Studies in early Muslim jurisprudence

STUDIES I N EARLY MUSLIM JURISPRUDENCE BY N O R M A N

CLARENDON

C A L D E R

PRESS • O X F O R D 1993

Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford 0x2 6DP Oxford Sew York Toronto Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Kuala Lumpur Singapore Ifong Kong Tokyo Nairobi Dat es Salaam Cape Tozcn Melbourne Auckland Madrid and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Press Published in the United Stales by Oxford University Press Inc., Sew York (C) Sonnan ("alder KJ(J ? All rights resented. So part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior peimission of Oxford Lhiiversitx Press. Within the UK, exceptions are allowed in respect of any fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, HJHH, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the tenns of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. L'nqin'ries concerning reproduction outside these tenns and in other countries should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford Urnversitv Press, at the address above This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by war of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or coverother than that in w-hich it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaserBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available ISBS 0-1^-825813-5 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ('alder, Sonnan. Studies in early Muslim jurisprudence I by Sonnan (.aider. /. Islamic lazv—History. I. Title. LAW (ISLAM - Cald K)QJ) 340.5'()—dc.20 ISBSo-i(j-S'2s8ij~y

02-27068

Typeset by Hope Senices (Abingdon) Ltd. Printed in Ore at Britain on acid-free paper' bv Bookcraft Ltd Midsomer Sortorr, Avon

FOY ITiy

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246

TRANSITIONS

n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t c o m m e n t a r i e s : these books, i n some sense, worked. I n w h a t sense they w o r k e d is precisely the second p o i n t . T h e i r purpose is clearly e d u c a t i o n a l . T h e y were the earliest constituents o f a f o r m a l c u r r i c u l u m , and they m a r k , accordingly, t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the w o r l d o f the j u r i s t w h o gained his k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h experience o f life and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the process o f j u r i s t i c discussion, t o the w o r l d o f the academic trainee w h o , e m b a r k i n g on a course o f s t u d y , r e q u i r e d f o r m a l classes, text b o o k s , and l i t e r a r y and h e r m e n e u t i c skills. T h e gradual i n s t a n t i a t i o n o f that social s i t u a t i o n ( w i t h the c o n c o m i t a n t result of creating a class w h o c o u l d appreciate and e n j o y the finer products o f a u t h o r i a l skill) signals the e n d o f the f o r m a t i v e and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e classical period. T h e educative process generated c o m m e n t a r i e s . T h e earliest still extant c o m m e n t a r y o n T a h â w ï ' s Mukhtasar—by A b u B a k r alJ a s s â s — w a s c o m p l e t e d by 370. A l - M a r w a z F s Mukhtasar might not have s u r v i v e d w i t h o u t the magnificent c o m m e n t a r y o f S a r a k h s ï ( d . 483). A n d Q u d ù r ï ' s w o r k , w h i c h generated t h r o u g h the centuries a considerable n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a r i e s , had already a c q u i r e d t w o i m p o r t a n t ones i n the course o f the fifth c e n t u r y . F o r the M â l i k ï s , I b n A b ï Z a y d a l - Q a y r a w â n l ( d . 386) p r o d u c e d the first Mukhtasar o f any significance. T h o u g h apparently a p o p u l a r t e x t b o o k , i t was n o t u n t i l the e i g h t h century and b e y o n d that i t generated c o m m e n t a r i e s w h i c h have survived. T h i s was p a r t l y because t h e Muwatta' o f Y a h y à , b e i n g of a very manageable size, itself became a basis for pedagogical c o m m e n t . I t appears t o have generated a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a r i e s i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h o u g h all w e r e eclipsed by the immense e r u d i t i o n o f I b n ' A b d alB a r r ' s Istidhkâr and a l - B à j ï ' s Muntaqâ, b o t h products o f t h e fifth c e n t u r y . T h e H a n b a l ï school t o o , perhaps surprisingly, p r o d u c e d a significant Mukhtasar i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h a t o f a l - K h i r a q ï ( d . 334), o n w h i c h t h e first m a j o r c o m m e n t a r y was that of A b u Y a ' l â . F o r t h e Shâfi'ïs there is r e c o r d e d the Talkhis fl 'l-fiqh o f I b n al-Qass ( d . 335), reduced n o w t o a single m a n u s c r i p t , a n d , m o r e significantly, t h e Lubàb fi 'l-fiqh o f I b n a l - M a h â m i l î ( d . 415), w h i c h a t t r a c t e d a n u m b e r o f commentaries and abbreviated editions i n later c e n t u r i e s . ( T h e Mukhtsar o f M u z a n î , discussed i n 2

2

For easy and quick reference to these works, Sezgin, i . ad loc.

TRANSITIONS

247

C h a p t e r 5 o f this w o r k , is n o t , o f course, a mukhtasar i n the sense here being defined.) F r o m the far W e s t o f the M u s l i m w o r l d , i n Q a y r a w â n and C o r d o b a , t o t h e T r a n s o x a n i a n oasis o f M a r w , the needs of a d e v e l o p i n g discipline p r o m p t e d the p r o d u c t i o n o f books similar i n f o r m and f u n c t i o n . I f t h a t scattering of dates, f r o m early i n the f o u r t h t o early i n the fifth c e n t u r y , does n o t converge u p o n a c o n v e n i e n t m a r k e r , that is perhaps all t o the g o o d . T h e t r a n s i t i o n i n q u e s t i o n was n a t u r a l l y g r a d u a l and geographically uneven. Its results must be measured i n the l i t e r a r y forms o f the great classics o f the fifth c e n t u r y and b e y o n d , w o r k s w h i c h are the p r o d u c t o f social and l i t e r a r y constraints m a r k e d l y different f r o m those t h a t have been t h e subject o f this b o o k .

Vll

P R E F A C E

m o r e or less canonical!)- established c o l l e c t i o n o f h a d i t h , t o g e t h e r w i t h ( b u t n o t qua a u t h o r i t y i n f e r i o r t o ) the Q u r ' a n . ( T h e l a t t e r o f • -nurse, i n its o r i g i n s and n a t u r e — W o r d o f G o d , m i r a c l e — n o t i n its

PREFACE

a u t h o r i t y , was superior t o h a d i t h . T h e h o w and w h e r e f o r e o f t h a t superiority

belongs

to

the

history

of

M u s l i m theology,

not

| i n i s p r u d e n c e . ) I t w i l l be evident t h a t o f t h e three bodies o f is c o n s t i t u t e d for us today as a

l i t e r a t u r e t h a t w e r e h e l d together by the j u r i s t s in a h e r m e n e u t i c a l

b u n d l e o f texts, p r o d u c t s , a p p a r e n t l y , o f n a m e d authors o f t h e late

nexus ( j u s t i f i e d by the theological construct described above) t w o

EARLY

M u s l i m jurisprudence

second a n d early t h i r d centuries A H . T h e c e n t r a l ( t h e largest a n d

w e r e ( m o r e o r less) s t a t i c — Q u r ' a n and h a d i t h — a n d o n l y one was

the most i m p o r t a n t ) items w i t h i n this b u n d l e are associated w i t h

u p e n , t o i n t e l l e c t u a l play a n d t o the h i s t o r i c a l process—fiqh. T h e h i s t o r y o f the a c h i e v e m e n t o f the schools does n o t b e l o n g t o

three early masters, A b u H a n i f a . M a l i k , and Shafi'T, and t h e i r p u p i l s . ( A b u H a n i f a is n o t c r e d i t e d w i t h any j u r i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n s

tins b o o k , w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d

o f his o w n , his o p i n i o n s b e i n g m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h the w r i t i n g s o f his

definitive e m e r g e n c e , and p r i o r also t o t h e ( f u l l ) realization o f

pupils, A b u Yusuf

tiu ir e x i s t e n t i a l task.

and ShaybanT.) These w o r k s c o n t a i n

rules

w i t h the p e r i o d p r i o r t o t h e i r

I n t h e study o f early I s l a m ,

scholarship,

and

u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , has been c o n c e r n e d t o break the h e r m e n e u t i c a l

arguments that j u s t i f y t h e rules. T h o u g h clearly l a y i n g c l a i m t o

n.-sus, and t o separate h i s t o r y f r o m theological construct. I n t h e

covering

all areas o f p u b l i c r i t u a l

and

c o m m u n i t y life,

' r e l i g i o u s ' a u t h o r i t y , they d o n o t deal w i t h p r i v a t e d e v o t i o n ( w h i c h

i. n i a r k a b l e w o r k s o f Ignaz G o l d z i h e r ( 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 ) , Joseph Schacht

was, l a t e r , t o p r o d u c e its o w n l i t e r a t u r e ) . T h e y are the p r i m a r y

1

subject m a t t e r o f this b o o k .

1 h n ' a n have been ( o r so i t is argued) separated f r o m the l i f e t i m e

I n t h e M u s l i m t r a d i t i o n , the w o r k s o f early (and i n d e e d l a t e r )

M)',O),

and J o h n W a n s b r o u g h (1970), first the h a d i t h and t h e n t h e

• •I I he P r o p h e t . N o t t h e p r o d u c t o f one l i f e t i m e and the cause or

j u r i s p r u d e n c e have n o m e a n i n g outside o f an established n a r r a t i v e

t!ii|>eius t o I s l a m , they e m e r g e , i n t h e w o r k s o f these scholars, as

c o n t e x t . T h a t context is a theological construct: i t justifies and

1I1.

end-product

it is t h u s . T h e (his sunna),

words

and deeds o f the P r o p h e t

an expression o f G o d ' s law Companions (hadith).

Muhammad

b e i n g an e m b o d i m e n t o f the d i v i n e c o m m a n d and (shari'a),

w e r e preserved by

o f the P r o p h e t , i n the f o r m o f discrete

These w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y t h r o u g h the

a n d became the source o f j u r i s t i c discussion

(fiqh).

the

anecdotes generations The

of

i n . H U R T

(or

has

more)

of

situated r e v e l a t i o n i n history i n a

1.1 possibly as w e l l as, t h e P r o p h e t ) as the creative

early

agent.

l . i s e p h Schacht, f o l l o w i n g the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l ¡nir.pnidcnce

the

years

- .11 . d u c t , and has b r o u g h t f o r w a r d the c o m m u n i t y ( r a t h e r t h a n ,

I. 1 r • . i m p o s i t i o n s o f

led i n t i m e t o

200

q u i t e alien t o t h a t conceived o f w i t h i n t h e t h e o l o g i c a l

I b n H a n b a l , and a n u m b e r o f sectarian t h i n k e r s ) , b r o u g h t to these a distinctive authority which

like

I .1,1111, o r at least p a r t o f the process o f c o m m u n i t y f o r m a t i o n . '.. h o l a r s h i p , i n effect,

masters m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , together w i t h o t h e r masters ( n o t a b l y discussions

something

i n i i i i i i t y h i s t o r y and t h e r e f o r e , i n some sense, the result o f

explains t h e law by d e m o n s t r a t i n g its divine o r i g i n s . Briefly stated,

.11.1

//(//;.

Goldziher,

in his

study

of

early

Muslim

(1950), b r o k e the historical l i n k between h a d i t h

He argued,

against the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the M u s l i m

emergence o f d i v e r g e n t schools or t r a d i t i o n s o f j u r i s t i c t h i n k i n g .

II.. 1 m r i K ' i i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , t h a t the structures oí fiqh w e r e i n i t i a l l y

These w e r e n a m e d after the masters: H a n a f i , M a l i k i , Shaft'!, etc.

••i.I< p e n d e n t o f ( a n d so, i n t i m e , p r o v o k e d ) t h e m a j o r corpus o f

T h e j u r i s t i c schools w e r e c o m m i t t e d t o a h e r m e n e u t i c a l t a s k — i t

i i i . l u l l l i t e r a t u r e . T h e real origins oí fiqh, for h i m , lay i n the ' l i v i n g

was for a t h o u s a n d years t h e i r existential raison

II u l i i i w n ' o f local schools, i.e. i n a juristic a d a p t a t i o n o f real social

d'etre

and the

p r i n c i p a l focus o f religious scholarship i n I s l a m — n a m e l y , t o justify

1 1 . 'i nis, w h i c h was o n l y g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o the structures o f

tradition

ill.

b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that i t c o u l d be

harmonized

with

revelation. R e v e l a t i o n , i n t h e classical p e r i o d , m e a n t a large b u t finite and

1 l a s s i c a l h e r m e n e u t i c a l nexus. I lie existential task o f M u s l i m jurists was n o t h i s t o r y , and it is

i - 1 inr.sihle

to wonder

whether

the

message

created

by

the

t h e o l o g i c a l construct a n d t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l task is i n any

way

affected b y t h e assertions o f historians. B u t n o r , i n t h i s case, are t h e h i s t o r i a n s theologians ( t h o u g h W a n s b r o u g h , at least, o f these t h r e e , is conscious o f the t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f his w o r k ) . T h e i r conclusions, b e i n g the achievement

o f secular historians

w o r k i n g w i t h i n the rules o f t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e , are n o t (at least i n r e t r o s p e c t ) u n e x p e c t e d , a n d , t h o u g h subject t o the qualifications a n d r e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the academic t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h they e m e r g e d , are l i k e l y to be i n t h e i r o u t l i n e s a n d i n t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s broadly correct. T h e s i t u a t i o n i n Islam is n o t n o w m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t which

has

been

gradually

uncovered

i n the

long history of

academic i n q u i r y that began w i t h J. Wellhausen's c r i t i c a l approach to t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t .

ix

PREFACE

PREFACE

vin

I t w o u l d appear t o be the case t h a t , f o r

secular h i s t o r i a n s , r e v e l a t i o n is n o t explicable or

demonstrable

except as a f u n c t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y h i s t o r y . F o r theologians w h o recognize the p r i n c i p l e s o f h i s t o r i c a l analysis t h a t are here b e i n g

a d m i t t h e h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e l a t t e r , has l e d i n W e s t e r n scholarship emaciated

(and

in

M u s l i m piety)

vision

of

the

to

an

M u s l i m Prophet,

impoverished and

a

and

consequent

i l i a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n the richness o f h i s t o r i c a l I s l a m . Scholars t o o o f t e n t u r n o u t t o be b o t h ' p r o t e s t a n t ' a n d essentialist;

the real

Islam can o n l y be one that is consistent w i t h the h i s t o r y ( o f t h e I ' r o p h e t , or the Q u r ' a n , o r l a w ) t h a t (they t h i n k ) t h e y can recover. K is a p p a r e n t l y easy t o forget t h a t ideas ( t h e o l o g i c a l constructs, l i i e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s , salvation h i s t o r y ) are real t h i n g s ; they also play I part i n history. The present

Studies

in

Early

Muslim

Jurisprudence

are

e m p h a t i c a l l y secular exercise in h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . kisic

methodology,

exemplified

t h r o u g h o u t Chapters

i

an The

to

6,

depends o n close l i t e r a r y analysis o f i l l u s t r a t i v e passages f r o m all ihe m a j o r early j u r i s t i c texts. Readers w h o are n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h iln-se w o r k s , o n t u r n i n g n o w t o C h a p t e r i , w i l l find themselves pieeipitately

i n the

midst

of

curious

juristic problems,

and

b r o u g h t t o bear, t h e r e m a y be compensations. R u d o l f B u l t m a n n ,

unexpected f o r m a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e p a t h t h r o u g h these is a p a t h

to name but one, developed

i, .wards a h i s t o r y o f texts a n d a history o f at least some o f the

a t h e o l o g y o f salvation that was

d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e h i s t o r y a n d developm e n t o f the Gospels. F o r

M u s l i m s , t o d a t e , the activities o f

W e s t e r n scholars, w h e n t h e y t u r n t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n s o f

... ia! structures that c o n d i t i o n e d the emergence o f these texts. I h a v e t r i e d , t h r o u g h extensive t r a n s l a t i o n , gloss, a n d pi..vision of background

information,

systematic

t o ensure t h a t i t is an

r e v e l a t i o n o r t o the early h i s t o r y o f the c o m m u n i t y , have seemed

1 . 1 e.ssihle p a t h , even t o the i n e x p e r i e n c e d r e a d e r , t h o u g h I c a n n o t

to offer few o r no c o m p e n s a t i o n s , w h i c h must be i n e v i t a b l e , u n t i l

p.. l e n d t h a t i t w i l l n o t be h a r d w o r k . I offer a larger history o f t h e

M u s l i m scholars p a r t i c i p a t e m o r e w i d e l y in the g a m e , and in the

, m. i.i'.i ticc o f M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e in Chapters 7 to 9, w h i c h deal

r u l e s , o f t e x t u a l scholarship.

..

B u t W e s t e r n scholars,

t o o , have been dismayed

at the dis-

i n t e g r a t i o n o f the t h e o l o g i c a l construct ( i n its classical v e r s i o n ) , for t h e y i n t e r p r e t this as a loss o f h i s t o r y a n d the c r e a t i o n o f a v a c u u m . T h e i m m e d i a t e reactions t o G o l d z i h e r , t o Schacht, a n d , most r e c e n t l y , t o W a n s b r o u g h have been acts o f salvage (and possibly o f faith),

efforts

to r e c l a i m h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y f r o m

those

whose

interests, i t seems, are l i m i t e d t o the h i s t o r y o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s , or t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a r g u m e n t s , o r simply o f texts. These w o r r i e d reactions do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a suitable response t o the p r o b l e m s

p. . l i v e l y w i t h l i t e r a r y f o r m , j u r i s t i c n o r m s , a n d h e r m e n e u t i c a l

i i . . . . i v . These chapters are n o t i n t e n d e d t o be read separately f r o m M., it v l u a l analyses. 1 a m conscious o f a diffuse m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e b t t o the academic n 1. lu M m signalled above i n m y references t o W e l l h a u s e n

and

r . r . l i i i i a m i , and a m o r e specific debt (better t h o u g h still inadequately ., ,.1. M a i l e d in the f o o t n o t e s ) to the t r a d i t i o n o f Islamic scholarship ,. i . ..Tiled r

.,

by G o l d z i h e r ,

Schacht, and W a n s b r o u g h , a n d

by

\ \ | „ , have r e s p o n d e d t o t h e m . T h e recent transfer o f the

,,, ..-hi . o l b i b l i c a l scholarship

to the

field

o f early

Rabbinical

posed by this t r a d i t i o n o f analysis, w h i c h relates t o an effective and

m.Ii. , waih a consequent sharpening and r e c r e a t i o n o f m e t h o d o -

p r i n c i p l e d e p i s t e m o l o g y o f h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e texts are

1.. a. , , l leehniques, has b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s p i r i n g . I t is necessary

n o t q u i t e all we have (we have also, for e x a m p l e , archaeology) but

1 . . ,,,, m i . n h e r e the name o f Jacob N e u s n c r , n o t because 1 have

t h e y r e m a i n the p r i n c i p a l f o u n d a t i o n o f all h i s t o r i c a l recovery. T h e f a i l u r e t o distinguish clearly b e t w e e n history a n d c o n s t r u c t , and t o

1. 1 a, 1. id all I ho i m p l i c a t i o n s o f his w o r k , but because I have meli l i m n his obiter

dicta o n m e t h o d o l o g y , and because 1

X

PREFACE

CONTENTS

have b o r r o w e d (and adapted) some o f his tools. I a m grateful for his d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n is a way t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and that an adequate m a r k i n g o f subdivisions is p a r t o f a m e t h o d o l o g y o f analysis, at least for the type o f texts represented for h i m i n M i s h n a h and T a l m u d , and for m e i n early M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e . I o w e n u m e r o u s debts t o friends and colleagues. First a m o n g these are three colleagues in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f M i d d l e Eastern Studies at the U n i v e r s i t y o f Manchester. For m o r e than a decade Professor P h i l i p A l e x a n d e r a n d D r C o l i n I m b c r (respectively i n R a b b i n i c a l and i n O t t o m a n studies) have discussed w i t h me substantial and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l issues, r e l a t e d t o the history o f l a w , l i t e r a t u r e , and politics i n the M i d d l e East, generously, t a c t f u l l y , and c r i t i c a l l y . M o r e recently D r A l e x a n d e r Samely, also in the field o f R a b b i n i c a l studies, has c o n t i n u e d this t r a d i t i o n o f professional and collégial encouragement. A l l t h r e e , at various t i m e s , have read a n d c o m m e n t e d o n substantial drafts o f this w o r k , i n v a r i a b l y t o m y benefit. 1 owe a considerable and specific d e b t t o P a t r i c i a C r o n e . A p p o i n t e d by O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press as first r e a d e r o f the m a n u s c r i p t 1 s u b m i t t e d , her a n o n y m i t y c o u l d n o t survive her thoroughness, w h i c h sent me back t o h o n e and sharpen ( I t r u s t ) several arguments. Ï s h o u l d l i k e finally t o t h a n k the staff o f O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press w h o have b e e n responsible for p r e p a r i n g this b o o k for p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e y have been h e l p f u l , c o u r t e o u s , and professional t h r o u g h o u t .

T A B L E

I

O F D A T E S

xii

IST OF A B B R E V I A T I O N S

i . T h e Mudawwana .'. "The Muwatta'

of Sahnün

of Mâlik

I. B a r l y H a n a f i Texts |. T h e Kitâb al-Umm v

T h e Mukhtaşar

xiii i 20 39

o f Shâfi'î

of Muzani

67 86

i).

The Kitâb al-Kharcij

of A b u Yûsuf

105

/

L i t e r a r y F o r m and Social C o n t e x t

161

H 'The O r i g i n o f N o r m s

198

'i

The D e v e l o p m e n t o f H e r m e n e u t i c Skills

223

Transitions

244

n>

It I I I 1,1 O G R A P H Y

248

IIII.KX

255

ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE OF DATES A L L dates i n this b o o k are given according t o the n o r m a l M u s l i m system o f d a t i n g . N e a r l y all t h e characters and events described and r e f e r r e d t o b e l o n g t o t h e second, t h i r d , and f o u r t h centuries A H . T h e f o l l o w i n g table w i l l help readers t o p i n p o i n t the C h r i s t i a n equivalents t o M u s l i m era dates, for this p e r i o d . I have given t h e C h r i s t i a n year w h i c h corresponds t o the larger p a r t o f t h e M u s l i m year. T h e second part o f t h e table provides a r o u g h e r guide t o dates after the f o u r t h c e n t u r y , i n order t o cover the scattering o f references t o later periods t h a t are c o n t a i n e d i n this b o o k . Y e a r i of t h e hijra begins i n July 622 A D . 100 no 120 130 140 150 l60 I7O l80 190 200 210 220 230 24O

719 728 738 748 757 767 777 787 796 806 816 825 835 845 855 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 1107 1204 1301 1398 1496 1592 1689 1786 1883 1980

864 874 884 893 903 913 922 932 942 951 961 971 981 990 1000

1'-SOAS 1

and EI(u)

III'( A 1 1 < >S US 1 V/'.V

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Encyclopaedia of Islam ( L e i d e n , 1st e d n . 1913¬ 36, 2nd e d n . i 9 6 0 - ) Hebrew Union College Annua! Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Near Eastern Studies

I

T H E MUDAWWANA SAHN Ü N

OF

I I he Mudawwana is a juristic w o r k of the M ä l i k i school of l a w , covering all the m a j o r topics o f the Islamic legal t r a d i t i o n , and associated w i t h the name o f ' A b d al-Salam b . Sa'id a l - T a n ü k h l k n o w n as S a h n ü n . O f S a h n ü n i t is r e p o r t e d that he was b o r n i n 160 in O a y r a w a n , w h e r e also he d i e d 80 years later. I n his y o u t h he n a v e l l e d a n d s t u d i e d , n o t a b l y i n T u n i s and E g y p t , m e e t i n g m a n y • it the great jurists o f the age. O n his r e t u r n t o Q a y r a w a n he became h i m s e l f a famous j u r i s t . T h e earliest sources already associate h i m w i t h a d o g m a t i c struggle against heretics—whose meetings i n the mosque he b a n n e d — a n d w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e l y distant approach t o g o v e r n m e n t ; themes w h i c h were elaborated i n laler biographies. H e became Q a d i of Q a y r a w a n under the A g h l a b i d g o v e r n o r M u h a m m a d b. a l - A g h l a b i n 234. L a t e r sources emphasize his reluctance and hesitation i n accepting this p u b l i c office. T h i s is a c o m m o n m o t i f o f j u r i s t i c b i o g r a p h y ; i t is n o t present i n the earliest life o f S a h n ü n . 1

The f o l l o w i n g passage f r o m the Mudawwana, intended to illustrate the s t r u c t u r a l features of that w o r k , deals w i t h the The earliest biographical notice is found in A b u T-'Arab (d. 333), Tabaqät, i m 4; for a representative later biography, see Al-Qadi 'Iyad, Tariff), 585-626. S.-e also £ / ( i ) , 'Sahnün'; D . M . Houdas, 'Sahnoun'; M . Talbi, 'Kairouan', 322-7. 1'hc story of the role of Asad b. al-Furät ('Iyad, Turt'ib, 465-80) in inspiring or ^invoking Sahnün's organization of the Mudawwana has caught the attention of •.oiiie scholars, e.g. Talbi. 'Kairouan'. Juristic biographies however have not been adequately analysed: something at least as methodologically stringent as. say, from .mother discipline, Jacob Neusner, Eliezcr ben Hyrcanus, is required (see further P Schäfer, 'Research into Rabbinic literature', 142-3). The narratives of the iclationship between Asad and Sahnün are likely to be imaginative constructs hascd on analysis of competing texts. For the motif of reluctance to accept the post of Oadi, sec N . J. Coulson, 'Doctrine and practice". 1

T H E

2

MUDA

WW

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OF S A H N U N

T H E

q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r w a t e r w h i c h has been i a p p e d at, o r o t h e r w i s e used

o r t o u c h e d by an a n i m a l , can be

used

for p e r f o r m i n g

a b l u t i o n s p r i o r t o prayer. T h e technical t e r m f o r this left-over w a t e r is su'r,

the t e r m f o r ( m i n o r ) r i t u a l a b l u t i o n s is

wudu.

P u n c t u a t i o n , p a r a g r a p h s t r u c t u r e and the p r o v i s i o n o f numbers f o r ease o f reference are all i n t r o d u c e d i n the process o f t r a n s l a t i o n , and are h e r e ,

as t h r o u g h o u t these studies, t o a

considerable

degree, i n t e r p r e t a t i v e . 1.1.

[ I b n al-Qasim| said, I asked Mâlik about the su'r of donkeys and

mules. He said. There is no harm in it. 1.2. ! said, Consider,what if [animals] other than this (ghayru-hu) touch [the water]? He said. This and others [of the same kind—huwu waghayru hu\ are the same. 1.3. [Ibn al-Qasim] said, Mâlik said. There is no harm in the sweat of a work-horse (birdhawn), a mule or a donkey. 2.1. [Ibn al-Oâsim] said. Mâlik said, concerning a vessel containing water at which a dog has lapped, Mâlik said, If a man performs ablutions with that water, and then prays, it suffices him. 2.2. a. He said: Mâlik did not consider a dog like other [animals of the same type] (lam yakım yani 'l-kalb ka-ghayri-hi). b. Mâlik said, A n animal drinks from a vessel; if it is an eater of carrion, whether bird or beast, one does not use that water for ablutions. c. He said, I f a dog laps at a vessel in which there are milk-solids, there is no harm in eating them. 2.3. [Sahnün:] I said [to Ibn al-Oâsim], Did Mâlik say that a vessel should be washed seven times if a dog laps at i t , whether at milk or at water? He said, Mâlik said, There is such a hadith; I do not know the truth of the matter (ma adrî mâ haqiqatu-hu). It seems that Malik considered (kaanna-hu kân yara) the dog as if it were part of the household (min aid albayt) and so not like other predatory animals (Uiysa ka-ghayri-hi min alsiba'). He used to say. If it must be washed, then the reference is to water alone. He used to repeat this; he said it should not be washed if it contains milk or fat. When a dog laps at these they may be eaten; I consider it a terrible thing (arci-hu 'aztman) that a part of God's provision should be thrown away because a dog laps at i t . 3.1.a. I said, A n d if the milk is drunk from by a carrion-eating animal, whether a bird or a beast or a chicken which eats putrid matter (natin), can the milk be consumed or not? He said, If you are sure there is dirt (qadhir) on its beak, then it is not to be consumed. But, as long as you see no dirt on its beak, there is no harm in i t . b. M i l k is not like water; for water is thrown out and not used for ablutions.

MUDA

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4.1. Ibn Wahb from *Amr ibn al-Harith from Yahya ibn Sa'id and Bakir ibn 'Abdailah: they used to say. There is no harm in a man performing ablutions in the water used by donkeys or mules or other riding animals (wa-ghayru-humd min al-dawdbb). |.2. Ibn Shihâb used to say the same about donkeys. 1.. 3. Ibn Wahb from 'Atâ' ibn Abî Rabâh and Rabfa and A b u 'l-Zinad: I hey said the same about donkeys and mules. 'Atâ' recited God's word. The horse, the mule and the donkey, that you might ride them and as a decoration' ( Q . i 6 : 8 ) . 4.4. Mâlik said it too, according to the report (hadith) of Ibn Wahb. 5.1. 'Alî ibn Ziyâd from Mâlik, concerning one who performs ablutions with water at which a dog has lapped and then prays: he said, I do not consider he must repeat, even if he realizes within the time (when 1 e petition is permissible). ,.2.a. 'Alî and Ibn Wahb from Mâlik: he said, I do not like ablutions in water left by a dog if the water is little. I>. He said. But if the water is plentiful, there is no harm in i t . < . Like a pool (a waterhole, hay'at al-hawd) in which there is plenty of water, or anything in which water is plentiful. , i . Ibn Wahb from Ibn Jurayj: he said that the Prophet of God arrived at 1 waterhole (hawd) accompanied by A b u Bakr and 'Umar. The people ivho controlled that water came out and said, O Prophet of God. predatory animals and dogs lap at this pool. He replied, What they have l iken is in their stomachs; what remains is ours to drink and to purify • •m selves. , 1 ' A b d al-Rahmân ibn Zayd informed me from Zayd ibn Aslam from \(a" ibn Yasar from A b u Hurayra from the Prophet of G o d ; the same [<>ry. , ,. 'Umar said, Do not inform us. O keeper of the pool, for we arrive iller the animals and they arrive after us. <>. Now, the dog is an easier burden (aysaru ma'unatan) than predatory Miiinals, and the cat is the easiest of these two (aysarıı-hıtınâ) for these iwii are adopted by the people. / Ibn al-Qasim said. Mâlik said. There is no harm in the spittle of a il<>», if it falls upon a man's garment. Rabfa said the same. Ibn Shihâb ml. There is no harm, if you are compelled, in using the su'r of a dog for • Millions.

:; Mâlik said, What it catches in hunting can be eaten; how can there be • 'I'P'tUon to its spittle? 2

I his passage is structurally divided into t w o sections. Paragraphs 1 1 l o 3.1

e x h i b i t a basic qultulqala 2

( I said/he

'Abd al-Salam b. Sa'îd Sahnün, Mudawwana,

said) f o r m a t , i . 5-6.

4

T H E M U D A WW A N A

THE

OF S A H N U N

OF S A H N U N

MUDAWWANA

5

S a h n u n , I b n a l - Q a s i m ( d . 191), and M a l i k ( d . 179). Paragraphs 4.1

I said, Consider, if water is drunk by something the flesh of which is not 1 alen, such as a donkey or a mule or suchlike? I lr said, One does not perform wudii' with i t .

to 5.8 are f o r the most p a r t a u t h o r i t y statements, characterized by

Shaybani here i n t r o d u c e s a category d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n animals

r e n d e r e d m o r e t h a n usually c o m p l e x by the presence o f t h r e e p a r t i c i p a n t s and n u m e r o u s i n t e r p o l a t i o n s . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s are

isnads

( = chains o f t r a n s m i t t e r s ) m o r e or less r u d i m e n t a r y . T h e

w h o l e o f the Mudawwana

is c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f these t w o types o f

m a t e r i a l , d i a l o g u e m a t e r i a l characterized by the qultulqala and a u t h o r i t y statements characterized by

format

isnads.

3

w hose flesh is n o r m a l l y eaten a n d animals whose

flesh is n o t

n o r m a l l y eaten. T h e l a t t e r category renders w a t e r u n s u i t a b l e f o r II ndiV.

I t is clear that Paragraphs 1.1

110111 the Mudawwana

to 1.3

o f the passage c i t e d

c o n s t i t u t e a p o l e m i c a l response t o this

1 i i l i n g . Because t h e r e was a g r o u p w h i c h c l a i m e d t h a t d o n k e y s a n d mules r e n d e r e d w a t e r u n s u i t a b l e f o r wudii',

i t became necessary t o

tleny this c l a i m . I t was unnecessary t o m e n t i o n , say, camels o r beep because no one h a d suggested that these animals adversely i l l e e t e d w a t e r . I t is o f course n o t necessarily t h e case that the

II The dialogue

section can be d i v i d e d on the basis o f

m a t t e r i n t o t h r e e parts. Paragraphs 1.1 d o n k e y s a n d mules. Paragraphs 2.1

subject

t o 1.3 deal w i t h the su'r o f t o 2.3

deal w i t h p r e d a t o r y

animals a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r the d o g . Paragraph 3.1

deals w i t h the

question w h e t h e r l i q u i d foods are susceptible t o c e r t a i n types o f a n i m a l p o l l u t i o n . W h i l e this a r r a n g e m e n t o f m a t e r i a l reveals t o a certain e x t e n t the existence individual

o f principles that

lie b e h i n d the

cases, it does not constitute a satisfactory

account o f the l a w . T h e principle

comes

at

1.5.b

between

carrion-eating

first,

and i n d e e d o n l y , statement o f a

which and

general

makes a category

distinction

n o n - c a r r i o n - e a t i n g animals.

This

d i s t i n c t i o n explains w h y the d o g constitutes a p r o b l e m . I t does n o t however

e x p l a i n Paragraphs

category

distinction

is that

1.1

to

between

1.3.

I f the o n l y

relevant

c a r r i o n - e a t i n g and n o n -

carrion-eating animals, then mules, work-horses, and donkeys, not b e i n g c a r r i o n - e a t i n g , do n o t constitute a p r o b l e m ; and one must w o n d e r w h y they are d i s t i n g u i s h e d for c o m m e n t . T h e answer m a y be f o u n d i n a different t e x t . T h e Kitdb al-Asl o f M u h a m m a d b . al-Hasan al-ShaybanT ( d . 189), an early w o r k o f the K u f a n / H a n a f i legal t r a d i t i o n , offers the f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k s o n the su'r o f c e r t a i n domestic animals. i said. Consider, if water is drunk from a vessel by a bird or a sheep or a cow or a camel or a horse ( faras) or a work-horse (birdhawn) or anything the flesh of which is eaten, may one perform wudfi' with the left-overs of that water? He said, Yes, there is no harm in i t .

adverse r u l i n g o n d o n k e y s a n d mules reached the M a l i k i s f r o m the 1 lanafis: t h e r e w e r e o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s o f legal t h o u g h t and t h e r e m i l ' disputes b"\vever,

internal

remain

Paragraphs 1.1

t o the M a l i k ! t r a d i t i o n .

the

most

likely

group

to

The

have

I lanafis. provoked

t o 1.3: this was the legal t r a d i t i o n against w h i c h the

M a h k i s h a b i t u a l l y measured

themselves

and w i t h

which

they

habitually engaged i n p o l e m i c a l debate. I he text q u o t e d above f r o m Shaybani's Asl presents a f a m i l i a r \< a t i n e o f d e v e l o p i n g legal t h o u g h t . I t e x h i b i t s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a • 1 n r . t i e l i s t i n g o f separate items t o the achievement o f a general • aiei'ory o f w h i c h the separate items are deemed t o be representuive. H i s t o r i a n s o f legal t h o u g h t have usually considered that • e.uistic

drafting

represents

• li 11 a d eristic-ally subject 'i ' . i t e r

generalization.

4

an

early

stage o f

to development This

development

i n the is

legal a c t i v i t y , direction

marked

i i i i i i H l u c l i o n o f category concepts w h i c h subsume

by

of the

a number of

• -i 11 • 1 ii. 111 y discrete j u r i s t i c i t e m s . T h e r e can be l i t t l e d o u b t that a i ' i . i l o i u i n a n t l y g e n e r a l i z i n g a p p r o a c h t o the law is m o r e character1 n< <>! ;I m a t u r e t r a d i t i o n ; b u t t h e casuistic and the generalizing 1 t I ' M M I

seem l i k e l y t o coexist

even

in early p e r i o d s .

Different

o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , f u r t h e r m o r e , w i l l affect the under-

' . S C S

1 . M M I m p , a n d t h e r e f o r e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t a x o n o m y .

Donkeys

M M I mules m i g h t , f o r e x a m p l e , be u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r as instances o f • a l. mi', a n i m a l s , or as instances o f animals whose flesh is n o t M11I iimicl b. al-Hasan al-Shaybanl, Asl, i . 28; for more on this work and on s 1 I MI11 Oh. 3, Sects. I I I I . • I'.ci nard .lackson, Theft, 47-8 and 100-1. OT

6

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eaten. T h e emergence o f these different generalizations m i g h t cause d i f f e r e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e l a w ; logical b u t n o t predictable. T h e achievement o f generalizations w i t h i n the tradition m i g h t subsequently be u n d e r s t o o d as causal and so obscure the reality o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r S h a y b â n i , it looks as i f mules and d o n k e y s r e n d e r water unsuitable for wudil' because they are animals whose flesh is not eaten. I n fact, it is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t the r u l i n g a b o u t t h e i r flesh a n d t h e r u l i n g a b o u t t h e i r w a t e r are b o t h t h e p r o d u c t o f (local) social perceptions o f these animals n o t n o w i n d e t a i l recoverable. T h e t e x t o f t h e Mudawwana translated i n Section I exhibits i n several respects t h e tensions w h i c h emerge w h e n a casuistic system is subject t o logical analysis i n search o f general categories. A t Paragraph I . I M a l i k is asked a b o u t donkeys and m u l e s , n o d o u b t because the K u f a n / H a n a f i r u l i n g o n these animals was k n o w n . A t 1.2 he is asked t o generalize, w i t h o u t any p a r t i c u l a r l i m i t s b e i n g given t o the category at issue. T h e generalizing t e r m is huwa waghayru-hu: the f o r m u l a wa-ghayru-hu refers t o o t h e r members o f the (unspecified) category. T h e same f o r m u l a is f o u n d at 2.2.a {lam yakun yard al-kalb ka-ghayri-hi), 2.3 (laysa ka-ghayri-hi min al-sibâ') a n d at 4 . 1 . Paragraph 1.3 deals w i t h sweat, not su'r, b u t gives a list w h i c h extends the category o f d o n k e y s and mules t o include w o r k - h o r s e s . I t has b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o the t e x t here because i t i l l u m i n a t e s the category at issue. I n the a u t h o r i t y statements, at Paragraphs 4.1 and 4.3, the same concern t o define a category can be discerned. A t 4 . 1 , the category d e e m e d t o be at issue is r i d i n g animals i n general (dawdbb), not w o r k i n g animals i n p a r t i c u l a r . A n d at 4.3, ' A t â ' s c i t a t i o n o f Q u r ' a n 16: 8 has no o t h e r purpose t h a n t o indicate the category t h a t is at issue w h e n there is specific m e n t i o n o f mules a n d d o n k e y s ; namely a category t h a t also contains r i d i n g horses (khayl). T h e general tendency o f t h e M â l i k i t e x t t o classify donkeys and mules w i t h r i d i n g animals is n o t a r b i t r a r y ; i t is p o l e m i c a l . T h e i n t e n t i o n is t o show that donkeys and mules b e l o n g t o a category w h i c h does n o t adversely affect the status o f w a t e r for the purposes o f p u r i t y ; thereby the M a l i k i s argue against the HanafT assertion that these animals do have such an adverse effect. T h e H a n a f i s , by contrast, a d o p t e d the view that donkeys a n d mules c o n s t i t u t e d a distinct category, namely o f ( d o m e s t i c ) animals whose flesh was n o t e a t e n , as opposed t o ( d o m e s t i c ) animals whose flesh was eaten.

MUDAWWANA

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I t is clear t h a t t h e d o g emerged as a p r o b l e m (see Paragraphs 2.1 to 2.3) f o r s i m i l a r reasons: p a r t l y due t o p o l e m i c a l activity and p a r t l y due t o a generalizing search for categories. Presumably the law d e v e l o p e d t h a t w i l d animals (perhaps i n i t i a l l y o f a specific type or types) r e n d e r e d w a t e r unfit for p u r i f i c a t i o n . I n this context the dog ( d o m e s t i c , n o t w i l d ) is n o t a p r o b l e m , and M a l i k is seen t o state, at Paragraph 2.1, j u s t t h a t : dogs do n o t r e n d e r w a t e r unfit for purposes o f p u r i f i c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , it came t o be felt that the category o f animals w h i c h r e n d e r e d water unfit was t h e category o f carrion-eating or predatory animals. A c c o r d i n g t o this interpretation, the d o g was a p r o b l e m and the question presented itself w h y , being a c a r r i o n - e a t e r , the d o g d i d n o t render w a t e r i m p u r e . T h i s p r o b l e m is w h a t is expressed t h r o u g h o u t 2.2.a, b , and c. F i r s t , I b n al-Qasim states t h a t M a l i k d i d n o t treat the d o g l i k e o t h e r animals of the same k i n d , t h e n comes t h e category statement a n d , finally, an analogy is i n t r o d u c e d : dogs do n o t render l i q u i d foods i n e d i b l e , so w h y s h o u l d they r e n d e r w a t e r impure? T h e t e x t i n its present f o r m must be i n t e r p r e t e d as e x h i b i t i n g several layers o f developm e n t . P a r a g r a p h 2.1 represents the earliest stage: a q u e s t i o n about die d o g has arisen (perhaps due t o H a n a f i p o l e m i c , t h o u g h dogs l e n d t o be p r o b l e m a t i c w h e r e v e r p u r i t y rules e x i s t ) . I t is answered < asuistically, w i t h o u t reference t o categories: t h e d o g simply does n o t cause i m p u r i t y i n w a t e r . T h a t there is a conflict here w i t h a r e i i e r a l r u l e is stated at 2.2.a, and this reference t o a general r u l e iiol so far expressed w i t h i n the text generates a f o r m u l a t i o n o f that • u k \ 2 . 2 . b — a s c r i b e d t o M a l i k . T h e analogy at 2.2.C is d r a w n i n t o 1 lie text o n l y w h e n i t is perceived that M a l i k ' s r u l i n g requires defence. T h e text has g r o w n organically. I t is not a logical 5

I >i e s e n t a t i o n o f k n o w n rules b u t a reflection o f d e v e l o p i n g t h o u g h t .IIMUII r u l e s .

T h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e law is thus revealed t o be d o m i n a t e d by (1) re Moralizing a c t i v i t y , the search for categories a n d (2) analogical I l i e d ion., t h e search for parallels w i t h i n the k n o w n j u r i s t i c 11 m l m e . A r u l i n g o n the fitness o f milk-solids for c o n s u m p t i o n 1 • e e ) is analogously relevant t o the question o f t h e fitness o f f iii 1 l o r p u r i f i c a t i o n and so is d r a w n i n t o the t e x t at this p o i n t . I t in.iv have o r i g i n a t e d i n a different context. S i m i l a r l y Paragraph 1 1.. c o n c e r n i n g sweat n o t su'r, was d r a w n i n t o t h e text for its I

I >.ivi
III

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analogical relevance; a r u l i n g a b o u t a n i m a l sweat helped t o reveal the category at issue w h e n t h e p r o b l e m was n o t sweat b u t su'r. T h e q u e s t i o n w h i c h Sahnun asks at 2.3 relates t o a Prophetic h a d i t h w h i c h w i l l be discussed i n Chapter 2, Section V o f these studies. T h e r e p l y ascribed t o M a l i k indicates t h a t he k n o w s the h a d i t h b u t he 'does n o t k n o w the t r u t h about i t ' . T h e series o f c o m m e n t s thereafter indicates h o w the emergence o f the n o t i o n t h a t P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h are a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s r u p t e d the n a t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f legal t h o u g h t and d r a f t i n g t e c h n i q u e . M a l i k first suggests a category distinction (dogs are members of the household) w h i c h w i t h i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g system m i g h t have sufficed. H e t h e n a p p a r e n t l y concedes some force t o the h a d i t h b u t continues t o argue against i t on m o r a l and practical grounds: i f the vessel c o n t a i n i n g l i q u i d s lapped at by dogs is t o be washed seven t i m e s , and a fortiori i f the l i q u i d s are t o be t h r o w n away, t h e n the reference can o n l y be t o water not t o f o o d ; i t w o u l d be a t e r r i b l e t h i n g t o t h r o w away G o d ' s p r o v i s i o n merely o n account o f a d o g . N e i t h e r o f these arguments is effective w i t h i n the system o f a u t h o r i t y associated w i t h P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . C l e a r l y the emergence o f an a n t i - d o g r u l i n g i n t h e f o r m o f a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h p r e - e m p t e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f the rules along established lines (generalizing a c t i v i t y , analogical parallels). I n t i m e , the participants in the M â l i k î j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n w e r e r e q u i r e d t o develop new techniques o f a r g u m e n t and t h o u g h t w h i c h were h e r m e n e u t i c rather t h a n discursive. T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a discursive t r a d i t i o n ( l i t e r a r y , characterized here by use of the qultulqâla device) to a hermeneutic t r a d i t i o n ( p u r p o r t i n g t o derive the law exegetically f r o m Prophetic sources) was a lengthy a n d complex process, w h i c h w i l l be d o c u m e n t e d t h r o u g h o u t the subsequent chapters o f this b o o k . T h i s t e x t , t h e n , exhibits processes of t h o u g h t , w h i c h also function as processes of argument—category creation and analogy. I t also indicates h o w arguments arise: either as a result of reflection o n t h e t r a d i t i o n , or as a result o f inter-school p o l e m i c , o r b o t h . I t is clear also that the existence o f a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h c o n s t i t u t e d an a r g u m e n t ; i t is not clear that such a f o r m o f a r g u m e n t was i m m e d i a t e l y decisive. T h e r e was considerable resistance t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the h a d i t h r e f e r r e d t o ( n o t cited) i n this t e x t . T h e r e are i n fact no systematic arguments i m p l y i n g acceptance o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h as an analogical source o f the law i n any early j u r i s t i c w o r k except those a t t r i b u t e d t o Shâfi'ï (for w h i c h see Chs.

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4 a n d 5 ) . I t is i m p o r t a n t i n this context t o distinguish between s t r u c t u r a l analogy, w h e r e one aspect o f the legal structure is c o m p a r e d w i t h a different b u t parallel aspect o f t h a t s t r u c t u r e , a n d h a d i t h - a n a l o g y , w h e r e a particular r u l i n g o r narrative i t e m becomes the focus o f generalizing a c t i v i t y . B o t h types are called qiyas i n early j u r i s t i c w o r k s and l a t e r . 6

A f u r t h e r feature o f the dialogue m a t e r i a l i n the Mudawwana may be n o t e d here. It is a characteristic o f m a n y sections that the first p r o b l e m s dealt w i t h are difficult cases or even that the o n l y p r o b l e m s dealt w i t h are difficult cases, and that the generalization w h i c h alone enables the reader t o u n d e r s t a n d why they are difficult cases emerges r e l a t i v e l y late i n the t e x t o r does n o t emerge at a l l . T h i s feature reflects the organic g r o w t h of the t e x t , w h i c h was i n i t i a l l y a r e c o r d o f difficult questions and o n l y later an a t t e m p t t o present the w h o l e of the l a w . 7

Ill T h i s passage was chosen f o r analysis because o f its c o m p l e x i t y : i t shows t h e t r a d i t i o n at w o r k . O n e result of this c o m p l e x i t y is that (he basic qultulqâla f o r m a t is obscured. I t c a n , h o w e v e r , be distinguished even here and manifests itself in a m o r e systematic manner elsewhere i n the Mudawwana. F u n d a m e n t a l l y Sahnun ( d . 240) reports a conversation w i t h I b n al-Qasim ( d . 191), w h o reports a conversation w i t h M a l i k ( d . 179). O n l y i n t e r m i t t e n t l y and for special reasons is the dialogue f o r m a t obscured or a b a n d o n e d or p r o v i d e d w i t h a different dramatis personae. T h r o u g h o u t , the verbal p i v o t of the d i a l o g u e , the means w h e r e b y legal questions arc i n t r o d u c e d or e x t e n d e d , is the phrase a-r a'a y ta, translated here ( a n d , systematically, elsewhere i n this w o r k ) as '< onsider'. E x e m p l i f i e d o n l y once in this passage ( 1 . 2 ) , almost any • ondage w i l l reveal its f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e t o the l i t e r a r y i v l e . Associated w i t h this phrase are the v e r b a l forms ara, yard, etc. (as at 2.2 and 2.3) expressing measured j u d g e m e n t and o n l y later and elsewhere associated w i t h a r b i t r a r y o p i n i o n . s

Sec Joseph Schacht, Origins, 98-9; and below, Ch. 3, Sects. IT— I I I and Ch. 4, '.'•els. U I - I V . Cf. Ch. 3, Sect. I I and Ch. 4, Sect. I I I . ' Cf. Schacht. Origins, 98-132.

T H E M U D A WW A N A OF

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T h e qultulqala f o r m a t and the attendant use o f a-ra'ayta are devices o f l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n c o m m o n t o b o t h M â l i k i a n d H a n a f i legal texts o f the early p e r i o d . T h e short c i t a t i o n f r o m S h a y b â n f s Kitâb al-Asl given above shows the t w o figures at w o r k in a highly s t r e a m - l i n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the law. Analysis of these texts, b o t h M â l i k i a n d H a n a f i , suggests that the a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n for the I said' and 'he said' figures is secondary: this is a l i t e r a r y technique for the presentation o f the l a w , it is n o t a m e m o r y o f a real ( a n d very l e n g t h y ) conversation ( t h o u g h i t may reflect a discursive Sitz im Leben). I n the case o f the Mudawwana it is n o t a b l e t h a t , i n spite o f a school t r a d i t i o n w h i c h identifies the '1 said' figure w i t h S a h n ü n , he figures also in the f o r m u l a qdla Sö/mün/Sahnün said. O n e e x p l a n a t i o n for this m i g h t be that the w o r k was composed or c o m p i l e d o r i g i n a l l y u n d e r S a h n ü n ' s supervision (generating I said m a t e r i a l ) b u t r e m a i n e d open t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and gloss after his d e a t h , at w h i c h stage it acquired (amongst o t h e r m a t e r i a l ) the m e m o r i e s of S a h n ü n ' s o p i n i o n s expressed by the f o r m u l a qala Sahnün. I t is possible, h o w e v e r , that the qultu figure was never i n t e n d e d t o be a historical p e r s o n , but was f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a d r a f t i n g device; it certainly functions as such. I t is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t the qultulqala style began amongst t h e Hanafis and was a d o p t e d by t h e M â l i k î s as representing a fashionable f o r m o f j u r i s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n . Sustained t h r o u g h o u t t h e Mudawwana. the dialogue style is always distinct f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t y statements w h i c h are i r r e g u l a r l y i n t e r p o l a t e d after sections o f d i a l o g u e . T h e r e g u l a r i t y o f the dialogue device should n o t obscure the fact that t h e t e x t is b u i l t up by j u x t a p o s i n g discrete statements a b o u t the l a w , and that it was an o p e n and d e v e l o p i n g text for an i n d e t e r m i n a t e p e r i o d o f t i m e p r i o r t o achieving canonical status and fixed f o r m . I n this passage t h r e e distinct issues have been i n t e g r a t e d , r o u g h l y , i n t o a dialogue structure: ( i ) the d o n k e y , (2) the d o g , a n d (3) the chicken w h i c h d r i n k s m i l k . I n the first section t w o w e l l - f o r m e d paragraphs of the I said/he said type are f o l l o w e d by a n o n - i n t e g r a t e d i t e m , h a v i n g the f o r m not of dialogue b u t of an a u t h o r i t y statement. T h e section about the dog exhibits little of the dialogue f o r m a t , being obviously an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f sequentially i n t e r p o l a t e d m a t e r i a l reflecting j u r i s t i c dismay. T h e t h i r d section, 9

See Ch. 3. Sect. I I for more on the qultulqala

style.

