was prepared in the hope that a report on the unique two-nation project in higher education conducted by Japan and the United States in 1951-52 will be valuable to educators and laymen of many countries. Therefore the chapters to follow present in detail the story of the Institutes outlined briefly above. The early planning, procedures and operation, academic content, and related projects and activities are described; a preliminary evaluation of the Institutes is made; and recommendations by the American faculty are listed. But first we must take a closer look at the educational setting in Japan, for only if we understand the historical and recent developments in Japanese education can we appreciate the problems that faced the Institutes.

CHAPTER 2

The Educational Setting

IT IS often said that Japanese higher education is taken from the German pattern. This half-truth fails to recognize the historic feudalism of the Orient and the civil law concept of authority from which the present pattern of Japanese education grew. Yet, if we disregard origins for the moment, it is not inaccurate to say that academic life in Japan has, through the decades, been characterized by a scholastic formality between professors and students that has its counterpart in the German system. In Japan, more than in the United States, research and the classroom lecture have tended to crowd out other expressions of university life. In Japan it has been the work of the student largely to observe and listen, the work of the professor to lecture and conduct research. This system has been supported by practices which recognize only research, lecturing, and writing as the bases for academic advancement and faculty salary increase. This interpretation of the so-called intellectual emphasis has failed to recognize the social factors that are now included in a concept of the intellectual. Nor has it had full concern for the individual as the most important single factor in the educative process. Less attention has been given in Japan than in the United States to the educational opportunities beyond the classroom and to personnel tests and counseling as a basis for educational choice. The failure to study students and their needs objectively may be explained by an authoritarian type of education in Japan in which the professor and the student have been separated by an ever-widening gap and serious student problems seem to have been neglected. As Teiji Takagi, vice-chairman of the steering committee of the Tokyo Institute, put it during remarks at a conference for deans of students: "I do not minimize the merits of our traditional higher education, but I have to 9

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admit that these merits were accompanied by many limitations and shortcomings. Generally speaking, exaggerated emphasis has been placed on academic subject matters and teaching them to the students. As a natural result, it tended to bring up a narrow-minded, dogmatic personality and implied the danger of forgetting to nurture broad and enriched characteristics of human nature." Attempts had been made in some of the universities to promote a more informal atmosphere for learning and to give greater attention to the student as an individual. On a number of campuses, faculty members were conferring informally with students individually and in groups with regard to academic and, in some cases, personal problems. Usually, however, in these friendly interviews (or Kondan as they are called) the experience and maturity of the professor were regarded with a respect that often transcended the actual intellectual differences between student and professor. The spirit of the class room was thus carried over into the interviews, limiting severely their usefulness to the student. And such Xondan, even under the most favorable conditions, did not begin to provide comprehensive student personnel services. The Need for Change Awareness of the inadequacy of the traditional education was crystallized after the end of World War II. Early in the Occupation, following the days of concern for sheer survival, Japan's leaders turned their attention to educational and cultural problems. Although the ratio of college students to total population was a small one, it represented a phenomenal expansion over prewar years. Many institutions were overcrowded, and still hundreds of thousands of young men and women who could have profited by college experience were unable to enroll. There were shortages of well-qualified professors; the budgets of all institutions were insufficient to meet the evident needs. Japan's educators, recognizing that their educational system, and particularly their institutions of higher education, needed a critical evaluation, organized the Japanese Education Reform Council in 1946. Since there was little uniformity or simplicity of organization in the traditional system of higher education in Japan, the first step was fundamental reorganization. It was necessary to shape the numerous trade, vocational, and normal schools which had been presenting two- and three-year offerings on a post-high-school level into a system of higher education with

The Educational Setting

11

standard college and university programs. With the encouragement of Occupation officials this was done under the leadership of the- Reform Council. The Reform Council recommended and the Diet established a national system of education on a 6-3-3-4 plan. It provided for six years of elementary schooling followed by three years of lower secondary school, three years of upper secondary school, and a four-year university course. The "new-type" universities, as they came to be called, could offer in addition to the regular four-year program professional training and postgraduate study leading to the doctor's degree. Provision was also made for junior colleges, some independent and some affiliated with or part of universities.* The similarity between the present pattern of higher education in Japan and that in the United States is clear. But there is at least one important difference. The universities of Japan are subject to control through the Ministry .of Education (Mombusho) whether they be national, public, or private institutions. All educational institutes are bound by the Fundamental Education Law, which sets forth the aims and basic idea of education and educational administration, and the School Education Law, which defines the procedure of establishment and the aims and accrediting standards of each grade of institution. The Ministry administers these two laws and gives recommendations and assistance to each institution. This means that there is a greater tendency for Japanese universities to act together. Universities in the United States, operating generally independently of national controls, make changes as individual institutions and in their own way. The national universities of Japan make major changes largely through legal and budgetary arrangements conducted through the Ministry; for example the increase in professional chairs and budgets for adding departments must be cleared through the Ministry. This increases the likelihood that changes will be made on a national rather than a local scale. As a result the time necessary to effect large-scale adjustments is often decreased; but by the same token the opportunity for individual universities to experiment in new fields is also lessened. * See General Headquarters, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Civil and Education Section, Education Division, Post-War Developments in Japanese Education, Vol. I, Chapters XVI-XVIII, pp. 317-97.

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The educational reform was being effected from 1947 to 1949. It greatly simplified the system of higher education in Japan and provided increased opportunity for able young people to attend college. By 1951 Japan's 425 colleges and universities were serving 421,000 students. But as in any major change new problems of adjustment were created. The universities faced important responsibilities in organization and administration that were new to administrative officers. At the same time the control of students became a critical problem.

Student Attitudes In the old-type universities there was strict obedience to and largely unquestioned respect for the professor and other university authorities. In the new-type universities, the democratic concept of authority was to prevail. Students were quick to accept the freedoms of the new pattern but had little understanding of the responsibilities that accompanied these freedoms. Privileges in the narfie of campus autonomy were used by "leftist" students and, in some cases, professors, as a cloak to cover radical political activities. Radical student groups became mere "fronts" for political movements; influential students were used as spearheads of disturbance. It was not uncommon for university students, with the encouragement and financial support of off-campus organizations, to attempt to dictate certain university policies and to demand "rights" not always related to the university function. Unlike in the United States, where students' complaints are usually limited to problems that directly concern the university community, the leftist students in Japanese universities used strike tactics to demonstrate their resentment against pending legislation in the Diet or to protest national movements or policies, including Occupation policy. Anything that could be termed imperialism was used by the leftist group to incite a student demonstration. As a result strikes and sometimes violence were features of Japanese university student life. The disturbances were led by a small minority of university students on each campus, but there seemed to be little outward disapproval by the majority and the smaller groups dominated student out-of-class life. The universities took countermeasures and on occasion expelled large numbers of students, but this practice merely added fuel to the fire and gave a new excuse for student rebellion.

The Educational Setting

13

It is understandable that university administrators were deeply concerned about this problem and devoted their principal efforts to controlling their students politically. But the attention given to it distorted its importance in the total picture of student life. There were other serious problems that also deserved attention. To mention only one, student absenteeism resulting from critical financial conditions and changing attitudes was widespread. Thousands were attempting to carry a regular academic load in addition to holding full-time jobs. Many were expecting the universities to grant them degrees in the usual four years, even though their attention to academic work had been secondary to their drive for necessary funds. They needed services in the fields of educational and vocational counseling, student employment, and scholarships and financial aids. In addition to specific services Japanese students needed sympathetic understanding of their confusion and disillusionment following World War II. One young man who lived through this period as a student, Kikuo Nishida, presented to a conference held before the opening of the Institutes this vivid picture of Japanese youth in the postwar years: It is one of the most valuable characteristics of youth that they have sensible hearts, rigorous consciences and brave minds against the contradictions occurring in the world of reality. . . . It was a tragedy that the youth of Japan had to face the suffering of war, the defeat and its aftermath having no responsibility for or reasonable explanation of it. They could not comprehend what was happening at the time. They were tossed about in a dizzy current at the mercy of which they reached a new shore but found themselves alone. No one could tell them how to do or what to be: Even their parents and teachers were helpless. They perceived with their own eyes what was going on all around them. Disgusting manners and hostile feelings were prevailing as a natural result of desperate social conditions, and all the neighborhood disclosed its selfishness. It was the piteous destiny of the young people of Japan that their hearts had been broken too much for them to remain open-minded and modest. Consciously or not—in no one did they place their trust. Many Japanese educators, including those who had visited American colleges and universities, recognized the need for comprehensive, systematic, and enlightened leadership of students as individuals or in groups. As Isao Kikuchi, president of Kyushu University, commented during a conference of university presidents: Under the prewar old system, universities in Japan, which were separated from the vocational colleges, were of a very small number through-

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Student Counseling in Japan

out the country. In those days, for university students special student guidance was discussed very little with the exception of guidance through teaching and research. There was no specific consideration of vocational guidance, and schools merely gave adequate recommendations for students to meet the requirement of employers. . . . This is due to the idea of treating university students as grown-up gentlemen. I think this idea corresponds to the tradition of old universities of Occidental countries. . . . Under the renovation of the postwar Japanese school system, all the institutes for higher education are to be called universities, so that all kinds of universities amount to a large number. It is now clear that, under such an enlarged system, to treat students who come to universities as grown-up gentlemen and let them go their own way is no more proper. They are to take specific general education courses. At the same time, there is necessity for guidance research concerning professional education. Also, there is need for vocational guidance to prepare the student for future, social life. Especially in Japan our postwar age is confronted by difficulties, so that it is necessary for us to give guidance and support to students both spiritually and materially in their life outside of the classroom. . . . And yet in the Japanese university system there are still not enough facilities for guidance and welfare. Moreover, professionals to work in this field are not available in sufficient numbers. . . . President Tadao Yanaihara, in an address to Jhe Tokyo Institute, spelled out the need for better understanding between students and faculty members. "Paternalism must be rejected," he said, "yet there must exist between professors and students a personal, friendly relation as of man to man and from heart to heart." Traditional Emphasis on the Academic The obstacles in the way of establishing effective student personnel services centered on the traditional emphasis on the academic. There had been "guidance and welfare" organizations on the Japanese campuses for many years but these had been operated largely as clerical functions in the business office of the university (see accompanying diagram). There was generally no budget set up for independent operation of such sections. Usually the regular business officer of the university authorized specific expenditures. There was no academic advancement for faculty members in Japanese education that was attributable to superior accomplishment in student personnel work. Professors who were asked to assist with the work as chiefs of sections or deans of students were given

General Affairs Section Chief Clerk

Accountants Section

Culture

Equipment Section 9 officials in charge of culture

Chief Librarian

Guidance Council

President General Council

Register Notices and meeting Exemption and reduction of school fees

Chief (lj, Guidance Section 10 officials in charge of guidance

Chief (1), Student Bureau

2b officials in charge of welfare

Committee for Students' activities

Chief (1), Welfare Section

9 officials in charge of health Students" Health Center General Affairs

Deans of Faculties

Offices

School Affairs

Faculties

General Affairs

Committee for Guidance and Welfare Deans of Branch Schools

Accountants

Accountants

Offices

School Affairs Guidance and Welfare libraries

Organization Chart Showing Guidance and Welfare Sections in One Japanese University in 1950

15

Sports and athletics Job agency Scholarships Dormitories Mess hall Students» Welfare and protection Physical examination Health

16

Student Counseling in Japan

no released time from their regular academic duties, nor were they given any increase in salary for the additional time required for such duties. They were usually appointed for a short time and with the understanding that they would be replaced and returned to full academic work after a relatively brief period of service in student personnel work. Another facet of this emphasis on traditional academic subject matter has been the reluctance of Japanese scholars to work in the applied phases of psychology. So fundamental is applied psychology to scientific counseling that no program in the field of student personnel services can be developed adequately without it. World Wars I and II were major factors in convincing many reputable American psychologists of the significance of applied psychology. With their taste for theoretical patterns, the Japanese psychologists had not been convinced that academic respectability could be found in the applied field. This, in Japan as elsewhere, constituted a problem to be overcome in the professional development of student personnel services. With all the professionally trained personnel of the campuses focusing their energies on the classroom lecture and research and failing to recognize the potential value of student services and applied psychology to a developing democratic pattern in higher education, university presidents and administrators had no technically trained staff members to appoint to student personnel posts critically in need of specialists. A primary task of Japanese universities and the Ministry of Education, then, was to find and train leaders who could recognize and achieve new educational goals. At the same time it was necessary to persuade professors in academic subjects of the need for a major change in emphasis, to make them recognize that the effectiveness of their own academic departments could be seriously limited unless major and technical work were done in out-of-class services. These were problems which other nations had been able to work out gradually over long periods. The circumstances of war and postwar adjustment, with the attendant democratization of Japanese life, including education, brought into focus a critical problem in Japan. And Japanese educators demonstrated their courage and understanding of the need by taking decisive action. As Daishiro Hidaka, permanent viceminister of education, had written just before the opening of the Institutes: "The welfare and guidance of university students has been a problem so important and so urgent in present Japan that various countermeasures have been taken both by the Ministry of Education and, of

The Educational Setting

17

course, by each university. The establishment of the Institute has been decided as a means of settling the matter of welfare guidance under the over-all cooperation and assistance on the part of America." "Settling the matter" was indeed a challenging assignment for the Institutes, particularly in view of the difficulties stressed in this chapter— the traditional emphasis on subject matter, which had relegated student services to mere clerical functions and had made academic personnel reluctant to devote themselves to nonacademic services; the neglect of applied psychology, so necessary for the understanding and development of student personnel services; and the overemphasis on the political activities of small groups of students, which had monopolized the attention of university administrators and had handicapped the development of a balanced program in student personnel work. In addition there were no American specialists in student personnel work who had previous experience in Japanese higher education. Consequently it would be necessary to invite specialists unfamiliar with exact needs in Japan. But balancing these were other factors which promised well for the success of the Institutes. Enlightened Supervision and Participation In the first place the reorganization of Japanese higher education from 1947 to 1949 laid the groundwork for the activities of the Institutes by simplifying the educational system and by making very clear the need for student personnel services in the new-type universities. The Institutes planning groups themselves were a favorable factor. The American Advisory Committee and the Japanese Steering Committee gave full support to the work without any attempt at supervision. Having recommended general principles of operation, they left the American and Japanese faculties free to work out with the cooperation of the local steering committee of each Institute final patterns and procedures for the work. Special mention should be made of the understanding manner in which the Department of the Army and the chief of CIE-SCAP provided an unquestioned freedom for the operation of the professional work even though it functioned within the framework of a military occupation. The Department of State, which assumed final responsibility for the project after the close of the Occupation, gave full encouragement to the Institutes with no attempt to dictate in the field of the professional work.

18

Student Counseling in Japan

And finally, perhaps most important, was the spirit of the Japanese participants in the Institutes. They were quick to understand that services furnished to students outside of class are fundamental to the most effective operation of a university; that such services have a major effect on the academic life as well as on the well-rounded educational development of the student; and that to give appropriate attention to meeting the total educational needs of the student is to revitalize the entire university community. The project was not interpreted as one which dealt with a single phase of university administration, but rather as one which had a fundamental implication for the entire program of higher education in Japan. In this fruitful—if challenging—setting the American faculty spent one year in assisting with problems of university organization and procedure and in a training course for faculty members from each of the universities.

CHAPTER 3

Early Planning

FEW international projects in education have been sponsored with more appropriate preliminary planning than were the Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services. The pattern that brought them into existence could be used with effectiveness in future programs of similar type in other countries.

Setting up the Project Soon after the project was conceived and funds had been raised for its operation, technical counsel was sought from professional educational organizations in the United States. On February 12, 1951, the chief of the Reorientation Division of the Department of the Army and appropriate staff personnel met in Washington with officials of the United States Office of Education, the American Council on Education, and international educational organizations to discuss technical problems in launching the project and to approve a tentative plan. At this early meeting the purpose of the project was stated as follows: "To assist Japanese Universities in developing sound student services, emphasizing guidance and counseling by providing (a) general orientation of faculty members and (b) needed technical training to a selected group of younger faculty members, and thereby to assist in bridging the gap between students and faculty both in their academic and personal relations." The Department of the Army proposed at this meeting that the American Council on Education assume active sponsorship of the educational mission. But it was decided that, because of problems related to logistic support of the American faculty, the Department of the Army would retain active sponsorship and that a special Advisory Committee would be selected by the American Council on Education and the De19

20

Student Counseling in Japan

partment of the Army. This committee would include in its membership specialists in student personnel services and educators with recent experience in Japan. As a counterpart, a national Steering Committee would be organized in Japan consisting of leading educators and representatives of professional associations. It was also decided at the February meeting that an effort should be made to appoint the director of the project by March 1951 and that after the selection of the other faculty members he should report in Japan not later than July 1. The other faculty members would arrive in Japan on or about August 1. The final report of the director on the project was to be submitted before September 15, 1952. The actual timing of the program itself closely approximated this early schedule. Work of the Committees In the first meeting of the American Advisory Committee the members discussed general qualifications for an American faculty for the Institutes. They emphasized that the faculty should receive appropriate orientation for their work and should be assisted by Japanese interpreters and clerical workers. The American faculty should be selected, the committee agreed, "not only for their knowledge in their respective fields, but also for their ability to work on a basis of social equality with colleagues of other nationalities, and for their adaptability to differing professional conditions." The committee proposed also that a Japanese faculty be chosen to work cooperatively with the American faculty. The Japanese faculty was to consist of members somewhat familiar with personnel work in American universities. In the interests of understanding and good relations between the two faculties, the living conditions and social recognition of the Japanese faculty were expected to be not unlike those of the American faculty. The Advisory Committee recommended that the training program occupy the period from September 1951 to August 1952 and that it be established at a major university in the country. (The Japanese Steering Committee later determined that there should be three Institutes of approximately three months' length each, located in three major centers of Japanese higher education.) Participants in the program were to be a selected group of younger professors and assistant professors of Japanese universities who, after completion of their work, could accept leadership

Early Planning

21

positions in student personnel work in Japanese universities. Approximately 240 participants were to receive training. The first meeting of the Japanese Steering Committee was held in Tokyo at the Ministry of Education offices on May 7. The committee consisted of representatives of Japanese universities, the Ministry of Education, and CIE. In this meeting the vice-minister of education outlined the critical need for the project and its possible contributions to Japanese university life. The chief of the education division of CIE reviewed the work and recommendations of the American Council on Education and the Advisory Committee and assured the members that, although the Occupation would end before the close of the Institutes, financial support had been secured for the full project regardless of changing conditions. Among other items discussed at the May 7 meeting in Tokyo was the question of location, mentioned above. It was agreed that three Institutes would be held, one at the University of Kyoto, one at Kyushu University in Fukuoka, and one at the University of Tokyo. The Steering Committee also considered the needed physical facilities for the three sessions. Then they turned to problems relating to the faculties. They discussed the orientation of the members of the American faculty. They recommended that at least one woman be included among the visitors. And since some difficulty had been encountered in obtaining full-year appointments for the Japanese faculty, the committee decided to select a different faculty for each of the Institutes. Next they listed the professional areas critically needing emphasis for Japanese universities and sent a copy to the Advisory Committee in the United States for study and suggestions. A point of major importance discussed at this meeting of the Steering Committee, one which continued in importance throughout the year, concerned the type of participants to be selected for training in the Institutes. It seemed necessary to appoint university personnel who would have considerable influence on the campus after their return from the Institutes. But it was also necessary to look to the future and work with faculty members whose training would be of special help in the years ahead. Therefore the committee thought it best to choose none who were near retirement age and who might be less adaptable to a vigorous course of training in a new field and recommended that younger faculty members be selected so far as possible.

22

Student Counseling in Japan

The field of activity, as well as the age, of the participants would affect their influence. In 1951 Japanese who were working in the guidance and welfare sections of universities held ratings generally lower than those of regular faculty standing. Many had clerical rather than academic rank. If the Institutes program trained only present workers in the field of student personnel, its work might well be lost among those who would have very little effect on university policy. If, on the other hand, training were given to purely academic personnel, it might be put to little use in the field of out-of-class student needs after the participants returned to their usual pursuits. Fortunately the groups planning for the Institutes decided that the selection should not be limited to either field, but that a faculty member should be chosen from each university who was most likely to assist the university in the establishment of effective personnel services. The question of a name for the project was another problem. The Steering Committee officially designated the project as "The Guidance and Welfare Institute" (Hodo-Kosei Kenkyukai). However, this title would have been a serious barrier to the work, for in the minds of Japanese university students and many faculty members the terms guidance and welfare carried negative connotations. Guidance was thought of largely as a carry-over from the thought-control system in common practice before and during the war. Welfare organizations, which had supervised the limited programs in dormitories, men's halls, employment, and student health, had been unable to satisfy the urgent needs and demands of students and therefore held questionable status among them. The term student personnel services was new to Japan. There were no words in the Japanese language that expressed a meaning identical to the English words. After his appointment and arrival in Japan, the director suggested, and the Steering Committee readily agreed, that the English phrase be retained and introduced without change into the Japanese language. This had one distinct advantage. No traditional negative meaning could be attached to it. The work was to receive a new and unprejudiced start in the universities of Japan. The tendency, however, for Japanese scholars outside of the Institutes to think in terms of the old welfare and guidance organizations constituted one of the major problems in the growth of a new concept of student personnel services. On May 8, 1951, after receiving tentative SCAP approval for the

Early Planning

23

appointment of Wesley P. Lloyd, dean of students at Brigham Young University, as director of the Institutes, and after receiving the suggestions of the Steering Committee on procedures and subject matter, the American Advisory Committee held its second meeting. The director attended this session and was brought up to date on the history and development of the project. Then as a guide in the selection of additional members of the faculty, the committee discussed personnel and their appropriate fields of study. It seemed essential to present substantial offerings in the fields of tests and measurements, counseling (educational, vocational, and personal problems), extracurricular programs and student government, and the administrative organization of the program on college and university campuses. The Advisory Committee felt that in addition to their fields of specialization faculty members should be familiar with sociology, social psychology, education, and college and post-college guidance. The director asked for a brief review of the names and qualifications of specialists who might be available for appointment. After a discussion regarding possible faculty appointees, the committee considered the problem of needed Institute materials and took preliminary steps to obtain visual aids, sample objective tests, tape recordings, photographs of exhibits, and a substantial textbook and reference library. The director remained in Washington for several days following the meeting and with the aid of members of the Advisory Committee worked on administrative and personnel problems of the Institutes. Meanwhile the Steering Committee was completing further plans in Tokyo. In a meeting on May 22 it formed subcommittees for selecting local directors for the three Institutes and for planning the orientation of the American faculty. The committee also arranged to secure qualified interpreters to assist members of the American faculty and invited each host university to form a local steering committee to serve for the duration of the Institute to be held on its campus. And it set the final dates for the first two Institutes. On June 21, the Steering Committee announced the selection of local directors. On that date too the committee discussed plans for press releases, for invitations to participants from the various universities, and for the orientation of the American director. The orientation was to include a schedule of visits to universities in various parts of the country.

24

Student Counseling in Japan

Selection of the American Faculty Much discussion had taken place in Japan and in the United States regarding the training, experience, and personal qualifications of those who would serve on the American faculty. In addition to technical qualifications, those appointed would be expected to secure leaves of absence from home institutions and to spend the full year in Japan. All members of their families were to remain in the United States. The faculty would be billeted together to encourage teamwork and in keeping with Department of the Army arrangements for logistical support. With approximately forty specialists in the field of student personnel services under consideration for appointment to the project, the director spent part of the month of June in visiting campuses in all parts of the country to interview prospective faculty personnel. After completion of the interviews, he made recommendations to SCAP through the Reorientation Division of the Department of the Army. On June 14, following SCAP approval of the recommendations, faculty members and the administrative assistant were notified of their appointments. Five men and one woman (in addition to the director) constituted the American team: Henry Borow, University of Minnesota, Leona Felsted, Ohio University, Gordon Klopf, University of Wisconsin, Chester Ruedisili, University of Wisconsin, and Maurice Woolf, Kansas State College, faculty members, and Eldred Olsen, administrative assistant. From the time of his appointment, each had approximately six weeks to complete home and local professional arrangements before his scheduled arrival in Japan. During the month of June, the director and administrative assistant made a final selection of library, visual aids, and other materials and arranged with the Department of the Army for purchase and shipment. The heavy June schedule of the two also included considerable correspondence regarding the project and its place in higher education. Financial Basis of Operation An understanding of the Institutes is incomplete without some consideration of the financial basis for the operation of the project. In setting up the Institutes the Department of the Army budgeted $102,206. This was to be used for the payment of salaries of the American faculty, for their travel to Japan and return, for travel and per diem expenses in the United States of members of the Advisory Committee, and for materials and the library.

Early Planning

25

The Japanese Ministry of Education agreed that all additional expenses, including (1) salaries of Japanese faculty members, business officers, and interpreters, (2) expenses of participants and other personnel, (3) expenses for physical facilities, (4) clerical and business office arrangements, would be met by allocations of yen, secured from the counterpart of yen funds. (The counterpart yen program was an arrangement between the Occupation and the Japanese government in which each assumed an appropriate share of the expense of approved projects.) In addition to the regular operating budget furnished from Department of the Army funds, the Army agreed to furnish logistic support for members of the American faculty during their residence in Japan. This support was to include living quarters, transportation from billets to place of daily work, necessary travel in other parts of the country, and meals on the same basis as provided for officer personnel. Members of the American staff were classified as Department of the Army civilians. In the supervision of business affairs and planning for Institute facilities, the general director, the local directors, the chiefs of business offices, and the administrative assistant all were to be given specifically designated responsibilities. The general director was to be responsible for final approval of expenditures from counterpart-yen funds used in the operation of the Institutes and allotted by the government for Institute purposes. Goals to Be Accomplished The objectives for the Japanese Institutes for Student Personnel Services could only partially be set in the early days of planning. It was certain from the first that technical attention should be focused on the problems of university students in Japan. It was specified that younger faculty members were to be trained to carry responsibility for the development of improved services to students and that one major phase of the service was to bring about a better relationship between professors and students. Added to these general objectives there would be specific goals that could not appropriately be set or fully envisioned in America. Nor could these objectives be seen completely by Japanese educators untrained in the student personnel field. It was only when the faculties of the two nations exchanged experiences and viewpoints and began forging the details of a specific program that the additional objectives became clear.

26

Student Counseling in Japan

At the opening of the Kyushu Institute the general director suggested certain immediate objectives of the three months' work to the participants: During the three months devoted to this session we shall attempt to achieve at least three major results. First, to learn to work together effectively in small groups and in the larger group. (This does not mean that each group of participants will learn to follow meticulously the requests and suggestions of the American and Japanese faculties, but that each person will contribute his best thought and action to the building of a thoroughgoing program of student personnel services.) Second, we shall preview and study the areas of service commonly included in effective student personnel work in other countries of the world. Through this study, we shall become more familiar with common problems of students and with ways in which they are being met in well-organized institutions of higher learning. Third, we shall become better acquainted with one another as we engage in a common cause. We shall then constitute a group of professional colleagues devoted to improved services to students in all areas of university life; this in contrast to past emphases on subject matter alone. From these goals, similar for all three Institutes, there developed related and marginal ones, all centered on assisting university personnel to be more objective and useful in analyzing and meeting student needs. For example, the Institutes encouraged the forming of professional organizations. Although these goals could not all be sharply defined before the work of the Institutes began, the general pattern was clear in the summer of 1951. And the director and faculty could approach the problem of building a program to fit this pattern with the knowledge that their foundations were sound. The preliminary work had been done thoroughly and intelligently by the Ministry of Education, CIE, SCAP, the American Advisory Committee, and the Japanese Steering Committee.

CHAPTER 4

Administrative Procedures and Operation

IN THE administration of the Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services there were no ready-made formulas to follow. The project was unique to the time and place. Thus the experience, training, and insight of the faculties, bolstered by generous contributions from officials of the Ministry of Education, could be given full play in developing appropriate administrative procedures. In setting up the Institutes the resources of the American faculty were of primary importance in the specialized work of establishing courses and methods in a technical field. The American educators were frankly informed that the substance of the actual course had not been planned before their arrival in Japan in August. They were to be responsible for the organization of their own offerings as well as for teaching them effectively. Although the American faculty members were trained in related fields, there were no complete duplications of experience or training among them. From the combined efforts of all, in an atmosphere that encouraged the use of initiative, the academic offerings were organized and recommended by the American faculty, and modified and accepted by the joint faculties. This illustrates, the close relationship for the personnel of the Institutes of the two viewpoints—one "academic," one "administrative"— that arise in the operation of any group project in education: (1) The work may be seen through the eyes of the teacher who daily meets the student and is concerned primarily with the degree to which the student mind is reacting to a core of subject matter. (2) There is the interpretation of the administrator who works with the procedures for organizing and conducting the project. The primary concerns of administrators may be listed as follows: (a) the selection of faculty and student personnel;, (b) coordination of efforts within the limits of the organization; (c) fur-

27

28

Student Counseling in Japan

nishing and spending of budget allotments; (d) building curriculum with the aid of faculty members; (e) the provision of physical facilities; and ( f ) the work of public relations. With the opening of the Institutes the administrative and academic functions were to.be closely knit. The project operated with a relatively small group of faculty members and administrators. In each Institute, there were seven Americans and ten to twelve Japanese on the faculties. Five of the American faculty members and the Japanese members who teamed with them spent the majority of their time as resource investigators in the subject-matter areas and on group and individual projects. But all members of the faculties were kept aware of administrative problems and developments and shared in a great many of the administrative decisions and responsibilities. The general director, on the other hand, although the largest part of his time was of necessity devoted to administrative work, took his regular turn delivering lectures on academic subjects in the general assemblies. In the Tokyo Institute he was faculty leader for one of the six student sections working on group projects. This necessary interlocking within the total program gave all members a feeling of responsibility for the total program; and the individual task—delivering a lecture, guiding a discussion, arranging for transportation—took on fresh meaning and importance because its place in the over-all pattern was clear. Meshing individuals and ideas of two civilizations into an effective program would not have been possible, however, without careful organization and planning in Japan during the months just before the opening of classwork. There was a public relations program to be set up, orientation of the American faculty to be carried out, and a language problem to be overcome. The next section will outline the activities of July and August 1951. In-Residence Preparation for the Institutes The project director and the administrative assistant arrived in Tokyo on July 1. They were given office space in the Radio Tokyo building, and on July 3 began a series of conferences with officials of CIE, the Ministry of Education, and the Steering Committee. In these conferences, important policy decisions were made. Further attention was given to the various areas of student personnel work which, in view of actual conditions that existed in institutions of higher education in Japan, needed special emphasis. The degree to which the Institutes should move past

Administrative Procedures and Operation

29

traditional concepts of student services had to be determined. Here the major strides of the United States were taken into account, and it was decided that, in fairness to the student, the full scope of the services offered in American institutions should be introduced to Japanese faculty members. For in America legitimate concern with many fields of student services had developed which might well interest the universities in any country where student needs were to be met realistically. Emphasis was to be placed on areas where the most practical results would be achieved. These decisions were guided by the need to present positive and unquestioned evidence of the potential contributions of the Institutes to the educators of Japan. Student personnel work as it is practiced in the United States was new to Japan. A limited number of Japanese educators had seen it in operation; a few more knew something of it. It was not enough to make the work of the Institutes merely acceptable to other professors and administrators in higher education. If the project was to be maximally successful, it needed active support from a large number of influential leaders as well as the enthusiastic interest of those who were invited to enroll. To arouse such interest and support a well-planned program of public relations was essential. The groundwork had been laid. Officials of the Ministry of Education had publicized the project and given it full support. A number of university presidents and professors fully recognized its potential value and were ready to help persuade others. But much still had to be done in defining the work and presenting it to the hundreds of educational leaders who eventually would have to demonstrate to their colleagues that the work was vital to the universities of Japan. INTERPRETING THE INSTITUTES TO JAPANESE EDUCATORS

The index of the success of the public relations program would be the faculty members selected to represent their universities at the Institutes. It was essential that well-qualified and influential participants assume the responsible work of the Institutes. In the event that only one faculty member from a university attended the Institutes, that university could remain practically untouched by the new program if the member were not capable of influencing the faculty and administration. But this posed a difficult problem for university presidents. Large enrollments were placing special strain on the schedules of qualified faculty personnel; deans of students and others bearing responsibility for student affairs were needed desperately on their own campuses.

30

Student Counseling in Japan

It would have been easy for presidents to decide that less capable members of the staff could be spared. The July and August days when university presidents were trying to decide how important it was to release key faculty members for three months were critical for the very existence of the Institutes. Grave doubt had developed in the Ministry of Education about the timing of the project. It was even thought that there might be a reaction, especially from radical student groups, that could retard rather than assist the work. Yet the Ministry never lost its faith in the value of the project. As the minister of education, Dr. Teiyu Amano, put it later, to the participants in the Tokyo Institute: In the first place, the philosophy of student personnel services is based on the value of dignity of the individual student, and I believe that every effort toward the improved educational programs of universities and colleges to meet the student needs for his optimum development, according to his individuality and potentiality, depends upon the development of student personnel work along the right direction. With this kind of faith, the Ministry officials, the director, and the faculties devoted themselves to persuading Japanese educators of the need for the Institutes. To do this, they mapped out a program that included announcements, meetings with university presidents, and visits to universities in many parts of the nation. On the suggestion of the Steering Committee, an announcement of the forthcoming Institutes together with instructions on methods of applying for admission was sent from the Ministry of Education to the 425 colleges and universities of the nation in early July. The chief of CIE gave further emphasis and encouragement by sending on July 18 an explanatory and invitational letter to all university presidents (see Appendix VII). It read in part as follows: I take the liberty of bringing to your attention a development of great importance to higher education in Japan. Many Japanese university professors . . . the Minister of Education and several university presidents have talked with me concerning this very important problem. . . . A Japanese advisory committee, working with the Ministry of Education, and an American advisory committee, working with the American Council on Education, took over the preliminary planning for the Institutes and, as a result of their commendable efforts, the project now has become a reality. This letter was accompanied by a printed pamphlet prepared by the general director with the assistance of the Department of Visual Aids

Administrative Procedures and Operation

31

and other CIE personnel. It presented in English and in Japanese a brief statement of the philosophy of student personnel services in the modern university and a treatment of the scope of the course to be offered in the Institutes. It also stressed specifically the selection of qualified personnel: In organizing the Institutes on Student Personnel Services, the sponsoring agencies set out to establish for colleges and universities of Japan a program of training for student personnel work equal to any offering in the world at a given time and place. In addition to a highly trained faculty, a library—unsurpassed as a student personnel unit—has been made available to all participants. The usefulness of these Institutes to colleges and universities will depend largely on the capacity of the faculty participants who represent each institution. In selecting faculty members for this work, presidents are asked to send major administrative ofEcers who can make the work of the Institute a going concern when they return to their campuses. Under date of July 20, the Ministry of Education issued an announcement which carried the following comment by Kyosuke Inada, director of the Higher Education and Science Bureau: The university to date has done nothing beyond "selling slices of learning." An institution of higher education that neglects guidance in the practical phase of student life is unworthy of the name "university for students." In this sense the Guidance to be newly integrated into higher education will bring about vitality to the educational contents of the new-system universities. By studying guidance, university professors will learn how to meet one of their professional responsibilities. This new step is going to be an epochal innovation in the history of university education in our country. Later announcements continued to emphasize the importance of student personnel services in general as well as to provide factual information about the Institutes themselves. These announcements provided an important channel of communication, but the general director and the Ministry of Education early realized that personal contacts with university presidents and deans were essential. Consequently meetings with individuals and groups were given an important place in the summer's work. During July the director held a series of conferences with presidents of leading universities in Japan, discussing with them problems in the field of student personnel and indicating ways in which the project could be beneficial to Japanese universities. On one such occasion Dr.

32

Student Counseling in Japan

Shigeru Nambara, then president of the University of Tokyo, expressed the following conviction: "If the Institutes can assist in bringing about a better working relationship between faculty members and students they will meet one of the great needs in Japanese university life." The director and administrative assistant also visited a limited number of universities in the Tokyo area; these visits were followed by a trip to the universities of Kyoto and Kyushu, the hosts for two of the Institutes. In these two centers meetings were held with the local administrative officers for the purpose of organizing local steering committees and faculties. When other members of the American faculty arrived in Japan in August, they joined the director in promoting the Institutes among Japanese educators. The numerous meetings of individual members of the American faculty with various Institute-related organizations, although arranged at times primarily for other purposes, played an effective part in improving understanding of the project. For example, they met with the National University Accreditation Association for a discussion of ways in which that organization could assist in awakening universities to the need for improved student personnel services. The possibility of establishing an effective student personnel program as one factor in the accrediting of universities was considered. The services of the faculty were offered in assisting the association to persuade universities to move toward higher standards in student personnel services. In this meeting also the work of a subcommittee of the association appointed to the field of student services was reviewed. The American faculty spent a good deal of its time visiting universities throughout the nation. Specially appointed staff members of the Ministry of Education also made numerous visits. These visits were a major influence on the selection of qualified personnel. In some cases the staff member was accompanied by the local Institute director. By this time a selection system had been set up. The president of each university submitted the application of a specific member of his faculty. The application specified, among other items, the age, academic training, professional experience, and present position of the applicant. A committee consisting of the chief of the Student Affairs Section of the Ministry of Education, the local Institute director, and the general director finally approved the application or returned it to the university president with stated reasons why the applicant could not be admitted.