I 1

o n t h e c h i c k e n ( 3 . 1 ) , is a w e l l - f o r m e d fragment o f dialogue ( I said/ he said) w h i c h , o n closer i n s p e c t i o n , breaks d o w n . T h e reply responds t o o n l y a p a r t o f the q u e s t i o n (suggesting, perhaps, t h a t the q u e s t i o n has been e x p a n d e d ) . Paragraph 3.1.a, i n any case, does n o t deal w i t h w a t e r for purposes of p u r i f i c a t i o n and has been a t t r a c t e d t o this p o i n t i n the text o n l y because i t is analogically relevant. I t makes the p o i n t that o n l y i f there is visible evidence of p u t r i d m a t t e r on a chicken's beak does i t affect m i l k for c o n s u m p t i o n . A n a l o g i c a l l y the same o u g h t t o be t r u e a b o u t water l o r p u r i f i c a t i o n : b u t 3 - t . b denies t h e analogy. S h o r t l y after t h e passage translated above the text reverts briefly t o dialogue f o r m a t and continues I b n al-Qasim's dialogue thus: 1 asked Malik about the chicken or duck which drinks at a vessel, does one perform ablutions with the water? He said, N o , unless it is caged and cannot get at filth. f h is f r a g m e n t exists n o w , i n c o n g r u o u s l y , i n the m i d s t o f a g r o u p o f a u t h o r i t y statements. I t was p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d at one t i m e t o c o n t i n u e the dialogue section that deals w i t h t h e susceptibility o f water t o a n i m a l i m p u r i t y , i.e. 3.1. I t has been displaced by the a d d i t i o n and expansion of a u t h o r i t y statements and by o t h e r i c d a c t i o n a l processes n o t n o w recoverable. In a n e a r l i e r essay I have s h o w n h o w sections o f m a t e r i a l i n the Mudawwana w h i c h emerged i n one context have been transferred .71 bloc and w i t h very l i t t l e v e r b a l change t o o t h e r sections i n o r d e r in establish analogical solutions t o p r o b l e m s . These and other b i i m a l features ( j u x t a p o s e d rules, systematic d i s j u n c t u r e , i n t e r p o l a t i o n , etc.) p r o m p t e d there the conclusion w h i c h is also a I f i r m e d h e r e : the Mudawwana is n o t an a u t h o r e d t e x t . I t is a > h o o l t e x t w h i c h grew organically i n response t o o n g o i n g p i o b l e m s a n d perceptions that emerged a n d d i s t u r b e d the scholars A I I O preserved this m a t e r i a l . 1 0

IV 1 be l i t e r a r y devices o f the Mudawwana, i n spite of all the p i o b l e m s t h a t the text presents, reflect at least t w o convictions iboui the n a t u r e o f a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n the j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n at the 1 0

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Norman Calder, ' H i n t h ' , 227, 229. and 233-4.

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t i m e o f its c o m p i l a t i o n . F i r s t , M a l i k or his near c o n t e m p o r a r i e s are the p r i m a r y a u t h o r i t y , and second, a u t h o r i t y is discursive. T h e dialogue s t r u c t u r e is designed t o discover and demonstrate the o p i n i o n o f M a l i k . H e is the final a u t h o r i t y and there is n o h i n t o f an a u t h o r i t y b e y o n d h i m . T h e r e are alternative a u t h o r i t i e s , but they are o f the same k i n d a n d r o u g h l y the same g e n e r a t i o n as M a l i k . T h o u g h he is the most revered a u t h o r i t y , M a l i k ' s views are not always d o g m a t i c a l l y adhered t o . F o r e x a m p l e , I b n al-Qasim records a m a t t e r o f dispute b e t w e e n M a l i k and I b n Shihab ( d . 124) and prefers t o f o l l o w I b n S h i h a b ; " Sahnun records an o p i n i o n shared by M a l i k and I b n a l - Q a s i m b u t has an i n d e p e n d e n t v i e w o f his o w n ; and there are some lengthy passages w h e r e the qultul qala f o r m a t abandons M a l i k entirely i n favour o f A s h h a b ( d . 2 0 4 ) . T h e generative concept t h r o u g h o u t is ra'y, m e a n i n g n o t ( a r b i t r a r y ) o p i n i o n b u t reflective c o n s i d e r a t i o n and m a t u r e j u d g e m e n t , s o m e t h i n g t h a t w o r k s i n a degree o f tension w i t h the p r i n c i p l e o f submission t o o l d e r a u t h o r i t y . T h r o u g h o u t the dialogue part o f the Mudawwana i t is the phrases a-ra'ayta and ard t h a t constitute the v e r b a l p i v o t o f the process w h e r e b y the law is discovered, e l a b o r a t e d , and presented in l i t e r a r y f o r m . T h e law emerges as a d e l i b e r a t i v e process, p r o d u c t o f a tension b e t w e e n past a u t h o r i t y and personal c o n s i d e r a t i o n . O f m a t e r i a l or l i t e r a r y f o r m s w h i c h suggest t h a t t h e law is h e r m e n e u t i c a l l y d e r i v e d f r o m P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h t h e r e are o n l y hints t h r o u g h o u t the Mudawwana. Where such h a d i t h emerge they are f r e q u e n t l y d i s r u p t i v e , as in t h e case o f the h a d i t h a b o u t the dog ( w h i c h is n o t actually recorded i n the t e x t ) , or they are i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the a u t h o r i t y statements, where t h e y are n o t f o r m a l l y distinguished f r o m j u r i s t s ' o p i n i o n s . O n l y r a r e l y does a reference t o a C o m p a n i o n or a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h become a p r i n c i p l e w h i c h is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the dialogue structure. 1 2

1 3

14

V A g r o u p o f a u t h o r i t y statements reflecting the subject-matter o f a p a r t i c u l a r segment o f the d i a l o g u e , and i n t e r p o l a t e d after the Sahnun, ad zukat, Mudawwana. i i . 67-8. Caidcr, ' B i n t h ' , 227. Sahnun, Mudawwana, v. 11-12. A possible example may be found in the discussion o[ sarf (Mudawwana, viii. 101 f f . ) . Here the introduction of a standard Prophetic hadith is effected in a qalaSahnun item, immediately following a dialogue section based on difficult questions. 1 1

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13

relevant segment, constitute a n o t q u i t e consistent feature o f the Mudawwana. A significant n u m b e r o f dialogue segments, even early i n the t e x t , e x h i b i t no a p p e n d e d a u t h o r i t y statements, and these become m o r e rare and uneven i n later sections, finally disappearing w e l l before the end o f the b o o k . T h e b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n i n t e r p r e t s this p h e n o m e n o n by asserting t h a t Sahnun i n i t i a t e d the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y statements (athdr) i n t o thetext b u t left t h e task u n f i n i s h e d . ' H e p r o v i d e d proofs (ihtajja) for some p r o b l e m s in the f o r m o f athdr derived f r o m t h e Muwatta' o f I b n W a h b ( d . 197) and o t h e r s . A part o f this w o r k r e m a i n e d u n c o m p l e t e d by S a h n u n . ' " ' I t is i n d e e d q u i t e clear t h a t the athdr were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the m a i n text after i t was composed ( n o t necessarily after i t h a d received its final f o r m ) , a n d i t is evident t o o that the task o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n was n o t c a r r i e d t h r o u g h . T h e f u n c t i o n o f this m a t e r i a l was perceived by the biographers t o be v e r i f i c a t o r y , possibly p o l e m i c a l : the a u t h o r i t y statements were hujjas ( p r o o f s , e v i d en c e). T h a t this is a correct ( t h o u g h possibly not a f u l l ) p e r c e p t i o n w i l l be a c k n o w l e d g e d b e l o w . 1

T h e a u t h o r i t y statements are p r o v i d e d w i t h isndds, o f a k i n d , w h i c h i n d i c a t e the i m m e d i a t e and sometimes the u l t i m a t e source of t h e m a t e r i a l . H e r e i n this passage the I b n W a h b source d o m i n a t e s . A l l o f the m a t e r i a l at 4 . 1 , 4.3, 4.4, 5.2, and 5.3 is cited under t h e a u t h o r i t y o f I b n W a h b . T h e various lines o f d i s j u n c t u r e , h o w e v e r , m i l i t a t e against the s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t all o f this m a t e r i a l is d e r i v e d f r o m one source-book. ' A l t b. Z i y a d ( d . 183) is the i m m e d i a t e source at 5.1 and ( w i t h I b n W a h b ) at 5.2. I t has already been conceded t h a t this passage is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l e x and there are o t h e r sections w h i c h show simpler arrangements o f m a t e r i a l . F r e q u e n t l y t h e I b n W a h b source dominates t o the exclusion o f all else, a feature reflected i n the sentences q u o t e d above about Sahnun's p r o v i s i o n o f proofs ' f r o m the Muwatta' o f I b n W a h b ' etc. There are a n u m b e r o f sections w h e r e it is specifically stated t h a t lhe a u t h o r i t y m a t e r i a l is d e r i v e d f r o m one source o r another. For e x a m p l e , at v o l u m e x i , reference is made t o hadhihi al-athdr li-Ibn Wahb, ' and hadhihi al-dthdr li-Ashhab. T h i s k i n d o f reference certainly suggests u t i l i z a t i o n ( f o r a b l o c k o f m a t e r i a l ) o f a single source-book, b u t the incidence o f split citations ( f o r e x a m p l e , I b n u

17

1 3

Cited in the introduction to the Mudawwana, Tyad, Tartib. Sahnun, Mudawwana, x i . 60, 62.

p. 11, derived from Al-Qadi

1 5

1(1

1 7

I b i d . 69.

14

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OF

Wahb, Ashhab, Ibn W a h b ) , Ibn W a h b ) ,

1 9

1 8

T H E

S A H N U N

or m e d i a t e d citations (Sahnun

'an

o r hiatuses o f the t y p e e x h i b i t e d here at 4.1 t o 4.4

and at 5.2 a n d 5.3 suggests a p l u r a l i t y o f sources a n d a m i x t u r e o f w r i t t e n a n d o r a l sources. N o n e the less there clearly were w r i t t e n collections o f dthdr, gathered u n d e r the a u t h o r i t y o f n a m e d j u r i s t s , and used by the c o m p i l e r s o f the Mudawwana. these, C h a p t e r 7.) These extra-Mudawwana represented Muwatta'of

(See f u r t h e r o n collections may be

in the extant a n d e d i t e d fragments k n o w n as the Ibn Ziyad

a n d the Jdmi'oflbn

Wahb.

20

A s it happens,

in n e i t h e r case can the contents o f these fragments be c o m p a r e d w i t h r e l e v a n t passages i n the Mudawwana,

for the f o r m e r contains

m a t e r i a l l a c k i n g a u t h o r i t y statements i n the Mudawwana

and t h e

latter consists o f m a t e r i a l largely n o n - j u r i s t i c . I n any case, such a c o m p a r i s o n w o u l d p r o v e l i t t l e , f o r the early Muwatta's the Mudawwana

were, like

itself, subject t o o n g o i n g e d i t o r i a l a c t i v i t y .

MUDAWWANA

OF

15

S A H N U N

5.2, h o w e v e r , represents a defensive r e a c t i o n : i t can be analysed as e x h i b i t i n g t w o or three stages o f d e v e l o p m e n t . First there is a report qualifying M a l i k ' s favourable

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s dogs:

he

does n o t l i k e w a t e r left by a d o g i f i t is i n small q u a n t i t i e s (a) b u t (here is n o h a r m i n i t i n large quantities ( b ) . These items m a y be i n t e r p r e t e d as m i n o r concessions t o the a n t i - d o g l o b b y , b u t i t e m ( c ) is clearly a gloss i n t e n d e d t o reverse M a l i k ' s o p i n i o n by stealth. It c o n t r i v e s t o suggest that M a l i k ' s permission t o use w a t e r left by a d o g refers o n l y t o bodies o f w a t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e size o f a w a t e r - h o l e . T h i s , o f course,

contradicts t h e specificity o f the

icl'erence t o 'vessels' at Paragraphs 2.1 t o 2.3 a n d must be seen as a not very satisfactory a t t e m p t t o b r i n g M a l i k i n t o some k i n d o f agreement

w i t h the P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h w h i c h c o n d e m n e d

dogs.

M e n t i o n o f w a t e r - h o l e s generates reference t o a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h which deals w i t h these i n a c o n t e x t o f a b l u t i o n s . T h i s h a d i t h is piven at 5.3

a n d 5.4 w i t h t w o different isndds.

P a r a g r a p h 5.3 is

u n d o u b t e d l y the earlier v e r s i o n a n d has a very w e a k isnad i n d e e d . Taragraph 5.4 has been a d d e d at a later d a t e , w h e n a m u c h b e t t e r

VI T h e a u t h o r i t y statements i n s e r t e d here have been arranged i n three groups c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the three subjects dealt w i t h i n the dialogue.

Paragraphs 4.1

Paragraphs 5.1

t o 4.4

deal

with

the d o n k e y

etc.,

t o 5.8 w i t h the d o g , and a subsequent series, n o t

t r a n s l a t e d h e r e , deals w i t h the c h i c k e n and associated p r o b l e m s . That

these materials have been

similar

to

those

Paragraphs 4.1 c r e a t i o n ; 5.7 analogy.

affecting

the

developed dialogue

t h r o u g h processes

m a t e r i a l is

obvious.

a n d 4.3 show examples o f a r g u m e n t by category a n d 5.8 show examples o f s t r u c t u r a l ( i n t r a - l e g a l )

There

is p l e n t i f u l

evidence

o f t e x t u a l accretion

and

i n t e r p o l a t i o n . Paragraph 5.6 is an u n a t t r i b u t e d statement w h i c h m a y have c o m e i n t o existence o r i g i n a l l y as a m a r g i n a l a d d i t i o n t o the

text;

its i m p o r t

is

clear

enough,

its f o r m u l a t i o n

rather

isuitd h a d e m e r g e d , t o p r o v i d e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f the earlier v e r s i o n . W h i l e c l e a r l y relevant t o the o v e r a l l q u e s t i o n o f t h e susceptibility <>l water t o i m p u r i t y , these h a d i t h are h a r d l y l o g i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d in 1 be l e x t , w h i c h is p r e d o m i n a n t l y about vessels. Paragraph 5.5 is a phrase t a k e n f r o m a d i f f e r e n t h a d i t h w h i c h also deals w i t h the ipiestion o f w a t e r - h o l e s . I t is t a k e n f r o m a C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h I ' l i u i g back t o ' U m a r , w h i c h may be f o u n d i n its c o m p l e t e f o r m i n MM Muwatta'm

the recension o f Y a h y a . C l e a r l y t h e t w o P r o p h e t i c

hadith w i t h i n the Mudawwana hadith,

and

generated

a

have called t o m i n d a similar

key-phrase

allusion t o i t

(possibly

" i i p i n a l l y m a r g i n a l ) , a n d t h i s has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the t e x t , i i h o u t c o m m e n t , o r isnad,

o r source reference. T h e a l l u s i o n , o f

• " i n s c . w o u l d n o t be missed by anyone f a m i l i a r w i t h the

Muwatta'.

unsatisfactory. Paragraph 5.8 seems t o be d e v o i d o f any i m m e d i a t e

I' n a g r a p h 5.6 is an i t e m o f i n d e p e n d e n t t h o u g h t , u n a t t r i b u t e d ,

a u t h o r i t y ; i t m i g h t be i n t e r p o l a t e d or it may be r e a d as c o m i n g

• l a h l i s h i n g a h i e r a r c h y o f carrion-eaters, i n w h i c h the domestic

u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f I b n a l - Q a s i m at 5.7, or b o t h . T h e m a t e r i a l

• u comes o f f lightest. I t m a y c o n t a i n a covert a l l u s i o n t o a j u r i s t i c

at 5.1

• ir.« ussion a b o u t the cat; f o r w h i c h see C h a p t e r 2, Section I I I .

t o 5.6, a b o u t the d o g , is very c o m p l e x i n d e e d .

A t Paragraph 5.1 there is an i n d e p e n d e n t r e p o r t f r o m M a l i k via ' A l l I b n Z i y a d c o n f i r m i n g t h e r e p o r t at 2.1 f r o m M a l i k via I b n alQ a s i m : dogs do not render water unfit for a b l u t i o n s . Paragraph l s ll)

Sahnun, Mudawwana, vii. 3.

Ibid.

2 0

See Bibliography, ad Ibn Wahb and Ibn Ziyad.

h is clear, t h e n , t h a t the a u t h o r i t y statements have been subject, id < 1 he d i a l o g u e m a t e r i a l , t o c o m p l e x e d i t o r i a l a n d r e d a c t i o n a l management

of

a

kind

that

precludes

more

than a

limited

t u d t y i H c n t a b o u t the n a t u r e o f the sources that were used by the • . h i . u s o f t h e Mudawwana.

N o n e the less, some generalizations

16

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m a y be a t t e m p t e d . ' A l i b . Z i y â d was t h e Q a d i o f T u n i s , and the n o t e b o o k ascribed t o h i m m a y be associated w i t h t h a t c i t y . A s h h a b . n o t represented i n this passage, b u t a c o m m o n source, is described as head o f the M â l i k i s i n E g y p t i n succession t o I b n alQ a s i m . I b n W a h b is also associated w i t h E g y p t . T h o u g h often cited as a f o l l o w e r o f M â l i k , the m a t e r i a l ascribed t o h i m suggests rather t h a t he l o o k e d back t o the b r o a d t r a d i t i o n o f H i j a z i a u t h o r i t y . H e r e he cites the o p i n i o n s o f ' A m r b . Hârith ( d . 147, M a d i n a a n d E g y p t ) , Y a h y â b . Sa'id ( d . 143, M a d i n a ) , B a k i r b . ' A b d a l l â h ( d . 122, M a d i n a a n d E g y p t ) , I b n S h i h â b ( d . 124, M a d i n a a n d S y r i a ) , ' A t â ' b. A b i R a b â h ( d . 114, M a k k a ) , A b ü alZ i n â d ( d . 131, M a d i n a ) , and I b n Jurayj ( d . 150, M a k k a ) . These are all scholars o f the H i j a z i t r a d i t i o n , slightly older t h a n M â l i k . T h e i r extensive c i t a t i o n i n this m a n n e r suggests t h a t the I b n W a h b t r a d i t i o n , as available t o the e d i t o r s o f the Mudawwana, had n o t achieved t h e k i n d o f focus o n M â l i k that became standard later. N o n e t h e less, j u s t as the dialogue m a t e r i a l o f the Mudawwana is designed t o give expression t o the a u t h o r i t y o f M â l i k ( a n d n o t o f any m o r e a n t i q u e source), so t o o , it is clear, the dthdr m a t e r i a l goes back o n l y one g e n e r a t i o n : it is the o p i n i o n s o f jurists that are pr e s e r ve d, specifically o f H i j a z i scholars w h o flourished in the first h a l f o f t h e second c e n t u r y . Instances o f P r o p h e t i c a n d C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h are later. Paragraph 5.7 shows I b n a l - Q â s i m , w h o o t h e r w i s e functions i n t h e Mudawwana dialogue as a m e d i u m o n l y ( o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y ) o f M a l i k ' s views, f u n c t i o n i n g m o r e l i k e I b n W a h b and c o n v e y i n g the o p i n i o n s o f three scholars o f the older g e n e r a t i o n : M â l i k , R a b î ' a ( d . 136, M a d i n a ) , and I b n S h i h â b . C l e a r l y m u c h o r most o f the dthdr m a t e r i a l existed o r i g i n a l l y i n a l i t e r a r y f o r m i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e Mudawwana, was finally i n c o r ­ p o r a t e d , i n w h o l e o r in p a r t , i n t o t h e canonical Mudawwana, and thereafter f o r t h e most p a r t gradually disappeared. T h e dthdr b o o k s g r e w u p a r o u n d the names o f scholars l i k e I b n W a h b , A s h h a b , ' A l î b . Z i y â d , and I b n a l - Q â s i m , all o f w h o m flourished i n the second h a l f o f the second c e n t u r y . I t is n o t necessary t o believe that these scholars actually w r o t e l a w - b o o k s , or even r a n d o m lists of a u t h o r i t y statements. T h e y m a y , o f course, have i n i t i a t e d this task b u t t h e y are m o r e l i k e l y t o have been ( l i k e M â l i k and his i m m e d i a t e predecessors i n M a d i n a ) h u m a n repositories o f a j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , mediators o f a law w h i c h was, o r i g i n a l l y , o r a l l y passed o n and locally relevant. T h e evidence o f the Mudawwana

T H E

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17

suggests t h a t t h e emergence o f w r i t t e n materials w i t h i n this i r a d i t i o n c a n n o t have b e e n m u c h earlier t h a n 200, and that its earliest f o r m was b r o a d collections o f a u t h o r i t y statements d e r i v i n g f r o m H i j a z i a u t h o r i t i e s , o n l y gradually n a r r o w i n g i n focus i<> M â l i k . ( T h e counter-evidence o f texts ascribed t o M â l i k , Shâfi'i, a n d t h e early Hanafis w i l l be dealt w i t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e succeeding chapters o f this w o r k . ) T h e n o t e b o o k s a n d collections o f a u t h o r i t y l a l e m e n t s w h i c h s u r v i v e d t o be used by t h e c o m p i l e r s o f t h e Mudawwana a r e p r o b a b l y t o be associated w i t h t h e students o f I b n W a h b etc. a n d c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t have b e e n f r e e f r o m the organic processes o f d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h have b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d for t h e Mudawwana a n d w h i c h affected, t o a greater o r lesser degree, all 1 lie early M u s l i m j u r i s t i c texts.

VII The Mudawwana is one o f the t w o m a j o r canonical texts o f t h e M a l i k i legal t r a d i t i o n i n N o r t h A f r i c a and A n d a l u s i a , the o t h e r being t h e Muwatta' o f M â l i k i n t h e recension o f Y a h y â b. Y a h y â ( i n be di s t i n g u is he d f r o m the Muwatta' i n the recension o f M u h a m m a d b . al-Hasan al-Shaybani. for w h i c h see C h . 3, Sect. V ) . T h e Mudawwana is associated w i t h Q a y r a w a n , t h e Muwatta' " I Y a h y a w i t h C o r d o b a : they are local canons reflecting the state " I legal t h o u g h t in a p a r t i c u l a r place at a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e o r p e r i o d " I l i m e . T h e ascription o f the Mudawwana t o S a h n ü n , the i i i l l u e n t i a l Q a d i o f Q a y r a w a n , w h o d i e d i n 240, m a y be accepted, I an o n l y w i t h caveats. H e c e r t a i n l y belongs t o the generation after Ibn a l - Q â s i m , i b n W a h b , A s h h a b , etc., and i n t h a t respect his n a m e fits. B u t he d i d not a u t h o r the t e x t . I t is n o t an a u t h o r e d t e x t ; ii e o u l d n o t have reached its present f o r m i n a single a u t h o r i a l o r • \en r e d a c t i o n a l process. T h e r e are reasons f o r t h i n k i n g it d i d n o t ı ı aeh its present f o r m i n the l i f e t i m e o f S a h n ü n . O n e such reason 1 1 he i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f qultu and qdla Sahnün f o r m u l a e i n one t e x t . I his is n o t decisive and I w o u l d prefer to rely o n the extensive • \ idence o f i n t e r p o l a t i o n , gloss, etc., as indicative o f a redactional p i o e e s s r e q u i r i n g m o r e t h a n one redactor a n d m o r e t h a n one re n r r a t i o n . < o m p a r i n g the f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f the dialogue w i t h t h a t o f t h e m i l i o r i t y statements ( w h i c h are p r e d o m i n a n t l y b u t n o t exclusively • T n v e d f r o m o l d e r sources), certain processes o f historical

l8

T H E

MUDA

WWANA

O F

S A H N Ü N

T H E

d e v e l o p m e n t may be n o t e d . T h e dialogue style is a later d e v e l o p m e n t , p r o b a b l y a p r o d u c t o f H a n a f i i n f l u e n c e — t h i s is h i n t e d at i n b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e a n d , very r o u g h l y , is c o n f i r m e d by the a p p a r e n t dates o f similar H a n a f i m a t e r i a l . I t exhibits also a concept o f a u t h o r i t y , n a m e l y the p r e d o m i n a n t focus o n M â l i k , w h i c h i f n o t n e w , was none the less a n a r r o w i n g o f focus as c o m p a r e d w i t h the n o t e b o o k m a t e r i a l . T h i s n a r r o w i n g o f focus m a y have d e v e l o p e d i n v a r i o u s geographical areas (for e x a m p l e , n o t o n l y i n Q a y r a w a n b u t also i n T u n i s , w i t h 'AİT b . Z i y â d whose f r a g m e n t a r y Muwatta' displays t h e same feature) b u t m u s t c e r t a i n l y be recognized as a p h e n o m e n o n o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , b e g i n n i n g perhaps at about 200 and being c o n f i r m e d by a w o r k l i k e the Mudawwana w h i c h , reflecting no d o u b t the p o l i t i c a l status o f Q a y r a w a n , g a i n e d a general acceptance. O n e s h o u l d n o t t o o easily suppose t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l I b n a l - Q â s i m was a p r i m e m e d i a t o r o f M a l i k ' s d o m i n a n t a u t h o r i t y since the a u t h o r i t y statements suggest the p o s s i b i l i t y o f an I b n a l - Q â s i m n o t e b o o k i n w h i c h M â l i k was o n l y one o f several H i j a z i a u t h o r i t i e s . I t is the I b n al-Qasim o f the Mudawwana w h o elevates M â l i k t o u n i q u e a u t h o r i t y , and w h e t h e r that is t h e same as the h i s t o r i c a l I b n a l - Q â s i m is a difficult question. 2 1

2 2

T h e reasons f o r the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the a u t h o r i t y statements w i t h i n t h e Mudawwana m a y be assessed as t w o f o l d . A s t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n suggests, they c o n s t i t u t e d evidence o r proofs f o r school views, and h a d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n a p o l e m i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e p a r a l l e l evidence o f the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n tends t o c o n f i r m this—see C h a p t e r 3. B u t i t is clear t o o that the q u a l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a c k i n g achieved by the Mudawwana was greater t h a n t h a t achieved by any o t h e r legal c o l l e c t i o n i n N o r t h A f r i c a and t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f (possibly r i v a l ) n o t e b o o k s was perhaps a p a r t o f t h e process w h e r e b y t h e Mudawwana achieved its w i d e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d its canonical status, whereby it and n o t the o t h e r texts became the o n g o i n g focus f o r academic c o m m e n t a r i e s . T h e closing o f t h e c a n o n , the final cessation o f r e d a c t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , no d o u b t reflects the emergence o f a professional class o f j u r i s t s , r e q u i r i n g and creating a l e g i t i m a t e academic task; b u t i t may also be the result o f a radical change i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e l a w . T h e concepts o f a u t h o r i t y reflected i n the Mudawwana are 2 1

See n. 1 above, ad Asad b. al-Furât.

2 2

Ch. 3, below.

MUDAWWANA

O F

S A H N U N

f9

not those t h a t w e r e destined t o w i n o u t i n I s l a m : the c o n v i c t i o n became absolute that law is j u s t i f i e d o n l y i f i t can be related h e r m e n e u t i c a l l y t o P r o p h e t i c e x e m p l a , and n o t i f it is presented discursively as e m a n a t i n g f r o m an o n g o i n g j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . T h i s c o n v i c t i o n i n t e r c e p t e d and cancelled the organic d e v e l o p m e n t o f die Mudawwana and created a new task: t o d e m o n s t r a t e that its contents c o u l d be d e r i v e d f r o m Prophetic h a d i t h . T h i s was achieved, t h r o u g h n e w l i t e r a r y f o r m a t s o r t h r o u g h c o m m e n t a r i e s .

VIII loseph Schacht's d e p i c t i o n o f the stages t h r o u g h w h i c h Islamic law d e v e l o p e d , t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y challenged, has never been seriously u n d e r m i n e d . H i s remains the best, perhaps the o n l y , b a c k g r o u n d I h c o r y , f o r a r e a d i n g o f early legal texts and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h a d i t h . H i s d a t i n g o f the process that he demonstrates seems to me less secure. T h e Mudawwana presents precisely the characteristics w h i c h Schacht w o u l d recognize as p e r t a i n i n g t o the oldest dis­ cernible phase o f M u s l i m j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t . It has a discursive approach t o the subject, adequately s y m b o l i z e d i n the phrase ain'ayta. T h e d o m i n a n t figures o f a u t h o r i t y are M e d i n e s e jurists o f earlier g e n e r a t i o n s , above a l l , t h o u g h n o t exclusively, M a l i k himself. T h e d i a l o g u e f o r m a t affirms the a u t h o r i t y o f M a l i k , w h i l e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f the t r a d i t i o n . P r o o f texts i n the b u m o f C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h had achieved considerable p o p u l a r i t y p r i o r t o t h e closing o f this text and have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n ai'.nificant n u m b e r s . B u t P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h were r e l a t i v e l y few and a i e for t h e most p a r t clearly secondary o r intrusive a d d i t i o n s t o the text. T h e Mudawwana c o u l d h a r d l y have reached its final f o r m before 250 ( t e n years after the d e a t h o f S a h n u n ) . I t is accordingly difficult t o accept that t h e r e was w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g n i t i o n o f the m i n o r i t y o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h — f o r legal p u r p o s e s — m u c h before dial date. I shall d e m o n s t r a t e in the next chapter that the Muwatta' • •I Y a h y a cannot be used t o c o u n t e r this o b s e r v a t i o n . 2 3

Schacht, Origins. For critiques of his theory, see M . M . A z m i , Studies; 1 I J. Coulson, A History. 64-70. Coulson's remarks have given rise to an ongoing •!• l»;iic: see D . S. Powers, 'On bequests' and opera at. there.

T H E

2

T H E muwatta

9

OF

MÂLIK I

T h e Muwatta' of M â l i k b . A n a s i n the recension of Y a h y a b. Y a h y â a l - M a ş m ü d î ( d . 234) is usually considered t o be amongst the earliest o f Islamic j u r i s t i c w o r k s , and t o represent M a l i k ' s latest v i e w s . T h e biographical t r a d i t i o n affirms the latter p o i n t by asserting t h a t Y a h y â , w h o was t o become the p r e - e m i n e n t j u r i s t o f C o r d o b a u n d e r the Spanish U m a y y a d caliph ' A b d a l - R a h m â n I I , met M â l i k a n d r e c o n f i r m e d the text o f his Muwatta'in the last year of M a l i k ' s l i f e , i.e. i n 179. L i k e many o t h e r features of the b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n this is not to be accepted as i n d e p e n d e n t l y k n o w n h i s t o r i c a l fact; it is b i o g r a p h i c a l p o l e m i c i n t e n d e d t o defend and justify the a u t h o r i t y a c q u i r e d by this w o r k . I t is a fact i n f e r r e d f r o m , or created to p r o m o t e , the status of the w o r k , and not a ' h i s t o r i c a l ' fact p r e c i p i t a t i n g i t . 1

2

T h e Muwatta' is composed o f numerous discrete items, exhibiting t w o basic f o r m s . F i r s t , there are h a d i t h - i t e m s , characterized by f o r m a l isnada, i n t r o d u c e d by t h e phrase haddatha-ni Yahyâ 'an Mâlik o r s i m p l y haddatha-ni 'an Mâlik. These isnada may e n d at the P r o p h e t , o r at a C o m p a n i o n , Successor, or ancient j u r i s t . Secondly, t h e r e are j u r i s t i c dicta characterized by the i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a qala Mâlik and n o t usually e x h i b i t i n g a haddatha-ni Yahyâ e l e m e n t , n o r any appeal t o m o r e distant a u t h o r i t y . Occasionally, these dicta are c o n t e x t u a l i z e d , using the f o r m u l a su'ila Mâlik 'an . . . wa-qdla . . . T h e r e are some m i n o r variations i n t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f these f o r m u l a e b u t the o n l y serious d e v i a t i o n is

MUWATTA'

O F

found i n some chapters i n the Kitdb al-i'tikaf w h e r e the h a d i t h items e x h i b i t the alternative i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a haddatha-ni '/dyad 'an Malik. (This t e x t u a l characteristic gives rise t o the biographical o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t Y a h y a , in 179, h e a r d the whole o f 1 he Muwatta' f r o m M a l i k except a few chapters i n the Kitdb al-i dkaf.) A l l o f this m a t e r i a l is d i s t r i b u t e d under t h e conventional books (kitdbs) and chapters (bdbs) o f M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e i n an arrangement w h i c h is o r d e r l y and consistent w i t h t h e arrangement of o t h e r comprehensive law-books of the t h i r d century and later. I he headings and subdivisions are none the less not so finely perceived nor so w i d e l y expanded as i n later w o r k s , indeed p r o b a b l y less sophisticated t h a n i n the Mudawwana; and m u c h o f 1 he less manageable m a t e r i a l is grouped towards the end o f the collection u n d e r an a p p r o p r i a t e l y vague b o o k - h e a d i n g , Kitdb •d J ami' (Miscellaneous). O r d e r l y then to a degree, the distribuiion o f m a t e r i a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n of h a d i t h none the less displays •.nine curious collocations and separations which prompted Schacht i<> characterize M a l i k as 'exceedingly careless as far as order is . o n c e r n e d i n his t r e a t m e n t o f [ h a d i t h ] ' . T h e hadith-items have been c o u n t e d and consist, according to Z u r q a n I , o f 822 f r o m the 1'iophet, 613 f r o m C o m p a n i o n s , and 285 f r o m Successors. B o t h < ioldziher and Schacht, t h o u g h aware to v a r y i n g degrees of the p m b l e m a t i c nature of this t e x t , treat it as i f it could be used directly as an i n d i c a t i o n o f M a l i k ' s juristic t e c h n i q u e . This is not iiisiified. I shall argue i n w h a t follows that the f o r m o f the w o r k , 1 he principles g o v e r n i n g its o r g a n i z a t i o n , and m a n y details of its 1 o n i e n t show that it cannot be by M a l i k but must be dated to some n i n e after the c o m p l e t i o n o f the Mudawwana. 3

4

-1

II in spite o f Schacht's strictures, there is a clear p r i n c i p l e affecting 1 be arrangement o f h a d i t h under each separate chapter heading o f 1 Muwatta' Yahya. S i m p l y , Prophetic h a d i t h come first, then > a i i p a n i o n h a d i t h , t h e n h a d i t h f r o m Successors o r ancient jurists.

1

/ / ( i i ) , ' M a l i k b. Anas'. Cit. in Schacht, Origins, 28. < Ioldziher, Studies, i i . 204. Schacht knows that the Muwatta' is a 'record of 11 l.ihk's] teachings . . . written down by his disciples' (Introduction, 44) but n. 1 ally accepts it as a book by the master. See also fc7(ii), ' M a l i k h. Anas' (vi. e|.i) -|n transmitting the Muwatta'. Malik did not make a definitive text' etc. 4

Ignaz Ooldziher, Studies, i i . 197 ff.; Schacht, Origins, 6-7, 311 IT.; Schacht in £/(ii) 'Mâlik b. Anas'; John Wansbrough, Milieu, 72 ff. For the political career of Yahya, R. Dozy, Spanish Islam, 260- r; E. LeviProvençal, Histoire, i . 275-6. For a more general biography. 'Iyâd, Tartih, 534-47. 1

2

21

M A L I K

24

T H E

MUWATTA'

O F

the aspirations e v i d e n t i n the Muwatta'

M A L I K

T H E

t h a t , f o r m a n y areas o f t h e

l a w , M a l i k ( a p p e a r i n g in the qâla Màlik

m a t e r i a l ) remains by far

Muwatta'. wudu'

MUWATTA'

O F

25

M A L I K

T w o o f these are r e c o r d e d i n t h e Bdb

and

one

i n the

chapter

entitled

Bâb

al-tuhur

jâmi'

li-'l-

al-wudü'

the m o s t i m p o r t a n t single a u t h o r i t y . B u t even h e r e , the t r i c k o f

( M i s c e l l a n e o u s o n wudu').

p r e s e n t a t i o n achieves m u c h . Because the qâla Mâlik

m a t e r i a l is

h a d i t h , o f w h i c h the t w o t h a t c o n c e r n this study relate to (1) the

i n v a r i a b l y s i t u a t e d after one or a n u m b e r o f h a d i t h , i t takes o n the

use o f w a t e r that has been l a p p e d at by a cat ( P r o p h e t i c ) a n d (2)

appearance o f c o m m e n t a r y a n d t h e r e b y initiates the p r o b l e m s o f a

die use o f w a t e r f r o m a w a t e r - h o l e that is also used by p r e d a t o r y

h e r m e n e u t i c a p p r o a c h t o the l a w .

animals ( f r o m ' U m a r ) . H e r e is the first o f those h a d i t h .

T h e p r i m a r y r o l e o f the P r o p h e t , the m e d i a t i n g r o l e o f M a l i k ,

T h e f o r m e r chapter comprises

four

w h e r e they can be d e t e c t e d , i t is in m a t e r i a l w h i c h is r e l a t i v e l y late

1 |Yahya| from Mâlik, from Ishaq b. 'Abdallah b. Abı Talha, from I lumayda bint A b î 'Ubayda ibn Farwa, from Kabsha bint Ka'b b. Mâlik, • laughter-in-law of [the Companion] A b u Qatada. • She said that A b u Qatada came in one day and she poured out for him Ins water for ablutions. A cat arrived, desiring to drink at the water, and Abu Qatada tilted the vessel to let it drink. ,. She said that A b u Qatada, on seeing her watching h i m , said, A r e you .inprised? Yes, she replied. He said, The Prophet of God said, They are not polluting (najis); they are amongst those [animals] which are always aiound you, both male ones and female ones (innamâ hiya min aluiwwafin 'aluykum aw al-tawwafat). |. Yahya said, Malik said. There is no harm in it except when some polluting filth can be seen on its mouth.

and due t o processes o f i n t e r p o l a t i o n w h i c h scarcely m i t i g a t e a

In the t e x t o f t h e Mudawwana,

a n d a h e r m e n e u t i c approach t o t h e l a w are all essential elements i n the s t r u c t u r e o f Islamic law ( h e r e , M a l i k I ) as it d e v e l o p e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e classical p e r i o d and b e y o n d . T h a t these principles were a c k n o w l e d g e d i n M a l i k ' s l i f e t i m e , t h e n ceased t o exist d u r i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t

p e r i o d o f the Mudawwana,

then

reasserted

themselves f o r the p e r i o d o f classical d e v e l o p m e n t is n o t the most obvious c o n c l u s i o n . ( T h o u g h i n d e e d some such p a t t e r n is asserted by

historical

European; Mudawwana

sources,

see

Section

both

traditional

Muslim

V I I below.) There

and

is evidence

modern i n the

that at least the first t w o o f these principles were

b e g i n n i n g t o emerge and find some k i n d o f l i t e r a r y expression; but

l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y t h a t is systematically opposed t o these p r i n c i p l e s . T h e Muwatta'

clearly represents a later stage i n

the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Islamic j u r i s t i c t h e o r y t h a n the

Mudawwana.

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n w i l l be considerably buttressed by the m a t e r i a l and arguments presented in C h a p t e r 3 ( o n d e v e l o p m e n t s in the early H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n ) , i n Chapters 4 and 5 ( o n the w o r k s a t t r i b u t e d to Shâfi'T), a n d i n C h a p t e r 6 ( o n the Kitdb al-Khardj

o f A b u YOsuf).

T h o u g h Schacht failed to note the particular case o f the relationship b e t w e e n the Muwatta'

and t h e Mudawwana,

his general t h e o r y o f

legal d e v e l o p m e n t i n early Islamic j u r i s p r u d e n c e is consistent o n l y w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that the Mudawwana

precedes the

A n a l y s i s o f selected details i n the Muwatta'

Muwatta'.

will both illustrate

w h a t is c l a i m e d here and elucidate the processes w h i c h led t o the f o r m a t i o n o f this t e x t .

i t was possible t o detect that a

pn istic p r o b l e m arose w h e n the c o n d e m n a t i o n o f p r e d a t o r y ( w i l d ) mimals as c o n v e y o r s o f p o l l u t i o n was generalized t o cover also the household d o g ( a n d c a t ) . T h e response, i n i t i a l l y casuistic,

and

I o n i s e d o n t h e d o g , t o o k the f o r m o f a category e x p l a n a t i o n based " i i the assertion that h o u s e h o l d animals c o n s t i t u t e d a category n levantly d i f f e r e n t f r o m p r e d a t o r y ( w i l d ) animals. T h e r e however,

embarrassment

i n the face o f a P r o p h e t i c

alluded t o b u t n o t c i t e d in t h e Mudawwana—which rslreme

was,

hadith—

p r o p o s e d an

c o n d e m n a t i o n o f dogs as p a r t i c u l a r l y p o l l u t i n g .

This

h a d i t h a b o u t t h e cat is clearly a response t o the same p r o b l e m . I t is • h a r m i n g l y c i r c u m s t a n t i a l , it avoids the contentious d o g , and yet it points

firmly

t o w a r d s the fact t h a t the cat here is t o be seen as

n presentative o f a category, n a m e l y that o f animals w h i c h are habitually a r o u n d h u m a n beings. I t is clear that this represents a puistic advance o n the s i t u a t i o n reflected in the Mudawwana

Ill

in

1 wo respects. F i r s t , and s i m p l y , i t makes a clear statement o f a 1 alegory d i s t i n c t i o n and t h e r e b y transcends some o f the confusion

T h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r and u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s w a t e r is subject

111.11 has crept i n t o the Mudawwana.

t o p o l l u t i o n by animals is reflected in three h a d i t h r e c o r d e d i n the

l'ıophetic hadith

A n d secondly, i t responds t o a

i n the o n l y f o r m

i n w h i c h an a u t h o r i t a t i v e

26

T H E

MuwATTA'

O F

T H E

M A L I K

M UW

ATTA'

O F

27

M A L I K

response c o u l d be m a d e , n a m e l y i n the f o r m o f a n o t h e r P r o p h e t i c

be e x p a n d e d o r qualified by an open-ended s t r i n g o f ' w h a t i f

h a d i t h . I t is inconceivable t h a t this h a d i t h c o u l d have been m a d e

questions. A n a u t h o r i t y s t a t e m e n t , d e v o i d o f a dialogic c o n t e x t , is

available by M a l i k , i n o r before 179, w i t h the b a c k i n g o f P r o p h e t i c

much less

authority and i n a situation where Prophetic authority counted,

must r e p e a t , etc. H e r e i n the Muwatta',

and yet n o t have affected

which

1 he h a d i t h that creates the context. T h i s is n o t j u s t a m a t t e r o f

exhibits after all n o t o n l y a need for a u t h o r i t y o n this m a t t e r b u t

l i t e r a r y convenience, since, as 1 have s h o w n , these l i t e r a r y modes

t h e text o f the Mudawwuna,

flexible:

M a l i k said, c o n c e r n i n g X , I t suffices; o r , H e i n contrast t o all this, i t is

also a b r o a d concern t o gather all relevant m a t e r i a l . T h e e l e v a t i o n

have i m p l i c a t i o n s relative t o the nature o f a u t h o r i t y . M â l i k ,

o f P r o p h e t i c a u t h o r i t y is a m a r g i n a l feature o f the Mudawwana;

w h o , i n a dialogic s t r u c t u r e , represents the final a u t h o r i t y , here

it

was t h e c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u l t i m a t e ascendancy o f this

functions as an exegete. H e explains the l a w w h i c h has its source

p r i n c i p l e — a f t e r the c o m p l e t i o n o f the Mudawwana—that

and its u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y i n a h a d i t h going back t o the P r o p h e t .

led t o

the emergence and f o r m u l a t i o n o f this h a d i t h , and its incorporation i n t o a c a n o n i c a l w o r k associated w i t h the city o f C o r d o b a . I m m e d i a t e l y after the h a d i t h p r o p e r , at Paragraph 4 , t h e r e is a gala Malik

While

Malik's

remark

here

c o u l d scarcely

be i n t e r p r e t e d

w i t h o u t the h a d i t h ' s p r o v i s i o n o f a c o n t e x t , it clearly d i d n o t

i t e m , here r e p o r t e d o n the a u t h o r i t y o f Y a h y a . I n f o r m

1 m e r g e i n i t i a l l y i n this c o n t e x t . I t is s i m p l y a v a r i a n t o f a standard l o r m u l a o f j u r i s t i c d i c t i o n . A l m o s t exactly the same r e m a r k was

it is exactly the same as some o f the a u t h o r i t y statements r e c o r d e d

ascribed t o M â l i k i n the Mudawwana

in the Mudawwana

Iicak: P a r a g r a p h 3.1, A s l o n g as y o u see d i r t o n its beak t h e r e is n o

( C h . 1, Sect. I above). T h e r e , statements o f

about the d i r t o n a chicken's

or

harm i n i t . A subtle r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f this r u l i n g has r e n d e r e d i t

s i m p l y i n t e r p o l a t e d , w i t h o u t i n t e g r a t i o n , i n t o a dialogue s t r u c t u r e

lelevant t o the cat, and its s i t u a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y after a h a d i t h

this k i n d w e r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a dialogue s t r u c t u r e (Para. 1.1), (Paras. 1.3

a n d 2 . 2 . c ) , o r c i t e d as p a r t o f a series o f a u t h o r i t y

statements (Paras. 5.2, 5.7;

cf. 4 . 1 — n o t f r o m M a l i k ) . I n all o f

uansforms M a l i k from independent authority to commentator or . \egete. In m a n y respects, t h e n , t h e Muwatta'

these examples the basic u n i t consists o f the phrase 'there is no h a r m i n ' , Id ba's hi. T h i s is c o n t e x t u a l i z e d by a v a r i e t y o f means:

its modes o f

1111 night (category c r e a t i o n ) are s i m i l a r , and the f o r m u l a i c units o f

H e s a i d , T h e r e is n o h a r m in X ( 1 . 3 ) .

i m i s t i c language are the same. B u t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f M â l i k

H e said, I f A a n d B . . . , t h e r e is no h a r m i n X ( 2 . 2 . C ) .

in(i) m e d i a t o r ( t h r o u g h the isnads)

H e said, T h e r e is no h a r m i n X , i f A and B . . . ( 5 . 7 ) . I asked M a l i k c o n c e r n i n g X and he said, T h e r e is no h a r m i n i t (1.1).

o f ideally P r o p h e t i c a u t h o r i t y

(die matn) and i n t o exegete ( t h r o u g h the a p p e n d e d j u r i s t i c d i c t a — •l
are the key elements i n the c r e a t i o n o f a h e r m e n e u t i c

u a d i t i o n that was to survive f o r a t h o u s a n d years.

T h e phrase ' t h e r e is n o h a r m i n i t ' is one o f the basic b u i l d i n g blocks o f j u r i s t i c d i c t i o n . O t h e r examples o f such basic units i n c l u d e 'he must repeat' or ' i t suffices', f o r m u l a e w h i c h w i l l also be

W i t h i n the u n i t s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e the Muwatta'

I I . The

language

of

early

juristic

writing

is h i g h l y

lellect organic g r o w t h a n d changing principles o f a u t h o r i t y . I n I me o f t h e f o r e g r o u n d i n g o f Prophetic h a d i t h and t h e i r n u m e r i c a l u p e r i o r i t y , C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h play a very considerable role in the

f o r m u l a i c , o n l y gradually a c h i e v i n g looser m o r e i n v e n t i v e styles;

Muwatta'.

c o m p a r e t h e translated m a t e r i a l i n Chapters 1 to 3 w i t h that i n

1

Chapters 4 a n d 5, f r o m Shafi'I sources. O n e o f the conveniences o f the d i a l o g u e f o r m a t , as f o u n d i n the Mudawwana

and i n early

i t is sometimes

possible t o detect c e r t a i n o t h e r processes o f d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h

f o u n d i n t h e examples o f H a n a f i l i t e r a t u r e analysed in C h a p t e r 3, Section

represents a c o n t i n u a t i o n

<>l (he processes that are evident i n the Mudawwana:

T h e w o r k e v i d e n t l y represents a m o m e n t o f t r a n s i t i o n

1 b r o a d reliance o n m e d i a t e d 'apostolic' a u t h o r i t y — a s s o c i a t e d Mb the P r o p h e t and his C o m p a n i o n s — t o the later near exclusive

1 ' bailee o n P r o p h e t i c a u t h o r i t y . ( I t is i l l u m i n a t i n g t o note that

H a n a f i t e x t s , is that the questioner creates the c o n t e x t f o r a r u l i n g :

much o f the effort o f later c o m m e n t a r i e s o n the Muwatta'

I asked M a l i k about X a n d he said, I t suffices. T h e r u l i n g can t h e n

•liieeied

at

providing Prophetic

authority

that

was

w o u l d justify

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M a l i k ' s use o f C o m p a n i o n a u t h o r i t y . ) O n e of the stratagems w h e r e b y this t r a n s i t i o n was achieved may be evident in the h a d i t h about the cat. T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m Paragraph 2 t o Paragraph 3 is a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m C o m p a n i o n t o Prophetic a u t h o r i t y . I t is perfectly conceivable that the first u n i t o f this h a d i t h t o emerge was Paragraph 2, as an independent anecdote, and that Paragraph 3 developed later, by a process analogous t o the f a m i l i a r b a c k w a r d extension o f isnach from C o m p a n i o n s to P r o p h e t . 7

8

IV T h e h a d i t h i n the chapter on al-tuhür li- '-wudii' w h i c h is concerned w i t h the use o f water f r o m a water-hole is as f o l l o w s : 1.

[Yahya],

from

M a l i k , from

Yahya b. Sa'id, from

Muhammad

b.

I b r a h i m b . a l - H a r i t h a l - T a y m i , f r o m Y a h y a b. ' A b d a l - R a h m a n b. f l a t i b . 2. ' U m a r b . a l - K h a t t a b w e n t o u t w i t h a p a r t y amongst w h o m was ' A m r b . al- A s . T h e y a r r i v e d at a w a t e r - h o l e (hawd)

and A m r b. a l - ' Á s said t o the

k e e p e r o f the p o o l , H e y do p r e d a t o r y animals (sibid)

d r i n k at y o u r p o o l ?

' U m a r i n t e r r u p t e d , saying, K e e p e r o f the p o o l , do n o t t e l l us; f o r we a r r i v e after the a n i m a l s a n d they a r r i v e after us (innd naridu

'aid al-sibd'

wa-taridu

'al(iy-na).

I f , on c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the h a d i t h about the cat, it is conceivable that the redactors o f the Muwatta' had before t h e m the text of the Mudawwanu, such is n o t easily conceivable on consideration o f this hadith. For, obviously, the Muduwwana contains an altogether superior ( b y the standards o f the Muwatta itself) version of this r u l i n g : i t contains a Prophetic h a d i t h , p r o v i d e d w i t h t w o different isndds, w h i c h establishes that water-holes are not susceptible t o i m p u r i t y caused by animals d r i n k i n g at t h e m (Paras. 5.3 and 5.4 at C h . 1, Sect. I above). F u r t h e r m o r e , in this case, the Mudawwanu— in its present f o r m — c l e a r l y k n o w s the h a d i t h i n the Muwatta', for it contains a key-phrase reference t o i t (Para. 5.5). D i d the c o m p i l e r s o f the Mudawwanu have before t h e m a copy o f the Muwatta"} It is undesirable t o f o r m u l a t e the p r o b l e m in that way. B o t h texts can be s h o w n to be organic texts, g r o w i n g and d e v e l o p i n g See e.g. Yüsuf Ibn ' A b d al-Barr's Istidhkár; Muntaqa. Schacht, Origins, 163-75. 7

H

or Sulaymán b. K h a l i al-Bajl's

MUWATTA'

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29

over a p e r i o d o f t i m e . Preserved i n i t i a l l y i n w i d e l y separate ideographic regions, C o r d o b a and Q a y r a w a n , they c o u l d have influenced one another at any stage in t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t , and I heir p r e h i s t o r y is o f course h a r d l y accessible. W e shall see i n < 'hapter 5 h o w t w o p a r a l l e l texts may have reciprocal influence o n one another at different stages i n t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t . I n any case, II may not be the d e v e l o p i n g canons as such w h i c h influenced one another: t h e i n d i v i d u a l items w h i c h m a k e up the Mudawwanu and die Muwatta' had a l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e i r i n c o r p o r a n o n i n the canons; see C h a p t e r 7. M y a r g u m e n t t h a t the Muwatta' is later, as a c o m p i l a t i o n , than 1 he Mudawwanu does n o t m e a n that every single i t e m in the Muwatta' is later t h a n every single i t e m i n the Mudawwanu. I t is none the less f r e q u e n t l y possible t o argue i n such a m a n n e r . T h e hadith about the cat emerged after a n d , t o a degree, i n response t o 1 he arguments e v i d e n t i n the Mudawwanu. Some passages i n the Muwatta' can be analysed as s t r i n g e n t l y e d i t e d versions o f m a t e r i a l made available in the Mudawwanu? and certain specific rules are different i n the t w o w o r k s in a way that can o n l y be plausibly explained in t e r m s o f d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m the Mudawwana t o the Muwatta'. M a l i k ' s j u d g e m e n t on a t o n e m e n t for failure t o c o m p l y fully w i t h 1 be rules o f fasting in R a m a d a n is an example o f the latter p h e n o m e n o n . I n the dialogue part of the Mudawwana, Malik pecifies that p r o v i s i o n o f f o o d t o sixty p o o r persons is the o n l y appropriate atonement; he rejects the notion that the emancipation " I slaves o r fasting can, in this c o n t e x t , constitute a t o n e m e n t . I n 1 be a u t h o r i t y statements there are three Prophetic h a d i t h , all made available by A s h h a b , c o n t r a d i c t i n g this: the P r o p h e t offers three modes of atonement, either fasting (for t w o m o n t h s ) , emancipation, • a feeding sixty p o o r persons. T h u s preserved, M a l i k ' s rule Hagrantly contradicts the Prophet's r u l e . T u r n i n g t o the Muwatta', sir find a Prophetic hadith which is clearly a narrative development <>l I he earlier h a d i t h f r o m A s h h a b . F o l l o w i n g A s h h a b , we see the l'i o p h e t specifying three modes o f a t o n e m e n t . W h e n faced w i t h a particular miscreant w h o declares himself incapable o f managing III v o f the p e r m i t t e d modes, t h e Prophet provides h i m w i t h dates a n d urges h i m to d i s t r i b u t e t h e m t o the p o o r , t h e r e b y t o enact a '' See Caider, ' H i n t h ' , 233

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p e r m i t t e d m o d e o f a t o n e m e n t . So i n the Mudawwana from A s h h a b . T h e version i n the Muwatta ' continues. T h e m a n declares that he is h i m s e l f one o f the needy. T h e P r o p h e t laughs and urges h i m t o eat the dates himself. T h e Prophet has thus stated a rule and s u b v e r t e d i t ; he has p e r m i t t e d the miscreant t o a v o i d any real f o r m o f a t o n e m e n t . M a l i k , i n a qdla-Mdlik i t e m , n o w indicates that a t o n e m e n t is n o t r e q u i r e d f r o m one w h o breaks his fast i n R a m a d a n ; all t h a t is r e q u i r e d is qadâ', i.e. a replacement day o f fasting. F r o m the Mudawwana to the Muwatta', we see a progressive a m e l i o r a t i o n o f the law on this m a t t e r . This is accompanied by a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the content and consequently the significance o f an established Prophetic h a d i t h . N o w this is unders tand ab l e i f we assume a parallel d e v e l o p m e n t o f MàlikT law in t w o centres, and a slightly later date for the C o r d o b á n m a t e r i a l . It is i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e i f wc assume that M a l i k ' s Muwatta' had been established i n a final f o r m i n 179, and was available therefore to the c o m p i l e r s o f the Mudawwana. 10

In these and i n n u m e r o u s o t h e r ways some o f the expressions, the a r g u m e n t s , the j u d g e m e n t s , and the h a d i t h o f the Muwatta' can be argued to be later than parallel material in the Mudawwana. T h e r e are h o w e v e r counter-examples, o f w h i c h one perhaps is the h a d i t h a b o u t the w a t e r - h o l e . I n this case the Prophetic h a d i t h i n the Mudawwana seems t o be the m o r e developed statement o f the law i n t e r m s o f standard Islamic j u r i s t i c t h e o r y . I t should however be n o t e d t h a t there is a strictly f o r m a l reason w h y , even i f the redactors o f the Muwatta' had w a n t e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e the Prophetic h a d i t h a b o u t the w a t e r - h o l e , they c o u l d not have done so. T h e Muwatta ' contains o n l y h a d i t h i n w h i c h M a l i k is a t r a n s m i t t e r . T h e isndds p r o v i d e d for the h a d i t h in the Mudawwana do not e x h i b i t this c r i t e r i o n .

V T h e t h i r d and last h a d i t h in the Muwatta' w h i c h refers to the question o f the p o l l u t i o n o f w a t e r by animals is the n o t o r i o u s h a d i t h o f the d o g . It is curiously displaced: a n a t u r a l expectation demands t h a t i t be i n the same chapter as the h a d i t h about the cat, but this is n o t so. I t is i n c l u d e d t o w a r d s the end o f the chapter " See Sahnün, Mudawwana, iv. 218-19; Mâlik, Muwatta', ch. on Kafjarat man a]tara fi Ramadan , in Kitàb al-siyam. !

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e n t i t l e d Bab jami' al-wudu', or Miscellaneous o n wudu'. This is a chapter o f some c o m p l e x i t y w h i c h may serve t o illustrate some o f the processes t h a t affected the g r o w t h o f the Muwatta'. The chapter contains ten h a d i t h — o f w h i c h N o . 9 is about the d o g — and no exegetical c o m m e n t . Its c o n t e n t may be set o u t schematically as f o l l o w s : 1. F r o m the P r o p h e t : a j u r i s t i c r u l i n g , o n cleansing after defecation (istitdba). 2. F r o m the P r o p h e t : an eschatological h a d i t h , i n w h i c h the P r o p h e t explains t h a t o n the last day, he w i l l recognize his c o m m u n i t y because t h e y w i l l be m a r k e d a b o u t the forehead and a b o u t the l i m b s as a result o f t h e i r practice o f wudu'. 3. F r o m the P r o p h e t : o n the capacity o f wudu' t o cause forgiveness o f sins. 4. F r o m the Prophet: on the capacity o f wudu' t o wash away e r r o r and sin. 5. F r o m the Prophet: d i t t o . 6. F r o m the Prophet: a P r o p h e t i c m i r a c l e , in w h i c h at a t i m e o f water-scarcity he p r o d u c e d w a t e r for wudu' f r o m his fingertips. 7. F r o m A b u H u r a y r a : on the capacity o f wudu' t o occasion forgiveness o f sins and to generate r e w a r d , p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o every step between wudu' and the place o f prayer. 8. F r o m Sa'Id b. a l - M u s a y y i b : a j u r i s t i c r u l i n g o n cleansing (wudu') after defecation. 9. F r o m the P r o p h e t : i f a d o g d r i n k s at a vessel o f any one o f y o u , let h i m wash it seven times." 10. F r o m the P r o p h e t : a t h e o l o g i c a l h a d i t h , reflecting a dispute a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n faith and w o r k s , suggesting that o n l y a believer w i l l persist i n p e r f o r m i n g wudu'. This is t h e k i n d o f g r o u p i n g t h a t m i g h t lead a casual reader t o agree w i t h Schacht's strictures o n the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h a d i t h w i t h i n the Muwatta'. N u m b e r s 1-8 h o w e v e r , reveal a c o n v e n t i o n a l o r d e r . T h e first six are P r o p h e t i c , f o l l o w e d by a C o m p a n i o n , f o l l o w e d in l u r n by a jurist/Successor. W i t h i n this o v e r a l l structure there is some evidence o f s u b j e c t - g r o u p i n g . N u m b e r s 3, 4, and 5 all deal w i t h the capacity o f wudu' t o cause forgiveness o f sins, and are accordingly j u x t a p o s e d . N u m b e r 7 deals w i t h the same subject b u t is separated. Clearly the principle o f subject-grouping has conflicted

32

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w i t h the p r i n c i p l e o f h i e r a r c h i c a l grading o f isndds, and a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h ( N o . 6) has been a l l o w e d t o enter the t e x t , t h e r e b y c u t t i n g off the C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h ( N o . 7) f r o m its subject group. N u m b e r s 1 and 8 also deal w i t h the same subject, but N u m b e r 8, being f r o m a Successor, is cut off f r o m its subject g r o u p ( N o . 1!) by a w h o l e series o f P r o p h e t i c and C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h . O n considera­ t i o n i t w i l l be evident t h a t N u m b e r s 1 and 8 do n o t deal at all w i t h wudu' i n the technical sense o f ablutions before prayer. T h e y deal w i t h t h e subject o f cleansing after defecation, a subject associated w i t h b u t not confused w i t h wudu'in the technical sense. T h e w o r d s for cleansing after defecation were various (istinjd', istitaba) b u t i n c l u d e d the w o r d wudu' i n a non-technical sense, m e a n i n g cleansing, as at N u m b e r 8. A t N u m b e r 1, the P r o p h e t , asked c o n c e r n i n g is titaba, replies, Can y o u not find three stones? T h e p o i n t is elaborated at N u m b e r 8 where Sa'id b. a l - M u s a y y i b characterizes the use o f w a t e r after defecation {id-wudu min alghti'it bi-'l-md') as w o m e n ' s wudu'. Stones, p r e s u m a b l y , are m o r e m a n l y . These t w o h a d i t h must o r i g i n a l l y have been g r o u p e d together as a subsection w i t h i n the general c o l l e c t i o n o f materials on wudu'. H o w e v e r , since o n l y tangentially relevant t o the issue o f wudu' before p r a y e r , they were perhaps separately organized. A l l o f the o t h e r P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h here are also significantly t a n g e n t i a l : they deal w i t h wudu b u t they do not relate t o j u r i s t i c matters. T h e y are e d i f i c a t o r y , eschatological, h o r t a t o r y but they are n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o practice. C l e a r l y they were g r o u p e d near or next t o t h e h a d i t h on cleansing a l t e r defecation, u n t i l this miscellaneous g r o u p , m i s t a k e n for a u n i t y , was subject t o the mechanical re­ o r d e r i n g on the basis o f graded isndds w h i c h characterizes ( i n spite o f all anomalies) the Muwatta'. T h i s gave rise t o s o m e t h i n g like the present o r d e r . A n astute redactor m i g h t have m o v e d N u m b e r 6 t o a p o s i t i o n before N u m b e r 3 and so preserved the obvious g r o u p i n g o f 3 , 4 , 5 , and 7, w i t h o u t d i s r u p t i n g the hierarchical p r i n c i p l e ; he m i g h t also have preserved a separate chapter for N u m b e r s 1 and 8. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , p l e n t y o f evidence that at least some redactional processes are mechanical and liable t o p r o d u c e illogical and u n h a r m o n i o u s r e s u l t s . ' ' F u r t h e r , i n dealing w i t h layers o f m a t e r i a l Norman Calder, 'The ummt', sects. 2 and 3.

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successively i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a t e x t , i t must be recognized t h a t p r i n c i p l e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l vary. I t seems l i k e l y t h a t the present p o s i t i o n o f N u m b e r 7 m a y be referred t o the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f clausula finalis: this is the p h e n o m e n o n w h e r e b y an established code, o r o t h e r g r o u p o f j u r i s t i c r u l i n g s , may be e m e n d e d by a d d i n g a new r u l i n g at the end o f the code, even i f the e m e n d a t i o n refers t o s o m e t h i n g i n the m i d d l e . H e r e , a Prophetic h a d i t h e m e r g i n g late and b e c o m i n g eligible for inclusion was added at the end o f the P r o p h e t i c g r o u p i n g , w i t h o u t any c o n c e r n for the break t h e r e b y occasioned i n the s u b j e c t - g r o u p i n g . 1 2

N u m b e r s 9 and 10 present p r o b l e m s o f t h e i r o w n . N u m b e r 10, as it h a p p e n s , has a defective chain o f a u t h o r i t i e s . Its complete isnâd as preserved here is Y a h â - M â l i k - t h e P r o p h e t . H a d i t h o f this type are f r e q u e n t l y dealt w i t h i n the Muwatta'by relegation t o the e n d of a chapter. E x a m p l e s m a y be f o u n d i n the chapters on mawdqlt al-ihldl, and wudu' al-nd'im. This redactional principle, that e x t r e m e l y weak isnada s h o u l d be relegated t o a final or t o a late p o s i t i o n i n a g r o u p , is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the general concern for isndd h i e r a r c h y w h i c h characterizes the text as a w h o l e . T h e r e is no decisive answer t o the question w h y N u m b e r 9 ( t h e dog) has emerged at this p a r t i c u l a r place in the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h a d i t h . N u m e r o u s possible factors spring t o m i n d . I t was a h a d i t h w h i c h r a n c o u n t e r t o the t r a n s m i t t e d feelings o f M â l i k , feelings w h i c h w e r e adhered t o as far as possible w i t h i n the exegetical s l r u c t u r e o f a r g u m e n t t h a t emerged i n the M â l i k i t r a d i t i o n . I t may t h e r e f o r e have been accepted i n t o the canon fairly late (we have seen t h a t it was n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the Mudawwana) and been inserted before the w e a k h a d i t h at N u m b e r 10, b u t after all die rest, as a t o k e n o f dissatisfaction. I t has not been i n c o r p o r a t e d into the g r o u p o f h a d i t h w h i c h includes the h a d i t h about the cat a n d the p r e d a t o r y a n i m a l s , again, perhaps, i n o r d e r t o w e a k e n its effect o r t o register a desire t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t be subject t o analogical extension. O r , perhaps t h a t p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p h a d become an established u n i t n o t p e r m i t t i n g extension at a t i m e when the Miscellaneous section was still capable o f receiving new m a t e r i a l . A n d so o n . F u r t h e r speculation is unnecessary. T h e r e are reasons w i t h i n the M â l i k i t r a d i t i o n o f t h o u g h t w h y this h a d i t h 1 3

' ' David Daubc, 'Codes and codas'. I b n ' A b d al-Barr, Istıdhkür, i . 258-62, but see also 206-12. A key term is of • nurse la'abbud, for which see also Shâli'T, in Ch. 4, Sect. TV below. 1 5

"

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s h o u l d n o t be l i k e d ; and t h e r e are reasons w h y , g r a n t e d the c o m p l e x r e d a c t i o n a l process affecting t h e g r o w t h o f this w o r k , i t may finally have been i n c o r p o r a t e d at this p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the g r o u p . T h e c o m p i l e r s o f the Muwatta' d i d not indulge i n o v e r t exegetical a r g u m e n t , o f the type exemplified for the M a l i k l s , m u c h later, i n I b n ' A b d a l - B a r r , for the Shafi'Is in the Umm and i n M u z a n i ' s Mukhtasar, and for the Hanafis i n TahawT's Ma'am alAthar. B u t they d o manage t o express t h e i r views a b o u t h a d i t h by the arrangements and o r d e r i n g principles that they a d o p t , and these p r i n c i p l e s , t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i m p o s e d over a p e r i o d o f t i m e , are sufficiently analysable for m o d e r n readers t o perceive at least t h a t t h e r e was a consciousness o f difficulty before this h a d i t h . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s o t h e r anomalies of h a d i t h - a r r a n g e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t the Muwatta' and o n l y f u r t h e r study w i l l reveal w h e t h e r they are susceptible t o the k i n d o f a r g u m e n t that I have advanced here. T h e r e can be n o d o u b t , h o w e v e r , that this is n o t an authored text: its present f o r m is explicable only on the assumption o f a f a i r l y e x t e n d e d process of d e v e l o p m e n t (and indeed some carelessness i n the final stages o f r e d a c t i o n ) .

VI T h e Muwatta' is not an adequate presentation o f the law. I n the case at issue, f o r e x a m p l e , the t o t a l i t y o f m a t e r i a l dealing w i t h the capacity o f animals t o cause p o l l u t i o n in water is represented by the three h a d i t h discussed here. T h e y refer t o the d o g , the cat, and the w a t e r - h o l e . T h e r e is no exegetical point d'appui for the legal p o i n t that p r e d a t o r y animals i n general cause p o l l u t i o n i n water. T h e r e is n o d o u b t , h o w e v e r , that t h e latter p o i n t was a part o f t h e law. ( T h e Shafi'T school, w h o i n h e r i t e d this exegetical absence, a b a n d o n e d the p r i n c i p l e that p r e d a t o r y animals cause p o l l u t i o n ; for t h e m o n l y dogs and pigs d i d so; see C h . 4 , Sects. I I — I V . ) T h e conclusion is inescapable: anyone w h o wished t o use the Muwatta' had t o have some p r i o r k n o w l e d g e of the law and t o i n t e r p r e t i t i n the light o f that k n o w l e d g e . W e have already seen evidence that the Mudawwana grew up i n i t i a l l y as a r e c o r d o f difficult cases; it is l i k e l y t h a t the Muwatta' started i n the same way. H o w e v e r , whereas t h e Mudawwana grew i n t o a h i g h l y articulated d o c u m e n t , o f immense scope and d e t a i l , the Muwatta' Aid n o t . I t is n o t s i m p l y a smaller w o r k , it is m a r k e d l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d i n e x p l o r a t i o n o f

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d e t a i l , i t is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned w i t h comprehensive coverage, i t is u n c e r t a i n in the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f b o o k and chapter headings, a n d , as we have seen, there are occasions where the final redactors d o n o t e x h i b i t f u l l conscious c o n t r o l o f t h e i r material. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t is a w o r k w h i c h is clear and definite m presenting a t h e o r y o f a u t h o r i t y . I t is possible that a stringent Iheory o f a u t h o r i t y w o u l d occasion the r e m o v a l or deletion of unsatisfactory or unnecessary m a t e r i a l . B u t t h e overall ' k o f d e t a i l , c o v e r a g e , a n d fine a r t i c u l a t i o n seems best accounted for by the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f materials for the Muwatta' t o o k place over a shorter period than for the Mudawwana. It is also l i k e l y t h a t the final canonical r e d a c t i o n was rather a h u r r i e d affair. a c

T h e p r i m a r y n o t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y a r t i c u l a t e d i n the Muwatta' is I ' r o p h e t i c . T h e difference b e t w e e n satisfactory and weak isnada as buttress o f that a u t h o r i t y is registered t h r o u g h the organization 01 h a d i t h . C o m p a n i o n s and Successors as m e d i a t o r s o f prophetic a u t h o r i t y are accepted and r a n k e d according t o a conventional and la m i l i a r scheme of distance f r o m the P r o p h e t . B u t this w h o l e .eheme o f a u t h o r i t y is i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a system where M â l i k d o m i n a t e s . N o t o n l y is he exclusive t r a n s m i t t e r o f all preserved m a t e r i a l b u t he is sole exegete a n d i n t e r p r e t e r o f the law- W h a t this b o o k finally asserts is the r o l e o f M â l i k as m e d i a t o r o f Prophetic l a w . This c o m p l e x r e s o l u t i o n o f Prophetic and M â l i k i a u t h o r i t y is i i a n s m i t t e d t o p o s t e r i t y t h r o u g h the sole m e d i a t i o n o f Yahya b. '1 ahyâ a ! - M a ş m ü d i , w h o figures t h r o u g h o u t i n the i n t r o d u c t o r y l o n n u l a haddatha-ni Yahyd. I n f l u e n t i a l at the c o u r t o f ' A b d al¬ K ah m â n I I i n C o r d o b a , Y a h y a is associated w i t h an increase i n the effective a u t h o r i t y o f the M â l i k i school o f law i n M u s l i m Spain, i n I'.articular w i t h an increase in the n u m b e r o f f o r m a l l y a p p ° i d M a l i k i qadis. H i s career symbolizes the f o r g i n g of an alliance lie 1 ween c o u r t and school w h i c h was t o last for generations, and which was e m b o d i e d i n the real a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o w e r h e l d by the bead o f the M â l i k i .school i n C o r d o b a . I t is perfectly reasonable t o appose t h a t he p r o v i d e d some k i n d of i m p e t u s towards a • 1 Election o f materials that w o u l d represent the f o r m a l a u t h o r i t y or 1 lie M â l i k i school. T h a t he is personally responsible for the n i e

1 4

Except as indicated in Ch. 2, Sect, I above.

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Muwatta' i n its present f o r m is u n l i k e l y . T h e b o o k is clearly the p r o d u c t o f organic g r o w t h ; i t needed t i m e t o g r o w . T i m e , and perhaps m o r e t h a n just t i m e , was also r e q u i r e d for the M a l i k ! judges, settling i n t o the habit o f official a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t o realize there was a need for a canon that w o u l d signal t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t to a specific t h e o r y o f a u t h o r i t y . T h e f o r m u l a haddatha-ni Yahya suggests c o m p o s i t i o n by a student of Y a h y a rather t h a n by Y a h y a himself. I n any case, as i have a r g u e d , the t h e o r y o f a u t h o r i t y a r t i c u l a t e d in the Muwatta' should be recognized as later t h a n that a r t i c u l a t e d i n the Mudawwana. T h e Muwatta' belongs to the p e r i o d after 250. A c c o r d i n g t o E. L e v i - P r o v e n ç a l , after the reign o f ' A b d alR a h m â n I I the M â l i k i school r e t a i n e d its influence and prestige at c o u r t , and the qadi i n C o r d o b a r e m a i n e d a counsellor t o the monarch. T h e Mâliki fuqaha' (the jurists) were constantly required to respond t o questions and p r o b l e m s e m a n a t i n g f r o m the central g o v e r n m e n t . A m o n g s t the most celebrated of these fuqaha' was B a q i b. M a k h l a d ( d . 276). H a v i n g t r a v e l l e d and studied in Eastern I s l a m , h e , i t appears, had b r o u g h t r e f o r m i n g ideas t o A n d a l u s . T h e A n d a l u s i a n fuqaha' h a d , it is suggested, at an earlier date, substituted for P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h an a t t i t u d e of respect and servile i m i t a t i o n based on the o p i n i o n s (ra'y) o f t h e i r predecessors. B a q i , in o p p o s i t i o n t o the c o r p o r a t i o n o f M â l i k i j u r i s t s , b r o u g h t back the p r i n c i p l e o f reliance o n P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . I n this he eventually w o n the s u p p o r t o f the c o u r t . This analysis c o r r e c t l y reflects the bias of M u s l i m historical and b i o g r a p h i c a l sources which d o g m a t i c a l l y m a i n t a i n that the M â l i k i t r a d i t i o n began by recognizing the a u t h o r i t y o f Prophetic h a d i t h . T h e reforms o f B a q i must accordingly be seen as r e s t i t u t i o n o f w h a t once h a d been. This is not correct: the natural d e v e l o p m e n t o f the M â l i k i school in N o r t h A f r i c a had stressed the a u t h o r i t y o f Mâlik ( a n d o t h e r H i j a z i j u r i s t s ) , expressed p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h r o u g h use of the t e r m ra'y and w i t h o u t systematic appeal t o Prophetic a u t h o r i t y . T h e a r g u m e n t for a central role for Prophetic h a d i t h was i n n o v a t o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o the History of the 'ulama' by I b n al F a r a d ! ( d . 4 0 3 ) , B a q i b. M a k h l a d , a p u p i l of Y a h y â b. Y a h y â , after his travels i n the East, filled the l a n d of A n d a l u s w i t h hadith and riwaya ( = t r a n s m i t t e d k n o w l e d g e ) . O p p o s e d by his A n d a l u s i a n

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colleagues, B a q i w o n the s u p p o r t of the Sultan and was thus enabled t o p u b l i s h his h a d i t h and p r o m u l g a t e his t r a n s m i t t e d k n o w l e d g e — n a s h a r a haddha-hu wa-qara'a li-'l-nds riwdyata-hu. F r o m t h a t t i m e o n w a r d h a d i t h became established i n A n d a l u s — min yawma'idhin intashara al-hadith hi-'l-anadalus. A l l this may be accepted at face value. T h e a u t h o r i t y o f h a d i t h , meaning P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h , had not previously been firmly established i n M a l i k ! Spain. B a q i , c o m i n g w i t h ideas f r o m the East, was an i n n o v a t o r i n d e m a n d i n g that they be given a central role in legal matters. 16

A m o n g s t those w h o f o l l o w e d B a q i was I b n W a d d a h ( d . 287), also a p u p i l o f Y a h y a . T h r o u g h h i m , according t o I b n a l - F a r a d i , A n d a l u s became the l a n d o f hadith and isnad, having previously been dedicated t o m e m o r i z a t i o n of the o p i n i o n s (ra'y) of M a l i k and his c o m p a n i o n s . T h e ' o p i n i o n s ' of M a l i k and his companions is, of course, precisely what we find dominating i n the Mudawwana. T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ra'y t o hadith, associated w i t h the biographies of B a q i and I b n W a d d a h , reflects the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the Mudawwana t o the Muwatta'. I t is a fitting and reasonable conclusion that the f a m i l i a r Muwatta' in the recension o f Y a h y a was a p r o d u c t o f Spanish C o r d o b a d u r i n g that p e r i o d w h e n B a q i and I b n W a d d a h were i n t r o d u c i n g , w i t h the b a c k i n g o f the c o u r t , reforms o f w h i c h the central c o m p o n e n t was a stressing of h a d i t h at the expense o f ra'y. I t is a b o o k specifically designed t o r e f o r m u l a t e the M a l i k ! system o f law i n f o r m a l s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o Prophetic a u t h o r i t y . Such a need can hardly have been recognized in Spain p r i o r t o the p e r i o d o f p o l i t i c a l influence of B a q i b. M a k h l a d a n d it is t o that p e r i o d that the Muwatta'should be d a t e d , i.e. c.270. 1 7

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n finds some s u p p o r t in the Istidhkar of I b n ' A b d al-Barr ( d . 463). T h i s is one o f the earliest m a j o r commentaries o n die Muwatta'. I n his i n t r o d u c t i o n , I b n ' A b d al-Barr informs his readers t h a t he has restricted himself to that version o f the Muwatta' w h i c h derives f r o m Y a h y a ; and he gives the chain o f teachers and transmitters by w h i c h he has received this w o r k . These are t h r e e . T w o o f t h e m show the c o m m o n links I b n W a d d a h - Y a h y a - M a l i k . T h e t h i r d is a composite chain e x h i b i t i n g both the l i n k I b n W a d d a h - Y a h y a - M a l i k and a l i n k t h r o u g h 1 6

]

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'Abdullah b. Muhammad Ibn al-Faradi, Ta'rtkh, Ibn al-Faradi, Ta'rikh. i i . 17 (no. 1136).

i . 107-9 (no. 283).

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Yahya's son ' U b a y d A l l a h . The value of such chains of transmission varies b u t is at least m o r e secure i n periods o f established pedagogic i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a n i n an age o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n f o r m a l o r a l transmission. (See C h . 7, and C h . 9, Sect. I V . ) H e r e , a set o f i n i t i a l conclusions r e l a t i n g to the nature and date o f the Muwatta' have been established o n the basis o f the text itself. W i t h these conclusions i n m i n d , the biographical materials have been f o u n d t o confirm and sharpen o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f the s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the text e m e r g e d . ( T h e biographical texts, o f course, ideally should be read and analysed for t h e i r o w n sake; p e n d i n g t h a t exercise, they must at least be read i n the light o f the early j u r i s t i c texts, n o t vice versa.) I b n ' A b d al-Barr's chains of transmission may be legitimately b r o u g h t i n at this stage as subsidiary evidence. T h e prevalent presence there o f I b n W a d d a h as t r a n s m i t t e r f r o m Y a h y a fits neatly w i t h the conclusions that have already been established. I t seems reasonable t o conclude that he is in fact the final redactor o f the Muwatta' i n the f o r m we n o w k n o w i t . H i s p r o d u c t i o n o f this w o r k must be associated w i t h a campaign t o establish the a u t h o r i t y o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h i n M u s l i m Spain, a campaign p r i m a r i l y associated w i t h I b n W a d d a h ' s teacher and p o l i t i c a l s u p e r i o r , BaqT b. M a k h l a d . T h e earliest manuscript o f the Muwatta', n o w h e l d i n the Chester B e a t t y L i b r a r y i n D u b l i n , is d a t e d 277. A p a r t i c u l a r l y fine achievement o f calligraphic and decorative a r t , it must be one of the earliest and may w e l l be the first a u t h o r i t a t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n o f the standard M a l i k I c a n o n . 1 8

Cf. A . J. A r b c r r y , The Chester Beatty Library: Geschichte, i . 458-9. I K

a handlist, i . 1; Fuat Sezgin,

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TEXTS 1 T h e largest b o d y o f early H a n a f i j u r i s t i c m a t e r i a l is n o w contained i n the w o r k k n o w n as the Aşl o r the Mabsitt, attributed to M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan al-Shaybani ( d . 189). M u h a m m a d was a p u p i l o f A b ü H a n i f a ( d . 150). A f t e r t r a i n i n g i n K u f a , he m o v e d t o B a g h d a d w h e r e he flourished i n the reign of H a r u n a l - R a s h î d . I t is r e p o r t e d that towards the e n d o f his life he was a p p o i n t e d judge at R a q q a . B i o g r a p h i c a l sources depict h i m as a j u r i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g intellect a n d d e b a t i n g skills, i f , perhaps, less c o m p e t e n t i n the field o f h a d i t h . Shafi'i ( i n H a n a f i sources) is said t o have described h i m as physically fat but m e n t a l l y agile, and as the o n l y j u r i s t w h o ever faced h i m (Shafi'i) in debate w i t h o u t q u a i l i n g . I b n H a n b a l confessed that his o w n subtlety i n j u r i s t i c d e t a i l was a c q u i r e d f r o m the books o f M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan. ( S i m i l a r l y , also i n H a n a f i sources, i t is r e p o r t e d that w h e n I b n H a n b a l began t o collect h a d i t h he w e n t first t o A b ü Y û s u f , the second m a j o r p u p i l o f A b ü H a n i f a and colleague o f M u h a m m a d . I t is a t r i c k o f b i o g r a p h i c a l technique t o bolster the a u t h o r i t y o f one's o w n school by l o c a t i n g p r a i s e — i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t — i n the m o u t h s o f r i v a l s . ) 1

L i k e o t h e r early w o r k s o f fiqh, the Aşl is organized i n books (kitaba) and chapters (bâbs). I t is u n l i k e l y , h o w e v e r , that the various b o o k s w h i c h make u p this w o r k were b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r — as i f they w e r e one w o r k — u n t i l w e l l i n t o the m e d i e v a l p e r i o d . T h e earliest substantial manuscript e d i t i o n belongs t o the seventh century A H ( t h i r t e e n t h century C E ) . T h e most comprehensive effort ' The most extensive biographies of Shaybâni, A b u Hanifa and A b ü Yûsuf are found in Muhammad b. A h m a d al-Dhahabî, Manaqib, where all the details given here will be found. Shorter biographies in Abü 'l-Hasanât Muhammad ' A b d alllayy al-Laknawi, Fawaid and A b ü Muhammad "Abd al-Qadir al-Qurashi. Sawahir, ad loc.

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at a ' d e f i n i t i v e ' version is the t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y e d i t i o n o f A b ü '1W a f a ' a l - A f g h a n l — a n d it is o f u n c e r t a i n value. T h a t the various books d e v e l o p e d separately is clear f r o m a n u m b e r o f factors. First, m e d i e v a l reference is to i n d i v i d u a l books and n o t t o a single organized w o r k . Fuat Sezgin still lists the books separately f r o m the Mabsüt or Asl. A f g h a n i and his medieval forebears k n o w better: t h e books of M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan a l - S h a y b â n î , t h o u g h referred t o separately, arc the same as those that constitute the Mabsüt. 2

Secondly, the b o o k s as they n o w exist arc e v i d e n t l y the p r o d u c t o f different redactiona! approaches. T h e Kitdb al-Saldt, the first b o o k i n the p r i n t e d e d i t i o n , is a single integrated u n i t . I t is characterized by a stringent qultulqdla f o r m a t , remorseless i n its capacity to assimilate diverse materials. Emerging only occasionally w i t h i n this o v e r a l l structure are three types of secondary m a t e r i a l : âthâr, statements o f dispute (ikhtildf), and cross-references t o o t h e r b o o k s . T h e dthdr arc usually associated w i t h a p r o b l e m in the k n o w n rules, r e q u i r i n g j u s t i f i c a t i o n . O n the q u e s t i o n , for e x a m p l e , o f r i n s i n g o u t the m o u t h , the qdla-hgurc considers that to o m i t this practice in wudil' ( m i n o r ablutions) does not affect its v a l i d i t y ; b u t t o o m i t it in gluts! ( m a j o r ablutions) w i l l e n t a i l r e p e t i t i o n o f p r a y e r . W h y does he distinguish? T h e t w o situations, he states, are analogically p a r a l l e l (humd fi 'l-qiyds sawa*) b u t he abandons qiyds here in view o f the dthdr f r o m l b n ' A b b a s . ' O n other occasions, the i/a/fl-figurc refers to dthdr f r o m other C o m p a n i o n s and f r o m the P r o p h e t ; or simply refers t o (one or m o r e ) a n o n y m o u s dthdr? These dthdr characteristically offer no isnads and do not p r e t e n d t o represent the ipsissima verba of the cited a u t h o r i t i e s . T h o u g h f o r m a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the qultu-qdla f o r m a t , they are p r o b a b l y a secondary d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e ikhtildf m a t e r i a l ( m u c h larger i n q u a n t i t y t h a n the dthdr) is not usually i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the qultu-qdla f o r m a t . Such m a t e r i a l involves the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a r i a n t views between (usually) A b ü H a n i f a , M u h a m m a d , and A b ü Y û s u f (so n a m e d , t h o u g h this is at odds w i t h the s u p p o s i t i o n that any one of these is identical w i t h the 1

4

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Sezgin, Ceschichle. i . 421-33; Abü T-Wafa' al-Afghani in his introduction to Shaybani, Asl, i . (see esp. his quotation from the Kushf al-Zunün on p. 2). Shaybani, Aşl, i . 41. "' Ibid. 44-5, 59, 61-2, 156. el ul. " Ibid. 76-7: jâ'a ft dhâiika (ilhanın; cf. 159. 1

41

qultu-hgure). I t is clearly i n t e r p o l a t e d . T h e cross-reference m a t e r i a l (a very m i n o r category) is also i n t e r p o l a t e d . T h u s , i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e qultalqala f o r m a t : wa-qdla Muhammad fi 7Nawddir . . . o r quia Abu Hanifa fi 'l-Jami' al-Saghir . . . B o t h the Nawddir and the J ami' al-Saghir are books attributed to M u h a m m a d al-Shaybani. These and s i m i l a r f o r m u l a e are clearly marginal c o m m e n t s , p r o d u c t of c o m p a r a t i v e study, and o n l y later i n c o r p ­ o r a t e d i n t o the m a i n t e x t . 6

7

T h e second b o o k i n the p r i n t e d e d i t i o n is e n t i t l e d the Kitdb alHayd ( O n m e n s t r u a t i o n ) . T h i s subject has i n fact already been touched o n , i n accord w i t h the n o r m a l practice o f j u r i s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n , w i t h i n the section o n p u r i t y near the b e g i n n i n g o f the Kitdb al-Saldt? T h e Kitdb al-Hayd is a special treatise on a p a r t i c u l a r subject. It has n o instances of qultulqdla presentation. Its d o m i n a n t m o d e o f e x p o s i t i o n is c o n s t i t u t e d by successive c o n d i t i o n a l sentences: wa-idhd . . . wa-law . . . wa-in . . . This is a familiar and universal m o d e o f j u r i s t i c d r a f t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y associated w i t h the early stages i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of a j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . L i k e the Kitdb al-Saldt, the b o o k exhibits numerous statements o f ikhtildf w h e r e v a r i a n t views are d i s t r i b u t e d amongst the t h r e e H a n a f i a u t h o r i t i e s . C i t a t i o n o f m o r e a n t i q u e authorities (dthdr) is r a r e b u t includes a n u m b e r o f references t o the P r o p h e t . It is significant that the l a t t e r are associated w i t h a f o r m u l a i c p a t t e r n reflecting a p o l e m i c a l s i t u a t i o n : i f they say . . . reply is made (qdlu o r in qdlu o r in quia qd'il. . . qila la-humlla-hu). i t is Ihese m o d e l disputes ( e x h i b i t i n g a f o r m k n o w n also i n early Islamic t h e o l o g i c a l w o r k s ) that generate reference t o a P r o p h e t i c (or C o m p a n i o n ) r u l i n g (again w i t h o u t isnads o r ipsissima verba). W e shall sec i n Sections I V - V I b e l o w that i t is precisely incidence o f dispute t h a t generates a u t h o r i t y statements (dthdr) o f all k i n d s . 9

1 0

11

A l l the b o o k s o f the Asl p r i n t e d t o date e x h i b i t e i t h e r the qultul qdla e d i t i n g device or successive c o n d i t i o n a l sentences. T h e l o r m e r is e x e m p l i f i e d also, for e x a m p l e , i n the Kitdb al-Zakdt and ihe Kitdb al-Mukdtab (vols. 2 and 3 - 4 ) , the latter i n the Kitdb al¬ " See ibid. 49, 55, 57, 58, 65, 73. 74. et«/.; also Calder. 'The ummV, paras. 5, 8, ind 15 of the passage translated on 116-19

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an<

J the comments at 119 IT.

' Shaybani, Asl. i . 65 n. 1, also n. 2, 75 n. 6. * Ibid. 24. 39, 49, 54. '' David Daubc, Roman legislation, 6-8. Cf. Michael Cook, "The origins of kalain . ' Shaybani. Asl, i . 462: su'ila rasfd Allah 'an dhdlik; 489-90: fa-qad jd'a "an 'Alt <• Abi Tdlib wa-lbn 'Abbas. 111

1

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'Aql ( v o l . 4 ) . I n a fragment p u b l i s h e d by Chafiq C h e h a t a , e n t i t l e d Kitäb al-Buyü'wa'l-salam, t h e r e are no examples o f the qultulqdla device, b u t o n l y successive c o n d i t i o n a l sentences (wa-idhä, etc.) and successive f o r m u l a i c statements (wa-ld ba'sfi. . ., wa-la khayr fi. . . , e t c . ) . A l l the b o o k s , irrespective o f t h e i r basic redactional t y p e , e x h i b i t some examples o f ikhtiläf statements and o f dthdr; some o f t h e m also c o n t a i n cross-references t o o t h e r b o o k s . T h e q u a n t i t y a n d t h e f o r m s o f such m a t e r i a l vary. 1 2

I n s u m , even a casual survey o f t h e b o o k s indicates n o t o n l y t h a t they are t h e p r o d u c t o f different r e d a c t i o n a l processes, b u t , w h e r e the processes are s i m i l a r , there are differences in modes o f m a n i p u l a t i o n and in the range and expression o f appeal t o a u t h o r i t y , ikhtiläf, etc. It is evident t h a t the Asl or Mabsüt, u n l i k e the Mudawwana, was never subject to a f o r m a l final r e d a c t i o n . I t is significant t h a t the t r a d i t i o n p r o d u c e d no c o m m e n t a r y o n the Mabsüt—again in contrast to the Mudawwana. T h i s is because there was no such w o r k : there were o n l y books o n p a r t i c u l a r subjects, the p r o d u c t , as we arc b e g i n n i n g to perceive, o f organic processes s i m i l a r t o those described for the early M a l i k ! texts. T h e r e is a t h i r d feature w h i c h tends t o c o n f i r m this impression. It is the v a r i e d and u n c e r t a i n isndds w h i c h i n t r o d u c e b o o k s and chapters. T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y sentence o f the p r i n t e d Asl is as follows: ' A b u S u l a y m a n al-Juzjan! f r o m M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan, he said, I have e x p l a i n e d t o y o u t h e o p i n i o n o f A b u H a n i f a , A b ü Y ü s u f and myself. W h e r e there is no m e n t i o n e d ikhtiläf i t is the o p i n i o n o f all o f us.' This is i n d e e d a possible d e s c r i p t i o n o f the w o r k as a w h o l e . I t should be u n d e r s t o o d , h o w e v e r , as an inference f r o m the nature o f the m a t e r i a l , recast as an i n t r o d u c t o r y statement. A s i m i l a r i n t r o d u c t o r y statement has been placed at the head o f t h e w o r k k n o w n as M u z a n i ' s Mukhtasar (see C h . s. Sect. I ) a n d is e q u a l l y u n h i s t o r i c a l . T h e first chapter (bdb) i n t h e Kitdb al-Saldt e x h i b i t s a new i n t r o d u c t o r y isndd, n a m e l y , A b u S u l a y m a n . f r o m M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan, f r o m A b ü H a n i f a , he said . . . T h e second chapter offers a similar f o r m u l a , A b ü S u l a y m a n , f r o m M u h a m m a d , he said . . .; and the t h i r d chapter, A b u S u l a y m a n , f r o m M u h a m m a d , he said, I said . . . A l l o f these i n t r o d u c t o r y isndds w o r k in context to suggest that the qultu-ügmc is M u h a m m a d and the qäla-ügure A b ü H a n i f a . I n spite o f this, M u h a m m a d also Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Shaybanl. Kitäb al-BttyiY

wa-'l-salam.

T E X T S

43

appears i n t h e t h i r d person in the ikhtildf m a t e r i a l . L a t e r chapters in t h e Kitdb al-Saldt have no i n t r o d u c t o r y isndds; they e x h i b i t o n l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the basic qultulqdla e x p o s i t i o n . I t is probable t h a t these isndds, appearing o n l y i n t h e first f o u r bdbs, were late insertions intended to identify the qultu- and i7fl/«-figures, otherwise anonymous. T h e Kitdb al-Hayd exhibits a different i n t r o d u c t o r y isndd, n a m e l y qdla sami'tu Muhammad ibn al-Hasan yaqul idhd . . . T h i s i n t r o d u c e s t h e first o f the sequences o f c o n d i t i o n a l sentences w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u l k o f this b o o k . T h e Kitdb al-Zakdt offers yet a n o t h e r f o r m u l a : haddatha-ni Ziydd ibn Abd al-Rahmdn 'an Abi Sulayman 'an Muhammad ibn al-Hasan qdla qdla Abu Hanifa etc. T h e qultulqdla f o r m a t begins o n l y after t w o such i n t r o d u c t o r y isndds w h i c h g o v e r n a u t h o r i t y statements. T h o u g h , again, i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t the isndds are i n t e n d e d t o identify the qdla-hgurc as A b u H a n i f a , the m a t t e r is h a r d l y clear; and r e c o g n i t i o n o f M u h a m m a d as the qultu-figme is incongruous since he appears, as usual, i n the t h i r d person i n the ikhtildf m a t e r i a l . Whereas all o f the b o o k s i n A f g h a n i ' s e d i t i o n are either e x p l i c i t l y referred t o or tacitly accepted as t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m A b u Sulayman al-Juzjam ( s o m e , f o r e x a m p l e the Kitdb al-'Aql, d o not identify the t r a n s m i t t e r ) t h e segment e d i t e d by Chehata is t r a n s m i t t e d by A b u Hat's A h m a d i b n Hafs al B u k h a r i . These various items o f transmission i n f o r m a t i o n are perhaps o f m i n o r significance b u t they t e n d t o c o n f i r m the general impression t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s w e r e subject t o separate redaction a n d have separate histories. O n l y later, l o n g after the emergence o f established j u r i s t i c genres, d i d scholars and scribes acquire the c o n v i c t i o n that these b o o k s must have been i n t e n d e d as a single expository w o r k o f fiqh, c o n f o r m i n g t o the f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n w h i c h such w o r k s h a d by t h e n d e v e l o p e d . T h i s c o n v i c t i o n c o n t r o l l e d scribal practice; i t has also c o n t r o l l e d m o d e r n e d i t o r i a l a c t i v i t y . T r a d i t i o n a l H a n a f i b i o g r a p h y identifies A b u Sulayman M u s a i b n Sulayman al-Juzjani ( d . after 200) and his colleague (mushdrik) M a ' l a i b n M a n s u r al-RazT ( d . 211) as the d o m i n a n t t r an smit t er s o f M u h a m m a d ' s fiqh. O f A b u Sulayman i t is said, i n Qurashi's Kitdb al-Jawdhir al-Mudi'a, t h a t amongst his c o m p o s i t i o n s — m i n tasdnifihi—are the Kitdb al-Siyar al-Saghir, the Kitdb al-Saldt, and the Kitdb al-Rahn. These are i n fact w o r k s n o w assumed t o be by Qurashi, Jawahir. i i . 1X6 (no. 580). u

1 2

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1 3

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M u h a m m a d a l - S h a y b â n ï himself. T h e books o n salât a n d rahn are those w i t h t h e same t i t l e n o w c o n t a i n e d i n t h e Mabsiit. Questions o f course arise as t o w h y the t r a d i t i o n s h o u l d preserve this m e m o r y i n p a r t i c u l a r ; w h y m e n t i o n these t h r e e books i f A b u S u l a y m a n is assumed t o be t r a n s m i t t e r o f all M u h a m m a d ' s w o r k s ? A l t e r n a t i v e r e p o r t s , m a k i n g different reference t o named b o o k s , o n l y confuse the issue. I t is none t h e less w o r t h stressing that a l t h o u g h the late Hanafï t r a d i t i o n tends t o see A b u Sulayman as o n l y a t r a n s m i t t e r and i n n o w a y a p r o d u c e r o f b o o k s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r phraseology o f the b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n , here a n d elsewhere, does n o t c o n f i r m this. A b u S u l a y m a n , M a ' l â , and t h e hitter's son Y a h y â i b n M a ' l â ( t r a n s m i t t e r o f his father's m a t e r i a l ) a l l l i v e d i n B a g h d a d a n d m a y be accepted as d o m i n a n t influences o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Hanafï jXqh i n t h a t city i n t h e decades after 200. A h m a d i b n Hafs, t h e other m a j o r t r a n s m i t t e r o f M u h a m m a d ' s j u r i s p r u d e n c e , a n d his son were i n h a b i t a n t s o f B u k h a r a . T h e y represent a different ( t h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y related) t r a d i t i o n o f j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t w h i c h was t o c u l m i n a t e in the astonishing v i t a l i t y o f T r a n s o x a n i a n Hanafï jurisprudence i n the m i d d l e f o u r t h century and l a t e r . - T h e evidence so far discussed, together w i t h that b r o u g h t f o r w a r d i n the f o l l o w i n g sections o f this C h a p t e r , does n o t suggest that transmission w i t h i n a school t r a d i t i o n meant transmission o f books w i t h fixed texts. B o o k s grew up t h r o u g h the slow a c c u m u l a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l a n d successive redactions designed t o b r i n g that m a t e r i a l under c o n t r o l . A b u S u l a y m a n , M a ' l â , a n d Hafs may have p r o m o t e d t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d preservation o f school m a t e r i a l b u t even they can h a r d l y be responsible f o r the final texts o f the w o r k s ascribed t o S h a v b â n ï . 1 4

1

A b u '1-Wafa' al-Afghani in ShaybanI, Asl, i . 1 (11.2); here Afghani simply denies the report in the Jawdhir. A b u Sulayman did not produce any books of his own, he simply transmitted those of Muhammad. Sarakhsi and Qadikhan are the outstanding names of the Transoxanian school, but they did not exist in isolation. The basic biographies of Musa b. Sulayman, MaTa, and Ahmad b. Hafs may be found in Qurashi, Jawahir, i i . 186, i i . 177, and i . 67; also in Laknawi. Fawd'id, 216, 215, and 18. 1 4

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II hi an earlier analysis o f a section f r o m t h e Kitab al-Saldt, the first b o o k i n t h e p r i n t e d Asi, I concluded that t h e passage under consideration showed 'signs o f interpolation, conflation, redactional activity i n v o l v i n g a possible r e - o r d e r i n g o f m a t e r i a l , the i m p o s i t i o n of an e d i t o r i a l f o r m a t , a n d , perhaps, t h e ingenious e l a b o r a t i o n o f new m a t e r i a l as a result o f e x p l o r i n g t h e i m p o s e d e d i t o r i a l format.' T h e passage studied there was p a r t i c u l a r l y rich i n anomalies, b u t most o f these features can be d e m o n s t r a t e d also o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f that p a r t o f the w o r k w h i c h deals w i t h the p o l l u t i o n o f water by animals. T h e e d i t o r i a l f o r m a t is the qultul (¡tila d e v i c e — n o t the record o f a conversation b u t a l i t e r a r y means lor t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f disparate m a t e r i a l . I t is m a r k e d i n t h e b i l l o w i n g t r a n s l a t i o n by the c o n v e n t i o n a l Q f u e s t i o n ] and A j n s w e r j . Kach n e w i t e m f o r consideration is i n t r o d u c e d by t h e phrase ara'ayta, translated here, t h r o u g h o u t , as, Consider. 1 6

1. Q. Consider; if a cat drinks at fa person's] vessel, does he perform wudü' with that water? A . I prefer that he use other water (ahabbu ilayya). Q. But i f he does, and prays? A . I t suffices him (yujzi-hi). '.. Q. Consider; i f a hen drinks at his vessel, does he perform wudü' with 11 he water]? A . If the hen is free-ranging, I dislike (akrahu) the use of the water for wudü'. But if it is penned, there is no harm in it (Id ba's). Q. Consider; if it is free-ranging, and if it drinks from the water, and he performs wudü' with i t , and then prays [what then]? A . It suffices him. Q. Why? A . Because he did not see any filth on its beak, so it suffices him. But I prefer that he use other water (ahabbu ilayya). Q . I f he sees filth on its beak, and it drinks, does he perform wudü' with il? A . No. Q. I f he does, and prays [what then]? A . H e must repeat the wudü" and the prayer ('alay-hi an yu 'id al-wudü' wa-'l-saldt).

1 5

;. Q. Consider; if a bird, or a sheep, or a cow, or a camel, or a horse, or a "' Calder, 'The ummi', 123.

4

6

EARLY

HANAF1

EARLY

TEXTS

work-horse (birdhawn), or anything the flesh of which is [normally] eaten drinks at [a person's] vessel, does he perform wudii' with the water? A . Yes, there is no harm in it (la ba's fi-hi). Q. I f [an animal] the flesh of which is not [normally] eaten drinks at the water, such as donkeys or mules or such like [what then]? A . He does not perform wudii' with i t . 0 . A n d if he does and prays . . .? A . He must repeat the wudii' and the prayers. A n d so o n . F o r m a l l y this m a t e r i a l is o f t h e u t m o s t s i m p l i c i t y . A p r o b l e m is i n t r o d u c e d by a-ra'ayta

f o l l o w e d by a

conditional

q u e s t i o n . T h e series o f p r o b l e m s h e r e , w h i c h is l e n g t h y , relates t o one issue: i f w a t e r is affected by a p a r t i c u l a r a n i m a l or t h i n g , does one use i t to p e r f o r m wudü'? dislike (akrahu), ba's).

T h e answer may be an expression o f

o f preference (ahabbu

ilayya),

o r o f no h a r m (la

HANAFI

TEXTS

47

says, There is no harm in drinking the urine of animals whose flesh is eaten, such as the camel and such like. But the urine [of these animals] pollutes water, even i f the quantity [of urine] is small. 9. Q. Consider; A man performs wudii 'and begins with his legs before his arms, or his arms before his face . . . 10. 0 . [bird-droppings fall into a vessel] I T . Q. Consider; [a mouse, a snake, a ghecko . . . drink from a vessel . . .] 12. Q. Consider; [predatory animals (siba') and dogs . . . drink from a vessel . . .] 13. Q. Consider; [the urine of a bat; a mosquito or a flea] 14. Q. Consider; [birds whose flesh is not eaten; falcons and hawks . . . drink from a vessel] is. 0 . Consider; [a well, in which a fish or crab or tortoise dies] ib. Q. Consider; [the spittle of riding animals (dawdbb) whose flesh is I not] eaten, and of predatory animals—one repeats]

A l l o f these are associated w i t h a j u d g e m e n t o f sufficiency

(yujzi-hi)

a n d n o r e p e t i t i o n o f p r a y e r or wudü'.

registered by the r e q u i r e m e n t t o repeat ('alay-hi

Insufficiency is an . . . ) . F u r t h e r

hi many respects similar to the parallel material i n the

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n is achieved by p r o v i d i n g the c/M/fw-figure w i t h ' w h a t

by

if

( m i s s i n g , h o w e v e r , at Para.

o r ' w h y ' questions. T h e p h r a s i n g is f o r m u l a i c , elastic,

f a m i l i a r f r o m s i m i l a r devices in the Mudawwana extent in the Muwatta'). integrated,

e i t h e r by

and

( a n d to a lesser

A n y q u a n t i t y o f new m a t e r i a l m i g h t be generation o f new

questions

under

an

Mudawwana,

Ibis passage is b o t h d i s o r d e r l y a n d confusing. F o r m a l l y it is unified the

1 ciision

qultu-qdla between

device a

and

by

the

introductory

a-ra'ayta

1 0 ) . S u b s t a n t i a l l y , i t e x h i b i t s some

straightforward

casuistic

approach

(cat,

c h i c k e n , m o u s e , snake, g h e c k o , e t c . ) a n d an a s p i r a t i o n t o w a r d s r e n e r a l categories ( e d i b l e v . n o n - e d i b l e at Para. 3 , p r e d a t o r y v.

established t o p i c (Para. 2 ) , o r by c r e a t i n g and e x t e n d i n g a list

n o n - p r e d a t o r y at Para. 12).

(Para. 3 ) , o r by s t a r t i n g a new t o p i c ( C o n s i d e r ; i f an elephant . . . ) .

r h e c k o at P a r a . 11 is i n fact a category: these are animals that live

T h e e d i t o r i a l f o r m a t is neat, schematic,

and

and capable o f

in Ihe h o u s e , c o m m o n h o u s e h o l d pests.) T h e r e is clearly some

B u t the u n d e r l y i n g m a t e r i a l , w h e n

dep.ree o f conflict and o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the general category o f

considered at l e n g t h , is chaotic. I n o r d e r to i l l u s t r a t e its n a t u r e , I

p u i l a t o r y a n d that o f n o n - e d i b l e , w h i c h is not dealt w i t h . T h e r e is

disguising m a n y

hiatuses.

flexible,

( T h e listing o f m o u s e , snake,

give n o w a schematic presentation o f the rest o f the passage,

.01110 evidence o f the m a t e r i a l e x p a n d i n g t o w a r d s a t a x o n o m y o f

reserving c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n f o r o n l y Paragraph 8, w h i c h has the

1 lungs ( n o t j u s t animals) that m i g h t cause i m p u r i t y i n w a t e r (cf.

characteristic f o r m o f an ikhtildf

item.