Administrative Procedures and Operation

33

In cases of rejection the president usually submitted another name that was acceptable to the committee. This method of selection was helpful in preventing enrollment of unqualified applicants but it did not provide the Institutes with equally qualified personnel. In the first Institute there was a wide range in the ability and aptitude of the participants. Experienced participants were the exception rather than the rule. As the year progressed and the reputation of the Institutes became better established, university presidents were more willing to appoint faculty people who were carrying heavy campus responsibilities. Even though many Institute participants, particularly those from universities located near the host institution, continued to carry their regular campus responsibilities in addition to their Institute work, they soon gained an interest in the Institute and gave it their major time and attention. In the later part of the year, after the participants had gained an understanding of the work, they became an important factor in stimulating positive and genuine support for the project. They had received rich experiences and a practical approach to critical campus problems. Now they could give encouraging news to their colleagues. One such participant was Kikuo Nishida, newly appointed chief of the Student Affairs Section of the Ministry of Education. Even before he had completed his own work as a regular participant in the Kyoto Institute, he was asked to perform a special mission. He spent ten days in late November 1951 in visits to universities which were to be served by the Kyushu Institute and gave special emphasis to the selection of participants who were highly qualified for the work of the Institutes. His recommendation of the Institutes, based as it was on personal experience, was invaluable. Once the Institutes got under way, too, a series of newsletters, distributed to all the colleges and universities of the country, contributed to effective promotion of the Institutes. The letters were informal in nature and told of important events, subject matter, personnel, and organization. Each Institute issued at least one newsletter, and during the Kyoto Institute, when the greatest need was felt, three newsletters were sent. The first letter, released under the direction of the chairman of the local steering committee, reviewed the events of the first month of the Institute program; it gave an account of enrollment, listed the appointments of the Japanese faculty, described the scope of the work,

34

Student Counseling in Japan

prepared college and university presidents for recommendations that were to come from the participants later, and announced the dates of the next Institute. (See Appendix VIII for an example of a newsletter.) ORIENTATION OF THE AMERICAN FACULTY

At the same time that much of this public relations work was being carried on, and often in conjunction with it, the American faculty was going through a program of orientation. The five members who completed the American faculty had arrived by plane in early August. For the first time they were members of one faculty. And they were faced with a job that would tax to the utmost their resources: They were, first, to study the Japanese system of higher education and to understand something of the reason for the present program of out-of-class services to the student; second, to build and recommend an academic offering for the Institutes that would have practical significance and meet the specific needs of Japanese universities; third, to take major responsibility for the instructional phases of the program; and, fourth, to demonstrate an ability to work on a basis of social equality with colleagues of another nationality and to adapt successfully to differing professional conditions. Their orientation occupied the major part of August. (The official orientation program is not to be confused with the actual orientation of the group, for actual orientation was still in evidence, and appropriately so, through the entire year.) Officially, two programs of orientation were arranged, one by CIE, one by the Japanese Steering Committee. It was planned, first, to give the faculty members a view of educational, economic, and political problems as they related to the Occupation. Then orientation was to be combined with public relations in a series of visits to universities. Here the faculty could become acquainted with actual offerings and procedures in higher education in Japan. The first time members of the American faculty met as a group was on the morning of August 3. After this meeting, the faculty had an extended session with CIE officials for discussion of logistic support, history and development of the project, and general administrative procedure. In the days following, under the direction of the chief of the Education Division, the faculty attended sessions which pointed out achievements and limitations in higher education in Japan and changes that had been effected during the occupation. Attention was given to such items as the general economic and political structure of the country and to its present cultural and religious life. The following topics dis-

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cussed during the orientation program indicate the scope of the orientation provided by CIE: The Mission and Organization of SCAP and CIE Administrative Procedures The Culture and Religions of Japan Information Media in Japan Education in Japan Educational Legislation since 1945 Budget and Financial Problems with Particular Reference to Higher Education The New Upper Secondary School, with Particular Reference to Courses of Study Developments in Higher Education since 1946 a. Teacher Education b. Institute for Educational Leadership (IFEL) c. Health and Physical Education in the Japanese Universities d. Youth Organizations The Economic Situation of Japan The Political Situation of Japan Public Health and Welfare in Japan General Discussion on Higher Education Soon after all faculty members had arrived, they began to work on the details of the actual day-by-day procedure that later would be proposed for the Institutes. A review was made of fields of study which would combine the most urgent needs in student personnel work in Japan with the specialized training and experience of the American faculty. The group held daily and extended meetings throughout the month of August and prepared a daily schedule of Institute procedure for recommendation to the Japanese. Being relatively new to one another, the faculty needed to do extensive work together preparatory to later joint sessions with the Japanese faculties. The second phase of orientation came under the guidance of Japanese educators representing the Steering Committee, the Ministry of Education, and Japanese universities. It consisted principally of visits to universities in many parts of the country. Here the faculty could become acquainted with actual offerings and procedures in higher education in Japan, and it could study at first hand university problems and Japanese customs. But first, on August 9, the faculty met with the Steering Committee and exchanged points of view about possible contributions of the coming

36

Student Counseling in Japan

Institutes. In this meeting also the proposed schedule of visits to universities in the Tokyo and Sendai areas was presented and discussed. The day closed with an official tea party given by the minister of education. On this occasion the American faculty, the members of the Steering Committee, and officials of CIE and the Ministry of Education were guests. The event was a refreshing introduction to the social events and courtesies that the American visitors were to experience many times during the year. Of special value in the orientation was a six-day journey by train and automobile to universities in Sendai, Yamagata, Morioka, and Mito. These visits gave faculty members a close-up view of university organization and problems in an atmosphere of Japanese culture north of the metropolitan area of Tokyo. The journey by automobile through the villages, towns, and countryside of the Sendai and Yamagata areas brought the American faculty into contact with a new pattern of life and custom, an understanding of which was a primary factor in interpreting the educational needs of the Japanese people. All in all, realism and variety characterized the picture of Japanese educational, cultural, and social life presented in the orientation arranged by the Steering Committee. CURRICULUM AND METHOD

A new experience was in store for the American faculty when it prepared to convert theory into practice in the new environment. Many years of experience had gone into the organization and presentation of subject matter in the United States. There it was possible to utilize conventional habits. The professor could imagine that the greatest need of the student was to conform to the way of thinking in which the professor himself was trained. But there was little basis for such thinking in Japan. The American faculty was not to bring a rigid program to Japanese universities. Rather it was to make available its rich experience and training to the Japanese educators and help the latter to modify and adapt these resources in building a student personnel program of their own. The American professors were to be both students and teachers in a new dimension. The situation demanded a recognition of the close relationship between subject and method. It would have been easy to fall into the traditional pattern of Japanese education and turn the Institutes into lecture courses. It seemed certain, however, that the year could be largely

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wasted if lectures were to dominate the Institutes. For, in addition to knowledge about student personnel services and their development, the participants had to be convinced of the results which could be attained through well-operated programs. There was more than listening to be done. It was decided that the Institutes could be most effective if they were based on a problem-solving procedure and if the participants themselves took the most active part in raising the problems and in finding solutions for them. This called for a workshop method employing the finest of group procedures. Since the participants, having been accustomed to the lecture method, would expect it, a step-by-step approach to group procedure was carefully outlined. The group was to receive actual practice in this method of education. As a basis for the study of group leadership, two members of the faculty, Gordon Klopf and Maurice Woolf, wrote a manual for the use of the participants. It centered attention on the following topics: Characteristics of Leadership, The Various Leadership Roles within the Group, The Way in Which Groups Function, Evaluating Group Progress, The Organization of a Conference, and Audience Discussion Techniques. There was a place in the program for furnishing the philosophic background for student personnel services and for clarifying issues. This could be provided by a limited lecture program. In lectures and in group work, the unit of greatest concern in the Institutes was the university student. The objective was to provide him with his most-needed out-of-class services during his university years. Since the needs of students do not differ widely in different nations, it was possible to draw up a tentative schedule for the areas of student personnel work to be considered. It was possible also to assign to various American faculty members primary responsibility in the areas in which they were specially qualified, and for which they had been originally selected. The early estimates of areas that would need consideration proved reasonably accurate. There were, of course, some adjustments to be made; they followed, in every case, demonstrated or expressed Japanese need. American preference was considered only insofar as it helped to satisfy that need. THE LIBRARY AND ITS USE

In planning the curriculum, the American faculty could rely upon an extensive library. It included books, professional journals, and periodicals

38

Student Counseling in Japan

in the field of student personnel. There were 804 newly purchased books, 3565 copies of publications of the American Council on Education and other pamphlets, as well as 13 subscriptions to professional journals and periodicals and a large quantity of mimeographed material. These made it probably the most complete and usable professional library devoted to student personnel services then in existence. Almost all the books and pamphlets were supplied in multiple copies to allow for wide distribution and individual reading. This feature was a distinct advantage at times when all members of the Institutes were centering on a single unit of work. Besides the library resources each participant in the Institutes was given a packet containing a series of the American Council on Education pamphlets on various fields of student personnel services. In addition to literary materials, three tape recorders and a limited number of audio-visual aids were included in Institute supplies. The visual aids were supplemented by an excellent film library operated by CIE and Japanese library services. The original library was entirely in English. The critical need for Japanese language publications became evident with the opening of the first Institute. A large percentage of the Institute participants were either unable to read in English or had such a limited knowledge of the language that there was little chance of their being able to prepare substantial reading assignments. This problem remained one of the limiting factors of the Institutes. It was partially met in three ways: (1) by the purchase of a few volumes that had been written in Japanese or translations of certain parts of books; (2) by having translated into Japanese, and mimeographed, copies of sections of publications from the Student Personnel Work Series of the American Council on Education or other sources; and (3) by providing reading periods during the noon hour or before the opening of the daily schedule during which one or more of the interpreters would read and interpret for a group. It seems probable that the usefulness of the library will be increased in the years immediately ahead. In accordance with early planning, all Institute equipment taken to Japan, including the library, was distributed to a limited number of major centers where it could be put to the greatest use. The largest number of books, and much of the other material, were given to the three universities that were hosts to the Institutes. These centers are the ones most likely to create specialized training courses in the field. In order that books may be available in more widely scattered areas than could be conveniently served by the three host

Administrative Procedures and Operation

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institutions, library collections were distributed also to Ibaraki, Tohoku, Hokkaido, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Tokushima, and Kumamoto universities. One unit was left at the library of the Ministry of Education for the use of research workers in the student affairs sections. It will also serve for the convenience of professional workers from all parts of the country who call at the headquarters of the Ministry. All the agencies that received any part of the Institute library made arrangements to have the books and materials in a single location as a separate unit on student personnel services and to make them available to any professional worker or interested educator. THE LANGUAGE PROBLEM

The language difficulty in the library was only one facet of a problem that affected all phases of the Institute work. It had its lighter side. One morning a member of the American faculty, soon after arriving in Japan, met on a country road an elderly Japanese woman who had stopped to rest. The American, wanting to say "Good morning" without the aid of his interpreter, expressed the greeting in his previously untried Japanese. With a look of concern, the old woman turned to the interpreter and said, "Please tell the gentleman that I do not understand English." Fortunately there were always interpreters to the rescue, for it was recognized that intelligible communication in the Institutes would depend upon men and women who could translate with perception and clarity ideas and concepts from one language into another. The Steering Committee early specified that interpreter-advisers should be appointed for each member of the American group and should serve for the entire year. The value of such an arrangement is obvious. With each succeeding Institute the interpreters would gain experience with technical terms as well as with the habits of speech of each faculty member and would be able to improve their services steadily. The interpreters would also help to give continuity to the work. After a careful testing of applicants, a highly qualified linguist with proficiency in the field of student personnel work, Takahashi Sakamoto, was appointed as interpreter-adviser for the general director. When the rest of the American faculty arrived in Japan, competent interpreteradvisers were appointed for each of them. Special attention was given to terminology in the early part of each Institute. Some English terms—including, as has already been indicated, student personnel services—had to be adopted because there were no

40

Student Counseling in Japan

precise equivalents in Japanese. Little difficulty was encountered with the English words transferred bodily into the Japanese language. The term student personnel services was so thoroughly accepted, in fact, that it was familiarly abbreviated to SPS, which became the common designation of this area on almost all university campuses in Japan. (See Appendix I for a definition of this term, developed at the request of President Yanaihara of Tokyo University.) In the establishing and defining of terminology, whether English words or Japanese equivalents, the interpreter-advisers were skillful, painstaking allies of the faculties. The language problem could not be "solved." But patience, good humor, and enthusiasm of participants and faculties, combined with the skillful services of the interpreter-advisers, provided the basis for mutual understanding. If the specific word was not always meaningful, the spirit behind it was. The Institutes in Operation The administrative officers of the Institutes had visited Kyoto and Kyushu universities in July for conferences with local steering committees on the general plans and operation of each Institute and for an examination of physical facilities. On September 1, the entire American faculty arrived in Kyoto for a week of intensive work with the Japanese faculty. This work centered on the curriculum of the Institute. A major part of the work on the curriculum had been accomplished before the faculty left Tokyo; but there remained the interesting task of measuring, under the critical eyes of the Japanese faculty, the American proposals with respect to their practical contributions to Japanese universities. There was a meeting too with the Kyoto steering committee for the purpose of discussing general policies. In these meetings it was possible for the American faculty to see in more specific form the work that was to be accomplished and to establish working relationships with other groups. At this point, perhaps, the division of responsibility among the local steering committees, the Japanese faculties, and the American faculty should be made clear. The delegation of functions fell into somewhat natural categories. The local steering committee, in addition to its determination of Institute policy, took responsibility in promoting the interests of the Institute throughout the area. The members of the committee were chosen from administrators and faculty members of the host university and other universities in the immediate vicinity. Each of the

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41

Faculties and participants in action, Kyoto Institute American faculty members was teamed with one person from the Japanese faculty. Together they worked out the problems of the classroom— the American member acted as a resource person on technical phases of the work, and the Japanese member took special responsibility in relating the subject to the conditions to be met in Japanese universities. In keeping with the democratic aims and methods of the Institutes, the participants too had a voice in the operation of the project. In each Institute, they elected a liaison committee, through which they could make known their desires and needs. The reports or requests from this committee were considered at the meetings of the faculties. The liaison committee, which usually had a rotating membership, took special responsibility in organizing recreational programs. In addition to getting acquainted with the Japanese faculty and the steering committee and making final adjustments in the curriculum during the first week in September, the American faculty established working arrangements with the business office. In Japanese universities the business section is delegated exceptional responsibilities in the operation of the university and all projects which function within it. For each session, a branch of the business office was set up as a part of the Institute. This unit was responsible for mimeographing the large number of papers that were produced. Some of these were in Japanese, some in English, and often they appeared in both languages. During the week

42

Student Counseling in Japan

preceding each Institute, the mimeographing of materials needed early in the session was accomplished. In addition the business office handled financial arrangements. The Ministry of Education and CIE-SCAP had agreed that participants were to be paid traveling and other expenses while they were in attendance at the Institute; these payments and other expenditures were made largely from a counterpart-yen fund and were disbursed through the business office of the host university on authorization of the general director. Eldred Olsen, the administrative assistant to the project, worked in close relationship with the business office branch of each host university, and with the assistance of the office staff he was responsible for preparing and distributing to the participants mimeographed materials specified by the faculty members. He also catalogued and distributed library books. Of major importance to the success of the Institutes were the arrangements for adequate physical facilities. It was essential that general assembly and conference rooms be of desirable location and appearance. In this matter, the host universities gave their full cooperation. They provided some of their finest and most comfortable quarters as an operating center. In addition the Institute budget provided, when needed, improvements in painting, cleaning and minor remodeling, and heating facilities. From the operating budget the university furnished janitorial and clerical personnel. SCHEDULING

The Kyoto Institute opened officially on September 17. It closed on December 7. The Kyushu Institute ran from January 7 to March 27; the Tokyo Institute from April 12 to July 11. It must have seemed to some members of the American faculty that their life during each session operated in accordance with the hourly calendar of the Institute. Beginning at 8:00 A.M. each morning when they left their billets, they went through the formal program of the day, then continued on into the evening hours, which were occupied with informal work on Instituterelated projects. There seldom seemed to be a stopping place. Since a careful organization of time and a wide distribution of energy were essential, the Institutes operated under a fairly elaborate scheduling system. Not one of the three Institutes followed the exact schedule of any other, and in no Institute did the originally planned schedule remain without some alterations.

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The participants were supplied with mimeographed copies of schedules and revisions. The schedule for Kyushu Institute is included here as a sample. Other schedules were set up for lectures, for special events, and for conferences. Some of these will be included at appropriate places in this volume. KYUSHU INSTITUTE SCHEDULE Daily Schedule FIRST WEEK Monday 10:00-11:30 A.M. Opening ceremony 1:30-3:00 P.M. General session Tuesday 9:00-12:00 A.M. Individual kondan and group 1:00-4:00 P.M. orientation Wednesday, Thursday, Friday 9:00-12:00 A.M. General sessions featuring discussions and demonstrations on group procedure 1:30-4:00 P.M. Demonstrations of various individual roles in group procedure followed by discussion groups (buzz sessions); a general session on Friday afternoon, January 12 4:30-6:00 P.M. Participants'Tea 8:00-9:00 A.M 9:00-10:30 A.M 10:45-11:55 A.M 1:00-1:30 P.M 1:30-3:00 P.M 3:00-4:00 P.M

SECOND TO TENTH WEEKS Study and faculty meeting Daily general session, faculty lecture Discussion groups Study Sectional meetings Daily general assembly

TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH WEEKS 8:00-9:00 A.M Study and faculty meeting 9:00-10:30 A.M Workshops 10:45-12:00 A.M Continuation of workshops (lectures, discussion, audiovisual aids, etc.) 1:00-1:30 P.M Study 1:30-2:30 P.M Supervised group projects 2:30-4:00 P.M. (Mon., Wed., and Fri.) Continuation of supervised group projects 2:30-4:00 P.M. (Tues. and Thurs.) General assembly

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Student Counseling in Japan

Principles and Procedures Adopted for the Kyushu Institute 1. The first week will feature a study and practice of methods and procedures for group functioning. Effective group thought and action will be the dominant method in the operation of the entire Institute. 2. From the second to the tenth weeks there will be a survey and orientation of the common areas of student personnel services in higher education. Participants will engage in special readings and in a study of these areas. 3. During the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth weeks special attention will be given to workshops and supervised group projects. In the afternoon hours of these weeks, members of the American faculty will leave their regular groups and assist with group projects to be selected by the participants. 4. A change in the regular daily schedule will occur on Monday, January 14, at which time sectional meetings will be held from 9:00 to 12:00 A.M., the general session from 1:30 to 3:00 P.M., and section meetings from 3:00 to 4:00 P.M. 5. A special conference for deans of students in the Kyushu Institute area is being planned for February 8 and 9. 6. A conference for all university presidents in the area served by the Institute is scheduled for March 7, 8, and 9. A. The regular participants of the Institute will attend, with their presidents, the morning session on March 7. 7. During the last several days of the ninth week special attention will be given to the nature of the group projects on which work will be done during the last three weeks of the Institute. A. Participants will submit individual written reports on the projects chosen and completed. The reports will meet the schedule approved by the faculty member in charge of each project, but will be submitted not later than Wednesday, March 26. 8. Each section of the Institute will submit its own general report of the three months' progress. The Japanese faculty member will take responsibility for having the report turned in to the American faculty member not later than the close of the tenth week of the Institute, March 14. REGISTRATION AND ORIENTATION

Although the participants in the Institutes were mature and experienced people, they were to spend three months in work that was partially or wholly new to them. It was advisable, therefore, to put into practice at registration time some of the methods that were to be recommended as of probable benefit to new students in colleges or universities. On their arrival at the Institute the participants were divided into three groups by the two faculties. While one group was getting acquainted with the library and its uses, and another was taking a campus tour, the members of the third group were gathered in individual conferences (kondan) with assigned members of the American faculty. The purpose of individual conferences was twofold. First, they

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helped make the participants feel that there was a genuine attempt to understand their feelings and needs and to give them an opportunity to express themselves regarding the Institute; second, the individual conferences furnished the faculty with needed information on training and experience, English reading ability, and personality. The faculty had, of course, obtained some of these data from a careful study of the applications for admission, but the conferences supplemented the printed forms admirably. The conferences and orientation activities lasted through the afternoon which followed the opening ceremony and were continued the next day. At the close of the second day, subcommittees of the two faculties met and, on the basis of findings in the individual conferences, divided the participants into five discussion groups. The faculty strove for an equal distribution of people with promise of leadership ability, English-reading ability, and excellence of experience and academic training. They also tried to distribute participants according to the type and size of institutions represented. It should be remembered that these groupings did not feature areas of special interest within the field of student personnel services. It was evident that experts could not be produced in a three-month course. Since each university was represented usually by only one person, it seemed of prime importance for him to return to the campus with an over-all view of student personnel work, rather than a three-month focus on any one area. Thus, one of the central functions of the Institutes was that of preparing a university faculty member to return to his university equipped with information and methods for helping other administrators and faculty members toward a better understanding of the general field of student personnel services. Each of the discussion groups was to be assisted by one of the members of the American faculty and a member of the Japanese faculty. In the selection of the American faculty appropriate consideration had been given to the breadth as well as to the depth of their training and experience. In addition to a field of specialization within student personnel work, they were selected on the basis of ability to give adequate emphasis to the entire area. The privilege of delving into a favored limited area and remaining in it was not to be the luxury of the faculty in this year of new experience. The education of experts in the field was to remain a task for the future in Japan. (There are now realistic evidences that this next phase is under way.)

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Student Counseling in Japan

After two days of orientation, individual conferences, and registration, the participants were ready for a study of Institute methods and procedures during the next two days. Following the general assemblies which presented and demonstrated the group procedures, there were periods for small discussion groups in which the participants and faculty members could get acquainted with one another. Chester Ruedisili of the American faculty figured out a rotation of individuals that allowed each faculty member to meet with as many students as possible (following the opening day of official ceremony and orientation) and also gave the participants an opportunity to get acquainted with each other. This rotation is shown in the accompanying chart. These days of concentrated work prepared Institute members for the introduction of regular subject matter on the second Monday. ACADEMIC PROCEDURE AND METHOD

The methods adopted for the Institutes were neither mechanical to the point of killing the initiative of students nor lacking in focus and goal. Participants who themselves were lecturers in colleges and universities probably expected a repetition of the traditional procedures to which they were accustomed. But, as we have already indicated, the faculty was determined not to limit the Institutes by a reliance on tradition—either Japanese or American. The selection of methods and procedures was based wholly on their usefulness to the ultimate goal: helping Japanese educators work out a student personnel program of their own. General Assemblies and Lectures. The Kyoto schedule provided for general assemblies during the first six weeks at the opening and closing periods of each day. In the other two Institutes the lectures were continued for the first nine weeks. The morning and afternoon assemblies were not identical in purpose. For the organization of subject matter, and for setting a framework for the day's work, a morning lecture period was felt to be of greatest help. The participants were accustomed to and expected lectures. As a medium for placing before the Institute a substantial body of subject matter, not otherwise available to students, a limited amount of lecturing was essential and desirable. Difficulties facing the participants in reading the English language materials in the library gave accent to the need for a daily lecture. In the morning lecture, a member of the American faculty treated a subject previously arranged and scheduled. The lecture, includ-

DISCUSSION GROUPS SCHEDULE (The numbers are those assigned to each participant.) Tuesday

Faculty

Wednesday

Friday

Thursday

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 50

63 68 73 78 83 88 93 98 102

22 23 32 33 42 ^3 48 49 51

74 75 84 85 94 96 100 101 103

10 14 18 20 24 35 44 45 47

62 66 70 72 76 87 96 97 99

JSLSTED

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

1 6 22 27 32 37 42 47 51

53 58 74 79 84 89 94 99 103

7 8 24 30 34 40 41 44 50

59 60 76 82 86 92 93 96 102

5 9 19 21 25 29 31 36 46

57 61 71 73 77 81 83 88 98

KLOPJ

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

2 7 12 17 28 33 38 43 48

54 59 64 69 80 85 90 95 100

1 99 15 16 29 31 35 45 52

53 61 67 68 81 83 89 97 104

4 6 13 30 32 39 40 49 50

56 58 65 82 84 91 92 101 102

LLOYD

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88

3 8 13 18 23 39 44 49 52

55 60 65 70 75 91 96 101 104

2 6 10 14 17 21 25 38 46

54 58 62 56 69 73 77 90 98

1 7 15 27 37 41 42 43 48

53 59 67 79 89 93 94 95 100

HUBDISIII

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

4 9 14 19 24 29 34 45

66 61 66 71 76 81 86 97

3 5 11 18 20 26 36 47

55 57 63 70 72 78 88 99

2 8 12 14 22 28 51 52

54 60 64 68 74 80 103 104

WOOL?

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92

4 12 13 19 27 28 37 39

56 64 65 71 70 80 89 91

3 11 17 23 26 33 34 38

55 63 69 75 78 85 86 90

BOROW

47

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Student Counseling in Japan

ing the interpretation, occupied one and one-half hours. The average division of time between the lecture and the interpretation was approximately forty minutes of lecture and fifty minutes of interpretation. The assemblies at the close of the day were one hour in length and differed in purpose and procedure in the different Institutes. Their dominant objective was to bring to focus the findings of the day and to give the five groups a feeling of relatedness in their work. In the afternoon assemblies of the Kyoto Institute reports were made by each group and a discussion period followed. In the two later Institutes, this method was replaced by a carefully organized and scheduled series of demonstrations, colloquies, symposiums, panels, and question-and-answer periods. In all these presentations, time was reserved near the close of the hour for questions or comments from the floor. It was assumed when the programs were first set up that some of the afternoon assemblies would be needed for visiting Japanese lecturers whose training was in fields closely related to student personnel work. In the actual operation of the program, however, the heavy schedule of work which needed attention in the regular program outweighed the value of the earlier plan, and there was little time for outside lecturers. Discussion Groups. For their classroom or workshop of each day the participants divided into the five sections set up at registration time. Here, under the leadership of an American and a Japanese faculty member, they spent the day at work on the subject that had been presented by the lecturer in the morning assembly. The words "at work" are used here advisedly, for it was not the teachers' but the participants' section. Each group engaged in a carefully outlined system of group procedure, with rotating chairmen, observers, and recorders. Interpreters kept faculty members fully informed of the development of the subject by the group. With the assistance of the interpreter, the faculty members could determine the quality of the work that was being done and could lead the group in desired directions when necessary, but they were mainly used as resource persons. The participants, it must always be remembered, had a limited knowledge of the English language. This factor was not the dominant one in establishing group procedure as an Institute methodology, but the linguistic problem added to the desirability of using the method. For students more proficient in reading English, a larger amount of time would have been devoted to library work.

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Discussion group, Kyushu Institute Through this method remarkable group interest and activity developed. There was a clear realization of the responsibility of each member of the group participating in the educative process. The faculty responsibility was no less great. Members of the American faculty worked beyond the usually expected effort and time. The Japanese faculties too gave generously of themselves, but since their regular academic fields usually were not closely related to student personnel work, the responsibility for technical approaches to the study fell to the American faculty members. It is one thing to talk about group procedure and to accept the idea of its strength as a teaching method; but quite another to provide for its proper functioning in a classroom. One member of the American faculty, Gordon Klopf, had been selected partly because of a background of successful experience in the use of group procedures, and he was ably assisted by Maurice Woolf, who had used the method extensively. Together during its first few sessions they led each Institute in study, demonstration, and the actual practice of the method. The technical roles of the group leader, the observer, the recorder, and the participant were demonstrated. The responsibility of the participant in group discussion was reviewed, and it was made clear that throughout the Institute there were to be no passive listeners and no one could monopolize the discussion.

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The group work method was not adopted to limit individual initiative or to subjugate the member to the subtle pressures of the group. Rather, it produced just the opposite results. It was unnecessary for the participants to agree either with the group leader or with the other members. They needed, however, to know the viewpoints of others and to be able to indicate good reasons when they held differing conclusions. The rights of others were considered and mere verbalization was not mistaken for straight thinking. There was evidence that many participants placed as high a value on the group discussion techniques as upon other emphases of the Institutes. They saw in this educational process more than a mere method. It was the embodiment of the democratic philosophy of concern and respect for the individual which underlies the entire field of student personnel services. Group work, as demonstrated in the actual operation of the Institutes, promised to be commonly adopted by Institute participants in much of their regular teaching after they returned to their campuses. It seems probable that the experience of the year may alter even the future teaching methods of some members of the American faculty. The Japanese participants found the method particularly useful in conducting orderly meetings with "leftist" students who invariably tried to take over meetings and allow no viewpoint to be heard unless it conformed to their own. The effort of Institute-trained professors, familiar with the techniques and spirit of group procedures, to introduce such procedures among student organizations on the campuses of the country can be one of the most vital forces in the preservation of law and order at a time when it is most needed. At the end of the year, Henry Borow reported the following four observations, which summarize the effect of group procedures as used in the Institutes: 1. Mid-Institute and post-Institute evaluations showed that the participants as a group heartily endorsed the group discussion method, though some of them had found it strange and uncomfortable at the outset. 2. Observations of group behavior demonstrated that the discussion groups showed progress in handling the various group roles and in their ability to do group thinking. 3. Several participants reported that they had begun to use the group discussion method in working with student groups on their own campuses as a result of their own experience with this method at the Institute.

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4. Many participants reported plans to adopt the group discussion method in proposed in-service training programs for the student personnel staffs on their own campuses. Others planned to introduce it as a modus operandi for faculty committees and for graduate seminars in psychology and other fields. Other Procedures. During the last month of each Institute, the afternoon schedule was altered to allow for meetings of the "group project" sections. These newly formed sections met for the full afternoon period without interruption. They organized group projects applicable to specific campuses, reported progress to the general assemblies, worked in committees and subcommittees, and near the close of the projects prepared project reports. The original groups of the first two months met together during the first half of each day throughout the third month. These groups centered on practical ways of improving student personnel services on their own campuses and on a further exploration of fields of special interest to the group. Among the other practical educative projects of the Institutes were field trips. These were undertaken by each group under its own scheduling. The trips generally were made to college campuses in the vicinity of the Institute, and occupied several hours of observation and study. At least two groups during the Kyoto Institute, for instance, scheduled a field trip to Doshisha Women's College, where student personnel workers of the college met with the group and led them in a study and discussion of the dormitory system at Doshisha as well as of related problems in student organizations and activities. Dr. Borow suggested three values related to the group field studies: 1. The participants had an opportunity to see concrete examples of student personnel programs in action. Not all of these examples were models of desirability. Sometimes the participants observed such negative and outmoded student personnel services practices in their visits to other universities that the point of view and techniques presented in the regular Institute stood out in bold relief. In other words, observations of such programs sometimes served as object lessons and provided valuable material for group discussion on the distinction between the old and the new in student personnel work. 2. The participants were able to see student personnel work in relation to the broader concept of guidance and community social service. They became acquainted with some of the government resources upon which the alert student personnel worker may draw in meeting the problems of student life and adjustment.

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3. The informality of field trips hastened the development of an esprit de corps in the discussion group which enlivened future class sessions and favored progress in group functioning. Recreation was sometimes combined with field trips (luncheons, etc.), and the friendly and relaxed nature of these occasions had a salutary effect upon intragroup relations. RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

The Japanese participants taught their visiting professors at least one lesson in educational procedure. In their concern to offer a complete program in a limited time, the director and other members of the American faculty may have overlooked the value of a recreational program in setting the stage for a learning situation. The participants came together from many campuses and were usually unacquainted. The members of the two faculties were new to them. In the Japanese culture even more than in the American, formalities play an important part in classroom procedure and in other phases of education. It was the participants and the Japanese faculty who knew best that if the members could play together and break down the formal barriers, better academic results would follow. If the system of Institutes were to be continued, it is likely that recreational events would be introduced among the first activities of each Institute. During recreational periods that were provided there were hikes and baseball games. At other times members of the American faculty were introduced to places and scenes of interest and of special significance to the Japanese people. Included were trips to the ancient capital of Nara and to the coal mining and industrial area of Omuta. In every locality of Japan, the people had learned the advantages of group and individual activities for bringing relaxation to body and mind. There is a pace for effective work in the Orient. It is not identical to the pace of the Occident. One example of the sensitivity and insight with which the Japanese apply recreation as a therapeutic and positive element is found in an uncommon incident which occurred during an Institute day. In the critical work of interpreting a morning lecture, the interpreter had become somewhat confused and with great difficulty was attempting to find her way in presenting the message accurately. Under the strain of the occasion, one failure followed another until emotional disturbance added to the problem. Tension arose for both interpreter and faculty member. Rather than allow the problem to invade the atmosphere of

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the regular group discussion, members of the group who were to work with that faculty member for the day asked permission to hold their afternoon discussion in a garden near the university. Once on the path, it was evident that the real reason for the walk into the garden was to allow the members to stroll leisurely down the quiet paths, and, in the words of a Japanese faculty member, "to find the quiet and beauty of nature." The incident gave opportunity for new insights in human relations and the development of a new sense of rapport among all members of the group. FACULTY MEETINGS

Regular faculty meetings were of three types: (1) weekly joint meetings of the Japanese and American faculties, (2) daily meetings of the American faculty, and (3) weekly evening meetings of the American faculty. Additional meetings on special call were frequent. The weekly joint meetings for the American and Japanese faculties were held on Thursdays following the close of the regular afternoon program. As much time as was necessary was taken for a full discussion of problems and developments of the week. In addition to these joint meetings, Japanese and American faculty members worked in pairs and cooperated in the solution of problems relating to their own sections of the Institute. In the joint faculty meetings reports and requests of the participants' liaison committee were heard and acted upon. Academic

Joint faculty meeting, Kyushu Institute

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standards and Institute evaluation, reports of faculty committees, and the planning of special events were also discussed. Problems of concern to the American faculty were considered each morning at a thirty-minute meeting preceding the opening of the day's work. These meetings opened with a preview of the day's program. The faculty member who was scheduled to deliver the morning lecture suggested emphases that might be appropriate for the day. The afternoon general assembly was discussed and all detailed arrangements checked. Reports on Institute-related activities engaged in by individuals or groups in the faculty were given. This daily session seldom provided enough time for needed discussion of group or personal problems relating to transportation, billeting, and daily and weekly schedules. A random selection of an informal agenda from one of the daily faculty meetings will give an intimate glimpse into the events of a normal day. It is taken from the unedited notes of the director:

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII.

FACULTY MEETING Monday, July 8,'52 8:30 A.M. Review time schedule for the day. Get Maurice's suggestions on procedures to follow his lecture. Check final plans for afternoon assembly. Report from committee on evaluation of the Institute. Complete arrangements for July 9 faculty meeting 6:00-8:30 P.M. Report from Ed on transportation and packing. Check due date on group project reports. Discuss final distribution of library after closing of Institutes. Call attention to meeting with Ministry of Education on July 12 and interpreters' dinner on July 8. Announce complete transportation available until close of Institute. Review items for consideration at joint Institute meeting. Other agenda items from faculty members.

The third type of faculty meeting differed from both the daily sessions of the American faculty, which were largely concerned with plans and procedures of the day, and the joint meetings of the Japanese and American faculties. These meetings were held at least once a week, usually on Saturday, and lasted from two to three hours. When Institute-related work interfered with the regular schedule, the meeting was changed to a week night. The meetings were designed to assist members of the American faculty to educate one another in the fine arts of the profes-

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sion. These were not exclusively in-service training sessions. Often the plans of the week or the month ahead, academic and otherwise, were given unhurried consideration. Yet perhaps the most fruitful part of the sessions occurred when the meticulous attention of the entire faculty was focused on the coming lectures or contributions of some one member. Although each member of the faculty was given direct responsibility for presenting in the morning general sessions from six to eight of the thirty-five scheduled lectures, it was not a "hit-and-run" kind of experience. In contrast to usual practices with university lectures, each member knew before he actually presented his material to the assembly that in the Saturday session both his subject and his method would be discussed informally but critically by all faculty members. Since the technical training of all members was in closely related fields, there was an invigorating exchange of judgment and experience in these sessions. This worked to the educational advantage of all members of the faculty and eventually to the advantage of the participants in the Institutes. This phase of the work was given special emphasis following the Kyoto Institute. Since each person knew before he presented his material that it would be evaluated and criticized by other faculty members and that all would try to make more realistic and practical the work of each, there was ample motivation for every member to give needed time and attention to the advance preparation of his work. The luxury of responsibility to one's self alone, which typifies the usual practice of professors in all countries, was abandoned for the benefit of the student personnel project. Perhaps the students of American and Japanese universities would appreciate it if all their professors were more accountable to one another for the gains or losses of the day. When we add to the practice of inservice training the informalities of rooming in the same buildings and eating in the same places for a year, the personal equation in the building of the Institutes comes into bold relief. From this exacting academic discipline there was fashioned an effective introductory training course in student personnel services. The course, prepared for a project in international education, has its specific contributions for use in courses in the United States. American student personnel work in 1951 had reached a point at which it needed to be viewed from a distance by members of the profession. It was desirable to review the gains and to sort out those things

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which are most vital to the work. It was good also to discover which of the emphases would be of greatest use to a nation that desired major expansion in its program. When a group of six faculty members was able to give one year's undivided attention to such a task, a unique opportunity was furnished for re-thinking American patterns of student personnel services. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE INSTITUTES

Certain features and developments were common to all three Institutes. Others were unique to each. The latter were introduced because of special needs of the local area or as a result of the experience of a previous Institute. The term local area as used in this volume refers to a group of prefectures or politico-geographic units served by a given Institute. From two of the written reports prepared by the faculty members at the end of the year, we can get a picture of some of the differences among the people in the widely separated areas served by the three Institutes. The first is by Gordon Klopf: Each of the three groups with which I worked in the Institutes for Student Personnel Services was distinctly different in terms of personalities, group unity and maturity, and development. The Kyoto group consisted of strong individual personalities and had some difficulty developing an intellectual unity. Although socially they appeared to have a good time, one could not say they were a strong social unit. About six of the fourteen members took exceptional interest in student personnel work and gained deep conceptions of its meaning. Except for two or three members, the group took the Institute in sttide and cooperated especially well. At first the group seemed concerned that the American staff did not have previous experience in the economic, social, cultural, and political background of the Japanese university. As the Institute progressed, they began, however, to see certain principles of personnel work as basic to any society. The group enjoyed its social activities and showed its best spirit at these times. Although their social events always had group and individual entertainment, vigorous discussions concerning student personnel problems always developed. The group also had excellent informal discussion sessions around the stove with their lunches during the noon free periods. The individual projects of the Kyoto participants were varied in subject and quality. About one third of the members wrote surveys, and descriptive and historical treatises of student life in Japan. Most of them dealt with some problems within their own institution. In addition, each

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member described the status and needed changes in his own institution's personnel program. Both American and Japanese faculty members tried to be particularly helpful during the time of these reports. The group was greatly interested in the administrative problems related to developing an improved personnel program. They indicated that rigid and traditional administrative concepts limited the expansion of the function of student personnel work in Japanese universities. In analyzing the problems of their own institutions there was a tendency, however, to use tradition, the Ministry of Education, and other factors as "crutches" without giving complete concern to needed growth. The group thoroughly enjoyed planning an exhibit on student activities and felt very much a part of the lectures on student activities, for they had been briefly reviewed in the group. They enjoyed having speakers, and even when they were present never hesitated to reflect their feelings or individual differences. All but three of this Kyoto group were present at the Kyoto reunion and student personnel organization meeting in April. Four of the members came to the Tokyo conference, and there has been a continuous exchange of letters with many of them. For a group of its small size and what at first seemed an extreme mixture of personalities and experience backgrounds, my Kyushu Institute group acquired a remarkable degree of both social and intellectual unity. They developed as well a sincere interest in really attempting to understand modern student personnel concepts. Perhaps because the Japanese faculty member was a philosopher, we attempted first to explore many issues from a philosophical point of view. The group was open-minded and interested in what the American lecturers had to say about how things were done in the United States. These men reflected a sort of progressive pioneer spirit which I felt in much of the work in Kyushu. They were of feudal background, but they reflected a deep concern for improving their colleges and universities. An influential member in our Institute group in Kyushu, and yet at first the most shy because of his age, was the group psychologist. He was well accepted by the group for his unassuming, yet convincing manner, which was such that even the men of much experience and professional maturity respected him deeply. He made an outstanding contribution to the group in unobtrusively helping them to understand the psychological backgrounds and implications of the issues we were discussing. The Kyushu Institute afternoon group dealing with student activities with which I worked approached most diligently and thoroughly the problems of determining student group interests and needs, leadership training, and student government. The final project, a sort of activities handbook, was not of a high intellectual or original quality, but it represented hard work and seemed to answer a need of the participants. They all felt it would be of real use in their institutions.

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The group with which I worked at the Tokyo Institute represented a wide range of experience and interest. As many of them testified in their evaluation session at the end of the Institute, they became so interested and involved that attendance was consistently excellent. The group was not only concerned about the concepts of personnel work that they were gaining, but were deeply interested in their discussion procedures. Our psychologist did a thorough study of the development of the group and how the members gained understanding and skill in the use of the democratic processes. The discussions were always realistic and attempted to continuously analyze what changes were needed in the teaching and administrative programs of their universities. They felt a great need for a professional approach to student personnel work and for training in the field. The social feeling of the group was of a high level. Their final party was one of the best I attended in Japan. The group showed a deep respect for the interpreter and real team work was evident with the Japanese faculty member with whom I shared the responsibility for the group. The report of Leona Felsted indicates other differences: Members of Group Six* of the Kyoto Institute with whom I worked were receptive to new content in subject matter, but they were critically analytical of it. They approached their study with sensitivity to the need for change in the Japanese system of working with students. They had respect for each other and developed in a shorter time than might have been expected into an interacting group. All members functioned as observers to such a degree that within a short time the practice of appointing a special observer was discontinued. Group participation in assisting the recorder to organize his report in the form of conclusions and recommendations was one of the significant characteristics of the group. A sense of the importance of their work in relation to its continuation beyond the time and membership of the Institute was marked when the group initiated the idea that there should be an association organized for study toward development of student personnel services. A further indication of group seriousness and earnestness about the work of the Institute developed in the decision of the group to compile the summary of discussions of the first six weeks of the Institute in mimeographed form for distribution to all members of the group. This later developed into a publication by the newly organized regional association. The use of the initials "SPS" as a substitute for the longer phrase, for which there was no Japanese equivalent, was originated by a member of this group. * Each of the five groups of the Kyoto Institute came to be known by the number of the room in which it met.

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In the Kyushu group the caliber of the individual members seemed to be a little different from that of the Kyoto group. However, in the group process there was a greater problem in motivation of originality of thought and vision in relation to the whole scope of SPS. For a period of two weeks the group accepted partial domination by two members, one of whom had the traditional business officer and clerical approach to SPS. One of the most significant developments, however, within this unit was the change in which a dominant member became a valuable team worker. This was a result of effective group procedure. The lack of English reading ability in this group was a distinct handicap. When faced with this limitation, the Kyoto group had utilized the ability of English-reading members to benefit all members through planned group-reading sessions. These were systematically carried out to supplement all lectures. The Kyushu group experienced another handicap which was more imaginary than actual. Theirs was the only group which did not have a psychologist either as a participant or as a Japanese faculty member. The emphasis on the importance of the psychologist had been sufficiently strong in the Kyushu Institute that Group Two frankly expressed a sense of inferiority in relation to the other groups. In this respect it is significant that the group matured to such a degree that they voluntarily invited in a psychologist from another group as a consultant during their project study. The development of group solidarity and unity with this group was further strengthened by what it considered to be its deficiency. To compensate for what it felt to be its inferiority as a group, it overemphasized group unity as a means of emotional security. To a degree, therefore, the importance of group processes and group unity were overextended at a time when the group might effectively have extended its contacts. The group in the Tokyo Institute approached the work of the Institute with a more careful and conservative attitude than had either of the other two groups; although the members were generally of high ability, there seemed more resistance to be overcome with the participants. It seemed difficult to get recorded evidence of growth and development on subject matter. There was, however, an apparent growth of confidence in the objectives of the work of the Institute. Gradually, the effect of reading became apparent and added references were made to specific reading sources. The two most significant evidences of growth came through the group dynamics study made by the psychologist participant, and the results of the final three weeks' individual studies for specific application in the participant's institution. The first of these two indicated a steady increase in number of participations by all members of the group and a steady decline in the amount of time consumed by any one individual contribution to the discussion.

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The individual studies, each reported in considerable detail to the American faculty member during the last week of the Institute, varied in value. However, a significant proportion brought not only recommendations of what should be done, but very detailed and practical suggestions of how a suggested change or function could be brought about. This phase of the work was superior to that of the work of either of the other groups in the same division of study. One of the finest of these reports, in a practical sense as well as in its indication of understanding of a basic philosophy, came from a technical school man who, at the beginning, had offered the greatest amount of resistance to the possibility that the Institute could be of any value to him or his school. Another participant who, in the registration interview, had indicated that his school already had a very good SPS program which he thought did not need the Institute work to improve it was absent a great proportion of the time. It later proved that his president had not made it possible for him to attend regularly. During the last week, even though he knew that he could not qualify for certification, this participant came voluntarily to report on conclusions and recommendations for use in his school, based on what he had been able to develop from his limited attendance. In contrast to his earlier attitude, he made the statement that he recognized in his school the need for a complete and careful evaluation of the student personnel program, that he intended to continue to study and to make improvements on the existing system, and that his president was in full accord with his efforts. Characteristic differences among the three Institutes were not found in location and personnel alone. The Kyoto sessions gave the American faculty an exceptional chance to study the effectiveness of preliminary programing in the light of actual Institute experience. The Kyoto Institute should not be regarded primarily as experimental; it operated on solid foundations and was planned with meticulous care with the help of the Japanese faculty. But there was no substitute for actual educative experience that was specific to the task. The word educative here is used to refer to the education of the American faculty. After four months in Japan, the American faculty realized quite fully the importance of experience in a new culture as a basis of effective teaching. Administrators, faculty members, and participants of the Kyoto Institute had given valuable in-service training to their foreign guests and had done it with infinite patience and understanding. But the Japanese faculties and participants were too courteous and considerate to recommend corrections or suggest changes in the manner which constitutes the blunt and daily "polishing off" of one American to another. The

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Japanese also on occasion requested that American methods and substance be accented, and the American faculty members had to remain alert to the fact that even the Japanese educators might need help in seeing that the American way would not in all cases be the best standard by which to judge Japanese "SPS." It was proper, for instance, to talk about the admissions system as it operated in American universities, but a consideration of the operation of the quota system in Japan was necessary before needed changes could be recommended in the admissions system for Japanese institutions of higher learning.* It was essential, then, for the visiting specialists to attempt rigid selfcriticism of Institute emphases in content and method. The changing emphases, although not always major in nature, were rich in educative value for the American faculty. Following the Kyoto session, the American faculty spent a month in a careful review and evaluation of the detailed procedures and offerings that had characterized the Institute. At the end of this month the American faculty submitted the following recommendations with regard to the program and procedures of the coming Kyushu Institute: 1. That the time schedule for the first and second phases of the Institute be changed to provide that the general survey and orientation period continue from the first to the ninth weeks, inclusive, and that the phase dealing with workshops and supervised group projects occupy the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth weeks. [In Kyoto an equal amount of time had been given to each of the two major phases of the program.] 2. That the first week of the Institute be designated for purposes of registration and special work on group procedures. 3. That on Monday of the second week the general session be held from 1:30 to 3:00 P.M. in order that the business of group organization may occupy the morning session. 4. That the Presidents' Conference be held on Friday and Saturday of the ninth week and Sunday of the tenth week, and that on Friday morning the presidents be invited to meet with the participants from their institutions. (In Kyoto this conference had been held at the close of the Institute.) 5. That in the second phase of the Institutes, group projects be emphasized more than individual projects. A. During the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth weeks faculty members * Under the present quota system a student is admitted to a specific department or faculty within the university rather than to the university at large. The set budget of each department determines the quota or number of students to be admitted. In this system it is difficult for a student to change his field of specialization after once being admitted to one special academic area or faculty.