4. Q. Consider; [flies, bees, scorpions . . . fall into water and die . . .] 5. Q. Consider; [wine, blood, urine, excrement . . .] 6. Q. Consider; [the spittle of an animal whose flesh is eaten; it does not pollute—la yufsid] 7. 0 . Consider; [the urine of an animal whose flesh is eaten; it pollutes— yufsid] 8. This is the view of Abü Hanlfa and Abü Yüsuf. Muhammad (alShaybání] says. As to animals the flesh of which is eaten, there is no harm in their urine. If it falls into water it does not pollute i t , unless it exceeds the water, in which case one does not perform wudii with i t . Abü Yüsuf

I ' . H . I S . 4 a n d 5 ) , a n d an i r r e g u l a r a t t e m p t t o deal w i t h b o d i l y fluids I ' . p i t l l e , u r i n e , b i r d - d r o p p i n g s ) a n d t o relate these rules t o o t o the oral categories (see especially Paras. 6 a n d 16), t h o u g h the task r. noi r i g o r o u s l y c a r r i e d t h r o u g h . ( I have i n t r o d u c e d a t e x t u a l • n i e n d a t i o n at Para. 16 i n o r d e r t o h a r m o n i z e the r u l e s ) . Paragraph 9 is i n t r u s i v e and m a y signify that at some p o i n t the • li .eussion o f a n i m a l - p o l l u t i o n e n d e d w i t h Paragraphs 1-8.

Para-

1 i . i p l i 15, t o o , i n i t i a t e s a new subject i n v o l v i n g w e l l s , n o t vessels, i n d dead a n i m a l s , n o t l i v i n g ones, b u t is i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d by 1 n version

t o the

previous

topic,

namely

a n i m a l fluids,

at

b n .u'.raph 16; t h a t i n t u r n is f o l l o w e d by a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the

48

E A R L Y

H A N A F Ï

E A R L Y

T E X T S

theme o f dead animals i n wells. I t is n o t clear w h e t h e r these are examples o f c o l l a t i o n mistakes, i n t e r p o l a t o r y processes (for e x a m p l e clausula finalis), or simply carelessness. A s i n the m a t e r i a l o f the Mudawwana, there is a delay in the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the basic and f a m i l i a r categories o f the law ( p r e d a t o r y animals i n t r o d u c e d at Para. 12) w h i c h , f r o m a logical p o i n t o f v i e w , is i n t o l e r a b l e . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r this has already been suggested: w i l d / p r e d a t o r y animals are i n nearly all systems of p u r i t y p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y i m p u r e a n d d o n o t r e q u i r e t o be asked a b o u t . T h e text begins w i t h genuine p r o b l e m s arising o u t of uncertain cases. T h e cat is p r e d a t o r y , but domestic (1). T h e c h i c k e n is d o m e s t i c , b u t liable t o eat c a r r i o n ( 2 ) . D o n k e y s and mules were different f r o m horses because not eaten a n d . i n a d d i t i o n , had become a part o f M â l i k ï - H a n a f î dispute ( 3 ) . T h i s t e x t , t h e n , l i k e the parallel m a t e r i a l i n the Mudawwana, originally e m e r g e d as a c o l l e c t i o n of responsa to particular p r o b l e m s , all of w h i c h may be recognized as a n a t u r a l result of reflection. T h e y represent grey areas i n the k n o w n law. T h e k n o w n law d i d not have to be collected and preserved precisely because i t was k n o w n . ' A n c i e n t lawgivers do n o t usually state that w h i c h goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g . ' I n t i m e , the text began to l o o k l i k e a general statement o f the law and all the m o r e f a m i l i a r cases as w e l l as an increasing b u r d e n o f refined cases (the m o s q u i t o , the u r i n e o f a bat) w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d . I t seems l i k e l y that most new m a t e r i a l in this section was i n c o r p o r a t e d in the final p o s i t i o n (by successive a p p l i c a t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e o f clausula finalis). T h i s must account for the relatively late appearance of the generalization about p r e d a t o r y animals, as also, i n a s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e , o f Paragraph 16, w h i c h so obviously o u g h t to be a pair to Paragraph 6. W h i l e Paragraphs 1-3 deal w i t h su'r, the subsequent Paragraphs a b a n d o n this subject, u n t i l Paragraph 11 w h e n it is r e i n t r o d u c e d for the refined case o f the snake, the g h e c k o , and the mouse. T h i s r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the theme of su'r p r o m p t s , belatedly, a f o r m u l a t i o n of the fundamental p r i n c i p l e r e g a r d i n g p r e d a t o r y animals. M a r g i n a l a d d i t i o n and/or i n t e r l i n e a r c o m m e n t may account for Paragraph 7, w h i c h is b o t h a relevant clarification o f Paragraph 6 and a linguistic p a r a l l e l . 17

T h e c o l l o c a t i o n o f items as a w h o l e is messy and d i s o r d e r l y , a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h is effectively, i f only p a r t i a l l y , disguised by the Daubc, Roman

legislation,

30.

T E X T S

49

u n i f o r m i t y o f l i t e r a r y expression. A l l the m a t e r i a l is caught i n a c o n t i n u o u s d i a l o g u e , w h i c h , based o n simple, flexible formulaic clauses, easily incorporates and standardizes the most diverse items. I t is clear, none the less, t h a t the items are diverse, that t h e i r emergence and c o l l o c a t i o n have been a p r o d u c t o f t i m e and ad hoc r e c o r d i n g , w h i c h have m i l i t a t e d against r a t i o n a l g r o u p i n g and p r e c i p i t a t e d evident d i s c o n t i n u i t y . I n m y earlier study o f a similar passage f r o m the Kitab al-Saldt, i t was possible to produce arguments suggesting that the Q and A format was imposed upon o r i g i n a l l y discrete m a t e r i a l . Fractionally less obvious in this passage, this remains the m o s t l i k e l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . That even after this e d i t o r i a l process the text r e m a i n e d open to d e v e l o p m e n t , notably by the a d d i t i o n o f ikhtildf m a t e r i a l , is p r o v e d by p o i n t i n g to the d i f f e r e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f such material in different manuscript t r a d i t i o n s . T h e ikhtildf i t e m in this passage (Para. 8) is characteristic o f the f o r m and i n t e n t i o n s of such m a t e r i a l . W h i l e ikhtildf m a t e r i a l , a n d , in m a n y cases, a u t h o r i t y statements stand o u t as l i k e l y to be i n t e r p o l a t e d , i t does n o t necessarily f o l l o w that all o f the m a t e r i a l c a p t u r e d i n the dialogue was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n one e d i t o r i a l process. Once the f o r m a t was created, i t c o u l d digest new m a t e r i a l seamlessly. l s

1 9

G r a n t e d t h e n t h a t this b o o k is the end-product o f a lengthy p e r i o d o f d e v e l o p m e n t , i n v o l v i n g a c c u m u l a t i o n of basic materials, successive r e d a c t i o n s , and the i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f ikhtildf items and a u t h o r i t y statements, i t must be resistant to simple conclusions about d a t i n g . I t is clearly the r e c o r d o f a b r o a d t r a d i t i o n of, i n i t i a l l y , o r a l law ( k n o w n i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f texts, t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e ) , w h i c h was gradually acquiring l i t e r a r y forms. T h e texts that e m e r g e d as a result o f this p r o c e s s — a n d they are m o r e t h a n the c o m p o n e n t B o o k s o f the Asl—were a t t r a c t e d to the name o f M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan al-Shaybanl, n o t because he authored t h e m , but (presumably) because he was an acknowledged figure of a u t h o r i t y , and perhaps also because his teaching was a genuine i m p e t u s t o w a r d s the modes o f t h o u g h t that are reflected i n the books. I do n o t k n o w h o w the last p o i n t c o u l d be p r o v e d and the f o r m a l as w e l l as the m a t e r i a l diversity o f the books ( a n d views) a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m m i l i t a t e against his being a n y t h i n g other than a distant i n f l u e n c e . 20

Calder, 'The ummi, 119-23. Ibid. 120-1. '" In spile of the neat schematic distribution of variant views amongst the three l s

1 7

H A N A E I

50

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

T E X T S

T h e qultulqala technique is used i n o t h e r early HanafT w o r k s , amongst t h e m the Kitâb Ahkâm al-Waqf, a t t r i b u t e d t o Hilâl i b n Y a h y a a l - B a ş r î , k n o w n as Hilâl al-Ra'y ( d . 245). T h e first p a r a g r a p h o f this w o r k begins w i t h the phrase, qühı Abu Hanifa. Subsequently the qala-tigure s i m p l y expounds the law i n his o w n p e r s o n , w i t h o n l y a h a n d f u l o f l o c u t i o n s , mostly i n the first few pages, w h i c h establish the i d e n t i t y of the qala-figmc as A b u H a n i f a . A small n u m b e r o f ikhtilâf passages, again m o s t l y near t h e beginning, give expression t o the usual t r i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n o f o p i n i o n i n t h e HanafT t r a d i t i o n w i t h t h i r d - p e r s o n reference t o A b u H a n i f a and A b u Yûsuf, t o g e t h e r w i t h a first-person reference, qawlu-tui. I n this f o r m u l a t i o n the qultu-tigure is t o be u n d e r s t o o d as M u h a m m a d i b n al-Hasan. Some passages, h o w e v e r , show t h i r d person reference t o M u h a m m a d . For the b u l k of the b o o k , e x p o s i t i o n o f the law is achieved t h r o u g h skilful and o r d e r l y m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the qultulqala f o r m a t . A s so o f t e n , it is difficult t o avoid the i m p r e s s i o n that the efforts to identify the qultu- and i/a/fl-figures are secondary. A different b o o k on the same subject was p r o d u c e d by A h m a d i b n ' A r a r a l - K h a ş ş â f ( d . 261). This w o r k has an i n t r o d u c t o r y section made up e n t i r e l y o f h a d i t h and a u t h o r i t y statements, arranged i n a f a m i l i a r hierarchic o r d e r : the Prophet, A b ü Bakr, ' U m a r , ' U t h m a n , ' A l i , Al-Zubayr, Mu'âdh ibn J a b a l , etc. ( T h e a m b i t i o n t o r a n k a u t h o r i t i e s may have been an influence o n those w h o p r o d u c e d t h e Muwatta' in C o r d o b a ; see C h . 2, Sect. I I . ) T h e b o o k p r o p e r begins a b r u p t l y w i t h a qultulqala e x p o s i t i o n , sustained r i g o r o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t , w i t h no ikhtilâf and no a u t h o r i t y statements. T h e Kitâb al-Nafaqat, also a t t r i b u t e d t o K h a ş ş â f , a n d preserved o n l y w i t h the c o m m e n t a r y of ' U m a r i b n ' A b d a l - ' A z I z I b n M â z a ( d . 536), s i m i l a r l y uses the qultulqala form o f e x p o s i t i o n , a n d , l i k e K h a ş ş â f s Ahkâm al-Waqf, exhibits no 2 1

2 2

great authorities of the Uanafî school, close observation will quickly reveal lhat the distribution is frequently arbitrary. The achievement and possibly the purpose was to establish flexibility and to justify variety, pre-empting its ability to divide. The precise lines of division were not important. The commentary on Ahmad b. ' A m i al-Khaşşafs Kitâb al-Nafaqat illustrates one method of dealing with problems. In that work two views arc distributed in the pattern A b u Hanifa + Muhammad v. Abü Yûsuf. But the commentator knows an alternative distribution namely Abü Yûsuf + Muhammad v. Abü Hanifa. He concludes that Muhammad held both views: sara 'an Muhammad riwayatani . . . Khaşşâf, Nafaqtit. 25. 2 1 2 2

e.g. Hilal al-Ra'y, Waqf. 4, lines 6 ff.; but cf. 198-9. Ibid. 59.

E A R L Y

H A N A F T

51

T E X T S

device i n t e n d e d t o i d e n t i t y the i/a/a-figure. I n Khaşşâfs clear t h a t t h e qultulqala f o r m a t is merely a literary expressing t h e law. T h i s was p r o b a b l y also true of the waqfoi Hilâl a l - R a ' y , as also, o r i g i n a l l y , o f the works f o r m a t and a t t r i b u t e d t o ShaybânT.

w o r k s , it is means for Ahkâm alhaving this

A l l law b o o k s p r o d u c e d i n the t h i r d century were open to a certain degree o f i n t e r p o l a t i o n and e d i t o r i a l manipulation. T h e ascription o f the w o r k s j u s t m e n t i o n e d t o Hilâl al-Ra'y and K h a ş ş â f , h o w e v e r , may be accepted since they are orderly w o r k s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y few signs o f d i s j u n c t u r e and interpolated m a t e r i a l . This dating suggests that the qultulqala format had been established p r i o r t o 241 ( w h e n Hilâl al-Ra'y d i e d ) and that it r e m a i n e d fashionable, at least for a t i m e , amongst younger scholars ( K h a ş ş â f died i n 261). T a k i n g this i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , it is probably t o the same p e r i o d , i.e. the m i d d l e decades of the t h i r d century, that one s h o u l d assign the final emergence of the Kitâb al-Şalât a n d , p r e s u m a b l y , most o f t h e o t h e r books w h i c h n o w constitute the Aşl. T h a t is t h e p e r i o d w h e n this very characteristic juristic style f l o u r i s h e d . T h a t the texts reflect and c o n t a i n older material is n o t in d o u b t . A p e r i o d of g r o w t h f r o m c. 200 t o c.250 would seem a fair e s t i m a t i o n f o r the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , with final redactions t a k i n g place t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f that p e r i o d , and minor i n t e r p o l a ­ tions c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h e second h a l f o f the century."" 1

T h e various b o o k s a t t r i b u t e d t o ShaybânT were summarized i n the first h a l f o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y by M u h a m m a d ibn M u h a m m a d A b ü '1-Fadl a l - M a r w a z i ( d . 334). H i s summary of the passage translated above reveals that he had before h i m precisely the text we have n o w . H e gives clear expression to such general principles as may be d e r i v e d f r o m i t , b r i n g i n g all material susceptible t o g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his analysis. The more refined i t e m s , he lists, m o r e o r less i n the o r d e r he found them, i n c l u d i n g the i t e m at Paragraph 9, w h i c h is so obviously out of place. H e knows a n d explains the ikhtilâf m a t e r i a l at Paragraph 8. H e Editorial activity on early Hanafl material certainly continued until well into Ihe 4th cent. The current edition of the Kitâb al-Jâmi' al-Şaghîr, another of Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Shaybfmfs attributions, owes its organization (tartib) and its division into chapters (tabwtb) to Abü Tahir Muhammad b. Muhammad alDabbfis (d. 340); so in the introduction to ShaybânT, Kitab al-Jâmi' al-Ştıghîr. It is lo Dabbâs's redaction that I would ascribe the schematic isnâd which introduces • •very chapter in the work: Muhammad from Ya'qüb (Abü Yûsuf] from Abü Hanifa. 2 3

52

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

T E X T S

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

i n t r o d u c e s o n l y one r e f i n e m e n t w h i c h is not in o u r text ( i t relates

Mudawwana,

t o t h e d r o p p i n g s o f birds w h i c h are n o t e a t e n ) , w h i c h he e x p l i c i t l y

n o t reflect r e a l differences in t e c h n i q u e .

derives f r o m

a d i f f e r e n t w o r k , t h e Kitab

al-Jami'

a n d istihsdn

('preference'); 2 6

these d o

B o t h texts use the t e r m

In

•altar t o i n d i c a t e appeal t o o l d e r a u t h o r i t y . B o t h texts e x h i b i t some

o t h e r instances, M a r w a z i ' s text cannot be s h o w n t o reflect all t h e

ili'i'.rec o f appeal t o practice as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . T h i s is m o r e m a r k e d

ikhtilaf

m a t e r i a l that exists i n the m o d e r n

al-saghir.

n o t a b l y qiyds

53

T E X T S

edition.

g e n e r a l , his w o r k c o n f i r m s , at least f o r the Kitdb

2 4

But, in

in

al-Saldt,

a n d . as

Muwatta'.

1 he

Malik!

text

and

became

even

more

so

in the

later

W i t h regard t o principles o f a u t h o r i t y , b o t h t r a d i t i o n s

27

far as can be easily j u d g e d , f o r most o f the c o m p o n e n t parts o f the

ne

Asl,

n i i h o r i t i e s w h o l i v e d i n the second h a l f o f the second century o r a

t h a t they had achieved a stable f o r m a t before he set t o w o r k

o n t h e m . T h e g e n e r a t i o n o f H a n a f i scholars w h o w o r k e d i n t h e

in Egypt,

reveals itself as u n i f o r m l y concerned

to t i d y up the

t r a d i t i o n it i n h e r i t e d f r o m the past. These scholars represent the last stages o f the f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d o f the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n , and the beginnings o f w h a t may be called the 'classical p e r i o d ' . further, Ch.

(See

10.)

by

the

intention

to

reveal

the

opinions

of

in H e e a r l i e r .

first t h r e e o r f o u r decades o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , represented by M a r w a z I i n B u k h a r a , D a b b a s ( d . 340) in I r a q , and T a h a w i ( d . 321)

dominated

In one respect the Asl is m a r k e d l y different f r o m the

Mudawwana:

ii « ontains n o ( o r very few) f o r m a l l y c i t e d a u t h o r i t y statements, Willi

isndds

and the ipsissima

verba

o f ancient a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e

i' ,ison f o r this is very s i m p l e : such materials w e r e collected a n d 1'ieserved i n the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n i n separate c o r p o r a

concerned

l e v . w i t h p r e s e n t i n g the law t h a n w i t h d e f e n d i n g a n d j u s t i f y i n g i t , l N - e i l i c a l l y against the M a l i k I t r a d i t i o n . W h e r e a s the

qultulqdla

d e v i c e ( a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , successive c o n d i t i o n a l sentences) was i|'l>ropriate t o p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the law, the a u t h o r i t y statement or

Ill T h e Mudawwana

• . e i n p l u m f o u n d its n a t u r a l place i n a p o l e m i c a l c o n t e x t .

and the Asl o r Mabsut

have m u c h in c o m m o n ,

and m a y be j u d g e d t o represent s i m i l a r stages in the d e v e l o p m e n t

IV

o f I s l a m i c j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t , in Q a y r a w a n a n d i n B a g h d a d (and/or B u k h a r a ) . T h e M a l i k I b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n suggests that the f o r m

l .111v

a n d some o f the c o n t e n t o f t h e Mudawwana

• p o s i t i o n : t h e dialogue

was a p r o d u c t o f

Eastern influence. "' In fact the final r e d a c t i o n ( o r redactions) o f 2

the Asl (its c o m p o n e n t parts) cannot be m u c h earlier t h a n that o f the Mudawwana. longer

The Hanafi works, however,

h i s t o r y and

we

have

seen

probably had a

that the qultulqdla

formal

e m e r g e d p r i o r t o 240. I t may be accepted t h a t influence i n this p e r i o d was i n d e e d f r o m East t o W e s t , as it was again p r i o r t o the emergence o f the Muwutta' B o t h t h e Mudawwana

(see above C h . 2, Sect. V I ) . a n d the Asl

also such f o r m u l a e as a-ra'ayta,

la ba's, yujzi-hi,

format bul

etc. T h i s coexisls

w i t h a v a r i a b l e q u a n t i t y o f looser i n v e n t i v e language. T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f technical terms w h i c h occur in the Asl

but not i n the

Marwazi's text may be found embedded in Muhammad b. A b i Sahl al Sarakhsi's commentary, Al-Mabsul. i . 47 ft. Sec for another analysis of Marwazi's material, Calder, 'The ummf, 119 and 123. See Ch. 1, n. 1. 2,1

2:1

piescuts

two

major

types

and the list o f e x e m p l a .

of juristic The

former

t h e law in a m a n n e r w h i c h emphasizes the d y n a m i c ,

0 ih e t i v e , a n d p r o d u c t i v e capacities o f legal t h i n k i n g . Its characi' i r . l i e t e r m is ra'y

(a-ra'ayta,

ard, yard

i n . served

as

casuistically,

'

initially

such,

e t c . ) . Discrete rules are but

are

subject

to

p insion o r m o d i f i c a t i o n by category considerations a n d by the • I >| 'healion o f analogical thought o f one k i n d o r another. A u t h o r i t y is

1. presented

exhibit identical formulaic

language, a concept c o v e r i n g n o t o n l y the qultulqdla

juristic literature exhibits

by t h e n o t t o o distant

figures

o f M a l i k , for

the

ladman t r a d i t i o n , and, for the Kufan t r a d i t i o n , o f A b u Hanifa S e e Schacht, Origins. 98-132. 'the word istihsdn is found in some Malik! als ( i b i d . , 116-19) but not, apparently, the word qiyds. Ibid. 58—81 ,-esp. 61-70. Instances of appeal to practice in the Mudawwana at 1 ' 1 1 /, 22,39, 43Such appeal is rarer in Hanafi material but not absent: see • in I he Kitab al-Saldt, Asl, i . 72: wahakadhd amr al-nds and in the Kitab alft.in Asl, iii. 183: wa li-anna-hd ay man al-nds; and 184: li-anna aymdn al-nds e ,;.///,/ liiya etc. The tendency of the two traditions to diverge in such technical 1/ r. as appeal to practice (MalikI) and appeal to qiyds and istihsdn (Hanafi) may Tin lo competition. It should not obscure fundamental similarities in technique - I .,|,|,ioach. Cf. Ch. 8, Sect. I. e l

1

54

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

E A R L Y

T E X T S

and his t w o p u p i l s . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s examples o f these being

abandoned

period: Ashhab

for e q u i v a l e n t a n d I b n Shihab

figures

figures

o f r o u g h l y the

( M a l i k i ) ; Zafar,

same

Sufyan,

and

I b r a h i m A l - N a k h a ' i ( H a n a f i ) . E x a m p l e s , t o o , o f t h e i r views being a b a n d o n e d o r t a c i t l y c o r r e c t e d i n the light o f c o n t i n u i n g reflection o n the law. E x e m p l a , by c o n t r a s t , are static a n d n o n - d y n a m i c . T h e i r f u n c t i o n o r i g i n a l l y was

c e r t a i n l y to prove or justify the

k n o w n law a n d n o t t o act as exegetical sources f o r the law. T h e y are characteristically presented i n lists. T h e y accumulate i n i t i a l l y a r o u n d p r o b l e m points a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , areas o f inter-school dispute.

Though

there

is

no

formal

difference

between

an

e x e m p l u m a t t r i b u t e d t o , say, M a l i k and one a t t r i b u t e d t o an older a u t h o r i t y ( b o t h may figure i n one l i s t ) , there is none the less a tendency f o r e x e m p l a

to acquire

longer isndds,

giving

greater

a n t i q u i t y a n d c u l m i n a t i n g i n the a u t h o r i t y o f C o m p a n i o n s and o f the P r o p h e t . F u r t h e r , w h i l e exempla have i n t h e i r earliest phase the exclusive f o r m

o f j u r i s t i c statements,

there

is a

gradual

emergence o f anecdotal forms w h i c h reveal r a t h e r t h a n state the

H A N A F I

55

T E X T S

t r a d i t i o n is t h a t t h e y discovered a m a j o r p r o p for t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n I he f o l l o w i n g P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h : Ibn a l - Q a s i m , ' A H ibn Z a y d , Ibn W a h b , and I b n Naff, from Malik, from A b d a l l a h ibn A b l B a k r ibn M u h a m m a d ibn ' A m r ibn H a z m that he heard t b w a ibn a l - Z u b a y r say: I visited M a r w a n ibn a l - H a k a m discussed the question (tadhdkamd)

and we

what actions require [renewal of]

ivinlfi' [i.e. what actions break or cancel a previous state of purity]. Marwan said, O n e must perform wudu' after touching the penis. ' U r w a iid, 1 didn't know that. M a r w a n said, B u s r a bint Safwan told me that she heard the Prophet of G o d say, If any one of you touches his penis, he hould perform wudu'. ' U r w a went on: T h e n M a r w a n sent a messenger to I'.nsra to ask her about this. T h e messenger returned, confirming it.

I Ins ( w h i c h w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as the h a d i t h o f B u s r a ) is one o f five . \ o m p l a i n c l u d e d i n the Mudawwana,

w h e r e i t is p r o m o t e d t o

i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . I t appears also i n the Muwatta',

w h e r e i t is one o f

.is e x e m p l a . I t is the o n l y P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h used i n this c o n t e x t by ibe M a l i k i s , their other authorities being Companions or Successors.

law ( A b u Q a t a d a a n d the cat; the P r o p h e t and the w a t e r - h o l e ) and o f second-person indicative f o r m s .

i m p e r a t i v e f o r m s as opposed

to third-person

A n a l y s i s o f a simple p o i n t o f dispute b e t w e e n the t w o ancient schools w i l l p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e m o n s t r a t e the accumula­ tion

of exempla

around disputed points. The

question

arose

w h e t h e r a m a n . b e i n g in a state o f p u r i t y , was r e n d e r e d i m p u r e i f he t o u c h e d his penis. T h e terms used are mass al-dhakar

(touching

the penis, males o n l y ) and mass al-farj

(applicable t o males and

females).

mass

The

q u e s t i o n was

c a n c e l l a t i o n (intiqdd) that

a

(wudu').

person

whether

al-dhakar

entailed

o f an o r i g i n a l state o f p u r i t y and so r e q u i r e d of

ablutions

repeat

or

initiate

a

performance

T h e M a l i k i s a d o p t e d the p o s i t i o n t h a t mass

al-dhakar

d i d cause c a n c e l l a t i o n o f p u r i t y a n d r e q u i r e d r e n e w a l o f wudu';

the

Hanafis a d o p t e d the opposite p o s i t i o n . F o r present

V

2 8

purposes all t h a t need be k n o w n o f the M a l i k i

1 he Kitdb al-Asl

o r Mabsftt is an e x p o s i t o r y w o r k o f H a n a f i law ( o r

1 < * Election o f e x p o s i t o r y w o r k s ) , couched largely i n the Li!mat,

and

displaying only a minimal

qultulqdla

quantity of authority

1.d ements ( e x e m p l a ) or o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . T h e q u e s t i o n o f mass ,d dhakar

is t a k e n up and dealt w i t h i n a single

0 n i l : it does n o t cancel a state o f wudu', ••I wudu',

question-answer

does n o t r e q u i r e r e n e w a l

a n d does n o t even r e q u i r e a washing o f hands.~

9

I here exist t w o early H a n a f i p o l e m i c a l w o r k s , b o t h a t t r i b u t e d o.

Muhammad ibn al-Hasan

MuwiUia'

al-Shaybânî.

O n e is the

famous

o f M â l i k i n the recension o f M u h a m m a d i b n a l - H a s a n

ıh. 1 ice f o r t h the Muwatta'

Shaybdm).

Sometimes t h o u g h t o f as a

1 i.diki w o r k , this is i n fact a H a n a f i j u r i s t i c w o r k i n w h i c h c e r t a i n 1 1 ibk 1 positions are r e c o r d e d w i t h a view t o being c o m p a r e d w i t h • M 1 e s p o n d i n g H a n a f i p o s i t i o n s , and either c o n f i r m e d o r r e f u t e d . 1 be w o r k displays, chapter by c h a p t e r , a standard f o r m a t , o n l y

These are frequently characterized by the locution ahadu-kum: idhd sullima 'ala ahadi-kum wa-huwa yusallifa-Id yutakallain wa- 'l-yushir bi-yadi-hi. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani. Muwatta', 76 (no. 175, from 'Ulnar); see also the Prophetic hadith from Busra translated in the next paragraph but one, and the Prophetic hadith about mass al-dhakar discovered in the Shafi'T tradition, translated in Ch. 5, Sect. I V below. 2ii

1 ... lv subject t o d i s r u p t i o n . F i r s t , one or m o r e h a d i t h . P r o p h e t i c i h e r w i s e , are r e c o r d e d f r o m • 1.1.1

t o establish

the 2 9

Madinan

M â l i k (akhbara-nâ p o s i t i o n . (These

Shaybani. As!, i . 46.

Mâlik)

in

hadith

are

EARLY

56 frequentlyry

a

l

s

H A N A F I T E X T S

available i n t h e Muwatta'

o

o v e r a l l f e v w e r h a d i t h in the Muwatta'

EARLY

o f Y a h y a , but t h e r e are

Shaybani.

T h e r e are, f u r t h e r ,

hadith

ar^e

always

followed

by

i n t r o d u c e * * ! by qala Muhammad, na'khudhf)i

o

explanato to

a

comment

3 0

The MalikI

n u m e r o u s d e v i a t i o n s , w h i c h may be e x p l a i n e d o n t h e grounds o f A

theory

about

the

development

of

these

texts

and

from

Shaybani,

how

(bi-hddhdd

w h i c h occasioned o n l y a simple statement in the e x p o s i t o r y

with

T c o m m e n t . W h e r e there is disagreement there is l i k e l y

be c i t a " f i ° n o f e x e m p l a , and these may be n u m e r o u s , as in the

the

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m w i l l be advanced after c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

expressing agreement

g i v i n g some q u a l i f i c a t i o n or disagreement,

r

57

TEXTS

c o n t i n u e d organic d e v e l o p m e n t over a lengthy p e r i o d o f t i m e .

c o n s i d e r a i ble differences in a r r a n g e m e n t o f m a t e r i a l . C l e a r l y the C o r d o b a r r f i text was not the source o f the H a n a f i o n e . )

HANAFI

they deal w i t h the p r o b l e m o f mass al-dhakar.

al-Asl, lor

That problem, Kitdb

b e c o m e s , i n the p o l e m i c a l w o r k s , a focus f o r a r g u m e n t and

a considerable a c c u m u l a t i o n o f e x e m p l a . T h e almost c o m p l e t e

absence o f e x e m p l a f r o m the e x p o s i t o r y m a t e r i a l a n d t h e i r dense

text g i v e i u b e l o w , o r few. T h e y are e x p l i c i t l y referred t o , like the

a c c u m u l a t i o n i n the p o l e m i c a l m a t e r i a l helps t o c o n f i r m t h e origins

similar m u t e r i a l i n the Mudawwana,

of

as dthdr.

a

actual e x e s m p l a — w i t h t h e i r isndds—are provided and

Sometimes

the

not c i t e d , b u t a list is

m e r e l y o f the names o f a u t h o r i t i e s .

31

The explanation

c o m r ^ e n t o n the H a n a f i p o s i t i o n is closed w i t h the phrase,

e x e m p l a : t h e y are a response t o dispute. T h e Muwatta'

subject o f mass

Shaybani

cites o n l y t w o h a d i t h f r o m M â l i k o n the

al-dhakar? '

T h e first o f these is an anecdotal

:

1 x c m p l u m f r o m Sa'd i b n A b i W a q q a s in w h i c h his son scratches

T h i s is t f " i e p o s i t i o n o f A b u H a n i f a and the generality o f o u r

himself w h i l e h o l d i n g the Q u r ' a n . T h i s is available i n the

fuqahd',

Yahya b u t n o t i n the Mudawwana.

or

v&a-huwa

qawl AbiHanifa

wa-'l-'dmma

min

fuqahd'i-nd—

a v a r i a n t o f t h a t phrase.

110m i b n ' U m a r o n wudii'

T h e seC^ond early H a n a f i p o l e m i c a l w o r k is the Kitdb 'aid ahl a 1-Madina, people

of

The book

Madina.

of argument

al-Hujja

lor proof I contra

the

I t displays chapter by chapter a basic f o u r - p a r t

after ghusl.

a n d t h e Muwatta'.


at

Sect.

IV

I t is available i n b o t h the

T h e P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h f r o m Busra

above)

is

not i n c l u d e d . N o w ,

i t is

inconceivable that the H a n a f i tradition w o u l d compose a refutation • >l a f a m i l i a r M a l i k I p o s i t i o n a n d f a i l t o cite t h e m a j o r piece o f

structure:

evidence used by the latter g r o u p . I t seems necessary, t h e n , t o

1. a state m e r i t o f A b u H T f a ' s v i e w (qala Abu

Hanifa)

2. a state m e n t o f the M a l i k I p o s i t i o n (qala ahl

al-Madina)

an

3. a c o m r m e n t f r o m M u h a m m a d al-Shaybani (qala 4. a list o f e x e m p l a (akhbara-nd

i n f e r that the redactors o f the Muwatta'

Muhammad)

. ..).

T h i s w o r k is p r o b a b l y bigger t h a n the Muwatta'

Shaybani.

For the

most p a r t , o n l y areas o f dispute are r e c o r d e d , and b o t h a r g u m e n t ­ a t i o n a n d e x e m p l a can be considerably e x t e n d e d . W h e r e areas o f a g r e e m e n t enter the t e x t , I t e m 2 above is replaced by the phrase wa-kadhdiika

qala

exempla (wa-qad

Malik

ibn

Anas,

f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y by

jd'a fi-hi dthdr, akhbara-nd

. . .).

3 2

W h e r e there

is d i s p u t e - the c o m m e n t s f r o m M u h a m m a d al-Shaybam

(Item 3

above) a r e m o r e l i k e l y to be based o n r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t t h a n o n exempla

Mudawwana

Muwatta'

T h e second is a general r u l i n g

o

appeal

r

to authority. The

fourth

element

i n the

s t r u c t u r e , b e . ' b e list o f e x e m p l a , is sometimes o m i t t e d . T h o u g h recovery o f this standard structure is usually possible, there are Sec further, Goldziher, Studies, ii. 206-9. 31 Sliayba '' Muwatta', 81, para. 198; 151, para. 446. [ v ] u h a i r J 'bn al-Hasan al-Shaybani, Kitdb al-Hujja,

Mudawwana

i . 362-4, 364-6, el al.

the

in t h e i r canonical f o r m s . I t is l i k e l y t o have been a

" K u i p o f M â l i k i s i n I r a q , w h e r e t h e y w o u l d have been i n direct • 1 uitact w i t h a d o m i n a n t H a n a f i g r o u p . These c a n n o t , o f course, have been e n t i r e l y cut o f f f r o m t h e i r c o m p a n i o n s i n N o r t h A f r i c a , Hid

it is at least clear that they had shared access t o some o f the

. o n i p l a t h a t were used i n that t r a d i t i o n . T h e fact that they d i d n o t M .. / k n o w t h e B u s r a h a d i t h c e r t a i n l y suggests that t h e Jmyhdni

represents

e |>iesented

i n the

Muwatta'

a M â l i k i p o s i t i o n rather earlier t h a n that final

versions

o f the Mudawwana

and the

Muwatta'. I he qdla Muhammad

section o f the Muwatta'

Shaybdni

responds

i . , these t w o M â l i k i h a d i t h w i t h the categorical s t a t e m e n t , T h e r e is witdtV after mass al-dhakar

a n d o n this there are m a n y

11

sm;i(

were dealing

r.usra. T h i s means a g r o u p w h o d i d n o t k n o w the Muwatta'or

iç

30

Shaybdni

\Mdı a M â l i k i g r o u p w h o d i d not k n o w o r utilize the h a d i t h f r o m

S h a y b a n i . Muwatta'.

35-8.

dthdr.

5

6

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

T E X T S

E A R L Y

f r e q u e n t l y also available i n the Muwatta' o f Y a h y a , but there are o v e r a l l fewer h a d i t h in the Muwatta' Shay'bani. T h e r e are, f u r t h e r , considerable differences i n a r r a n g e m e n t o f m a t e r i a l . Clearly the C o r d o b a n text was not the source o f the H a n a f i o n e . ) ' ' T h e M â l i k i h a d i t h are always f o l l o w e d by a c o m m e n t f r o m S h a y b â n i , i n t r o d u c e d by qdla Muhammad, expressing agreement (bi-hddhdd na'khudh), o r g i v i n g some qualification or disagreement, w i t h e x p l a n a t o r y c o m m e n t . W h e r e t h e r e is disagreement there is l i k e l y to be c i t a t i o n o f e x e m p l a , and these may be n u m e r o u s , as in t h e text given b e l o w , o r few. T h e y are e x p l i c i t l y referred t o , l i k e t h e similar m a t e r i a l in the Mudawwana, as dthdr. Sometimes the actual e x e m p l a — w i t h t h e i r isndds—arc not c i t e d , b u t a list is p r o v i d e d m e r e l y o f the names o f a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n and c o m m e n t o n the H a n a f i p o s i t i o n is closed w i t h the phrase, This is the p o s i t i o n o f A b u H a n i f a and the generality o f o u r fuqaha', wa-huwa qawl Abi Hanifa wa- 'I- 'ânıma min fuqahd 'i-nâ— or a v a r i a n t o f t h a t phrase. 0

31

T h e second early H a n a f i p o l e m i c a l w o r k is the Kitcib al-Hujja 'alâ ahi al-Madina, The book of argument for proof J contra the people of Madina. I t displays chapter by chapter a basic f o u r - p a r t structure: 1. 2. 3. 4.

a a a a

statement o f A b u Hanifa's v i e w (qala Abu Hanifa) statement o f the M â l i k i p o s i t i o n (qala ahl al-Madina) c o m m e n t f r o m M u h a m m a d a l - S h a y b â n î (qala Muhammad) list o f e x e m p l a (akhbara-nd . ..).

This w o r k is p r o b a b l y bigger t h a n the Muwatta' Shaybâni. For the most p a r t , o n l y areas o f dispute are r e c o r d e d , and b o t h a r g u m e n t ­ a t i o n and e x e m p l a can be considerably e x t e n d e d . W h e r e areas o f agreement enter the t e x t , I t e m 2 above is replaced by the phrase wa-kadhdlika qala Mâlik ibn Anas, f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y by exempla (wa-qad jâ'a fi-hi dthdr, akhbara-nd . . .)? W h e r e there is d i s p u t e , the c o m m e n t s f r o m M u h a m m a d a l - S h a y b â n î ( I t e m 3 above) are m o r e l i k e l y t o be based on rational a r g u m e n t t h a n on e x e m p l a o r appeal t o a u t h o r i t y . T h e f o u r t h element i n the s t r u c t u r e , i.e. the list o f e x e m p l a , is sometimes o m i t t e d . T h o u g h recovery o f this standard s t r u c t u r e is usually possible, there arc 2

" See further, Goldziher, Studies, i i . 206-9. Shaybâni, Muwatta', 81, para. 198; 151, para. 446. - Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybânî, Kitab al-Hujja, i . 362-4, 364-6, el at. ,

H A N A F I T E X T S

n u m e r o u s d e v i a t i o n s , w h i c h m a y be e x p l a i n e d o n t h e g r o u n d s o f c o n t i n u e d organic d e v e l o p m e n t over a l e n g t h y p e r i o d o f t i m e . A t h e o r y a b o u t the d e v e l o p m e n t o f these texts and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m w i l l be advanced after c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h o w t h e y deal w i t h the p r o b l e m o f mass al-dhakar. That problem, w h i c h occasioned o n l y a simple statement i n the e x p o s i t o r y Kitab al-Asl, becomes, i n the p o l e m i c a l w o r k s , a focus f o r a r g u m e n t and lor a considerable a c c u m u l a t i o n o f exempla. T h e almost c o m p l e t e absence o f e x e m p l a f r o m t h e e x p o s i t o r y m a t e r i a l and t h e i r dense a c c u m u l a t i o n i n t h e p o l e m i c a l m a t e r i a l helps t o c o n f i r m t h e origins o f e x e m p l a : t h e y are a response t o dispute. T h e Muwatta'Shaybdnicites o n l y t w o h a d i t h f r o m M a l i k o n the subject o f mass al-dhakar? T h e first o f these is an anecdotal c x e m p l u m f r o m Sa'd i b n A b i Waqqas i n w h i c h his son scratches himself w h i l e h o l d i n g the Q u r a n . This is available i n the Muwatta' Yahya b u t n o t i n the Mudawwana. T h e second is a general r u l i n g b o m I b n ' U m a r o n wudii' after ghusl. I t is available i n b o t h the Mudawwana and the Muwatta'. T h e Prophetic h a d i t h f r o m Busra (translated at Sect. I V above) is n o t i n c l u d e d . N o w , it is inconceivable that the Hanafi tradition w o u l d compose a refutation of a f a m i l i a r M a l i k i p o s i t i o n and fail t o cite the m a j o r piece o f evidence used by the l a t t e r g r o u p . I t seems necessary, t h e n , t o infer that the redactors o f the Muwatta' Shaybdni w e r e dealing w i t h a M a l i k i g r o u p w h o d i d n o t k n o w or utilize the h a d i t h f r o m Husra. T h i s means a g r o u p w h o d i d n o t k n o w the Muwatta' or the Mudawwana in t h e i r canonical f o r m s . I t is l i k e l y t o have been a ".roup o f M a l i k i s in I r a q , where they w o u l d have been in direct contact w i t h a d o m i n a n t H a n a f i g r o u p . These c a n n o t , o f course, have been e n t i r e l y cut o f f f r o m t h e i r companions i n N o r t h A f r i c a , and i t is at least clear t h a t t h e y had shared access t o some o f the exempla that w e r e used i n t h a t t r a d i t i o n . T h e fact t h a t they d i d not use/know the B u s r a h a d i t h c e r t a i n l y suggests t h a t t h e Muwatta' Shaybdni represents a M a l i k i p o s i t i o n rather earlier than t h a t i c p r c s e n t e d i n the final versions o f the Mudawwana and the Muwatta'. 7.

The qala Muhammad section o f the Muwatta' Shaybdni responds in these t w o M a l i k i h a d i t h w i t h the categorical s t a t e m e n t , T h e r e is mi wudu' after mass al-dhakar and on this there arc m a n y dthdr.

1 1

,2

57

"

Shaybâni. Muwatta',

35-8.

5

8

EARLY

HANAFl

EARLY

TEXTS

T h e r e f o l l o w s a list o f sixteen e x e m p l a , one f r o m the P r o p h e t and fifteen f r o m C o m p a n i o n s and others. T h e y are translated i n f u l l i n the n e x t section. / VI T h e Kitab al-Hujja is b e t t e r i n f o r m e d , i t k n o w s that the chief p r o p o f the MalikTs is the P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h f r o m Busra. I t also k n o w s the t e x t o f t h e Muwatta' Shaybani: all o f the qdla Muhammad section f r o m t h a t b o o k is i n c o r p o r a t e d , w i t h o u t a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t , i n the discussion o f the Hujja. T h e Hujja, t h e n , is u n d o u b t e d l y later t h a n t h e Muwatta' Shaybani; and its M a l i k ! o p p o n e n t s k n o w and use t h e h a d i t h f r o m Busra. H e r e is the c o m p l e t e discussion f r o m t h e Hujja. (Paras. 9-25 are those t a k e n f r o m the Muwatta' Shaybani.) 34

1. A b u Hanifa says: A man touches his penis while in a state of purity, his purity is not thereby cancelled. 2. The people of Madina say: A man touches his penis while in a state of purity, he is subject to wudu'. The act of touching must be with the inside of the hand; i f he touches it with the back of his hand, he is not subject to wudu'.

3. The people of Madina used to say, before this, that if a man touches his penis with any of those parts of his body which are subject to wudu', he is required to perform wudu. Subsequently they abandoned this argument and said. He is not subject to wudu' until he touches it with the inside of his hand. 4. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shayban! says: How is the inside of the hand to be distinguished from the back? If wudii'h cancelled by touching with the inside of the hand, it would be cancelled too by touching with the back of the hand. 5. a. Consider (u-ra'aytum); i f a man touches his backside, the anus, does that cancel wudu'? They say, Yes; this and the penis are the same. b. For the hadith of the Prophet retailed by Busra bint Safwan has come to us, stating that she heard the Prophet of God say, I f one of you touches his penis, let him perform wudu'. 6. Reply is made thus (qila la-hum): I t has reached us from the Prophet of God that he was asked about that and he did not consider it subject to wudu'.

7. There is no ikhtilaf amongst us on the fact that ' A l i ibn A b i Talib, 'Abdallah ibn Mas'ud, ' A m m a r ibn Yasir, Hudhayfa ibn al-Yaman, and Shaybani. Kitab al-Hujja, i . 59-65.

H A N A F l T E X T S

59

'Imran ibn Hasin did not consider {lam yaraw) that touching the penis occasioned wudu'. A n d who is Busra bint Safwan compared with them? .S. A n d do you record this view from anyone other than her? They say: Ibn 'Umar gave this view. We reply: I b n 'Umar was a man given to extremes in wudu' and ghusl. Y o u have recorded from him that he used to splash water in his eyes if he became polluted but you do not follow him in 1 hat practice. This, it appears, is something in which Ibn 'Umar subjected himself to extremes. n. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan [al-Shaybani] says. We have many athar on I his. 1 0 . Ayyiib ibn 'Ataba, Qadi of al-Yamama from Qays ibn Talaq, that his lather related to him that a man asked the Prophet of God concerning a man who touches his penis, does he perform wudu"! The Prophet replied. Is it anything other than a part of your body? 1 1. Talha ibn ' A m r al-Makkl, from ' A t a ' ibn A b i Rabah, from Ibn Abbas: be said concerning mass al-dhakar while at prayer, I do not care whether you touch it or touch your nose. i >.. Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Madinl, from Salih, Mawla al-Taw'ama, horn I b n 'Abbas: he said. There is no wudii' after mass al-dhakar. 1 ;. Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Madinl, from Harith ibn A b i Dhubab, 1 hat he heard Sa'Id ibn al-Musayyib say, No wudu' after mass al-dhakar. \.\. A b u 'l-'Awamm al-Basri: A man asked ' A t a ' ibn A b i Rabah, saying, \ a Aba Muhammad! A man touches his penis after wudu"} One of the i',ioup answered, Ibn 'Abbas used to say, I f you think it polluting, cut it " I f . ' A t a ' said. This, by G o d , this is the view of Ibn 'Abbas. 1 , A b u Hanifa, from Hammad, from Ibrahim al-Nakha'I, from ' A l l ibn \bi Taiib: he said, concerning mass al-dhakar, 1 don't care whether I [ouch it or the end of my nose. i<>. A b u Hanifa, from Hammad, from Ibrahim al-Nakha'I, that Ibn Mas'ud was asked about wudii' after mass al-dhakar. H e said. I f it is i«illuting, cut it off! 1 /. Muhill ibn Mahraz al-Dabbi, from Ibrahim al-Nakha'I, concerning muss al-dhakar in prayer. He said, It is only a part of your body. iM. Salam ibn Sallm al-Hanafi, from Mansur ibn al-Mu'tamar, from A b u >.ivs, from Urqum ibn Shurahbll, who said, I asked 'Abdallah ibn Mas'ud, [What] i f I scratch myself during prayer and touch my penis? He " plied, It's a part of your body. HI Salam ibn Sallm al-Hanafi, from Mansur ibn al-Mu'tamar, from al'..idiisi, from al-Barra' ibn Qays, who said, I asked Hudhayfa ibn al¬ i aman concerning a man who touches his penis in prayer. He replied, It's iif.i the same as touching his head. • • Mis'ar ibn Kidam, from 'Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Nakha'I, who said, I was in .1 session with ' A m m a r ibn Yasir, and the question of mass al-dhakar 1

6o

E A R L Y

H A N A F !

T E X T S

came up. H e said, It's only a part of your body; but your hand has other places to rest! 2 1 . Mis'ar ibn K i d a m , from Ayyad ibn LaqTt, from al-Barra' ibn Qays, who said. Hudhayfa ibn al-Yaman used to say about mass al-dhakar, Touch your nose. 2 2 . Mis'ar ibn Kidam. from Qabus ibn AbT Zibyan, from A b u Zibyan, from ' A l l ibn AbT Talib, who said, I don't care whether I touch it or touch my nose or my car. 2 3 . A b u KadTna Yahya ibn al-Muhallab, from A b u Ishaq al-Shaybani, from A b u Qays ' A b d al-Rahman ibn Tharwan, from 'Alqama ibn Qays, that a man came to 'Abdallah ibn Mas'ud and said, I touched my penis while at prayer. 'Abdallah said, What! You haven't cut it off. Then he said, Is your penis any different from the rest of your body. 2 4 . Yahya ibn al-Muhallab, from fsma'il ibn AbT Khalid, from Qays ibn AbT Hazim, that a man came to Sa'd ibn AbT Waqqas and said, Is it permissible that I touch my penis during prayer? He replied, I f you know that some part of you is polluting, cut it off. 2 5 . Isma'Tl ibn Tyash, from Harlz ibn 'Uthman, from Ilabjb ibn 'Ubayd, from A b u '1-Darda', that he was asked about mass al-dhakar. He replied, It's only a part of your body. 2 6 . How can the hadith of these, all of them, and their agreement on this matter be abandoned for the hadith of Busra bint Safwan, a woman unaccompanied by any male [transmitter—to confirm her view], knowing how weak women are in transmission. For Fatima bint Qays informed 'Umar ibn al-Khaltab that her husband had divorced her three times and the Prophet had not allotted to her either lodgings or expenses. But 'Umar refused to accept her w o r d , saying, We do not consider a woman's view permissible in [establishing) our law (din). The same is true of Busra bint Safwan, we do not consider her view permissible, especially in view of the Companions who oppose her. T h e M a l i k i g r o u p against w h o m this text was d i r e c t e d held t h e v i e w t h a t b o t h the penis a n d t h e anus conveyed i m p u r i t y t h r o u g h t o u c h (Para. 5 ) . T h e r e is i n d e p e n d e n t c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e existence o f such a view amongst some M a l i k i s , in that Shafi'T t o o a d o p t e d i t . Since he had no P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h to back h i m in t h i s , i t is e v i d e n t t h a t he d e r i v e d it f r o m the M a l i k i school t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h f o r m s the basis o f so m u c h Shafi'T law. I t is presumably f r o m this same M a l i k i g r o u p t h a t the Hanafis learnt o f the a b a n d o n e d v i e w that any p a r t o f the body w h i c h was w i p e d d u r i n g wudu c o u l d become a m e d i a t o r o f i m p u r i t y (Para. 3 ) . T h i s g r o u p is not the same as the g r o u p responsible for the Mudawwana (Qayrawan) and Muwatta' Yahya ( C o r d o b a ) , b o t h o f w h i c h reject the

E A R L Y

H A N A F Î

T E X T S

6l

extension o f this rule t o the anus; and n o t q u i t e the same as t h e p. r o u p against w h i c h the Muwatta' Shaybdnl was d i r e c t e d , since 1 hat g r o u p d i d n o t use the h a d i t h o f Busra. ( I t m i g h t be the same i'.ıoup at a later p e r i o d ) . C l e a r l y t h e y are an E a s t e r n M â l i k i g r o u p w h o have developed an i n d e p e n d e n t line o f t h o u g h t derived f r o m m o r i g i n a l r u l i n g that the penis conveys i m p u r i t y t h r o u g h t o u c h . I he very c o m p l e x structure o f the text given above tends t o • <>nfirm t h a t t h e Busra h a d i t h is a late a d d i t i o n t o M â l i k i e x e m p l a . I he f o l l o w i n g analysis is, l i k e the m a t e r i a l it discusses, very • omplex. Paragraph 4 offers a clear, s i m p l e , r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t by M u h a m m a d , designed to cast d o u b t o n the M â l i k i p o s i t i o n . Paragraph 5 represents an a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n t o a fragment o f dialogue w h i c h refers t o the anus. T h e f r a g m e n t is i m p e r f e c t l y 101 i n u l a t e d since it begins in the second person and transfers t o the dure! person i n a very clumsy m a n n e r (5a). T h i s f r a g m e n t is l o r m a l l y l i n k e d by the causal p r e p o s i t i o n li-anna t o the f o l l o w i n g entence, w h i c h makes reference t o the h a d i t h o f Busra ( 5 b ) . I h i f o r t u n a t e l y this does n o t , in c o n t e x t , m a k e sense. T h e h a d i t h l i o m B u s r a does not represent a causal e x p l a n a t i o n o f the • \tension o f the ruling f r o m the penis t o the anus. T h e incoherence . 'I this passage may indicate a careless attempt t o introduce reference io materials w h i c h emerged subsequent t o the first e d i t i n g o f t h e kuâb al-Hujja. T h e s t a n d a r d f o r m a t o f the Hujja ( i n spite o f n u m e r o u s d e v i a t i o n s ) is represented precisely by Paragraphs 1, 2, uid 4. Paragraphs 5a and 5b were no d o u b t i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the n \1 o w i n g to the discovery, by the H a n a f i redactors, o f t w o items ••I i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h seemed w o r t h y o f r e c o r d , in a d d i t i o n t o the o i i g i n a l contents o f Paragraph 2. These t w o items were a category .tension o f t h e law t o i n c l u d e the anus, and a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h o lated t h r o u g h Busra. T h e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f 5a and 5b are clumsy m c o n t e x t , perhaps because they have been l i f t e d straight f r o m e M â l i k i ( o r o t h e r ) source w h e r e t h e i r c o n t e x t was d i f f e r e n t . Paragraph 6 exhibits again a very clumsy t r a n s i t i o n . T h e f o r m u l a • Ilia la-hum o u g h t t o be the answer t o an earlier qâlü or in qalu I I hey say . . . o r , i f they say . . . ) . B u t the o n l y earlier incidence o f 1l1.1l f o r m u l a (5a) is e m b o x e d w i t h i n a different dialogue structure mil refers t o the q u e s t i o n o f the anus. Paragraph 6 is i n fact a i v ' . p o n s e t o Paragraph 5b. Paragraph 5b makes the c l a i m for the M.ilikis t h a t they have a Prophetic h a d i t h w h i c h supports t h e i r

62

E A R L Y

H A N A F T

E A R L Y

T E X T S

v i e w ; a n d , as the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d o m i n a n c e o f Prophetic h a d i t h

H A N A F I

63

T E X T S

11 i n t e r r u p t s the c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n 2 and 4 ) . A n d Paragraph 8,

came t o be c o n c e d e d , the o n l y possible response t o this was a

l o o , was a d d e d as an ad hoc response t o a n o t h e r i t e m i n the M a l i k !