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should leave their regular morning groups and work with special project groups under organized assignment. 6. That the number of sections into which the Institute should be divided be determined on the basis of numerical and other evidence yet to be submitted. 7. That a faculty subcommittee submit a plan for reorganizing the method and content of the afternoon general sessions. [This was done with exceptional effect.] 8. That during the last few days of the ninth week, special emphasis be given to the nature of the projects on which work was to be done during the last three weeks of the Institute. 9. That complete reports from each section of the Institute be submitted to the general director's desk at the close of the eleventh week. 10. That the system of daily faculty meetings from 8:30 to 9:00 A.M. be continued, and that special faculty sessions covering critical previews of lecture subjects and outlines for the coming week be given special emphasis, these special sessions to be held each Saturday from 9:00 to 11:30A.M. 11. That greater emphasis be given to the area of research and evaluation. 12. That special sessions devoted to the lecture topics of the first and second weeks of the next Institute be held December 27, 29, 30, and 31 at the Kyoto Hotel, 9:00 to 11:30 A.M. 13. The following daily schedule is recommended for the Kyushu Institute. Second to ninth weeks, inclusive: 8:00-9:00 A.M 9:00-10:30 A.M 10:45-12:00 A.M 1:00-1:30p.M 1:30-3:00 P.M 3:00-4:00 P.M

Study for participants; meeting of American faculty Daily general session; faculty lectures Discussion groups with members of the American faculty Study Sectional meetings under the general responsibility of the American faculty Daily general assembly

Tenth, eleventh, and twelfth weeks: 8:00-9:00 A.M 9:00-10:30 A.M 10:45-12:00 A.M

Study and faculty meeting Workshops Continuation of workshops (lectures, discussions, audio-visual aids, etc.) Study Supervised group projects

1:00-1:30 P.M 1:30-2:30 P.M 2:30-4:00 P.M. (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) — Continuation of supervised group projects 2:30-4:00 P.M. (Tuesday and Thursday) General assembly

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With slight modification, these recommendations became Kyushu Institute procedure. The wisdom of the changes that were made was demonstrated in an improvement of the work of most of the groups and particularly in the interest and understanding demonstrated by the group project sections. On these projects, committees and subcommittees worked far into the night and made some personal financial sacrifices in completing projects and in reporting them in meaningful ways. In calling attention to the different characteristics of each of the sessions and of changes that were made, it should be kept in mind that the earlier planning proved to be fundamentally sound and that common areas of subject matter and major procedure—registration, clerical work, business arrangements, daily scheduling, and so on—formed a rich continuity through the year. This may be demonstrated in part by another quotation from Leona Felsted's report: The groups for which I served as group leader in the Kyoto, Kyushu, and Tokyo Institutes respectively had much in common in their development of understanding, in their application of subject matter presented, in the lecture, and in their attitudes. Attitudes as used in this connection is comprehensive of both group and individual attitudes. It is inclusive of individual and group relationship attitudes and of attitudes toward the incorporation of new ideas. The process by which subject matter was handled was essentially the same for each group at the beginning of the series of workshops. It was clear at the beginning of each Institute that the discussion plan of working was so new to the participants that help was needed to initiate the process. Once a tentative plan was given for handling content from the lecture, each group showed an adeptness at proceeding to use a plan and to alter it in accordance with the simultaneously developing characteristics of the group and its needs. The suggested plan which initiated the series of discussions was as follows: Clarification of subject matter Understanding of ideas presented Differentiation between content which was new and that which already existed to some degree in the Japanese situation Analysis of the existing situation in Japan in relation to lecture presentations Objectives for relating new ideas to existing situations Purposes and desirability of change Nature of change to be effected Specific measures by which desired and needed change might be effected in Japanese educational institutions

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Each group by its own decision followed the same plan of rotating its group membership roles—discussion chairman, recorder, observer—so that each member received experience in serving in the role several times with an intervening period between. It was in this intervening period that each member had an opportunity to study his own method of functioning in comparison with that of other members and to profit by the observer's comments. In some few cases there was little evidence of growth in handling the particular role, but in general there was marked growth in effective handling. In only two cases of all the three groups did a participant decline to accept the chairmanship when it came to him in rotation. In both incidents, however, chairmanship was accepted later in the course. In one case the oldest member of a group remained apparently indifferent to the discussions during the first two weeks, and twice declined his role as chairman. His acceptance of his role came after he had begun to participate in the discussion; it appeared to be an endorsement of the importance of some things which he had previously considered of relatively little importance.

CHAPTER 5

Academic Content of the Institutes

NO COMPREHENSIVE discussion of the subject matter treated in the Institutes will be attempted in this chapter. The thirty-seven morning lectures covering twenty areas of emphasis have been condensed into one volume, translated into Japanese, and published by the Ministry of Education.* Supplementing the printed volume are section reports and individual notes of the participants, many of which were mimeographed and distributed during the Institutes. These are on file in the Ministry of Education offices. The picture of the Institutes presented here is not complete, however, without at least a summary of the areas of subject matter considered by the participants. In most cases, it will be recognized that they parallel those that are being stressed in the United States. But, as in all other phases of the Institutes, the needs of Japanese universities were controlling. These needs dictated, among other things, a wholesome balance between theory and practice in the subject-matter offerings. Favoring the theoretical emphasis was an enthusiasm on the part of participants to work with systems of thought. This was a natural result of the traditional practices in Japanese universities where even in such fields as psychological research, as we have indicated, the tendency has been to emphasize the theoretical often at the expense of the applied phases. Before the American faculty left the United States, the Japanese Steering Committee had sent a request that some emphasis be given to the philosophic basis for student personnel work. And the faculty kept this in mind. In the actual operation of the Institutes, however, the theory of student personnel services had to make room for practical and immediate applications in Japanese universities of the day. For the participants, * Gakusei-Joiku (Tokyo: Ministry of Education, 1952).

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with all their preference for the theoretical, early recognized their need for specific, down-to-earth suggestions. The following is an excerpt from a letter received under date of July 20, 1952, from a member of one of the Institutes, who after the close of the Institute had been appointed dean of students: "/. . the students' activities have given me much trouble. Certainly the job of Dean of Students is very hard in the present universities in Japan, where the political activities are too much." Such sentiments of concern could have been echoed by numerous other participants who, after returning to their campuses, were assigned to posts in some area of student personnel services. Any one of these assignments carried with it practical and difficult problems. Three months of technical training was a minimum need for the educators faced with these problems, and the faculties of the Institutes endeavored to utilize the time to best advantage by giving the participants a thorough grounding in the practice of student personnel services as well as a background in theory for the subject-matter areas. The fields of subject matter, after they were approved and adopted by the joint Japanese and American faculties, were presented during the first eight to nine weeks of each Institute (six weeks at Kyoto). The various fields were introduced in the lectures given by members of the American faculty during the general assembly at the opening of each day and were developed in the work of the discussion groups. The academic emphasis in the latter part of each Institute was on specific projects selected from the areas studied during the first two months. The Lectures Not all the areas considered were given equal weight in the time allotment. Here again the judgment of the two faculties was the determining factor. It was necessary, of course, to avoid limiting the emphasis to those fields best known to Japanese universities. The Institutes had a responsibility for creating an interest in other fields that would contribute to bettering conditions for higher education in Japan. The accompanying list of lectures indicates the range of topics. The subject No. of Subject

Group Procedures Objectives of the Institutes Philosophy of Student Personnel Services Scope of Student Personnel Services Student Activities

Lecturer Lectures Klopf and Woolf 3 Lloyd 1 Lloyd 2 Felsted 1 Klopf 4

Academic Content Subject Concepts of Counseling Admissions Orientation Records Tests and Measurements Educational Counseling Faculty Advising in Student Personnel Services Counseling with Reference to Personal Problems Discipline Vocational Counseling Student Personnel Services in Coeducation Student Financial Aids Student Housing Administrative Organization of Student Personnel Services Research and Evaluation

67 Lecturer Borow Felsted Woolf Felsted Ruedisili Borow Ruedisili Woolf Woolf Borow Felsted Felsted Felsted Lloyd Ruedisili and Borow

No. of Lectures 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 2

3 2

of student health services is conspicuously absent as a separate title in this listing. Student health programs, however, are of vital concern in Japan where there is a high incidence of tuberculosis, and supervision of such programs was considered under the heading Administrative Organization of Student Personnel Services. The following sections indicate briefly the scope of each of these units of study. GROUP PROCEDURES

Since group procedures have already been discussed at some length in Chapter 4, this topic is given only passing mention here. Group procedure was not instituted as a method alone. Its practice did more than lectures could have done, because it demonstrated that the primary consideration in student personnel work is the individual and emphasis is on individual responsibility in the educative process. Group procedures were an appropriate accompaniment to the accent in the Institutes on democratic ways and on individual and social responsibilities in all student personnel work. The introductory lectures pointed out these values and prepared the participants for the use of group procedures. OBJECTIVES OF THE INSTITUTES

The participants entered each Institute with little understanding of its specific objectives and purposes. Many of them had come under the general assumption that they were to hear lectures in the area of welfare and guidance. Welfare and guidance work lacked appeal both to professors and students. It was essential that the negative atmosphere

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which had arisen around the words welfare and guidance not be allowed to shadow the Institutes; that the participants gain a new and fresh viewpoint on the nature of student personnel work even though it was to be geared to problems of Japanese universities. For this reason one unit of work was devoted to objectives. The lecture on objectives, in addition to correcting misunderstandings, attempted to give the participants a sense of the realistic possibilities of the three months' training period. They were reminded that they were to be pioneers in the professional approach to student personnel services in Japan, and perhaps would have charter membership in a new educational organization. They were not to be without help in the work ahead. Conferences were to be called with their presidents and deans. In these conferences the administrative officers would be made aware of the work which was being done by the faculty participants. In order that the participants would not regard the work as impractical, the director pointed out in the lecture that the American faculty had not come to the Institutes totally unaware of the problems in the higher education of Japan. They had studied these problems on many campuses—American faculty members, in fact, had visited more Japanese universities than had most of the participants. Among the specific objectives for the Institutes, these were listed: 1. To make a thoroughgoing clarification of the importance of student personnel services and of their relationship to the academic work of the university. 2. To encourage the recognition and use of the scientific method in dealing with student needs in contrast to the highly limited subjective approaches now in common use. 3. To point out and demonstrate effective methods of assisting student organizations in the promotion of legitimate campus activities. This should motivate leadership from within the campus rather than from off campus. 4. To give participants further evidence of the educative value of out-of-class activities and techniques. 5. To emphasize the individual, rather than the mass, approach in the educational life of university students. 6. To point out certain concepts of student personality as a basic guide to counseling. 7. To specify the importance of faculty advising and to outline a program of training for faculty counselors. 8. To study and demonstrate ways of improving faculty-student relationships in universities.

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9. To find ways of evaluating the student personnel program on the campuses of the participants. PHILOSOPHY OF STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

The two lectures on the philosophy of student personnel services pointed out that in the light of scientific findings on human nature philosophies of education from the distant past are inadequate. The participants were reminded that universities, of any nation, which operate in traditional fashion without making a scientific study of students as a basis for their academic and out-of-class offerings disregard one of the most vital developments in the history of education. Objective studies reveal that the dominant procedure of many institutions of higher learning has been merely to pass on to students the academic training received earlier by the teacher. This has resulted in an overemphasis on book work and a tendency to fit people into subject-matter patterns. Universities are quick to explain but slow to demonstrate that they are giving adequate attention to the student, who is the most significant unit of the campus. The Institute participants were warned that an overemphasis on academic life alone, as found in some early German universities, is an insufficient goal for modern institutions of higher learning. The student personnel approach must recognize educational problems and personal factors not considered in the regular classroom. It assumes that time spent by a student in university training is of such value that it should begin with a careful analysis of student aptitudes, characteristics, and interests. This should be supplemented by reliable counseling, and thoughtful organization and planning on the part of the student. The entire resources of the university should then be utilized to provide educational offerings, both classroom and out-of-class, that will assist the student to become a more balanced and thoughtful person and a more useful member of society. This approach owes much to the pragmatic concept, which emphasizes the place of the individual in the social order and gives the human element precedence over arm-chair philosophies. It has been a major factor in the development of today's philosophy of education. THE SCOPE OF STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

In her lecture on the scope of student personnel services, Leona Felsted pointed to the present situation in Japan in which students feel

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insecurity in social, economic, and political life. This condition gives emphasis to the broad scope of actual student needs. For example, evaluation studies of admissions procedures are needed in Japan. Admissions should consider the obligation of the university to society and at the same time the chances of the student to succeed in his university work. Closely linked with admissions procedures are cumulative records and test results, tools fundamental in student personnel work. The keeping of these records presupposes the next important step, their practical use. To gain real value from the records, there should be trained personnel, physical facilities, and an adequate operating budget. Other necessary student personnel services may be conveniently classified under the following headings: orientation, housing and food services, counseling, student activities, financial assistance, health services, and graduate placement. Their useful performance rests on the practice of skillful administration. Dr. Felsted concluded: "It becomes clear that the student personnel program is inclusive of sources more extensive and of different quality than those under present guidance and welfare offices in Japan." STUDENT ACTIVITIES

A systematic program of student activities operates on the assumptions that such activities have educative value and that the university has responsibility regarding them. If these assumptions are accepted, the university has an obligation to provide a qualified staff and physical facilities adequate to assist student groups in furthering an out-of-class program in keeping with the purposes and objectives of the university. Of major concern in student activities are student government; athletic and sports groups; professional, departmental, and cultural groups; student publications; social activities; planning activities; programs of leadership training; and the evaluation of student activities. Gordon Klopf in presenting the subject of student activities emphasized the point that modern student government is a deviation from a former pattern in which students hired the professors and controlled the general operation of the university community. This practice required a sense of responsibility on the part of students. It was gradually superseded by a more authoritarian type of administration. A vital rebirth of student government in the United States followed World War I as the result of the enrollment at universities of a large number of mature war

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veterans who had a deep sense of social concern and strong administrative and organizational ability. This is not identical to the display of license without responsibility that at times characterizes the efforts of minority student groups in present-day universities in Japan. Student government is established to meet student social, economic, and educational needs and as a medium for training students in the proper responsibilities of citizenship and leadership in society. These special purposes should be kept in mind in general student body affairs and in the government of special groups within the student body. In his lecture Dr. Klopf surveyed some of the nationally organized student groups in Japan—the Japan Student Relief Committee, an affiliate of the World University Service; the Student Christian Movement; Zengakuren, associated with the world communist student movement; the International Student Association; UNESCO; and the Japanese Student Federation for the United Nations Movement—and commented: "JaPan needs a strong, dynamic student movement which represents that for which universities must stand, the search for truth. It needs an organization which functions democratically, and considers all aspects of student social, economic, and political life. It needs a student movement that is not a 'front' for any one political belief or doctrine." In the growth of such a student movement, the counsel and friendly interest of administrators and faculty members is an important factor. In administrative organization and procedure, there should be a clear understanding of specific areas of cooperation between staff members and student leaders and opportunities provided for frequent consultation and counsel. In the matter of policy making, a student activities policy committee, with its functions and relationships with the university clearly defined, may be the source of successful legislation. University campuses are often characterized by two parallel patterns of life and thought: the conservative faculty way and the impatient tendencies of the student group. It should be a constant concern of the university to encourage conditions of complementary relationship between these two groups and to work toward a single campus community. THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Henry Borow in a concise treatment of the concept of counseling indicated certain minimum conditions that are essential to counseling. After pointing out distinguishing characteristics between the older clinical view of counseling as a cure for deep-seated maladjustments and the

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more recent view of counseling as an educational experience, Dr. Borow specified the following characteristics of a genuine counseling process: it encourages wholesome personal and social relationships of a purposeful nature between young people and adults; it provides for gathering and evaluating facts from which decisions may be made; and it gives a better understanding of the student's motivations, anxieties, or fears. In the counseling procedure, the student may judiciously compare his own thoughts with those of the counselor, who may be able to exercise a more objective viewpoint on problems of vital concern to the student. This provides greater opportunity for the emergence of mature behavior on the part of the student. In educational work there should be full recognition of the complementary relationships between teaching and counseling. Each has its significant place in the educative process. In counseling, greater opportunity is given for the analysis of individual differences; environmental circumstances receive more specific attention; a more confidential relationship is encouraged; and the student assumes more active responsibility in the learning process. An objective in the counseling of any student is that of assisting him to achieve a more complete and balanced educational experience than can be provided by the usual classroom environment. In contrast to casual two-person interviews, counseling systematically and in a professional manner takes into consideration selective factors that are vital to the specific situation. It constantly reexamines and evaluates its own procedures. After calling attention to the fact that he had described a type of counseling that is done by technically trained personnel, Dr. Borow concluded: "Since training facilities for such counselors are at present nonexistent in Japan, the counselor, in the sense here described, hardly exists as yet in Japanese universities. As the concept for student personnel services continues to grow and become professionalized, however, it seems almost certain that the need for the training and use for such professional counselors will be both recognized and fulfilled. A strong hope may be expressed that this prediction will come to pass, for it is no exaggeration to state that effective and competent counseling lies at the very roots of modern student personnel work." UNIVERSITY ADMISSIONS

Thousands of students in Japan who could successfully perform all academic requirements cannot gain admission to the universities. The

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present admissions system, closely related to financial support of the universities and the quota system, is under constant study by the Ministry of Education but will require major changes for the best interests of higher education in Japan. In presenting to the Institutes the topic of admissions (which she defined simply as the "process by which students become part of an institution of learning"), Leona Felsted recommended: 1. A thoroughgoing study of the validity and reliability of tests used in the admissions process, of their use as predictive instruments, and of application of research results. 2. A study of the reasons and the basis on which quotas or limitations on enrollments are determined. Such a study would aid in the consequent revision of the quota system. 3. A recognition that admission to an institution should not guarantee the student graduation unless there is complete validity of the predictive instruments used in admissions, supplemented by adequate motivation on the part of the student. 4. A revision of policy to facilitate transfer of students between institutions, which can be beneficial both to the student and the institution to which he transfers. 5. Provision for records which permit functional use in interpreting for the student all data which the institution collects regarding him. 6. An integration of the values of general education into the educational and vocational aspects of pre-admissions counseling. 7. Concern for the distribution of students among qualified institutions according to individual aptitudes. It is commonly recognized that admissions policies cannot and perhaps should not be identical in public and in private universities. Nor will policies be the same among all institutions of like type. There are private institutions of learning in Japan where present admissions practices are appropriate to the need. But, Dr. Felsted reminded the Institute participants, admissions "cannot be considered solely a matter of schools selecting their students. Students should have the opportunity of studying the offerings of the school, its objectives, its requirements, the placement of its graduates, and other pertinent information. The applicant should be able to consider carefully his selection of a school as well as his possibilities for being selected." The recent major transition in higher education in Japan during which a large number of new-type universities came into existence brought with it a need for further adjustments in admissions policies.

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These may be made as educators and agencies of finance realize the full implications of democracy in education. And an expansion of enrollments will have its immediate effect on academic offering of the universities. When admission is based on academic ability, and an equal chance for enrollment is given to students from all levels of society, the curriculum broadens to include academic offerings not demanded by a limited educational class. The remarkable gains of recent years encourage us to believe that needed changes will be made. STUDENT PERSONNEL RECORDS

After reviewing the various types of records in use in Japanese colleges and universities and discussing the limitations of the loose-leaf record system, Dr. Felsted outlined specific characteristics to be identified with functional values in records: simplicity, adaptability, comprehensiveness, and objectivity. To establish records with these characteristics, she said, committees should be formed which include people with varied experiences in records and in educational work. Records should be located where they are accessible to those who use them most and yet they should be used only under specific authorization. They should be filed in such form (preferably a folder type) that they can be conveniently used. Faculty advisers and others should be trained in their appropriate use. The degree to which records should be centralized is closely related to the size and the type of institution. In small institutions records can easily be limited to one central location. In large institutions, a careful study should be made to determine which records of the central office may most appropriately be duplicated for distribution in other centers of the campus or under what circumstances various original records should be located in places other than the central office. The health service unit, for example, presents one of the most striking examples of the need and advisability of decentralization of certain types of personnel records. The importance of an up-to-date record system is recognized by most colleges and universities. Many, however, have failed to provide a system in keeping with commonly recognized standards, or they have not developed records adapted to their own needs and facilities. "Finally," commented Dr. Felsted, "let it be said that from the student personnel point of view, records are vital living material and should be treated with the respect due the persons they represent."

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ORIENTATION

Among the most common of all practices in student personnel work is orientation. All institutions establish some type of procedure for acquainting students with their university. A problem of student personnel administration is to make certain that these procedures are of a kind that will be most beneficial to students in their understanding of the college community. Specific objectives of orientation, as outlined during the Institutes by Maurice Woolf, include introducing the student into small and intimate group activities through which he may early achieve needed psychological-social security. This gives balance to his early university program and aids him in appraising himself and his goals through a system of skilled faculty advising. Freshman orientation should be a subject of major planning for the university year. Included on the planning committee should be representatives of the various academic departments and administrative bodies of the university and students from the upper classes. Subcommittee assignments should be made and recommendations submitted to a central planning group. Personnel administration should acquaint the faculty with the characteristics of the incoming student group. The new class can be compared with former classes in regard to entrance examination test scores, average age differentials, and economic status or need for employment. Dr. Woolf suggested an agenda for orientation week that included an opening general assembly, student meetings with faculty advisers, campus tours, social events, special conferences, introduction of student leaders, talent shows, and information assemblies. 'The emphasis during orientation week," he said, "should be put on students and their welfare and not on administrative convenience." He also called attention to a special orientation responsibility on the part of Japanese universities. During the present time of student political tensions, there should be an attempt to outline clearly for students the uses and abuses of student government and the place of student responsibility in maintaining an orderly campus community. In addition to the regular orientation week, many universities conduct an orientation course extending through the first quarter or semester. Such courses can become unwieldy and ineffective unless accompanied by individual counseling and work in small groups.

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Although a limited number of tests had been utilized in Japan as a basis for college admissions, their use in other areas of student personnel work was comparatively new to participants in the Institutes. It was essential, therefore, that the field be clearly defined and its value demonstrated. Among the many uses of personnel tests and measurements, Chester Ruedisili listed these in his lecture: selecting students for college admissions, assisting them in the choice of educational and vocational fields, encouraging motivation of students by helping them to get maximum results from selected studies, measuring progress toward individual goals, and providing an understanding of students and their needs for setting up educational programs. Dr. Ruedisili then described some of the specific tests that are available for these uses. Of primary importance are tests of scholastic aptitude, which are in common use. In contrast to earlier practices in which scores were given only on general mental ability, more recently constructed tests tend to give sub-scores on the basis of more specific aptitudes. Examples are seen in tests providing scores on both linguistic and mathematical aptitude. A close correlation between scholastic aptitude test scores and college grades has brought this test into popular use in the prediction of success or failure in college work. (Dr. Ruedisili pointed out that there is not as close a relationship between test scores and grades in college subjects in Japan as there is in the United States. This may be due to a lack of reliability in the grading system, a lack of validity in the test itself, or to a restricted range in the abilities of Japanese students admitted to universities.) These tests are helpful, too, in discovering causes of student academic difficulty, in adjusting methods of instruction and level of content to the ability of the student group, as a basis of awarding scholarship, and for educational and vocational counseling. Tests that attempt to measure information gained in past educational programs are known as achievement tests. They constitute the most accurate single factor in the prediction of success in a given subjectmatter area. They are used for diagnostic purposes, for improving instruction, as a basis of admission, in the determination of reading ability, and in some cases for granting credit toward graduation requirements. Other tests are interest tests; tests of personality and personal adjust-

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ment; and tests relating to special aptitudes in the mechanical, clerical, musical, and artistic fields. The limitations of objective tests are readily recognized by specialists in the field. Starting with an understanding of their limitations, the psychologist attempts to discover ways in which tests can be of greatest use and then applies them for the benefit of students in the learning situation. He sets standards of validity, reliability, and objectivity and determines norms. He takes into account cost, time required, ease of administration and scoring. And he constantly re-evaluates tests with the help of those who administer them and those who take them. Next Dr. Ruedisili turned to the relationship between tests and other student personnel work: A great deal of the work performed by SPS workers is remedial work in connection with various types of educational problems. One problem is found in the "overachiever." This is the student who has low ability but high achievement. Such a student may not appear to be a problem since he is doing successful college work. The danger, however, is that the student is spending so much time studying that he may be neglecting other aspects of his development, such as the social. Then, too, there is the danger that he may reach a limit beyond which he cannot go, and at that stage will suffer a serious blow or shock. This student, therefore, is in need of counseling even though it may not be apparent at the time. It should be pointed out, though, that all overachievers are not necessarily problems. There are not many students that fall into this category in most universities, since we find few students that make low scores on scholastic aptitude tests and high grades in college. These are exceptions. Another type of problem that we see very often in the SPS office is the "underachiever," the student of high ability as indicated by scores on scholastic aptitude tests but low achievement as shown in his college grades. Dr. Ruedisili concluded his presentation with a set of recommendations to college personnel workers. These refer to basic needs in the development of the field of tests and measurements in Japan. EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING

After relating educational counseling to other types, Henry Borow, in his Institute lecture, described its unique characteristics as follows: "We may describe the purpose of educational counseling as that counseling designed to enable the student to more intelligently organize and pursue his academic program and thus to assist him toward a more productive scholastic life."

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Educational guidance is not devised merely to help students to become more efficient learners. It also furnishes them with information which is helpful in their selection of educational content. As used in relation to university work, it has an important place at pre-admission time; during the student orientation period; in the student's selection of a course of study and the planning of his courses; when his academic achievement is not equal to his ability, as shown by aptitude tests; at times of advisable transfer from one field of study to another—in fact, throughout the entire university career of the student. Dr. Borow listed the definitions and purposes of educational counseling, and then specified types of problems in educational counseling and called attention to the roles of the faculty adviser, of the classroom teacher, and of the professional counselor. He indicated the significant work of the educational counselor in facilitating environmental and personal change in the life of the student. And he raised the fundamental Institute question of the differences between Japanese and American colleges and universities with reference to problems in educational counseling. In America, approximately 50 per cent of the entering college students leave school before they receive a bachelor's degree, while in Japan it is commonly assumed that admission to the university will result, in almost all cases, in graduation. In Japan, students are obligated to select their major field before entering the university. In the United States, less than 50 per cent of the entering students have chosen their vocations. These differing practices in the two countries result in differing goals for educational counseling. Dr. Borow pointed out, however, that Japanese institutions of higher learning should prepare counseling facilities and personnel not for the present need alone but for the more inclusive task which lies immediately ahead. Numerous Japanese students are insisting on additional information about themselves, their aptitudes, and the job markets before they make final choice of an educational or vocational field. Educational counselors must be prepared to satisfy their demands. FACULTY ADVISING

Few subjects in the field of student personnel services had greater appeal for the Institute participants or held more promise for development in Japanese universities than did faculty advising. It seemed to be a starting point from which immediate and practical steps could be

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taken. In presenting this subject to the Institutes, Chester Ruedisili gave a useful summary of reasons why faculty advising programs should be thoroughly organized in Japanese universities: All of us recognize the tremendous need for narrowing the gap between students and faculty in Japanese universities. In order to help solve this vital problem at the present time it is essential that attempts be made to bring these two groups together. I believe that one of the most effective techniques is a successful faculty advising program. In order to bring into the university community more enthusiasm for the enterprise that is the essential concern of both groups, we must try to develop a closer and friendlier relationship between teachers and students. Recognition must be given members of the faculty who devote time and energy to such activities. More facilities must be provided for encouraging the individual exploration of intellectual values and spontaneous associations of the more informal types. More interest must be shown about the way in which students can be encouraged to continue these broadly intellectual interests that come about through associations with faculty members. By helping to encourage such developments the universities will fulfill one of their major obligations, that of making the cultural enterprise an exciting adventure, one that students will find so attractive that they will want to continue it as long as they live. A clear distinction should be made here between the casual advice given to students by faculty members on the one hand, and a wellorganized faculty advising plan on the other. Resemblances in terminology may lead some universities to assume that they have faculty advising systems even though they may have given little attention to systematic procedures. There are few universities in existence whose faculty members do not claim to be the special friends of students. Most faculty members have a good number of students who enjoy coming to them for counsel. Such relationships are a vital part of university education. Yet without systematic organization of faculty time to include assistance to the entire student body, only a few brave souls will venture to approach faculty members. The large majority who are most critically in need of faculty advising fail, often because of timidity or neglect, to seek it. As major functions of faculty advisers, Dr. Ruedisili listed planning the orientation and program of students, holding follow-up conferences, promoting intellectual and cultural activities outside the classroom, and assisting with disciplinary problems. He gave special consideration to the factors to be considered in the selection and in-service training of faculty personnel who are to function in this area of university work.

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Until recently counseling with reference to the personal problems of university students in Japan was given little consideration by university administrators or faculty members. The pattern of Japanese family life, with its emphasis on obedience and a clear recognition of external authorities, has led educators of Japan to minimize personal and emotional factors that affect individual development. But with the adoption of democratic concepts;, and partly as a result of the Occupation, new patterns of action and reaction are evident among Japanese young people. New attitudes are emerging in regard to parents, teachers, and religious and government officials. Economic and cultural conditions will prevent Japan from adopting the kind of democracy which exists in the United States, but she will not and cannot return to her prewar pattern. A major problem of adjustment faces young people and their seniors during the years of social transition. Thus few areas in student personnel work are more vitally in need of emphasis in the colleges and universities of Japan than that of providing reliable counseling that is personal and intimate in nature. Counseling in this area, as defined by Maurice Woolf in his lecture, aims at helping the student to free himself from disabling attitudes, tensions, and anxieties, thereby enabling him to use his energies and abilities productively. Dr. Woolf observed that maladjustment in students, either in Japan or in America, may be shown by symptoms of depression, frustrations, overconcern about bodily functions and personal comfort, negative and antisocial attitudes, confusion in sex roles, hatred, anxiety and fear, extreme sensitivity, and overexpression in thought and action. The trained counselor will not mistake symptoms for fundamental problems. Signs of depression, hysteria, schizophrenic or manic reaction, and so on are accompanied by failure to achieve satisfying experiences in social or psychological situations. "Symptoms are merely clues," the lecturer reminded the participants in the Institutes. "These are ways in which people react to their problems and frustrations. It is clear that we should never treat symptoms. While diagnosis is necessary, it should be clearly understood that diagnosis of people has no therapeutic value. The description of these types of behavior is given so that a counselor can have good orientation. It will help him to know the reality of the counseling situation and may prevent him from becoming either moralistic or discouraged through lack of understanding."

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The counseling interview devised to aid in these problems is essentially a learning situation. Dr. Woolf outlined the specific kind of educational experience which the counseling procedure must follow. It must present an atmosphere of contrast to the one in which the maladjustment or tension first developed; time should be given for the student to explore, with the aid of the counselor, his deeper attitudes and feelings; and dictation and compulsion should be replaced by full opportunity for self-expression on the part of the student. The counseling process may take one of two dominant forms: the directive or the nondirective, client-centered, or emergent form. In actual practice, Dr. Woolf pointed out, these methods are not mutually exclusive. Each has strengths for use at appropriate times. According to Dr. Woolf, directive counseling would seem to be appropriate, first, where the problem is one of lack of information; second, where the problem is in the intellectual area; third, where inner conflict is slight or absent; and fourth, where reassurance can give temporary relief from strain. He recommended emergent or client-centered counseling under conditions in which the individual who is being counseled has the inner strength to find adequate solutions to his problems. This may come largely as a result of counseling of a nondirective type. Turning to major steps in the counseling process for university students, the lecturer listed nine steps that had been clarified through interview recordings: (1) the student's recognition of a need for help; (2) the accurate clarification by the counselor of the possibilities inherent in the counseling situation; (3) the counselor's encouragement of an unrestricted interchange of thought; (4) a growth of positive expression following a succession of negative and positive thinking; (5) the appropriate acceptance on the part of the counselor of the positive feelings expressed; (6) the emergence of a new point of view or insight on the part of the student; (7) clarification of possible alternatives; (8) graduated experiences with positive and helpful reactions; and (9) the growth of a feeling of confidence and independence on the part of the client. Dr. Woolfs treatment of the counseling relationship was especially useful: First I would like to explain what the counseling relationship is not. It is not a parent-child relationship with the deep affection ties of the home. It is not a friend-to-friend relationship with the mutual under-

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standing and give-and-take relationship between friends. Neither is it a teacher-and-pupil relationship with the implication of superior and inferior status. The counseling relationship is not a physician-and-patient relationship with its characteristics of authoritarian advice and prescription, with the submissive acceptancy of what the doctor says. The counselor relationship is not leader-and-follower relationship. The counselor does not lead on and the client does not follow. Neither is it a co-worker relationship although certain aspects of the nondirective counseling relationship resemble this. In short the counseling relationship represents a quality of social bond which differs from anything the client has ever experienced. Oftentimes the client will spend considerable time in trying out the limits of the relationship in trying to understand it. He cannot believe that he is free to say what comes into his mind. Neither can he believe that the counselor will really accept what he has said. It is difficult for the client to realize that the counselor will not give him advice or direction or urge him to make a certain kind of decision. In presenting techniques of counseling to members of the Institutes, Dr. Woolf approached the subject in an atmosphere of deliberation. He did not overemphasize technical aspects and when he did mention them it was done in a way that gave the participants confidence that professional counseling fell within the range of early acceptance in Japanese universities. DISCIPLINE

Changing patterns of procedure in handling discipline on college and university campuses through the years are an index to the growth of student personnel concepts, Dr. Woolf told the Institute participants in his lecture in this area. In most universities there still remains the discipline officer, but past methods of merely setting a punishment to fit the crime have been outgrown. An analysis of antisocial conduct reveals it generally as a symptom of deep and unsatisfied normal needs of students. In universities with well-administered student personnel programs, growing emphasis is given to the positive, preventative aspects of discipline, to training democratic leaders who can help promote the concept and practice of self-discipline among the students. Always there is a kind of final tribunal for cases that are clearly beyond the resources of an educational institution. But more and more it is found that a forwardlooking educational offering supplemented by an effective system of student personnel services reduces and almost eliminates the necessity for inflicting punishment or expulsion from the campus.

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The present extreme expressions of lawlessness on the part of minority political groups on Japanese campuses will be a special challenge to the effectiveness of a well-trained student leadership in the residence halls and in the student government of Japanese universities. Dr. Woolf classified types of discipline for which treatment is needed under the following headings: minor misconduct; disorderly conduct; destruction of property; assault and battery; reckless driving on campus; sex misconduct; and other kinds of offenses. He indicated ways in which the school itself can be a cause of student misconduct, pointed to the student attitude toward his home as a significant factor, and reminded university administrators that conflicting values in modern culture have their important place in causing antisocial conduct on the part of university students. If the objectives of discipline are to bring about changes in behavior to protect society and to establish an orderly community, the problem is clearly one of working with the deep-lying attitudes of students rather than one of treating symptoms with simple punishments. VOCATIONAL COUNSELING AND PLACEMENT

One of the greatest differences between higher education in Japan and in the United States stems from the attitude of students toward their vocations. It has already been indicated that in contrast to the majority of students in America, the Japanese student selects his vocation before entering the university. This is reflected in admissions practices of the universities and in the small number of student transfers among institutions of higher learning. As a result of emphasis on this problem during the year of the Institutes, there is a greater awareness on the part of Japanese educators of the importance of developing reliable vocational counseling. In his discussion of vocational counseling, Dr. Borow listed these as progressive phases of vocational guidance: assisting the student to select a suitable vocation; helping to formulate a program of vocational training; furnishing needed aid in suitable job placement; and supporting a program of adjustment to and progress in the vocation. He then outlined the growing importance of vocational counseling in student personnel work; showed evidence of inappropriate vocational planning by young people; pointed to the natural causes for such inappropriate planning, and to some of the unfortunate results; called attention to prerequisites

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of a successful vocational counseling program; and described the present status of vocational counseling in Japanese universities. On the subject of the present status of vocational counseling in Japanese universities, Dr. Borow's remarks are quoted below: While the conditions necessary for the development of a well-rounded program of professional vocational counseling admittedly do not fully exist in Japanese higher education at the present time, the situation is far from hopeless. There are many trends favorable to the development of vocational counseling as an important part of university student personnel work. Perhaps the most important of these is the perceptible change in the social and political philosophy of the nation. There has been a trend, for example, toward increased freedom on the part of Japanese youth in the making of their own decisions. While this extension of personal freedoms to young people has been attended by family conflict and certain other problems, it is likely that in the long run this social change will prove to be desirable. There has also been a trend toward the equalization of economic opportunity as Japan moves farther and farther from her older feudalistic ways. While equality of economic opportunity is hardly a reality as yet, just as it is not a full reality in any nation of the world, a Japanese youth of today has more opportunity than was formerly true to base his chances for vocational success upon his own merits and efforts. Such a trend is highly favorable to the development and effective vocational counseling work with young people. Further cause of optimism is seen in the growing acceptance in higher education of the student personnel point of view. As universities become increasingly concerned with the out-of-class needs of and services to students, recognition of the need for full-time professional personnel will grow keener. It may be predicted that ultimately counselors trained to assist students with their complex vocational problems will be employed by the universities. There already is a marked movement in some quarters toward the hiring of trained counselors for the secondary schools and there is good reason to believe that this movement will extend upward to the institutions of higher learning. Other elements in the postwar student personnel services of Japanese universities are favorable to the development of professional vocational counseling. There is, for example, increasing concern about the establishment of comprehensive faculty advising systems. As has already been pointed out, faculty members are valuable in providing students with the initial assistance in dealing with their vocational counseling problems although admittedly the fuller job of vocational counseling must be done by trained specialists who are not yet available. Placement services for graduates are already well-established in Japanese universities, and as these make greater provisions for the counseling of students with career problems the vocational guidance movement will become more firmly established.

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Finally, there is observable in the administrative policies of some universities a shift away from the obsolete conception of student personnel services as a clerical function and toward the view that such services are professional in nature and require the assistance of trained counselors and other specialists. Developments have been taking place in agencies outside of the universities which are beneficial to the development of a systematic and scientifically based program of vocational counseling within the field of education. For example, certain branches of the public employment security office are conducting research on job analysis and occupational classification methods. The Osaka and Tokyo branches of the Public Employment Security Office have vocational aptitude testing consultation bureaus which analyze the abilities of job seekers through tests, and which render vocational counseling as part of their service. This is a pioneering form of modern vocational counseling in Japan which should have a helpful influence upon the vocational guidance movement in the secondary schools and universities. The work of certain academic societies is also assisting in this new movement. For example, the Japan Applied Psychology Association, the Tanaka Institute for Educational Research, and associations of clinical psychologists are all engaged in the preparation and the publication of research reports in the fields of testing and counseling. It is through the efforts of applied scientists such as these, particularly those in the fields of educational and clinical psychology, that the measuring instruments and the diagnostic and counseling devices so necessary for professional vocational guidance will be furnished. The technical aspects of vocational counseling come into bold relief in the developing relationship between the counselor and the student. In making a vocational choice, the student, with the aid of the counselor, first discovers and evaluates facts related to his own aptitudes and possibilities. He then ascertains the pertinent facts regarding the occupational world, such as job trends and opportunities, training requirements, and personal qualification for specific job areas. The final step in the selection is to relate one's aptitudes, interests, and other personal qualifications to reliable information about vocations and, on the basis of intelligent matching of this information, to make a realistic vocational choice. Thus, carefully gathered facts are skillfully interpreted by the counselor and the student in the course of the counseling relationship. Drawing again from the Borow lecture on vocational counseling, we find a useful statement with reference to this relationship: In assisting the student to understand his strengths and weaknesses more fully and more realistically, the counselor uses many kinds of facts and many sources of data. He compiles data about the student's educa-

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tional background and encourages the student to analyze these facts carefully in his search for vocational clues. The student analyzes his educational record in terms of his subject-matter strengths and weaknesses as well as his interests. Working closely with the counselor, the student also examines his previous part-time, summer-time, and full-time employment record. He looks in his past job record for evidence of special skills, aptitudes, and interests which have revealed themselves through the work tasks in which he has engaged. Other matters of personal history and present status are scrutinized for the purpose of locating vocationally useful clues. These include such things as an examination of the student's family background, his financial status, his health record, and his personal relations with other people. Many of the forementioned sources of information about the student are necessarily subjective in nature. It is therefore necessary to add to facts drawn from these sources, others of a more objective and reliable type. Some of these, primarily those dealing with the student's aptitudes, are derived from objective psychological tests. A later and most important phase of vocational guidance is that of job placement. Through proper attention to the success of the student after he has entered a vocation, the university can do three important things. First, it can perform a useful service to the student in a technical and continuing way. Second, in being of continuing service to the student the university also performs a service for the employer. This twoway service is of major importance to the public relations work of the university. The third gain is to the university itself; it has an opportunity to re-evaluate the effectiveness of its own training program and can strengthen its own offering on a basis of realistic evidence rather than arm-chair reasoning. In presenting to the Institutes the subject of job placement of graduates, Dr. Borow reviewed the history of the emergence of vocational training as an objective of higher education and the growing trend for universities to assume definite responsibility for bringing trained graduates and qualified employers together. He emphasized the administrative and organizational functions of a job placement office. This includes proper registration of applicants; compiling student records; establishing relationships with employers and arranging studentemployer conferences; providing counseling for students with specific reference to job placement; organizing and operating occupational conferences; and conducting research and evaluation of the placement service.