H a n a f i c l a i m t h a t t h e y t o o had a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h s u p p o r t i n g t h e i r

argument.

v i e w . T h i s is t h e c l a i m p u t f o r w a r d i n Paragraph 6.

i n l c r n a l l y inconsistent dialogue f o r m a t .

Paragraphs i , 2, and 4 represent a coherent piece o f p o l e m i c a l argument,

initiated

with

a

statement

of

two

rival

positions

Like

Paragraph

5 i t exhibits clumsy

j u n c t u r e and

T h e w h o l e o f Paragraphs 1 t o 8 t h e n represents the r e c o r d of an o n g o i n g a r g u m e n t . A n i n i t i a l statement o f the M a l i k ! p o s i t i o n ,

Malik!

with a possible response t o i t , was expanded by ad hoc i n t e r p o l a -

p o s i t i o n . Paragraphs 5 and 6 represent a later extension o f the

tions, designed t o act as the r e c o r d o f M a l i k ! a r g u m e n t , and as a

p o l e m i c a l a r g u m e n t , based o n a d d i t i o n a l materials e l a b o r a t i n g

prompt for Hanafi counter-argument.

followed

by

a

rational critique, directed

against

the

and s u p p o r t i n g the M a l i k ! v i e w a n d , consequently, an a d d i t i o n a l c r i t i q u e , r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e most significant p a r t o f t h a t a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . These t w o arguments

( 1 , 2, and 4 v . 5 and 6)

significantly different i n t h e i r approach t o a u t h o r i t y . T h e

Paragraphs 9 t o 24 are l i f t e d i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y f r o m the Sluiyba.nl.

Muwatta'

T h i s i n c o r p o r a t e d passage consists o f an i n t r o d u c t o r y

are

formula

first

e x e m p l a , c o m p o s e d o f isnads

(Para. 9 ) , a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h (Para.

10),

and

fifteen

and statement. T h e exempla

show

relies o n r a t i o n a l , reflective a r g u m e n t a t i o n , the second o n appeal

\ome evidence

o f g r o u p i n g according t o the first person i n the

to a u t h o r i t y ( P r o p h e t i c ) . T h e appeal t o a u t h o r i t y is c o n t i n u e d i n

iMidd:

Paragraph 7, in w h i c h M u h a m m a d gives a list o f the a u t h o r i t i e s , i n

I lanifa at 15 and 16; Salam i b n S a l i m at 18 and 19; M i s ' a r at 20, 21,

I b r a h i m i b n M u h a m m a d a l - M a d i n i at 12

and

13;

Abu

a d d i t i o n t o the P r o p h e t , w h o m he wishes t o set u p against B u s r a .

uul 22. I n o t h e r respects t h e list is m u d d l e d . Paragraphs 11 and 12

I t is permissible t o c o n j e c t u r e t h a t this appeal t o

!',o back t o the C o m p a n i o n I b n ' A b b a s , b u t Paragraph

Companions

came i n t o existence p r i o r t o the i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f the reference t o a

13 goes

k i c k o n l y t o the Successor Sa'Id i b n a l - M u s a y y i b . Paragraphs 14 t o

P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f listing a u t h o r i t i e s but not c i t i n g

10 go back t o C o m p a n i o n s , i n the case o f the last t w o , t h r o u g h

exempla

I b r a h i m a l - N a k h a ' i . Paragraph

i n d e t a i l , w i t h isndds,

Shaybdni.

I t represents

is f a m i l i a r f r o m

the

Muwatta'

an o l d e r type o f a r g u m e n t w h i c h

was

phased o u t as t h e p r i n c i p l e o f (near exclusive) appeal t o P r o p h e t i c hadith

began

to

dominate.

I t seems perfectly

possible

that

17 goes back o n l y t o I b r a h i m al-

N a k h a ' i . T h e r e m a i n i n g items all go back to C o m p a n i o n s . Clearly

these items c o u l d have emerged

at any

time.

The

H c u m u l a t i o n o f so many e x e m p l a on one p o i n t weakens their

Paragraph 7 o r i g i n a l l y came i m m e d i a t e l y after Paragraph 4. I n its

. ilectiveness.

present c o n t e x t , w i t h the r h e t o r i c a l question asking that these

inadual

authorities be contrasted w i t h Busra, it involves a subtle b r e a k d o w n

| n o b l e m , based o n r i d i c u l e , expressed w i t h various degrees o f

of logic. B u s r a , after a l l , does n o t act as an a u t h o r i t y i n her o w n

noiiy

r i g h t , b u t as a t r a n s m i t t e r o f t h e Prophet's r u l i n g . T h e personal

1'iophet

rulings o f five C o m p a n i o n s c o u l d not stand against a P r o p h e t i c

• \pressions were a t t r i b u t e d t o a n u m b e r o f k n o w n masters and

B u t one may infer that what h a p p e n e d was the

emergence

of

a

consistent

a n d w i t ( s e e especially got

one

of

the

Hanafi

20 and 23).

duller

response

to this

It seems a p i t y the

f o r m u l a t i o n s . These

various

h a d i t h , n o t at least w i t h o u t some c o m m e n t and a r g u m e n t . T h e

acquired a p p r o p r i a t e tsnads.

emergence o f a Prophetic h a d i t h s u p p o r t i n g the H a n a f i p o s i t i o n

< m e o f t h e last t o emerge. O n c e i n existence and a l l i e d t o a t h e o r y

shows

advocating the sufficiency o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h as legal a u t h o r i t y , i t

that

the

point

was

i r r e s i s t i b l e , t h o u g h i t had

to

be

a c c o m p a n i e d by a careful c r i t i q u e o f Busra's capacity (Para. 26). It

is thus possible

to propose

an o l d e r

text consisting

of

Paragraphs i , 2, 4, and 7 ( t h e l a t t e r possibly e x c l u d i n g at first the those

points

became k n o w n t o the H a n a f i redactors, and Paragraph

rhetorical

question).

Paragraph

5

developed

as

6 was

T h e Prophetic h a d i t h must have been

w o u l d p r e v e n t the c o n t i n u e d a c c u m u l a t i o n o f C o m p a n i o n and • •Iher e x e m p l a . T h e Muwatta'

Shaybdni,

t h e n , w h e r e this h a d i t h

was first r e c o r d e d , m i g h t reasonably be supposed t o have come t o (be e n d o f its organic g r o w t h at about the t i m e w h e n the Prophetic b . i d i t h was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the t e x t , f o r , at t h a t t i m e , a different

added in response t o the new p o i n t s . Paragraph 3 was i n t e r p o l a t e d

m o d e o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n had e m e r g e d . ( T h e l o n g list o f C o m p a n i o n

at w h a t e v e r p o i n t t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n came t o the Hanafis ( t h o u g h

• \ e m p l a w e r e n o t used in subsequent

times: the h a d i t h o f the

6

4

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

T E X T S

P r o p h e t sufficed, w i t h o n l y i n c i d e n t a l reference t o C o m p a n i o n s as c o n f i r m a t o r y o f its i m p l i c a t i o n s . ) I n c o r p o r a t e d next t o a passage w h i c h grew up i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n the Kitdb al-Hujja, this passage (Paras, 9 to 25), n o t surprisingly, does n o t fit. Consider h o w Paragraph 7 i n its present f o r m a n d p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the c o m p l e t e text seems t o act as i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the e x e m p l a c i t e d at Paragraphs 11 t o 25; but the a u t h o r i t i e s cited d o n o t m a t c h . N o t a b l y , I b n ' A b b a s , cited thrice i n the i n t e r p o l a t e d passage (Paras, i t , 12, 14), is o m i t t e d f r o m Paragraph 7; as are Sa'd i b n A b i Waqqas and A b u '1-Darda' (Paras. 24 and 25). C o n v e r s e l y , T m r a n i b n H a s i n , w h o is m e n t i o n e d at Paragraph 7, is not f o u n d i n the i n t e r p o l a t e d passage. T h e composer o f Paragraph 7 o b v i o u s l y h a d no idea about the passage f r o m the Muwatta' Shaybani t h a t was t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d in his w o r k . Paragraph 26, cut o f f f r o m Paragraph 7 by the lengthy i n t e r p o l a t e d passage, p r o b a b l y f o l l o w e d it d i r e c t l y w h e n first w r i t t e n . T h e r h e t o r i c a l question about Busra w h i c h c o m p l e t e d Paragraph 7 r e q u i r e d some k i n d o f r e p l y , and this is p r o v i d e d e x p l i c i t l y at Paragraph 26, in an argument designed t o u n d e r m i n e her a u t h o r i t y . T h e last line o f Paragraph 26 c o m m e n t s on the C o m p a n i o n s w h o oppose Busra: the reference is t o the list o f C o m p a n i o n s in Paragraph 7 and not t o the i n t e r p o l a t e d passage. F o r t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d passage contains a Prophetic h a d i t h and t h a t , after a l l , was a rather m o r e t r i u m p h a n t a r g u m e n t t h a n any n u m b e r o f C o m p a n i o n e x e m p l a . B u t the w r i t e r o f Paragraph 26 d i d n o t k n o w a b o u t i t , for the reference t o a Prophetic h a d i t h at Paragraph 6 and the e x p l i c i t p r o v i s i o n o f one at Paragraph 10 were b o t h later interpolations. A n d so o n . A n a l y s i n g these texts i n t o t h e i r layers o f juristic t h i n k i n g is a process t h a t m i g h t be c o n t i n u e d i n d e f i n i t e l y . T h e conclusions reached have, necessarily, a tentative aspect. For the present, n o m o r e specific conclusion is aimed at t h a n that early Islamic j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e displays a u n i f o r m susceptibility t o organic d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e a t t r i b u t i o n s t o specific n a m e d authors are n o t t o be t r u s t e d . T h e processes o f c a n o n i z a t i o n , w h e r e b y a text ceased t o d e v e l o p , and became a source for new m a t e r i a l or a basis for c o m m e n t a r y , are also unclear. T h e emergence o f a firm t h e o r y o f t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e and sufficiency o f Prophetic h a d i t h as exegetical source o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the law m a y be a reason f o r the a b a n d o n m e n t o f a m o d e o f text p r o d u c t i o n that clearly had a

E A R L Y

H A N A F I

T E X T S

65

lengthy h i s t o r y . W h e n the modes o f exegetical a r g u m e n t had been assimilated it became possible t o r e t u r n t o the o l d e r texts and d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r consistency w i t h the new f o r m s o f a r g u m e n t . T h e t w o H a n a f i texts discussed i n this section are clearly school texts a n d b o t h have d e v e l o p e d over a p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h e y represent, p r e s u m a b l y , the p o l e m i c a l approaches o f t w o different H a n a f i schools i n the face o f (local) M á l i k í o p p o s i t i o n . T h e Muwatta' Shaybani has a d o p t e d an approach based on the c i t a t i o n o f e x e m p l a , all o f w h i c h c o n t a i n M a l i k i n t h e i r isndds, but m a k e consistent appeal t o m o r e ancient a u t h o r i t y , i n c l u d i n g , e r r a t i c a l l y , Prophetic. T h e response t o these exempla is a parallel development o f H a n a f i e x e m p l a , d i s p l a y i n g r o u g h l y parallel characteristics. T h e e d i t o r i a l f o r m a t o f this t e x t , based almost exclusively on discrete e x e m p l a , is capable o f considerable d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h o u t any o b v i o u s surface d i s r u p t i o n o f a r g u m e n t . I t is accordingly a m u c h m o r e consistent w o r k , i n its present f o r m , t h a n the Kitdb al-Hujja. T h e basic f o r m a t o f t h e latter w o r k does n o t m a k e appeal t o e x e m p l a b u t t o statements o f t h e l a w , r e p o r t e d o n the a u t h o r i t y o f M a l i k (the people o f M a d i n a ) and A b ü H a n i f a , w i t h o u t recourse l o m o r e ancient a u t h o r i t y . A n d the earliest layer o f a r g u m e n t a t i v e m a t e r i a l seems t o rely o n r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t r a t h e r t h a n e x e m p l a . N o n e t h e less various layers o f a r g u m e n t based o n exempla have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the t e x t , i n c l u d i n g m a n y o f the exempla that h a d e m e r g e d in the Muwatta' Shaybani. T h e w o r k as a w h o l e therefore shows m a n y signs o f surface d i s r u p t i o n and s t r u c t u r a l incoherence. T h e r e are g r o u n d s for suspecting that the oldest layers o f t h e Hujja are o l d e r t h a n the Muwatta' Shaybani, b u t that e d i t o r i a l and r e d a c t i o n a l a c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e d t o a p e r i o d after the Muwatta' Shaybani had closed. In b o t h cases a scenario for the end o f r e d a c t i o n a l activity must include the decisive emergence o f Prophetic h a d i t h as a means for j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f the law. T h e w h o l e p r i n c i p l e o f appeal t o r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t (the early stages o f the Hujja), or appeal t o accumulated < b m p a n i o n and o t h e r e x e m p l a (the Muwatta' Shaybani and, a p p a r e n t l y , t h e later stages o f the Hujja), u p o n w h i c h these b o o k s were b u i l t , was called i n t o q u e s t i o n . Exegetical a r g u m e n t a b o u t the significance o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h became the basic p r i n c i p l e o f 111 ristic scholarship and all o t h e r forms o f a r g u m e n t t o o k o n a m a r g i n a l status. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f exegetical a r g u m e n t o f this f i n d is already evident i n the n u m e r o u s P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h w h i c h

66

EARLY

HANAFl

TEXTS

have e n t e r e d the texts o f the Hujja and the Muwatta' Shaybdni, but i n t h a t c o n t e x t they are n o t fully developed and always subject to interference f r o m the accumulated n u m b e r o f C o m p a n i o n exempla. T h e HanafT scholar most associated w i t h the development of exegetical a r g u m e n t based o n Prophetic materials, w i t h i n the b r o a d t r a d i t i o n of HanafT t h o u g h t , is T a h a w i ( 2 3 9 - 3 2 1 ) , w h o l i v e d in E g y p t a n d is said t o have received m u c h o f his j u r i s t i c t r a i n i n g f r o m a l - M u z a m , the p u p i l of Shafi'I (see, for MuzanT, C h . 5; for T a h a w i , C h . 9, Sects. I I and I V ) . A plausible d a t i n g for the final redactions o f these early H a n a f i p o l e m i c a l texts w o u l d be the l i f e t i m e , possibly the early l i f e t i m e , of T a h a w i ; that is, in t h e i r present f o r m , they represent the p r o d u c t o f 0.250 A H . T h i s d a t i n g is s u p p o r t e d by the similar d a t i n g for the Mudawwana, which, in f o r m a l presentation, literary technique, terminology, and principles o f a u t h o r i t y ( i n c l u d i n g the p a r t i a l i n t r u s i o n o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h ) is, i n that p a r t o f its text w h i c h lists e x e m p l a , very similar t o the HanafT m a t e r i a l . P r o v i d i n g an a p p r o x i m a t e date for these texts is a practical convenience, b u t a necessarily tentative one. T h e organic nature of the texts precludes a n y t h i n g definitive o r final. T h e HanafT p o l e m i c a l texts are c o m p a n i o n s t o the e x p o s i t o r y w o r k s o f the Asl, a n d , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , seem t o be o f roughly similar date i n their d e v e l o p m e n t and r e d a c t i o n .

4

T H E KITAB AL U OF S H A F T I 1 M u h a m m a d i b n Idris al-Shafi'T ( d . 204) has become for W e s t e r n scholars, since the w r i t i n g s o f Joseph Schacht, the intellectual heavyweight o f early M u s l i m j u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g t o Schacht, he was die first t o argue consistently, v e h e m e n t l y , and absolutely that legal rulings must be based o n Prophetic h a d i t h ; he w a s one o f the first t o develop a systematic approach to h a d i t h a n d a t e r m i n o l o g y " I legal a r g u m e n t that fitted w i t h the p r i o r i t y he accorded t o h a d i t h ; the first t o elaborate a set o f h c r m e n e u t i c rules w h i c h p e r m i t a consistent a p p r o a c h t o revealed sources ( i . e . i n his Risdla, lor w h i c h see C h . 9, Sect. V ) . 'ShafiTs legal t h e o r y is a magnificently consistent system a n d superior by far to the doctrines o f the ancient schools. It is the achievement of a p o w e r f u l i n d i v i d u a l m i n d , a n d at the same t i m e the logical o u t c o m e o f a process w h i c h started w h e n [ h a d i t h ] f r o m the IMophet were first adduced as a r g u m e n t s . ' ' These conclusions derive f r o m , are i n d e e d c o m p l e t e l y justified b y , the contrast between the t e r m i n o l o g y and a r g u m e n t a t i o n characteristic o f '•hafi'i's Kitdb al-Utnm and those evident i n o t h e r early j u r i s t i c works. I t m a y , h o w e v e r , be n o t e d as a p r o b l e m that the magnificent t o t a l i t y o f his j u r i s t i c achievement was n o t recognized i'v M u s l i m w r i t e r s , and had no tangible influence o n j u r i s t i c i l i o u g h t , before perhaps the b e g i n n i n g o f the f o u r t h century. M u s l i m sources d o not give Shafi'T so h i g h o r so exceptional a talus, since, in the e n d , each of the m a j o r schools claimed f o r its 1.Minder a n d his p u p i l s a r o u g h l y similar concern for Prophetic h a d i t h , and a r o u g h l y s i m i l a r c o m b i n a t i o n of p i e t y and b r i l l i a n c e . Seliacht, Origins, 137. Schacht's conclusion depends on the totality of his ii-ument through pp. 1-137. 1

68

T H E KHAR

AL-UMM

OF

SHAFl'l

THE

KITÂB

At.-VMM

OF

69

SHAFl'l

T h e M a l i k i s perhaps lay greater stress o n p i e t y , the Hanafis o n

k n o w n as rdwial-kutub

b r i l l i a n c e ; b u t b o t h M a l i k and A b u H a n i f a have attracted tales

after the death o f Shafi'i; he was the t h i r d successor to Shafi'i, a f t e r

that testify t o t h e i r o u t s t a n d i n g w i s d o m , w i t , and p i e t y . So t o o f o r

a l - B u w a y t i ( d . 231)

Shafi'i. H e was b o r n i n t h e year 150, perhaps o n the very day t h a t

t r a d i t i o n makes m u c h o f R a b f ' s m e m o r y . Shafi'i said, "The b e s t o f

al-jadida.

R a b f d i e d i n 270, sixty-six y e a r s

and a l - M u z a n î ( d . 264). U n s u r p r i s i n g l y

the

A b u H a n i f a d i e d , w h i c h was an auspicious start t o a life d e d i c a t e d

y o u i n m e m o r y is R a b T a n d he is the most useful t o m e ' ; w h i c l h is

to fiqh, t h o u g h w h e t h e r he was b o r n i n G h a z z a , A s c a l o n , or the

certainly true, though M u z a n l . too, transmitted m u c h .

Yemen

is n o t sure.

His biographer

Bayhaqi

( d . 458)

prefers

G h a z z a , a site w h i c h , b e i n g in the H o l y L a n d , he considered the most fitting o f the t h r e e . C o n v e r t e d by a vision t o the study of of

debate

with

Muhammad

b.

al-Hasan

al-Shaybani

in

B a g h d a d . ( H e thus i n h e r i t e d the best qualities o f the t w o o l d e r schools.) H e a r r i v e d i n B a g h d a d , a prisoner o f H a r u n a l - R a s h i d , h a v i n g o p p o s e d the G o v e r n m e n t w h i l e o n service i n t h e Y e m e n (a certain degree o f o p p o s i t i o n t o governors was de rigueur

amongst

the early great j u r i s t s — o r t h e i r b i o g r a p h e r s ) . H e t r a v e l l e d m u c h b u t e v e n t u a l l y settled i n Fustat in Egypt in 198 ( o r 199 or 200) and d i e d t h e r e i n 204, a date first m e n t i o n e d by M a s ' u d i ( d . 346). T h e earliest r e c o r d e d praise f o r Shafi'I is t h a t f o u n d i n the Kitdh wa-'l-ta'di! Kitab

al-Ma'drif

comprehensive

o f I b n Q u t a y b a ( d . 276), w h i c h m e n t i o n s most o f td-ra'y),

and also gives a

list o f the t r a n s m i t t e r s o f h a d i t h (ashdb

H e achieves one m e n t i o n in I b n Q u t a y b a ' s Ta'wit hadith,

where

al-hadith).

Mukhtalif

al-

i t is asserted o f a p a r t i c u l a r h a d i t h that it

was

accepted by some fuqaluV, Rahawayh

al-jarh

o f i b n A b i H a t i m ( d . 327). He is not m e n t i o n e d in the

the early j u r i s t s ( u n d e r t h e r u b r i c ashdb

( d . 238).

amongst t h e m Shafi'i and Ishaq i b n

I f Shafi'i

was

an

outstanding jurist

f o u n d e r o f a s c h o o l , I b n Q u t a y b a had n o t n o t i c e d .

and

2

1 lis w o r k s are said t o have been preserved in I r a q and in E g y p t , the f o r m e r b e i n g k n o w n as the ' o l d ' (qaditn) the ' n e w ' (jadid)

b o o k s , the latter as

b o o k s . It seems that o n l y the latter have been

p r e s e r v e d , as t r a n s m i t t e d by A l - R a b i ' i b n S u l a y m a n a l - M u r a d i , For ShaliTs biography, see Hcffening in £/(i) and Schacht, Origins. 330; also Joseph Schacht, ' O n ShaliTs life and personality'. Ahmad b. Husayn al-Bayhaqi, Mandqib: prefers Ghazza. i . 74; Shati'T's conversion to fiqh, i . 0 2 - 9 ; his involve­ ment in politics, i . 10(1-7 and 1 11-17. Schacht gives his arrival in Egypt in 198 (following KindT); Bayhaqi gives 199 or 200 ( i . 237 ft.). ' A b d al-Rahman Ibn A b i Hatim's biography of ShatiT, Al-jarh wa-'l-ta'dll, i i i ( i ) , 201-4; see also Ibn A b i Hatim, Adah al-Shdfi'i wa-mandqibu-hii. The latter is certainly not by Ibn A b i Hatim ( d . 327); it is possible to wonder whether the totality of the contents of the Jarh wa-'l-ta'dil emerged prior to 327. 'Abdallah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba, Mukhtalif al-hadith, 314. for the single mention of Shafi'I. 2

il

fiqh,

Shafi'i t r a i n e d first w i t h M a l i k i n M a d i n a and later perfected the art

3

I lere f o l l o w s the passage i n the IJmm,

as t r a n s m i t t e d by

w h i c h deals w i t h the susceptibility o f w a t e r

to impurity.

Rabf, The

passage is necessarily l e n g t h y , f o r the arguments are b o t h m o r e c o m p l e x and m o r e i n t e g r a t e d t h a n any o f the passages p r e v i o u s l y presented i n this w o r k . 1.1. He said: A l l haranı things (al-muharram kullu-hu) are the same; i f they fall into less than five qirba of water, they render it impure (najis). 1.2. I f a dead fish falls into a small quantity of water, or a dead locust, it does not become impure (lam yanjas); because they are halal when dead. 1.3. Likewise all things possessed of life (kullu mâ kâna min dhawat alarwah), whether they live in water or otherwise, if they fall into water t h a t is susceptible to impurity, being dead, they render the water impure. 1.4. That is if they have a blood-system (idhd kân mimmîı la-hu nafsun sa lid).

1.5. As to things which do not have a blood-system such as Hies, beetles, etc., there are two views on these: 1. I f these things die in water of small or large quantity, they do n o t impart impurity. Those who say this argue as follows: I f someone says, lint they are carrion, so how can you claim that they do not i m p a r t impurity? we reply, They do not change the water at all and they do n o t have a blood-system. I f proof is demanded, we say, The Prophet of G o d commanded that if a fly falls into water, it should be dipped into it. H e ordered the same for a fly that falls into foodstuffs. Now, a fly may well ciie when dipped in this manner. The Prophet would not order it to be d i p p e d into water and food if, on dying, it caused impurity; for that w o u l d constitute a deliberate imparting of impurity. 2. I f these things die in something susceptible to impurity, it is rendered impure. For these things are forbidden (muharram). The Prophet m a y have ordered the dipping of the dead fly because of the curative property contained in i t . Also, the most probable thing is that it will not die. For the successors to Shali'i, Muhammad b. A h m a d al-'Abbâdî, Tabaqat. 7¬ 14; ' A b d al-Wahhfib b. 'AIT al-Subki. Tabaqat. i i . 132-9 ( R a b f ) , 162—70 iBuwayti), and 93-109 (Muzani). Also Bayhaqi, Mandqib, ii. 337 ft.

7

o

THE

KIT

A B

AL-UMM

OF

S H A F l ' l

M y preferred view is that anything which is haram to eat, if it falls into water . . . and dies there, imparts impurity. This applies to beetles, flies, mosquitos, and fleas. 2. He said: Bird droppings of aii types, whether from birds whose flesh is eaten or from birds whose flesh is not eaten, if they mix with water, render it impure; because they become liquid on mingling with the water. 3 . 1 . Rabf said: The sweat of a Christian woman, of a ritually impure [woman], and of a menstruating woman is pure (tahir). 3 . 2 . Likewise the Magian [person]. 3 . 3 . The sweat of all animals (ddbba) is pure. 3 . 4 . The su'r of animals (ddbba) and predatory animals (siba"), all of them, is pure; except the dog and the pig. 4 . Rabl' said: That is ShafiTs view. 5.1. I f a man prepares some water, then uses his tooth-stick, dipping it into the water, he may perform wudu'vrith that water. For, the most that is on the tooth-stick is saliva; and if he spits or hawks or blows his nose into the water, it does not cause impurity. 5 . 2 . Even an animal (ddbba) which drinks at water, thereby mixing its saliva with i t , does not impart impurity; except for the dog and the pig. 6. He said: Likewise if [a person or an animal] sweats and the sweat drips into the water, it does not impart impurity; because the sweat of men and animals ('araq al-insan wa-'l-ddbba) is not impure, no matter where the sweat comes from . . . 7. I f something haram is present in water, even if the water is plentiful, [the water] is not purified by any amount of scooping from it. But if the water is so plentiful that the haram thing becomes as it were non-existent . . . the water is pure. This can be achieved by pouring water on to (yusabbu 'aid) [the original bo'dy of water in sufficient quantities to render the haram thing non-existent] or, if it is a spring, if the water of the spring reaches such quantities etc. . . . 8. He said: I f a vessel containing a small quantity of water becomes impure, or if the earth or built-up well containing a large quantity of water [becomes impure], as a result of a haram thing that mixes with the water and remains in i t ; [if] then other water is poured on (subba 'aid) such that the haram thing becomes non-existent in i t ; or [if], the water being small in quantity and susceptible to impurity, other water is poured into it so that it reaches a quantity not susceptible to impurity; and if the haram thing is removed; then the water is pure and the vessel or the earth which contains the water is also pure. For, they became impure only through the impurity of the water. I f the status of the water returns to purity, so likewise does the status of that which the water touches. It is not permissible (lam yajuz) that the status of the water be changed and not that of its container, for it follows the status of the water, becoming pure if the water is pure, impure if the water is impure.

THE

KIT

A B

AL-UMM

OF

71

SHAFT'i

0.1. If the water is small in quantity, in a vessel, and some impurity tiiajasa) becomes mixed with i t , then the water is poured away, and the vessel is washed. I prefer (ahabbu dayya) that it be washed three times. Hut if it is washed once completely, it is purified. >>..'.. This is true of all [impure] things that become mixed with water except if a dog or a pig drink at it. In the latter case it is only purified if it is washed seven times, the first or the last of these washings to be carried out with earth. i o . [ . I f this happens at sea where there is no earth then it is washed with something which functions like earth for cleaning purposes, like potash or palm-leaves or such like, i n . 2 . On this, there are two views: 1. The vessel is not purified except it be cleaned with earth. 1. I t is purified by that which is better than or more cleansing than earth, such as those things I have mentioned. This resembles our views on 1 leansing after defecation (istinjd'). 1 1.1. Since the dog and the pig cause impurity by their drinking at water, 1 hey cause impurity too by any part of their body that touches the water, even i f there is no [other] impurity (najdsa) on their bodies. 1 1.2. A l l animals that do not cause impurity by drinking, also do not cause impurity by inserting their front or hind limbs or any other part of 1 heir body into water. Unless there is filth on [those parts of the body concerned], in which case it is the filth which causes impurity, not the body. 1 •. 1. I f someone should say (hi qdla qd'd): Why do you rule that a vessel, at which a dog or a pig has drunk, is purified only by seven washes, whereas, if carrion falls into [the water], or blood, [the vessel] is purified by one washing . . . Answer is made (qda): in obedience to the Prophet of (iod. 12.2. Shaii'I said, from Ibn 'Uyayna, from A b u al-Zinad, from al-A'raj, bom A b u Hurayra, that the Prophet of God said, I f a dog laps at the vessel of any one of you, let him wash the vessel seven times. 12.3. From M a l i k , from A b u al-Zinad, from al-A'raj, from A b u Hurayra, 1 hat the Prophet of God said [the same], 1 2 . 4 . From Ibn 'Uyayna, from Ayyub ibn A b l Tamlma, from Muhammad ibn Slrin, from A b u Hurayra, that the Prophet of God said, I f a dog laps at the vessel of any one of you, let him wash it seven times, the first or the last time with earth. 12.5. Shafi'I said: hence we rule on the dog in accord with the command of the Prophet. I v The pig is, if not worse than the dog, at least not better, so we rule on II by analogy (qiyds) with the dog (fa-qulnd

bi-hi qiydsan

'alay-hi).

14.1. We rule on other types of impurity (najdsa) in accord with [the hadith] from Ibn 'Uyayna, from Hisham ibn 'Urwa, from his wife Fatima

THE

72

KIT

A B AI.-UMM

OF SFIAFI

THE

I

bint a l - M u n d h i r , from her grandmother A s m a ' bint A b i B a k r . She asked the Prophet of G o d about menstrual blood which fell onto clothing. H e said, R u b it, scratch it, then sprinkle it with water and pray in it. [4.2.

From

Malik,

from

H i s h a m ibn

'Urwa,

from

Fatima

bint

al-

M u n d h i r , from A s m a ' , from the wife of the Prophet of G o d . . . [a variant of 14.1 j . 14.3.

Shafi'I said: S o , the Prophet of G o d c o m m a n d e d the washing of

menstrual blood, specifying no particular number of times . . . [and 14.4.

H e said: A l l instances of impurity (al-ajnds 'aid al-kalb).

are judged by

Because [the ruling on the latter] is

a [special requisite of] worship (li-anna-hu 14.5.

kullu-ha)

on menstrual blood . . . T h e y are not judged by analogy

on the dog (lam naqis-hu

ta'ablmd).

D o n ' t you see that the word ' w a s h ' can signify once or more than

seven times; and vessels are cleaned by one and by less than seven washes; and seven or more washes is the same as less than seven [in relation to the word ' w a s h ' [ ? 15.1.

H e said: T h e r e is no impurity in any living thing that touches a small

quantity of water, whether by drinking from it, or by putting any of its limbs into it; except the dog and the pig. Impurity lies only in dead [animals]. 15.2.

D o n ' t you see that a man may ride a donkey that sweats while he is

upon it, and his touching the donkey is halal? 15.3.

I f someone says: What is the proof for that? R e p l y is made (in qala

qd'il . . . 15.4.

qila):

F r o m Ibrahim ibn M u h a m m a d , from D a w u d ibn a l - H a s i n , from his

father, from Jabir ibn ' A b d a l l a h , that the Prophet of G o d was asked, D o we perform wudu'

with the leavings of the donkey? f fe replied. Y e s , and

with that of all predatory animals. 15.5.

Shafi'T said, from Sa'id ibn S a l i m , from Ibn A b i I l a b l b a , or A b u

H a b l b a — R a b f was u n c e r t a i n — f r o m D a w u d ibn a l - H a s i n , from Jabir ibn ' A b d a l l a h , from the Prophet of G o d , the same. 15.6.

F r o m M a l i k , from Ishaq ibn ' A b d a l l a h , from Harnlda bint ' U b a y d

ibn R i f a ' a , from K a b s h a bint K a ' b ibn Malik who was wife to the son of A b u Q a t a d a , that A b u Q a t a d a came in one day . . . [the story of A b u Q a t a d a and the cat; see C h . 2, Sect. I I I ] . 15.7.

Shafi'T said, from a reliable m a n , from Y a h y a ibn A b i KathTr, from

' A b d a l l a h son of A b u O a t a d a , from his father, from his father, from the Prophet of G o d , the same thing. [5.8.

Al-UMM

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73

latter is due to some particular quality (li-ma'nan). But the prohibition on keeping the dog [sic] is arbitrary (Id li-ma'nan). 16.2. A n d [because] dogs have the effect of decreasing the good works of those who keep them—though this is not due to any particular quality in the dog (min ghayri ma'nan)—by one or two qirdts every day. 16.3. A n d [the dog] is distinguished also in so far as the angels do not enter a house in which there is a dog; and for other reasons. r6.4. So, the leavings (fad!) of all animals, those whose flesh is eaten and those whose flesh is not eaten, is halal; except for the dog and the pig. 4

therefore once will suffice]. analogy (qiyds)

KITÁB

Shafi'I said: H e n c e we judge by analogy

(qisnu)

based on our

understanding of what we have described.

Lines o f cleavage in this passage and t h r o u g h o u t the IJinin arc in part m a r k e d by the f o r m u l a e , qala (he said), qála al-Shdfi'i(Shafi'T said), or qala al-Rabi' ( R a b f said). These predominantly introduce and d e m a r c a t e passages w h i c h c o n t a i n a larger o r smaller body of logically related material, appropriately distinguished from adjacent passages. See, for e x a m p l e . Paragraphs 1, 2, and 3. O n other occasions, the qala al-Shdfi'i is a c o n c l u d i n g rather than an i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a , as at 12.5, 14.3, and 15.8; i n each of these instances the qala al-Shdfi'i follows a series o f Prophetic h a d i t h and derives f r o m it a j u r i s t i c c o n c l u s i o n , or at least points to the p r e c e d i n g list as evidence for an already postulated juristic c o n c l u s i o n . O n still o t h e r occasions a single qala may introduce a body o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h exhibits one or several changes of subjectm a t t e r o r o t h e r logical d i s j u n c t u r e . Paragraph 7, for e x a m p l e , t h o u g h f o r m a l l y subsumed u n d e r the qala o f Paragraph 6, initiates a new t o p i c , m o r e clearly related to the f o l l o w i n g than to the preceding p a r a g r a p h . A f t e r the i n t r o d u c t o r y qala o f Paragraph 8 there is n o subsequent i n t r o d u c t o r y qala u n t i l Paragraph 15 ( t h o u g h there are the c o n c l u d i n g formulae at 12.5 and 14.3), in spite o f considerable v a r i a t i o n i n subject-matter. T h e qala al-Rabi' o f Paragraph 4 refers back t o Paragraph 3. F o r m a l l y at least, i t is unclear w h e t h e r it is also i n t e n d e d to cover Paragraph 5. It is p r o b a b l y best t o read Paragraph 4 as an i n t e r p o l a t i o n called into existence by the a t t r i b u t i o n o f Paragraph 3 t o R a b í ' : the rules there a t t r i b u t e d to R a b f are thus b r o u g h t u n d e r the a u t h o r i t y of Shafi'T, by r e i n t r o d u c i n g R a b í ' and having h i m relegate his o w n f o r m u l a t i o n to Shafi'T. The anonymity Paragraphs 1, 2,

of an i n t r o d u c t o r y qála. for example 6, and 8, f o r m a l l y , presents problems

1(1.1. T h e difference between the dog and the pig in contrast to other animals whose flesh is not eaten, is that the prohibition on keeping the

4

Muhammad b. Idris ShaliT, Umm. i . 5.10-7.6/4.15-6.7.

at of

T H E K I T À K AL-UMM

74

THE

identification.

W h e r e the last e x p l i c i t l y identified

KIT

All

AL-UMM

OV

S H A El

1

tradent

OF S H A F l ' l

75

was

w o m a n ) . S i m i l a r p r o b l e m s h a d been raised w i t h i n , f o r e x a m p l e ,

al-Shafi'I, as is the case f o r Paragraphs i a n d 2, it is reasonable t o

the M a l i k ! t r a d i t i o n w h e r e t h e r e was c o n c e r n w i t h the p r o b l e m o f

assume t h a t t h e p r o n o u n i n qcila refers t o h i m . B u t for Paragraphs

wives, especially C h r i s t i a n wives. T h i s nuclear passage, t h e n , can

6 and 8, t h e last-named t r a d e n t was R a b f (at 3 a n d 4 ) , a n d it m i g h t

be i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g its origins as a sequence o f responsa

s

in t u r n seem reasonable t o assume that the p r o n o u n here refers t o

r e l a t e d t o m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s . I t was later e x p a n d e d by the a d d i t i o n

him.

of

Such

Mukhtasar the Umm,

is n o t the case.

Similar problems

abound

in the

o f a l - M u z a n i ; and i n a l l cases, t h e r e and here i n i t appears that the later t r a d i t i o n read the a n o n y m o u s

qdla as s i g n i f y i n g Shafi'I.

a

rule

about

the

Magian,

Majüs!

(3.2).

This

expansion,

h o w e v e r , is i l l o g i c a l , for the o r i g i n a l rule r e f e r r e d t o w o m e n — p r o b a b l y w i v e s , contact w i t h whose sweat was a r o u t i n e p o s s i b i l i t y l o r m a r r i e d m e n . T h e e x p a n s i o n refers t o M a g i a n s i n general inajûsï

versus al-nasrâniyyà)

w h i c h represents

i s s u e . F o l l o w i n g the t h e m e o f h u m a n sweat, t h e passage

ill

expanded

at 3.3

t o i n c l u d e a general

(al-

quite a different was

r u l i n g o n the sweat o f

T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t w o items (Paras. 3 and 4) t o R a b f w o u l d seem

a n i m a l s , w i t h o u t any e x p l i c i t exception o f the d o g and the p i g .

to i m p l y t h a t these are late a d d i t i o n s i n t e r p o l a t e d i n t o a text w h i c h

Subsequently, following the theme o f a n i m a l - p o l l u t i o n , the passage

is o t h e r w i s e f u l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o Shaft'1. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n , h o w e v e r ,

w a s e x p a n d e d again t o deal w i t h su'r.

O n this occasion there is

presents p r o b l e m s . Paragraph 3 gives expression to a n u m b e r o f

m o r e c a r e t o specify sibâ'—predatory

j u r i s t i c rules r e g a r d i n g the sweat o f humans and a n i m a l s , and the

c a s e , w h i c h a r e here r u l e d n o t p o l l u t i n g , and t o e n u m e r a t e the

su'r o f a n i m a l s , all o f w h i c h are f o r m a l l y r e l a t e d o n the a u t h o r i t y

exceptions

o f R a b f . B u t the sweat o f animals is e x p l i c i t l y also the subject-

passage shows t h e f a m i l i a r characteristics o f organic g r o w t h , b e i n g

m a t t e r o f Paragraph 6 ( a n o n y m o u s , but read as f r o m Shafi'I), and

similar i n this respect t o m a t e r i a l f o u n d i n the Mudawwana

is raised

. I.s7. L o n g e r

again at Paragraph

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f 5.2

15.2.

T h e su'r

o f animals is the

( t o be u n d e r s t o o d as f r o m

Shafi'I)

and

a n i m a l s , the classic p r o b l e m

( t h e d o g and the p i g ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , this small

passages i n c o r p o r a t i n g a coherent and

or the

consistent

r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t , as at Paragraphs 7 a n d 8, o r a l e n g t h y , subtle,

remains t h e m a i n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f r o m Paragraph 9 t o the e n d o f

and n u a n c e d exegetical

t h e passage. T h e p r o b l e m is this: i f Rao!' had before h i m a t e x t

p r o b a b l y t o be u n d e r s t o o d as later d e v e l o p m e n t s .

a r g u m e n t , as at Paragraphs 9-15,

are

i n c l u d i n g all the m a t e r i a l that is n o w before us, w h y should he

N o w , this is consistent w i t h the s u p p o s i t i o n that these materials

have i n t r o d u c e d his o w n o p i n i o n — w i t h miserably r u d i m e n t a r y

were a d d e d t o the ' R a b í ' said' passage r a t h e r t h a n that the R a b f

a r g u m e n t s — i n t o a passage by Shafi'I, in w h i c h the

m a t e r i a l was i n t e r p o l a t e d i n t o a previously existent text by Shafi'I.

questions

h e . R a b T , raised w e r e m o r e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y dealt w i t h by his

l i o t h the c o n t e n t o f the R a b f

a c k n o w l e d g e d master? T h e answer I w o u l d propose is that t h e r e

m a t e r i a l also p r e s e n t e d , a n d i n a superior m a n n e r , u n d e r a quia al-

was n o such t e x t by Shafi'I, n o t even i n the t i m e o f R a b f .

Shâfi'irubric)

Paragraph 3, considered i n d e t a i l , exhibits a n u m b e r o f f a m i l i a r

and

passage (unnecessarily

repeating

a n d the f o r m ( r u d i m e n t a r y i n a r g u m e n t , a n d archaic

incoherent

in its f o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t )

attributed

to R a b f

here

suggest

that

the

features. I t begins ( 3 . 1 ) w i t h a scries o f three cases w h i c h can be

material

is o l d e r t h a n the m a t e r i a l

seen t o be genuine p r o b l e m s i n r e l a t i o n t o a b a c k g r o u n d law w h i c h

a t t r i b u t e d t o Shâfi'ï. T h i s leads t o the postulate that precisely that

is n o t stated. T h e b a c k g r o u n d law is that h u m a n sweat i n general

m a t e r i a l i n the Umm w h i c h is t h o u g h t t o be most characteristic o f

does n o t i m p a r t i m p u r i t y . W h a t is being asked here is w h e t h e r

S h â f i ' ï the j u r i s t , n a m e l y the sophisticated exegetical

e x c e p t i o n a l cases may be considered to contravene the general

based o n e x p l i c i t l y adduced P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h , m a y be amongst the

r u l e . T h e e x c e p t i o n a l cases are those o f a C h r i s t i a n w o m a n , a

last layers o f m a t e r i a l t o enter the t e x t .

m e n s t r u a t i n g w o m a n , and a r i t u a l l y i m p u r e [ w o m a n ] ( r e a d i n g i n t h e last case the a d j e c t i v e , junub, feminine,

w h i c h cannot be m a r k e d f o r the

as r e f e r r i n g l i k e the o t h e r elements

i n the list t o a

5

e.g. Sahnun, Mudawwana, i . 14 and 32-3.

argument

7

6

THE

Kl

TA

B

AL-UMM

OF

S H A FI

T H E KI

' ï

IV T h a t m a t e r i a l , t o o , deserves detailed analysis. Paragraph i , like Paragraph 3, can be s h o w n to exhibit some degree o f organic g r o w t h . T h e most o b v i o u s d i s j u n c t u r e lies at 1.3. H e r e the w o r d ' l i k e w i s e ' — k a d h â l i k a — w h i c h n o r m a l l y operates to extend the i m m e d i a t e l y preceding r u l i n g (see Paras. 3.2 and 6) introduces a rule w h i c h contrasts w i t h the previous one. I t may o r i g i n a l l y have f o l l o w e d d i r e c t l y after 1.1, for the bodies o f l i v i n g things, once d e a d , arc n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n c l u d e d in the category o f h a r a m things ( f o r e x a m p l e , i f slaughtered i n an a p p r o p r i a t e m a n n e r ) , a n d it was therefore necessary to extend the l a w — k a d h â l i k a — e x p l i c i t l y in o r d e r to make the p o i n t about dead animals. T h e t r a d i t i o n p r o d u c e d t w o exceptions t o the generalization that all dead animals i m p a r t i m p u r i t y t o water. T h e first related t o fish and locusts, w h i c h , as f o o d , were distinguished f r o m o t h e r a n i m a l foods i n n o t r e q u i r i n g t o be r i t u a l l y slaughtered. By analogy w i t h this r u l e they were deemed n o t to i m p a r t i m p u r i t y t o water w h e n dead. T h e o t h e r e x c e p t i o n was dead insects, t h o u g h this was in t i m e q u a l i f i e d . B o t h exceptions have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o this text. T h e r u l i n g on the fish and locust (1.2) is i n t r o d u c e d before the genera! r u l i n g o n l i v i n g things, p r o d u c i n g t w o adjacent rules (1.2 and 1.3), w h i c h , read strictly, c o n t r a d i c t one another. T h e r u l i n g a b o u t insects is i n t r o d u c e d , m o r e logically, in the form o f a c o n d i t i o n a l sentence (1.4) w h i c h serves to define a category that distinguishes insects ( l i v i n g things b u t w i t h o u t a blood-system) f r o m o t h e r l i v i n g things. I t is p r o b a b l e that the o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n o f Paragraph 1.4 was t o create a blanket exception For insects. B u t Paragraph 1.5 converts this i n t o a discussion o f ikhtildf w o r k e d o u t in the f o r m o f an cxegetical a r g u m e n t about the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a Prophetic h a d i t h . T h e emergence and d e v e l o p m e n t o f this passage is discussed at some length in C h a pt e r 5, Section I I I . I t is clear that the w h o l e passage grew up by the f a m i l i a r processes o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n , i n t e r p o l a t i o n , and d e v e l o p i n g a r g u m e n t a t i o n , achieving at Paragraph 1.5 a h e r m e n e u t i c subtlety not paralleled elsewhere i n early j u r i s t i c texts. T h r o u g h o u t Paragraphs 1 t o 6 wc are faced w i t h a n u m b e r o f j u r i s t i c statements all o f w h i c h are f o r m a l l y related i n the c u r r e n t text to the initial r u l i n g t h a t h a r a m things cause i m p u r i t y i f they fall i n t o w a t e r . I n Paragraph 1 this is developed i n t o a discussion o f

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77

c a r r i o n . A t Paragraph 2, the special case o f b i r d - d r o p p i n g s is i n t r o d u c e d : h a r a m , b u t solid ( t o a degree) and therefore p r o b l e m atic. Paragraphs 3, 5, and 6 deal w i t h sweat and saliva in the f o l l o w i n g order: h u m a n sweat, a n i m a l sweat, a n i m a l saliva, h u m a n saliva, a n i m a l saliva, h u m a n and a n i m a l sweat. T h e r e p e t i t i o n serves no purpose and is r en d er ed still m o r e futile by the succeeding exegetical discussion w h i c h systematically derives all o f these rules f r o m an analysis o f Prophetic h a d i t h . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n is fundamentally correct, however, because, like the bird-droppings, these are m a r g i n a l o r d o u b t f u l cases o f h a r a m , or p o t e n t i a l l y h a r a m , things w h i c h fall i n t o w a t e r . T h e b u l k o f these statements is n o r m a t i v e in f o r m not exegetical, the o n l y m a j o r exception b e i n g Paragraph 1.5, and perhaps the last phrase o f 2. N o a t t e m p t is made t o justify the statements m a d e , for example at Paragraph 5.1 w h e r e the products o f s p i t t i n g , h a w k i n g , and b l o w i n g the nose are declared not to p r o d u c e i m p u r i t y , or at Paragraph 6 where it is declared that the sweat o f man and animals does not cause i m p u r i t y . This absence o f justificatory a r g u m e n t is t o be contrasted w i t h the exegetical a r g u m e n t s designed t o justify the r u l i n g o n sweat w h i c h follows. A l l o f this m a t e r i a l , Paragraphs r - 6 , is expository, repetitive, a n d , much o f i t , relatively ancient compared w i t h the exegetical m a t e r i a l w h i c h f o l l o w s , at Paragraphs 9-15. Paragraphs 7 and 8 deal w i t h the p r o b l e m o f h o w t o purify i m p u r e water (7) and i m p u r e containers ( 8 ) . A t Paragraph 7, t h e subject at issue is the d i s t i n c t i o n between scooping out (nazah), d i s a l l o w e d , and p o u r i n g o n (sabba 'aid), f a v o u r e d . This is certainly a p o l e m i c a l response t o a H a n a f i p o s i t i o n , set o u t eventually i n n u m e r o u s h a d i t h , w h i c h specifies, as a m o d e o f purification o f things like wells (a) t h a t the t h i n g causing i m p u r i t y , for example c a r r i o n o f one k i n d o r a n o t h e r , should be r e m o v e d and ( b ) t h a t a certain q u a n t i t y o f water should be scooped o u t , variously specified as 30, 40, or 50 b u c k e t s - f u l l . Paragraph 8 focuses on t h e vessel, not the water. A g a i n , the issues raised recall the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n . I n t o r t u o u s A r a b i c , the passage manages t o deal w i t h large and small vessels, p o u r i n g o n as o p p o s e d t o scooping o u t , r e m o v a l o f the h ar am t h i n g , w h i l e r e f e r r i n g also to the Shafi'T r u l i n g ( d e n i e d by some Hanafis) t h a t there is a specific q u a n t i t y 6

Sec, for the development of Hanafi argument and hadith on this, Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Tahirwi, Ma'am al-athar, i . 6 - 1 0 (a very complex piece of argumentation). 6

7§

THE

KITAB

AL-UMM

OF

SHAFl'l

b e y o n d w h i c h water is n o t susceptible t o i m p u r i t y . E v e r y t h i n g in these t w o paragraphs confirms that they constitute an ad hoc p o l e m i c a l response t o specific H a n a f i rulings. I n their present c o n t e x t , they are i n a c e r t a i n degree o f dissociation f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g t e x t ; i n d e e d , read s t r i c t l y , the reference i n Paragraph 8 t o vessels c o n t a i n i n g a small q u a n t i t y o f water m a k e i t c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o the w h o l e o f Paragraphs 9-15, w h i c h propose and defend a different way o f dealing w i t h i m p u r i t y i n such vessels. I t seems these passages e m e r g e d i n a p o l e m i c a l context and w e r e later i n c o r p o r a t e d here, w h e r e they have a clear i f uneasy relevance. Paragraphs 9-15, starting w i t h the question of h o w t o deal w i t h an i m p u r e vessel, go o n t o question w h y some animals are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m others and w h y the m o d e of p u r i f i c a t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e i n the case o f some animals is d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m the standard m o d e of p u r i f i c a t i o n . O f animals, o n l y the dog and the p i g , w h e n alive, can cause i m p u r i t y i n water and in the attendant vessel. T h i s f o r m o f i m p u r i t y is to be distinguished f r o m all other forms i n so far as i t requires a sevenfold washing o f the c o n t a m i n a t e d vessel. A l l o t h e r forms o f i m p u r i t y affecting a v e s s e l — d e r i v e d f r o m dead animals, u r i n e , e x c r e m e n t , w i n e , e t c . — c a n be r e m o v e d by a single washing, t h o u g h a t r i p l e w a s h i n g is p r e f e r r e d . T w o special animals cause a special f o r m o f i m p u r i t y ; all o t h e r i m p u r e things cause a ' n o r m a l ' f o r m o f i m p u r i t y . Paragraph 9.1 states the rule that a p o l l u t e d vessel must be washed at least once, and preferably three times. N o t here, and not anywhere is there a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this r u l e : it is clearly the established t r a d i t i o n , k n o w n and generally unstated, and t o a degree d i s r u p t e d by the i n t r u s i v e d o g - h a d i t h . Paragraph 9.2 states the e x c e p t i o n : i n the case o f dogs and pigs w h i c h d r i n k at a vessel, the vessel must be washed seven t i m e s , etc. I t is possible t h a t this passage was o r i g i n a l l y f o l l o w e d directly by Paragraph 12, w h i c h neatly expresses the reason for this r u l e , namely obedience t o the Prophet o f G o d whose c o m m a n d s are here exemplified in three versions o f the d o g - h a d i t h , and a conclusion of the 'hence we r u l e ' t y p e . T h i s is a genuine case o f d e r i v i n g the law f r o m h a d i t h and is the first explicit case o f this k i n d discussed i n this b o o k . T h e h a d i t h - d e r i v e d law is a l l o w e d t o stand side by side w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l law and so creates a d u a l system of p o l l u t i o n . ( C o m p a r e this w i t h the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n . T h e early H a n a f i r u l i n g

THE

KITAB

AL-UMM

OF

SHAFl'l

79

o n the d o g , as expressed i n t h e Asl, simply assimilates the d o g t o o i l i e r p o l l u t i n g a n i m a l s , and makes n o reference t o the sevenfold washing o r t o the h a d i t h . O n l y i n the w o r k of TahawT is the existence o f this h a d i t h a c k n o w l e d g e d , and its effect denied: TahawT u p h o l d s the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n against the h a d i t h — b u t by 1 hat t i m e needs t o base his argument o n o t h e r Prophetic h a d i t h . ) Paragraph 13 explains w h y the r u l i n g o n the dog is extended t o the p i g . I t may serve here as yet another example of the u n p r e d i c t a b l e nature o f qiyds a r g u m e n t . O n e m i g h t ask, i f i t is the case t h a t t h e law is d e r i v e d f r o m h a d i t h , and that one can e x t e n d 1 he scope o f a p a r t i c u l a r h a d i t h , exegetically, by qiyds, w h y is i t that one does n o t e x t e n d the r u l i n g o n the dog to all living things, o r t o all p r e d a t o r y animals, o r even t o all domestic animals, d e p e n d i n g o n w h a t category one decides the dog belongs to? T h e r e is o f course n o single answer, t h o u g h some later t h i n k e r s , conscious, no d o u b t , o f precisely this k i n d o f criticism, were to t r y lo restrict the analogical extension of rules t o those cases in w h i c h there was an 'ilia mansus ilay-hd—a reason specified in the text. T h e q u e s t i o n , h o w e v e r , is a natural one and it was asked, o b v i o u s l y , at a r o u n d the t i m e the argument was first p r o d u c e d ; l o r , Shafi'I gives his l a b o u r e d response to precisely this question i h r o u g h o u t Paragraph 15. H e r e , he argues that there are o t h e r Prophetic h a d i t h w h i c h show clearly that one can use for wudii'the left-over water o f respectively donkeys and p r e d a t o r y animals, and 1 he cat. I n fact, given the w o n d e r f u l l y convenient hadith about p r e d a t o r y animals, the h a d i t h about the cat becomes superfluous. Shafi'i states at the e n d (15.8) that he is w i l l i n g t o extend these hadith by analogy and so achieve the conclusion, already expressed it 15.1, namely that there is no i m p u r i t y i n l i v i n g things except the d o g and t h e p i g . I n fact, there is n o t m u c h analogy i n v o l v e d h e r e , since i t is precisely the established p r o b l e m cases that are dealt w i t h i n the P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h , namely the d o n k e y and predatory animals. I t seems p r o b a b l e that this h a d i t h grew up as a result o f a piristic r u l i n g that e m e r g e d i n the Shafi'I school which declared 1 hat l i v i n g animals w e r e n o t a source of p o l l u t i o n (cf. 3.3 and 3 . 4 ) . 1 his i n t u r n was due t o the fact that the accepted r u l i n g on p r e d a t o r y animals had never generated a hadith—because it had 7

7

Tahawi, Ma'am al-athar, i . 12-13.