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He called attention to common weaknesses to be avoided in establishing a placement service. Some of these related to an overcentralized or, on the other hand, a too widely diffused administrative unit, and improperly trained placement counselors. The university, he said, should design the service as a technical educational function in the area of placement and between universities and employers; and, what was of special importance with respect to conditions in Japan, there should be emphasis chiefly upon the qualifications and merit of the student rather than on the prestige of the university from which he graduated. This part of the presentation was followed by specific recommendations for improving job placement services in Japanese universities. STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES FOR WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION

In answer to the question of why attention should be given to personnel services for women students as a special phase of student personnel services, Leona Felsted said, "It is primarily because higher education for women is a comparatively recent development in many nations and particularly in Japan." It may be possible to assist Japanese higher education to avoid mistakes common to other countries, where it has been the practice in coeducation merely to admit women to an educational program, established primarily for the needs of men, without giving full consideration to their social and economic problems both on and off campus. These explanations may seem trite in America where this situation has been vigorously discussed for decades, but to nations newly adopting coeducation, they are of special importance. Dr. Felsted pointed out that in the work of counseling, whether it be in educational, vocational, or personal adjustment, the counselor must be equipped with an understanding of the problems peculiar to the changing role of women in modern coeducation. And beyond the campus the post-college role of women is less predictable than the post-college role of men, owing to the additional factor of homemaking as a major, yet unpredictable, goal. In calling attention to mediums for achieving new patterns of citizenship behavior, Dr. Felsted made a significant point with reference to the origin of "feminism": "When women are admitted to equal status with men educationally, it is education's responsibility to help women learn how to assume the changed nature of their tasks. . . . When social sanction to the use of the woman's intellect lags behind legal

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approval, the highly aggressive feminist is a creation of woman's effort to compete and gain status in a world that is partly hers." When both men and women study objectively the problems of men and women, the foundations of student personnel services in coeducational institutions may be intelligently established. FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

The ability to finance a college education is not in all cases related to the ability to accomplish academic work. This fact is the basis for the establishment of appropriate systems of financial aids to students. In the democratization of educational opportunity, Dr. Felsted stressed in her lecture, careful attention should be given to providing opportunities for student employment, student loans under systematically regulated conditions, and scholarships and fellowships in recognition of demonstrated academic and leadership ability. From statistics of the Ministry of Education, Dr. Felsted showed that in 1950, 54.6 per cent of university students came from families having incomes of 12,000 yen (approximately $33.00) or less per month. In the same year, more than 50 per cent of the university students applied for part-time employment. Without a forward-looking policy on financial aids, higher education would be limited to the economically privileged. In addition to a review of various types of financial aids, and suggestions regarding their operation, the lecturer gave attention to factors which should be considered in the establishment of a sound and effective administration of the program. The institution should clearly define its basis of selection of those receiving such aids, the basis for the continuation of such aid, and selective factors which determine eligibility. In the functioning of a student personnel organization, a program of financial aids necessitates reliable financial counseling, a clear declaration by the university of the types of aids available, stated conditions under which they are given, the sources from which the aids are derived, and an aggressive search for new sources. STUDENT HOUSING

An institution of higher learning cannot consistently assume that it has no obligation in regard to student housing. In student housing as in other fields of student services, there is a direct relationship between effective service and academic progress. In this sense, even an institution which might list academic excellence as its sole objective would need

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to give attention to the living conditions of its students if it is to reach this objective effectively. As in each of the other fields of student personnel services, the schedule of the Institutes did not provide sufficient time for an adequate consideration of the problems of student housing. In focusing the major problems of housing into a brief treatment, Dr. Felsted gave primary attention to the reasons why universities should be specially concerned with living conditions of students. She specified (1) the need for early identifying the student with a wholesome and intimate group, because of its stabilizing influence and the opportunity it provides for learning in a homelike situation; (2) important factors to be considered in planning adequate housing (such as relative advantages of campus and off-campus housing); and (3) the importance of architectural planning, in which attention is given to sufficient space for social life, office needs, staff living quarters, service features, dining halls, kitchens, and maintenance. She mentioned new developments in systems of dormitory counseling and made a strong point for the dormitory or residence hall as a natural learning environment of the university student. It is of first importance that the student housing program be closely integrated with the entire student personnel program and that it be administered in such a way that students and faculty will participate in appropriate and shared responsibilities. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION OF STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

Three lectures were given to the subject of administrative organization and supervision of student personnel services. A large number of the participants were engaged in some phase of administrative work. And since the new educational movement was resulting in major shifts in administration for each university, it was recognized that all student personnel workers could be more efficient and helpful in their own areas if they were given further understanding of the problems of administering student personnel services and of procedures appropriate to the work. Dr. Lloyd's lectures on administrative organization included the following topics: (1) the relationship of a philosophy of student personnel services to their administration; (2) a job breakdown on technical procedures of effective administration; (3) organization of the program in different types and sizes of institutions; (4) recently developed organizational patterns in contrast to the welfare and guidance divisions presently

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existing in Japanese universities; (5) the student personnel budget and its proper operation; (6) the importance of an adequate physical plant in which student personnel services may operate as an integrated administrative unit of the university; and (7) student personnel administration as a profession. In addition, Dr. 'Lloyd called attention to the need for a statement of the objectives of the institution as a basic guide in establishing the administrative unit. In the organization of that unit there should be a clear delegation of responsibility to members of the staff; the areas of work should be well defined; and there should be a recognition that administration is technical in nature and requires technical training for the achievement of most satisfactory results and that, in addition to technical training, the administrator must possess certain characteristics and personal qualifications for the work. In no area of the university are to be found problems more complicated in nature, or requiring greater skill in their solution. The administrative unit should be staffed with qualified personnel rated and paid in keeping with major responsibilities in modern university life. The student personnel unit is administrative rather than legislative in nature. It should, however, be well represented on the legislative body of the university. It is university-wide in its activities and should be responsible directly to the president of the institution. The following excerpt from the lecture outlines the role of deans of students: The status and recognition of student personnel work on the campus is related closely to the official position and recognized status given to the administrative officer of these services. If the dean of students or administrative officer is a fully participating member of the administrative councils of the university and is a regular voting member of the legislative councils, there is opportunity for him to demonstrate the important work which is being done in the area of student personnel. The major administrative officer has a three-way responsibility. First, it is his duty to keep the president informed regarding findings in his field of work and to make recommendations on policy growing out of these findings. Second, this administrator has obligations and responsibilities to members of his own staff who are devoting themselves to a professional career and who deserve the effective functioning of the officer who represents them before the university and before the student group. Third, the dean of students or administrator of student personnel services has a final and most significant obligation to the students of the university. It is his responsibility to motivate studies of their problems and needs. His office should be a resource area from which may be

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secured accurate and reliable information as a basis for appropriate recommendations on university policy and procedure. At times attempts may be made to use the student personnel unit as a kind of "scapegoat" for institutional mistakes. The work may be misinterpreted by other areas of faculty organization and by students with insufficient information about major problems. In some institutions, student personnel services are known as the "red-hot" area of university life. Unless their administrator is a well-trained and effective individual, the length of his term of office constitutes perhaps the greatest gamble that exists in the university community next to that of the athletic coach in American universities. The typical duties of a dean of students include the organization of student personnel services and their operation within a set budget. He will clarify need for budget and use his skill in bringing to the services a budget sufficient for their need. The dean of students has as part of his duties the conducting of staff meetings which will give point and effective results to the work of the staff. It is his obligation to coordinate the various areas within the student services and with the aid of a qualified staff to give meaning and an educational goal to out-of-class service to students. He operates for the benefit of students. He interprets their needs to the academic and business areas of university life through meetings and communications arranged through the president in an appropriate administrative procedure. The dean of students may find it difficult to maintain regular hours of operation such as are maintained by other members of the faculty. In some universities, he may find his unexpected and unassigned duties quite as numerous and regular as those which are on his daily schedule. Dr. Lloyd then reviewed for the participants administrative organizations in colleges and universities of Japan and discussed patterns of student personnel services appropriate to such organizations. Within the organization, he commented, there should be established clear communication, well-conducted and regular staff meetings, and full-scale coordination between student out-of-class and classroom services. Finally he recommended a technical study of present student services in Japanese universities as a basis for establishing a major unit, largely educational rather than .clerical in nature, within the university administration. RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

The lectures on research and evaluation were given by two members of the faculty. Henry Borow gave the introductory lecture titled "General Considerations" and Chester Ruedisili gave the concluding one

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emphasizing "Research Methods." In the consideration of this subject, the Japanese faculty members were especially useful. They were particularly helpful in calling attention to appropriate ways in which research and evaluation could be of most practical use in student personnel services in Japan. This was done largely through the technique of raising pointed questions and making comments from the floor. Research constitutes a major emphasis of Japanese universities. It was not necessary to convince the Institute participants of its value. In order that the new field of work could be early established on scientific grounds in Japan, however, it was essential that the Institutes give special attention to the specific forms and practical ways in which research may be applied to student personnel services. We can give only high points in the presentation of this area to the Institutes. First we turn to the opening lecture. After reviewing general definitions of research, Dr. Borow cited examples of ways in which these definitions find specific application in student personnel work. He emphasized the important place of research in student personnel work in universities in the United States, which had helped student services achieve status and become an educational basis of other university work. He stated that there are at least two major aims of research in this area of work: "First, research in this field attempts to refine and improve student personnel methods such as those used in testing and counseling. Secondly, research is done to evaluate the effectiveness of student personnel services, that is, to determine systematically how well these services are accomplishing the purposes for which they were established." In analyzing the role of research in student personnel services, Dr. Borow gave attention to both pure and applied research. He indicated relationships and distinctions between technological research and evaluation. He discussed the "criterion" or standard of merit as a major factor in evaluation and raised practical questions regarding evaluation. He indicated that, although very little research had been done in the field of student services in Japan, past barriers might be overcome and beginnings made with the aid of specialists in the behavioral sciences and with the encouragement of the newly organized professional associations. In the second lecture, Dr. Ruedisili gave major attention to specific types of research methods used in student personnel services. He listed them under five general headings: review of the literature; expert judgments; "follow-up"; "before-and-after"; and the "control" group. Several of these types are of course overlapping in nature and related. He de-

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scribed each type of research, defined its major purposes and characteristics, and gave specific examples of each. In calling attention to complicating conditions surrounding research in student personnel services, Dr. Ruedisili said: The individual student is an extremely intricate and multi-dimensional variable. There are many factors that must be considered in designing a well-planned experiment. Let me mention a few: the counselor; the student; the kind of counseling used; the number of interviews involved; the kinds of tests administered; the influences outside of the counseling situation; the length of the follow-up period; the kinds of problems to be studied; and the age and sex of the clients. All of these variables combine to make evaluation and research a real challenge to the scientific and objective investigator. He concluded by suggesting practical ways of handling the variables and establishing scientific bases for these services in Japanese universities. Afternoon Assemblies A report on subject matter should include mention of the afternoon assemblies. There were demonstrations, symposiums, or colloquies on the subject that had been discussed through the day. One example among the many approaches that were carefully worked out and organized for the afternoon sessions was a demonstration which involved necessary steps to be taken in holding a student personnel services staff meeting. In this demonstration, it was possible to indicate both subject matter and procedures that operate in successful staff work. Consideration was given to (1) the steps in the proper preparation for a staff meeting, (2) drawing up an agenda, (3) controlling a proper distribution of time to each of the various items, (4) procedures for reporting on recommendations of previous meetings, (5) the working relationship between the administrative officer and the staff, (6) differences between the administrative and the legislative function of the staff, (7) the way in which the work of the week gets clearance near the close of the week, (8) the planning for the week ahead, and (9) the interrelations among various staff members who chairman different areas of the work. All such procedures could be called to pointed attention by an actual demonstration of a weekly staff meeting. In other assemblies at the close of the day, a number of types of counseling situations were demonstrated. In these the participants played the part of counselor and counseled. Thus both technique and

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content of counseling could be seen in operation following a study of them in the various sections. On still other occasions demonstrations were presented on the interpretation of test scores by a counseling staff., and on procedures in faculty advising and in a vocational counseling situation. The afternoon assemblies gave emphasis to practical application of the work of each day. Through them a pointed message common to all sections of the Institutes could be given. The late afternoon sessions are good examples of coordinating efforts in the academic work of the project. Academic Work during the Third Month Following the careful survey of the various fields of student personnel services which lasted approximately through the first two months of each Institute, the work of the participants was centered on two additional types of academic work. In the morning hours of each day, the five groups that had been formed at registration time worked together on programs for evaluating the student services offered on their own campuses. At this time also there was a consideration of fields for which the earlier schedule failed to provide sufficient time. In the morning program, each group made its own decisions on areas which needed further emphasis. In the evaluation of the services specific to their own campus, the participants made special use of parts of the Wrenn-Kamm evaluation form which, although constructed in the United States, was largely adaptable to Japanese universities. For the afternoon sessions of the last month the participants in the Institutes were divided into new groups—six in the Tokyo Institute, five in the others. These groups worked on practical group projects devised to give them needed information and training in fields of their special interest and to allow them to discuss student personnel work on their own campuses after the close of the Institute. Each participant chose the group project on which he was to work. It was the earliest opportunity provided for specialized work in one area. Henry Borow reported as follows: The policy of permitting participants to select and design their own projects proved wise inasmuch as the great majority of them felt a deep practical concern with the problems they chose. One evidence of this was that many participants volunteered information on how they hoped to put the results of their project work to specific and practical use upon returning to their home universities. Moreover, plans were mapped for

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revising and expanding some of the projects for future use. For example, one faculty member reporting results of project work with his group wrote: "Some of the projects have been accepted for sponsorship by the Chubu Region SPS Association which is supervising the modification and distribution of these reports." A committee in the Kyushu region has been at work on a revision of the project on a "Model Plan for the Placement of Graduates" and hopes to get Mombusho consideration of some of the methods. Some of the project group members in the Tokyo Institute who developed the handbook on employment information for graduates planned to revise this work and submit it to the Tanaka Institute of Educational Research for possible publication. Dr. Felsted had the following to say regarding the projects of her groups: Kyoto. Individual projects on a variety of areas within the field of study were chosen for application to a particular institutional situation. These together with the summary of group discussions were combined into the handbook which was later published by the regional association. From the standpoint of presenting basic observations from the Japanese point of view as they related to desirable modifications of philosophy and procedures, it is to be assumed that the group project had a high degree of practical value. It was so developed as to introduce ideas for further study to persons who had not attended the Institute as well as to provide a record for those who had. Kyushu. The study of the Kyushu group was on the definition and setting up of criteria for the awarding of financial assistance to students. The study was developed as an investigation and evaluation of existing criteria and as an application of new material presented through the Institute. It is being prepared for circulation and use beyond the membership of the Institute. Tokyo. The group project in Tokyo on housing included a study of administration, planning of physical facilities, and a social development program for student residents. The study was based on both lecture and reading, and on visits to dormitories in and near Tokyo. The study is practical for use as a guide to evaluating and planning on housing totally new in Japan, a program for including off-campus housing under the administrative supervision of the student personnel services office. It begins with a simplified workable approach to such supervision. Supervising the projects were the five or six teams of Japanese and American faculty members. Each American faculty member was for the first time in the Institute centering on an area of his most specialized training or experience within the student personnel field. There were ten or more group projects completed in each Institute. In some cases, a team of faculty members supervised two or more proj-

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ects in related fields. Each group prepared a report of the project on which it worked and supplied other participants with copies of the report. The practical nature of group project work was partly demonstrated by the exceptional interest of all participants in receiving copies of the reports from groups other than their own. Later inquiries indicated the high frequency with which these project reports were being put to use on campuses other than the ones represented in the authorship of the reports. In each of the Institutes, progress reports of the five discussion groups were also made. As it finally worked out, the reports were summarized by an editorial committee. This summary, academic in nature, was prepared in order that participants could have the advantage of major conclusions of groups other than their own. Copies of these subjectmatter reports are on file with other project records in the office of the Ministry of Education.

CHAPTER 6

Institute-Related Projects and Activities

THERE was evidence at the beginning of the work that the Institutes alone could have little effect on the establishment of new concepts and practices of student personnel services in Japan. Merely to introduce such training to one or two members of a faculty of each university was insufficient to meet the critical need. By July 1951 it was evident that the Institutes had received the enthusiastic support of the Steering Committee, officials of the Ministry of Education, and a few university presidents. It was equally evident that the larger body of Japanese educators were passive regarding it and had little idea of the substantial contributions that could be made by the work of the visiting faculty. The task which the American faculty set for itself therefore was not alone the training of a selected group of university professors and assistants. Rather, it was the larger one of assisting to establish effective student personnel services in the colleges and universities of the country. Visits to University Campuses We have already indicated that a major part of the orientation of the American faculty consisted of visits to a number of universities of the country, particularly in the Tokyo, Chubu, and Kyushu areas. These visits provided an excellent opportunity for the faculty to study university conditions and, with the aid of representatives of the Ministry of Education, to introduce to presidents and deans of faculties the work that was to be presented during the year. It was also an opportunity to solicit support for the project on the part of the universities. These early visits were an introduction to what was to become a major project among Institute-related activities. During the first half of the year more than one hundred colleges and universities were visited. On these occasions all or part of the American faculty held extended 97

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meetings with university presidents, chiefs of business sections, deans of faculties, and chiefs of the student sections.* It was the policy of the Institutes for American faculty members to visit any campus where presidents and deans cared to gather for a mutual discussion of the problem, for the faculty recognized the value of personal visits to the over-all aim of the Institutes. As one member, Henry Borow, reported: Participants who had received little support for their work previously often told us that these visits to their campuses and the discussions with their presidents, deans, and SPS colleagues paved the way for better understanding and cooperation on the part of those with whom they had to work in carrying out what they had learned at the Institute. Problems in student personnel services needing attention on various campuses were not always the same. Yet, with few exceptions, there was the constant need to build student personnel work to a point of prestige approximating that of academic work. It could be shown that in America, bold steps had been taken in student personnel organization to meet rugged campus problems. In Japan, half-measures would be useless in solving problems more critical than those being faced in the area of academics. The campus visits helped presidents and deans to understand that professional, not clerical, personnel, technically trained in the student personnel field, were required for the necessary work; and that they operate on the basis of a scientific study of students. University Presidents' Conferences Perhaps the most effective of all the added projects were the official conferences held during each Institute for college and university presidents in the area. These were considered major events and were meticulously promoted and organized. As a result, the full support of the university presidents was secured. It was, of course, common practice in Japan for presidents of national universities to assemble in conferences called by the Ministry of Education. There were occasional meetings for presidents of public and private institutions. The Institute conferences for presidents, however, were unique in two ways: (1) they were the first attempt to bring together all the presidents from national, public, and private universities in Japan; (2) it was the first time in Japan, or in any country of the world, * A large number of these conferences were attended by all members of the American faculty, others were attended by several. A few were held with one faculty member only. In some universities, more than one conference was held.

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in which all college and university presidents of the country were invited to meet for discussions of student personnel services alone. In Tokyo on May 29, 1952, Dr. Lloyd reminded the presidents: These three conferences in Kyoto, Kyushu, and Tokyo (where presidents from all types of institutions have come together for discussions of student personnel services) are new to Japan. Perhaps some do not realize that such meetings functioning on a large scale are new to any country in the world and have created a new chapter in world higher education. Presidents have met before for informal discussion of student problems; presidents of several institutions have assembled to try to determine ways of meeting crisis situations. They have sent their deans to national meetings to discuss ways of meeting routine student needs. These approaches, however, differ from the present one where the presidents of institutions of higher learning have come to meet with other representatives of their institutions and discuss the student personnel work which their faculty representatives have come to study. Already these meetings have been discussed with interest in other countries. In this procedure, Japan opens new avenues in student personnel services. The presidents' conferences were attended by three hundred participants and placed the consideration of student personnel efforts in Japan on a new level. (See Appendix V for a list of those attending.) Later surveys indicated that many presidents returned to their campuses and called meetings for reviews of their present practices and ways of improving their services to students.

Opening session of the presidents' conference, Tokyo University

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These events had a remarkable effect on the regular participants of the Institutes. They realized that their presidents had been introduced to the work they were doing. Therefore they could expect special help from the presidents after they returned to their campuses. This promoted a more realistic attitude toward the work of the Institutes and generated an uncommon zeal in the academic work. Two of the presidents' conferences operated on a three-day schedule and one on a two-day schedule. Following the opening ceremony of the first day, a session was held outlining the full purposes of the conference and pointing to the possible results that could come from centered application on the conference agenda. In this general session the presidents also listened to one of their own members discuss briefly the problems with which he and other university presidents were faced and changes needed on his and other campuses. A participant in the regular Institute then presented a short description of the kind of work that was being accomplished and the nature of the studies that were being presented at the Institute. The director's address in the morning session set primary issues as a basis for the workshop discussions to be held that afternoon and the next day. These were usually in the form of questions to be answered by the presidents in their meetings. The questions raised in the Tokyo conference were as follows: 1. What are the areas of activity that should be included in a student personnel program if it is to meet present student needs? 2. Is the present administrative organization of guidance and welfare sections adequate in regard to technical training of staff members in the student personnel field? Are these organizations staffed with sufficient numbers of trained personnel to cope successfully with the major problems now faced by universities and their students? 3. In view of the need for long-time planning and action based on initiative, should the student personnel services budget be established separately from the business office, as in the case of the academic budgets of the various faculties? (This question may be answered partially by a clear recognition of whether these services to students are educational in nature or are largely a clerical function of the university.) 4. In countries where student personnel services are most effectively operated they are classified as an educational rather than as a clerical service. Staff members usually have academic rather than clerical status. We now ask ourselves this question: "Can well-trained academic personnel be brought to the assistance of student personnel programs in Japanese universities unless there is academic status, academic advance-

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ment, and salary recognition given for faculty work and achievements in this field?" 5. What are the advantages and the disadvantages in the present practice of rotation of appointments to the student personnel staff? Will the present rotation system assist in building toward professional work in this field? 6. In what ways can a professional organization of student personnel workers be of greatest assistance to the universities in creating higher standards and better work in the student personnel field? 7. What specific procedures may be used to ensure a better understanding among professors regarding the critical administrative student problems that are now being faced by presidents, by deans of students, and by the teachers themselves? 8. What steps should be taken to bring into operation an effective faculty-advising program? 9. In what specific ways can the three or four persons from each campus who have participated in the Institute (the president, the dean of students, and the regular participant) be of greatest use in improving student personnel services on the campus? 10. In meeting the shortage of technically trained people for this specialized work, what steps should be taken to establish, in centrally located institutions, regular academic offerings in the field? 11. What types of help can be furnished to the administrative unit of student personnel services by professors of psychology, education, and sociology? Have the present guidance and welfare sections of the universities invited aid from these academic departments? Among other events of the first day at each conference were symposiums, presented by other members of the American faculty, on educational counseling, student activities, faculty advising, student housing, personal problem counseling, and other areas of an effective student personnel services program in the modern university. The presidents were shown the scope of the services in fully operating programs and could compare them with their own present offerings. Then a panel of the Japanese faculty of the Institute presented their concepts of the way in which the Institutes could affect Japanese university life. With this orientation given in general sessions, the presidents were ready to take over the conference and, on their own initiative, set the program that would meet their greatest needs. They were divided into five groups (in Tokyo, six groups), each group working under the chairmanship of one of their own members. The program and agenda were set by each group. Pairs of Japanese and American faculty membersone pair to each group—were assigned as resource persons. From this

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point on, it was the presidents who ran the conference, and it functioned with realism and initiative. Needless to say, the contributions of the group sessions were two-way affairs. The schooling the American faculty received in the various sections was, no doubt, equal to their own contributions. In order to give focus to the work, the agenda provided a general assembly at the close of the second day. In this assembly the presidents who were chairmen of the various groups were members of a panel. The president of the host institution presided over the panel, which was devoted to the subject "Things That I Plan to Do by Way of Improving Student Personnel Services on My Own Campus." The presidents were not reluctant to make public commitments. Each panel brought out practical ways of putting the work of the conference—and the work of the three-month Institute—to greatest use on the specific campuses. The third day of the conference was spent in individual meetings scheduled between the presidents and specific members of the American faculty. The following quotation, taken from the remarks of President Kikuchi of Kyushu University at the close of the Kyushu conference, is representative of the spirit of the presidents' conferences: Each group studied various aspects of student personnel services, and while getting information about American personnel work from the American faculty focused their discussion on the present needs that exist in Japanese universities and colleges. This afternoon's general session started with the reports from the chairmen of discussion groups: President Nishi of Saga University acted as the chairman of Group No. 1; President Takahashi of Miyazaki University was the chairman of Group No. 2; President Kitamura of Kumamoto Women's University took the chair in Group No. 3; President Morito of Hiroshima University was the chairman of Group No. 4; and President Hanada of Fukuoka Commercial College acted as the chairman of Group No. 5. Each chairman also presented topics for the panel. The presidents had concluded that since university professors must be most conscientious scholars capable of unprejudiced criticism, students will learn—through personal contact with them—how to think conscientiously and with good sense. However, this personal contact alone would be insufficient for giving further individualized attention to all phases of student life. So the group thought that some form of faculty-advising system is essential. In this connection, the group recognized the need of mitigating the teaching load as well as giving special

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remuneration to the faculty advisers whose student personnel service responsibility becomes even greater than the general faculty, who also are required to spend time, money, and effort to a certain extent to keep the above-mentioned personal contact with students. The majority of the group agreed that it is desirous to create academic courses in major universities for the training of student personnel service experts, but that for immediate purposes the in-service training, in such forms as the Student Personnel Services Institute or workshop can be conducted for personnel workers and faculty advisers, or even for the general faculty as the case may be. . . . Lastly, the group discussed the possibility of the development of professional organization of personnel workers for the purpose of maintenance of research on student personnel services and exchange of information. Such organization could be formed locally or, if necessary, on a nationwide basis. However, it was pointed out that such an organization ought to remain an agency for research and liaison for professional workers and should not become a political pressure group. . . . And worthy of special attention is the fact that at the close of the panel the participating presidents mentioned their belief as to the necessity of launching a workable program for selling student personnel services on the entire campuses by the united efforts of presidents themselves, the directors of business offices, deans of students, and the regular participants of the Institute for Student Personnel Services. This conference, where many presidents from all types of institutions got together with directors of business offices and discussed the problems of students, who constitute the majority of a university, is an unprecedented event in the history of Japanese higher education. In my opening remarks I mentioned that the success of this conference was already foretold by the zeal of all the participating presidents, and it is my hearty pleasure to say that my prediction has come true. Actual changes that were made on local campuses following the conferences gave ample evidence that the presidents were not merely verbalizing. Conferences for Deans of Students In Japan, as in America, major administrative officers for student personnel services operate under a variety of titles: deans of students, chiefs of the student section, chiefs of guidance, chiefs of welfare, and so on. Toward the close of the year's work in Japan, however, these officials were somewhat commonly referred to as deans of students. It had been hoped that most universities would be able to send these administrative officers, whatever their title, to the Institutes. But during 1951-52 the universities were experiencing their most critical year of student strikes and campus tensions. So intense were the feelings re-

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garding probable outbursts from "leftist" groups that university presidents were reluctant to excuse their deans of students from the campus for an entire quarter. Consequently more than half of the institutions sent other officers or professors to be trained in the Institutes. Many university presidents whose deans were retained in residence had hoped that the deans could be admitted to the Institutes as visitors for short periods of time. This practice would have been detrimental to the consistency and focus of work in the classes and a policy was announced early in the year limiting the Institute attendance to regularly enrolled members, except in the case of university presidents, Ministry of Education personnel, CIE officials, and visitors from previous Institutes. It was imperative, however, to familiarize deans of students with the work of the Institutes and to help them to understand reasons for the recommendations that would come later from Institute participants. Therefore deans of students' conferences were established in connection with the Kyushu and the Tokyo Institutes. (See Appendix VI for a list of participants.) In the deans' meetings, those deans who were in regular attendance at the Institute assisted in setting the program for the others. In procedure, the conferences did not differ in major ways from the presidents' conferences. The content, however, shifted to deal with specific responsibilities and opportunities of the dean's office. The following printed schedule for the first of these conferences indicates its organization and general procedure: DEANS OF STUDENTS' CONFERENCE Program FEBRUARY 8, FRIDAY 9:00-9:30 Opening ceremony (Director Hayashi, Chairman): Greetings Dr. Kikuchi, Chairman, Steering Committee (5 minutes) Greetings Ministry of Education (5 minutes) Greetings, Explanation of the Program, Introduction of Japanese Faculty Members and the General Director Director Hayashi (10 minutes) 9:30-11:45 Addresses: Student Personnel Point of View Dr. Lloyd (35 minutes) Scope of SPS Five American faculty members (100 minutes) 12:00-13:00 Lunch and recess (60 minutes) 13:00-14:45 Group discussion (105 minutes) Resource Persons: American faculty Five deans of students and five Japanese faculty members will be distributed among the five groups

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Discussion Leaders: deans of students 15:00-16:30 Panel discussion (with American faculty as resource persons) (90 minutes): Members: Five deans of students Subject of discussion: Relationship between the Philosophy of New-System Universities and Student Personnel Services FEBRUARY 9, SATURDAY 9:00-10:00 Recommendations, the General Director (60 minutes) Announcement: Groups are requested to bring back problems to General Session 10:10-11:50 Group discussion (100 minutes) 13:00-14:20 Group discussion (80 minutes) 14:30-16:00 Symposium (90 minutes) Subject: Critical Problems of SPS in Japan Chairman of symposium: Dean Hayashi Members: Representatives of five groups Recorders: The office staff

Of considerable support to the Kyushu Institute was the area Organization of Deans of Students and Chiefs of Sections, which had been in operation for a number of years. This group of administrative officers had repeatedly met to find solutions to common problems in the region. It had been functioning under the leadership of the dean of students of Kyushu University, Teijiro Hayashi, who also was local director of the Kyushu Institute. The deans' organization could have attempted to monopolize the newly forming student personnel services association (discussed in the next section). Yet, the members recognized that student personnel problems encompassed more than administration alone and appropriately took regular membership in the larger professional association. This problem of professional organization was one of the topics discussed at the deans' conferences. National and Local Professional Organization for Student Personnel Services Of primary concern to members of the American faculty were the long-time results of the year's work and the ways in which the brief training period could be the seed of a substantial later development. In faculty meetings, the need for the organization of a professional association had been discussed. It was felt that such an organization could work for the constant improvement of standards for workers in the field, for the active promotion of the work among colleges and universities, for the development of needed research, and for a working relationship among members of a body of professional personnel. Early in the first

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Institute it became evident that the participants were concerned about these same problems. Motivated by discussions in their group meetings and in the liaison committee, the participants in the Kyoto Institute selected a committee to meet with members of the faculties, and they drew up tentative plans for the organization of a professional association for the region served by the Institute. The participants then assumed full responsibility for the creation of the organization. Institute time was provided for the final organization meeting as a part of the closing session of the Kyoto Institute and on December 7, 1951, the Middle Japan Student Personnel Services Association was established. The Institute participants formed only the nucleus of the regional organization; and during the few months following, the Institute membership in this association increased to 145. At the close of the Kyushu Institute, after thoughtful consideration by participants and faculties, and on the initiative of the participants, the Western Japan Student Personnel Services Association was formed. By July 1952 it had a membership of 86. The region served by the Tokyo Institute formed its association on July 4, 1952, under the name of Eastern Japan Student Personnel Services Association. There were 76 charter members. This association represented the largest number of institutions of the three and gave promise of a numerous and interested membership. By July regional organizations throughout the country were organized and functioning, with their membership totaling more than 300. The evident need for some national organization to be formed as a coordinating body for the regional units gave rise to a meeting of representatives of all three associations. Preliminary planning took place in June, after it became apparent that an association would be formed for the eastern area. Invitations to participate were extended to all universities through letters from the Ministry of Education, the presidents of the two existing organizations, and the temporary chairman for the proposed eastern regional organization. The administrative officers of the Institutes sent out a letter of information indicating the nature of the proposed conference for coordinating the organizations. Committees representing participants and faculties completed preliminary arrangements for the conference, which opened in Tokyo on the evening of July 3 and lasted through the entire day of July 4, 1952. In the conference, the presidents of the two existing organizations read reports on projects completed or under way and developments of

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the two organizations during their very brief history—manuals had been published, for example, and research projects begun. After a vigorous day and evening of careful planning, debate, and discussion, the National Federation of Student Personnel Associations was formed, subject to ratification by members of the three regional organizations. Thus, in the course of a few short months, a national professional organization of student personnel workers had been put in operation in Japan. It included memberships from every section of the country. The administrative officers elected were the presidents of the three universities who were hosts to the Institutes: President Tadao Yanaihara became president of the federation with President Shunjiro Hattori and President Isao Kikuchi as vice-presidents. These educators have shown concern for and an understanding of students. Their administration of the national federation should keep it closely related to the practical needs of students. A prominent feature of the associations will be research in the field of student personnel services. Present conditions in Japanese higher education do not favor organizations that are promotional in nature. Those stressing research are the ones that gain the support of administrative officers and of the professional associations in other fields. Thus, with fundamentally sound emphasis and with a realization of the need for a large and effective membership, the Japanese associations can reasonably expect a successful operation. One important feature of the professional organization is its wellconsidered decision to place major emphasis on the three regional organizations. The national federation will act as an integrating and coordinating service. It is important that major initiative remain in the three areas and in their subdivisions rather than in suggestions and action from a national headquarters. This practice is a healthy sign in Japanese education where, traditionally, central control has been in strong favor. (See Appendix IX for the constitutions of the national federation and the western association.) Ultimately, of course, the regional professional organizations themselves will be no stronger than the units of which they are composed— the individual universities. Dean Teiji Takagi, vice-chairman of the Tokyo steering committee, in his closing remarks at the deans' conference in Tokyo, stressed this point effectively: It was proposed during this conference that a national organization of student personnel workers be formed. This timely proposal is most

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welcome. Under present circumstances our colleagues who have responsibility and concern for common problems are unable to work closely together because of the different location of their working places. It is only natural that when we meet together at this opportunity we feel the necessity of this kind of permanent organization for cooperative study. By dint of such an organization, I am sure that the genuine cooperation for the needed reform will be made possible. As I mentioned before, it is no easy task to enlighten people about the concepts of student personnel services and to promote the work in this country in the face of present difficulties. Organized effort is of course necessary; but on the other hand, we should not forget that the work is to 'be carried out on each specific campus. Without this the whole edifice just does not mean anything. On this point, I wish that each one of you will become the center on your campus for the development of the program. Report to Professional Associations in America Even before the third regional association—or the national federation—had been formed, the foundation had been laid for a working relationship between Japanese associations and their American counterparts. This came about as the result of an invitation which took the director of the Institutes on a quick trip to the United States early in April. Willard W. Blaesser of the United States Office of Education, a member of the American Advisory Committee, had suggested that a representative of the Institutes be invited to attend the annual meetings of the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, the American College Personnel Association, the National Vocational Guidance Association, and the Western Personnel Institute, in order to tell professional workers in student personnel services in America of the progress being made in the field of higher education in an Oriental country and specifically of the contributions of the Institutes. Dean Clifford Houston, president of the Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations, extended the invitation on behalf of the associations through SCAP. General Ridgway, Supreme Commander Allied Powers, replied as follows: March 28, 1952 DEAR PRESIDENT HOUSTON: In response to the invitation, conveyed through the U.S. Office of Education, for a representative of this headquarters to participate in the annual meetings of the American College Personnel Association and

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the National Vocational Guidance Association, Dr. Wesley P. Lloyd, American Director of the Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services, will attend both meetings. Because of my strong conviction that the young people of Japan are the country's most important single resource, the work of the Institutes has had my own hearty support as well as that of appropriate officials of my headquarters. I consider that the Institutes have pointed up in a realistic manner the vital importance of the study of students as individuals, that they have brought new recognition to Japanese educators of the need for teaching students rather than merely teaching subjects, and that they have contributed to the building of a firmer foundation for closer faculty-student relationships and a more wholesome campus atmosphere. Among the several contributions of the Institute, one is especially worthy of consideration by your organizations: the formation in Japan of professional associations of college and university teachers and administrators engaged in the area of work commonly known as "Student Personnel Services." These associations are still in their infancy; they will require, for some years to come, the sympathetic understanding and encouragement of similar associations in other countries. It is my hope that the members of your associations will establish, at the earliest practicable date, firm and friendly relationships with your Japanese colleagues, and that you will give them the benefit of your experience in a field which still is in the pioneering stage in Japan. I am confident that this will not be a "one-way exchange"; the Japanese have much to offer from their own remarkable cultural pattern which should prove challenging to American educators. Sincerely, M. B. RlDGWAY

General, United States Army DEAN CLIFFORD HOUSTON, President Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations Biltmore Hotel Los Angeles, California The director of the Institutes therefore spoke before the Western Personnel Institute on April 2 in Los Angeles; before the combined general assembly of the ACPA and the NVGA on April 3; and before the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators on April 4 in Colorado Springs. After the meetings Dean Houston wrote to General Ridgway: April 9,1952 DEAR GENERAL RIDGWAY: The twelve hundred fifty educational personnel workers who registered for our Convention in Los Angeles are deeply grateful to you for

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permitting Dr. Wesley Lloyd to return to the United States for the purpose of contributing significantly to our thinking about the youth of Japan. His addresses were received with great interest and sympathy. His presence and remarks did much to symbolize the important role which we must play in cooperating with the Japanese people. Thank you very much for your letter of 28 March 1952. I read it to the delegates during the Council Day Luncheon on 1 April. It was very well received and supplemented admirably the remarks made by Dr. Lloyd. The latter was an honored guest at this luncheon. You may be assured that we shall "establish firm and friendly relationships" with our Japanese colleagues. Dr. Robert Shaffer, Indiana University, new President of our National association, will do everything possible to facilitate the kind of cooperation, with the Japanese, which is essential to the two-way communication with them. Sincerely, CLIFFORD HOUSTON President, Board of Representatives GENERAL M. B. RIDGWAY Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers General Headquarters Tokyo, Japan Participants in the Institutes were acutely aware of the interest shown by the American associations, and sent their greetings to the associations in the States through the director of the Institutes. NASPA returned these greetings in letters, officially authorized by the membership, encouraging an interchange of relationships between the professional organizations of the two countries. Letters of greetings, good wishes, and suggestions of further professional relations also were sent from NVGA and ACPA by action of the officers of those associations. After the organization in Japan of the National Federation of Student Personnel Services Associations, its newly elected president responded to the greetings of each of the American professional associations. One such letter was as follows: July 22,1952 DEAR PRESIDENT SHAFFER: On behalf of the National Federation of SPS Associations in Japan, organization of which has been recently completed, I should like to express the deep appreciation of members of Japanese associations who have received greetings from the American associations through Dr. Lloyd. I should like also to take this opportunity to report to you that the SPS Institutes in Japan under the excellent leadership of Dr. W. P.

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Lloyd, have concluded with great success and have given a strong stimulus to Japanese universities and colleges to reorganize themselves for more effective work with the students. We shall welcome the opportunities for continuous exchange of communications, publications and research results with the people of the same interest in other countries. I sincerely hope that such continuous associations with your organization will grow through the years to come and become a major factor in building friendships between our two countries. Sincerely, TADAO YANAIHARA President, National Federation of Student Personnel Services Association PRESIDENT ROBERT H. SHAFFER American Personnel and Guidance Association Korean Conference A second activity that took members of the American faculty out of Japan was an educational conference in Korea. The Korean Ministry of Education, following consultation with officials of the educational division of the United Nations Council for Aid to Korea, and CIE-SCAP, extended an invitation for three members of the American faculty to hold a conference with selected representatives of Korean universities on April 14, 15, and 16. It was planned that other members of the faculty would make a follow-up visit on May 21 to 25. The later visit had to be canceled because of critical military developments in Pusan during the week of the scheduled conference. On April 13, during the interim period between the Kyushu and the Tokyo Institutes, Maurice Woolf, Leona Felsted, and Wesley Lloyd left Haneda airfield for Pusan. That afternoon, they held a planning session with the minister of education, members of his staff, and representatives of universities. The conference opened the next morning on the campus of Pusan University, with forty educators in attendance. (See Appendix XI for a list of the participants.) Under special consideration was the problem of helping these faculty members, seriously overburdened with wartime educational responsibilities, to find ways of giving more skilled attention to the needs of Korean university students. The conferences were of the workshop type and gave opportunity for a re-evaluation of procedures and methods in higher education at a time when higher education in Korea was in desperate need of money, buildings, and faculty personnel. The courage and in-

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dustry of the conference participants and their anxiety to re-establish the work of colleges and universities of Korea constitute an unusual chapter in the history of higher education. Individual Institute-Related Work of the American Faculty A glance at the date books of each member of the American faculty reveals a year filled with Institute-related activities in addition to the numerous outside projects on which the faculty worked as a group. In many cases, visits to universities were made, not for conferences with presidents and deans, but for special work with department heads and groups. Such trips were made usually by one or two members of the faculty. Often members of the Institute group with which the American faculty member worked initiated the invitations after consultation with university officials. At other times educational or other professional groups learned of the specialty of some member of the faculty and communicated directly with him for an appointment. In still other cases student organizations and groups extended requests for the services of specific faculty members. It soon became apparent that if such invitations were encouraged, the number of requests for services could easily take the major time and energy of faculty members. The problem was largely one of selection of appointments. It early became the established policy for all faculty members to clear invitations for Institute-related projects at a regular faculty meeting before final commitments were made. This practice kept the entire faculty aware of arrangements and schedules of individual members and prevented duplication of appointments. STUDENT GROUPS

An unusual number of outside requests were made in the field of student organizations and activities, especially by students themselves and college-age young people. The intense interest and concern of Gordon Klopf in the social, political, and educational problems of young people, and his experience with the National Student Association and UNESCO, gave him a continuously active program which often lasted long after regular Institute hours. Well over one hundred special meetings and conferences loaded his calendar in addition to the Instituteassigned work. A good share of these conferences were with university student groups, others were with young people's organizations throughout the country.

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Among the conferences granted by Dr. Klopf during the year were those with the International Student Association of Japan, Student Cultural Association, UNESCO, Organization for Student Religious Activities, YMCA, student workshops, dormitories, Japan Student Relief Committee, the Japanese affiliate of the World University Service, the American World Student Service Fund, English Speaking Society, United Nations Student Council, the Community Youth Program of the Ministry of Education, the Christian Professors Association, and the Association of Secondary School Teachers and Counselors in the Kyushu Area. During his spring residence in Tokyo, as an activity outside of the Institute program, Dr. Klopf gave emphasis to the development of a student movement in Japan that would interest large numbers of representative university students in responsible student government. It is perhaps appropriate to mention again here radical student activities. Although it was not the function of the Institutes themselves to work directly with students, radical student groups insisted on being represented in the training courses. Institute officials, however, held to their earlier announcement that the work was technical in nature and that participants were admitted through selective procedures only. Had students been allowed to attend the classes and lectures, the radical groups undoubtedly would have used the opportunity to interfere with the work. A number of meetings were held in which the director met with student leaders who had deep concern lest the Institutes represent an attempt of American interests to dominate Japanese higher education. When the students finally realized that the work was a scientific approach to student problems and needs, and that the members of the American faculty were not politicians but trained workers in a specialized field, they made no further interference in the actual work of the Institutes. It was the good fortune of the faculty to be able to discuss with President Yanaihara of Tokyo University, in the complete detail and frankness typical of his conferences with students and other groups, the steps that had been taken by the university to check lawless action on the part of small numbers of students. Encouragement was being given for initiative and action by the majority of the students, provided they were truly representative of the university. There were indications that law-abiding students were earnestly at work on the problem and that they may be a vital factor in the maintenance of campus law and order.

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The field of counseling and guidance was recognized from the first as one of the most critical needs of Japanese universities and was a major emphasis of the Institutes. In the early planning of the Institutes, the American Advisory Committee had thought largely in terms of the counseling and guidance functions. The Japanese university personnel and the Steering Committee, however, in using the term guidance referred to an area of work not so closely related to counseling on the basis of personnel tests as it is in American universities. It must be remembered that there was no counterpart in the Japanese language for the word counseling and that it had to be taken over in the English form. Before a counseling system of any significant value could become a part of student personnel services in Japan, it was essential to solicit the help of competent psychologists. As we have indicated, psychologists in Japan had given relatively little attention to applied psychology. Recognition was being awarded mainly to those whose achievements were in theoretical psychology. Beginnings in the applied field had been made, but trained psychologists who had ventured into the practical phases of the work needed the encouragement that could be given by recognized specialists from abroad. They needed to be reminded of the growing prestige and complete academic respectability which applied psychology had achieved in the United States. The task of getting this message to the psychologists of Japan and of assisting them to recognize their vital place in the development of student personnel services fell largely to Chester Ruedisili and Henry Borow of the American faculty. Before the close of the Kyoto Institute they had met with psychologists, individually and in groups, and had visited departments of psychology in a number of universities in the area. During the Institute sessions, Dr. Ruedisili took primary responsibility in the field of tests and measurements and in faculty advising, whereas Dr. Borow dealt with concepts of counseling, giving in later lectures major emphasis to vocational counseling. The work directly within the Institutes was limited, however, because of the scarcity of trained psychologists among those enrolled. Special attention was given to persuading universities to send a representative group of psychologists to the Kyushu Institute. The two Americans held weekly sessions with this group.

Meeting of the TanaJca Institute of Educational Research, Tokyo

Meeting of Kansai region psychologists during the Kyoto Institute

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Apart from their work with groups of psychologists, both Dr. Ruedisili and Dr. Borow accepted an extra-Institute invitation to attend the annual meeting of the Japan Vocational Guidance Association held at Nara. The following report indicates something of their aims with psychologists of Japan: Conferences and discussion meetings with groups of psychologists in the Kyoto, Fukuoka, and Tokyo areas constituted one of the most fruitful activities of the entire year's work outside of the regular Institute programs. The principal purposes of meetings with psychologists in Japan may be said to have been three in number: 1. To foster interest among Japanese psychologists in applied psychology, especially in student personnel work. 2. To report recent trends in American psychology, especially in the applied field. 3. To discuss ways in which closer professional relations might be established between Japanese and American psychologists. In the Kyoto area, formal lectures were delivered before the Kansai Psychology Association and the Kansai Clinical Psychology Association on trends and developments in American testing and counseling. A volunteer committee of psychologists in the Kansai area was organized to study ways in which Japanese psychologists could further the professional student personnel services movement. Professor K. Sato of Kyoto University was of particular assistance in this project. Some of the leading work in the field of vocational guidance is being done in Osaka. The man chiefly responsible for this development is Professor Kato, a psychologist at Naniwa University. The Vocational Aptitude Testing Bureau of the Public Employment Security Office and the Vocational Guidance Study Association were organized under his leadership. Profitable conferences were held in Osaka with the members of both of these organizations, and technical and professional materials were made available to them. In the Fukuoka area, weekly afternoon seminars were held with psychologists who were associated with the Institute as participants and faculty members. One area of activity with which these weekly study sessions dealt was a more intensive and advanced treatment of psychological techniques used in student personnel services than was practical for the regular Institute. In the Tokyo area, weekly meetings were held with the Institute psychologists during the last four weeks of the regularly scheduled Institute. Dean Takagi, president of the Japanese Psychological Association and vice-chairman of the Steering Committee, and Professor Nakamura of Tokyo University gave special leadership to this series of meetings while we served as lecturers, discussion leaders, and resource persons. Topics

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covered included recent trends in American psychology in testing and counseling, the tracing of the historical development of psychology both in the United States and in Japan, the impressions of Japanese psychologists who had visited America regarding American psychology and our impressions of Japanese psychology, concrete proposals by which Japanese psychology might undertake leadership in the professionalization of the student personnel services movement, and proposals for closer working relationships between American and Japanese psychologists. Other meetings with psychologists included attendance at the annual meeting of the Japanese Psychology Association held at Nippon University, and at the annual meeting of the Japan Applied Psychology Association held at Yokohama University. At the latter conference, a special general assembly program was arranged at which we spoke on the role of student personnel services in American applied psychology. Talks on trends in testing and counseling and on the training of professional student personnel services workers in America were delivered before the Tokyo branch of the Japan Applied Psychology Association. Contact was established with the Tanaka Institute of Educational Research in Tokyo. Staffed by competent applied psychologists, this organization is probably the leading independent unit in Japan in the field of psychological test construction and publication. Professional textbooks in applied psychology and journals in the fields of clinical psychology and measurement are also sponsored by this organization. One outgrowth of cooperation with the Tanaka' Institute has been the formation of a plan for the translation and publication of a Japanese version of Wrenn's significant book Student Personnel Work in College. In addition to this outside work with psychologists, Dr. Ruedisili attended meetings and provided technical counsel to boards of education, educational research groups, and educational counselors for secondary schools. WOMEN'S ACTIVITIES In an early meeting of the Steering Committee it had been suggested that the membership of the American faculty should include at least one woman. Coeducation had received major emphasis as a result of the Occupation, and problems were arising in the field of women's education. The choice of Leona Felsted for a faculty post was a fortunate one. Participants with whom she worked in each of the Institutes achieved a most uncommon level of cooperation and group work. Growing out of her regular work in the Institutes came requests for addresses to and conferences with the Japanese Association of University Women, and addresses to student assemblies in women's colleges. She also spoke on women's programs in coeducational universities and

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before a public meeting at the Yokohama Cultural Center under sponsorship of the YWCA. In her visits to college and university campuses there were frequent extra sessions with women student leaders and faculty members. She attended work sessions of the Tokyo Student Cultural Association and the International Student Association Conference. She participated in a leadership conference at Doshisha University and in special conferences with women students at Osaka University, Kyoto Women's University, and Kyoto Kogei-Seni University. The role of a woman member of a student personnel staff was new to the Japanese. At the outset it was necessary to emphasize that Dr. Felsted had not come to Japan primarily as an expert in women's education but rather as a specialist in student personnel work. As such, her work was not to be with problems of women alone. She was responsible for academic and administrative work in several of the areas of student personnel work, as indicated in the lecture subjects listed earlier in this report. Her function in the group was further clarified on an occasion early in the year in which the American faculty was in session with a university president and the deans of the faculties. In his presentation of the work of the Institutes, the general director mentioned that there were also personnel problems peculiar to women students in coeducational institutions and that he would ask a member of the American faculty to discuss those briefly. To the surprise of the group assembled he then called on a male member of the faculty to comment on the problem after having called on Dr. Felsted for response in another field. It took demonstration as well as announcement to emphasize that the field of student personnel was not created to divide campuses into male and female student bodies, but rather to have both sexes represented in a major administrative unit working technically with student problems. ADDED ADMINISTRATIVE WORK AND PERSONAL COUNSELING

At times when it was necessary for the director of the Institutes to be absent on business relating to other sessions, Maurice Woolf was called on to assume the work of the director in addition to his regular institute teaching. Besides these duties he took an active part in such events as leadership conferences and in special work with members of university faculties. He had been assigned academic responsibilities in the Institutes for counseling with reference to student personal problems, and

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he spent a great amount of extra-Institute time in actual counseling with participants of the Institutes and with young people in each area. CONTINUED ACTIVITIES WITH INSTITUTE PARTICIPANTS

One highlight of the Institute experience was the friendly professional relationship which developed between the regular participants of the Institutes and members of the faculties. Expressions of this interest and friendship were seen throughout the year and extended on after the American faculty left Japan. All the regular groups of each Institute formed organizations for perpetuating the work and the association of group members. Before the close of each Institute the groups had planned future reunions and meetings to which the faculty member was invited. All members of the faculty met with one or more of their Institute sections weeks after the participants had returned to their own campuses. Faculty members encouraged a continuance of personal and professional friendships, recognizing in them a continuing educational relationship between the two countries. Among the numerous letters that were exchanged between members of the American faculty and the participants, the following two will indicate one type of the correspondence. From Fukuoka, Leona Felsted sent this circular to the members of her group in Kyoto: March 2, 1952 DEAR MEMBERS OF GROUP 6 AND KYOTO UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION: This letter to you has been much longer delayed than I have wanted it to be. The Kyushu Institute has kept us even more closely scheduled than did the Kyoto one. You may have heard that we are running our lecture series through nine instead of six weeks. In the general session in the afternoon each American faculty member is responsible for some form of panel, symposium, or demonstration connecting with the lecture of the morning. This arrangement substitutes for the group reports and seems to be much more profitable and less monotonous. It provides for better Institute spirit and less competitiveness among groups. But it does not interfere with the group spirit, which is evidenced in strong group unity in each group. In the afternoon general session participants sometimes make up the panel. Sometimes Japanese faculty members carry on the discussion. In each case the purpose of the program is to apply the content of the morning lecture to the Japanese situation. It has been most pleasant to have the letters which have come from some of you describing what you are doing in carrying SPS back into the work of your school. I know how gratifying it is to you to have the

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opportunity for doing this. And I know from your work in Kyoto and my association with you there how well qualified you are to take leadership in the work in your schools. I wish that there were time for me to write each of you a letter individually, but my correspondence constantly falls behind what I would like to do. It was pleasant to have Nishida-san with the Kyushu Institute for one month and to see him making contributions helpful to the group. There were times when he was responsible for livening and brightening the discussion. Nishikata-san continues to be my helpful adviser-interpreter and friend. I am very much pleased that she has decided to continue with me through the Tokyo Institute. Recreation has been chiefly that including the whole Institute. The trip to Dazaifu was interesting both for its historical value and its beauty. A few plum blossoms had ventured to open in the cold, but mostly the blossoms were still tightly folded. Some of us have visited some potters both in Fukuoka and Karatsu and the porcelain factory in Arita. And on February 17 we made the trip to Akamizu and up Mt. Aso. The scenery in this region is very unusual. At the close of this Institute I expect to be in Kyoto for one week. The American faculty will be hard at work through the week again with planning and evaluation sessions. But I have heard rumors of a Group 6 reunion. This possibility delights me. Just in case this rumor is fact I shall keep time free for either Saturday afternoon, April 5, or Sunday, April 6, to be with you. I have been greatly pleased with the progress on the publication of your handbook as it has been reported to me. My very best wishes continue with each of you individually on your work and to your families as well. It is an especially nice memory that I have been able to meet some of the members of your families. My husband was most pleased with your Christmas greeting and has asked me to send you his best wishes along with mine. Sincerely yours, LEONA WISE FELSTED (MRS. FRANK N. JONES) Chester Ruedisili sent a mimeographed letter to all members of his group in the Kyoto Institute six months after the close of the work in Kyoto and while he was in Tokyo: Dai Iti Hotel, Room 361 Shimbashi, Tokyo June 26, 1952 DEAR OF GROUP 3 IN SPS INSTITUTES: The Tokyo SPS Institute now is in its last three weeks of work, so it is about time that I give you a report on Ruedisili and Group 3.

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121

Our mission here in Japan ends around the middle of July, and soon thereafter we will be returning to our homes and families. And I do so with ambivalent feelings. Of course, I am anxious to see my wife and sons, and yet I want to stay in this beautiful country where everyone has been so kind and gracious and friendly to me. Someday I hope that I will be able to return, and to renew the many fine friendships I have made. Our third Institute opened here at Todai on April 21 with 94 participants. Group 3 has the following members: Name Chiefko Adachi (F) Tadashi Hidano Kaijo Inada Kaichiro Ishibashi Misao Kai Saburo Kasagi Iwao Kawamura Ichiro Kurihara (Liaison Com.) Yasuo Miyajima (Asst. Liaison) Jiro Marao Kazuo Nagai Noriyuki Nagasaki Torahiko Narita Eijiro Omori Hiroshi Sato Hiroshi Satomi Katsuhiko Shindo Michiki Sugioka

Type Inst. Priv. Priv. Priv. Priv. Pub. Nat. Nat. Nat.

Priv. Priv. Nat. Nat. Priv. Nat. Nat. Priv. Nat.

Institution Ferris Jogakuin Jr. Col. Tsuda College Rissho University Women's Art College Aizu Jr. College Niigata University Iwate University Tokyo University

Position Asst. Professor Chief, Stud. Sec. Chief, Welfare Sec. Chief, Welfare Sec. Chief, Guid. Sec. Ch., Schl. Affairs Sec. Dean of Students Staff, Stud. Dept.

Min. of Education

Staff, Stud. Af. Sec.

Fuji Jr. College Kanagawa University Ibaraki University Tokyo Med.& Dent. U. Nihon Women's Jr. Col. of Economy Hirosaki University Gumma University Sophia University Shinshu University

Chief, Stud. Affairs Asst. Professor Chief, Welfare Sec. Chief, Guid. Sec. Staff, Guid. Sec. Chief, Welfare Sec. Chief, Stud. Af. Sec. Professor Chief, Guid. Sec.

My Japanese faculty colleague is S. Tanaka of Todai and St. Paul's University. Wakabayashi-san, my interpreter at Kyushu came along with me to Tokyo—and for this I have been very thankful, because interpreters are very important advisers—as well as ears and tongues—for all of the American faculty members. In addition to the regular work of the Institute, we again held special conferences for the presidents and for the deans of students. The Presidents' Conference was attended by 150 presidents or their deputies, and the Deans' Conference had 120 in attendance. With the capable help and enthusiastic support of President Tadao Yanaihara, Professor T. Takagi (Steering Committee Vice-Chairman), and Director K. Sawada of Tokyo University—and also of Dr. Hidaka and Nishida-san of Mombu-sho—the conferences again were highly successful. The project groups in this Institute have four weeks in which to do their job—and all of them are hard at work. I have six participants engaged in a project on faculty advising, and ten on several different

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aspects of the use of tests in SPS. I am looking forward to seeing some good reports from both groups. Incidentally, all of us have been working diligently in writing out our lectures, and Mombu-sho is planning to publish them in book form later this summer. All of us have been keeping busy most of the time with SPS work, but the entire Institute spent a pleasant afternoon at a party held at the Botanical Garden connected with Tokyo University. In addition, our Group 3 enjoyed an evening dinner-party at the "Maple Mansion"—but the next day I didn't enjoy the octopus we had eaten the night before! My personal recreation has taken many different forms: visits to parks (Ueno—beautiful sakura, Korakuen, Meiji, Hibiya, Shinjuku—gorgeous azaleas); the Imperial Theater; square dancing with both American and Japanese groups (including Prince Mikasa); the dedication ceremony of International Christian University; Kamakura; Nikko; Gakushuin University (where we met Crown Prince Akihito and the members of his dormitory group); the baseball game where Waseda beat Keio, 5-2; visit to the Nippon Beer plant; etc. Dr. Borow and I are continuing to work with psychologists in this area. We attended the annual meeting of the Japan Psychological Association from May 3 to 5, where we saw many of our friends from the other two Institutes. On May 8 we were guests at the Nara meeting of the Japan Vocational Guidance Association. One Saturday afternoon we gave lectures at a session of the Association of Applied Psychologists in Tokyo. In addition, we are meeting weekly now with the psychologists in the Institute (including T. Takagi) in a kind of informal seminar. All of these experiences have been most stimulating to us. Some SPS workers will be convening here in Tokyo on July 3-4 (at which time a national SPS organization will be formed), and I hope to see some of you at that time. Then, if the scheduled reunion of my Kyoto group materializes on July 12 or 13, there will be another opportunity to renew our friendships and to discuss some of the actual developments and projects growing out of the Institute work. But some of you I will not be seeing again. To all of you I express my sincere appreciation for everything that you have done to make our stay in Japan such a happy and profitable one. I shall never forget you— and I want you to remember me. Please write to me if ever there is anything that I can do to be of help—in SPS or any other area, too. And, perhaps, someday some of you will visit America. When you do, remember that you are invited to be a guest in my home. My best wishes for a successful program of SPS in Japan—and "Good luck" to all of you. Sincerely, 103 South Hall, C. H. RUEDISILI University of Wisconsin, Madison. Wisconsin

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123

Letters like these two were in answer to many personal ones and helped the participants to know that faculty members had a continuing and genuine interest in them and in their work. Since the return of members of the faculty to the United States each one has found himself engaged in prolific correspondence with Institute participants. This represents an effective continuation of established friendships that will influence student personnel work in both countries. These exchanges represent more than an interest among persons. Definite plans have emerged for the writing of articles and books and for improvement of the work on each campus. The foregoing individual activities of members of the American faculty are related to the individual interests of specific faculty members as well as to Institute subjects or projects. For usually it was the area of dominant interest or specialization of the individual which made the contributions possible. In each case the faculty member filled the extra assignments, not as mechanical accompaniments of his work, but because he sincerely felt that the service was vital to the proper establishment of student personnel services in Japan.

CHAPTER 7

Evaluating the Project

MAJOR contributions of the Institutes can be determined most accurately several years after the end of the project. No attempt was made at complete evaluation during the year when the program was in operation. There were certain phases of evaluation, however, that could be done more appropriately at that time than later. Conditions immediately following the Institutes, and even during the sessions, were ideal for a study of the attitudes of participants, faculties, and educational agencies toward the principles and procedures of the Institutes. And it was not too early to detect certain concrete results. We will consider in this chapter, then, the preliminary evaluation studies to determine the effectiveness of the Institute work as it related to the actual participants. We will also discuss the early effects of the year's project on colleges and universities in Japan and the changed attitude of national agencies. It is worth repeating here that the achievements of the Institutes were not limited to Japan; there were significant implications for the field of international education. For, as Teijiro Hayashi, local director of the Kyushu Institute, commented: "The Institute is the first attempt in the history of higher education where faculties of two nations have united in a year's common study of student personnel organization and problems." But we will have to leave a comprehensive evaluation of the contributions of the 1951-52 project to the future.

Evaluation by the Regular Participants The first attempt to evaluate any phase of the work of the Institutes was made near the close of the Kyushu session. Since at that time it seemed essential to determine the degree to which the Institute was achieving realistic results for those attending, one group of participants, assisted by Gordon Klopf from the faculty, constructed an attitude 124

Evaluating the Project

125

questionnaire. The questionnaire stressed techniques and educational methods more than subject-matter learning. It was used by a number of the discussion groups as the basis for an analysis of their own work. It had limitations as an instrument for objective study and required later revision, but it served as a device for getting participants to think critically about the procedures in which they were spending their time. The questionnaire provided for the listing of classified facts about the participants and then presented questions which could later become the basis of group discussions. The questions to be considered related to the following: (1) changes in individual attitude on status consciousness among group members, (2) the time of noticeable improvement in group technique, (3) the development of intimate friendships among individual group members, (4) the present intensity of group consciousness among the members, (5) the actual techniques used when the individual took his turn as a group leader (in this question a check list of desirable qualities of a group leader was provided), and (6) actual practices in which the individual engaged as a group observer. No full summary of objective data was collected on this questionnaire. It represents merely the first step in satisfying a group feeling for the need of evaluation of procedures. But it was influential in the development of later studies. One of these was made during the spring session in Tokyo when a committee of Japanese and American faculty members was appointed to work on evaluating the Institute. Committee members were Maurice Woolf, Hiromichi Nakamura, Taro Ishigami, and Gordon Klopf. This committee made a most significant contribution and laid the foundation for future work in evaluation studies of academic content and procedure in courses in the field of student personnel. The committee constructed, and submitted to the faculties for further suggestions, an attitude questionnaire. After final approval it was distributed to seventy-two participants of the Tokyo Institute as the basis for their evaluation. Seventy-six questions regarding the effectiveness of various phases of Institute procedure were asked in the questionnaire. The answers are summarized here to show the general trend of thinking among the participants. On questions relating to the philosophy, principles, and techniques of student personnel services a large majority (55) felt that an exceptional interest and understanding of the objectives of student personnel work had come to them as a result of work in the Institute. In specify-

126

Student Counseling in Japan

ing the areas on which they would put greatest emphasis after returning to their campuses, they mentioned most commonly, first, developing a recognition of the need for student personnel services on the campus; and second, securing the establishment of an administrative organization for personnel services. Topics that participants found most helpful were counseling and administrative organization. In answering questions on the teaching aids and organization of the Institute a large majority gave a low rating to the help they had received from the library in contrast to other sources of help. They indicated lack of time and lack of ability to read English as the principal reasons why the library had contributed least to their work. The sequence of the day with a beginning general assembly lecture followed by classwork and a closing assembly was favored as a daily procedure by approximately 80 per cent. A large majority expressed satisfaction with the group recreational programs. One section of the questionnaire was devoted to the contributions of faculty members. The lectures of the American faculty members and their demonstration of sound personnel procedures within each group were the two contributions rated most highly by the participants. Private interviews with faculty members were considered less helpful. There was general agreement that the members of the American faculty had a good understanding of Japanese educational problems. Participants in the Institute felt they had become very well acquainted with the faculty. (This feeling of close relationship between the faculty members and students of the Institute was reciprocal.) More than half the questionnaire was taken up with questions on group procedure. Almost every participant indicated his belief that there had been progress in group discussion content, technique, and unity; the greatest progress had been experienced in the fourth and fifth weeks of the course. Considerable evidence was available to indicate confidence in group procedure as an effective educational method. Those who were administrators, for example, had been able to see the positive results coming from group discussion and decision in contrast to purely authoritative action. The questionnaire tended to show that the educational method demonstrated in the Institute would modify or completely change the educational methods of many of the Institute members when they returned to their teaching positions. In the evaluation of group procedure the participants indicated that the discussions were not faculty centered and that discussion depended

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127

more on the experience of the participants than on reading. The participants felt they had gained confidence in the methodology as they had become more familiar with it. They had not learned, however, to express freely opinions which varied from the opinions of other group members. A majority felt that reaching a definite conclusion was not a necessary element of the discussion but that a well-organized discussion was in itself an effective learning device. The reasons most commonly given for failure to arrive at definite conclusions during discussions were lack of sufficient time and lack of factual information. The group discussions had followed closely the subject of the lectures, the participants agreed, and little difficulty had been experienced in coming to an agreement on the topics that should be discussed in the group. A large majority indicated that there was full participation of group members. A multiple question was devised to rate the work of the group observer. It gave consideration to the observer's skill in pointing out lack of progress on the discussion topic, in evaluating the good and bad aspects of what had been said in the group, and in studying group and individual reactions. Twenty-three members had acted as group leader once only during the Institute and forty-seven had served as leader twice or more. As leaders the group members felt they had succeeded in keeping the discussion close to the proposed topic with a minimum of deviation. They had been able to prevent group domination by talkative members and had kept the group from a rigid division of opinion. It was not a common experience for the participants to use an evaluation questionnaire to judge the effectiveness of a teaching procedure of which they were a part, but they were cooperative in this as in the teaching procedure itself. As a result the questionnaires were extremely valuable in determining the attitudes of the Institute participants. The generally favorable, even enthusiastic, attitudes revealed by the questionnaire are all the more remarkable when we consider the participants' attitudes at the opening of each Institute. It was evident then that many of the people who had been asked by the universities to represent their faculties and take the special training had done so with reluctance. Generally speaking they entered the Institute concerned about at least two problems. First, they were absent from their universities at a time when there was much work to be done. (In some cases they had not been relieved from their academic assignments.) And second, they were not convinced that an Institute conducted by an

128

Student Counseling in Japan

American faculty could be of value in the practical needs of Japanese universities. Against a background of these two problems it should be understood that those who registered had very little idea of the nature of the work ahead. Thus many participants entered the Institutes with passive or negative feelings. But most of them moved from passivity to genuine enthusiasm. In this the Japanese faculties had a large share. With few exceptions they gave complete and early support to the program. This factor influenced the thinking of the participants considerably. The latter began to recognize that higher education in America and in Japan had much in common but that the Institute approach was to be specific rather than general. They soon demonstrated spirit and interest in their academic and recreational activities. At the close of the Kyushu Institute one of the participants commented that they were "changed people from the ones who first assembled in January." They had found, he said, "new vision and perspective, a scientific method for working with student problems, knowledge and skills in group procedures, and a faith in student personnel work as contrasted with a former skepticism." The three months had passed quickly and the participants seemed reluctant to have the Institutes close. They returned in later months to Institute centers for reunions with members of the American and Japanese faculties. In July fourteen of a total of sixteen participants in one section alone returned to a Kyoto reunion and workshop, where they formed their own "club" and planned annual meetings. It was a common practice too for one Institute to have visitors from previous ones. On a visit to the Tokyo Institute, a participant from the Kyushu session was asked to give a greeting in the general assembly. He was K. Hayashi of Fukuoka Gakugei University. His response reflected the experience of many: When I went back to my campus after the close of the Kyushu Institute I was surprised to find that people of the whole school regarded me as an authority in student personnel services. And now, whenever a student problem occurs on the campus the first thing they do is to come to me and seek my opinion on it. So I am compelled to study hard to keep up to their expectations. I warn you that similar things will happen to you when you go back to your campuses in July. The warning was not inappropriate. Already presidents of the region had been in conference and were detailing the tasks ahead for those

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129

who had received training. Some participants were a bit apprehensive about returning to their campuses to face problems they now realized required a level of skill that they could not achieve in a short course. But once they were back they plunged into their work with energy and enthusiasm. One, Mrs. Fumi Fukushima of Nagoya Jogakuin Junior College, wrote from her home university following her Institute training: "We Japanese are seriously working for the establishment of fundamental student personnel services here. . . . I have personally determined that I shall devote my life to this work with students." The renewed emphasis on student personnel services at her institution was evidence that these were not idle words. Mrs. Fukushima, dean of students at Nagoya Jogakuin Junior College, listed some of the activities: I assume that you would be interested in hearing what happened on my campus since the close of the autumn Institute. The first things we did were (a) to hold a report conference with the entire faculty and sponsored by the president, and (b) to hold a conference of the same nature with the students. In January we decided to have a weekly assembly hour program in which proper principles and techniques of student activities, group procedure, leadership training, etc. were studied using printed materials. This program resulted in (1) students' more active and spontaneous attitude in developing their own program activities, (2) happier atmosphere in classes, (3) more friendly relationship among the students of different grades, and (4) rapport between the faculty and students. Meetings for sending off graduates and greeting freshmen were planned and carried out successfully by students, and these events were much merrier and more educative than similar ones held before. We also made the survey of student needs and on that basis evaluated the curriculum offering and student life. During the spring vacation, we compiled a new student handbook based on these studies. Administrative structure was changed to the type emphasized at the Institute, and I was appointed to the position of Chief of Guidance Section. The program of freshmen orientation we offered this April is as follows: April 18 (Friday): Ceremony Kondan (interview) of parents and faculty Kondan (interview) of freshmen and faculty Picture-taking Luncheon party sponsored by students for freshmen

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Student Counseling in Japan

April J9 (Saturday): Student handbooks were distributed After the general session an explanation on the handbook was made, and students took a campus trip April 21 (Monday) to 26 (Saturday): Orientation week Student government and activities, interview, curriculum building, application for scholarship April 28 (Monday): Field trip to a historical place at Tajimi On May 10, twelve participants of Kyoto Institute in Aichi, Mie, and Gifu prefectures met at Aichi Gakugei University and reports, studies, and discussion on freshmen orientation were made. Participants from other universities were active too. Kiichi Kimoto, former chief of the Guidance Section, Toyama University, who had been assigned new duties in student personnel work, wrote: As a result of my experience at Kyoto Institute for Student Personnel Services, I realized the critical need of getting faculty cooperation for development of any healthy Student Personnel Services program on the campus. The president of my university attended the Presidents' Conference of the above Institute and also felt the same need. At the Counselors' meeting held in December he emphasized the significance of Student Personnel Services to the group and had me report on what I learned at the Kyoto Institute. It was decided as a result of this meeting that I would go to the various faculties and have workshops on Student Personnel Services. I prepared printed materials and held the above-mentioned workshop in each of the faculties during January and February. Also I planned and carried out in-service training for the staff of the Student Personnel Services office during this period. Gordon Klopf of the American faculty reported the following regarding members of his particular group: My observations concerning the degree to which participants have followed through in their own institutions after the Institute, as with most of the faculty, are limited to letters and comments that have been received. At least one of the Kyoto participants was promoted to the position of Dean of Students and several others, who were not working in the student personnel service area, appear to have been given some responsibilities for student affairs. The participants in the Nagoya-Gifu area sponsored a conference on Freshman Orientation. A number of the Kyoto area participants developed handbooks for their universities. One university dean from Osaka said that his was a technical school and that

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131

he was glad to see that his faculty member who attended the Institute had developed some new approaches toward students and their problems. The dean observed that the participant now seemed more interested in students as human beings and was helping the other faculty members to get that point of view. Reports from the Kyushu group are most encouraging. Two of the participants are initiating faculty advising; one is planning a new program of student government and activities with the faculty and students in his university; one is setting up a leadership course for student leaders; one is attempting to develop a program of student counseling; and one is working for improved dormitory activities and services. Leona Felsted found similar post-Institute activity among members of her group: Letters received from participants of earlier Institutes and conferences with those who visited in Tokyo indicate that many are continuing in some degree with work which they planned during their workshops. The most frequent of these developments are for faculty in-service training programs. Included among other reports: Work on developing an articulation program between high school and college Appointment as Chief of the Guidance Section Development of an orientation program Talk to be given before a combined faculty group on financial aids to students Work on housing service and financial aids to students who had suffered losses in the Tottori fire Translation of one of the ACE series for use by faculty members In general the participants were grateful for the experience in which they had been privileged to speak freely what was on their minds, to exchange ideas and experiences with others, and to receive technical training in student personnel services. They realized that they were pioneers in a newly born profession for student personnel workers in their country. Each member of the Institutes who completed the work to the satisfaction of the faculty was issued a certificate of completion. The certificates were ungraded and did not represent accumulated academic credit; their primary function was to identify the receiver as one who had participated satisfactorily in the Institute. This was the beginning of the establishment of a body of professional personnel in the field. The Institute participants felt deeply their responsibilities as charter members—so to speak—of this body, and they returned to their campuses with the determination to put what they had learned to work.

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Student Counseling in Japan

The Results in the Universities The effectiveness of the Institutes must finally be measured in terms of changes in the Japanese universities themselves—changes inspired by the general program of the Institutes and worked out by the Institutetrained faculty members and Institute-oriented presidents and deans. These changes will be made slowly in some cases; it will perhaps be many years before anything like the full impact of the 1951-52 program can be determined. But even before the end of the year there was evidence of growing activity. Before the close of the Tokyo Institute the general director visited the Kyoto and the Kyushu areas to gain a better understanding of the changes that were occurring on the campuses during the year's emphasis on student personnel services and to discuss with officers of the professional associations the advisability of sending out a general survey questionnaire on these changes. Responding to an earlier suggestion, Chubu regional officers had already used a questionnaire to secure information on a number of items. In the meeting and from the questionnaire they were able to report that in fifteen universities major changes in organization had been made; in three, major changes were under way; in only three no recent changes had occurred. On the general question regarding improvements in the program during the year, seventeen universities had experienced marked improvements. Nine institutions had been given substantial budget increases for personnel services and two indicated that increases were under consideration. Seven universities had developed new programs in tests and measurements and two had programs in the making. Eighteen institutions indicated and described other improvements that had been made. The Western Japan Association arranged a meeting of university representatives at the time of the director's visit for a review of changing programs in that region. Representatives of seventeen colleges and universities attended. In all cases realistic changes had occurred. These included the establishment of regular faculty meetings for working out improved methods in counseling and guidance, the organization of campus committees, improved orientation programs, and the establishment in some institutions of independent budgets for student personnel services. Among the improvements that had been made were an awakened interest among professors regarding student services, increases in the number of staff members to handle the work, organization of faculty advising systems, stabilizing of personnel and the abandonment of the rotation

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133

system in the appointment of deans of students, and emphasis on the scientific study of students. In order to give some uniformity to the information being collected, the Institutes director assisted the Middle and Western professional associations in constructing a questionnaire to be sent to all universities in the two areas. A copy of the questionnaire is included here on page 134. It served two practical purposes. First, it was an instrument for the gathering of information; and second, by implication, it called to the attention of administrators appropriate things that could be done as a follow-through on the work of the Institute. The letter that accompanied the questionnaire asked that each university fill in the form only after all questions had been carefully considered in a meeting of the president, the dean of students, and the Institute participant. A period of two weeks was given for the return of the questionnaire to the association. Before the close of the Tokyo Institute the Western professional organization had received returns on its questionnaire from thirty-five institutions. The project was delayed for a short time in the Chubu area to avoid overlapping with another request that had been made to the universities; yet by late July the Middle Japan Association had submitted returns from thirty-eight institutions. The Eastern Japan Association, organized in early July, planned to make a survey among the colleges and universities served by the Tokyo Institute after time had been given for participants to return to their campuses and get their work under way. On the basis of returns from the Western Japan questionnaire it appeared that major changes were occurring or had occurred in many universities. Reporting on the returns in the Western Japan area, the association president pointed out that the questions were not comprehended with equal accuracy in all institutions. It seemed that some institutions had made changes that were significant but had not listed them because they were not regarded as "major." He called attention to the fact that in many institutions student personnel concepts had permeated the campus and that marked changes, not indicated in the answers to the questionnaire, were in the making. He indicated that major changes were occurring more readily in the smaller than in the larger universities. A point of special interest is his comment that university presidents indicated a strong interest in the questionnaire and accepted it as an appropriate follow-through of the work of the Institute.

QUESTIOMAIBB OH STUDENT PSHSOMEL SaRVICflS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

1. Name of the college or university reporting. 2. Type of institution. (National, Public, Private)

3. Total enrollment of the institution, present year (1951-52). 4.

Name of the participant in the Institute for Student Personnel Services

who

represented this institution.

5. What specific additional responsibilities have been assigned

to the

above

participant or participants as a result of his appointment to and work in the Institute?

6. Describe any changes that have been made in

administrative organization

of

student personnel work on your campus since the date of the opening of the Institutes, September 7, 1951

7. Describe changes made during the past six months in regard to budget

organ-

ization, procedure, and amount of budget approved.

8. .List the specific changes in faculty personnel assigned to

Student

nel Services during the present school year.

9. a. Have there been one or more meetings of the

university

Person-

president

and

deans of faculties for purposes of discussing needed improvements of Student Personnel Services on your campus during the past eleven months? (Yes, H b. Have the above meetings resulted in changed

policies

student personnel work on your campus? (Yes, U

or

procedures

in

c. If the answer to (a) is "yes," pleaae describe the changes._ d. Describe any plans that are now under way for changes in Student

nel Services in the immediate future.

10. Describe recent services to the student personnel

program

on

Person-

your

campus

which may have come from any member of the Department of Psychology, Education, or Sociology of your institution. a. Have technically trained people from these departments

assist in Student Personnel Services work? (Yes, No)

been, invited

11. Have the University President, the Dean of Students, and the faculty

to

repre-

sentative at the Institute met together for a discussion of the work of the Institute or the improvement of campus services? (Yes, No)

12. In addition, to the philosophy of Student Personnel Services and its adminis-

trative organization, the following areas of work were studied at the Institute: Group procedures, admissions, university records, orientation, student activities and organizations, tests and measurements, educational counseling, vocational counseling, personal adjustment counseling, discipline, faculty advising, placement, Student Personnel Services in women's education, student financial aids, student housing, and research and evaluation. What changes in policies, procedures, or organization have been made or are now being formulated at your institution with respect to any of the areas of Student Personnel Services listed above? 13. Describe any specific steps taken for training of Student Personnel

workers in your Institution.

Services

1^. Describe any improvements in student personnel work that have beeneffected

on your campus during the year that are not described in any of the above questions, (Use an extra sheet if necessary in completing answers to any of the

questions in this questionnaire.)

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Evaluating the Project

135

In the comparatively short time between the close of the Kyushu Institute and the return of the questionnaire, six of thirty-five institutions reporting had appointed Institute participants to new positions relating to student personnel services on the campus. Sixteen institutions reported major changes in administrative organization. Fourteen reported the establishment of independent budgets. An additional seven had improved their budget status. Since the close of the Institute the presidents and academic deans in twenty-six of the institutions had re-examined their student personnel services and thirteen of these had made changes in organizational structure as a basis of improving their programs. Among universities not yet having made major changes, eight reported plans under way for strengthening administrative structure, three for organizing a faculty advising system, three for establishing more complete cumulative records, two for improving placement services, two for improving organization of student activities, two for improving health services, two for constructing dormitories, and two for establishing programs for educating faculty members to needed changes in services to students. One institution had changed the status and remuneration of student personnel workers; thirteen were getting cooperation from the academic departments of psychology, education, and social science; twenty-one indicated planned changes; and twenty-nine had called meetings of their president, dean of students, and the Institute participant to discuss the Institute and plans for future development of the work on the campus. In response to the question on improvements now in progress or being planned in specific fields, the following number of institutions indicated changes: group procedures, 7; student transfer, 2; student records, 6; orientation, 12; student organizations, 8; tests and measurements, 5; counseling, 9; discipline, 4; faculty advising, 15; placement, 8; student personnel services for women, 2; housing, 7; evaluation and research in student personnel services, 3; financial aids, 8; and health service, 4. Eight institutions were working out technical procedures for improving student personnel services and twenty-two were establishing programs for training faculty members in the field. Kyushu University had applied to the Ministry of Education for permission to establish an academic course in counseling and one in group procedures and had planned leadership training for women students. These courses were to be taught

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by faculty members who had completed the academic work of the Institute. Of the thirty-eight institutions reporting in the Chubu region served by the Kyoto Institute, ten had appointed participants to new positions in student personnel services work on the campus, twenty-two had made major changes in administrative organization, seven were operating under an independent student personnel services budget, and four others reported major budget increases. In thirty-three institutions presidents and deans had re-examined their student services resulting in the twenty-two adjustments in organization; eleven had made changes in status, salary, or treatment of staff members in student personnel services; and twenty-eight student personnel programs were being assisted by professors from the departments of psychology, education, and the social sciences. In thirty-seven institutions the presidents, deans of students, and faculty representatives at the Institute had met for a discussion of the work of the Institute and its relationship to improved campus services. Among universities not having made major changes, four reported plans under way for changes. Eight had made minor improvements in the record system, eight in university orientation, ten in student activities, four in tests and measurements, six in educational counseling, two in discipline, four in faculty advising, four in placement, five in student financial aids, fourteen in student housing, and one in research and evaluation. In the fields of vocational counseling and counseling with reference to personal problems, none of the universities had organized programs. Twenty universities of the Chubu region had taken steps for the further training of student personnel services workers. In interpreting the findings of the questionnaires, we should keep in mind two significant factors: (1) The adjustments listed in the questionnaires occurred during the year rather than at the end. It is likely that further major changes will occur with the approval and encouragement of the Ministry of Education. (2) With most universities, especially the larger ones, the major problem is the conversion of the faculty to the needed improvements. After all, usually only one member of each faculty received regular Institute training. In view of this the achievements on many campuses in the early period following the Institute were remarkable.

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We must not forget, of course, the influence of the presidents' conferences on the changes occurring in the universities. There the presidents had determined to support improved student personnel programs. The interest and understanding of these leaders may be indicated by quotations from the addresses delivered by each of the three presidents of the host universities at the time of these conferences. Shunjiro Hattori from Kyoto University commented on December 77 1951: Needless to say this Institute was an unprecedented organization promoted with a special budget by the Education Ministry assisted by CIE in order to help to strengthen student welfare and guidance which has heretofore been unsatisfactory in the universities of our country. The president of Kyushu University, Isao Kikuchi, on March 8, 1952, said: Worthy of special attention is the fact that at the close of the panel the participating presidents mentioned their belief in the necessity of launching a workable program for selling Student Personnel Services on the entire campus by the united efforts of presidents themselves, the directors of business offices, deans of students, and the regular participants of the Institute for Student Personnel Services. And on May 29, 1952, Tadao Yanaihara, president of Tokyo University, had this to say: For university education and for the building of Japan after her independence, this is a very timely and significant conference that we are holding here today with the presidents of national, public, and private universities and colleges covering the large area of all eastern Japan. We have met together to discuss the important problem of Student Personnel Services and to exchange our experiences. I sincerely wish that through lively and enthusiastic discussion among the fellow presidents, this conference may achieve its initial objectives. These and other presidents suited their actions to their words. By the time of the closing of the Tokyo Institute, President Yanaihara, for example, had completed arrangements for a meeting in which his participants and all Tokyo University faculty members who had worked at the Institute were to meet with the president to discuss plans for the organization and development of student personnel services at Tokyo University. This pattern set by an institution of unexcelled prestige among the universities of Japan will have a marked effect on student personnel work throughout the nation.

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Effect on National Educational Agencies The questionnaires for university responses omitted one item which was vital to the growth of student personnel services in all institutions: the development of a close working relationship between the universities and the Ministry of Education in the newer approaches to student personnel services. This was a natural result of their year's work together in fostering the Institutes. During the year other national agencies—the National Association of Universities, the national organizations for public and private universities, and the National University Accreditation Association—had the opportunity of becoming familiar with the work of the Institutes and indicated an interest in improved student personnel work in the colleges and universities. Evaluation by Administrative Officers of the Institutes In a meeting called by the general director on July 4 for the local directors of the Institutes and the recently appointed chief of the Student Section in the Ministry of Education (Yoshiyuki Inouye, Teijiro Hayashi, Keisuke Sawada, and Kikuo Nishida), the results and achievements of the Institutes were discussed. These five administrative officers agreed on thirteen major results of the year's work. These provide a good summary for this chapter. 1. A conspicuous change occurred in the attitudes of university professors regarding the importance of organizing up-to-date student personnel services. 2. There was a change in the attitudes of the actual participants of the Institutes from one of passive resistance to genuine enthusiasm for the work. 3. In a change in the major approach to student personnel work, emphasis shifted from a complete dependence on the personality of the administrative officer to one of accent on professional training, a scientific study of students, and objective ways of meeting their needs. 4. The participants became convinced that the developments in America can have a direct benefit on student personnel work in Japan. This was in contrast to an earlier feeling that the situations of the two nations differed so greatly that developments in one would have little bearing on another. 5. For the first time in Japan, student personnel programs called for the aid of trained personnel from the academic departments of psychology, education, and the social sciences. It was shown also that these academic departments, when invited, are willing and anxious to par-

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ticipate. There is now a common attitude that interrelations among related disciplines in the field are to be expected. 6. Universities became concerned about studying objectively their own students rather than just those of secondary and elementary schools. 7. A change in terminology occurred in which the words guidance and welfare were being supplemented by the words student personnel services; this has definite advantage to students and to the universities. 8. A feeling of common understanding developed between the participants and the newly appointed chief of the Student Section of the Ministry of Education. This resulted from common experience at the Institutes and from a feeling that the chief of the section understands their problems. This adds active support to the Ministry of Education program in the Student Affairs Section. 9. A definite change was made in the administrative structure for student personnel services on many campuses. Even in the new-system universities, centralized services were being organized. 10. A change occurred in the concept of officials of the Ministry of Education in regard to student personnel services. These were recognized as specialized work requiring a technically trained staff. 11. After the close of the Occupation of Japan, when the Japanese educators faced full responsibility for the emphases in their own system of higher education, there came a marked increase, rather than a decrease, in interest and concern for student personnel services. 12. The methods and procedures used in the Institutes tended to build self-confidence in the participants and gave them the incentive for independent work. 13. The belief that the three-month period of focused effort was the minimum time in which participants could grasp the major concepts of the work was confirmed by the Institutes. Those who in the beginning had felt that it might be wiser to have a rotating membership, in which each participant would receive only one month's training, later recognized that the three months' minimum training was essential.

CHAPTER 8

Next Steps in Student Personnel Services in Japan

DURING 1951-52 Japanese educators gave more thought and attention to student personnel services than to any other single factor in the operation of higher education in Japan, with the possible exception of the annual life-preserving struggle to guarantee operating budgets. The year's effort was shared by a faculty of American specialists who, in addition to their technical contributions, studied general problems of university operation as they relate to student services. In the course of the year's work the visiting faculty from the United States developed not only a friendly interest but also a genuine concern for the future progress of higher education in Japan. Out of this interest and in keeping with its responsibilities to Japanese universities, the faculty before it left Japan submitted its recommendations to the national Steering Committee.* The recommendations were not new to the thinking of leaders in higher education in Japan, but it was hoped that they would be helpful in focusing the efforts of universities and national educational agencies in the task that is continuously theirs. Since they represent the carefully considered judgments of specialists in student personnel services after extended study, the recommendations are included here in toto. AMERICAN FACULTY RECOMMENDATIONS ON STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES IN JAPANESE UNIVERSITIES July]], 1952 Procedures in Student Personnel Services in Japan are derived largely from tradition, budget considerations, and legal provisions. Each of these * In order that they might receive full consideration, the chairman, acting for the Steering Committee, furnished copies to the Ministry of Education, to special committees within the national organizations of universities, to the Educational Committee in the Diet, to all members of the national Steering Committee, and to all universities in the country.