8o

THE

K1TAB

AL-UMM

OF SHÂFl'l

THE

never been q u e s t i o n e d . F o r the Shâfi'îs no h a d i t h m e a n t , o r m i g h t in a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances m e a n , n o l a w .

KITAB

AI.-UMM

OF

8l

S H A F l ' î

made i t seem t h a t a sevenfold washing m i g h t be the n o r m a n d so p r o v o k e d a defence o f the k n o w n law. T h e defence, characteristic-

8

C o n c e d i n g t h e a r g u m e n t enunciated t h r o u g h o u t Paragraph

15,

ally, and perhaps i n e v i t a b l y , takes t h e f o r m o f a f u r t h e r piece o f

w h i c h claims t h a t the r u l i n g o n the d o g is a special act o f w o r s h i p

exegetical

w h i c h is not t o be used as a basis f o r qiyds (a ta'abbud,

a r g u m e n t (14.1-14.3)

cf. 14.4).

a r g u m e n t . T h e h a d i t h selected as the basis f o r this w

a

s

discovered b y the Shâfi'îs t o have m o r e

one m i g h t still ask t h e n w h y i t is that o n e does extend this special

1 ban one useful c o n t e x t

rule t o t h e p i g . T h i s q u e s t i o n is a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d answered at

die specific p r o b l e m o f p o l l u t i o n i n w a t e r . I t demonstrates t h a t

1 0

a n d , o n the face o f i t , has little to do w i t h

13: t h e p i g is at least not better t h a n the d o g . T h i s is

w h e n a t h i n g (specifically an article o f c l o t h i n g ) is deemed t o have

h a r d l y sufficient at an i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l ; l o r the l o w status o f the

suffered an i m p u r i t y (specifically, f r o m m e n s t r u a l b l o o d , n o w d r y )

p i g is d e r i v e d f r o m a Q u r a n i c r e g u l a t i o n about what t o e a t , a n d

ii can be r e n d e r e d p u r e b y w a s h i n g . A n d washing i n this case is

since there are n o general rules o r categories that account f o r this

unspecified as t o n u m b e r a n d t y p e . T h i s can be used as t h e basis

Paragraph

r u l e , t h e p i g , t o o , s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as a special case, an instance

lor analogy whereas t h e d o g - h a d i t h c a n n o t , g i v i n g a r u l i n g t h a t all

o f ta'abbud.

I t is noticeable that t h e p i g does n o t receive any

p o l l u t e d t h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g vessels, i f p o l l u t e d by s o m e t h i n g o t h e r

special m e n t i o n i n t h e o l d e r ( M â l i k i and HanafT) discussions o f

d i a n dogs o r pigs, can be p u r i f i e d by washing once o r several

p u r i t y (see Chs. 1 - 3 ) , and there is some evidence that i t has been

nines. T h e r e m i g h t be some o b j e c t i o n s t o the analogical use o f a

systematically i n t e r p o l a t e d i n t o t h e Shâfi'î m a t e r i a l q u o t e d here.

hadith w h i c h specifies d r i e d b l o o d t o derive a rule o n p o l l u t i o n

C o m p a r e 3.3 and 3.4 and consider the u n i n t e g r a t e d nature o f the

mediated t h r o u g h w a t e r . B u t n o t h i n g related t o that is raised i n

16.1,

ibis t e x t , w h i c h manages t o focus f a i r l y exclusively o n the linguistic

t o the d o g and the pig, t h e

(and n u m e r i c a l ) i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the c o m m a n d to wash (14.3 a n d

references t o the p i g , outside o f Paragraph 13. A t Paragraph t h o u g h t h e first

sentence refers

i m m e d i a t e l y succeeding sentence and all the proof-texts refer o n l y

1.¡.5).

to

late

b l o o d can be the analogical base f o r all types o f i m p u r i t y w h i l e the

impingement o f Quranic material on Muslim jurisprudence. ' The

dog c a n n o t b e c o m e t h e analogical base f o r a n y t h i n g , n e i t h e r f o r

absence o f g o o d a r g u m e n t h o w e v e r d i d not prevent the p i g f r o m

1 tiles a b o u t a n i m a l s (Para.

sharing the special status o f the dog when it came t o the p o l l u t i n g

i m p u r i t y ( 1 4 , especially

o f vessels.

device for sealing o f f a h a d i t h and p r e v e n t i n g it f r o m having a n y

the dog. This

m a y be an instance

o f t h e relatively 1

C o n c e d i n g t h e n t h a t t h e d o g , a n d the p i g , u n l i k e o t h e r l i v i n g a n i m a l s , i m p a r t p o l l u t i o n t o w a t e r a n d thereby t o vessels, one m i g h t i n f e r , by analogy, t h a t the

appropriate—general—response

to i m p u r i t y in a vessel is t o wash i t seven times. T h i s inference, t o o , is foreseen and r e f u t e d t h r o u g h o u t Paragraph

14, w h e r e t h e

There is, o f course, still a q u e s t i o n (14.4) w h y m e n s t r u a l

15), n o r f o r rules about

14.4). T h e t e r m ta'abbud

cleansing

was a useful

mlluence o n t h e legal t r a d i t i o n as a w h o l e . " It was suggested above that Paragraph l o l l o w Paragraph

9. Paragraphs 13,

12 should n a t u r a l l y

14, a n d 15, all analogical

extensions o f , o r arguments about the analogical extension o f , the i n l e at 9 . 2 , come n a t u r a l l y after Paragraph

12; they represent a

r u l e is defended t h a t i m p u r e vessels, when the i m p u r i t y is caused

coherent a n d i n t e g r a t e d t o t a l i t y o f a r g u m e n t based o n questions

by a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n the d o g and the p i g , are t o be washed, at

that arise n a t u r a l l y as a result o f analytical t h o u g h t a b o u t a

least once, a n d o t h e r w i s e as m a n y times as one likes. T h e real

l e n t i c u l a r h a d i t h . Paragraphs 10 a n d 11 are p r o b a b l y i n t e r p o l a -

reason f o r this r u l i n g is u n d o u b t e d l y t r a d i t i o n , i n t h e sense o f

tions. Paragraph 10 deals w i t h the case w h e r e n o e a r t h is available

established c u s t o m a n d practice (evident at 9.1). T h e r u l e had

lor cleansing purposes. I t seems t o fall i n t o t w o segments, the first

never been d e r i v e d f r o m a t e x t . I t was part o f an u n q u e s t i o n e d

suggesting that o n e c a n , i n case o f n e e d , use potash and p a l m -

j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n p r o b a b l y arose u l t i m a t e l y f r o m

leaves ( 1 0 . r ) ,

practice. Exegetical

a r g u m e n t based o n the intrusive d o g - h a d i t h

CI. C h . 2, Sect. V I .

'' See Ch. 8, Sect. V .

t h e second suggesting

r a t h e r that i t is a case o f

"' See the passage from the Umm, cited below at Ch. 5, Sect. I V . on mass al• Ihukar, at Para. 11. Sec also Ibn ' A b d al-Barr, hiulhkdr, i . 208 and 258 IT. 1

82

THE

ikhula

KI

TÂ

(10.2). Paragraph

B

A L - U M M

OF

S H Â F l ' İ

THE

11 is a t w o f o l d analogical extension o f

he r u l e e n u n c i a t e d at 9.2 and defended t h r o u g h o u t Paragraphs 1 , to 15. T h e r u l e set o u t i n Paragraph 9.2 specifies that dogs (and pigs) w h i c h d r i n k at vessels occasion a type o f i m p u r i t y r e q u i r i n g a sevenfold cleansing o f vessels; and the h a d i t h w h i c h is the source of t h a t r u l e also specifics d r i n k i n g ( o r l a p p i n g ) as the i m m e d i a t e cause o f t h e i m p u r i t y . A strict r e a d i n g o f t h e h a d i t h , i n close c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t o f Paragraphs 14 a n d ,

which

s

p r e - e m p t s analogical extension o f the r u l i n g o n t h e d o g ' m i g h t suggest that i t is i n v a l i d t o generalize d r i n k i n g ) t o a general

f r o m this h a d i t h ( a b o u t

r u l e ( a b o u t t h e bodies

o f the animals

c o n c e r n e d ) . B u t this is w h a t is done at Paragraph 1 , . , . A r g u m e n t s based o n analogy

w h e n they are o f t h e type discussed i n this

section are largely a r b i t r a r y : this after all seems t o be based o n an analogical extension o f the w o r d ' d r i n k s ' o r 'laps' so that i t is deemed

t o cover

a l l types o f ' t o u c h ' . W h e t h e r

this is fully

c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a l l t h e arguments o f , . and ,«5 is dubious T h e 4

p o i n t made at 11.2 becomes the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ' o f Paragraph Paragraph

16, effectively

,s

an appendage, witnesses a continued

w o r r y i n g at the question w h e t h e r there ,s any reason (ma nan) f o r the peculiar status o f dogs and pigs. T h e r e is n o t . B u t there are o t h e r P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h w h i c h devalue the d o g , o b l i q u e l y r e f e r r e d to at Paragraphs 16.2 and 16.3.

K I T A B

A L - U M M

OF

83

S H A F l ' l

1.1 technical t e r m absolutely central t o the processes o f Paras. 13, ı 1, . i n d 15, b u t not i n evidence for Paras. 1 t o 6 ) . P r o v i d i n g a date 1.,i this k i n d o f m a t e r i a l is almost pointless. C o n c e d i n g a (surely i

ted) i m p e t u s f r o m R a b i ' himself, the g r o w t h o f the text can be

|.hwed i n t h e second h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , w i t h most o f the i n . i i e i ial a n d a l l o f the most sophisticated a r g u m e n t e n t e r i n g t h e 1.

towards the e n d o f t h a t p e r i o d . S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f the text was r. ,w, a n d , as in the case o f the Asi, scarcely achieved in m e d i e v a l There

n i n e s .

are o b v i o u s

(and p r o b a b l y m i n o r ) i n t e r p o l a t i o n s

ı ı Mm m u c h later t h a n the t h i r d c e n t u r y 111.11<M

1 2

a n d n o evidence o f any

r e d a c t i o n achieved before the decisive i n t e r v e n t i o n o f Siraj

11 D m B u l q i n i ( d . 805). B u l q i n i is responsible f o r the c o l l e c t i o n , o r d e r i n g , and f o r m a n y • .1 1 he chapter-headings |.Muled Urnm. '' * f i c t i o n .

o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t t h a t gave rise to t h e

T h e m a j o r i t y o f extant manuscripts represent his

There

are some fragments

of pre-Bulqini material,

• Inch deserve f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A cursory survey o f some o f 13

ıh, s c

1 4

suggests that t h e i r d e t a i l e d content is largely identical w i t h

1 be m a t e r i a l gathered a n d e d i t e d by B u l q i n i , b u t they give l i t t l e . \idence

o f anything other than a rudimentary ordering. T h e

1. e u m u l a t i o n o f Shâfi'T dicta m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h R a b i ' was clearly a l o n g - t e r m process associated w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r school o r schools i n 1 i ı s ! at; i t c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e second

half

of the third

• < n i u r y , possibly i n t o the f o u r t h . T h e o r d e r i n g and s t o r i n g o f this i n . i i e r i a l was m e t i c u l o u s b u t casual. T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f elegant a n d

V Schacht

assumes

that

the literary

. i n d i t e c o m p e n d i a i n the f o u r t h and fifth centuries relegated this formulation of

a r g u m e n t o f the type considered here at Paragraphs and,

exegetical

m . i i o r i a l t o a secondary status. I t was a treasure t r o v e — a n d was n o

and n

d o u b t consulted but i t r e m a i n e d o f very l i m i t e d c i r c u l a t i o n u n t i l

especially, at Paragraphs , 4 a n d , 5 , can be dated t o t h e

d e t u n e o f S h a f f l . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f the present analysis is that hese Paragraphs are precisely the latest materials t o enter t h e text. A l l o f this m a t e r i a l post-dates R a b í ' . T h e citations i n his name are amongst the least sophisticated parts o f the text. M o s t o f he n o r m a t i v e m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h o u t Paragraphs , to 6 is o l d e r t h a n the need

a r g u m e n t a t i v e m a t e r i a l o f later paragraphs;

i t m a y be b u t

n o t b e , as o l d as t h e l i f e t i m e o f R a b í ' . M a n y o r i g i n a l l y

distinct passages have been j u x t a p o s e d and i n t e r p o l a t e d t o create the present text. T h e h e r m e n e u t i c m a t e r i a l , clearly secondary t o established

l a w , shows every

sign

itself o f having

grown in

response t o academic t h o u g h t about the nature a n d l i m i t s o

f

^

1 '.ulqini gathered i t i n t o his e d i t i o n . T h a t o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e i t is the history o f the present Umm. T h e w o r d umm is a v e r b a l n o u n d e r i v e d f r o m the v e r b 1,/ "uınmu,

m e a n i n g t o lead o r guide; i t is related t o the n o u n

amma imâm,

meaning leader. '" Umm thus means 'guidance' o r ' a u t h o r i t y ' a n d , 1

applied t o a b o d y o f early Shafi'T m a t e r i a l , clearly has c o n n o t a t i o n s .miliar t o those o f the w o r d aşl ( = source, r o o t , a u t h o r i t y ) a p p l i e d i< > a b o d y o f early H a n a f i m a t e r i a l . T h e m a t e r i a l was a u t h o r i t a t i v e 1 1

' W . Heffening, ad 'ShaliT in El(\). (T. Sezgin on Shali'T, Geschkhte, i . 484-7. Limited in practice to those available in the Chester Bcatty library in Dublin. ' Norman Calder, 'The significance of the term imâm', 262-3.

1 1

84

T H E

K/TÀH

AL-UMM

OF

SHÄFl'I

THE

KITAB

AL-UMM

OF

SHÂFl'l

85

and deemed to be by Shàfi'î, though in fact the e n d - p r o d u c t o f

l ' i n e l y academic task, a m e d i t a t i o n o n the significance o f h a d i t h .

school discussions arising generations after his d e a t h .

H respective o f p r a c t i c e , a search f o r the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e l a w , i n

T h a t the Shafi'i school was ahead o f o t h e r schools in devising

l'île o f what actually h a p p e n e d . F o r m a l l y , i.e. in its r e l a t i o n t o

hermeneutic arguments that would ensure the a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f

l ' i o p h e t i c h a d i t h , this was a new p o s s i b i l i t y ; that some f o r m s o f

the law t o a g r o w i n g set of Prophetic h a d i t h can be accepted, but

ih.uii'ht

not as far ahead as Schacht would have us believe. A l r c a d v in the

however, a p e r m a n e n t possibility w h e r e v e r and whenever jurists

late t h i r d and early fourth centuries, the H a n a f i w r i t e r T a h â w ï had

11

t a k e n on the task of dealing comprehensively w i t h h a d i t h and t h e i r relationship to Hanafi law. He docs not produce arguments that m a t c h the best o f those produced in the Umm, but his w o r k at least reflects a b r o a d l y parallel set of concerns. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f hermeneutic skills in a juristic context w o u l d appear t o be not so much a particularly Shàfi'î achievement as a p a r t i c u l a r l y E g y p t i a n o n e , for it was in that area, and at r o u g h l y the same t i m e , that the HanafTs and Shâfi'ïs began to display such skills. T h i s was in the decades i m m e d i a t e l y before and after 3 0 0 .

VI Schacht suggests that Shafi'i, by adopting the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the law is derived solely from Prophetic h a d i t h , cut h i m s e l f o f f f r o m the organic t r a d i t i o n o f the ancient s c h o o l s .

16

T h i s is o n l y p a r t l y t r u e ,

for t w o reasons. First, the emergence o f h a d i t h was

governed

largely by the needs o f the ancient schools t o defend and to justify their law. A n d second, even when a h a d i t h actually d i s r u p t e d the k n o w n law, as is the case with the h a d i t h about the d o g , it was always possible to preserve the i n h e r i t e d l a w , side by side w i t h the excget.cal

law.

represents

something quite new w i t h i n

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g this,

the

text

of

the corpus

the of

Umm ancient

j u r i s t i c w r i t i n g . I t has developed a new l i t e r a r y technique based on a highly selective citation of 'sources'—the m a i n , but not the exclusive principle o f selection being a preference f o r Prophetic hadith—and

on

subtle

exegetical

argument

based

on

these

sources. W h i l e it is not necessarily the case that the law became cut off f r o m the ancient t r a d i t i o n , or that it became cut o f f f r o m the actual practice o f the people (it was always possible t o devise an exegetical link between a practice and a t e x t ) one result o f the change in the nature o f argument was that the law m i g h t become a Schacht, Origins. So, 213.

about

the law c o u l d be

i n d i f f e r e n t to practice

g h t . See f u r t h e r C h a p t e r 9, Section V .

was,

T H E

OF

I A c c o r d i n g t o Shafi'T school t r a d i t i o n , Isma'il b. Y a h y a a l - M u z a n i t o o k over leadership of ShafiTs halqa or majlis (his discussion g r o u p , o r circle o f pupils) o n the death of B u w a y t l i n 231, and h e l d that p o s i t i o n u n t i l his o w n death in 264, w h e n he was succeeded by R a b i ' b . S u l a y m a n (sec C h . 4, Sect. I above). This is a pleasingly neat p a t t e r n o f succession. M u z a n i is credited w i t h a w o r k k n o w n as the Mukhtasar ( S u m m a r y or D i g e s t ) . I t is a j u r i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n w h i c h p u r p o r t s t o derive its materials p a r t l y f r o m the extant w r i t t e n w o r k s o f Shafi'i and p a r t l y f r o m M u z a n i ' s o w n m e m o r y of sessions w i t h Shafi'I. T h i s is evident b o t h f r o m the f o r m and structure o f the b o o k and f r o m the integrated chapter-headings, some of w h i c h name the sources f r o m w h i c h m a t e r i a l is d e r i v e d . These chapter-headings are v a r i e d i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , in f o r m , and i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the m a t e r i a l w h i c h they p u r p o r t t o cover. H e r e are t w o examples: 1. The mukhtasar (summary) on shuf'a (pre-emption), taken from the J ami', from three different sections and from the Ikhtildf al-Hadith. 2. The mukhtasar (summary) from the Jdmi', from the Books entitled ah muzdra'a, kira'al-arci, and sharika in land ( = share-cropping, land-rental, common ownership in land), containing material from the Ikhtildf Ahi Hanifa wa-Ibn Ahi hay Id along with problems which f heard directly from [Shafi'T]. 1

2

T h e Jdmi' ( C o l l e c t i o n or C o m p e n d i u m ) referred t o here is obviously a source of Shaft'! d i c t a . I t may be an earlier version o f 3

Isma'il b. Yahya al-Muzani, Mukhtasar, n y . i b i d . 128. Jdmi' is a common term lor small and large collections of juristic dicta. Cf. the Jdmi' of Ibn Wahb; the Jdmi' al-kabir, and the Jdmi' al-saglur of Shaybanl. 1

1

O F

M U Z A N I

87

w h a t is n o w called the Umm, a title n o t referred t o in M u z a n i . T h e ikhtildf w o r k s r e f e r r e d t o are k n o w n and preserved, w h o l l y or i n p a r t , i n t h e Umm. T h e second o f these headings shows h o w reference t o books may be c o m b i n e d w i t h reference t o direct audition.

5

T H E MUKHTASAR MUZANl

MUKHTASAR

These e x p l a n a t o r y chapter-headings are not a u n i f o r m feature o f the M u z a n i t e x t . T h e y are n o t f o u n d in the early parls of the w o r k , b u t become a f a i r l y consistent feature o f later sections. O t h e r early fiqh w o r k s have shown evidence o f e d i t o r i a l or r e d a c t i o n a l processes w h i c h have been c a r r i e d o u t o n l y p a r t i a l l y , and this may be another e x a m p l e . I t is by n o means certain that these h e a d i n g s — i n spite o f the fact that they c o n t a i n first-person references p u r p o r t i n g t o come f r o m M u z a n i — a r e a b o r i g i n a l parts o f the b o o k . T h e y c o u l d be deductions f r o m the contents and a r g u m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l sections. A d e d u c t i o n serves after all an academic purpose (and fiqh is an academic discipline) as w e l l as a p o l e m i c a l purpose ( i t constitutes an assertion that M u z a n i ' s w o r k is i n d e e d a s u m m a r y o f pre-existing w o r k s by Shafi'I). I n the passages analysed b e l o w , w h i c h do not e x h i b i t chapter-headings i d e n t i f y i n g sources, it is none the less possible to locate the p u t a t i v e sources, and t o create a heading w h i c h w o u l d be s t r u c t u r a l l y of the same value as those headings w h i c h n o w exist. F o r e x a m p l e , M u z a n i ' s discussion of the question w h e t h e r sleep occasions c a n c e l l a t i o n of wudu' (see Sect. I V ) contains material f r o m t h e ( p o s t u l a t e d ) Jdmi', also perhaps f r o m the Ikhtildf Malik wa-'l-Shdfi'i, and f r o m direct c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n Shafi'I and M u z a n i . T h i s can be deduced f r o m the text itself and f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the various Shafi'I materials preserved and p u b l i s h e d u n d e r the t i t l e Umm. I t does n o t f o l l o w that these contents w e r e analysed, g a t h e r e d , and organized by M u z a n i , i n the way that one m i g h t expect f r o m the t i t l e o f his w o r k , Mukhtasar o r D i g e s t , w i t h its i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a single redactional effort b r o u g h t t o bear u p o n a fixed b o d y of materials. T h e chapterheadings are one way o f analysing the contents o f the Mukhtasar; I shall be p r o p o s i n g a different m o d e of analysis. T h a t the chapter-headings are n o t integral t o the t e x t , but a way o f d e a l i n g w i t h heterogeneous materials w h i c h pre-existed their present c o n t e x t , may be f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e d by the fact that they are sometimes q u i t e inadequate as a m o d e o f description o f what the texts c o n t a i n . T h e section translated b e l o w , in Section I V , w h i c h

88

T H E

MU

KHTASAR

O F

M U Z A N I

deals w i t h the general question of w h a t occasions cancellation o f p u r i t y and so requires r e n e w a l of wudu', comes d i r e c t l y after, and w i t h o u t any m a r k e r o f d i v i s i o n , a discussion of istitdba ( = cleansing after d e f e c a t i o n ) . T h e heading for the w h o l e section is Bab al-istitdba, w h i c h s i m p l y reflects an inadequate assessment o f t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r and its lines of d i v i s i o n . T h e e d i t o r i a l and r e d a c t i o n a l processes that have p r o d u c e d the present t e x t , t h e n , are n o t consistently a p p l i e d . D i f f e r e n t sections reveal different modes o f analysis and o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e sections analysed and discussed b e l o w show d i f f e r e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t : some e v i d e n t l y old m a t e r i a l , i f it precipitates no problems, is preserved unchanged; o t h e r m a t e r i a l is m o d i f i e d , e l i m i n a t e d , or added t o , in the light o f developing argumentation. W h e n ShafiTs b i o g r a p h e r , B a y h a q i , said of the Mukhtasar that M u z a n i had composed i t f r o m ShafiTs w o r k s , and f r o m what h e , M u z a n i , had heard d i r e c t l y f r o m Shafi'i, he was expressing a h i s t o r i c a l conclusion d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y , and reasonably, f r o m the text t h a t lay before h i m . I t is unnecessary, and p r o b a b l y e r r o n e o u s , to t h i n k that he had independent historical evidence for his claims. Analysis o f the contents of the Mukhtasar had p r o d u c e d the assumption that M u z a n i w o r k e d f r o m k n o w n w o r k s by Shafi'i. These have been p a r t l y identified by the creation and interpolation of chapter-headings which aspire, not always successf u l l y , t o distinguish and o r d e r the c o m p o n e n t materials. L a t e r readers o f the M u z a n i text are presented w i t h a historical fact: Shafi'i w r o t e b o o k s , w h i c h were used by M u z a n i in the c r e a t i o n of his Mukhtasar, together w i t h his o w n personal recollection o f ShafiTs d i c t a . T h i s analysis o f the w o r k is m o r e or less i m p l i e d , in the first sentence of the b o o k , w h i c h states, I s m a ' i l b. Y a h y i i al M u z a n i affirms that he has created this digest f r o m the k n o w l e d g e o f M u h a m m a d b. I d r i s al-Shafi'T [ i . e . his books) and f r o m the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f his w o r d s [ i . e . as o r a l l y received direct f r o m S h a f i ' i ] — i k h t a s a r t u hddhd 'l-kitdb min 'dm Muhammad ibn idris al-Shdfi'i wa min ma'nd qawli-hi. This sentence, h o w e v e r , t h o u g h it reflects a plausible account o f the book's contents, is not in the end an adequate one. I t s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as a relatively late i n t r o d u c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n o f the t e x t , couched in the f o r m of a firstperson a f f i r m a t i o n by M u z a n i . I n a d d i t i o n t o m a j o r s t r u c t u r a l p r o b l e m s , w h i c h w i l l be made e v i d e n t t h r o u g h detailed analysis o f selected passages, the w o r k

T H E

MUKHTASAR

O F

M U Z A N I

89

presents a different k i n d o f p r o b l e m , arising f r o m the f r e q u e n t examples o f disagreement between the o p i n i o n s o f Shafi'i as preserved i n the transmission of R a b f (the Umm) and as recorded in the Mukhtasar. B a y h a q i reports that he approached A b u Z u r ' a a l - D i m a s h q i and said t o h i m , H o w frequent arc the attacks o f M u z a n i o n Shafi'i! D i m a s h q i proposed a r e f o r m u l a t i o n : I l o w frequent is Muzani's injustice to Shafi'i! Whatever the terminology, there was a p r o b l e m w h i c h r e q u i r e d e x p l a n a t i o n . B a y h a q i began by q u o t i n g B u w a y t i , w h o , on being q u e s t i o n e d about M u z a n i ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n at S h a f i T s lectures (su'ila 'an samd' al-Muzani min al-Shdfi'i), r e p l i e d , H e was a c h i l d , w e a k [sc. i n m e m o r i z i n g a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ] . T h i s was a b i o g r a p h i c a l f r a g m e n t preserved i n o r d e r t o express a d i s t r u s t , w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n , o f M u z a n i ' s w o r k . B a y h a q i w e n t on t o e x p l a i n that i t was possible t o find i n M u z a n i ' s w o r k ( w h i c h was supposed t o be a s u m m a r y , mukhtasar, o f the views o f Shafi'i) a version o f a p r o b l e m (mas'ala) in w h i c h various c o n d i t i o n s a t t e n d a n t u p o n the p r o b l e m w e r e o m i t t e d , t h o u g h they w e r e available in the transmission (riwaya) o f H a r m a l a or R a b f . H e ( M u z a n i ) w o u l d t r a n s m i t the p r o b l e m i n its deficient f o r m and i n s t i t u t e an attack u p o n i t , on the grounds o f its deficiencies, t h o u g h these were r e m e d i e d w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f Shafi'i dealt w i t h a p r o b l e m i n a b r i e f and a b b r e v i a t e d way i n one place, and in a n o t h e r dealt w i t h i t in a comprehensive m a n n e r , M u z a n i w o u l d t r a n s m i t the abbreviated version and then proceed to criticize i t . A n d so o n . T h e p r o b l e m was, i n general t e r m s , that in a n u m b e r o f different ways, M u z a n i ' s w o r k is i n e x p l i c a b l y different f r o m the transmission of R a b f ; i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t exhibits p r o b l e m s o f expression, of a r g u m e n t , and o f o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h have t h e i r s o l u t i o n i n R a b f . Since R a b f ' s w o r k is deemed t o be a simple transmission o f ShafiTs w o r d s , M u z a n i ' s disregard o f Shafi'i is i n e x p l i c a b l e , except o n grounds o f carelessness o r pigheadedness. A c c o r d i n g l y , w i t h i n the b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f Tabaqat, the high regard for M u z a n i ' s person and indeed for his m a n i p u l a t i o n o f a r g u m e n t (Shafi'i is made t o describe h i m as aqyas al-nds) is t e m p e r e d by a r e c o g n i t i o n o f his i n d i v i d u a l i s m w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y leaves h i m outside the m a i n stream o f Shafi'i t h o u g h t , the madhhab 4

Bayhaqi on Muzani, Manaqib, 347-8. Subki's biography (Tabaqat, ii. 93-109) reveals on many narrative levels the reconciliation of school tensions. 4

90

T H E

M V KUT

AŞAR

O F

T H E

M U Z A N ı

T h e r e is o f course another way o f i n t e r p r e t i n g the u n d o u b t e d l y correct observations

of Bayhaqi

o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between

wudu'

MUKHTASAR

O F

can be reused by a d i f f e r e n t person. M u z a n i t h e n takes up

the q u e s t i o n o f the dog and the r e q u i r e m e n t o f sevenfold washing

the w r i t i n g s o f M u z a n i and those o f RabT. I t is possible that the

(9.2 a n d 12). T h e ikhtildf

s t a r t i n g - p o i n t f o r M u z a n l ' s Mukhtasar

may be s u b s t i t u t e d for each is explained (10.1

materials n o w i n the Umm.

is not identical w i t h the

C e r t a i n l y the Mukhtasar

presupposes

91

M U Z A N I

o n w h e t h e r some o t h e r cleansing agent and

10.2)

and

M u z a n i adds t w o r e m a r k s o f his o w n , i n t r o d u c e d by quia

al-

Muzanl,

i n w h i c h he expands the analogy w i t h istinjd',

dicta. W h e t h e r these were w o r k s by Shafi'i, w h e t h e r indeed they

analogy

with

were stable w o r k s at a l l , as opposed

t o f l u i d and d e v e l o p i n g

explains that vessels affected by i m p u r i t i e s o t h e r t h a n that o f the

records o f school discussions, and w h e t h e r they were identical w i t h

d o g r e q u i r e a t h r e e f o l d o r at least a single w a s h i n g ( 9 . 1 ) , and that

w o r k s o f the same t i t l e , published n o w in the Umm,

the bodies o f b o t h the d o g and the p i g ( i n t r o d u c e d rather late in

the p r i o r existence o f some texts that contained a b o d y o f Shafi'i

these are

the cleansing

and adds an

agents used for t a n n i n g . I le t h e n

this discussion, as i n the o r i g i n a l ) render water in a vessel i m p u r e

m o r e difficult questions.

(11.1). T h i s l i m i t e d analogical extension is contrasted w i t h the wide

II T o a degree it is not o n l y possible but easy to identify the longer f o r m o f a passage w h i c h has been abbreviated in the

Mukhtasar.

Paragraph 3 in the M u z a n i passage q u o t e d b e l o w , at Section I V , i n t r o d u c e d by a single 'he s a i d ' — q u i a — r e p r e s e n t s

a conflation o f

t w o passages each i n t r o d u c e d by a separate 'he said' in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g text o f the Umm.

T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n consists o f a

slight r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f the w o r d s a t t r i b u t e d to Shafi'i, a c o n l l a t i o n executed by a simple c o n j u n c t i o n (wa) and a shortened version o f b o t h the isuad and the matu ( t e x t ) o f a hadith r e p o r t e d f r o m A n a s bin M a l i k / T h e r e are many examples where a c o m p l e x presenta­ t i o n o f evidence in the Umm

is correctly s u m m a r i z e d by M u z a n i

after the i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a , wa-'htajja

ft dhidik

hi . .

.—he

argued o n that m a t t e r as follows . . . See, for e x a m p l e . Paragraphs i o and 11 i n the same passage b e l o w . More

complex

than these

analogical

extension

o f the h a d i t h

from

al-Asm;V

(14).

M u z a n i explains that the p i g is i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n the r u l i n g o n the d o g because it is worse (aswa'

t h a n the dog (13).

He

animals

o t h e r t h a n the p i g and dog do n o t cause i m p u r i t y by d r i n k i n g at a vessel: wa-'htajja khinztr

hi.

ft jiwdz

al wudu'

hi fadli

mâ' siwa al-kalb

wa-'l-

. . H e r e he refers to three h a d i t h , n a m e l y the d o n k e y -

h a d i t h (15.4 and 15.5). the cat-hadith (15.6 and 15.7), and a t h i r d h a d i t h in w h i c h the Prophet states, I f a fly falls i n t o a vessel [ c o n t a i n i n g l i q u i d s ] , d i p it i n /

1

T h i s last h a d i t h is not used in the c u r r e n t text o f the Umm

for

the purpose o f this a r g u m e n t . I n all o t h e r respects, the M u z a n i passage is an adequate

s u m m a r y o f the positions a d o p t e d , the

s t r u c t u r e o f a r g u m e n t , a n d the proofs cited i n the

Umm.

I t f o l l o w s f r o m these observations that the f o r m u l a 'Shafi'i said', w h i c h in the Mukhtasar,

is the passage in w h i c h M u z a n i

hâlan)

then i n t r o d u c e s a s u m m a r y o f ShafiTs a r g u m e n t that

as in the Umm,

is a m a j o r i n t r o d u c t o r y

device, is c e r t a i n l y not t o be t a k e n l i t e r a l l y in the M u z a n i t e x t , for

summarizes ShafiTs views o n su'r. T h i s occurs in a chapter e n t i t l e d

in no sense at all is he g i v i n g the w o r d s as he ( p r e s u m a b l y ) read

Bab ma yufsid

t h e m in his source. H e w o u l d appear t o paraphrase,

al-md'

( O n that w h i c h pollutes w a f e r ) . H e r e , nearly

all the m a t e r i a l and a r g u m e n t a t i o n given in Paragraphs 9-15 Rabi'

passage

translated

in Chapter

4,

Section

o f the

I I above

is

summarize,

o m i t , a n d add m a t e r i a l (as i n the a d d i t i o n , i n this c o n t e x t , o f the m a t e r i a l o n water already used for wudu';

a n d o f course i n the

r e c a p i t u l a t e d in shorter f o r m . M u z a n i begins by stating that small

a d d i t i o n o f his o w n t h o u g h t s , i n t r o d u c e d by quia al-Muzanl).

q u a n t i t i e s o f i m p u r e substances, najdsa,

render water i m p u r e i f the

seems also to be the case either that M u z a n i felt free t o change

water is c o n t a i n e d in a vessel (see Para. 9 . 1 ) . T h i s is f o l l o w e d by a

quite radically the o r d e r o f the m a t e r i a l before h i m , o r , equally

digression, not represented in this part o f the R a b i ' t e x t , in w h i c h

possible, that the text before h i m d i d not i n c l u d e all o f the m a t e r i a l

the q u e s t i o n is raised w h e t h e r water that has been used once f o r

in the same o r d e r as we n o w have i t .

The original passage from the Umm will be found al Paras. 5 and 6 of (he passage translated in Ch. 5, Sect. V below. 5

Muzani, Mukhtasar,

8.

It

92

T H E

MUKHTASAR

O F

M U Z , A N

T H E

I

MUKHTASAR

O F

93

M U Z A N I

very

I l o w e v e r o n reflection this h a d i t h suggests p r o b l e m s a n d these

s i m i l a r ) t o the c u r r e n t f o r m o f the R a b f m a t e r i a l is e v i d e n t t o o

.no d r a w n i n t o the M u z a n i t e x t , i m m e d i a t e l y after the s u m m a r y .

f r o m a significant divergence i n a r g u m e n t a t i o n . T h e a r g u m e n t t h a t

I lore arc t h e c o m m e n t s that f o l l o w t h e h a d i t h o n the fly:

That

Muzani's

source-text

was

not i d e n t i c a l ( t h o u g h

l i v i n g animals o t h e r t h a n the dog and the pig d i d not cause i m p u r i t y i n water was s u p p o r t e d in M u z a n i ' s source-text by three different h a d i t h . B u t o n l y t w o are recorded in the Umm. M u z a n i was s u m m a r i z i n g , it was not the R a b f

Whatever

m a t e r i a l we n o w

have. I t seems preferable t o suggest that b o t h texts arc d r a w i n g t h e i r m a t e r i a l f r o m a c o m m o n b o d y o f Shafi'l d i c t a . M u z a n i , o n the w h o l e , summarizes,

b u t also systematizes,

c o m m e n t s , a n d , as we shall see,

even

expands,

contradicts his

adds

source-

m a t e r i a l . H e refers to but rarely cites h a d i t h in f u l l , and almost never gives isnads.

R a b f gives a fuller presentation o f m a t e r i a l ,

but not necessarily

a v e r b a t i m one: he t o o tries t o i m p r o v e the

arguments a n d the o r d e r i n g o f m a t e r i a l . H e gives h a d i t h and isndds that

in f u l l , sometimes w i t h m u l t i p l e versions, i t can be shown Rabf

o m i t s m a t e r i a l that

systematically

reformulates

more

has

become

complex

problematic

arguments

as

and they

d e v e l o p o u t o f older m a t e r i a l . These processes, c o m p l e x t h o u g h they arc, can be i l l u s t r a t e d f r o m the case o f the h a d i t h about the

i 1 le said: dipping the fly into the vessel doesn't mean killing it. The fly is not eaten, so if a fly, or a beetle, etc. dies in a vessel it causes impurity. • . H e said in a different place: I f it falls into water which is capable of b e i n g rendered impure [read yanjusu mtihlu-hu] it renders it impure, il it is something with a blood-system (nafsun sa'Ua). 1

Paragraph i here is a response t o an o b j e c t i o n . I f a lly hills i n t o water, a n d is d i p p e d i n t o the w a t e r , i t is l i k e l y t o d i e . A n d since a II v belongs t o the category o f things n o t t o be e a t e n , its carcass 1111parts i m p u r i t y . I n o r d e r to preserve the value o f the hadith in the c o n t e x t in w h i c h it is a d d u c e d , we are t o l d that d i p p i n g the lly does n o t necessarily k i l l i t . Paragraph 2 represents an advance o n ibis. I t gives a r e p o r t f r o m

Shafi'l, e v i d e n t l y d e r i v e d

from

a

different section o f the source m a t e r i a l , i n w h i c h he states that only

things w i t h a b l o o d - s y s t e m , nafsun

sd'ila,

w a t e r — w h e n dead (we k n o w the reference because we k n o w the source,

see

cause i m p u r i t y in is t o dead

animals

C h . 4, Sect. I I ) . T h u s , the

n levance o f the h a d i t h , in c o n t e x t , is m a i n t a i n e d after a fashion. I f the fly lives, i t does n o t cause i m p u r i t y , a n d so c o n f i r m s that l i v i n g animals i n general do not cause i m p u r i t y ; i f i t dies it still does n o t .-raise i m p u r i t y , because it docs n o t have a b l o o d - s y s t e m — a p o i n t which is relevant t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g the m o t i v e o f the P r o p h e t i n

III M u z a n i asserts that his source contains an a r g u m e n t in w h i c h a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h about a fly that falls into l i q u i d is adduced

as

evidence t o p r o v e that l i v i n g animals other than the dog and the p i g d o n o t cause i m p u r i t y i n w a t e r . T h e r e can be no reason t o d o u b t this c l a i m . I n spite o f anomalies, his w o r k is generally an adequate s u m m a r y o f m a t e r i a l t h a t can be f o u n d somewhere in the Shafi'l t r a d i t i o n and there are numerous examples o f his s u m m a r y b e i n g precisely

correct.

I n this particular case, his

summary,

t h o u g h not f o l l o w i n g the o r d e r o f his p u t a t i v e source, is correct i n nearly every d e t a i l , except in its m e n t i o n o f this h a d i t h . F u r t h e r , the

hadith

about

the fly

is clearly

relevant.

I f the

Prophet

suggested that a fly, l a n d i n g o n w a t e r , should be d i p p e d under the w a t e r ( r a t h e r than that the water should be t h r o w n away, etc.)

o r d e r i n g t h a t flies s h o u l d be d i p p e d u n d e r the w a t e r . T h e text thus 1 eveals

evidence

of

doubts

c o n c e r n i n g the relevance

and

arguments

a r g u m e n t . O v e r a l l the relevance

have

arisen

o f the h a d i t h to its context is

defended b u t w i t h some loss o f cohesion. T h e o r i g i n a l p o i n t was a s u m m a r y o f S h a f i T s alleged a r g u m e n t a t i o n a b o u t the capacity o f living animals t o cause p o l l u t i o n , but as the t e x t develops, a new p r o b l e m becomes the focus o f a t t e n t i o n , n a m e l y w h e t h e r dead Hies cause i m p u r i t y

in w a t e r . T h e r e

is u n c e r t a i n t y about the

category t o w h i c h (dead) flies b e l o n g : at Paragraph

1, not b e i n g

eaten, dead flies cause i m p u r i t y i n w a t e r ; at Paragraph

2, not

possessing a b l o o d - s y s t e m , dead flies do not cause i m p u r i t y i n water.

t h e n this c e r t a i n l y can be used t o confirm that l i v i n g things do not cause i m p u r i t y in water.

that

o f a particular h a d i t h in a p a r t i c u l a r

7

Muzani. Mukhtasar,

8.25-7.

T H E T H E

94

Mil

KIITASAR

O F

I t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t the next p a r a g r a p h , i n t r o d u c e d again by 'he s a i d ' , qdla, w h i c h has

been

M U K l l l A S A R

O F

95

M U Z A N I

M U Z A N I

refers t o dead fish and locusts. T h i s is a r u l i n g logically a t t r a c t e d i n t o the text at this p o i n t

because t h e discussion has come t o focus o n the capacity o f dead things t o cause i m p u r i t y in w a t e r . B u t the passage set off t o be a s u m m a r y o f an a r g u m e n t r e l a t i n g t o l i v i n g t h i n g s . T h e M u z a n i text t h e n , l i k e all the early.fiqh texts, shows signs o f organic g r o w t h , and bears witness to the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Shafi'i

into water and food if, on dying, it caused impurity; for that would be deliberate imparting of impurity. 2. If these things die in something susceptible to impurity, it is rendered impure. For these things are forbidden (muharram). The Prophet may have ordered the dipping of the dead fly because of the curative property contained in it. Also, the most probable thing is that it will not die. M y preferred view is that anything which is haram to eat, i f it falls into water . . . and dies there, imparts impurity. This applies to beetles, Hies, mosquitoes, and fleas.

d i c t a , expressly designed t o deal w i t h j u r i s t i c p r o b l e m s arising o u t o f earlier Shafi'I dicta. M u z a n i had a source-text w h i c h , summarized,

H e r e , the c o n t r a d i c t o r y views that a dead fly docs and does not

generated

cause i m p u r i t y in w a t e r are w o r k e d o u t as e x p l i c i t ikhiildf,

problems,

then

solutions;

and

these,

sequentially

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the t e x t , gave rise to disorder. A l l such m a t e r i a l was subsumed u n d e r the f o r m u l a i c qdla,

subsumed under the Shafi'i-said f o r m u l a p r o v i d e d earlier. I lowever

i m p l y i n g the a u t h o r i t y o f

Shafi'i. In the c u r r e n t text o f R a b f (translated at C h . 4, Sect. I I a b o v e ) , the

distracting hadith

about

the fly is simply r e m o v e d .

The

a r g u m e n t a b o u t l i v i n g animals (Para. 15) is in any case adequately dealt w i t h by the o t h e r t w o h a d i t h — t h a t about the d o n k e y a n d p r e d a t o r y a n i m a l s , and that about the cat. T h e a r g u m e n t a b o u t dead t h i n g s , e m e r g i n g t o w a r d s the end o f the M u z a n i section o n w h a t p o l l u t e s w a t e r , is rediscovered, h o w e v e r , in Paragraph ! o f the R a b f passage. A n d , interestingly, Paragraph 1 is not represented in M u z a n f s s u m m a r y o f w h a t he claims t o be ShafiTs a r g u m e n t a t i o n ; at least, not represented in a p r o p e r l y integrated m a n n e r . O n l y w h a t is a p p a r e n t l y the last i t e m t o enter the M u z a n i text ( u n d e r the r u b r i c , H e said in a different place) reflects in part w h a t R a b f h a d p r o d u c e d in Paragraph

1.

L e t us l o o k again at t w o items f r o m R a b f : 1.3 and 1.4. A l l things possessed of life . . . being dead . . . render water impure . . . if they have a blood-system. 1.5.

As to things which do not have a blood-system such as hies, beetles,

etc., there are two views on these: 1. I f these things die in water of small or large quantity, they do not impart impurity. Those who say this argue as follows: If someone says. But they are carrion, so how can you claim that they do not impart impurity? we reply, They do not change the water at all and they do not have a blood-system. If proof is demanded, we say, The Prophet of God commanded that if a fly falls into water, it should be dipped into i t . He ordered the same for a fly that falls into foodstuffs. Now, a fly may well die when dipped in this manner. The Prophet would not order it to be dipped

related

to

a

Prophetic

hadith.

The

and

systematically

whole

is

this passage, n o w i n the Umm, is clearly a response t o the p r o b l e m that was (first) generated i n the How

d i d this c o m p l e x

Mukhtasar.

o f m a t e r i a l develop?

I propose

the

following reconstruction: 1. A b o d y o f ' R a b f " m a t e r i a l e m e r g e d , c o n t a i n i n g most o f t h e a r g u m e n t s that are n o w c o n t a i n e d in the Umm

relating to

things w h i c h cause i m p u r i t y i n w a t e r . T h i s i n c l u d e d , as p r o o f that l i v i n g things do n o t cause i m p u r i t y , the h a d i t h about the fly. 2. " M u z a n f s u m m a r i z e d this m a t e r i a l , w i t h m i n o r a d d i t i o n s , changes of o r d e r , etc. 3. T h e ' M u z a n f text d e v e l o p e d new m a t e r i a l as a result o f the o b s e r v a t i o n that flies, w h e n d i p p e d i n w a t e r , sometimes d i e . R u l i n g : dead flies cause i m p u r i t y . 4. ' R a b f

became aware o f the fact that discussion on the fly

had m o d u l a t e d i n t o a discussion about dead animals. T h a t h a d i t h was t h e r e f o r e r e m o v e d f r o m its o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d placed i n a context that related it to dead things w h i c h do or do not p o l l u t e . R u l i n g : dead flies, l a c k i n g a blood-system, do not cause i m p u r i t y . 5. ' M u z a n f became aware o f this new m a t e r i a l , and summarized it t o o , u n d e r the r u b r i c , ' H e said in a d i f f e r e n t place'. 6. T h e ' R a b f m a t e r i a l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p , generating in the end

a

w e l l - w r o u g h t ikhtilaf

statement,

giving a

precise

h e r m e n e u t i c a r g u m e n t f o r and against the dead fly as a cause of impurity.

T H E

9°

MUKHTASAR

O F

T H E

M U Z A N Î

R e a l i t y o f course was not as neat as this schematic account. B u t c e r t a i n conclusions are reasonably p e r m i t t e d . T h e c u r r e n t R a b i ' text closed later t h a n t h e c u r r e n t M u z a n i t e x t . P r i o r t o closure t h e texts were subject t o slow organic g r o w t h and influenced one a n o t h e r . The most l i k e l y c o n t e x t for all this is school c o m p e t i t i o n . Two

nothing more than informal

groups o f

scholars w h o gathered r e g u l a r l y t o discuss the l a w )

schools

(perhaps

preserved,

c r e a t e d , and sequentially m o d i f i e d a b o d y o f m a t e r i a l deemed t o be f r o m Shafi'i and t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h c o m p e t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s , R a b i ' and M u z a n i . E a c h school developed

a d i s t i n c t i v e style,

respectively expansive a n d s u m m a r i z i n g . T h e schools were sufficiently

aware

o f one

another

to develop

parallel

modes

a r g u m e n t and to p i c k up a n d reflect o n d e v e l o p m e n t s

of

in the

o p p o s i n g school. T h e o n g o i n g processes o f reflection and debate generated t e x t u a l records ( n o d o u b t f r a g m e n t a r y and discrete) w h i c h were preserved and f r o m t i m e t o t i m e redacted, p r o b a b l y in a loose and i n f o r m a l m a n n e r and w i t h v a r y i n g degrees of academic s k i l l . (The evident c o m p e t i t i o n between the schools must cast d o u b t o n the neat schematic t e m p o r a l sequence o f

leadership

c l a i m e d by the t r a d i t i o n f o r the post-Shafi'i era; see Sect . 1 a b o v e ) . T h e Umm and the Mukhtasar

each show the familiar signs o f

organic d e v e l o p m e n t . T h a t R a b i '

and M u z a n i p r o v i d e d some

i m p e t u s towards the c o l l e c t i o n o f materials u n d e r their names may be conceded. B u t we have already seen that most o f the m a t e r i a l i n the Umm and all its most characteristic arguments must be dated late i n or later t h a n the l i f e t i m e o f R a b i ' . Since the Mukhtasar

had

access to m u c h or most o f this m a t e r i a l , its arguments t o o should be

recognized

eponymous

as

emerging,

mostly,

after

the

a u t h o r . It w o u l d be risky indeed

death

of

to assume

its that

a n y t h i n g i n these texts c o u l d reveal the historical Shafi'i. These conclusions deserve f u r t h e r e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n .

IV Consider the f o l l o w i n g passage f r o m M u z a n i . I.I.

Shafi'i said: That which renders wudu

¡ . 2 . Defecation 1.3.

Urination

necessary is [the following!:

MUKHTASAR

OF'

M U Z A N I

97

1.4. Sleep—whether lying down or standing up, bowing or prostrating oneself, or deviating from an upright position, whether the sleep is little or much 1.5. Loss of sense due to insanity or illness—whether lying down or not 1.6. Wind emitted from the backside 1.7. Touching a woman—by a man, that is applying any part of his body to hers, or vice versa, if there is nothing between them 1.8. Kissing a woman 1.9. Touching the penis (mass al-dhakar) with the inside of the hand— whether one's own penis, or someone else's, whether a child's or an adult's, whether of a dead or a living body. Male and female arc the same for the purposes of this rule. It matters not whether the orifice concerned is the front or back, or whether it is the sphincter itself of the anus. But wudu is not necessary for one who touches that part of an animal, because animals' genitals are not forbidden (la hurma ladui) and they are not subject to the requirements of worship (la ta'abbud alay-lut). 1.10. Anything that emerges from the front or back orifices—whether worms or blood or sexual fluids (madhy or wady) or moisture or anything else. 1.1 1. A l l of these render wudu' necessary. 2. kocal cleansing (istinjâ') is not required for one who sleeps or produces wind. 3 . l i e said: We prefer (nuhibbu) for one who sleeps sitting up. that he perform wudu'; but (wa) it is not clear that I declare it necessary for such a one. For, it is related from Anas bin Matik that the Companions of the Prophet of God used to wait for the evening prayer and s l e e p — I think he said, while sitting upright. [Also] from Ibn 'Umar that he used to sleep sitting upright, then pray without wudiV. 4. Muzani said: Shali'I said. If we go on to consider this (law sima ilâ alnazar). one should perform wudu' if overcome by sleep, in whatever of its states one is (kâna idha ghalaha 'alay-hi ul-imwm lawadda' bi-ayyi hi

hiiltVi-

kâna).