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three factors must be thoughtfully considered in any realistic approach to needed changes. Following a year of intensive work with administrators and faculty members of Japanese universities, and with personnel of the Ministry of Education, the American faculty submits its recommendations. These are regarded as minima for the needed growth and development of Student Personnel Services in colleges and universities. A mere listing of recommendations without considering the possibilities for achieving them would constitute an ineffective treatment of a vital problem. Accompanying the recommendations, therefore, are explanatory comments. It is readily recognized by university administrators of the country that major adjustments in student personnel work are desirable and necessary. I. Recommendations Relating to National Agencies in the Field of Higher Education A. THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Changes in higher education in the postwar years gave encouragement to local areas to exert initiative and to take an active part in planning. Yet colleges and universities may still look to the Ministry of Education, their principal financing agency, for leadership in recommending and instituting changes in organization and procedure. 1. It is recommended that the Ministry of Education establish an adequate legal basis for financing and operating university programs in Student Personnel Services. The services should be organized and financed in keeping with a modern philosophy of education and in recognition of the total educational needs of university students. Present legal provisions are inadequate to meet this need. In the establishment of a legal basis for the operation of Student Personnel Services, special reference should be made to Articles 52 and 58 of the School Education Law, Article 5 of the Regulations for the Enforcement of National Schools, Chapter 5 Section 5 of the Standard for Establishment of Junior Colleges, Chapter 2 Section 5 of the University Standards (revised July 1950), Chapter 10 of the Uniform Standards Law, and the University Central Administration Bill now under consideration. Article 52 of the School Education Law reads as follows: "The University as a center of learning shall aim at teaching and studying higher learning and technical arts as well as giving broad general culture and developing the intellectual, moral and practical abilities." Under this liberal charter, Student Personnel Services might find full expression were it not for limitations specified or implied in other articles of the law. Article 58 of the School Education Law may be and is being interpreted to mean that the professor is free from responsibilities on the

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campus except as these shall find expression in the classroom and the research laboratory. It reads: "The professor shall give instruction to the students, guiding them in their study, and pursuing their own study." Article 58 should be re-worded to give positive support to Article 52 by specifying responsibilities of the faculty members beyond those now mentioned and in keeping with the critical need for emphasis on outof-class Student Personnel Services. Chapter 2 Section 5 of the Standard for Establishment of Junior Colleges now provides for such services. Article 5 of the Regulations for Enforcement of National Schools Establishment Law permits under special circumstances a combination of the business office of the university and the Student Personnel Services. These services are traditionally known in Japan as the secretariat and the guidance and welfare services. It is recommended that provision for a combination of the two services be deleted from this article and that the words "Guidance and Welfare" be replaced by the more inclusive words "Student Personnel." The new terminology should be defined in keeping with the technical emphasis of the Institutes conducted in 1951-52. Chapter 2 Section 5 of the University Standards recommends a quota system that is conducive to an inflexible operation of student transfer within the university. This section and the related document Table No. 1 attached to Regulations for Enforcement of the National Schools Establishment Law should be carefully reviewed, their effects studied, and provision made to allow for establishing needed services for students. Table No. 1 refers to a fixed number of departmental employees for the university. This provision gives support to a rigid system of departmentalization and seriously limits the possibility of student transfer from one faculty to another. Chapter 10 of the University Standards mentions needed physical facilities, but omits mention of needed buildings for student extracurricular activities. Additions should be made to this chapter to provide for adequate facilities in keeping with a modern philosophy of Student Personnel Services. The University Administration Bill, now under reconsideration by the Diet, should include a realistic emphasis on personnel services for students. Only through a scientific and objective approach to specific student needs and ways of meeting these needs can there be any genuine solution to student campus problems now critical in Japan. 2. It is recommended that the Ministry of Education issue to universities and boards of control a clear statement pointing to the needs for the development of Student Personnel Services in Japan. This statement, in addition to articulating urgent student needs, should point out essential academic and personal qualifications necessary for the professional staff assigned to the work. It should suggest also the academic status and salary which should apply to personnel properly experienced and trained

Regional conference in Kyushu, sponsored by the Ministry of Education

Regional conference in Okayama, sponsored by the Ministry of Education 143

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in the field. The statement should point to the urgent need for establishing academic courses in leading universities where technical training at the beginning and at the advanced levels of work can be offered. In some universities, such courses may be offered effectively within an already established faculty. In others, a newly created department or faculty is advisable. 3. The recent emphasis of the student affairs section of the Ministry of Education with its resulting improvements in the recognition of student personnel work is commended. The significant responsibilities of this section for initiating programs not fully understood on college and university campuses point to the need for further strengthening of this administrative unit. It is recommended that serious consideration be given to the advisability of creating a separate bureau to replace the present section of student affairs. In consideration of the limited level of operation assigned to a section, and the difficulty of attracting to it adequately trained personnel, it is questionable whether a section within a bureau of the Ministry is adequate to the major work ahead in this field. 4. It is recommended that the Ministry of Education encourage colleges and universities to give full support to the newly formed professional associations for the development of Student Personnel Services in Japan, also that membership to these associations be encouraged on an institutional and on an individual basis. Membership on an individual and relatively permanent basis is conducive to the growth of a professional body of university personnel for work in the field. 5. For the proper development of Student Personnel Services, it is recommended that all official personnel within the Ministry of Education be given a more complete understanding of the nature and vital importance of student personnel work in modern higher education. It should receive the special attention of the Minister, the Vice-Ministers, the chief of the Accounting Section, and all Bureau Directors and Section Chiefs. B. THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 1. It is recommended that the National Organizations of Private, Public, and National Universities give support and encouragement to the Ministry of Education in the establishment of an effective legal basis for the operation of student personnel work in the colleges and universities of Japan. 2. It is recommended that the third and fourth standing committees of the National University Association give full recognition to Student Personnel Services in all universities of the association. These committees now functioning in the areas of Guidance and Welfare should initiate a close working relationship. Their cooperative work should be extended to include support to the newly formed professional associa-

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tion for Student Personnel Services in the nation. In joint meetings of the two committees with officers of the professional associations and the National Federation, there should be plans for effective support of this service. C. THE UNIVERSITY ACCREDITATION ASSOCIATION AND THE UNIVERSITY CHARTERING COMMITTEE

1. It is recommended that the University Chartering Committee and the National Accreditation Association give added emphasis to the effective operation of Student Personnel Services as an important factor in chartering and accrediting colleges and universities. A. The importance of these services should not be interpreted in the framework of certain isolated concepts of the past regarding the purposes for which universities exist. Modern philosophies of higher education take into consideration indisputable educational needs beyond the offerings of the classroom. When a philosophy of higher education is reached through an objective and realistic study of students as one of its basic elements, there emerges a new framework for evaluating the work of a university. D. THE NATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

It is recommended that the Professional Organizations for Student Personnel Services organized in 1951-52: (1) give major emphasis to setting up and improving professional standards for members of student personnel staffs; (2) encourage the establishment of academic courses for training of professional workers; (3) emphasize the need for inservice training of staff members through seminars, institutes, and workshops; (4) conduct applied research in Student Personnel Services so designed as to improve the techniques of personnel work and, by that measure, the services rendered to students, and (5) establish working relations with like organizations of other countries. E. THE CENTRAL EDUCATION COUNCIL

It is recommended that the newly created Central Education Council should immediately study the Student Personnel Services and their place in the philosophy and administrative organization of institutions of higher learning. On the basis of this study, the Council should support the immediate development of these needed services in Japanese universities. II. Establishment of Opportunities for Technical Training A. REGULAR ACADEMIC OFFERINGS

1. It is recommended that in the leading universities of the country academic offerings in Student Personnel Services be established. They should operate on the undergraduate and graduate levels, and should

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provide for professional degrees in the field. Faculties of Education in other universities and colleges should be encouraged to offer courses in the field even though such courses may be insufficient in number to satisfy the degree requirements for a major in student personnel work. Carefully organized and administered extension courses should be offered for the use of present staff members who are unable to leave their positions to register for residence training. In the establishment of such curricula a study should be made of the catalogs of American universities that have set up training departments. These catalogs may be secured on request from the United States Office of Education and the American Council on Education. As an aid in improving the academic offerings in Japanese universities, it would be advisable to translate into the Japanese language a suitable number of the better books and pamphlets written in English and to give consideration to significant problems in Student Personnel Services. 2. It is recommended that selected members of student personnel staffs in Japanese universities and in the Ministry of Education be given opportunities for advanced technical training in the United States. This practice will bring into balance an educational emphasis in the two countries. B. SPECIAL PROGRAMS 1. It is recommended that the present system of workshops for Student Personnel Services, sponsored through the initiative of the Ministry of Education be expanded and improved in method and in content to provide for increased emphasis on effective student personnel work. The workshops should be re-defined to provide specifically for problemsolving situations. They should create procedures for making objective recommendations for improving student personnel work on university campuses and should furnish proposals for executing the recommendations. 2. On all campuses it is recommended that in-service training programs be instituted for the improvement of student personnel workers. 3. It is recommended that Japan should continue the practice of inviting experts for special contributions in institutes and workshops. During the years in which training programs are established for student personnel workers in Japanese universities, the United States Department of State should be invited to cooperate with the Ministry of Education and the colleges and universities of Japan in providing for visiting specialists in the field. The initiative for the continuation of such programs should come most appropriately from the Ministry of Education or from Japanese universities. In these training programs, specialists from the United States may be invited to spend periods of from six months to two years in Japan. A team of such specialists could be of special aid by visiting specific universities. At each one they should stay at least for several days

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and work directly with academic deans, other administrators, and faculty members. At each place they should give special assistance to the student personnel staff. Attention should be given to the training of Japanese personnel who in turn may conduct training programs in other areas of the country. III. Local Campus Organization A. FACULTY CONFERENCES A major factor in the successful operation of student personnel work on any campus is a clear understanding and active support of the program by professors and academic deans. It is recommended that the president of each university call a series of meetings with the various faculties for discussion of student personnel problems. Special assistance could come from the Dean of Students and the regular participant who represented the university at the Institute. In these meetings, reliable information regarding student out-of-class problems should be presented together with specific ways in which the university and the student may be given material assistance through a well organized and administered system of Student Personnel Services. The cooperation of the faculties should be sought in the organization of the administrative unit. Student Personnel Services should not be regarded as a mere scapegoat through which the more traditional areas of university life may shed disagreeable responsibilities. B. A STUDY OF STUDENT NEEDS It is recommended that before the administrative unit for Student Personnel Services is organized, each college and university should appoint a commission or committee to make a thoroughgoing and objective study of the students who are enrolled in the specific institutions. In making the study, special attention should be given to such things as general scholastic ability, special aptitudes, emotional maturity, recreational and housing needs, and the need for sound student government. The study should include the social, educational, and economic background of the students. After discovering something of the social structure of the student body, attention should be given to categories of student needs which are not being met in the classroom but which have definite effect on the student's educational life. The sources of information which influence the student's vocational choice should be known. When there is a legitimate reason for transfer, possibilities of transfer within the university should be reviewed. The work of the commission should give each institution an accurate picture of the student services it is providing in contrast to those which should be provided in keeping with modern practices and a modern philosophy of higher education. The commission's study will form a reliable basis on which to build an administrative organization. From the study of the commission, it may be discovered that lack of budget is not the primary reason why effective student services did not

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emerge at an earlier time. More often it has been failure on the part of university professors to look up from the textbook long enough and carefully enough to recognize the realistic needs of students and to see the legitimate purposes for which the available budget should be spent. C. AN ADVISORY COMMITTEE It is recommended that the original investigating commission or a subsequently organized committee representing all major areas of university life be appointed as advisory to the university in the field of Student Personnel Services. Such a committee should not supervise the technical operation of the administrative unit after it has been established, but should act as a liaison between the faculty and the student personnel administration. It keeps the university in close touch with student personnel work, and is an important factor for assisting the total university faculty toward a better understanding of the work of the student personnel organization. D. JOB ANALYSIS After the university has become acquainted realistically with itself, the administrative unit on Student Personnel Services should be established. A first step in this process is a carefully executed job analysis of every post to be filled in the organization. Such an analysis will outline detailed services and will indicate desirable qualifications of personnel to be appointed to the positions. E. THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT FOR STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES The present student services operating under the titles of "Student Guidance" and "Student Welfare" seem insufficient to meet the present needs of college personnel. Generally they do not command the respect of university students. If retained in their present form, these titles may prevent rather than assist the development of more effective personnel work. Student Personnel Services are devised primarily: (1) to achieve better faculty-student relations, (2) to reduce wasted student time and energy, (3) to aid the student through scientific procedures better to understand himself, and (4) to assist him in his educational planning. These objectives cannot be achieved by institutions whose major emphasis is on academic problems alone, yet they constitute the sole reason for the existence of Student Personnel Services. It is recommended that there be appointed for Student Personnel Services a major administrative officer who shall be responsible directly to the President. He should receive salary and status equivalent to that of a Dean of the Faculty. It should be recognized that his work is university-wide in nature and that he will need the assistance of professionally trained men and women, who have status and salary in keeping with their significant responsibilities. Specialists on the staff should possess

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characteristics and training sufficient to meet problems that are unsurpassed in complexity in any other area of university life. This fact, though evident to those with experience in the field, is at times unrecognized by professors who spend full time in the subject-matter areas of the university. In this professional area of work, length of tenure should not follow the present rotation system. Faculty members should be made aware of the essential reasons for establishing the major administrative unit. They should recognize also the following primary characteristics of such a unit: A. It is technical in nature and should be operated largely on the basis of demonstrable results. (A properly functioning unit of Student Personnel Services can evaluate its work and demonstrate the results obtained more readily and clearly than can be done by the average academic department.) B. The administrative unit is university-wide in nature. There is no segment of university organization that does not need improved methods in student personnel work. No student in the university should presume to function completely independent of this administrative unit. The advantages of centralization of the program can be demonstrated through reference to specific fields within student personnel areas. Few universities can afford, for instance, the luxury of student housing services or health services operated under the direction of the various colleges or faculties. Economic operation demands some degree of centralization. It may be kept in mind that through effective delegation of responsibility, an intelligently operated and centralized unit can gain for the university the advantages of the decentralized or even the "coordinated" organizations, and yet retain the administrative responsibilities essential to the technical operation of a university-wide organization F. JOB CLASSIFICATION In contrast to the present practice in Japan, it is recommended that student personnel operations be classified as educational rather than as clerical in nature. The clerical help required for regular office work should be responsible, however, directly to the student personnel unit. Although it is appropriate for staff members in the student personnel office to carry teaching responsibilities, those carrying major student personnel functions should devote only a minor amount of time to regular teaching assignments. G. BUDGET 1. It is recommended that in budget reorganization a substantially greater percentage of the total university budget be devoted to student personnel work. The percentage cannot be set in exact figures by a general recommendation, but must be related to the scope of the serv-

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ices included in the program of a given campus. In effectively functioning programs, between 7 and 11 per cent of the total operating budget of the university should be assigned to Student Personnel Services. 2. Fundamental to the entire concept of Student Personnel Services as an educational rather than a clerical function is the assumption that services shall be given a budget independent from that of the secretariat. This is in contrast to the present practice in some institutions. A separate budget for this area of work is recommended. Such a budget is as essential to the operation of the service as is a separate budget for the various faculties and academic departments. H. FACULTY RESPONSIBILITIES

1. In addition to university personnel who give major time and emphasis to Student Personnel Services, it is recommended that other selected members of the faculty be given a reduction in their teaching and research functions as occasion demands and be allowed time for the performance of assigned responsibilities in faculty advising or in other student personnel work. This practice has two distinct advantages. It increases the student personnel staff to the point where greater emphasis can be devoted to individual students, and it brings closer relationship between student out-of-class and classroom functions. The use of regular faculty members on student personnel committees can be of benefit both to the academic departments and to the personnel program. 2. It is recommended that faculty-advising systems be established only after the functions and responsibilities of faculty advisers have been carefully outlined and described. It is essential also to clarify the goal which a faculty-advising system seeks to accomplish. An effective medium through which more detailed thought can be given to the faculty-advising function is the job-analysis technique; this technique is an essential element in all student personnel administration. The premature organization of a faculty-advising system will cause faculty members to lose faith in other areas of the total program. It is appropriate that the above work and analysis be accomplished by a committee of the faculty especially appointed to help plan the faculty-advising system. IV. Financial Aids to Students A. STUDENT EMPLOYMENT

In the field of direct financial aid to students it is recommended that student employment be reorganized to allow a larger percentage of students to work on local campus jobs. This may involve legal and budgetary adjustments. On most campuses there is a large amount of work of a type which can be done efficiently by students on a part-time basis, but which is now being assigned to full-time employees. It is a common practice on many campuses outside of Japan to give students all of the

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campus work which their schedules will allow and their needs dictate provided that the work is effectively done. B. SCHOLARSHIPS

1. Financial difficulties faced by Japanese students who attempt to pursue university work are among the most critical to be found in any of the nations of the world. It is recommended that additional budget be allotted for the granting of scholarships through the Japanese Scholarship Society. The money should be used first to increase the number of scholarship recipients rather than the monetary value of the individual scholarships. 2. In the selection of students who are invited to accept scholarships and other grants for study in the United States, it is recommended that an appropriate number be encouraged to take their training in the field of student personnel work. Factors of leadership ability and a sense of social responsibility should be given special consideration in the selection of the applicants. With an understanding of student problems in Japanese universities, these scholars may bring back to their native country needed technical leadership in the field. 3. The need for new-type scholarships to come into use in Japanese universities is commonly recognized. These scholarships should be from private donors or business firms and furnished in recognition of scholarship achievement and ability alone. A number of such highly selected scholarships would give recognition to an important phase of academic life in Japan. It is recommended that universities take action toward encouraging and securing such scholarships. V. Student Activities A. PHYSICAL FACILITIES

In the growth of wholesome student activities, one major factor is the availability of adequate physical facilities. It is recommended that a building program of the universities include student activity centers where a program, nonpolitical in nature, may operate. Ownership and supervision of these structures should be so arranged that no minority group which is unrepresentative of the university may gain control of the facilities. B. POLITICAL ACTIVITIES 1. The problem of most immediate and evident concern to Japanese educators within the field of student personnel work is that of the political activities of the students. This problem cannot be solved by mere methodology and procedures. It is rooted in the economic, political, and cultural life of the country. It has implications for mass psychology, and at times is unrelated to objective facts. It is unrealistic to assume that merely to give students accurate information about capitalism and democracy will stem the tide of communism. One vital factor

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in meeting the psychological resistance to capitalism is to provide realistic opportunities within the capitalistic system for students to earn enough money to meet legitimate expenses. The expansion of the scholarship system, listed in previous recommendations, has its appropriate place in meeting this student need. University students are actively concerned about two political extremes: communism and fascism. It is contended by some leftist students that their leftist activities are devised to keep their country from falling into the hands of fascist elements that parade in the name of freedom and democracy. To furnish accurate information to students and give them evidence that democracy is non-fascist and non-communist may constitute a working basis for building a wholesome ideology. An item which may check present communistic trends on the campus may be the growth of active student groups who are thoroughly converted to, and will demonstrate through effective group procedures the advantages of, democracy in politics and economics. Such groups should be equally critical of any force that challenges freedom and individual responsibility under whatever name it may appear. To develop among the student majorities a genuine and active interest in democracy and in a law-abiding community will require skilled leadership of the highest type and a leadership which should be furnished at once. It is strongly recommended that immediate steps be taken to furnish technically trained leadership to assist student groups on all campuses to develop appropriate and constructive student activities. The average university student in Japan is untrained in the simple procedures of conducting a meeting in accordance with parliamentary procedure. The preoccupation of universities with academic matters, and their too commonly accepted philosophy that universities have little responsibility to students in out-of-class matters, have left students without leadership training, except as it can be derived from off-campus organizations. This has permitted off-campus and at times paid leadership to invade the campus in opposition to the best interests of the university community. Merely to allow free expression without protecting the right of free expression for all may leave the normal student to the mercy of the ruthless one and then kill the academic freedoms for which the university stands. An important part of legitimate Student Personnel Services is the employment and functioning of staff members whose major function is to work actively with student organizations and groups. Skilled educator technicians should offer an educational program to students which will qualify leaders to conduct meetings and conferences and operate student activities appropriate to the realistic ideals for which universities are created.

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There is at present a major threat to law and order on the college campuses in Japan. Some university administrators are largely disregarded by certain minority student groups. It is the immediate responsibility of universities to transcend any tradition, or minor financial limitation, and to correct any legal provision which prevents the establishment of a well-financed program of leadership training for students. Faculty members trained in the techniques of working cooperatively with student groups should encourage activity among any students who are willing to operate in accordance with the ideal of objectivity for which the university stands and within the framework of campus law and order. Any other course will jeopardize university autonomy, contribute to student disrespect for social order, and eventually undermine the very basis on which academic life in the university rests. This area of work, although demanding much more immediate concern than others in the field of Student Personnel Services, is but one of the several divisions requiring early attention. Other emphases on student personnel should prevent the development of antisocial and criminal tendencies and create wholesome attitudes as a bulwark against the development of any movement which works beyond the framework of community law and order. 2. Since the establishment of new-type universities and the resulting increase in student enrollments, the maintenance of informal studentfaculty relations has become increasingly difficult. It is recommended that studies be made of effective procedures in student-faculty relations, and that steps be taken to effect friendly and democratic activities involving these two major campus groups. VI. Contributions from the Field of Psychology The work of trained psychologists in the student personnel program was referred to in another part of this report. This will now receive a separate treatment. It is recommended that in the establishment of each personnel program, psychologists be employed to work toward the development of reliable personnel tests and professional counseling. Psychologists who are given this responsibility should demonstrate an interest in the applied field and be willing to devote major time and energy to it. Academic advancement and salary recognitions should be provided for achievements and services in this critical area on a basis equal to the recognitions received for comparable achievements in theoretical and academic work. VII. Student Transfer It is recommended that university policies and budgets be so arranged that transfers from one faculty of the university to another may be permitted and encouraged when such transfer is in the interest of the

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student. When this problem is met there may appear ample justification for liberalizing the present quota system and for bringing it into closer relationship with community and individual student needs. VIII. Coordination between Secondary Schools and Universities There is in Japan a noticeable lack of coordination between secondary schools and the colleges and universities. This results in incomplete student records, inadequate admissions practices, and insufficient knowledge of the student as a basis for counseling. It is recommended that a national committee be formed to work out a specific program for improved relationships between secondary schools and institutions of higher learning. The interrelationship to be established should take into full account the needed work of Student Personnel Services on both levels of education. IX. Placement of Graduates As in other countries, the universities of Japan are in need of further coordination of university-wide placement services. It is possible for the placement of university graduates to be arranged by the different departmental faculties, each operating independently of the other, and of the other administrative units of the university. Such a system, however, would be limited in effectiveness. Ideally the placement function should be centralized within one office, most preferably with the student personnel administrative organization. In smaller Japanese universities which have only a few academic departments, such centralization is both desirable and possible. In the larger multi-departmental universities, whose faculties often function more or less independently of one another, complete centralization of placement services may be more difficult to achieve. For such institutions, an all-campus coordinating committee which works through the student personnel office is strongly recommended. This will unify the policies, activities, and contributions of all academic faculties in the successful placement of graduates. Placement is clearly an out-of-class technical counseling service related not alone to the academic training of the student, but also to his aptitudes and abilities. These aptitudes are discovered in psychological tests and measurements and in the technical counseling that should be given relating to educational, vocational, and emotional problems. The student's campus activities, his part-time employment while going to school, and his health are additional factors to be considered in placement. The one unit of the university which has this wide range of information available is the Student Personnel Services organization. It is within this unit that the placement service may operate most effectively and through which the entire placement efforts of the university may come to focus.

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X. Student Personnel Work in Coeducation The large-scale introduction of coeducation into Japanese universities focuses a significant problem in Japanese education. In student personnel work, attention is given to the needs of the individual. It should not be assumed that in present-day Japan the needs of men and women students are identical. Problems based on individual and on sex differences will emerge from the changing status of women in Japanese culture. In the transition period, the vocational, educational, social, and cultural life of the woman student should receive careful study and analysis. The changing status of women is significant for both men and women. It requires objective study and attention from alert and well-trained minds of both sexes. A major problem faced by universities is that of making coeducation real in contrast to operating on a single campus a men's and women's educational program. Merely to admit women into classes with men may not result in coeducation. If the university continues to operate on the basis of male emphasis, women students and teachers may well be forced into a defensive or "feminist" role. In organizing and staffing Student Personnel Services in coeducational institutions, it is recommended that adequate attention be given to the problems of women students. Such attention does not require a duplication of deanships or a dual-headed administration in the student personnel field. Proper acknowledgment of women in higher education can be accomplished effectively and in the interest of coeducation through the appointment to major administrative positions of an appropriate number of women highly trained in the technical aspects of personnel work. Attention should be given to the specific educational problems of women in a changing culture and to their appropriate representation in administrative, staff, and teaching positions of the university. XI. Conferences for University Presidents The presidents' conferences on Student Personnel Services instituted in 1951-52 are unique to Japan. They are a most important factor in a continuing understanding between major administrators of the universities and technical workers in the field. It is recommended that these conferences be repeated as annual events and that they retain their characteristic emphasis exclusively on student personnel work. The conferences should be carefully organized with emphasis on realistic workshop techniques. They should be devoted to objective procedures in solving student personnel problems and should produce needed and practical recommendations. The workshops for presidents could be unique in their power to change recommendations into active policy and procedure.

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XII. Coordinating Efforts between Japan and the United States A. THE PRESENT PROGRAM 1. The program for student personnel work established through the Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services conducted in 1951-52 should form the basis of continued cooperation between the two countries. This cooperation should support the gains of the present year. It is recommended that the General Director of the Institutes establish correspondence with the chairmen of the Steering and Advisory committees and with local directors. Funds should be found for continuation of a substantial cooperative program between the two nations. The detailed nature of the program should be determined at an early date. 2. As one phase of the cooperative program mentioned above and in the interests of personnel work, it is recommended that the newly established professional organizations of Japan and those now in operation in the United States establish further working relationships. These may include as a minimum (1) an exchange of communication through committees organized for the purpose, (2) an exchange of research results, (3) an exchange of information on organizational developments in the two countries, (4) reports on the work of commissions within the organizations, (5) encouragement and actual arrangements of exchange professorships for training courses in the field, and (6) an exchange of significant articles and books produced. This interchange, in addition to being helpful to the advancement of the specialized work in the two countries, could form the basis of a broad program of understanding among institutions of higher learning in Japan and the United States. It would be an effective element in the maintenance of friendly and helpful relations among educators in the two nations. The communications initiated in April 1952 and coming from national professional associations in the United States to the newly organized associations in Japan are commended and form a useful beginning of such relations. Beyond the Recommendations As the work of the Institutes drew to a close, there were numerous questions regarding the future of training programs in Japan and specifically ways in which American specialists might be of further aid. The Ministry of Education and the Steering Committee, the American Advisory Committee and faculty, officials of the United States Department of State, a number of agencies in international relations, and university administrators in Japan—all had given considerable thought to the problem. Among the most encouraging signs was the very early recognition on the part of Japanese educational leaders of the need for improved serv-

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ices to students. They accepted gratefully technical aid from the United States, and then, during the first year following Japan's reinstatement as a sovereign nation, her educational strength was well shown by her desire for self-reliance in satisfying this and other needs. Although major phases of student personnel services were new to Japan, and there had not been time in the Institutes to produce trained specialists, she had rich human resources: well-trained professors in closely related fields and others with valuable experience in less technical phases of the work. On these people could be placed the responsibility for continuing the work begun by the Institutes. And Japan did not hesitate to do just that. As we have already mentioned in Chapter 7, courses in student personnel services were introduced in academic departments and in-service training programs were established on many local campuses. These were often conducted by Institute-trained faculty members. In addition a carefully planned system of regional workshops was set up. The Student Affairs Section of the Ministry of Education took the lead in this project under its newly appointed chief, Kikuo Nishida. A regular participant in the Kyoto Institute, he had often attended the later sessions as a visitor. This training, plus an aptitude for and an interest in student personnel work, gave him an appreciation for needed changes in national policy in this area. In planning for the workshops, he solicited the cooperation of the professional associations in student personnel services. The general director of the Institutes attended two of the planning conferences and observed ample evidence of the use of procedures and principles advocated by the Institutes. The first workshop opened one week after the close of the Institutes; and several more were scheduled for the months ahead. (See Appendix X.) Following a period of such activity in the field, there may well come into focus areas in which an interchange of personnel between the universities of Japan and those of America will be mutually beneficial. It is probable also that Japanese universities, working on their own or with the Ministry of Education, will establish visiting professorships in centers where advanced technical training may be continued in summer sessions or during the regular university year. The Ministry of Education may initiate programs in which visiting specialists are used in organizing workshops, in teaching regular university courses, or in evaluating services or training programs. In such projects the cooperation of the United States Department of State or private foundations could appropriately be sought.

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Another avenue of training might be the enrollment of Japanese scholars in courses in student personnel services at universities in the United States. Important as these educational experiences can be, however, they are but one of several important means of providing needed technical training in the field. They cannot be a substitute for training centers established in Japan, where full emphasis is given to the program as it can function in that country. The Institutes, by operating in Japan and allowing for continuous reassessment of the program in terms of Japanese needs, set a valuable precedent. All these ideas—and many others—for giving further specialized training of student personnel staffs and for extending the program throughout the country are being studied carefully by Japanese educational leaders. It seems assured that the work of the Institutes in 1951-52 marks the beginning of substantial growth in the scientific and systematic operation of student personnel services in the colleges and universities of Japan.

CHAPTER 9

From Philosophy to Practice

AT THE end of the year of the Institutes in Japan the American faculty returned to their university posts in the United States. There they could look with perspective on the developing field of student personnel work in Japan—and with fresh vision on student services in their own nation, which has been a pioneer in the field. In contrast to the rapid progress during one year in Japan, these services had developed slowly over the years in the United States. Yet the general trend is now a common one in the two nations. It has come to focus in more specific attention to the needs of the individual student as determined by objective personal analysis. This is not merely a return to the preoccupation of colonial American educators with the moral and personal welfare of their young charges. It is rather a technical development, on a scientific basis, of an educational offering for the practical use of students. In an effective and systematic manner this offering gives the student added confidence in his university experience; revitalizes the offerings of the institution; and points to an educational program to meet the complex demands of the present generation of university men and women. In such an offering the systematic organization of personnel services takes its place with the accurate teaching of subject matter and the conducting of high-quality research as a major emphasis of the modern university. The United States has made a significant contribution to higher education by its recognition of the importance of these services and by its objective and systematic development of them. The story of how this came about can be told only briefly here. But it may prove encouraging and helpful to those nations beginning to evaluate and understand higher education in terms of three emphases instead of the traditional two, in terms of teaching, research, and student personnel services.

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Early American colleges gave special attention to the so-called human values. It is not difficult, however, to see why these institutions in time turned from purely philosophic speculations about human beings to new services developed from research on human growth. It had been natural for universities, many of them founded as a result of religious faith and zeal, to build their early programs around theological concepts of human nature. Often these were immature and inadequate for the decades ahead. Doctrines of natural depravity and an absolute universe were theologic or philosophic assumptions around which some institutions had grown. These assumptions flavored all areas of academic life, and seriously arrested scientific advancement in the study of human nature. For in studies of human nature even demonstrable evidences on occasion had taken second place to time-honored theories. Faculty members who had tasted the satisfying results of expertness in the more exact sciences were not slow to focus their energy on research and the lecture. In these fields they were free to work out their own conclusions on the basis of more or less tangible evidence. It seemed unprofitable to wrestle with the elusive and complicated analysis of the intellectual, moral, and spiritual life of the student. Yet gradually there emerged, through the meticulous disciplines of anthropology, psychology, and the social sciences, a better understanding of human nature and of social interaction. A satisfying sense of scholarship was emerging in studies concerning people and their characteristics. It should not be assumed that the results of social and psychological studies were at once acceptable to and understood by scholars in other fields. There were eras during which pioneer student personnel specialists found it almost impossible to articulate for others the glad news which was theirs. Yet a new day in university life had actually arrived; a day in which universities could speak with some degree of truth of a four-year program in which a student may expect to gain in out-of-class hours systematic and reliable help from the university in meeting his personal, social, and educational needs. Such development could enrich the student's chances for academic success and make his college days educative in a more inclusive sense. By the second quarter of the twentieth century, universities had established administrative organizations through which added emphasis could be given to a balanced program. Research workers were providing data for professional organizations and publications to use in clarifying the

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realistic contributions through which personnel work could enrich university life. An increasing number of scholars were taking professional training in the field. Practical Application The gains, when properly understood, were as encouraging to students and to other members of the faculties as they were to administrators and staff members in the student personnel field. The administrative unit on student personnel services was responsible for presenting to the faculty and students a clear-cut picture of the work it seeks to accomplish, and the way in which its findings may be useful to the academic departments. Facts, if they are simply and thoroughly presented, have a familiar and fascinating way of speaking for themselves. A failure of some student personnel organizations to present their facts adequately may be traced to an absence of the use of charts and graphs or to an absence of the opportunity to present a revealing picture to faculty members. When clearly understood by the faculty, student personnel services are now encouraged as a vital phase of university administration. It is a kind of axiom among personnel administrators who retain part of their teaching duties that they can demonstrate more easily the positive results coming from university money spent in student personnel services than the results from their regular classroom work. In times of budget shortages, academic departments have been known to make sacrifices in their own spending as an aid to the better establishment of other student services. Beginning with the organization of a major administrative unit that is well staffed and budgeted, the effectively administered personnel program will include a reliable counseling system that is based on objective tests, a student health service, financial aids, a student housing service, supervision of student activities, educational planning, and a thoughtful balancing of all out-of-class campus life. Some administrators and professors may feel that these services are all too costly and far removed from the fundamental purposes of a college or university. As a matter of fact, they are too costly for faculty members who may inadvertently assume that students exist for the convenience of the university. But, for faculties trained to recognize facts in fields outside of their own specialization, out-of-class services have become an essential factor in education. When properly organized for this service as a companion to the academic offering, institutions of

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higher learning are prepared for the generation now enrolled in their halls. A specific case may make this vivid. Jim Pierce had entered the university before definitely deciding on a vocation. Jim's academic ability was slightly above average. He had a part-time job and an intense interest in student organizations and activities. He belonged to four student clubs and had made the football squad. During his first semester at the university two of his teachers reminded him that his academic work was substandard. Jim regretted this but took no effective steps to improve his work. Letters from home became routine in one way. Each warned that Jim should "get down to work." His parents knew of his usual tendencies but could bring only their own techniques of advice and persuasion to Jim's aid. His well-meaning teachers added more of the same. As the pressure became greater, Jim became more confused. He was not lazy. It was evident that Jim's greatest need was technical help in redirecting his energies. It was the work of the Student Personnel Service of the university to supply such help. Jim was first assigned to a special faculty adviser, who gave him aid in a better organization of his time schedule and pointed out not merely the importance of efficient study habits but also how to achieve them. With laborious effort, Jim saved himself from getting failing marks during the first semester. When the faculty adviser discovered that his own technical training was not adequate to meet Jim's intense personal problem, he convinced Jim of the advisability of going to the Counseling Service for special help. Before receiving counseling, Jim was given a series of personnel tests. Through these, certain major problems, some simple and others more complex, came to light. For example, Jim's reading ability was poor. He needed and received help on the mechanics of reading. Gains in this area alone brought improved results in his study. Some of the tests indicated that Jim felt an extreme need for social recognition. The counselor could recognize this as a factor in Jim's tendency to overextend his energies and his failure to select from many activities an appropriate few. With the aid of his counselor, who was highly trained in the field of psychological and personality problems, Jim gained as the months passed a new insight with regard to the importance of certain campus programs that before he had accepted as necessary but somewhat disagreeable

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duties. He recognized also the unimportance of other activities that formerly had wasted his energy. As the organization of his time took on new meaning, Jim seemed to have a reduced sense of urgency about some of the social functions in which he had engaged. He seemed to realize too the value of high achievements in academic work. What was perhaps of greatest importance was the lessening of psychological tensions which had been depleting his energy. He could now center his efforts on more profitable interests. In order to meet Jim's problem, the university had done something that his family, his teachers, his friends, and his faculty adviser had not been able to do. The remarkable resources of an institution of higher learning had come to focus on a specific student problem that required technical treatment. Gains to the University Jim's story helps to clarify the benefits of student personnel services to the student himself. But although the student is the most important single unit to be considered in these services, there are other gains which may come to the university through a comprehensive student personnel program. When a university president and a board of regents consider the cost of operating the institution for one day, effective business methods dictate the necessity of measuring the results of the day's work. There is no unit in the university so well adapted to the evaluation of the university and the measurement of its results as the administrative unit on student personnel services. It is, in a unique sense, an extension of the president's office. Its function is university-wide and among its responsibilities is that of keeping the administrative and legislative body of the university informed regarding the actual structure of the student group. Neither the professional schools within the university nor the liberal arts college is fully equipped aside from their personnel services to furnish the basic information from which a defensible academic offering can be built. It is now commonly recognized that attempts at reorganization of curriculums have resulted too often in a mere review of the experience and training of the members of the curriculum revision committees. The recommendations of some such committees indicate that they took with them into committee deliberation no factor outside of their power to meditate on their own training and experience. Perhaps the most vital

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factor that should inspire an institution to offer a program of genuine merit is the statistical and analytical picture of the actual student group and its needs. This newly available factor can be more clearly shown if we review the possibilities in a specific institution. Brigham Young University, in the process of curriculum reorganization and construction, called upon the student personnel services for aid in its task. From one area alone (that of testing and counseling) the student personnel unit had vital information available on all students of freshman or sophomore standing who had been admitted to the university during the previous seven years. This information included intelligence ratings as indicated by the American Council on Education tests; interest ratings in mechanical, computational, scientific, persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, clerical, and social service areas; the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory scores in nine areas of personality adjustment; and ratings on English placement tests. The classification of these students as veterans or nonveterans was available, in addition to their ages, the vocations of their fathers, their high school grade point averages, and their academic progress within a selected field. The percentage who transferred from one major field to another after once selecting their major could be determined, as well as the percentage of those who had discontinued enrollment and their stated reasons for discontinuing. These facts constituted a veritable storehouse of information for the institution in discovering the nature and needs of its student group. The university could evaluate in an unconventional way the effectiveness of its service to the geographic area or culture from which its students came. On the basis of the facts, certain fundamental questions could be asked. From what social and intellectual level did students come who entered this university? Did they remain to complete their work, transfer to another institution whose offerings were more appropriate to them, or merely lose interest and abandon their educational plan? Some of the major reasons given by students for withdrawing from the university could thus be considered in the reorganization of academic offerings at Brigham Young University. Most universities of the country now have studies available to indicate the structure of the student group. In too many instances, however, the personnel tests do not represent the entire group or even a reliable sampling. More often than not, the students who are given the tests are those who make voluntary application for them. The more inclusive

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result is available only in those institutions whose philosophy of education is based on the premise that it may expect any student who registers to demonstrate his sobriety of purpose through a realistic study of his own personal aptitudes and characteristics. Such a personal analysis will come most reliably through the use of modern psychological tools and the aid of highly trained counselors. The resulting picture can be a basis for the student's university work and constitutes a saving of his time, energy, and money during his university years. University students in larger numbers now expect that in the significant four years of their college life the educational institution of their choice will give them valuable aid in studying themselves. They are concerned that their energies not be dissipated on programs for which they are unsuited. The society from which the university draws its financial and social support too has a right to expect that the institution will operate from a realistic basis of fact in regard to its student group and that efficiency of operation will not be limited to academic procedure. The increasing response to the demand for advanced student personnel services from society as a whole, and especially from students themselves, constitutes a primary difference between the university of the past and of the present. There was a time when it was the duty of the student to make necessary adjustments to rigid programs of training that were largely the reflections of the training of their professors. Today there is greater concern on the part of faculty members for some degree of flexibility, both in method and in content, to meet the individual need. This stems from the acceptance of a simple and demonstrable fact: that the educational task of a modern university is not complete when major attention is given to subject matter alone. All colleges and universities of the United States do not fully recognize even yet the complementary value of personnel services to teaching and research. Among those who do, all have not been equally successful in balancing these emphases. But the work—in research and application—by leaders in this field, notably the University of Minnesota, has laid the foundations for continued growth of improved services to students. We began this report in a conference room in Japan. We have concluded with an overview of universities in the United States. And this is as it should be, for the future course of higher education in the two nations lies along the same broad path. There will inevitably be dif-

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ferences, particularly in mode and pace of travel, so to speak, because the two nations differ basically in culture, history, and geography; but the ultimate goal is the same: the provision of a rich and balanced college experience for youth. The Japanese Universities Institutes for Student Personnel Services was, it is to be hoped, the first of many major cooperative ventures in pursuit of that goal. In this project, American and Japanese professors worked together on problems common to both countries. They functioned not as isolated individuals at work on separate campuses, but as organized teams sustained by a common educational ideal and the effective planning of two friendly governments. During the year the American educators willingly shared their longer and wider experience in the specific area under study with men and women from the universities and colleges of Japan. In the future these Americans and their colleagues confidently hope to learn from Japanese educators and personnel workers and to share with them educational experiences helpful to the colleges and universities of both nations.

APPENDIXES AND INDEX

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- APPENDIX I

Explanatory Statement Given by the General Director on the Meaning of Student Personnel Services

As used in the United States, the word personnel is more inclusive than the word personal, which refers more often to things that are private in nature. The word personnel is used to refer to all of the people included in an institution, be it government, university, or industry. As a title the term student personnel is used merely to refer to the individuals who constitute the student body of an institution. Its technical meaning appears largely in connection with the specific procedures and techniques used in operating various areas of university work and for which the term student personnel services or student personnel work is a general administrative title. In America, there developed well-organized out-of-class services to students, and very naturally these came to be referred to as "student personnel services." This common reference soon began to take the form of an official title for the over-all administrative organization of out-of-class services to students. There are, of course, many universities in America where a full program of out-of-class student services is offered under an administrative title not identical to the above. The present title, given to this field of work on the occasion of its introduction into Japanese universities, was selected largely because it seemed the most accurate and descriptive of the various titles now in common use. It was important also in the introduction of this field of work into Japanese universities that it not be confused with "guidance and welfare" services in traditional usage in Japan. For the new field included a number of fundamental areas not included in "welfare and guidance" and emerged from an improved philosophy of education. It was discovered early by industrial organizations that production could be materially increased and greater profits made by a company or corporation if a careful study were made of the habits and needs of individual workmen. These studies, scientific in nature, indicated, for example, that the provision of rest periods, alterations of routine arrangements or changes which provided for the release of mental strains and anxieties—even though they were often purely "personal" or private in nature— produced substantial increases in the production of workmen. Any factor, be it on or off the job, which reduced the efficiency of the worker was of direct concern to the corporation, for it affected actual profits. An investigation of these factors and the changes in working conditions which resulted from such investigations came to be known as "personnel research" and "personnel work." The "personnel" emphasis grew rapidly in industry because its results could be readily measured in increased profits. More slowly colleges and universities awakened to the waste of human time and energy that resulted from traditional educational methods on the campus. In institutions of higher learning, preoccupied with the academic emphasis, there was given a

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type of "lip-service" to the need for considering the "whole student" but there was a distinct lag in the applied scientific approach to an understanding of the student and his needs. In order to present an educational program more complete than could be furnished by the classroom and the research laboratory alone, to improve the academic efficiency of students, and to make the most productive and economic use of university funds, "student personnel services" are now being given major emphasis in colleges and universities.

APPENDIX II

Steering and Advisory Committees

National Steering Committee UNIVERSITIES

Kyohei Suzuki, president, Ibaragi University, chairman Gie Shiba, dean of students, Tokyo University Yoshiyuki Inouye, professor, Kyoto University Hidenori Tashiro, dean of students, Kyoto University Teijiro Hayashi, dean of students, Kyushu University Takeko Yoshida, dean of students, Ochanomizu University Fujio Ohashi, principal, Oizumi Branch, Tokyo Gakugei University Hiroshi Takiguchi, dean of students, Waseda University Keisuke Sawada, assistant professor, Tokyo University Tamotsu Yatsugi, director, Secretariat Bureau of Private University Association Momotaro Suzuke, director, Secretariat Bureau of Public University Association Takahiko Homma, director, Secretariat Bureau of Japan Private Junior College Association Shigeo Sasaki, director, Secretariat Bureau of University Standardization Association EDUCATION MINISTRY

Daishiro Hidaka, vice-chief, Clerical Staff Kyosuke Inada, chief, University and Learning Bureau Shigeru Miyaji, chief, Student Welfare Section Kikuo Nishida, chief, Student Affairs Section Yuriko Moriya, school inspector CIVIL INFORMATION AND EDUCATION

Arthur K. Loomis, chief, Education Division Thomas McGrail William E. Neufeld

American Advisory Committee E. G. Williamson, dean of students, University of Minnesota, chairman W. B. Allison, Reorientation Branch, Office for Occupied Areas, Office of the Secre tary of the Army, Department of the Army Willard W. Blaesser, specialist for Student Personnel Programs, Division of Higher Education, U.S. Office of Education Helen B. Bragdon, council director, American Association of University Women Francis J. Brown, staff associate, American Council on Education Daniel C. Buchanan, Department of State Oliver J. Caldwell, chief, Federal Programs Branch, Division of Exchange of Persons, Department of State

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Eileen R. Donovan, office, Bureau of Far Eastern Affairs Daniel Feder, dean of students, University of Denver Harold E. Snyder, consultant on Japanese Exchange Program, Department of the Army Donald J. Shank, vice-president, Institute of International Education Maurice E. Troyer, Syracuse University

Local Steering Committees KYOTO INSTITUTE

Risaburo Torikai, president, Kyoto University, chairman Shunjiro Hattori, president, Kyoto University, chairman (successor to Risaburo Torikai) Yoshiyuki Inouye, professor, Kyoto University, vice-chairman Shuyu Tanaka, dean, Department of Jurisprudence Ichisada Miyazaki, dean, Department of Literature Seijiro Kishimoto, dean, Department of Economics Yukichi Shimohodo, dean, Department of Education Isao Horii, professor Chozaburo Matsuda, professor Joji Ashida, professor Ko Namikawa, professor Hidenori Tashiro, dean of students Shunpei Yokoyama, chief, Business Affairs Section Masashi Sunami, chief, Student Section Kiyoshi Shibata, chief, School Affairs Section KYUSHU INSTITUTE

Isao Kikuchi, president, Kyushu University, chairman Teijiro Hayashi, dean of students, Kyushu University, vice-chairman Daigoro Hanada, president, Fukuoka Commercial University W. M. Gallot, president, Seinan Gakiun University Jo Okuda, president, Fukuoka Women's University Tadao Toda, dean, Medical Department, Kyushu University Shuroku Mori, dean, Agricultural Department, Kyushu University Tokunosuke Ito, dean, Science Department, Kyushu University Michio Aoyama, dean, Law Department, Kyushu University Yukichi Kurimura, dean, Economics Department, Kyushu University Ryusho Hikata, dean, Literature and Education Department, Kyushu University Tokuichi Tsumaki, dean, General Education Department, Kyushu University Kiyoto Furuno, director, Library, Kyushu University Mokuzo Toyoda, director, Business Office, Kyushu University Shoichi Maki, chief, Miscellaneous Section, Kyushu University Kajiro Kihara, chief, Accountant Section, Kyushu University Kanichi Otofuji, chief, Welfare Section, Kyushu University Yukio Eguchi, chief, Guidance Section, Kyushu University TOKYO INSTITUTE

Tadao Yanaihara, president, Tokyo University, chairman Teiji Takagi, head, Department of Psychology, Tokyo University, vice-chairman Koichiro Shindo, chief, Business Affairs Section, Tokyo University Hiromichi Nakamura, professor of educational psychology, Tokyo University Gie Shiba, dean of students, Tokyo University Keisuke Sawada, director of Japanese faculty Seisuke Inada, director, University and Learning Bureau, Education Ministry Kyohei Suzuki, president, Ibaragi University

APPENDIX III

Faculty Members and Adviser - Interpreters

Japanese Faculty KYOTO INSTITUTE

Director: Yoshiyuki Inouye Faculty: Hidenori Tashiro Yoji Watanabe Seishiro Kuromaru Shoichi Matsumura Taro Nagasaki Shichiro Matsui Haruyo Fukuhara Ganjiro Inoue Koji Sato Business Officer: Kiyoshi Shibata

KYUSHU INSTITUTE

Director: Teijiro Hayashi Faculty: Yoshikuni Hiraiwa Toshiyuki Hara Kazuo Seki Takanosuke Makikawa Tsugio Iwasaki Assistants: Kanichi Otofuji Akiro Hashimoto Masataka Shibuta Toshimitsu Kamiyama Teruyoshi Mihara Business Officer: Yukio Eguchi

TOKYO INSTITUTE

Director: Keisuke Sawada Faculty: Yataro Okabe Shogo Tanaka Kaoru Yamane Gie Shiba Yuriko Moriya Hiromichi Nakamura Yasushi Shimomura Taro Ishigami Business Officer: Kimata Chiba

American Faculty General Director: Wesley P. Lloyd, Brigham Young University Faculty: Maurice D. Woolf, Kansas State College Leona W. Felsted, Ohio University Chester H. Ruedisili, University of Wisconsin Gordon J. Klopf, University of Wisconsin Henry Borow, University of Minnesota Administrative Assistant: Eldred C. Olsen

Adviser-Interpreters Takahashi Sakamoto Kazue Omoto Hukuko Morimoto Yoko Nishikata

Shoji Murakami Makoto Sasaki Yuki Kugota Maki Wakabayashi

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Hiroshi Takashima Masamoto Yashiro Yoshiko Kunugi Masamichi Kano

APPENDIX IV

Participants in Institutes for Student Personnel Services

Kyoto Hideo Anada, lecturer, Shinshu University Mitsuji Arioka, lecturer, Kyoto Gakugei University Tsunehiko Baba, chief, Guidance Section, Okayama University Albert Bold, professor, Nanzan University Mrs. Fumi Fukushima, assistant professor, Nagoya Jogakuin Junior College Kenzo Fujii, president, Otemae Women's Junior College Ryushin Fujii, assistant professor, Shuchiin University Akihiro Fujine, lecturer, Kyoto Women's Junior College Norimasa Hachiya, staff, Student Section, Otani University Kunisaku Haga, chief, Guidance Section, Aichi Gakugei University Naomichi Hakama, chief, Student Section, Osaka Joto University Shozo Hibino, dean of students, Aichi Women's Junior College Mikio Hinami, Student Section, Doshisha University Saburo Hirai, chief, Student Section, Kansai University Kanji Ida, dean of students, Naniwa University Tatsuya Iwai, assistant professor, Osaka Foreign Language University Michiyori Iwanaga, professor, Navigation College Junzo Iwasa, assistant professor, Kyoto University of Pharmacy Tsuruhisa Kazama, professor, Kansai University of Economics Kiichi Kimoto, chief, Guidance Section, Toyama University Shizuo Kimura, assistant professor, Hanazono University Yoshinobu Kita, lecturer, Wakayama University Ko Kugota, lecturer, Osaka Gakugei University Kiyonori Kurata, assistant professor, Mie Prefectural University Isamu Matsuda, chief of Student Section, Osaka City University Sadao Matsuguma, chief, Student Section, Kobe Women's University of Pharmacy Shuji Matsunaga, chief, Welfare Section, Gifu Junior College Den Matsuno, president, Tohoku Women's Junior College Yoshikiyo Mikami, chief, Guidance and Welfare Section, Hyogo Prefectural University of Agriculture Nobuhiko Mimura, dean of students, Shizuoka University Yoshinori Morita, assistant professor, Osaka Gakugei University Ki Motozaki, dean of students, Himeji University of Engineering Toyokichi Murakami, lecturer, Shoin Junior College Yoshio Murao, professor, Konan University Fujio Nagai, assistant professor, Shiga Prefectural Junior College Koji Nagai, president, Osaka Junior College of Music Eitaro Naka, staff, Guidance Committee, Osaka Seikei Women's Junior College Motoharu Nakamura, chief, Guidance Section, Kyoto Seian Women's Junior College Tetsuzo Nakamura, assistant professor, Kobe Women's Junior College

174

Institute Participants

175

Koshiro Nakano, professor, Education Department, Gifu University Rokuro Nakano, assistant chief, Student Section, Kyoto University Banda Nakashima, professor, Kyoto University of Industrial Arts and Textiles Kikuo Nishida, assistant professor, Osaka Gakugei University Mamoru Ogaki, lecturer, Mie University Batsu Okada, chief, Student Section, Himeji Junior College of Engineering Hidesuke Omata, lecturer, Osaka University of Dentistry Kokichi Ono, chief, Welfare Section, Yamanashi University Noritoshi Ota, assistant professor, Nara Gakugei University Masaharu Otani, dean of students, Tenri University Kimiye Sakuragi, assistant professor, Yamada Junior College of Home Economics Taion Satomi, professor, Minobusan Junior College Yoshinari Sawa, assistant professor, Meijo University Sadanori Sawanobori, lecturer, Gifu University of Pharmacy Kiyoshi Shimizu, assistant professor, Osaka University Sameji Sumoto, dean of students, Kinki University Toranosuke Suwa, substitute dean of students, Kobe City University of Foreign Language Ko Tachibana, lecturer, Koka Woman's Junior College Hin Takada, dean of students, Shiga University Tessen Takeda, chief, Student Section, Aichi Gakuin Junior College Kenichi Tanaka, chief, Guidance Section, Kyoto City University of Fine Arts Noritada Tanaka, chief, Student Section, Osaka University of Engineering Shozo Tanaka, assistant professor, Wakayama Prefecture University of Medicine Toshiichi Tawa, assistant professor, Osaka University of Dentistry Toru Tochigi, assistant professor, Hyogo Prefectural Junior College of Agriculture Kenzo Torii, assistant professor, Nara Prefecture University of Medicine Shozo Totani, professor, Nagoya City University Hidetaka Tsuchihashi, chief, Guidance Section, Ryukoku University Kinichiro Tsuka, staff, Student Section, Kansai Gakuin University Toyozo Tsukada, chief, Guidance Section, Naniwa Foreign Language Junior College Jisaburo Tsukiyama, assistant professor, Saikyo University Yoshinori Ueda, lecturer, Seizan Junior College Akihira Uehara, dean of students, Heian Jogakuin Junior College Kiyoyuki Umezu, assistant professor, Fukui University Minoru Watanabe, assistant professor, Nagoya University Gyuzo Yamada, assistant professor, Nagoya University of Engineering Chidori Yamato, lecturer, Osaka Women's University Kuniharu Yukiyoshi, dean of students, Kobe Women's Junior College

Kyushu K. Aiba, chief, Welfare Section, Tottori University Y. Aoki, professor, Yamaguchi University K. Funagoshi, dean of students, Nagasaki Women's Junior College T. Funatsu, assistant to lecturer, Kyushu University Y. Handa, chief, Guidance Section, Oita University K. Hatsuta, member of Committee of Guidance, Junshin Women's Junior College K. Hayashi, chief, Guidance Section, Fukuoka Gakugei University E. Inami, professor, Kobe University Y. Inoue, professor, Fukuoka Commercial University K. Itagaki, lecturer of psychology, Fukuoka Women's College H. Iki, student consultant, Seinan Gakuin University Z. Kawamoto, member, Guidance Chugoku Section, professor, Yamaguchi Women's Junior College

176

Student Counseling in Japan

M. Kawanaka, councillor of guidance, assistant professor, Hiroshima Women's Junior College K. Kawashima, dean of students, professor, Kagoshima Prefectural University T. Kayashima, chief, Guidance Section, Miyazaki University S. Kinoshita, chief, Welfare Section, assistant professor, Kyushu Dental College A. Kojima, assistant of agriculture, Kagoshima University G. Kozawa, member of Committee of Guidance, Kurume University I. Matsumura, chief, School Affairs Section, assistant professor, Kumamoto University N. Misumi, assistant professor of psychology, Kita Kyushu Foreign Languages S. Mitsutani, chief, Welfare Section, Tokushima University Y. Miyama, chief, Welfare Section, Kita Kyushu Foreign Languages H. Murakami, chief, Guidance Section, assistant professor, Kita Kyushu Engineering College K. Murakami, lecturer, Seinan Jogakuin Junior College H. Nagayoshi, chief, Welfare Section, Kagoshima University I. Nakamichi, assistant, Kumamoto Women's University H. Nakamura, assistant professor of psychology, Seinan Gakuin University T. Nakashima, chief, Student Section, Matsuyama Agriculture College K. Nonishi, lecturer in psychology, Miyazaki University K. Oiwa, professor, Ochanomizu Women's University N. Oka, assistant professor, Kochi University Y. Okazaki, chief, School Affairs Section, Saga University Eijiro Omori, staff, Guidance Section, Nihon Women's Junior College of Economy S. Ono, assistant professor of psychology, Saga University K. Otofuji, chief, Welfare Section, Kyushu University I. Rikitake, dean of students, Yamaguchi Dental College H. Sawa, dean of students, professor, Nagasaki University M. Saito, chief, Welfare Section, Kagawa University M. Saito, member of Committee of Guidance, lecturer, Shimane Agriculture University R. Sakurai, lecturer in psychology, Fukuoka Gakugei University K. Sato, assistant professor, Hiroshima University N. Shinozaki, student consultant, Seinan Gakuin Junior College S. Sueyoshi, chief, Guidance Section, Nagasaki University M. Tajima, dean, Night Course, Fukuoka Commerce Junior College I. Tokunaga, assistant professor, Fukuoka Gakugei University K. Tsutsumi, dean of students, Yamaguchi University K. Ureshino, assistant chief, Guidance Section, Koyasan University K. Waki, assistant professor, Kagoshima University S. Yamazaki, chief, Welfare and Guidance, assistant professor, Kumamoto Women's University M. Yonekura, professor, Kassui Women's Junior College M. Yoshimoto, chief, Guidance Section, Ehime University H. Yoshimura, lecturer, member of Committee of Guidance Section, Beppu Women's University

Tokyo Chiefko Adachi, assistant professor, Ferris Jogakuin Junior College Isao Ando, professor, Kogyokushu Junior College Kenichi Ebina, chief, Guidance Section, Tokyo University of Fishery Umon Fukuyama, chief, Student Section, Fukushima Prefectural Medical College Fujiko Fujikawa, professor, Ochanomizu University Takashi Fujita, dean of students, Saitama University Kitaji Fujiwara, chief, Student Section, Aoyama Gakuin University Masaru Goto, chief, Student Section, Tokyo Metropolitan University Shinichi Hara, chief, Student Section, Yokohama Municipal University

Institute Participants

177

Koichi Hibi, staff member, Student Section, Seikei University Tadashi Hidana, chief, Student Section, Tsuda College Yoshiko Higaki, assistant professor, Kanto Gakuin Junior College Rin Hoshiko, member, Guidance Section, Yamato Agricultural and Home-Economic Junior College Tadashi Ichige, chief, Student Section, Showa Medical College Tadashi Imai, staff, Student Affairs Section, Ministry of Education Kaijo Inada, chief, Welfare Section, Rissho University Tajiro Inano, chief, Welfare Guidance Section, Tokyo University of Art Kaichiro Ishibashi, chief, Welfare Section, Women's Art College Ichizo Ishizaka, chief, Welfare Section, Utsunomiya University Matsunosuke Iwatake, dean of students, Shibaura University of Technology Misao Kai, chief, Guidance Section, Aizu Junior College Haruhiko Kaizuma, chief, Guidance Section, Tokyo Foreign Language Yukio Kamaki, chief, Student Guidance Section, Sapporo Junior College Bunyu Kamio, chief, Welfare Section, Tohoku University Tsuneya Kanasugi, dean of students, Tokyo Jikei Medical College Kiyo Kaneko, chief, Student Section, Tokyo Home Economics Junior College Saburo Kasagi, chief, School Affairs Section, Niigata University Miyuki Kasegai, assistant professor, Seiwa Gakuin Junior College Chiyoshi Kato, lecturer, Morioka Junior College Kan Kato, chief, Welfare Section, Hokkaido University Shichiro Kato, chief, Student Section, Meiji Gakuin University Yorizaburo Kato, staff, Guidance Section, Koryo University Iwao Kawamura, dean of students, Iwate University Seikichi Kodate, dean of students, Otsuma Women's University Toshio Kudo, assistant chief, Student Section, Rikkyo University Ichiro Kurihara, staff, Student Department, Tokyo University Hiroshige Kurokawa, dean of students, Iwate Medical University Jiro Marao, chief, Student Affairs Section, Fuji Junior College Seiji Matai, professor, dean of students, Akita University Takahiro Matsui, director of business affairs, Tokyo Dental College Yoshimichi Matsunami, assistant professor, Tokyo Agricultural College Yoshio Matsushita, lecturer, Kogakuin University Hiroshi Minorikawa, chief, Guidance Section, Reisawa Junior College Norihiro Mironaga, staff, Student Affairs Section, Ministry of Education Yoshikane Mishima, staff, Student Affairs Section, Ministry of Education Hisashi Miwa, assistant professor, Tohoku Pharmaceutical College Yasuo Miyajima, staff, Student Affairs Section, Ministry of Education Kazuo Nagai, assistant professor, Kanagawa University Noriyuki Nagasaki, chief, Welfare Section, Ibaraki University Masaji Nakanishi, assistant chief, Student Section, Kokugakuin University Haru Nakata, chief, Student Section, Ochanomizu Women's University Torahiko Narita, chief, Guidance Section, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Shinju Nikaido, professor, Nihon Women's Physical Junior College Shinichiro Nishimura, chief, Guidance Section, Tohoku Pharmaceutical College Shinsuke Ogata, dean of students, Hoshi Medical University Shiro Oikawa, dean of students, Yamagata University Takashi Okayama, professor, Ibaragi University Yoko Okochi, assistant professor, Women's Eiyo Junior College Tozo Oshima, chief, Student Section, Chiba University Masae Owada, chief, Welfare Guidance Section, Tokyo Gakugei University Hiroshi Sato, chief, Welfare Section, Hirosaki University Nobuo Sato, staff, Student Affairs Section, Ministry of Education Hiroshi Satomi, chief, Student Affairs Section, Gumma University Fusa Sekiguchi, vice-president, Koriyama Women's Junior College

178

Student Counseling in Japan

Mastoshi Sera, assistant professor, Chuo University Yasusuke Shimagata, assistant professor, Nihon University Katsuhiko Shindo, professor, Sophia University Shigeru Shinomiya, director of business affairs, Musashino College of Music Misako Shiozaki, assistant professor, Mishima Gakuin Women's Junior College Kyozo Sugaya, assistant professor, Tokyo Dental College Michiki Sugioka, chief, Guidance Section, Shinshu University Kiyotoki Sugitani, lecturer, Yokohama National University Haruo Suzuki, chief, School Affairs Section, Tokyo Institute of Technology Takeshi Takahashi, chief, Guidance Section, College of Electro-Communication Hideo Takasugi, dean of students, Dairy Junior-College Jinan Takeyanagi, teacher of English, Reisawa Junior College Masashi Tazaki, professor, Juntendo University Akira Togura, dean of students, Tokyo Noko University Masao Tokito, vice-president, Hokusei Gakuin Women's Junior College Shiro Tomine, chief, Student Section, Keio University Kiyoshi Tsuchihashi, chief, Welfare Section, Tokyo University Kan Tsukida, professor, Nihon Women's University Tadayasu Tsuneyoshi, consultant, Student Section, Gakushuin University Ichizo Uda, chief, Guidance Section, Tokushima University Miya Umakoshi, chief, School Affairs Section, Aoyama Women's Junior College Zenjiro Warisawa, chief, Guidance Section, Kanazawa University Manabu Watanabe, chief, Guidance Section, Tohoku Gakuin University Ryozo Yamamura, chief, Welfare Section, Otaru College of Commerce Ichitaro Yamazaki, chief, Welfare Section, Fukushima University Kiyoko Yasutake, assistant professor, Kyoritsu Women's University Shichiro Yokoyama, chief, Guidance Section, Obihiro College of Stock-Raising Kazuo Yoshida, chief, Welfare Section, Tokyo University of Engineering Minoru Yoshida, assistant professor, Hokkaido Gakugei University

APPENDIX V

Participants in the Presidents' Conferences

Kyoto Genryo Abe, president, Koka Women's Junior College Tei Adachi, president, Yamanashi University Pache Aloyio, president, Nanzan University Eisuke Asai, dean of students, University of Mercantile Marine Yokota Eizaburo, acting president, Shoei Junior College Kenzo Fujii, president, Otemae Women's Junior College Katsuya Fujii, president, Kyoto University of Pharmacy Yoshio Fushimi, director, Osakajoto University Shigeru Fujioka, dean of general education, Konan University Kokichi Goshima, president, Mie Akatsuki Gakuin Junior College Gennosuke Goto, acting president, Otani Women's Junior College Jikio Hamura, president, Ritsumeikan Junior College Motoo Harada, acting president, Wakayama Prefectural Medical University Jiichi Hatori, dean, Literature Department, Kansai University Shunjiro Hattori, president, Kyoto University Yukimitsu Hayashi, dean of students, Kobe City University of Foreign Studies Shozo Hibino, acting president, Aichi Women's Junior College Harunori Hirabayashi, president, Osaka Women's University Toshio Hirazawa, president, Osaka University of Foreign Languages Hamako Hirose, president, Seiwa Women's Junior College Sadatsugu Hoshino, president, Mie Medical University Koru Hosokawa, president, Shoin Women's University Junichiro lizuka, president, Osaka University of Dentistry Arao Imamura, president, Osaka University Giichi Inada, chief, Student Section, Tenri Junior College Genjiro Inoue, professor, Ritsumeikan University Setsuo Ishiura, assistant chief, Student Section, Naniwa Junior College Sadaji Jukunaga, director, Business Office, Kobe University of Commerce Kozaburo Kagawa, dean of students, Wakayama University Takesaburo Kamijima, chief, Accounting Section, Kyoto University of Industrial Arts and Textiles Kinji Kaneda, president, Kobe City University of Foreign Studies Shiro Kanematsu, chief of school affairs, Shiga Agricultural Junior College Kiichi Kanzaki, president, Mikadozukayama Junior College Tetsu Katagiri, president, Doshisha Women's University Kenji Kato, professor, Doshisha Women's University Yoshitaka Katsu, president, Kyoto Medical University Tamiji Kawamura, president, Shiga Prefectural Junior College Ryukai Keikoku, director, Buddhist University Tokiya Kijimoto, chief, Guidance Section, Osaka Women's University

179

180

Student Counseling in Japan

Hideo Kimura, president, Gifu Junior College Kyugoro Kitagawa, president, Osaka Gakugei University Yuzo Koide, president, Aichi Gakuin Junior College Seishi Kobayashi, dean of students, Yamanashi University Takuzo Koizumi, dean of students, Nara Women's University Shotaro Kojima, president, Kobe University of Commerce Kami Komatsu, professor, Osaka Soai Women's Junior College Isamu Kono, member of Guidance Committee, Kobe University Department of Education Iwao Kosugi, acting president, Nagano Prefectural Junior College Takabumi Kyutoku, acting president, Nagoya City Women's Junior College L. E. Lee, president, Shoin Junior College Hideo Mabuchi, chief, Student Section, Hyogo Medical University Kanae Maeda, president, Osaka Women's Medical University Tadao Manabe, member of Guidance Committee, Kobe University Akashi Branch School Kenju Masuyama, president, Kyoto Women's University Kuwabara Masuzo, Jimkan (official rank), Osaka Gakugei University Shinichi Matsumoto, president, Osaka Medical University Toshio Matsuno, president, Osaka University of Pharmacy Tsurumatsu Michino, chief of school affairs, Nagoya Kogyo University Nobuko Minami, assistant professor, Hokuriku Gakuin Childcare Junior College Sho Miyake, president, Hyogo Prefectural University of Agriculture Endo Miyazaki, director, Ryukoku University Etsuji Mizaki, director, Business Office, Kobe City University of Foreign Studies Shuzaburo Mochizuke, president, Gifu Prefectural University Hidesumi Mori, president, Nishiyama Junior College Chitoku Morikawa, president, Ryukoku University Toshio Morikawa, principal, Branch School, Osaka University Obama Mototsugu, professor, Nara Medical University Koji Nagai, president, Osaka Music Junior College Taro Nagasaki, president, Kyoto Arts University Kohei Nakamura, chief, Student Section, Osaka Women's Junior College Takashi Nakamura, member of Guidance Committee, Kobe University Himeji Branch School Eisaku Nakanishi, chief, Culture Section, Nagoya Municipal University Koshiro Nakano, dean of students, Gifu University Yoshiteru Nakano, president, Koyasan University Yoshio Nakazawa, president, Kyoto University of Industrial Arts and Textiles Seiichiro Noda, president, Osaka Technical University Naokichi Oe, chief, Student Section, Doshisha University Jundo Ogisu, director, Hanazono University Bunshichi Ohata, president, Shiga University Heitaro Oishi, president, Kansai Gakuin University Matsutaro Okazaki, president, Heian Joshi Gakuin Junior College Bunjiro Okita, chief of school affairs, Osaka University of Economics Hideo Okumura, director, Tenri University Kanichi Omori, president, Himeji Technical Junior College Ryo Ota, president, Kinki Junior College Masaharu Otani, dean of students, Tenri University Yoshio Ouchi, acting president, Aichi University Shikitaro Oyama, dean, Economics Department, Ritsumeikan University Irene Reiser, president, Hokuriku Gakuin Childcare Junior College Tadaichi Sakurai, professor, Doshisha Junior College Sugi Saneo, president, Baika Junior College Taro Sasaoka, director, Business Office, Nara Women's University

Participants in the Presidents' Conferences Seijun Shikano, director, Shuchiin University Kiichi Shimayama, president, Toyama University Matsuzaburo Shioiri, president, Shiga Agricultural Junior College Rinnosuke Shoji, president, Hyogo Medical University Tomesaburo Suetsuto, acting president, Kinki University Itsuo Takahashi, dean, Engineering Department, Gifu Prefectural University Junichi Takahashi, president, Shinshu University Shigeo Takamatsu, president, Hyogo Agricultural Junior College Noboru Takamine, acting president, Aichi Gakugei University Yasunosuke Takemura, professor, Shoin Women's University Matsujiro Takeuchi, acting president, Fukui University Noriyoshi Tamabayashi, chief, Student Section, Kansai Gakuin University Juichi Tanaka, president, Meijo University Yasutaro Tanaka, president, Kobe University Masaki Tokunaga, acting president, Saikyo University Tadashi Tominaga, chief, Student Section, Nara Women's University Hideya Tsukamoto, president, Naniwa Foreign Language Junior College Kyo Tsuneto, president, Osaka Municipal University Yoichi Uchimura, president, Kinjogakuin University Saiho Ueda, dean of students, Mie University Akihira Uehara, dean of students, Heian Joshi Gakuin Junior College Kenryu Urushiba, chief councillor, Kyoto Medical University E. M. Voss, president, Osaka Junior College Sukeichi Yagi, dean of students, Kobe University Kojiro Yaguchi, president, Kansai University Junior College Masao Yakushi, assistant professor, Naniwa University Matsutaro Yamada, dean of students, Kansai University Eki Yamaguchi, president, Otani University Fumio Yamamoto, vice-chief, Student Section, Doshisha University Takeo Yamamura, chief, Welfare Section, Kobe University Toichi Yamano, director, Business Office, Osaka Women's University Tsugio Yamasaki, dean of students, Saikyo University Tsuneji Yamashita, acting president, Shizuoka Women's Junior College Tomijiro Yogo, acting president, Yamada Home Economics Junior College Junta Yokota, president, Kyoto Gakugei University Minoru Yokota, director, Business Office, Shinshu University Sadao Yoshida, chief, Welfare Section, Kanazawa University Hiroshi Yotsukata, dean of students, Nagoya University Kaname Yukiyoshi, president, Kobe Women's Junior College

Kyushu Kazuo Ando, president, Kyushu Engineering University Takeo Aoyama, president, Nagasaki Foreign Language Junior College Kinbe Asano, president, Nagasaki Prefecture Sasebo Junior College Yasu Ekado, president, Junshin Women's Junior College Takeo Fujii, dean, Economics Department, Kagawa University W. M. Gallot, president, Seinan Gakuin University Daigoro Hanada, president, Fukuoka Commercial University Teijiro Hayashi, dean of students, Kyushu University Daishiro Hidaka, vice-minister of education Kimpei Hiratsuka, dean of students, Okayama Women's Junior College Hamako Hirose, president, Hiroshima Jogakuin University Koichi Ihara, chief, Business Bureau, Fukuoka Women's University Waijiro Ikeda, chief, Business Bureau, Fukuoka Commercial University Hideo Ito, president, Matsuyama Commercial University

181

182

Student Counseling in fapan

Saburo Ishii, professor, Seinan Jogakuin Junior College Jiro Kajishima, president, Kagoshima Prefecture University Isao Kikuchi, president, Kyushu University Naomi Kitamura, president, Kumamoto Women's University Hironori Kono, chief, Business Bureau, Seinan Gakuin University Gaku Maruyama, professor, Kumamoto Junior College Mitsuzo Masui, president, Oita University Shigeru Matsui, official, Education Ministry, Ehime University Tokujiro Matsuo, chief, Business Bureau, Kyushu Engineering University Akira Matsumoto, president, Yamaguchi Prefecture University of Medicine Tokio Matsumoto, professor, Ehime Prefecture Matsuyama University of Agriculture Motonori Matsuyama, president, Yamaguchi University Taketoshi Mitsui, chief, Business Bureau, Nagasaki Prefecture Women's Junior College Takahiko Momoeda, president, Higashi Chikushi Junior College Tatsuo Morito, president, Hiroshima University Katsuumi Nagamatsu, president, Kyushu Dental University Kenji Nakahara, president, Nagasaki Prefecture Women's Junior College Keizaburo Nakamura, professor, Kochi Women's University Masao Nakamura, president, Kagoshima Prefecture University Junior College Department Hisamitsu Nishi, president, Saga University Donald R. Nugent, lieutenant colonel, CIE Kenzaburo Ogata, president, Kagoshima University Jo Okuda, president, Fukuoka Women's University Eldred C. Olsen, administrative assistant, Student Personnel Services Institutes Masashi Omura, dean, Seinan Gakuin University, Junior College Department Naosuke Onodera, president, Kurume University Mikita Oshida, chief, Business Bureau, Shimane University of Agriculture Naoharu Oshima, president, Kitakyushu Foreign Language University Gisen Sato, president, Beppu Women's Junior College Hidehisa Sawa, dean of students, Nagasaki University Kunio Shimizu, chief, Business Bureau, Fukuoka Gakugei University Taisuke Shinohara, president, Kagoshima Commerce Junior College Takayuki Sone, chief, Business Bureau, Okayama University Shinji Sugawara, president, Sakujo Junior College Kyohei Suzuki, president, Ibaraki University Miyoshi Tajima, chief, Business Bureau, Seinan Jogakuin Junior College Chiaki Takada, chief, Business Bureau, Yamaguchi Prefecture University of Medicine Kosen Takagi, dean, Law and Economics Department, Yahata University Yoshinori Takegaki, president, Shimane University of Agriculture Takamichi Takahashi, president, Miyazaki University Gen Tanaka, president, Yamaguchi Women's Junior College Tatsuo Tanaka, chief, Business Bureau, Kurume University Mifuku Tokumitsu, dean, Medical Department, Tottori University Kotaro Tomana, president, Kochi University Toshio Toumi, chief, Business Bureau, Yamaguchi University Mokugo Toyoda, chief, Business Bureau, Kyushu University Tsutomu Tsujita, president, Ehime University Gemmon Tsukamoto, president, Fukuoka Gakugei University Tsunekichi Tsuruta, dean, Gakugei Department, Tokushima University Takeyuki Wanibuchi, president, Kumamoto University Yukio Yamamoto, professor, Kagawa Prefecture University of Agriculture Kunio Yamane, president, Hiroshima Women's Junior College

Participants in the Presidents' Conferences

183

Hide Yanagihara, acting president, Hiroshima Prefecture University of Medicine Nen Yoshida, professor, Nagasaki Ship-Building Junior College

Tokyo Senichi Abe, president, Morioka Junior College Kohisa Aizawa, deputy president, Koryo University Yoshio Ando, deputy president, Tokyo University of Education Asa Aoki, president, Kosaka Women's Junior College Seishiro Aoki, president, Tokyo Kasei Junior College Daitaro Arakawa, president, Musashi University of Engineering Daigoro Arima, deputy president, Kunitachi University of Music Noboru Ariyama, president, Juntendo University Otto Belta, president, Tenshi Junior College of Welfare Elizabeth T. Britt, president, Seishin Women's University Takashi Choshi, deputy president, Iwate University Kikuho Daita, deputy president, Saitama University Tatsuo Date, deputy president, Seijo University Rogan G. Foggs, president, Ibaraki Christian Junior College Tokusaburo Fujii, vice-president, Kyoritsu Women's University Toyo Fujimura, president, Tokyo Women's Taiiku Junior College Toshihiko Fujita, president, Iwate University of Medicine Nashiro Fukui, deputy president, Musashino University of Music Elena Haas, president, Seibo Women's Junior College Takashi Hashimoto, president, Niigata University Anzo Hattori, president, Kyoritsu University of Pharmacy Senei Hiroke, president, Reitaku Junior College Masao Hirose, vice-president, Takasaki City Junior College Eiichiro Hisamatsu, president, Chuo University Enkichi Hitomi, deputy president, Showa Women's University Makoto Hiura, president, Rakuno Gakuin Junior College Takeshi Hori, president, Nippon Women's Junior College of Health Shigenori Hyakumeoni, chief, Business Bureau, Maebashi City Junior College of Engineering Shikazo Iguchi, president, Muroran Engineering University Tamatsu lino, deputy president, Atomi Gakuin Junior College Jiro Imai, president, Nippon University of Veterinary and Stock-Raising Kaichiro Ishibashi, deputy president, Women's University of Arts Masue Ishibashi, president, Ueno Gakuin Junior College Iwakiichi Ishikawa, president, Kokugakuin University Shizue Ito, president, Yamato Junior College of Agriculture and Home Economics Matsunosuke Iwatake, deputy president, Shibaura University of Engineering Yasuto Kaetsu, deputy president, Nippon Women's Junior College of Economics Aya Kagawa, president, Women's Eiyo Junior College Shusuke Kamijo, president, Showa University of Medicine Tatsushige Kanayama, president, Seiwa Gakuin Junior College Kaoru Kasugai, president, Meiji University Hisao Kasuya, deputy president, Tokyo University of Economics Makoto Kasuya, deputy president, Tokyo University of Letters Yoshi Kasuya, president, Tsudajuku University Eizaburo Kataoka, deputy president, Tokyo University of Arts Zendo Katsukawa, deputy president, Wayo Women's University Senkichi Katsumata, president, Fuji Junior College Michi Kawai, president, Keisen Women's Junior College Shunsaku Kawahara, president, Ozuma Women's University

184

Student Counseling in Japan

Fumiko Kawamura, president, Kawamura Junior College Tadao Kinoshita, deputy president, Hoshi University of Pharmacy Yutaka Kinugasa, president, Showa University of Pharmacy Tatsudo Kodama, deputy president, Komazawa University Toyotaka Komiya, deputy president, Gakushuin University Choei Kosaka, president, Aoyamagakuin Women's Junior College Hinjo Kosaka, president, Aoyama Gakuin University Minoru Kouda, president, Sugino Gakuin Women's Junior College Naotaro Kuji, president, Tokyo Women's University of Medicine Kiku Makino, president, Tuji Women's Junior College Kiyoyasu Marui, president, Hirosaki University Hamako Matsudaira, president, Kanto Junior College Nobuta Matsunawa, president, Shibaura Junior College Den Matsuno, president, Tohoku Women's Junior College Hideo Matsuzuki, deputy president, Tokyo University of Science Ittoku Mawatari, president, Toyo Women's Junior College Sei Mimoto, deputy president, Kanazawa University Tamenitsu Minuroto, president, Toho Junior College of Music Kazukichi Miyamoto, president, Musashi University Tomi Miyawaki, president, Obihiro University of Stock-Raising Kikuo Mizokami, president, Tokyo University of Dentistry Shiro Murata, president, Meiji Gakuin University Masashi Nagabeji, president, Chiba Keiai Junior College Ya Nagano, president, Toyo Eiwa Jogakuin Yu Nagao, president, Tokyo University of Medicine and Dentistry Takemi Nagayama, president, Tokyo Jikeikai University of Medicine Minoru Nakahara, deputy president, Nippon Junior College of Economics Shun Nakano, deputy president, Tokyo Bunka Junior College Togo Nakano, president, Tachikawa Junior College Kuro Nakashima, deputy president, Sapporo Junior College Shigeru Namiki, deputy president, Bunka Women's Junior College Masataka Nasu, deputy president, Taisho University Kiyohisa Nikaido, president, Nippon Women's Junior College of Physical Education Seiho Nishi, president, Gumma University Sada Nishiyama, president, Miyagi Gakuin Women's University Kiyoga Nishizawa, president, Fukushima University Shinkin Nogai, president, Chuo Commercial Junior College Akira Noguchi, president, Ochanomizu Women's University Shoichi Noguchi, president, Kogakuin University Kazo Noji, president, Tohoku University of Pharmacy Hiromichi Oba, deputy president, Shukutoku Junior College Tadao Oda, president, Tohokugakuin University Tsutomu Ogura, president, Yamagata University Kaniyoshi Ohara, president, Tamagawa University Hiroshi Ohashi, president, Nippon Women's University Ko Oizumi, deputy president, Jochi University Seishichi Ono, president, Sapporo University of Medicine Tsuneo Okumura, deputy president, Senshu University Keisuke Onda, president, Meiji University of Pharmacy Takenouske Ono, deputy president, Nippon University Shungo Osato, president, Fukushima Prefecture University of Medicine Takejiro Osawa, deputy president, Asabu University of Veterinary Sumi Oshima, deputy president, Shirayuri Junior College U. Romani, deputy president, Salesio Junior College Tsuno Saito, president, Aizu Junior College Yu Saito, president, Tokyo Women's Junior College

Participants in the Presidents' Conferences Shunosuke Sano, president, Akita University Junzo Sasaki, president, Rikkyo University In Sato, president, Mishima Gakuin Women's Junior College Kanji Sato, president, Tokyo University of Agriculture Setsuzo Sawada, president, Tokyo Foreign Language University Fusa Sekiguchi, vice-president, Koriyama Women's Junior College Tai Sekiguchi, president, Yokohama City University Yuji Shibata, president, Tokyo Metropolitan University Shigematsu Shimizu, deputy president, Tokyo University of Medicine Zemin Shima, president, Hokkaido University Takeo Shimaji, deputy president, Tokyo Gakugei University Takejiro Shinoyama, deputy president, Tokyo University of Fishery Hiroshige Shiota, president, Nippon University of Medicine Kiyoto Shirazawa, deputy president, Yamawaki Gakuin Junior College Kyohei Suzuki, president, Ibaragi University Tatsutaro Tadokoro, president, Hokkaido Gakugei University Itsuo Takagi, deputy president, Toho University Sho Takagi, president, Kokusai Junior College Satomi Takahashi, president, Tohoku University Tokio Takamori, deputy president, Tokushima University Toshiyuki Takaya, president, Musashino Women's Junior College Kinichi Takebe, president, Tokyo Kasei Gakuin Kiyoshi Takeuchi, vice-president, Seisen Women's University Keikichi Tanaka, president, Chiba University of Engineering Ushio Tanaka, president, Tokyo Noko University Masanobu Terasaka, deputy president, Tokyo University of Pharmacy Kanichi Terazawa, president, University of Telecommunication Nobuo Tokida, deputy president, Kanto Gakuin University Koji Torino, deputy president, Sagami Women's University Tamotsu Toyama, president, Yokohama National University Hyogo Tsuchiya, deputy president, Tokyo University of Home Economics Tetsusaburo Uehara, president, Hokkai Gakuin University Koichi Uno, president, Tokyo University of Electrical Engineering Tetsuju Uno, president, Jissen Women's Junior College Yoshihiko Usami, deputy president, Seikei University Isamu Yamamoto, deputy president, Tokyo University of Engineering Takashi Yamataka, deputy president, Utsunomiya University Tadao Yanaihara, president, Tokyo University Yoshimori Yoneda, president, Kanagawa University

185

APPENDIX VI

Participants in the Deans' Conferences

Kyushu Shigeo Asano, dean of students, Miyazaki University Shuho Dohi, dean of students, Shimane University Sachio Eguchi, chief, Guidance Section, Kyushu University Shunji Fukuda, dean of students, Kochi Women's University Otomatsu Fujii, dean of students, Yamaguchi Women's Junior College Ko Funakoshi, dean of students, Nagasaki Women's Junior College Miho Hata, dean of students, Kassui Women's Junior College Teijiro Hayashi, dean of students, Kyushu University Kaneo Higuchi, dean of students, Kumamoto University Kazuo Hirayama, chief, Student Section, Fukuoka Commerce University, Junior College Department Tokishige Hojo, professor, chief of general affairs, Kagavva University Yasuo Horibe, dean of students, Saga University Yuichi Ikeno, dean of students, Ehime University Sadatsune Inoue, chief, Business Bureau, Ehime Prefecture Matsuyama University of Agriculture Saburo Ishii, dean of students, Seinan Jogakuin Junior College Keiji Kawashima, dean of students, Kagoshima Prefecture University Isao Kikuchi, president, Kita-Kyushu Foreign Language University Shigeru Konishi, professor, Kagawa Prefecture University of Agriculture Kenji Kurano, dean of students, Fukuoka Women's University Shoichi Maki, chief, Miscellaneous Section, Kyushu University Kaoru Matsumoto, Ehime Prefecture Matsuyama University of Agriculture Yoshihiko Matsumoto, dean of students, Okayama University Shikai Mitani, chief, Welfare Section, Tokushima University Matsuo Mitoma, chief, Student Section, Fukuoka Commerce University Shigeru Miyaji, chief, Student Section, Ministry of Education Mitsuo Miyazaki, chief, School Affairs Section, Kyushu Dental University Kikuo Nishida, school inspector, Ministry of Education Kanichi Otofuji, chief, Welfare Section, Kyushu University Yoshio Otomo, dean of students, Beppu Women's University Kakunosuke Ouchi, professor, Kumamoto Women's University Ichiro Rikitake, dean of students, Yamaguchi Prefecture University of Dentistry Masao Saito, lecturer, Shimane University of Agriculture Shiro Sakamoto, lecturer, Shimane University of Agriculture Kunizo Samejima, dean of students, Kurume University Hidehisa Sawa, dean of students, Nagasaki University Gie Shiba, dean of students, Tokyo University Genzo Shioya, dean of students, Nagasaki Prefecture Saseho Commercial Junior College

186

Participants in the Deans' Conferences

187

Sakutaho Sueoka, dean of students, Kita-Kyushu Foreign Language University Koichi Suzaki, chief, Guidance Section, Tottori University Noboru Takano, chief, School Affairs Section, Fukuoka Gakugei University Tokuzo Tanaka, Shuji, Nagasaki Foreign Language Junior College Hideo Tazuru, chief, School Affairs Section, Nagasaki University Toyoichiro Tokame, dean of students, Hiroshima Women's Junior College Ya Tokuda, dean of students, Kochi University Mokujo Toyoda, chief, Business Bureau, Kyushu University Kyohiko Tsutsui, dean of students, Oita University Kozo Tsutsumi, dean of students, Yamaguchi University Iwao Uchimi, professor, chief, Guidance Section, Hiroshima University Dairoku Uki, chief, Guidance Section, Higashi Chikushi Junior College Tatsuo Yamaguchi, dean of students, Kagoshima University Gijiro Yoshida, dean of students, Kyushu Engineering University

Tokyo Isuneo Aizawa, chief, Student Section, Toyo University Masajiro Akiyone, dean of students, Toita Women's Junior College Fujio Amazawa, chief, School Affairs Section, University of Telecommunication Kin Arao, chief, Student Section, Nippon University Kazuyo Arisaka, dean of students, Tohoku University Mitsuko Aritomi, chief, Student Section, Atomi Gakuin Junior College Toshihiko Asakawa, chief, Guidance Section, Tohoku University Minoru Chijiwa, dean of students, Tokyo Gakugei University Satoshi Chiwa, assistant professor, Musashino Women's Junior College Koko Enji, chief, School Affairs Office, Women's University of Arts Sho Fujita, dean of students, Gumma University Tora Fujita, dean of students, Wayo Women's University Yutaka Fujita, chief, Student Section, Tokyo University of Electric Engineering Kitazo Fujiwara, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Aoyama Gakuin University Takeshi Fukui, chief, Student Section, Jissen Women's University Union Fukuyama, professor, Fukushima Prefecture University of Medicine Sho Funakoshi, chief, Student Section, Nippon University of Dentistry Kiyoshi Harada, chief, Welfare Section, Rissho University Junji Hashimoto, dean of students, Tokushima University Makoto Hatano, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Musashi University Shiro Hayasaka, professor, Miyagi Prefecture Junior College of Agriculture Kiyoyuki Higuchi, dean of students, Kokugakuin University Eiichiro Hisamatsu, professor, Chuo University Shigemi Hoiden, dean of students, Seijo University Gonosuke Hori, dean of students, Kanagawa University Ushio Hori, dean of students, Hitotsubashi University Senta Horigane, lecturer, Fukushima University Shigeichi Horiguchi, staff, School Affairs, Tachikawa Junior College Nagao lijima, dean of students, Chiba Keiai Junior College Eifu lizuka, assistant professor, Takazaki City Junior College Shunichi Imai, chief, Student Section, Nippon University of Medicine Shium Inoue, clerk, Student Personnel Services Office, Fukushima University Eiichiro Ishigami, dean of students, Gakushuin University Kiku Ishihara, Tokyo Nurses School Kashiro Ishii, professor, Meiji University of Pharmacy Matsunosuke Iwatake, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Shibaura University of Engineering Ei Izawa, professor, Tokyo Women's Junior College of Physical Education Misao Kai, lecturer, Aizu Junior College