5 . 1 . Muzani said: I say. It is related from Safwan ibn 'Assal that he said. The Prophet used to command us, if we were travelling or on a journey, that we need not take off our boots for three days and nights, except on account of januha (= major ritual impurity); but on account of urination, defecation, and sleep [occasioning minor ritual impurity, requiring wudu'] there was no need to take off the boots. 5.2. Muzani said: Since the Prophet made these [three] equal in respect of entailing impurity (fi ma'na al-hadath), the impurity is the same with respect to all three, whether lying down or sitting up. If the impurity caused by sleep differed according to the different situations of the sleeper |i.e. standing versus sitting] so likewise would the impurity caused by defecation and urination.

9

8

T H E

MUKHTASAR

OF

M U Z A N l

THE

6. The Prophet would have explained this just as he explained that eating during the fast deliberately means breaking the fast; while eating out of forgetfufness does not mean breaking the fast. 7. I t is related from the Prophet that he said. The eyes are the thong on the sphincter muscle: i f the eyes sleep, the thong is loosened. 8. Further, it is related from 'A'isha, He who falls asleep, lying down or sitting up. A n d from A b u Hurayra, He who falls asleep is required to perform wudu'. A n d from Hasan, I f he sleeps, sitting or standing, he performs wudii'. 9 . MuzanT said: This is a degree of ikhtddf which makes consideration necessary (hddhd ikhdldf yiijib al-nazar).

Shafi'i, on consideration, put i t

into the category of (fima'na) one who faints (ughmiya 'alay-hi); however that happens, he performs wudii' (kayfa kdna tawadda'). Likewise, the sleeper: however it happens, he performs wudii' (kayfa kdna tawadda'). 10. His argument as to touching a woman consisted in (wa-'htajja fi 7muldmasa bi . . . ) God's word, 'Or you touch women' ( 0 . 4 : 4 3 ) , and the words of Ibn 'Umar, ' A man's kissing his wife'; and, from Ibn Mas'ud, a ruling similar to that of Tbn 'Umar. 11.1. His argument as to mass al-dhakar consisted in the hadith of Busra, from the Prophet of God: if any of you touches his penis, let him perform wudii'.

11.2. He judged the backside by analogy on the penis (qdsa al-dubur

bi-'l-

farj).

11.3. Together with the transmission from 'A'isha that she said: I f a woman touches her far], she performs wudii'. 11.4. A n d he argued on the basis of the Prophet's words: He who emancipates a share that he has in a slave should compute i t . Here the meaning 'slave-girl' is contained within the meaning of the word 'slave'; and likewise is the backside contained within the meaning of the word dhakar*

Paragraph

1 here

i s , s t r u c t u r a l l y , a list o f items that

c a n c e l l a t i o n o f p u r i t y . I t e m 1 . 9 , r e l a t i n g t o mass al-dhakar,

cause stands

o u t . A r e l a t i v e l y l o n g a n d c o m p l e x discussion, i t disrupts t h e syntax o f t h e list and suggests t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r p o l a t i o n . T h e e x p a n d e d items at 1.4 and 1 . 7 may also betray i n t e r p o l a t i o n . T h e subject o f mass Paragraph, formula

al-dhakar

l i k e Paragraph

(wa-'htajja

r e t u r n s at Paragraph

11. T h i s

10, is i n t r o d u c e d by a c o n v e n t i o n a l

fi . . . bi . . . ) signalling a s u m m a r y o f

a r g u m e n t . Paragraph 10 is a correct s u m m a r y o f the m a t e r i a l in the Umm

that relates t o t o u c h i n g a w o m a n .

' Muzam, Mukhtasar, 3 - 4 . s

9

Paragraph

u , on the

See Shafi'i, Umm, i . 15—16/12—13.

MUKHTASAR

OF

M U Z A N l

99

<>lher h a n d , shows l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the m a t e r i a l i n the Umm I hat relates t o mass

al-dhakar.

T h e r e is n o h a d i t h f r o m

'A'isha

I I 1.3) i n t h e Umm, n o r is t h e r e the far-fetched r/zrav-argument o f 1 1.4. F u r t h e r m o r e , the Umm has recourse n o t s i m p l y t o the h a d i t h of Busra b u t also t o a m o r e e x p l i c i t and useful h a d i t h w h i c h makes 1 he same p o i n t , a n d is p r o v i d e d w i t h three different

isndds.

H e r e is the r e l e v a n t p a r t o f the Umm.

1.1. Shafi'i said, from Malik b. Anas, from 'Abdallah b. A b i Bakr b. Muhammad b. ' A m r b. Hazm, that he heard 'Urwa b. Zubayr say, I visited Marwan b. al-Hakam and we discussed what events render w udii' necessary. Marwan said, Mass al-dhakar renders wudii' necessary. 'Urwa said, I didn't know that. So Marwan said, I was informed of this by Busra bint Safwan; she heard the Prophet of God saying. If one of you touches Ins penis, he should perform wudii'. 1.2. From Sulayman b. ' A m r , and Muhammad b. 'Abdallah, from Yazld h. ' A b d al-Malik al-Hashiml, from Sa'Id b. A b i Sa'Td al-Maqbari, from Abu Hurayra, that the Prophet of God said, I f any one of you brings his hand into contact with his penis (afdd bi-yadi-hi ild dhakari-hi), there being nothing separating the one from the other, he should perform wudii'.

1.3. Shafi'i, from 'Abdallah b. Nafi' and I b n A b i Fadlk, from Ibn AbT Dhi'b, from 'Uqba b. ' A b d al-Rahman, from Muhammad b. ' A b d alRahman b. Thawban, that the Prophet o f God said. I f any one of you brings his hand into contact with his penis, he should perform wudu'. 1.4. I b n Nafi' gave a longer version [of the isndd], saying, Muhammad b. Abd al-Rahman b. Thawban, from Jabir b. 'Abdallah, from the Prophet. Hut I have heard more than one of retentive memory relate i t , not mentioning Jabir. >.. He said: If a man brings the palm of his hand into contact with his penis 1 here being nothing between the t w o , he must perform wudii'. ;. He said: I t is all the same whether it was deliberately or otherwise; for everything that requires wudii' as a result of deliberate action requires it also i f carried out non-deliberately. |.. He said: It is all the same whether he touches it a little or a lot. ,. Likewise i f he touches his backside, or the front or the back parts of his wife, or touches that part of a child, it renders him sub ject to wudii'. But if lie touches his testicles or buttocks or thighs without touching his penis, he is not subject to wudii'. <>. It is all the same whether he touches that part of a living or a dead body. /. But i f he touches any of these parts of an animal, he is not subject to

100

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O F M U Z AN I

wudu'. For mankind alone possesses forbidden parts (hurma) and is subject to ta'abbud; animals have no share in Ihese considerations. 8. When a man touches something forbidden such as wet blood or pus etc. he should wash what touches i t , but he is not subject to wudu'. 9. I f he touches his penis with the back of his hand or his arm or something other than the palm of his hand, he is not subject to wudu'. 10. If someone should say. What difference is at issue? the reply is, The words al-ifdd' bi-'l-yad, bringing the hands into contact, means the palm for inside] of the hand. As in the phrase, afdd bi-yadi-hi in a sale agreement [ = he shook hands on a deal], or afdd bi-yadi-hi, meaning he put his hands on the ground while performing prostration (in prayer— sujud). or on his knees while kneeling (rukW). Since the Prophet ordered wudiV only after bringing the hands into contact, al-ifdd' etc., with the penis, [this is the ruling]. It is known that i f a man's penis touches his thighs and adjacent parts of his body, this does not require, on the evidence of Prophetic practice (sunna), wudu' . . . i 1. Qiyds alone would require that wudu' is not necessary [after mass aldhakar—but text is garbled]. For the sunna of the Prophet demonstrates that touching things which are even more polluting than the penis (ma huwa anjas nun al-dhakar) does not require wudu'. Sufyiin informed us, from Hisham, from Fatima, from Asrna', that the Prophet of God was asked about menstrual blood which falls upon clothing. He replied, Scrape it off, rub the spot with water, then sprinkle i t ; then pray in i t . Shafi'I said, If the Prophet of God ordered with respect to menstrual blood that it should be washed by hand, and did not order wudu' after that, and given that blood is more polluting (anjas) than the penis [how much more might we expect that the penis does not cause pollution, but this is not so]. By qiyds on this ruling, [i.e. the ruling on menstrual blood, it is apparent that] no najis thing that is touched necessitates wudu'. I f this is true of things najis, then what is not in itself najis ought, still more so, not to entail wudii':, unless there is a specific haclith [and this is the case with the penis], 10

C i e a r i y t h e t e x t f r o m w h i c h M u z a n I s u m m a r i z e d his mass al-dhakar m a t e r i a l was n o t t h e o n e that is n o w i n the Umm. L o o k back n o w at the ( i n t e r p o l a t e d ) Paragraph 1.9 i n M u z a n i ' s t e x t . T h e sequential concern there w i t h c h i l d a n d a d u l t , dead and l i v i n g , male and f e m a l e , f r o n t and b a c k , h u m a n and a n i m a l , reflect and s u m m a r i z e a sequential concern w i t h the same s u b j e c t - m a t t e r in t h e Umm. B u t b y n o means all t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e Umm has been s u m m a r i z e d even t h e r e . "' See Shall 1. Umm. i . 19-20/15-17.

T H E

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O F M U Z A N I

101

For this c o m p l e x o f materials I propose a r e s o l u t i o n similar t o that given i n the previous section. ' M u z a n I ' s u m m a r i z e d a body o f m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o mass al-dhakar. I n its o r i g i n a l context that m a t e r i a l was subject t o d e v e l o p m e n t and deletion, g i v i n g rise in t i m e t o a f o r m u l a t i o n quite different f r o m that w h i c h was first s u m m a r i z e d . ' M u z a n i ' became aware o f t h e later f o r m u l a t i o n , s u m m a r i z e d i t t o o , a n d i n t e r p o l a t e d i t at what seemed a suitable place in his w o r k . T h e RabF m a t e r i a l w e n t on d e v e l o p i n g alter the closure o f t h e M u z a n I t e x t , generating new arguments and new hadith. W h e n B a y h a q i asserted that M u z a n i was unjust t o Shafi'i in his s u m m a r y o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n , he meant this k i n d o f t h i n g . It is a t r i v i a l e x a m p l e , b u t M u z a n i clearly is not fully i n f o r m e d o f all the developments i n R a b F . A m o r e significant example o f MuzanT's ' i n j u s t i c e ' t o Shaft'! is e x e m p l i f i e d i n the f o l l o w i n g section.

V Paragraphs 3 - 9 , i n the passage cited f r o m M u z a n i above, represent a coherent set o f arguments r e l a t i n g t o t h e question w h e t h e r and u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s sleep cancels a state o f p u r i t y . A t Paragraph 3 , M u z a n i states, s u m m a r i z i n g precisely a passage in the Umm, t h a t , according t o Shafi'I, a person w h o sleeps w h i l e sitting is n o t absolutely r e q u i r e d t o renew his wudu'. A t Paragraph 4 , h e c o n t r a d i c t s t h a t . T h i s passage must be i n t e r p r e t e d as one o f those i n w h i c h M u z a n i recalls personally s o m e t h i n g w h i c h Shafi'I said, s o m e t h i n g not f o u n d i n any o f the preserved texts. This is w h a t is i m p l i e d by the l o c u t i o n , ' M u z a n i said, Shafi'I said', w h i c h introduces this p a r a g r a p h i n contrast t o t h e usual, 'Shafi'I said'. W h a t M u z a n i recalls Shafi'I t o have said is t h a t , o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n , e v e r y o n e w h o is actually o v e r c o m e by sleep must p e r f o r m wudu'; irrespective, t h a t i s , o f the p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h they sleep. I n o t h e r w o r d s , the relevant d i s t i n c t i o n relates t o the nature o f the s l e e p — that w h i c h overcomes a n d t h a t w h i c h does n o t ; a n d not to the position o f t h e s l e e p e r — s i t t i n g versus all other positions. ( T h e jurists e n j o y e d this q u e s t i o n ; see also C h . 9 , Sect. 11.) M u z a n i , in propria persona, defends the reconsidered view o f Shafi'I by f o u r a r g u m e n t s , set o u t i n Paragraphs 5 - 8 . Paragraph 9 is clearly a d u p l i c a t e o f Paragraph 3 . MuzanT is p o r t r a y e d once again as r e c a l l i n g t h a t , o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n , Shali'i h a d i n effect

102

THE

M U K f/T AŞ AR

OF M U Z A N I

changed his m i n d o n the m a t t e r , and had recognized that all forms o f sleep necessitate wudii'. I t is p r o b a b l e that Paragraphs 3 and 9 represent d i f f e r e n t i a l developments o f some o r i g i n a l statement either made by MuzanT o r a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m , b o t h i n c o r p o r a t e d into the c u r r e n t t e x t . This passage exhibits a p e c u l i a r i t y i n so far as t h e rather elaborate arguments at Paragraphs 5, 6, 7, and 8 give a p o l e m i c a l r i n g t o w h a t , o n the face o f i t , is a r e c o r d o f a p o s i t i o n sanctioned by Shâfi'i himself, after due d e l i b e r a t i o n . I n fact, t h e p o l e m i c a l tone is a p p r o p r i a t e a n d the o p p o n e n t is t o be discovered i n t h e Shâfi'i o f the R a b f t r a d i t i o n . H e r e is t h e relevant R a b f m a t e r i a l f r o m the Umm. 1. Shâfi'i said: God says, When you rise to pray, wash your hands and your face etc. . . . 2. Shâfi'i said: The plain meaning of the verse is that he who rises to pray must perform wudu'. I t is probable that it was revealed on a specific issue (ft khüsş). I have heard one whose knowledge of the Qur'an I approve claim that it was revealed [specifically] concerning those who rise from sleep. 3.1. He said: I consider that he said what he said because there is in the sunna evidence that one who rises from sleep should perform wudu'. 3.2. From Sufyân, from Z u h r l , from A b u Hurayra, that the Prophet of God said, I f any one of you awakes from sleep let him not dip his hand into the vessel until he washes it three times, for he does not know where his hand spent the night. 3.3. From Mâlik et al. [a variant], 3.4. From Sufyân et al. [a variant]. 3.5. Shâfi'i said: So, one who sleeps lying down must perform wudu' because he is rising from a recumbent position. 4. He said: Sleep is the overcoming of the senses (ghalba 'ala l-'aql). So, he whose senses are overcome by madness or by sickness, lying down or otherwise, must perform wudu'; because his state is more severe in this respect than that of one who sleeps . . . 5. He said: If a man sleeps while sitting upright, it is preferable to me (altabbu dayyd) that he perform wudu'. 6.1. He said: It is not clear to me that ! declare wudu' necessary for him. 6.2. From a reliable man, from Hammâd al-Tawil, from Anas ibn Mâlik, that the Companions of the Prophet used to wait for the evening prayer, and sleep—I think he said, while sitting upright, to the point that their heads nodded—then they would pray without wudu . 6.3. From Mâlik, from Naff, from Ibn 'Umar, that he used to sleep sitting upright then pray without wudu'.

THE

M U KUTAŞAR

OF M U Z A N I

IO3

6.4. Shaft'! said: If he sleeps sitting up, upright, it is not in my view incumbent that he perform wudu', on the grounds of the athar 1 have mentioned. 7 . 1 . I t is known that the verse was revealed about sleepers, and a sleeper is one who is lying down. I t is also known that if one is informed that soand-so is asleep, one does not conceive of anything except that he is lying down. The word 'sleep' is not used in an absolute sense except for one lying down. 7 . 2 . [The concept] of one who sleeps sitting upright has a meaning that is dependent on an adjectival clause; so we say, He slept while sitting upright. In the same way. one says, He slept through something | he was oblivious to i t ] , meaning his mind had to waken up to it, as a matter of consideration, but not meaning the [normal] sleep of slumber. S. The sleeper lying down is not in the same state as the sleeper sitting up, for the former sleeps deeply and his senses are overcome to a greater degree than one who sleeps sitting up. [Hence] the incidence of a polluting event, with regard to the case of passage and the possibility of his being unaware of it, is different from the case of one who sleeps sitting upright. <). He said: I f he abandons the upright position, while sitting sleeping, he must perform wudu'. For, one who sleeps in a sitting position entrusts himself to the earth, and it is scarcely possible that anything pass from him except he be aware of it. But if he abandons [that support] he enters the definition of one lying down in respect of the incidence of a polluting event. 10. He said: I f one sleeps bowing or prostrating oneself I declare wudu' incumbent on him because it is even more likely that a pollution will occur and he not know about it than in the case of one who sleeps lying down, i 1. He said: I f one sleeps standing, he must perform wudu' because he does not entrust himself to the earth. That he should be judged by analogy (yuqds) with the recumbent sleeper in so far as both are overcome in the senses by sleep is more reasonable (awld) than that he be measured against the person sitting down, who is only freed, [from the need to perform wudu'} on account of the transmitted materia! (athar), and for the reason ('da) I have mentioned, namely that he entrusts himself to the ground. ' 1

T h e nucleus o f that passage a n d the o n l y part o f it k n o w n t o M u z a n i , is Paragraphs 5 and 6. These have been conflated t o give Paragraph 3 o f the M u z a n i m a t e r i a l . T h e interested reader w i l l be able t o analyse a n d j u d g e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the rest o f this passage f o r himself. T h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g t o note is the polemical tone o f t h e a r g u m e n t w h i c h begins w i t h the stress o n "

See ShafiT, Umm, i . 12-14/10-12.

K>4

T H E

M V Kil

TA

ŞA

R

O F

M U Z A N I

r i s i n g , i.e. f r o m sleep, at Paragraphs i and 2, and culminates i n the t r i u m p h a n t f o r m u l a t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t i o n that separates t h e sitting sleeper f r o m all others. H e has 'entrusted h i m s e l f t o the g r o u n d ' (Para. 9 ) : such are the relative positions o f the anus and the earth that the l a t t e r , i t is c l a i m e d , functions as a support against i n a d v e r t e n t p o l l u t i o n . T h i s became the classic a r g u m e n t of the Shafi'I t r a d i t i o n i n favour o f the anomalous r u l i n g o n one w h o sleeps s i t t i n g u p r i g h t . B a y h a q i m i g h t have cited this as an example o f M u z a n I i n s t i t u t i n g an attack o n Shafi'I o n t h e basis o f deficiencies w h i c h were r e m e d i e d i n the t r a n s m i t t e d dicta o f Shafi'I. B u t these are n o t the t r a n s m i t t e d dicta o f Shafi'I. T h e Mukhtasar and the Umm are, i n fact, t h e r e c o r d of o n g o i n g a r g u m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n contiguous groups or 'schools', sharing a c o m m o n allegiance t o Shafi'I, and a c o m m o n a p p r o a c h t o the l a w , b u t expressing t h e i r i m m e d i a t e l o y a l t y by reference t o the transmission activity of R a b f or M u z a n I . T h e c r e a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t w i t h i n these groups was clearly a l o n g - t e r m process, p r o b a b l y enacted by circles o f students and j u r i s t s m e e t i n g t o discuss the law i n the mosque. T h e r e c o r d i n g , s t o r i n g , d i s c a r d i n g , and redacting o f these discussions was likewise c a r r i e d o u t over a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , by different p e o p l e , displaying different degrees o f e d i t o r i a l s k i l l . T h e g r o u p associated w i t h the name o f R a b i ' was apparently t h e m o r e successful i n t h e e n d : i t c o n t i n u e d t o develop new m a t e r i a l a n d arguments after the closure and final r e d a c t i o n o f M u z a m ' s Mukhtasar, a n d , consequently, i n cases o f dispute is l i k e l y t o c o n t a i n the b e t t e r and m o r e developed arguments ( t h o u g h it sometimes also preserves bad and inefficient arguments). C o m m o n to b o t h groups was the c o n v e n t i o n of a t t r i b u t i n g the f o r m a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e i r j u r i s t i c discoveries t o the ever m o r e distant master, Shafi'I. T a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the a r g u m e n t o f C h a p t e r 4 , t o g e t h e r w i t h the arguments o f this C h a p t e r , it w i l l be evident that the b u l k o f m a t e r i a l n o w c o n t a i n e d i n the Umm or i n the Mukhtasar must be a t t r i b u t e d t o the generations after M u z a n I and R a b i ' . W h a t e v e r personal i m p e t u s these masters gave t o the texts that bear t h e i r names is u n l i k e l y n o w , w i t h any degree o f c e r t a i n t y , to be recoverable.

6

T H E KITÂB AL-KHARÂJ OF ABÜ YÛSUF 1

It is r e p o r t e d that Y a ' q i i b b. I b r a h i m a l - A n ş â r l k n o w n as A b u Y û s u f was b o r n in 113 A H and d i e d i n 182. O f h u m b l e o r i g i n s , he f o u n d his way t o the study sessions of A b ü H a n i f a , w h o , recogniz­ ing his m e r i t , p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h a bursary and was his first and most i m p o r t a n t teacher. A b ü Y û s u f and M u h a m m a d b. al-Hasan a l - S h a y b â n i , together w i t h t h e i r teacher, A b ü H a n i f a , constitute i he t h r e e great a u t h o r i t i e s o f the H a m i l i fiqh t r a d i t i o n . Sharing a n d g u a r a n t e e i n g v a r i a n t views o n j u r i s t i c questions, they serve i n the d e v e l o p e d t r a d i t i o n t o k e e p o p t i o n s o p e n a n d ensure f l e x i b i l i t y . I n contrast t o M u h a m m a d b . a l - H a s a n , w h o represents the school's c o m m i t m e n t t o dialectical skills and refinement o f j u r i s t i c o p i n i o n , A b ü Y û s u f is presented i n b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s as an a u t h o r i t y in h a d i t h . I b n H a n b a l , w h e n he started collecting Prophetic h a d i t h , went first t o A b ü Y û s u f — w h i c h is a g o o d story and a speaking c r e d e n t i a l . A b ü Y û s u f s k n o w l e d g e o f h a d i t h , h o w e v e r , was c o u p l e d w i t h i n t e r p r e t a t i v e skills w h i c h distinguished h i m f r o m the ahl al-hadlth. A s k e d by A ' m a s h c o n c e r n i n g a j u r i s t i c s u b t l e t y , he replied o n the basis o f a h a d i t h w h i c h he had o r i g i n a l l y heard f r o m A ' m a s h himself. ' W e are o n l y the pharmacists,' said A ' m a s h i n a d m i r a t i o n , 'and y o u the d o c t o r s . ' T h e r e are a great many I T o p h e t i c h a d i t h in A b ü Y ü s u f ' s Kitüh al-Kharâj (one of several ways i n w h i c h this b o o k differs f r o m other early H a n a f i a t t r i b u l i o n s ) , a fact w h i c h may have p r o m o t e d this b i o g r a p h i c a l characleristic. I n contrast to A b ü H a n i f a , whose death is represented as b r o u g h t a b o u t by his refusal t o accept j u d i c i a l office, A b ü Y û s u f ı o s e t o h i g h r a n k , s h o w i n g h i m s e l f a w i l l i n g and capable servant o f

[06

T H F . Kl

TAB

A L - K11

ARA

J

O F

A B U

Y U S U F

the state, a courteous a n d w i l y c o u r t i e r , finally b e c o m i n g qâdï alqudât i n B a g h d a d i n t h e service o f H à r ù n al-Rashld. H i s enemies said he h a d w r e s t l e d w i t h t h e w o r l d a n d been defeated b u t t h e Hanafis h a d i n h i m a m o d e l o f h o n o u r a b l e a n d c u n n i n g service t o the g o v e r n m e n t . These stories, sanctioning a many faceted response t o fiqh, t o h a d i t h and t o j u d i c i a l office, were preserved as symbols o f the flexibility a n d v a r i e d aspirations o f t h e H a n a f i juristic tradition. O f b o o k s a t t r i b u t e d t o A b u Y ù s u f , there are t w o tracts preserved w i t h i n t h e Shâfi'ï corpus o f l a w - b o o k s as objects o f dispute. These are the Kitâb al-radd 'alâ siyar al-Awzaï and t h e Ikhtilâf Abï Hantfa wa-lbn Abï Laylà. Just as the Muwatta' o f S h a y b à n ï is a H a n a f i preservation o f the M â l i k î t r a d i t i o n , so these w o r k s are a Shâfi'ï p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n . A l s o a t t r i b u t e d t o A b u Y ù s u f is a c o l l e c t i o n o f âthâr, a n d the famous Kitâb al-Kharâj. T h e l a t t e r , usually accepted as an a u t h o r e d text d a t i n g t o before 182, is analysed i n this Chapter. I t is c l a i m e d that the analyses w h i c h f o l l o w n o t o n l y p e r m i t a fairly comprehensive understanding o f the processes which brought about the emergence o f this b o o k , b u t also give a snapshot p i c t u r e o f the t a x a t i o n system as o r g a n i z e d f r o m B a g h d a d i n the m i d d l e o f the t h i r d century. 1

II

T h e Kitâb al-Kharâj is available i n several p r i n t e d versions, the oldest o f w h i c h is the B u l a q e d i t i o n o f 1302/1885. T h e Salafiyya Press has p r o d u c e d an e d i t i o n , r e p r i n t e d several t i m e s , based o n a single m a n u s c r i p t collated w i t h t h e B u l a q t e x t . T h i s e d i t i o n exhibits o n l y m i n o r deviations f r o m t h e B u l a q e d i t i o n ; i t is p r o b a b l y based o n the same m a n u s c r i p t o r t h e same manuscript t r a d i t i o n . T h e B u l a q e d i t i o n has n o a n d the Salafiyya editions l i t t l e significant e d i t o r i a l apparatus. A c o m p l e t e e d i t i o n o f the Kitâb alTwo of the larger biographies of A b u Yùsuf are contained in Ahmad b. ' A h alBaghdadT, Ta'rikh, xiv. 242 If. and Dhahabï, Manaqib. Struggles with the world, Baghdad!, Ta'rikh, xiv. 248; Ahmad's recourse to xiv. 255; dialogue with A'mash, xiv. 246; cf. Dhahabï, Manaqib, 40. Baghdad! gives invective as well as praise. See also the smaller biographies of Qurashi and Laknawi. For A b u Yûsuf's literary production, Sezgin. Geschichtc, i . 419-21; Schacht. ad "Abu Y ù s u f in £/(ii) (where he describes the ikhtilaf literature as 'undoubtedly genuine', not a view 1 would subscribe t o ) . Sec also Sehacht's discussion on the authorship of the Kitdb al-hiyal, in Schacht, Das kitâb al-mahârig, 5—13. 1

T H E

KITAB

A I.-

K I! A RAJ

O F

A B U Y U S U F

¡07

Kharaj is c o n t a i n e d i n a c o m m e n t a r y , e n t i t l e d Fiqh al-muluk watniftah al-ritdj, b y ' A b d a l - ' A z i z b . M u h a m m a d a l - R a h b i ( d . 1194 A H ) . T h e e d i t o r o f this w o r k , A . U . K a b i s i , has set t h e text o f the Kitdb al-Khardj above the text o f the c o m m e n t a r y a n d he has systematically c o m p a r e d R a h b l ' s e d i t i o n , as made available in t w o manuscripts, w i t h the p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s . T h e result is a useful t e x t , w i t h a decent e d i t o r i a l apparatus. T h e most recent p r i n t e d t e x t , e d i t o r Ihsan ' A b b a s , is n o t superior t o that p r o d u c e d by K a b i s i . T h e Kitdb al-Khardj begins w i t h an address t o a p r i n c e , the contents o f w h i c h are n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y j u r i s t i c ; they consist o f advice a n d general paracnesis ( m o r e adab t h a n fiqh), f o l l o w e d by an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f h a d i t h , t h e m a j o r i t y o f w h i c h are from the Prophet. T h i s is f o l l o w e d by juristic m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b o o t y t a k e n i n b a t t l e ; then by n u m e r o u s more o r less clearly m a r k e d sections r e l a t i n g to l a n d h o l d i n g , land-taxes, and taxes o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e . B r o a d l y , discussion o f the tax i c r m e d kharaj precedes discussion o f the tax t e r m e d 'ushr, zakdt, or sadaqa—though m u c h o f the d e t a i l is i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r w o v e n , even confused. T h i s is f o l l o w e d by discussion o f t h e poll-tax o r jizya, applicable o n l y t o n o n - M u s l i m s , together w i t h discussion o f 1 he social status, r i g h t s , a n d o b l i g a t i o n s o f n o n - M u s l i m citizens i n Islamic t e r r i t o r y . T h e last sections o f t h e b o o k relate t o such topics as h o w t o deal w i t h thieves, h o w t o i m p l e m e n t t h e prescribed penalties (hudud), h o w t o pay g o v e r n m e n t officials, a d m i n i s t e r border crossings, organize warfare w i t h n o n - M u s l i m neighbours, etc. T h e w h o l e is recognizable as selected a n d presented w i t h t h e i m m e d i a t e a i m o f e l u c i d a t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e practice a n d as e x h i b i t i n g a m o r e p a r t i c u l a r concern f o r modes o f t a x a t i o n a n d l a n d h o l d i n g . T h e t i t l e Kitdb al-Khardj is j u s t i f i e d by the expansive 2

See Bibliography under A b u Yusul lor details o f these texts. References hereafter are to the Rahbl edition o f the Kitab al-Khardj; where necessary iiTcrences to the Bulaq edition follow after a slash, Rahbi/Bulaq. The text of Ihsan Abbas is based on the three printed editions, with the addition of material derived 110m the British Museum manuscript o f the Kitdb al-Khardj. This manuscript, described by 'Abbas as defective towards the end and with folios missing in the middle, seems to function as a source of bad readings, recorded in the footnotes. -Abbas knows of fifteen manuscripts o f the Kitdb al-Khardj in Istanbul which, pressed for time at the critical moment, he was unable to use. I lis editorial method is eclectic. The result, of course, of an eclectic reading of four texts, only one of which is competent (that of Kablsi/Rahbi), is that the competent text (usually) prevails. Where it does not, KablsT's apparatus already indicated the divergences amongst the printed texts. 2

ıo8

T H E

Kî

TA

B

A L - K I I A R A . I

O F

A B U

T H E

Y U S U F

n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o this topic ( i n its broadest sense— t a x a t i o n ) , b u t it h a r d l y describes the nature o f the b o o k as a w h o l e , w h i c h clearly aspires to cover all major areas o f government administration. L i k e all early j u r i s t i c w o r k s , this one is composed o f discrete segments. T h e p r e d o m i n a n t markers o f segmentation are the f o r m u l a e qdla and qdla Abü Yusuf. I n a chapter consisting o f 23 such segments the f o r m u l a qdla Abü Yûsuf occurs 6 times versus 17 instances o f the a n o n y m o u s qdla? I n a n o t h e r chapter consisting o f 10 segments the f o r m u l a qala Abü Yûsuf occurs 7 times versus 3 instances o f the a n o n y m o u s qala. T h e r e is no apparent system at w o r k d i c t a t i n g these choices, t h o u g h there is a tendency for segments w h i c h i n i t i a t e a new t o p i c t o have the fuller f o r m u l a . Since m u c h o f the m a t e r i a l t h a t composes the Kitdb al-Khardj is h a d i t h m a t e r i a l i n t r o d u c e d by an isndd, a m a j o r i t y o f the segments in the b o o k e x h i b i t the f o r m u l a e qala (Abü Yûsuf) haddatha-nî. . . o r qala (Abü Yûsuf) haddatha-nd . . . A g a i n , there is no apparent significance i n the v a r i a t i o n . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s instances o f j u r i s t i c e x p o s i t i o n or statements o f ikhtildf governed i m m e d i a t e l y by qdla (Abü Yûsuf). Carelessness or indifference in the applica­ t i o n o f these f o r m u l a e is m a r k e d not o n l y by the r a n d o m d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n o f the f o r m s w i t h i n one e d i t i o n (or manuscript t r a d i t i o n ) , b u t by v a r i a t i o n s i n the r e a l i z a t i o n and n o n - r e a l i z a t i o n o f these f o r m u l a e across different editions/manuscripts. O n n u m e r o u s occasions the e d i t o r o f R a h b i has t o indicate either that these f o r m u l a e have been o m i t t e d f r o m the p r i n t e d editions o r that they have been added to the p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s . I t seems probable t h a t scribes w e r e variously creative or careless in t h e i r realization o f f o r m u l a i c m a t e r i a l o f this k i n d . I t is also p r o b a b l e that the m a t e r i a l a c c u m u l a t e d over t i m e and that sequential a d d i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l l e d to slight v a r i a t i o n s i n the r e a l i z a t i o n o f these r c d a c t i o n a l f o r m u l a e . In a sequence o f five h a d i t h that describe the events s u r r o u n d i n g the B a t t l e o f Qadisiyya, f o u r are i n t r o d u c e d by qala fwa-j haddatha-nî, and o n e , the t h i r d in the sequence, by qdla Abü Yûsuf wa-haddatha-nif I t is possible t o speculate that a sequence 4

5

Abü 16-22. Ibid, Ibid. Ibid, 4 1

6

Yusuf, Kitâb al-Kharâj,

chapter Ma 'umila bi-hi ft 'l-Sawad,

chapter Kayf kana fara Abı Bakr wa-'Umar. i . 307-336/24-7. i . 34! n. 3, 342 n. 2. 350 n. 3, 359 n. 1, 390 n. 1, el al. incipils at 221, 226. 239, 240, 243/16-18.

i . 217-88/

KITAB

AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U Y U S U F

IOO,

of f o u r accounts i n t r o d u c e d by qdla came i n t o existence first, and that the fifth account was i n t r o d u c e d at a later date together w i t h the f o r m u l a w h i c h j u s t i f i e d its inclusion in this text. T h e a n o m a l o u s u n i t , f u r t h e r m o r e , is n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the j u r i s t i c p o i n t at issue, w h i c h r a t h e r confirms the possibility o f a kite i n t e r p o l a t i o n . B u t this k i n d o f speculation is n o t very p r o f i t a b l e . T h e Kitdb al-Kharaj is a redacted t e x t , composed o f diverse materials r e n d e r e d ( m o r e o r less) homogeneous by a p p l i c a t i o n o f the r e d a c t i o n a l f o r m u l a e qdla and qdla Abü Yûsuf, i m p e r f e c t l y and unsystematically a p p l i e d b o t h by redactors and scribes. These small units o f t e x t , i n i t i a t e d by qala (Abü Yûsuf), are organized i n t o larger units or chapters. T h e larger units are also m a r k e d by a set o f f o r m u l a e w h i c h indicate the i n i t i a t i o n o f a new section and offer a p r e v i e w o f the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . These take the f o r m o f an address t o a p r i n c e . ' Y o u have asked, C o m m a n d e r o f the F a i t h f u l , c o n c e r n i n g ' — w a - s a ' a l t a yd amir al-mu'minin 'an o r , ammd md sa'alta 'an-hu yd amir al-mu'minin min. T h e m a t e r i a l organized u n d e r these headings may take the f o r m o f h a d i t h , j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t , or ikhtildf statement. T h e f o r m u l a , Y o u have asked O C o m m a n d e r o f the F a i t h f u l , is sometimes, and sometimes n o t , preceded by the f o r m u l a qdla Abü Yûsuf. I n the B u l a q e d i t i o n a m a j o r i t y o f these headings are w i t h o u t an i n t r o d u c t o r y qdla Abü Yûsuf. I n the R a h b i t e x t , this has been m o r e or less u n i f o r m l y p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h o u t . I t makes a considerable difference t o o u r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f this w o r k h o w we analyse this p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a t i o n . ' A s t o y o u r q u e s t i o n , O Prince, c o n c e r n i n g X , w e l l A b ü Y û s u f said' is a f o r m u l a i m p l y i n g appeal t o A b ü Y ü s u f ' s a u t h o r i t y , but n o t necessarily his l i f e t i m e . ' A b ü Y û s u f said, A s t o y o u r q u e s t i o n , O Prince' is a f o r m u l a i m p l y i n g a u t h o r s h i p . 7

T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l i n t o sections g o v e r n e d by headings couched i n the f o r m o f a question f o r m u l a t e d by a prince is clearly the p r o d u c t o f a m a j o r r e d a c t i o n a l effort. T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y adabi vpe address t o the Prince must have been p r o d u c e d at the same t i m e . F o r reasons w h i c h w i l l become clear, I am inclined t o consider t h a t at the o r i g i n a l r e d a c t i o n the f o r m u l a qdla Abü Yûsuf did n o t cover the p r i n c e l y questions. R a t h e r , in response t o a request f r o m the c o u r t , a b u n d l e o f materials r e l a t i n g t o 7

Ibid. 289, 497, 596 et al.

T H E KITAB

Al.-KHARAJ

OE A B U

T H E

Y U S U F

Kİ TA B

A L-KHARAJ

o f

a b u

y u s u f

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e practice w a s collected a n d r e d a c t e d , i n forms that

w h i c h a r e h e r e t r a n s l a t e d i n p a r a l l e l c o l u m n s . I n o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e

i m p l i e d A b u Y u s u f s a u t h o r i t y . O n l y l a t e r w a s t h i s u n d e r s t o o d to

c o m p a r i s o n I h a v e t r a n s p o s e d P a r a g r a p h s 4 a n d 5 in P a s s a g e B .

be a b o o k by A b ü Y û s u f , a belief w h i c h p r o m o t e d scribal practices t h a t t e n d e d to c o n f i r m i t , a n d g e n e r a t e d t o o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

Passage A

t h e b o o k w a s a r e s p o n s e to a r e q u e s t b y H â r û n a l - R a s h i d . I n a l l

1. A b u Y u s u f said

1. A b u Y u s u f said

p r i n t e d v e r s i o n s , t h e first s e n t e n c e o f t h e b o o k s t a t e s , T h i s is w h a t

V. Y o u have a s k e d , O C o m m a n d e r

2. Y o u have asked, O C o m m a n d e r

Passage B

of the F a i t h f u l , concerning those

of the Faithful, about the definitions

R a s h l d . i n fact t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e c a l i p h i n q u e s t i o n is n o t r e v e a l e d

«(/// al-harb

of 'ushr and kharaj land.

in t h e b o d y o f t h e t e x t . A n d c o n s i s t e n t a p p e a l to A b ü Y û s u f s

on

Abü

Y û s u f w r o t e to the C o m m a n d e r of the F a i t h f u l , H a r ü n a l -

a u t h o r i t y s u g g e s t s , t o m e a t l e a s t , that h e w a s s a f e l y o u t o f t h e way. In

addition

question

to t h e s e g m e n t a t i o n

formula

u s u a l l y t e r m e d fash,

the book

provided

is c u r r e n t l y

by

divided

o n c e , e r r a t i c a l l y , bdb.

the princelyinto

chapters,

A t all occurrences of

H

w h o submit [to Islam]

condition of preserving

their

lives and their lands—aslamU 'alâ anfusi-him

wa-arddl-him.

W h a t is

1 he ruling on them? ( . 0 . Their lives are protected. Their possessions with which they

have

submitted to I s l a m , are t h e i r s — m a

t h e p r i n c e l y - q u e s t i o n f o r m u l a , a n a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r - h e a d i n g is

aslamii

p r o v i d e d . B u t there a r c n u m e r o u s instances w h e r e the chapter-

la-hum.

headings

These

; . t . Likewise their lands are theirs,

3 . 1 . A l l land whose people submit

proof

these are 'ushr lands, of the same

with (while preserving) their l a n d s —

s t a t e m e n t as t h e s e c t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y a p r i n c e l y

status as [the lands of] M a d i n a ,

whether A r a b lands or n o n - A r a b

question. T h e absence of a unified form for the m a r k i n g of sections

where the people submitted to the

lands—their

Prophet of G o d , their lands b e c o m ­

'ushr land of the same status as [the

are not associated

with

a princely

question.

sections contain the same kind of mix of juristic argument, t e x t , a n d ikhtilaf

( ' c h a p t e r s ' ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h , as w e s h a l l s e e , a g r e a t d i s o r d e r i n t h e organization redactions redactional

of these or

sections,

carelessness

processes.

must

suggest

and hurry

T h e text

also

at

either

some

exhibits

successive

stage

in the

numerous

d e t a i l s w h i c h c a n o n l y b e e x p l a i n e d as a r e s u l t o f o r g a n i c

small

ing

'alay-hi min amwdli-him

'ushr

fa-

lands—arâdû-hum

hum hiya aid 'ushr bi manzilat inadlna

hayth aslamu ahlu-ha

la-

lands of] M a d i n a w h e n its people

al-

s u b m i t t e d — k u l l ard aslama

. . .

hâ 'alay-hd . . . fa-hiya lima aslama 'alay-hd

T h e b a s i c t y p o l o g y o f 'ushr

ahlu-hâ.

3.2.

3.3. L i k e w i s e , the people

3 . 3 . L i k e w i s e all who may not be

a n d kharaj

desert (ahl al-bddiyya), l a n d is p r e s e n t e d i n t w o

separate short sections, translated below,

each introduced by a

p r i n c e l y q u e s t i o n . P r i o r t o t h e first o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s , t h e t y p o l o g y h a d i n fact

of the

A n d of the same status as the

if they sub­

a n d it w a s r e c a p i t u l a t e d

in

" r a z i n g lands . . . their land is 'ushr

idol-worshippers

land . . .

Arabs,

of

explanation.

Not

all instances

of

imam.

A b ü Y û s u f , Kilüb al-Kharaj, 143 n . 1. 8

c h a p t e r Kayf kana faril Ahi Bakr wa-'Umar, i .

F o r the Prophet Arab

lands

of G o d and

left

them in the possession of the people. T h e y will remain 'ushr lands until

can be

e x p l a i n e d i n t h e w a y p r o p o s e d for the passages u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

the land;

conquered

subsequent

repetition

amongst

their land is 'ushr

even if they are conquered by the

s e c t i o n s . R e p e t i t i o n i n this w o r k is s o f r e q u e n t as to r e q u i r e s o m e kind

those who must

submit to Islam or be killed, namely

b e e n set o u t s e v e r a l t i m e s as p a r t o f t h e e x t e n s i v e

and elsewhere;

subject to jizya,

al-yaman.

mit with their water-holes and their

arguments relating to landholding practice in the S a w a d ( S o u t h e r n Iraq)

wa-

al-madlna

5.2. L i k e w i s e , T a ' i f and B a h r a y n .

Yemen—wa-bi-manzilat Ill

ahlu-

la-hum

hiya ard 'ushr bi manzilat

growth

and successive interpolation.

land is theirs. It is

the R e s u r r e c t i o n . 5.4. L i k e w i s e

all

lands

whose

people submit [with the condition of]

preserving

their

lands;

their

112

THE

K I T A B

AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U

THE

Y U S U F

tedactional

Passage B

Passage A

K I T A B

formula

A L - K I I A RAJ

qdla

Abu

O F A B U

Yusuf

Y U S U F

113

and a realization of the

lands and what is on those lands are

p r i n c e l y q u e s t i o n . I n P a s s a g e B , t h e d i s c u s s i o n s at P a r a g r a p h 3 a r e

t h e i r s — k u l l bildd aslama ahlu-hâ fa-hiya la-hum.

s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h o s e at P a r a g r a p h s 4 a n d 5 by t h e s e g m e n t m a r k e r

'alay-hâ

quia. S i m p l e f o r m u l a i c f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n a r e e v i d e n t b o t h w i t h i n qawmiri)

5. A l l lands belonging to non-Arabs

and

of the aid al-shirk with whom the i m a m enters into a treaty (sdlahahum al-imâm), o n condition that they submit to [his] authority and tax-demands, based on payment of kharàj, they are ahl al-dhimma. T h e i r lands are kharàj lands. T h e y are subject to the conditions of the treaty, which may be exacted in full but not increased.

whose people achieve a treaty (sdlaha 'alay-hd ahlu-hd), such that they become [subject to the] dhimma, their land is khardj land.

1 ^ l i k e w i s e ) at A 3 . 1 - 4

5. A n y land (ayyumd ardin) conquered by force by the i m a m , he may divide it amongst those who conquered it if he considers that best; he has the capacity to do that, and it becomes 'ushr land. B u t if he does not consider it best to divide it, but considers that the welfare [of Muslims—al-saldli] is served by confirming it in the possession of its owners (fi aydi ahli-hd)—as ' U m a r ibn al-Khattâb did in the S a w à d — he may do that. It is kharàj land. H e does not have the right thereafter to take it from them. It is their property (milk la-hum); they may inherit it and sell it. H e imposes

4. A n y land (ayyumd ddr) belonging to n o n - A r a b s , which is conquered by the imam and which he leaves in the possession of its people, it is khardj land. B u t if he distributes it amongst the fighters, it is 'ushr land. C o n s i d e r (a-ld yard); ' U m a r b al-Khattâb conquered n o n - A r a b lands and left them in the possession of their people (taraka-hd fi aydi-him); hence they are khardj l a n d s . "

4. A n y people (ayyumd

are clearly

conquest

(zaharal

(aslama),

iftataha

treaty

'anwatan).

'' A b u Y û s u f , Kitdb al-Khardj. 429-32. "' I b i d . 468-70.

complex.

In P a s s a g e A . t h e q u e s t i o n a s k s a b o u t n o n - M u s l i m s w h o s u b m i t (aslamu)

o n condition o f preserving their lives a n d their hinds. T h e of the question

is s u c h t h a t it is fully

answered

at

;.o r e s p o n d s to t h e q u e s t i o n w i t h a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t a b o u t l i v e s a n d p o s s e s s i o n s . T h i s is s e q u e n t i a l l y e x t e n d e d f o u r t i m e s by m e a n s of t h e f o r m u l a kadhdlika.

1

A t Paragraph

3.1,

t h e r e is l o c u s o n

l a n d s — a s specified in the q u e s t i o n — a n d provision of a precedent, 1 be s i t u a t i o n o f M a d i n a w h e n it s u b m i t t e d to t h e P r o p h e t .

At

P a r a g r a p h 3 . 2 t h e m a t e r i a l is e x t e n d e d b y r e f e r e n c e to T a ' i f a n d l i a h r a y n , w h i c h , p r e s u m a b l y , also constitute precedents indicating h o w t o d e a l w i t h p e o p l e w h o s u b m i t . A t P a r a g r a p h 3 . 3 it is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e e x t e n s i o n is i n t e n d e d to b e a n o t h e r p r e c e d e n t o r a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e c u r r e n t l a w . A t 3 . 4 t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m u d d l e , lor t h e e x t e n s i o n is a g e n e r a l i z i n g s t a t e m e n t o f t h e l a w , w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y w h a t h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d at 3 . 1 . I'. 5.1,

it w i l l

be found

that,

except

Comparing A 3 . 1 and

for m i n o r

variations, the

w o r d i n g is p a r a l l e l . T h e v a r i a t i o n s i n c l u d e s i n g u l a r v . p l u r a l (qrd v . arudu)

a n d ' w h e r e ' v . ' w h e n ' (hin

v. hayth),

which are certainly

scribal or p e r s o n a l selections of n o significance. T h e early part of ihe

s e n t e n c e at A 3 . 1 h a s b e e n a d j u s t e d in o r d e r to submit to the

i n t r o d u c t o r y kadhdlika. .mother

version

P a r a g r a p h A 3 . 4 , w h i c h r e p e a t s A 3 . 1 , is

of the same

p r e c i s e p a r a l l e l to B 3 . 1 : kullu hiya la-hum

a n d kullu

ardin

sentence, bilddin

aslama

syntactically offering

aslama

ahlu-hd

'alay-hd 'alay-hd

ahlu-hd

. . . fa-hiya

a fala

hum. T h e f o r m u l a e at A 3 . 2 a n d B 3 . 2 r e p r e s e n t different s y n t a c t i c a l related.

Each

provides

for a

tripartite division of land based on the notions of submission prior to

kadhdhku

are other similarities,

Paragraph 3 , w h i c h alone deals with those w h o submit. Paragraph

9

t w o passages

at A 4 , A s , a n d B 4 ;

and B 3 . 2 . There

more extensive a n d more

specificity

kharàj upon them but they are not to be charged with more than they can b e a r . These

a c r o s s t h e p a s s a g e s ; ayyumd

(salaha),

or

forceful

conquest

E a c h p a s s a g e is i n t r o d u c e d by t h e c h a p t e r Kayf kdna fin d Abi Bakr wa-'Umar, i .

methods of extending the precedents,

a n d , of course,

different

positive content. A 3 . 3 a n d B 3 . 3 exhibit the s a m e formulaic m o d e of e x t e n s i o n — k a d h d l i k a , d e a l w i t h t h e s a m e g r o u p o f p e o p l e , b u t use d i f f e r e n t

concepts

t o define

the group.

I n fact,

these t w o

paragraphs m a k e subtly different points. A t A 3 . 3 the people of the d e s e r t a r e s u b j e c t to 'ushr if t h e y s u b m i t (idhd Arabs

(desert

dwellers)

are subject

aslamu);

to 'ushr

even

at B 3 . 3 t h e if t h e y a r e

THE

" 4

KIT

A B A l.-KHA

c o n q u e r e d by force.

RAJ

OF A B U

YUSUF

THE

B 3 . 3 is, here, the more sophisticated

KITAB

A l.-KHA

R A J

OF A B U Y U S U F

115

text,

at t h e t i m e o f r e d a c t i o n . I t w o u l d s e e m s a f e t o a s s u m e that t h e y

i n c o r p o r a t i n g a j u r i s t i c subtlety that h a d not been e v i d e n t w h e n

g r e w u p i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , a n d that t h e y h a v e

A 3 . 3 w a s p r o d u c e d . C o n v e r s e l y A 4 a n d A 5 are better

been subject to a certain degree o f m a n i p u l a t i o n in the process of

juristically than B 4 a n d B 5 . A n d Passage

developed

B a s a w h o l e is b o t h

redaction. I n v i e w o f the unnecessary repetition a n d the pointless

s l i m m e r a n d less w o r k e d t h a n Passage A . It exhibits the abrupt

s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s e c h a p t e r s , it m i g h t f u r t h e r b e s u g g e s t e d that the

s e g m e n t m a r k e r quia b e t w e e n 3 a n d 4 - 5 a n d t h e e q u a l l y

m a n a g e m e n t of these units h a s not b e e n entirely successful.

f o r m u l a a-ld-yurd

within Paragraph

abrupt

4 to i n t r o d u c e t h e s t o r y o f

'Umar. H o w d i d t h e s e p a s s a g e s a r i s e ? I t m u s t b e s u p p o s e d t h a t p r i o r to redaction

they

were

independent

written fragments

IV

containing

parallel statements of the tripartite division of land. T h e y clearly

The a n a l y s e s

developed separately while maintaining a c o m m o n concern with

m a t e r i a l i n t h e Kitdb

the s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t a n d s u b m i t t i n g to a c o m m o n s e t o f f o r m u l a i c

nf l a n d h o l d i n g i n I r a q a n d to c h a r g e s o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e in

m e a n s for e x p r e s s i n g a n d e x t e n d i n g the basic text. I n details they

l h a t a r e a . S i n c e t h i s h a s to b e e x t r i c a t e d f r o m , a n d r e l a t e d to a

developed some divergence.

larger

T h e y w e r e brought together in this

text b y m e a n s o f a s i n g l e r e d a c t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e

in the following

context

reference

ul-Khardj

it w i l l

which

pages a i m to c o v e r

be convenient

will

most

o f the

w h i c h r e l a t e s s p e c i f i c a l l y to m o d e s

identify

to h a v e

the units

an easy

being

mode

discussed.

of

The

redactional f o r m u l a of the princely question a n d , p e r h a p s , the

f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e o f n i n e fasls

o t h e r r e d a c t i o n a l f o r m u l a qdla

Abu

will s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i n i t i a l a n a l y s e s . T h e t i t l e s a r e t h o s e

added

Passage

later).

redactor

of

T h e creator the

Kitdb

of

al-Kharaj)

Yusuf A

clearly

(this m a y h a v e

been

(not necessarily

the

p r o v i d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t t e x t o f t h e Kitdb

interfered

the

!. O n fay' a n d kharaj

with

w o r d i n g o f h i s b a s e text at 3 . r i n o r d e r to i n t e g r a t e it i n its p r e s e n t context.