188

Student Counseling in Japan

Fumie Kamasaka, chief, School Affairs Section, Niigata University Yuken Kameta, dean of students, Sagami Women's University Taro Kamishiro, director, Nippon Women's University Tsuneya Kanasugi, dean of students, Tokyo Jikeika University of Medicine Kiyo Kaneko, chief, Student Section, Tokyo Kasei Gakuin Masatsugu Kanemitsu, chief, Student Section, Sapporo University of Medicine Takashi Kashiwagi, dean of students, Chiba University Tamijiro Kashiwagi, dean of students, Muroran University of Engineering Shichiro Kato, chief, Student Section, Meiji Gakuin University Juntaro Kawaai, chief, Student Section, Tokyo University of Economics Iwao Kawamura, dean of students, Iwate University Kiyoshi Kido, professor, Tokyo Metropolitan University Takashi Kikuchi, assistant professor, Tokyo Denki Junior College Kurako Kimura, staff, Student Section, Showa Women's University Norio Kimura, professor, Tokyo University of Medicine Einosuke Kira, president, Yonezawa Women's Junior College Sugao Kirao, chief, Guidance Section, Yamawaki Gakuin Kota Kodama, Gakushuin Junior College Kohei Kondaibo, chief, Student Section, Yokohama National University Jiro Kondo, professor, Seishin Women's University Michiyuki Kuroda, professor, Tokyo Junior College of Agriculture Mitsuo Maebara, dean of students, Keio University Miya Magoshi, Aoyama Gakuin Women's Junior College Shiju Matsugaki, deputy dean, Tokyo University of Home Economics Moriji Matsui, dean of students, Akita University Yoshiji Matsuoka, Ueno Gakuin Junior College Sanji Matsuzaki, staff, Student Section, Yokohama National University Hideo Matsuzuki, dean of students, Tokyo University of Science Masako Mikami, Shuji, Toyo Women's Junior College Teruko Mitsuaki, dean of students, Tokyo Women's University Yoshio Mitsushita, dean of students, Kogakuin University Kenzo Murakami, dean of students, Kanazawa University Tamekazu Murata, chief, Student Section, Meiji University Genichi Nagamatsu, Tokyo University of Pharmacy Sadatoshi Nagaoka, dean of students, Shinshu University Totaro Nakamura, assistant professor, Toyo Eiwa Jogakuin Junior College Masa Nakashima, chief, Student Section, Musashino University of Music Tassan Nikoma, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Salesio Junior College Chiyo Ninomiya, professor, Nippon Women's Junior College of Health Shinichiro Nishima, dean of students, Tohoku University of Pharmacy Masa Noguchi, chief, School Affairs Section, Hokkai Gakuin University Hatsue Nomiya, dean of students, Keisen Jogakuen Junior College Genichiro Numajiri, professor, Ibaraki University Fumiyo Ogawa, dean of students, Kyoritsu Women's University Nobuo Okazono, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Tamagawa University Yuko Okouchi, chief, Student Section, Women's Eiyo Junior College Tsuneo Okumura, chief, Welfare Section, Senshu University Eijiro Omori, professor, Nippon Women's Junior College of Economics Seikichi Omura, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Kaigyokusha Junior College Koryu Oyama, chief, Student Section, Komazawa University Takayo Oyama, Seibo Women's Junior College Hisashi Saito, professor, Tokyo University of Dentistry Saito, lecturer, dean of students, Mishima Gakuin Women's Junior College Ryozo Sakakihara, chief, Business Section, Toho Junior College of Music Katsuzo Sakata, professor, Miyagi Gdkuin Women's University Hikoshiro Sakurai, dean of students, Nippon University of Physical Education

Participants in the Deans' Conferences

189

Minoru Sano, chief, School Affairs Section, Bunka Women's Junior College Ichiro Sasaki, assistant professor, Morioka Junior College Tsutomu Sasaki, chief, Guidance Section, Hirosaki University Hitoshi Sase, chief, Student Section, Kunitachi University of Music Akio Sato, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Taisho University Kazue Sato, assistant professor, Tokyo University of Engineering Saburo Sato, section chief, Akita University Schweitzer, dean of students, Sophia University Hisao Sekijima, dean of students, Seikei University Mitsuhiko Sekiya, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Tsudajuku University Gie Shiba, dean of students, Tokyo University Mikuo Shiba, staff, Student Personnel Services Office, Kanto Gakuin Junior College Yasutsugu Shibauchi, chief, Welfare Section, Nippon University of Veterinary and Stock-Raising Eicho Shimizu, dean of students, Akihiro University of Stock-Raising Fumihiko Shimizu, dean of students, Tokyo University of Medicine and Dentistry Takejiro Shinoyama, chief, School Affairs Section, Tokyo University of Fishery Takeshi So, director, Reitaku Junior College Sadakichi Sugai, dean of students, Tokyo University of Letters Shoku Suzuki, dean of students, Asabu University of Veterinary Setsuo Tahara, chief, Guidance Section, Tokyo University of Education Seikichi Takadate, dean of students, Ozuma Women's University Rintaro Takahashi, professor, Chiba University of Engineering Shinichiro Takakura, dean of students, Hokkaido University Hideo Takasugi, dean of students, Rakuno Gakuin Junior College Takashi Tanaka, staff, Student Section, Showa Women's Junior College Kazuichi Tao, dean of students, Tokyo University of Arts Kyoji Toda, dean of students, Kanto Junior College Minoru Tokairin, chief, Guidance Section, Musashi University of Engineering Mikie Tokuda, Kawamura Junior College Akira Tokura, dean of students, Tokyo Noko University Seijiro Tsukushi, chief, School Affairs Section, Kyoritsu University of Pharmacy Kesazo Wakie, chief, Welfare Section, Hoshi University of Pharmacy Takio Watanabe, dean of students, Utsunomiya University Teigo Watanabe, dean of students, Hokkaido Gakugei University Kaoru Yada, chief, Student Section, Seinan Gakuin University Nagao Yamada, professor, Yokohama City University Unokichi Yamagata, professor, Tokyo University of Agriculture Ryutaro Yamaguchi, chief, Student Section, Ibaraki Christian Junior College Ryozo Yamamura, chief, Welfare Section, Odaru University of Commerce Takeko Yoshida, dean of students, Ochanomizu Women's University Hiroto Yoshioka, dean of students, Tokyo Women's University of Medicine

APPENDIX VII

Letter from the Chief of CIE to Japanese University Presidents

General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Civil Information and Education Section July 18, 1951

DEAR PRESIDENT : Although I realize that you are very busy during these hot summer days, I take the liberty of bringing to your attention a development of great importance to higher education in Japan. Many Japanese university professors, especially those who have travelled abroad recently, have expressed a recognition of the increasing importance of student counselling and guidance services. Too, the Minister of Education and several university presidents have talked with me concerning this very important problem. As a result of these conversations, plans were started almost a year ago for a series of institutes at which members of Japanese university faculties could discuss the latest developments in these fields and formulate programs for improved counselling and guidance services in Japanese universities. A Japanese advisory committee, working with the Ministry of Education, and an American advisory committee, working with the American Council on Education, took over the preliminary planning for the institutes and, as a result of their commendable efforts, the project now has become a reality. Six carefully selected specialists from American Universities, each an authority in his field, have accepted appointments to the institutes. They will serve their Japanese colleagues in a series of three institutes, the first of which will begin on 17 September 1951. Dr. Wesley P. Lloyd has agreed to serve as General Director, and has been in Japan since July 1, conferring with officials of the Ministry of Education, the Japanese advisory committee, university presidents, and guidance administrators. We are especially fortunate to have the services of Dr. Lloyd. He has had extensive experience in the administration of student personnel services and is professor of philosophy of education at Brigham Young University. He is known throughout the United States for his .work in this field. Dr. Lloyd, in a recent meeting with the Japanese advisory committee, indicated that the workshop technique would be followed throughout the institutes in order that the American faculty members may study carefully the basic needs in Japanese institutions of higher learning in their guidance and welfare work. The resulting philosophy in guidance procedures will then be built upon the rich foundation of Japanese education and culture and can be a most effective factor in meeting major problems in Japanese university life. All Japanese universities and junior colleges, both governmental and private, are offered opportunity to participate in these counselling and guidance institutes. It is 190

Letter from the Chief of CIE

191

my hope that each college and university president will insure that his institution is represented by a person or persons with responsibility for the effective operation of the guidance and student welfare program. The application forms for admission to the institutes will be furnished by the Ministry of Education, and will require the signature of the university president, indicating that the applicants are staff members who now have or will have major responsibility for student guidance and welfare. The three institutes to be held can accommodate only about 250 members— approximately 80 members at each session. The first institute will be held at Kyoto University, September 17 to December 7; the second at Kyushu University, January 7 to March 29; and the third in Tokyo, beginning the latter part of April and continuing until approximately July 15. It is my opinion that these institutes will constitute an important step in the development of higher education in Japan. I feel that out of them will result a firm foundation for the growth of guidance services in Japanese universities that will be second to none in the world. Because of my great interest in higher education in Japan, and especially the field of guidance and counselling, I sincerely hope that you will insure the best type of representation from your university. Sincerely yours, D. F. NUGENT Lt. Col., USMC Chief, CIE Section

APPENDIX VIII

Newsletter of December 10, 1951

Kyoto Institute Closes Friday, December 7, was a red-letter day for participants and faculties who had spent three months together in the Institute. The closing ceremony was attended by a large number of presidents who had arrived for the Presidents' Conference. Following informal sayonara [farewells] in each of the five sections of the Institute, the official closing ceremony opened at 9:30 A.M. with remarks from President Hattori, Past President Torikai, Dr. Inouye, other Kyoto University officials, and Dr. Hidaka, ViceMinister of Education. Five regular participants of the Institute gave responses pointing out the practical and realistic contributions of the Institute to the participants and to the colleges and universities they represent. During the closing session the participants organized a Chubu District (Middle Japan) Student Personnel Services Society. It is a professional association organized on an independent basis and with possibilities for extended service in the region. A feature of the closing ceremony was an address by Vice-Minister Hidaka, in which he gave pointed observations regarding the need for more thoughtful application of individual problems of college and university students. The General Director of the Institute expressed appreciation for the cooperation of all who had assisted in making it effective and useful. He expressed his regret that Colonel Nugent, Chief of SCAP, CIE, could not be in attendance and gave his sayonara to the participants. At the informal luncheon conducted by Director Inouye, following the ceremony, Mr. Olsen, President Nagasaki, and Mr. Miyaji made brief remarks. Thus closed a most successful and the first Institute on Student Personnel Services held in Japan.

Chubu District Student Personnel Services Society One of the important achievements of the Institute came into focus in the organization of the Chubu District Student Personnel Services Society. This organization will be a responsible agency for the continued growth, development, and interest in Student Personnel Services in the area and will assist colleges and universities in the region in establishing and maintaining standards for Student Personnel Service workers.

Presidents' Conference Approximately 135 administrators, representing 99 colleges and universities, participated in the Presidents' Conference which opened Friday, December 7, and continued through December 8 and 9. This is the first conference of its kind and stature ever to be conducted. The presidents indicated keen concern over student personnel problems. They expressed appreciation for the work performed by the Institute and their faculty representatives and showed enthusiasm for taking definite steps in the direction of improved services for students. Following remarks by representative presidents and members of the American

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faculty regarding problems and their possible solution through Student Personnel Services organizations and procedures, the presidents divided into five groups to discuss viewpoints, proposals, and problems. Each of the smaller groups met in three sessions. At the closing general session reports were made by representatives of the five sections, and closing remarks were made by officials of the host university, the Ministry of Education, and the Local and General Directors of the Institute. The third day was devoted to scheduled individual conferences of the presidents with members of the American faculty. The Presidents' Conference on Student Personnel Services was an historic event in Japanese university life. It is thought that like conferences will accompany the Kyushu and Tokyo Institutes and will be major factors in the development of Student Personnel Services in Japan.

Kyushu Institute Extensive preliminary planning on the Kyushu Institute has been under way for several months. On the morning of November 19 the General Director met in Fukuoka with the Steering Committee and the Local Director of the Kyushu Institute and in the afternoon with the Japanese faculty and local Director. The Directors visited a number of universities in the Kyushu area. A few days later Mr. Nishida, a representative of Mombu Sho and also a regular participant in the Kyoto Institute visited other colleges and universities. On the date of this Newsletter, December 10, Professor Hayashi is in Kyoto for conferences with officials of the Institute. An excellent attendance of well-qualified participants is expected for the opening session on Monday, January 7, at 9:00 A.M. at Kyushu University. This session will be preceded by several days of final planning by the joint Japanese and American faculties.

APPENDIX IX

Constitutions of Japanese Personnel Associations

CONSTITUTION FOR THE NATIONAL FEDERATION OF STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES ASSOCIATIONS

Article I. This organization shall be called the National Federation of Student Personnel Services Associations. Article 2. The office of the Federation shall be placed in Tokyo-to. Article 3. The purposes of the Federation shall be liaison and coordination of local student personnel services associations and effective promotion of activities thereof. Article 4. To attain the purposes mentioned in the preceding article, the Federation shall carry on the following: (1) Professional meetings. (2) Publication and distribution of books and pamphlets. (3) Accumulation and exchange of materials and information. (4) Other items deemed necessary for attaining the purposes of the Federation. Article 5. The Federation shall consist of local student personnel associations. Article 6. The Federation shall have the following officers, whose tenure of office shall be two years: President, 1; Vice-Presidents, 2; Directors, 6; Councillors, 12; and Auditors, 3. Article 7. The President shall represent the Federation and be responsible for the Federation management. Vice-President shall assist the President and shall deputize him in his absence. Directors shall assist the President and deal with the Federation affairs. Councillors shall deliberate matters regarding the management of the Federation. Auditors shall audit the accounting. Article 8. The Federation shall have the general meeting of officers, the directors meeting, and the councillors meeting. Rules regarding the meetings shall be stipulated separately. Article 9. The Federation may have special committees. Article 10. The Federation may have advisors. Article 11. The expenses needed for management of the Federation shall be met by the following revenue: (1) Shares of local student personnel services associations. (2) Various subsidies. (3) Donations and other kinds of revenue. Article 12. The fiscal year of the Federation shall be identical with the fiscal year of the national government. Budget and settlement of the Federation shall need to be approved by the general meeting of officers. Article 13. Amendment to the articles of the present constitution shall be by the decision of the general meeting of officers. Attached rules—Details regarding the enforcement of the present constitution shall be stipulated separately.

194

Constitutions of Japanese Personnel Associations

195

CONSTITUTION OF THE WESTERN JAPAN SPS ASSOCIATION*

Article I. This organization shall be called the Western Japan SPS Association. Article 2. The office of the Association shall be placed in the SPS department of the university where the President of the Association holds office. Article 3. The purpose of the Association shall be to conduct research on theories and practices of student personnel services and promote the development of carrying them into effect. Article 4. To attain the above mentioned services, the Association shall carry on the following: (1) Professional meetings. (2) Publication and distribution of books and pamphlets. (3) Accumulation and exchange of materials and information. (4) Others necessary for attaining the purposes of the Association. Article 5. The members of the Association shall be those who support the purposes of the Association and who have been recognized by the Directors' meeting. Article 6. The Association shall have regional branches. Article 7. The Association shall have the following officers, whose tenure of office shall be two years: President, 1; Standing Directors, 5; Directors, 10; and Auditors, 3. Article 8. The President shall represent the Association and shall be responsible for management thereof. Standing Directors shall assist the President and shall supervise the Association affairs. Directors shall assist Standing Directors and shall chiefly be responsible for management of regional branches. Standing Directors' meeting shall be the executive organ. Auditors shall supervise the accounting affairs. Article 9. The Association shall have advisors. Article 10. The Association shall hold the general meeting once a year in July. However, in case of necessity, it may hold an extraordinary general meeting. Article 11. Dues of this Association shall be 200 yen per year. Article 12. Rules needed for operation of the Association shall be stipulated separately. Article 13. Dissolution of the Association, and amendment to articles herein provided for, shall need the decision of the general meeting. Article 14. The quorum of the general meeting shall be the majority of the whole members and decision shall be made by the majority votes of the attending members. Article 15. The present constitution shall be in effect on and after 28, March, 1952. Proviso: In cases when inconveniences were recognized in operation of the organization in accordance with the present provisions, the President may carry out the organization affairs at his discretion in counsel with standing directors until the next general meeting. * The constitutions of the Eastern and Middle regional associations are substantially the same as this one for the Western group.

APPENDIX X

Program for Regional Workshops

Purposes These workshops aim at the development of SPS in colleges and universities and the encouragement of professional studies in this work, through discussions and lectures among the SPS workers who are facing realistic problems of students and the academic researchers in this field. Sponsors Sponsors: Ministry of Education, Host Universities. Cooperator: Regional Institutes for Student Personnel Services.

Program AREA

Chubu and Kinki Chugoku, Shikoku Kyushu Kanto Tohoku, Hokkaido Tokyo

DATE

PLACE

INSTITUTIONS

July 15 to 19 July 22 to 26 Late September Early October Middle October Early November

Kanazawa Univ. Kochi Univ. Miyazaki Univ. Ibaraki Univ. Fukushima Ochanomizu Univ.

147 30 37 42 38 133

RESULTS OF KANAZAWA WORKSHOP Participants: 124 men and women from 68 institutes. Group Projects: No. 1 On the political movement of students; No. 2 Extra-curricular activities; No. 3 Organization and its administration; No. 4 Personal record and orientation; No. 5 Placement and arbeit; and No. 6 Health services. Announcements: 1. "On Orientation," by Mr. Haga, Aichi Gakugei University. Significance and goal; Information about the university; Selection of students; Communication to Passed Applicants; Orientation Week Programs; Planning of Schedule; Budget; Reports from 16 Institutions on Their Programs. 2. "Check List Survey and Class-Room Teacher System," by Mr. Kurata, Mie Prefectural University. Counselor System by Classroom Teacher; Necessity of Counseling; How to Approach Students' Needs. 3. Results of survey by a check list: QUESTIONS

(1) Are the relations between you and faculties not good? (2) Have you difficulties in choosing subject matter?

196

PERCENTAGE OF CHECKS

50.7 18.8

Program for Regional Workshops (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

QUESTIONS

Have you difficulties in understanding lectures? Is the schedule of lectures inconvenient for you? Are you suffering from a health problem? Are you suffering from deficiency? Are you suffering from a love affair? Have you any trouble with families? Have you any trouble with friends? Are you worried with your weak-points? Have you a problem on how to live? Have you a problem on religion? Can't you plan your vocational course? Are you afraid of missing your job?

197 PERCENTAGE OF CHECKS

28.9 37.6 36.2 39.1 21.7 15.9 8.6 62.3 44.9 11.5 37.6 40.5

4. "Report on Muni Type Check List/' by Mr. Matsumura, Kyoto College of Technology. RESULTS OF KOCHI WORKSHOP

Participants: 44 men from 19 institutions. Group Projects: No. a. What is a good organization of SPS? No. b. How to develop out-of-class activities? No. c. How to make effective personal guidance? No. d. How to improve financial aids? No. e. How to make effective services for vocational guidance and placement? Announcements: 1. "On the Organization of SPS," by Mr. Tsutsumi, Yamaguchi University. 2. "On the Program of Out-of-class Activities," by Mr. Kawamoto, Yamaguchi Women's J.C. 3. "On the Counseling System of Faculty Advisors," by Mr. Rikitake, Yamaguchi Medical College. 4. "Use of Psychological Testing," by Mr. Oka, Kochi University. 5. "Vocational Guidance and Realistic Survey of Job Market," by Mr. Mitani, Tokushima University. 6. "Essential Elements for Student Personnel Works in New System University," by Mr. Hayashi, Kyushu University.

Critical Evaluation of Workshop and Needed Improvements 1. Discussions are not yet sufficiently constructive and fruitful; the functions of chairman, recorder, and observer should be arranged by steering committee. 2. Discussions are not focused on the key point. Description of projects is somewhat ambiguous, so it should be defined by interrogative sentence to clarify the goal of discussion and scope of available information. 3. The conclusion of the discussion is not realistic and practical. Announcements of research should be reports of the actual practice and functions of workers and not be ideas in their heads only. 4. The workshop does not find sufficiently improved methodology to develop a good program in SPS. Academic lectures should be adopted for in-service training to show participants how to approach their problems.

APPENDIX XI

Participants in Pusan Conference

Baik Yung Goo, clerk, Pusan National University Bang Jong Hun, dean, College of Arts and Sciences, National Seoul University Bek Te Jin, professor, Pusan Fishing College Chang Yung Ho, Pusan First Commercial High School Chung Ok Kim, Mrs., Ewha Women's University Im Suk Je, president, Sukmyong Women's University Jo Choe Ho, principal, Pusan Normal School Jung Soo Yung, teacher, Pusan First High Secondary School Kang Sam Yong, principal, Pusan First Commercial High School Kim Choe Sun, professor, Pusan University Kim Hu Tuk, Seoul School of Higher Home Economics Kim I Sik, professor, Pusan Fishing College Kim In Whan, Kyungpuk Agricultural College Kim Ki Suk, dean, College of Education Kim Ki Won, Central Student Association Kim Sun Ki, professor, National Seoul University Kim Syoung Kon, Pusan First Commercial High School Kim Taik Chin, Pusan Engineering High School Lee He Do, educational supervisor, Kyongnam Provincial Government Lee Yong Hup, professor, Kug Hag College O Ke Un, principal, Pusan Girls' High School O Som Sup, dean, College of Veterinary, National Seoul University Pak Kwon Soo, Ulsan Agricultural High School Pak Nu Te, professor, Pusan University Rhee Byong Uk, College of Veterinary, Seoul University Rhee Han Chun, Central Theological Seminary Rhee I Be, Taegu College of Agriculture Rhee Jong Hup, professor, Dangkuk University Rhee Young Wun, College of Veterinary, Seoul University Sin Biong Uk, professor, Chosen Christian University Son Ke Sool, dean, College of Education, Taegu University Song Hyo Sun, professor and dean of women, Chosen Christian University Song Jong Jin, professor, Hong Ik College Song Kum Sun, Mrs., Duksung Women's University Yu Yung Jun, teacher, Pusan First High Secondary School Yun Bum Tung, Central Students' National Guard Corps Yun In Ku, president, Pusan National University Yoo Ki Chun, College of Law, National Seoul University 198

Index

Absenteeism of Japanese students, 13 Achievement tests, 76. See also Tests Administration of student personnel services, 71, 89-91: in Japan, 57, 58, 103, 135, 136, 139, 147-49, 154; in the United States, 160-63 Admissions system, in Japanese universities, 61, 70, 72-74, 76, 83, 154 Aichi Gakugei University, 130 Akamizu, Japan, 120 Akihito, Crown Prince, 122 Amano, Teiyu, 30 American Advisory Committee, 6, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 108, 114, 156, 17172, 190 American College Personnel Association, 108, 109, 110 American Council on Education, 6, 19, 21, 38, 131, 146, 164, 190 American Personnel and Guidance Association, 111 American World Student Service Fund, 113 Applied psychology, see Psychology Aptitude tests, 76-77, 78, 154. See also Tests Arita, Japan, 120 Assemblies, general, 43, 46, 48, 61, 62, 93-94, 117, 126 Associations, see Professional associations Attitude questionnaire, 124-27 Blaesser, Willard W., 108 Borow, Henry, 24, 47: on group methods, 50-51, 51-52; on counseling, 71-72, 77-78, 83-87; on role of research, 91, 92; on group projects, 94-95; on university visits, 98; work with Japanese psychologists, 114-17, 122 Brigham Young University, 22, 164, 190 Budget recommendations, 149-50

Business offices, in Japanese universities, 41-42, 59, 103, 137, 142 Capitalism, 151-52 Central Education Council, 145 Christian Professors Association, 113 Chubu region, 97, 132, 133, 136 Civil Information and Education Section, Supreme Command Allied Powers (CIESCAP), 6, 11, 17, 21, 26, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 42, 104, 111, 137, 19091,192 Coeducation, see Women in education Colorado Springs, Colo., 109 Communism, 151-52 Community Youth Program, Ministry of Education, 113 Conference method, Japanese and United States attitudes toward, 3-4, 10. See also Group methods Conferences: for university presidents, 1314, 44, 61, 68, 98-103, 121, 130, 137, 155, 179-85, 192-93; for deans of students, 103-5, 121, 186-89; in Korea, 111-12, 198; with Japanese psychologists, 116-17 Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations, 108, 109 Counseling, 75, 114, 116, 117, 126, 131, 132, 135, 136, 161: vocational, 14, 76, 83-87, 92, 94, 114, 116; characteristics of, 71-72; treated in lectures, 71-72, 77_78, 80-82; personal, 80-82, 118-19; directive and nondirective, 81; of women, 87; financial, 88; research in, 92; demonstration or, 93-94; recommendations for, 153, 154; example of, 162-63 Curriculum revision, related to student personnel services, 163-64 Dazaifu, Japan, 120

199

200

Student Counseling in Japan

Deans of students: conferences for, 103-5, 121, 186-89; work of, 90-91, 133, 135, 136, 137, 147 Diet of Japan, 11, 12, 140, 142 Discipline, on Japanese campuses, 82-83, 135, 136 Discussion groups, 43, 45, 46, 48-52, 62, 63-64, 66, 94-96, 100, 102, 104-5, 126-27. See also Group methods Doshisha University, 118 Doshisha Women's College, 51 Eastern Japan Student Personnel Services Association, 106, 133, 195. See also Professional associations Education in Japan: compared with education in the United States, 3-5, 61, 78, 80, 83, 117; vision of Japanese educators, 8, 156-57; related to German education, 9; academic emphasis in, 9-10, 14-17, 152; postwar changes in, 10-14, 16-18, 84-85, 103; role of Ministry of Education, 11; importance of recreation in, 52-53; emphasis on theory, 65-66; for women, 87, 117-18, 155; emphasis on research, 92, 107; post-Institute changes in, 132-39 Education, Ministry of, see Ministry of Education Educational agencies of Japan, reaction to Institutes project, 138, 141-45. See also Education in Japan, Ministry of Education Employment of Japanese students, 150 English Speaking Society, 113 Evaluation, in student personnel services, 91-93 Faculties of the Institutes AMERICAN: selection of, 6, 20, 21, 24, 45; work of, 17, 18, 28, 34, 36-37, 4041, 44, 46-48, 49, 66, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 112, 193; administrative-academic role of, 27-28; orientation of, 34-36, 60-61, 68, 97-98; visits to Japanese universities, 32, 35-36, 112, 114; relations with business office, 41-42; recreation program for, 52-53; meetings of, 53-55, 62; cooperation between members of, 55; personal relations with participants, 119-23, 126; recommendations of, 14056; list of, 173 JAPANESE: selection of, 6, 20, 21; work of, 28, 40-41, 44, 48, 49, 52-53, 60-61, 66, 92, 101, 128, 193; list of, 173

Faculty advising, 75, 84, 114, 131, 132: treated in lectures, 78-79; procedures in, 94; importance of, 102-3; project on, 121; recommendations for, 150; example of, 162-63 Fascism, 152 Felsted, Leona, 24, 47: on characteristics of Institute participants, 58-60; on procedures, 63-64; on scope of student personnel services, 69-70; on admissions, 73; on personnel records, 74; on student personnel services for women, 87-88; on financial assistance, 88; on student housing, 89; on group projects, 95; work of, 111, 117-18; letter to participants, 11920; on work of participants, 131 Field trips, 51-52, 130 Financial aid to students, 88, 95, 131, 135, 136, 150-51, 161 Financing the Institutes project, 24-25, 42 Fukuoka, Japan, 7, 21, 116, 119, 120, 193 Fukuoka Commercial College, 102 Fukuoka Gakugei University, 128 Fukushima, Mrs. Fumi, 129-30 Gakushuin University, 122 Germany, philosophy of education in, 9, 69 Gifu prefecture, 130 Graduate placement, in Japanese universities, 73, 83, 84, 86-87, 136, 154 Group methods: used in Institutes, 7, 26, 37, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49-52, 58, 59, 61, 63-64, 95-96; treated in lectures, 67; evaluation of, 125, 126-27; adopted in Japanese universities, 129, 135; for teaching democracy, 152. See also Lecture method, Workshop method Group projects, of Institute participants, 43, 51, 62, 94-96, 121-22 Guidance, Japanese concept of, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 31, 67-68, 70, 89-90, 114, 137, 139, 142, 144, 169, 190 Hanada, Daigoro, 102 Hattori, Shunjiro, 107, 137, 192 Hayashi, K., 128 Hayashi, Teijiro, 104, 105, 124, 138, 193 Health services for students, 74, 135, 149, 161 Hidaka, Daishiro, 16, 121, 192 Higher Education and Science Bureau, 31 Hiroshima University, 39, 102 Hokkaido University, 39 Housing of students, in Japan, 88-89, 95,

135,136

Index Houston, Clifford, 108, 109, 110 Ibaraki University, 39 Inada, Kyosuke, 31 Individual, concern for in education, 30, 37, 50, 67, 69, 155, 159, 165, 169-70 Inouye, Yoshiyuki, 138, 192 Institute for Educational Leadership, 35 Interest tests, 76. See also Tests International Christian University, 122 International Student Association of Japan, 71,113,118 Interpreter-advisers, 39-40, 48, 52, 58, 120, 121: list of, 173 Ishigami, Taro, 125 Japan Applied Psychology Association, 85, 117, 122 Japan Student Relief Committee, 71, 113 Japan Vocational Guidance Association, 116, 122 Japanese Association of University Women, 117 Japanese Education Reform Council, 10, 11 Japanese Psychological Association, 116, 117, 122 Japanese Scholarship Society, 151 Japanese Steering Committee, 6, 17, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28, 30, 34, 35-36, 39, 97, 114, 116, 117, 140, 156, 190. See also Steering committees, local Japanese Student Federation for the United Nations Movement, 71 Job analysis, 148, 150 Jones, Mrs. Frank N., see Felsted, Leona Kansai Psychology Association, 116 Kansas State College, 24 Karatsu, Japan, 120 Kato, Professor, 116 Kikuchi, Isao, 13, 102, 104, 107, 137 Kimoto, Kiichi, 130 Kitamura, Naomi, 102 Klopf, Gordon, 47: selection of, 24; work of, 37, 112-13, 124, 125; and group methods, 49; report on participants, 5658; on student activities, 70, 71; on work of participants, 130-31 Kondan (interviews), 10, 43, 44, 129 Korea, 111-12 Kumamoto University, 39 Kumamoto Women's University, 102 Kyoto, University of, 21, 32, 137 Kyoto Institute/7, 51, 55, 157, 191, 193: plans for, 40-42; schedule, 42, 46; as-

201

semblies of, 48; characteristics of participants, 56-57, 58-59; professional association formed at, 57, 58, 106; evaluation of, 60-61; reports on, 63, 119-20; programs of, 66; group projects in, 95; conferences, 99; work with psychologists in, 114; reunion of, 122, 128; work of participants, 130; results of, 136; close of, 192 Kyoto Kogei-Seni University, 118 Kyoto Women's University, 118 Kyushu, University of, 32, 135 Kyushu Institute, 25, 111, 128, 191: plans for, 40-42, 193; scheduling for, 42, 43, 62; principles and procedures, 44; personnel of, 57; characteristics of participants, 59; program for, 61-63; group projects in, 95; conferences, 99, 102, 104; deans' organization of, 105; professional association formed at, 106; work with psychologists in, 114; report on, 119-20; work of participants in, 131; results of, 135-36 Language problems, in Institutes, 22, 38, 39-40, 46, 48, 52-53, 59, 114, 126, 146 Laws affecting Japanese student personnel services, 141-42 Lecture method: in Japanese education, 9; limitations of, 36-37; use in Institutes, 43, 46, 48, 55, 65, 66-67, 126, 127. See also Group methods Library for the Institutes, 37-39, 42, 44, 48, 126 Lloyd, Wesley P., 47, 104, 192, 193: selected as director, 6, 20, 22, 190; preliminary work in United States, 24; responsible for expenditures, 25, 42; role during Institutes, 28; on objectives of Institutes, 68; on administrative organization, 89-91; on presidents' conferences, 99; report to American professional associations, 108-11; Korean conference, 111; evaluation of Institute results, 132, 138; post-Institute work, 156, 157 Logistics of Institutes project, 19, 20, 24, 25 Los Angeles, Calif., 109 Measurements, lecture on, 76-77. See also Tests Middle Japan Student Personnel Services Association, 106, 133, 192, 195. See also Professional associations Mie prefecture, 130

202

Student Counseling in Japan

Mikasa, Prince, 122 Ministry of Education, 54, 57, 95, 104, 135, 141, 171, 193: support of Institutes, 4, 6, 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 97; relation to Japanese universities, 11, 98, 138; problems of, 16-17; and financing Institutes, 24, 42, 137; announcement by, 31; and selection of Institutes participants, 32, 191; and orientation of American faculty, 35, 36; library at, 39; publication of lectures, 65, 122; and admissions system, 73; records of Institutes at, 96; and professional organization, 106; recommendations to, 140; training for members of, 146; plans for future, 156 Minnesota, University of, 24, 165 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 164 Mito, Japan, 36 Miyaji, Shigeru, 192 Miyazaki University, 102 Mombusho, see Ministry of Education Morioka, Japan, 36 Morito, Tatsuo, 102 Mt. Aso, 120 Nagasaki, Taro, 192 Nagoya Jogakuin Junior College, 129 Nagoya University, 39 Nakamura, Hiromichi, 116, 125 Nambara, Shigeru, 31-32 Naniwa University, 116 Nara, Japan, 52, 116, 122 National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 108, 109, 110 National Association of Universities, 138 National Federation of Student Personnel Associations, 107, 110, 111, 145: constitution of, 195. See also Professional Associations National Organizations for Public and Private Universities, recommendations to, 144-45 National Student Association, 112 National University Accreditation Association, 32, 138: recommendations to, 145 National Vocational Guidance Association, 108, 109,110 "New-type" universities, 11, 12, 17, 31, 73,105,139,153 Newsletters, 33-34: example of, 192-93 Nippon University, 117 Nishi, Hisamitsu, 102 Nishida, Kikuo, 13, 33, 138, 157, 193

Nugent, Colonel D. F., 6, 192: letter to university presidents, 190-91 Objectives of Institutes, 19, 25-26, 28-29, 45, 67-69,97, 105, 116, 156 Occupation of Japan, 10, 11, 12, 21, 25, 34,80,117,139 Ohio University, 24 Olsen, Eldred, 54, 192: selection of, 24; duties of, 42 Omuta, Japan, 52 Organization for Student Religious Activities, 113 Organization of Deans of Students and Chiefs of Sections, 105 Orientation: of American faculty, 34-36, 60-61, 68, 97-98; of Institute participants, 44-46, 61; of Japanese students, 75,78,79, 129-30, 131, 132, 136 Osaka, Japan, 85,130 Osaka University, 118 Osaka Vocational Guidance Study Association, 116 Participants in Institutes: spirit of, 18; selection of, 20, 21-22, 29-31, 32-33; liaison committee of, 41, 53, 106; work of, 44, 45, 48-52, 94-96, 106, 130-31; orientation of, 44-46; reaction to group methods, 50-51; characteristics of, 5660, 64; personal relations with faculty, 119-23, 126; evaluation of Institutes procedures by, 124-31; attitudes of, 100, 127-28, 131, 138, 139 Personality tests, 76. See also Tests Physical facilities for student personnel services, 142, 151 Placement of graduates, in Japanese universities, 73, 83, 84, 86-87, 136, 154 Political activities, in Japanese universities, 12-13, 17, 50, 66, 83, 103-4, 151-53. See also Student activities Presidents of Japanese universities: role in Institutes project, 5, 60, 68,97-103,104, 107, 128-29, 133, 190-91; conferences for, 13-14, 44, 61, 98-103, 121, 130, 137, 155, 179-85, 192-93; meetings with, 30, 31-32, 68, 193; role in student personnel services work, 90-91, 135, 136, 147, 148; letter to, 190-91 Professional associations, for development of student personnel services in Japan, 58, 122, 133, 144-45, 157, 192: organization of, 105-8; relations with American associations, 108-11,156; constitutions of, 194-95

Index Program of the Institutes, 7: planning of, 27, 36-37, 40; review of, 61-64; practical emphasis of, 65-66. See also Group methods, Lecture method, Subject matter Psychologists: work with, 7, 114-17, 122; in Institutes, 57, 59; importance in student personnel services, 85, 152 Psychology: related to counseling, 7, 16, 17; value to student personnel services, 114-17; role in Japanese programs, 135, 136,138 Public Employment Security Office, 85, 116 Public relations program, of Institutes, 2934 Pusan, Korea, 111 Questionnaires: reporting student personnel services changes in Japanese universities, 132-36, 138; example of, 134 Quota system, 61, 73, 142, 154. See also Admissions system Radicalism in Japanese universities, 12-13, 30, 50, 66, 71, 83, 103-4, 113, 151-53. See also Student activities Records, in Japanese universities, 70, 74, 135, 136, 154, 164 Recreation: Japanese emphasis on, 52-53; for Institute participants, 126 Regional workshops, 157, 196-97 Registration procedures, in Institutes, 4445 Research, in student personnel services, 91-93, 107, 136, 145, 156, 160-61 Ridgway, General M. B., 108, 109, 110 Ruedisili, Chester, 46-47: selection of, 24; on tests and measurements, 76, 77; report on faculty advising, 79; on research methods, 91, 92-93; work with psychologists, 114-17, 122; letter to participants, 120-22 Saga University, 102 St. Paul's University, 121 Sakamoto, Takahashi, 39 Sato, K., 116 Sawada, Keisuke, 121, 138 Scheduling, in Institutes, 35, 42-44, 54, 62 Scholarships, recommendations for, 151, 152 Sendai, Japan, 36 Shaffer, Robert, 110, 111

203

Steering committees, local, 17, 32, 40, 41, 102, 193. See also Japanese Steering Committee Student activities, in Japan, 57, 129, 135, 136, 161: radical groups, 12, 17, 30, 50, 66, 71, 83, 103-4, 113, 151-53; subject of lecture, 70-71; student government, 75, 113, 130, 131; Gordon Klopf and, 112-13; recommendations on, 15153 Student Christian Movement, 71 Student Cultural Association, 113 Student employment, in Japan, 150-51 Student government, see Student activities Student health services, in Japan, 74, 135, 149, 161 Student housing, 88-89, 95,131,135,136, 149, 161 Student personnel services: in the United States, 4-6, 29, 55-56, 60-61, 65, 92, 98, 108, 159-61, 164-65, 169-70; need for in Japan, 5-6, 9-10, 13-18, 29, 72, 77, 78-79, 80, 83, 87, 91, 97, 98-99, 100-3,123,142-44; need for recognized in Japan, 10, 60, 125-26, 190; term added to Japanese language, 22, 139, 142; philosophy of, 30-31, 37, 50, 57, 65-66, 67, 69, 89, 95, 125-26, 159-60, 165; "SPS," 40, 58; scope of, 69-70; Japanese services evaluated during Institutes, 94; changes effected in Japan, 128-39, 157; legal basis for in Japan, 141-42, 144; objectives of, 148; values of, 161-65; meaning of term, 169-70. See also Administration of student personnel services Student Personnel Work in College, 117 Student Personnel Work Series, of American Council on Education, 38 Student transfers, in Japan, 73, 83, 142: recommendations concerning, 153 Subject matter, of Institutes: student health services, 67; group procedures, 67; objectives of Institutes, 67-69; philosophy of student personnel services, 69; scope of student personnel services, 69-70; student activities, 70-71; counseling in higher education, 71-72; University admissions, 72-74; student personnel records, 74; orientation, 75; tests and measurements, 76-77; educational counseling, 77-78; faculty advising, 7879; counseling for personal problems, 80-82; discipline, 82-83; vocational counseling, 83-87; student personnel services for women, 87-88; financial

204

Student Counseling in Japan

assistance, 88; student housing, 88-89; administrative organization, 89-91; research and evaluation, 91-93. See also Group methods, Lecture method, Program Supreme Command Allied Powers (SCAP), 6, 17, 22, 26, 35, 108, 110, 111,190-91,192 Tajimi, Japan, 130 Takagi, Teiji, 9, 107, 116, 121, 122 Takahashi, Takamichi, 102 Tanaka, S., 121 Tanaka Institute of Educational Research, 85,95,117 Teaching methods, in Institutes, see Group methods, Lecture method Tests, 70, 117: subject of lecture, 76-77, 114; research in, 85, 92, 93; and counseling, 85, 86, 94, 161, 162; project on, 122; increased use in Japanese universities, 132, 135, 136; recommendations on, 153; role in curriculum revision, 164-65 Tohoku University, 39 Tokushima University, 39 Tokyo, Japan, 28, 32, 36, 97 Tokyo, University of, 5, 21, 32, 40, 113, 116,121,137 Tokyo Institute, 7, 9, 14, 28, 30, 111, 132, 137, 191, 193: scheduling for, 42; characteristics of participants, 58-60; report on, 63, 120-21; group projects in, 9496; presidents' conference at, 99-102; deans' conference at, 104, 107-8; professional organization formed at, 106; evaluated by participants in, 125; participants' attitude toward, 128; results of, 133 Tokyo Student Cultural Association, 118 Toyama University, 130 Training techniques in student personnel services, recommendations for, 145-47 United Nations Council for Aid to Korea, 111 UNESCO, 71, 112, 113 United Nations Student Council, 113 United States: educational method compared to Japanese, 3-5, 9, 78, 83; leadership in student personnel services, 4-6, 29, 92, 93, 98, 114, 116, 117, 138, 14647, 159-61, 169-70; benefits to from Institutes project, 7-8, 55-56, 109; structure of higher education compared to

that of Japan, 11; student activities in, 12, 70-71; educational organizations aid in Institutes project, 19-20; test methods contrasted with Japanese, 76; report to professional associations in, 108-11; continuing cooperation with Japan, 157-58, 166; development of student personnel services in, 159-61; practical application of student personnel services in, 161-63; benefits to universities of student personnel services in, 163-65 United States Department of the Army, 17, 19, 24, 25, 109 United States Department of State, 6, 146, 156,157 United States Office of Education, 6, 19, 108,146 University Chartering Committee, 145 Welfare, Japanese meaning of, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 67-68, 70, 89-90, 137, 139, 142, 144, 169, 190 Western Japan Student Personnel Services Association, 106, 132, 133: constitution of, 195. See also Professional associations Western Personnel Institute, 108, 109 Wisconsin, University of, 24, 122 Women in education, student personnel services for, 87-88, 117-18, 135, 155 Woolf, Maurice, 47, 54: selection of, 24; work of, 37, 111, 118-19, 125; work with group methods, 49; on orientation of students, 75; on counseling about personal problems, 80-82; on discipline, 82-83 Workshop method, in Institutes, 37, 43, 44, 48, 61, 62, 63, 100, 111, 113, 128, 130, 131, 190. See also Group work methods Workshops, regional, 157, 196-97 World University Service, 71, 113 World War I, 16, 70 World War II, 4, 10, 13, 16 Wrenn-Kamm evaluation form, 94 Yamagata, Japan, 36 Yanaihara, Tadao, 5, 14, 40, 107, 111,

113, 121, 137

Yokohama Cultural Center, 118 Yokohama University, 117 Young Men's Christian Association, 113 Young Women's Christian Association, 118 Zengakuren, 71