I t is possible

that

concern

for

the

'.

h e is r e s p o n s i b l e , t o o , f o r t h e last

s e n t e n c e o f A 4 a n d t h e last t h r e e s e n t e n c e s o f A 5 , w h i c h e x h i b i t uniform

rights

of

the

landowners

\. H o w

and the

Abu

Bakr

and ' U m a r

A3.3,

I.

noting that Passage

• I. B a s r a a n d K h u r a s a n

covers

b o t h t h e t y p o l o g y a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e rights o f the l a n d o w n e r s . A t h o u g h t f u l r e d a c t o r m i g h t h a v e p u t B b e f o r e A ; i n fact A

comes

b e f o r e B , m a k i n g B t o t a l l y r e d u n d a n t , e x c e p t f o r t h e s u b t l e t y at l i k e e v e r y o t h e r p o i n t i n b o t h p a s s a g e s , is

also dealt w i t h e l s e w h e r e .

formulaic

divergent

in

modes

R e f e r e n c e s to c h a p t e r

i , c h a p t e r 2, e t c . i n w h a t

lands

follows a r e to

diesc chapters. I n Section X I I , the numbering will be extended; some p r e - e m p t i v e references to the e x t e n d e d n u m b e r i n g will take place in the f o l l o w i n g The c h a p t e r

analyses.

following

this s e q u e n c e

is P a s s a g e

A

translated

. i b o v e . T h e c h a p t e r s p r e c e d i n g it d e a l w i t h m o v a b l e b o o t y t a k e n i n

H e r e t h e n is a n e x a m p l e o f t w o p a s s a g e s , a n o n y m o u s , u n i f o r m and

to t h e

qatd'i'

'•>. T h e K h a w a r i j

A

[stipends]

O n the H i j a z , M a k k a , M a d i n a , the Y e m e n , a n d A r a b

material a s h a r p focus. T h e two passages m a y be distinguished by B focuses n a r r o w l y o n the typology o f l a n d

distributed

W h a t should be done in the S a w a d

i). O n

( a c h i e v i n g g r e a t e r s u b t l e t y o n l y at 3 . 3 ) w h i l e P a s s a g e

Mesopotamia]

Companions

a n d s e l l t h e s e l a n d s ' is a l s o c o n t a i n e d i n t h e u n t r a n s l a t e d p a r t o f c o n f i r m i n g o u r s e n s e t h a t a s i n g l e h a n d h a s g i v e n to this

al-Kharaj:

O n what w a s done in the S a w a d O n Syria a n d the Jazira [ N W

limitations on the i m a m ' s powers. T h e phrase 'they m a y inherit

3 . 3 — w h i c h , however,

o r c h a p t e r s ( s o m a r k e d in t h e t e x t )

of

expression,

parallel

in detail. Originating, presumably,

in

content,

as a r e c o r d o f a

warfare.

R a h b i ' s text h a s a

floating

chapter between

chapters 4

a n d 5 , a n d t w o floating c h a p t e r s i n t e r v e n i n g b e t w e e n t h e d i s c u s s i o n "f

booty a n d chapter

r. T h e s e f l o a t i n g c h a p t e r s h a v e

found no

scholar's o p i n i o n , a n d preserved in a notebook o r an archive, they

s t a b l e l o c a t i o n i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e t e x t . ( A l a r g e r context" f o r

w e r e s u b j e c t to r e d a c t i o n b e c a u s e s t o r e d i n t h e m o s q u e o r c u l l e d

t h e s e c h a p t e r s is p r o v i d e d i n S e c t i o n X I I . ) O f t h e s e n i n e c h a p t e r s

Ik

Il8

THF. K I ' I À H

A L-K1IA

In o n e of the Qàdisiyya

R A J OF A B U Y U S U F

THE

stories, the Persians, i n f o r m e d by the

M u s l i m g e n e r a l t h a t o n d e f e a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e to p a y jizya, out,

There

shall

be n o treaty

between

us; which

shout

is c e r t a i n l y

KITAB

A I . - K H A R A J

D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e kharâj

OF

ABU

119

Y U S U F

l a n d s o f t h e S a w a d c o n t i n u e s i n t h e first

part o f c h a p t e r 5 ( = 5 ( 1 ) ) , W h a t s h o u l d be d o n e in the S a w a d . This is c o m p o s e d

of a single lengthy

unified juristic

argument,

c o n v e n i e n t . A s u b s i d i a r y t h e m e i n t h e s e s t o r i e s is t h a t t h e M u s l i m

a t t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y to A b ü Y u s u f , a n d d e a l i n g w i t h kharaj

victory w a s by G o d ' s w i l l — a point of some importance in a book

the s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e s a m e c h a p t e r ( 5 ( 2 ) ) t h e r e is d i s c u s s i o n o f

intended

to

justify

taxation

of

a

subordinate

people

in the

interests o f a r u l i n g élite.

l a n d s k n o w n a s qata'i'.

lands. In

H e r e is a t r a n s l a t i o n , w i t h s o m e o m i s s i o n s ,

of 5(1).

P a r a g r a p h 5 r e p e a t s , i n w o r d s a s c r i b e d d i r e c t l y to A b u Y u s u f , t h e s t o r y o f ' U m a r ' s d e c i s i o n to i m p o s e kharâj

I n the

1. A b ü Y û s u f said. I have l o o k e d into the question of kharaj in the Sawad

c o n c l u d i n g b u n d l e o f r e p o r t s , t h e fixed s u m s i m p o s e d b y ' U m a r o n

and into the modes of its collection. I have gathered people of knowledge

s p e c i f i c c r o p s a r e m u d d l e d . T h e p r e v a i l i n g s u g g e s t i o n is t h a t g r a i n

in the field a n d others and discussed the matter with them. Not one of

c r o p s a r e s u b j e c t to 1 d i r h a m ( c a s h ) a n d 1 qaftz

them has failed to advocate a practice which is illegitimate (ma la yaliill ah

but

is n o t w i t h o u t

contradiction.

a n d jizya.

(kind) per

T h e juristic solution

jarib,

to t h e

p r o b l e m o f v a r i e t y is c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t , f o r t h e q u e s t i o n as to the

capacity

(taqa)

of

the land

or

its p e o p l e

to

bear

i m p o s i t i o n s m a y b e t a k e n to i m p l y t h a t t h e s e m u s t v a r y to

capacity.

suggestion.

This,

we

shall

T h e true cause

s e e , is a

most

of the variety

according

carefully

is m o r e

their

planted

likely to be

established local custom. ( A h m a d b. Y a h y â

( d . 276), i n h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e

also provides a series of anecdotal

items

which was imposed

impositions (wazifa).

F o r ' U m a r said to Hudhayfa and ' U t h m â n , Perhaps

you have imposed more than the land will bear (ma la tuliq)'!

. . . And

they replied . . . I have imposed what it will bear (hiya mutlqaiu-lui) a n d , I have imposed what it will sustain (hiya muhtamilatu-hu).

. . .

[Clearly]

the land was capable of bearing what was imposed, for two C o m p a n i o n s informed us of this a n d none has denied what they said. 2. T h e y

[those

gathered

for consultation]

said

that

in those

days

T h e s e s p e c i f y , if a n y t h i n g , a r a t h e r g r e a t e r d e g r e e

described the large quantity of waste land which is not w o r k e d [today] and

Balâdhurï

t o o o f f e r s a s o l u t i o n to t h e p r o b l e m o f v a r i e t y .

b.

Yahyâ

Àdam

s a i d to H a s a n b . S â l i h , W h a t a r e t h e s e v a r i e d r a t e s ? H a s a n r e p l i e d , T h e y w e r e i m p o s e d s e q u e n t i a l l y , a c c o r d i n g to t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e the m a r k e t s .

1 2

I n Baladhuri's

accounts

there

is n o

m e n t i o n o f ' U m a r ' s q u e s t i o n i n g h i s a g e n t s a s to t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e land to b e a r the b u r d e n they i m p o s e d , no instance of the tell-tale t e r m i n o l o g y o f taqa a n d

ihtimâl.)

S a w â d w a s t a k e n by force, not treaty. T h e p e o p l e , confirmed in possession of their land, were

the small quantity of cultivated land that is w o r k e d for that [fixed sum] of kharaj [sc. imposed on every jarib}.

s u b j e c t to jizya

a n d kharâj.

The

w a s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f fixed s u m s e i t h e r i n c a s h o r i n

k i n d o r b o t h . T h e s e fixed s u m s w e r e r e l a t e d to t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e land/people to p a y .

T h e y said. I f we are made subject to

the kharaj that once w a s , meaning that uncultivated waste land is charged the same as w o r k e d and cultivated l a n d , we will be unable to work what is now cultivated, or even a part of it; because of our incapacity to pay the kharaj on the land we do not cultivate, and because of the small quantity of land that is now in our hands. A s to land that has been uncultivated for about a h u n d r e d years, it cannot be cultivated or subject to kharaj in the near future.

T h e w h o l e material of the chapter c a n be s u m m e d up thus. T h e

kharâj

the kharaj

cultivated land was plentiful a n d uncultivated land was little. T h e y then

of m u d d l e t h a n do the a c c o u n t s given by A b u Y ù s u f .

lands from

about

'Uthmân

r e l a t i n g to t h e fixed r a t e s i m p o s e d b y ' U m a r ' s a g e n t s , and H u d h a y f a .

So I asked them

under ' U m a r , a n d about the capacity of the land to bear those

of the Prophet of G o d [ ' U m a r ' s agents, H u d h a y f a and ' U t h m a n ] have

al-Balâdhurî

conquest of the S a w a d ,

'amal bi-hi). (tawzlf)

outgoings

F o r anyone

and expenses

w h o cultivates this land will be subject to which

cannot

sustain

[the

kharaj]—bi-man

vu'muru dhülika hâjatun ila ma'ûna wa-nafaqa la tumkinu-hu.

This is our

excuse for abandoning the cultivation of land that has gone to waste. (. [Consequently] I considered that a fixed charge in kind (ta'am) . . . or in cash ( d i r h a m ) . . ., imposed upon the people in spite of the variety of their circumstances, constitutes a disadvantage

to the government and

treasury, and likewise to the taxpayer. |. [ A charge in kind is unhelpful to all concerned both when prices go up

A h m a d b. Yahya al-Baladhuri, (bottom) for the variety o f impositions. 1 2

Fulith, 268-71,

for the anecdotes;

271

and w h e n they go d o w n ; likewise a charge in cash. Price fluctuations come from G o d . T h r e e hadith from the Prophet confirming this.]

120

T H E

KIT

AB

AL-Kil

A RAİ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

KIT

AB

A L-KM

A RAJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

121

5. A b u Y u s u f said. A s to the disadvantages to the taxpayers in relation to

the r e d a c t i o n that brought t h e m into their present context, a n d i f

one another [it derives from the need to measure a n d assess land and

t h e s a m e is b r o a d l y t r u e o f t h e m a t e r i a l that c o n s t i t u t e s c h a p t e r 2 ,

produce, and from the consequent disputes between the powerful and the

such a c l a i m cannot b e asserted for the material just presented

weak . . .] 6 . I therefore see nothing more beneficial to the treasury, more likely to free

the taxpayers

from

mutual dispute

and quarrel, nor anything

providing greater security against the ill-will of governors and officers, than a light a n d just system of muqasama

(proportional taxation); a

system that provides the government with satisfaction, and the taxpayers with freedom from mutual dispute. T h e C o m m a n d e r of the Faithful, may

f r o m c h a p t e r 5 . H e r e is a c o h e r e n t , l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t , s u s t a i n e d at c o n s i d e r a b l e length a n d unified throughout by clear principles o f logical c o n t r o l a n d setting. A b u Y u s u f organizes a debate with the people of knowledge

( w h o t u r n o u t to b e i g n o r a n t , l o r a l l t h e i r

s u g g e s t i o n s a r e n o t haldl). fixed-rate

H e establishes the inefficiency of the

s y s t e m , a n d p r o p o s e s t h a t it b e r e p l a c e d b y p r o p o r t i o n a l

G o d grant him long life, is the highest designate to this activity and the

t a x a t i o n o n p r o d u c e , muqasama.

best supervisor, because of the position given him by G o d in relation to

at h a n d , v a r i o u s l y

his religion a n d his servants. 1 therefore ask G o d to grant him success in

a r g u m e n t is c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d a n d e x p e c t e d to p l e a s e t h e p r i n c e .

what he intends or prefers in this matter, and to provide him with help

T h o u g h t h e t a x - f i g u r e s a r e d e s c r i b e d as light a n d j u s t ( P a r a . 6 ) , it

two

fifths,

C o n v e n i e n t l y , h e h a s t h e figures one third,

or o n e quarter. T h e

towards the right guidance and the welfare of religion and community.

is p e r m i s s i b l e to s u r m i s e t h a t t h e y w e r e not i n t e n d e d o r e x p e c t e d

7. 1 consider—may

of the

to p l e a s e t h e t a x p a y e r s , w h o h a d , after a l l , a d v o c a t e d s o m e o t h e r

F a i t h f u l — t h a t those who grow wheat and barley in the S a w a d should be

s y s t e m o r s y s t e m s , p e r h a p s r e l a t e d to their r e a d i n g o f t h e a n c i e n t

G o d grant

long life to the C o m m a n d e r

subject to a muqasama of two fifths, for land naturally irrigated, and one fifth plus one tenth, for land artificially irrigated. A s to date-palms, vines, melons, a n d garden produce, they should be subject to one third. A s to summer grains [maize, millet, e t c . j , they should be subject to one quarter. T h e y should not be subject to these taxes on the basis of estimates; nor

f i x e d - r a t e m a t e r i a l s — w h i c h n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n t h e s a m e as t h a t g i v e n h e r e . W h a t w e a r e g i v e n is t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s r e a d i n g o f t h a t material. T h e t e x t is c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to a m o m e n t o f d e b a t e advantages of a

should be sold to merchants a n d the muqdsamal

imposed on the prices

t h o s e o f a p r o p o r t i o n a l s y s t e m . I t is u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e a d e r is

should be computed in accord with a

b e i n g p r o v i d e d w i t h a full a c c o u n t o f t h e m a t t e r . T h e d a t e o f t h e

thus r e a l i z e d , or [the muqdsamat]

fixed-rate

when the

should [the farmers] be deprived of access to their produce. R a t h e r , it

s y s t e m were held u p o v e r a n d against

just evaluation, not constituting an excessive burden to the taxpayer, nor

introduction

harmful to the government. T h e specific sums should be taken from them.

L 0 k e g a a r d a c c o r d s s o m e d e g r e e of historical v e r a c i t y to B a l a d h u r i ' s

W h i c h e v e r system is least burdensome to the tax payer should be imposed: if computing the value is the lighter burden, that should be done; if selling and dividing the price is the lighter burden, that should be done. 8. Seven hadith about the Prophet's conquest of K h a y b a r . T h e c h a p t e r c o n t i n u e s w i t h t h e p h r a s e , quia Abu al-qata'V

is a f r e q u e n t

segment

Yusuf

fa-ammd

m a r k e r w h i c h , o n other

occasions, has been strengthened by a formal chapter division. Unified

d i s c u s s i o n o f kharcij

lands

a n d qatai'

under

a single

chapter-heading has obvious implications. T h e lands of the S a w a d a r e o f t w o t y p e s : khardj

l a n d , s u b j e c t to muqasama,

a n d qatd'V

l a n d s f o r w h i c h , as w e s h a l l s e e , a c l a i m is m a d e t h a t t h e y a r e s u b j e c t to t h e

that the peasantry

r e q u e s t e d t h e muqasama

taxation

to I r a q

(sic—Baladhuri's

is p r o b l e m a t i c .

report says

al-nas)

in the reign of M a n s u r . B u t he knows too

that there w a s n o 'absolute or i m m e d i a t e a b a n d o n m e n t

of the

misdha

"misdha

( i . e . t h e f i x e d - r a t e s y s t e m ) . H i s c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t

was the m e t h o d of assessment i n the lands o f the peasantry most

. . . w h i c h introduces a long discussion o f a different type

o f l a n d . Ammd

report

of proportional

c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d until a l - M a h d l . U n d e r h i m a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s , t h e muqasama having

sole

has t a k e n the lead without any of the methods sway

at

any t i m e ' .

1 3

Even

such

a

conservative

c o n c l u s i o n s e e m s to m e t o c l a i m m o r e t h a n is w a r r a n t e d , g r a n t e d his n e c e s s a r y r e c o u r s e to s o u r c e s , l a t e , c o m p l e x , a n d f r e q u e n t l y contradictory. T h e p a s s a g e f r o m t h e Kitdb al-Khardj

translated above has been

u n d e r s t o o d to i m p l y t h a t a d e c i s i v e m o m e n t ( i f not t h e d e c i s i v e

'ushr.

I f it is t r u e t h a t P a s s a g e s A a n d B , t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e , p r e - e x i s t e d

L 1

F . L 0 k e g a a r d , Islamic

taxation.

115,

b u t sec t h e w h o l e o f c h a p t e r 5. 108 IT.

122

T H E

KI

TA

B

A L - K I I A R A J

OF

m o m e n t ) i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m misdha

A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

to muqasama

w a s at t h e

t i m e of t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s t e x t . T h i s s e e m s v e r y l i k e l y , it is not a n e c e s s a r y c o n c l u s i o n , h o w e v e r , for the r e h e a r s a l of an o l d a n d familiar

argument

might

be

undertaken

for

the

purpose

i n s e r t i n g i n t o it a n e w e l e m e n t . B y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e r e p o r t e d in B a l â d h u r i ,

these, in A b ü

of

anecdotes

Yûsuf, r e c o r d , again

and

a g a i n , ' U m a r ' s e l i c i t i n g f r o m h i s a g e n t s a r e f e r e n c e to t h e c a p a c i t y (tfiqa

e t c . ) o f t h e l a n d to b e a r its t a x - b u r d e n . T h i s m o t i f r e c u r s

t h r o u g h o u t the j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t s of the b o o k . taken up in the chapter entitled, O n increasing a n d decreasing [tax

impositions]—-ft

al-nuqşân

l a n d s to t h e

fixed-rate

this

A I.-KIIARAJ

material,

though

OF

originally

wa-'l-ziydda.

Here

Abü

Yûsuf

r a t h e r t h a n r e t u r n i n g the

s y s t e m i m p o s e d by ' U m a r . H i s r e p l y f o c u s e s

e n t i r e l y o n ' U m a r ' s q u e s t i o n as to t h e c a p a c i t y (tdqa,

ihtimâl,

etc.)

o f t h e l a n d to p r o v i d e tax r e t u r n s . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s erf ' U m a r ' s c o n c e r n , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , a r e d i s c o v e r e d to b e t h a t t h e i m a m h a s

123

independent,

has

been

3.

S o m e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w a s s p e c i a l l y w r i t t e n e i t h e r at o r after

the initial r e d a c t i o n . I t exhibits lengthy, unified, formal argument a n d s y s t e m a t i c u s e o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e first part of chapter 5

( a n d its c o n t i n u a t i o n i n t h e c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d ft

7-

nuqsan). 4.

T h e m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d at o r after t h e r e d a c t i o n , e v e n w h e n it

separation. nuqsun,

Hence

chapter

5(1)

and the chapter

1.

The

conviction

that

there

were

if t h e y c a n s u s t a i n t h a t t o d a y o r if

three

types

of

land,

as

d e s c r i b e d in Passages A a n d B , logically, a n d perhaps temporally, precedes other arguments. 2.

T h e a r g u m e n t that t h e l a n d s o f t h e S a w a d a r e khardj

chapter

'Umar

al-

S e c o n d l y , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e s t r u c t u r e o f j u r i s t i c i d e a s :

of capacity.

i m a m h a s t h e right to c o n s i d e r w h a t

h e a d e d //

though unified in a r g u m e n t , are now illogically separated.

t h e right to r a i s e o r l o w e r i m p o s i t i o n s in a c c o r d w i t h h i s e s t i m a t e i m p o s e d o n t h e khardj-payers;

Y U S U F

r e w r i t t e n to s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e b o o k as a w h o l e .

by virtue of conquest without treaty,

'The

A B U

c o n s t i t u t e d a s i n g l e c o h e r e n t a r g u m e n t , w a s l i a b l e to d i v i s i o n a n d

S p e c i f i c a l l y i n r e l a t i o n to t h e t a x p a y e r s of t h e S a w a d , t h e p o i n t is

a g a i n is a s k e d w h y h e i m p o s e s muqasama

that

KITAR

3.

lands,

grew out of this.

Hence

T h e i n d e p e n d e n t ( a n d o l d e r ) m a t e r i a l a s s u m e s that

khardj

2(1).

t h e l a n d c a n b e a r it [ h e m a y c o n t i n u e that s y s t e m ] ; o t h e r w i s e h e

l a n d s w e r e s u b j e c t to a fixed t a x i n c a s h , o r i n k i n d , o r i n b o t h . T h e

should i m p o s e w h a t the land can bear a n d the people sustain

v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s a c c u m u l a t e d to p r o v e t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e tax

tahtamilu-hu

al-ard

wa-yutiqu-hu

ahlu-hu

[ya'niahl

(ma

al-kharaj])."

lA

T h i s m a t e r i a l is c l e a r l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t p r o d u c e d at chapter

with

regard

to

the

material

content

of

this

work,

its

composition and redaction: 1.

the h a d i t h . 4.

5(1).

T w o sets o f c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e t e n t a t i v e l y e s s a y e d at t h i s p o i n t . First,

w a s n o t u n i f o r m . T h e m a t e r i a l s m a y b e l o c a l i n o r i g i n . C h a p t e r 2,

S o m e o f t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e Kitdb

al-Khardj

p r e - e x i s t e d the

r e d a c t i o n . It w a s b r o u g h t i n t o t h e text by m e a n s o f f o r m a l d e v i c e s that r e n d e r e d it h o m o g e n e o u s

w i t h t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e b u t it

A

change

took

place

whereby

the

fixed-tax

r e p l a c e d b y a p r o p o r t i o n a l tax o r muqasama. a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o u r o f muqasama

system

C h a p t e r 5(1).

was The

are p r e s e n t e d in s u c h a w a y as

to s t r e s s t h e r i g h t s o f t h e i m a m to v a r y t a x a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to ( t h e i m a m ' s ) assessment of w h a t the l a n d will bear. N o w , t h e r e is a g r e a t d e a l to b e s a i d f o r t h e i d e a t h a t a d e c i s i v e c h a n g e in t h e m o d e o f t a x a t i o n is p r e c i s e l y t h e k i n d o f t h i n g that

s e r v e s little o r n o r e a l e x p l a n a t o r y p u r p o s e . F o r e x a m p l e , P a s s a g e s

w o u l d c a l l i n t o e x i s t e n c e a b o o k l i k e t h e Kitah

A and B .

to i n i t i a t e a n e w , o r to j u s t i f y a r e c e n t , r e f o r m in tax c o l l e c t i o n , t h e

2.

S o m e m a t e r i a l w a s p e r h a p s specifically p r e p a r e d a n d g a t h e r e d

for t h i s b o o k . orderly,

but

It has b e e n s u m m a r i z e d and conflated, repetitive

and

contradictory

producing

subject-matter.

For

e x a m p l e , c h a p t e r 2, a n d its ( c o n t r a d i c t o r y ) h a d i t h . It is p o s s i b l e

government theoretical

c a l l s u p o n r e l i a b l e fuqahd' justification

for

the

al-Khardj.

Desiring

to p r o v i d e s o m e sort o f

reforms.

They

gather

or

are

p r o v i d e d w i t h a m a s s o f o l d o r l o c a l m a t e r i a l s , w h i c h d o not s e r v e t h e i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e , a n d s o p r o c e e d to c r e a t e

a set of

new

a r g u m e n t s w h i c h j u s t i f y t h e t r a n s i t i o n . T h e o l d o r l o c a l m a t e r i a l is i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h the n e w ( s o m e t i m e s suitably e m e n d e d ) and the

1 4

Abü

Yusuf, i .

574.

w h o l e is p r e p a r e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n to a p r i n c e ( b u t p o s s i b l y n e v e r

T H E

i 24

K/TAIİ

Al.

KHARAJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

A I.-KHARAJ

al-qatd'V.

O F A B U Y U S U F

125

p r e s e n t e d , f o r t h e final s t a g e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

Yûsuf

m a t e r i a l l e a v e m u c h to b e d e s i r e d ) .

d e f i n e d b u t t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r t a x i m p o s i t i o n is d i s c u s s e d i n

T h i s s c e n a r i o i n fact c a n b e r e f i n e d to a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e

wa-ammci

KITAB

T h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e l a n d s is n o t h e r e

d e t a i l . T h e g e n e r a l r u l e is that n a t u r a l l y w a t e r e d l a n d s o f this t y p e

o f a c a d e m i c p r e c i s i o n . I t w i l l b e h e l p f u l h e r e to p r e s e n t s o m e p r e ­

a r e s u b j e c t to t h e 'ushr,

e m p t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e decisive layers of juristic a r g u m e n t in

lands

the Kitdb

t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d r e v e a l s that t h e 'ushr h e r e is to be u n d e r s t o o d as

al-Kharaj

ment's capacity Many

a r e a l w a y s s u c h as to m a x i m i z e t h e g o v e r n ­

to t a x , at d i s c r e t i o n , by p r o p o r t i o n a l

of the component

i n t e n d e d to defend redactors,

materials,

established

working

however,

custom.

were

taxation. originally

T h e technique

for t h e g o v e r n m e n t ,

of the

is n o t to r e j e c t

these

sadaqa

are subject o r zakdt.

that is o n e t e n t h , a n d a r t i f i c i a l l y w a t e r e d

to a Yıiûi-'ushr,

is o n e t w e n t i e t h . T h e

T h i s g e n e r a l r u l e is d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g a g r e e d o n

by t h e l e a r n e d , t h e 'ulamd', qatd'i'

that

a n d p r o v e d b y dthdr.

The 'ushr o n

l a n d is to b e i m p o s e d o n l y o n c r o p s t h a t h a v e a c a p a c i t y to

last a n d w h i c h a r e m e a s u r e d b y v o l u m e o r w e i g h t .

It a p p l i e s t h u s

m a t e r i a l s , p r e s u m a b l y of l o c a l a n d j u r i s t i c origins, but to i n c o r p o r a t e

to w h e a t , b a r l e y , r i c e , m i l l e t , e t c . , b u t n o t to v e g e t a b l e s , m e l o n s ,

(possibly

c u c u m b e r s , e t c . T h e t a x is i m p o s e d o n l y if t h e q u a n t i t y o f p r o d u c e

modify)

neutralize

t h e m a n d t h e n to p r o v i d e

arguments

their claims. T h e result c a n be confusing,

which

for any

r e a c h e s a t h r e s h o l d o f five wasaqs;

( e x c e p t for s a f f r o n , w h i c h is t o

c o n c l u s i o n d e d u c e d f r o m o n e c h a p t e r is l i a b l e to be f a l s i f i e d , a n d

be t a x e d w h e n its v a l u e r e a c h e s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of live wasaqs o f t h e

w a s i n t e n d e d to be falsified, by j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t s d e p l o y e d in the

cheapest

s a m e c o n t e x t o r e l s e w h e r e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e m a t e r i a l i n c h a p t e r 2,

H a n i f a b e i n g p r e s e n t e d as h o l d i n g t h e v i e w that a l l p r o d u c e , n o

justifying

m a t t e r h o w s m a l l i n q u a n t i t y , s h o u l d b e s u b j e c t to e i t h e r kharaj

material

a

fixed-rate

in chapter

kharaj, 5(1),

is to b e r e a d i n t h e light o f t h e

which

accepts

all the arguments

of

c h a p t e r 2, b u t m a k e s t h e m i n t o t h e p r e m i s s f o r a n a r g u m e n t i n

'ushr.

g r a i n ) . T h e r e is ikhtildf

T h e five-wasaq

o n t h e dvc-wasaq

rule, A b u or

r u l e is d e f e n d e d , h o w e v e r , ' b e c a u s e o f w h a t

h a s b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m t h e P r o p h e t ' , r e p r e s e n t e d at this p o i n t

favour of t h e legitimacy of p r o p o r t i o n a l taxation, according to the

in t h e a r g u m e n t b y t w o h a d i t h . T h e s e a r e f o l l o w e d b y a d e f i n i t i o n

capacity of the land.

of t h e wasaq,

T h e Kitdb

al-Kharaj

b e l o n g s to a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t .

T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to d o u b t t h a t , w i t h r e g a r d to c h a n g e s i n t h e t a x a t i o n s y s t e m , c o n s u l t a t i o n d i d i n fact t a k e p l a c e w i t h ' p e o p l e o f k n o w l e d g e i n the field", etc. a n d that their discussion i n c l u d e d a n a s s e s s m e n t ( o r r e a s s e s s m e n t ) o f t h e a r g u m e n t s r e l a t i n g to

fixed-

rate versus p r o p o r t i o n a l taxation. A part of these arguments has got

into

t h e text.

T h e bulk

of material,

however,

has been

r e d a c t e d a n d p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c o n t r o l l i n g light o f a c l e v e r j u r i s t i c d e v i c e , a hUa, w h i c h s p e c i f i e s t h a t a l l t h e l a n d s o f t h e S a w a d , b e i n g subject

to kharaj,

t a x e d , according

c a n , irrespective to capacity,

of precedents

adduced,

be

by m e a n s of a proportional culling of

produce, under the controlling judgement a n d supervision of the imam.

a discussion of details of assessment, a n d a n address

to t h e P r i n c e : A c t i n this m a t t e r i n w h a t e v e r w a y y o u c o n s i d e r more

beneficial

to t h e people

and more

rejecting the

tive-wasaq

r u l e ] . T h e text c o n c l u d e s with a s e q u e n c e

of t w e n t y - o n e h a d i t h , t h e first i n t r o d u c e d b y qdla Abu the r e s t b y qdla.

and

C o m p a n i o n s , m a k e a n u m b e r of points including the following: 1. n a t u r a l l y a n d a r t i f i c i a l l y i r r i g a t e d l a n d s a r e s u b j e c t to t h e 'ushr a n d half-'ushr

respectively

2. t h e r e is n o sadaqa/zakdt

o n less than

five

wasaqs

3. p r o d u c e o f t h e t y p e o f v e g e t a b l e s , m e l o n s a n d c u c u m b e r s is n o t subject

to

sadaqal zakdt;

(one

hadith

from

Ibrahim

al-

N a k h a ' I — n o t a C o m p a n i o n , b u t a j u r i s t — s p e c i f i e s that e v e r y ­

T h e l a n d s k n o w n as t h e qata'V a r e t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f t h e s e c o n d chapter

5

e n t i t l e d . T h e qata'V.

and the immediately

sadaqa)

4. t h i s t a x is r e f e r r e d to i n t h e Q u r a n i c v e r s e , wa-âtü

VI

of

Yûsuf

T h e s e hadith, either from the Prophet or from

t h i n g p r o d u c e d b y t h e e a r t h is s u b j e c t to

part

a d v a n t a g e o u s to t h e

treasury, based o n whatever opinion y o u prefer [i.e. accepting or

succeeding

chapter,

C h a p t e r 5 ( 2 ) b e g i n s w i t h t h e p h r a s e quia

Abu

yaw ma hisddi-hi

haqqa-hu

(Q.6:141).

N o attempt will be m a d e here to demonstrate lines of cleavage a n d s e g m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e a r g u m e n t that p r e c e d e s t h e g r o u p o f

T 16

l'HE K I T A R

only

two, 2

a n d 3,

AI.-KHARÂJ

OF A B U

are introduced

THE

Y U S U F

by the princely-question

f o r m u l a . C h a p t e r s 1, 6, 7, 8, a n d 9 e x h i b i t t h e f o r m u l a i c marking a transition a n d introducing new subject-matter.

ammd,

AI.-K1IARÂJ

O F ABÜ Y Û S U F

117

\. H e s a i d . . . (a)

Chapter

4 h a s n o i n t r o d u c t i o n , consisting entirely of h a d i t h ; chapter 5 a

KıTÂR

from

Sha'bi:

there w e r e

n o t r e a t i e s ('ahd)

p r i o r to t h e

conquest of the S a w a d (b)

very elaborate o n e .

f r o m o t h e r fuqaha:

there were n o treaties except lor ( l i r a ,

'Ayn Tamar, Ullays. and Banqiya. ,|. N i n e h a d i t h r e l a t i n g to t h e B a t t l e s o f Q a d i s i y y a a n d N i h a w a n d , and,

V Kharaj

g e n e r a l l y , to t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e S a w a d .

s. A b ü Y û s u f

l a n d s i n t h e S a w a d a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 2, W h a t w a s

d o n e i n t h e S a w a d , i n t h e first p a r t o f c h a p t e r 5 , W h a t s h o u l d b e

consulted

said.

When

the people

'Umar

(shdwara

conquered 'l-nds)

the S a w a d ,

a n d most

of

he

them

c o n s i d e r e d h e s h o u l d d i v i d e it a m o n g s t t h e c o n q u e r o r s . Bilâl b .

done i n the S a w a d , a n d in a later chapter entitled, O n increasing

Rabâh was most

and

T a l h a a g r e e d w i t h ' U m a r , o n t h e v i e w that t h e k i n d s h o u l d be

d e c r e a s i n g [tax i m p o s i t i o n s ] — f i

al-nuqşân

wa-'l-ziyada,

etc.

fiercely

o f this view . . . ' U t h m f m , ' A l i , a n d

C h a p t e r 2 c o n s i s t s o f 23 s e g m e n t s , a l l e x c e p t o n e i n t r o d u c e d by

left t o its h o l d e r s . ' U m a r p r a y e d f o r s u p p o r t a g a i n s t Bilâl a n d

qdla o r qdla Abü

T h e m a t e r i a l falls n e a t l y i n t o t w o h a l v e s .

his p a r t y ; a n d , as a r e s u l t , d i s c o v e r e d a p r o o f text in t h e Q u r ' â n ,

I n t h e first h a l f , t h e f o c u s is o n t h e m e t h o d o f c o n q u e s t . I t c o n s i s t s

at 5 9 : 1 0 . H e s a i d , H o w c a n I l e a v e t h o s e w h o w i l l c o m e after u s

of two units w h i c h

w i t h o u t a s h a r e ? H e c o n f i r m e d t h e l a n d i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f its

Yûsuf.

11

express

a complex

juristic o p i n i o n o n the

c o n q u e s t o f I r a q a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s , f o l l o w e d b y five u n i t s o n the B a t t l e of Q a d i s i y y a a n d four o n the B a t t l e of N i h a w a n d . I n the s e c o n d h a l f , t h e f o c u s is o n t h e s p e c i f i c t a x i m p o s i t i o n s i n i t i a t e d b y

p e o p l e (aqarra-hu (a)

schematic

and abbreviated

presentation

of

T.

2.

the S a w a d

a n d t h e w a y its p e o p l e w e r e d e a l t w i t h as t o

jizya;

' U m a r ' s impositions in respect of these taxes; the existence o f treaty agreements

(d)

the ruling o n treaty lands a n d o n lands c o n q u e r e d by force?

(a)

' U m a r conquered Iraq, Syria and Egypt;

(b)

T h e M u s l i m s a d v i s e d h i m (ashdra

of cultivable

land—whether

H e imposed

specific s u m s in d i r h a m s o n specific

crops

Hudhayfa

a jizya,

i n three grades,

o f 12,

24, a n d 48

and 'Uthmân,

s e n t to m e a s u r e a n d assess t h e

m o r e than the land c o u l d bear, replied, N o ; [terminology:

kallafa, (e)

'alay-hi)

H e imposed

l a n d , w h e n q u e s t i o n e d as to w h e t h e r t h e y h a d i m p o s e d

to divide I r a q

amongst the conquerors; H e a s k e d , W h a t about those M u s l i m s w h o will come

after

atdqa,

hamala,

ihtamala].

A s i n g l e h a d i t h f r o m ' A l i i m p l y i n g that o w n e r s h i p o f t h e S a w a d l a n d s w o u l d h a v e c a u s e d t h e M u s l i m c o n q u e r o r s to squabble.

I'he s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f this c h a p t e r is e n c a p s u l a t e d at P a r a g r a p h 2: Iraq w a s c o n q u e r e d a n d ' U m a r d e c i d e d — a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f the

us i n t i m e ? H e left t h e c o n q u e r e d p e o p l e s o n t h e i r l a n d (taraka wa-ahla-hd)

(a measure of weight) o n every

of area)

dirhams [some variation here too].

(sulh);

A b ü Yûsuf . . . from Z u h r i :

(d)

(c) (d)

(b) (c)

(c)

(a measure

[varied].

about:

khard

and

jizya.

actually cultivated or not. (b)

Q u e s t i o n from the Prince: W h a t (a)

jarib

this

material.

and

' U m a r , t h r o u g h his agents, H u d h a y f a a n d ' U t h m â n , i m p o s e d 1 d i r h a m ( c a s h ) a n d i qafiz

Y û s u f a n d eleven hadith variously specifying ' U m a r ' s activities. is a

a n d i m p o s e d kharaj

o. E l e v e n h a d i t h , d i s o r d e r l y , c o v e r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :

' U m a r . I t c o n s i s t s o f o n e j u r i s t i c o p i n i o n a t t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y to A b ü Here

fi aydı ahli-hi)

a n d s u b j e c t e d t h e m to jizya

and

kharaj.

'l-ard

M u s l i m s — n o t to d i v i d e it b u t to s u b j e c t it to kharaj Paragraph 3 repeats that I r a q w a s c o n q u e r e d — n o has a c q u i r e d

a handful

of exceptions.

and

treaties

T h e nine stories

jizya. but about

Q a d i s i y y a a n d N i h a w a n d c l e a r l y s h o u l d p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for t h e "

T h e e x c e p t i o n is at A b ü Y û s u f , 248, 11. 2/18.17.

conquest by force a n d a b s e n c e of treaties. T h e y serve the purpose.

126

THF.

twenty-one

KIT

A B

hadith.

A h - KH

A RAJ

Basically

O F

A B U

the argument

T H E

Y U S U F

is c o h e r e n t

and

orderly, a n d , except for the introductory sentence, not formally s e g m e n t e d . T h e ikhtilaf

a r g u m e n t r e l a t i n g to t h e tive-wasaq

rule

m a y be a secondary expansion, generating two Prophetic hadith w i t h i n t h e t e x t , w h i c h c o v e r t h e s a m e p o i n t as is m a d e by t h r e e P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h w i t h i n t h e g r o u p o f t w e n t y - o n e at t h e e n d . T h e a d d r e s s to t h e P r i n c e , A c t . . . i n w h a t e v e r w a y y o u c o n s i d e r m o r e b e n e f i c i a l e t c . , m a y h a v e c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e at a t i m e w h e n t h e fne-wasaq

r u l e w a s n o t s o firmly b u t t r e s s e d a s it n o w is i n t h e t e x t .

T h e r e a r e n o P r o p h e t i c hadith supporting the opposite v i e w , only the opinions of A b u H a n i f a a n d I b r a h i m a l - N a k h a T .

KHAR

AI.-KHARAJ

O F

1. A b u Y u s u f said. A s to the qatd'i'

A B U

in the land of I r a q , they a r c all [the

lands] that belonged to C h o s r o e , his M a r z u b a n s , and his family, all of which were not in anyone's possession at the time of (he C o n q u e s t . 2. [Hadith from . . .] a man of the B a n I A s a d . T h e sawtiji in the time of ' U m a r had a value of four million (dirhams, i . e . as tax-income). They are called today the sawdft al-asjdr.

T h i s means that ' U m a r set aside (axfa)

[certain categories of land, namely] r. the lands that belonged to C h o s r o e a n d his family 2. the lands that belonged to those w h o were killed in (he lighting 3. the lands of those who lied to enemy territory 4. lands recovered from water 5. lands that belonged to the [Sassanian] post (dayr

T h e m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g p r o b l e m l i e s at a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i z a -

127

Y U S U F

hand).

He (the man from the B a n i A s a d ) mentioned two other categories which

tion. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l rule governing the taxation of the S a w a d

the reporter did not recall.

s t a t e s t h a t it is kharaj

3. [Hadith from . . .] ' A b d a l l a h b. AbT H i r r a . ' U m a r set aside [asj'd) ten

l a n d b e c a u s e c o n q u e r e d by f o r c e . B u t t h i s

s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h a c a t e g o r y o f l a n d w h i c h is s u b j e c t to t h e 'ushr, a tax e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e d as sadaqa ory argument

o r zakdt,

a n d in the twenty-one

both in the introduct-

hadith. F r o m the point of

v i e w o f a t a x - c o l l e c t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the recognition o f this type o f l a n d w i t h i n t h e S a w a d m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y , b u t c o u l d h a r d l y be desirable. A s presented here, clearly a n d forcefully, these lands a r e n o t o n l y s u b j e c t to a l o w e r t a x t h a n kharaj

categories of land: 1. the land of those killed in battle 2. the land of those who fled 3. the land that belonged to C h o s r o e 4. the land that belonged to his family 5. land recovered from water 6. land that belonged to the [Sassanian] post (kali dayr

band).

lands, but some of

He ( ' A b d a l l a h b. A b i H i r r a ) had forgotten four categories. T h e kharaj on

the crops (vegetables, m e l o n s , e t c . ) a r e freed from a n y charges,

the land that ' U m a r set aside was 7 millions. B u t when the Battle of

a n d t h o s e t h a t a r e s u b j e c t t o t a x a t i o n a r c s u b j e c t , f a i r l y c l e a r l y , to

l a m a j i m took place [81-2 A H ] the people burned the register (diwdn), and

a five-wasaq

the record (al-asl) disappeared, was destroyed, and became u n k n o w n .

t h r e s h o l d . T h e i n v i t a t i o n to t h e P r i n c e to a c t i n a c c o r d

with whatever

o p i n i o n he p r e f e r r e d w a s all very w e l l , but the

4. [Hadith from . . .] ancient shaykhs. It was found in the dlwan

that

five-wasaq

' U m a r set aside the possessions of C h o s r o e and his family, and those who

threshold ( i . e . in favour of the t a x p a y e r ) . I n any case, the Prince

lied or were killed in battle, also the land recovered from water or forests.

argument

was heavily

weighted

in favour

of the

w o u l d certainly h a v e p r e f e r r e d a lot m o r e d i s c r e t i o n , for e x a m p l e , to m a k e t h e l a n d s u b j e c t to kharaj.

T h i s material, therefore, must

be interpreted as representing local c l a i m s , i n t e n d e d to m i n i m i z e and control government

exactions.

He used to allot this l a n d , by iqtd' (kdna yuqti'u fi hddhihi li-man 5.1.

T h e just i m a m m a y allot (aqta'a) such land as reward, or give it to one

is c o m p o s e d

by w h i m .

quia

(imperfectly

5 . 2 . L i k e w i s e this land—kadhdlika hddhihi

i m p o s e d ; R a h b i o f f e r s t h e t h r e e h a d i t h w i t h o u t qala,

B u l a q two of

five

them

segments

with).

The

marked first

by the formulaic

segment

is a s i m p l e

juristic

statement

a t t r i b u t e d to A b u Y u s u f . T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y t h r e e h a d i t h : haddatha-nl.

[qala]

. . T h e fifth s e g m e n t is a l e n g t h y j u r i s t i c e x p o s i t i o n o f

t h e n a t u r e o f t h e qatd'i'

a n d the rights of the i m a m , exhibiting n o

overt s e g m e n t a t i o n . T h e w h o l e o f this m a t e r i a l m a y be t r a n s l a t e d a n d s e t o u t as f o l l o w s .

bi-

manzilat bayt al-tndl; it belonged to no one and could not be inherited. who has benefited Islam. H e will apportion it appropriately and not give it

T h e s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r , c h a p t e r 6. O n t h e qatd'i', of

aqta'a).

A b u Y i i s u f said. T h i s land was like treasury l a n d — w a dhdlika

1-ard. 'Phis is the type of the

qata'T in I r a q , in my view. T h i s is what H a j j a j acted o n ; then ' U m a r b. ' A b d a l - ' A z I z acted. ' U m a r acted in accord with the siiiina. righteous governors (al-wuldt al-mahdiyyun)

L o r when

allot land (ai/la'a-hii)

none

may repossess it. O n e who takes such land from one person ami allots it, by iqtd', to another, he has usurped it 5.3.

(ghasaba-hu).

T h e qatd'i' are subject to 'ushr because they are treated as subject to

sadaqa—li-anna-hd

bi-manzilat

al-sadaqa.

128 5.4.

T H E

KI

TÂ

K

AI.-KHARÂJ

OF

A B Ü

T H E

Y U S U F

B u t that is up to the i m a m . If he considers it appropriate to impose

KITÂB

AL-KI1ARÂJ

OF ABÜ

129

Y U S U F

h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e to ' U m a r is t h e s a m e a s is s t a t e d at 5.1:

a just

the 'ushr, he should do so. B u t if he considers it appropriate to impose two

g o v e r n o r m a y a l i e n a t e s t a t e l a n d s a n d t h e r e a f t e r t h e r e c a n be n o

'ushrs (one fifth), he may do so. A n d if he considers it appropriate to

legitimate interference in the rights of the r e c i p i e n t s .

impose kharaj—if

5.3

they are watered from khariij l a n d s — h e may do so. H e

is free in this matter, with respect specifically to Iraq. 5.5.

[These lands] are subject only to the 'ushr because the owner of the

iqtcV has

the

burden

of

expenses

in digging

channels,

establishing

buildings, and working the land. T h i s is an expense to the owner of the

iqtd'. 5.6.

T h e matter is up to you. W h a t e v e r you think most beneficial, act so.

Paragraphs

1,

origins of category

2, 3, a n d 4 c o n s t i t u t e a j u r i s t i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f the

qatd'i'

in Iraq

is d i s t i n g u i s h e d

as a s e p a r a t e from

kharaj

category of l a n d . T h i s land

because,

after

the

c o n f i r m s t h e m e s s a g e o f c h a p t e r 5(2):

'ushrlsadaqa.

Paragraph

5.4,

t h e qatd'i'

Paragraph

1 5

arc s u b j e c t to

d i s p l a y i n g little c o n c e r n

lor

argu-

m e n t , s i m p l y c a n c e l s t h i s i d e a i n f a v o u r of g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n . T h e i m a m m a y i m p o s e w h a t e v e r h e l i k e s ; i n d e e d he m a y this

l a n d to

kharaj

w a t e r e d f r o m kharaj

instead of

'ushr.

(The

phrase

subject

'if they

arc-

l a n d ' is c e r t a i n l y , a n d t h e p h r a s e w i t h r e s p e c t

s p e c i f i c a l l y t o I r a q ' p o s s i b l y a s e c o n d a r y i n t e r p o l a t i o n ; cf.

Sect.

V I I b e l o w ) . P a r a g r a p h 5.5

have

followed

it

directly.

e x p l a i n s 5.3

Paragraph

5.6

p r o b a b l y f r o m t h e s a m e h a n d as 5.4,

is

another

interpolation,

t h o u g h h e r e , in d e f e r e n c e to

C o n q u e s t , t h e r e w a s n o o n e i n e v i d e n t p o s s e s s i o n o f it. It w a s

one

d i s t r i b u t e d b y iqtd',

p e r s o n a d d r e s s . T h e P r i n c e is a d d r e s s e d a n d i n f o r m e d that he m a y

t h e s e iqtd'?,

b u t , as i m p l i e d by t h e h a d i t h , t h e r e c o r d s o f

a n d their t a x - i n c o m e a r c lost. A l l of this s h o u l d

be

u n d e r s t o o d as a h i s t o r i c a l c o n s t r u c t d e s i g n e d to e x p l a i n o r j u s t i f y a

of the conventions

and must originally

of the redaction, expressed

in s e c o n d -

do w h a t e v e r he l i k e s . The

sequence

of juristic arguments

here

is c l e a r .

The

facts

c o n t e m p o r a r y c l a i m , n a m e l y that s o m e l a n d s in the S a w a d w e r e to

behind t h e m require some reconstruction. T h e general rule was

be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m kharaj

that t h e l a n d s o f the S a w a d w e r e s u b j e c t to kharaj,

a c c o r d i n g to c h a p t e r 5 ( 2 ) ,

l a n d s . T h e y w e r e c a l l e d qatd'i'

t h e y w e r e s u b j e c t to t h e 'ushr.

and,

H e r e , at

initially a

tax a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e a l i z e d as a p r o p o r t i o n a l tax o f t w o

c h a p t e r 6, P a r a g r a p h 3, t h e i n c o m e f r o m t h i s l a n d is r e f e r r e d to as

one

kharaj;

c l a i m e d t h a t t h e l a n d h o l d e r s s h o u l d p a y t h e 'ushr o r

t h i s is p e r h a p s , h e r e , a g e n e r i c t e r m .

It is c l e a r f r o m

Paragraphs

5.1

a n d 5.2

treasury land was a contemporary

that t h e c o n c e p t

of

o n e w h i c h w a s b e i n g u s e d in

quarter,

or one

third.

Of

some

l a n d s , t h e qatd'i',

fixed fifths,

it

was

sadaqalzakdt.

T h i s c l a i m w a s b a s e d o n t h e a r g u m e n t that o w n e r s h i p h e r e h a d a r i s e n as a r e s u l t o f s t a t e a l i e n a t i o n o f s t a t e l a n d s s u b s e q u e n t to the

o r d e r to c r e a t e a p a s t h i s t o r y f o r a c a t e g o r y o f l a n d t h a t w a s n o

Conquest

longer

is

n e a t l y m a d e a n d i n c l u d e s t h e i n t i m a t i o n that t h e r e c o r d s of this

now

a l i e n a t i o n a r e l o s t , a n d t h a t o w n e r s h i p of this t y p e d o e s n o t c r e a t e

treasury

land.

characteristically

The

abrupt.

juncture

The

land

between thus

5.1

and

categorized

5.2

was

(and was

b a c k e d b y n u m e r o u s h a d i t h ) . T h e c l a i m is

s e c u r e l y a n d r i g h t f u l l y h e l d by t h o s e to w h o m it h a d b e e n g i v e n by

any rights of r e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o n the part of the g o v e r n m e n t . T h o s e

t h e i m a m s . T h e p e r c e i v e d d a n g e r is t h i s : if o f t h i s l a n d it is c l a i m e d

w h o m a k e t h i s c l a i m c o n c e d e t h a t t h e S a w a d w a s c o n q u e r e d by

t h a t its o r i g i n s lie i n g o v e r n m e n t

force but deduce from that the existence of a special category of

government

some

rights

iqtd's,

might this not give the

o f r e c o v e r y ? T h e a n s w e r is n o ; f o r

j u s t i m a m h a s t h e r i g h t to g i v e a w a y this l a n d (5.1)

and,

the once

a l i e n a t e d , there c a n be no legitimate recovery (5.2). T h e historical r e f e r e n c e s to H a j j a j a n d ' U m a r i b n ' A b d a l - ' A z i z a r e n o t

made

c l e a r i n t h e t e x t , b u t a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y f a m i l i a r to be r e c o n s t r u c t e d . Hajjaj

seized and

sequence:

any

'Umar

restored

caliph who

makes

these

lands.

Note

a c l a i m o n qatd'i'

the

con-

land—for

e x a m p l e by s e i z i n g a n d r e a l l o t t i n g i t — i s f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e c e d e n t o f H a j j a j ; a n y c a l i p h w h o r e s t o r e s t h a t l a n d to its ( r i g h t f u l ) o w n e r s is f o l l o w i n g

' U m a r b. ' A b d

a l - ' A z i z . T h e p o i n t b u i l t up in t h e

l o w - t a x l a n d s s u b j e c t to 'ushr,

a n d justified by historical c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s . M o s t o f t h i s m a t e r i a l s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g b e e n 1 5

The

m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d iqtd' has a l w a y s b o t h e r e d E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s .

But

it d o c s n o t h a v e o n e m e a n i n g : i t has uses m a d e c l e a r by c o n t e x t . H e r e the v e r b uqla'a is s y s t e m a t i c a l l y used t o m e a n t r a n s f e r o f l a n d in the sense o f

relinquishing

all r i g h t s o v e r i t ; i t is a t r a n s f e r o f o w n e r s h i p a n d it is p e r m a n e n t , l i v e n as

the

a r g u m e n t is b e i n g m a d e , o n e c a n . as i t w e r e , h e a r the o p p o s i t e v i e w w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r t h e b u i l d - u p o f t h i s a r g u m e n t . S o m e o n e s o m e w h e r e was t r y i n g t o suggest that w h e n g o v e r n m e n t l a n d was

t r a n s f e r r e d by iqtd'.

r i g h t s o f r e t r i e v a l . T r a n s f e r r a l o r a l l o t m e n t b y iqtd'a al-Khardj

the g o v e r n m e n t

retained some

n o t i n the c o n t e x t o f the

t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h t e m p o r a r y a s s i g n m e n t s o f l a x - f a r m i n g

was c a l l e d tawliyya a n d taqbii, see C h . 6. Sect. X I I .

Kitdb

rights. This

130

THE

KITA

B

A L - KIIA

RAJ

produced outside of government

OF

ABU

THE

YUSUF

circles, by skilful jurists, w h o

w i s h e d to o p p o s e g o v e r n m e n t p r o p o s a l s to s u b j e c t all t h e l a n d s o f t h e S a w a d to kharâj, circles

were

also

a s s e s s e d as a p r o p o r t i o n o f p r o d u c e .

concerned

to

defend

their

These

lands from

state

a p p r o p r i a t i o n , w i t h a v i e w to r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e final r e d a c t i o n o f the

Kitdb

al-Kharâj,

however,

was

carried

out

by

redactors

w o r k i n g for t h e g o v e r n m e n t : t h e y a c c e p t e d the m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d on

qata'i'

in

its t o t a l i t y ,

i n t e r p o l a t i o n s (5.4

a n d 5.6)

and

undermined

it by

a

couple

of

w h i c h offer n o a r g u m e n t s b u t a s s e r t

s i m p l y that the i m a m m a y i m p o s e w h a t e v e r he wishes o n these l a n d s . T h e c l a i m that t h e g o v e r n m e n t m a y not i n t e r f e r e w i t h the e s t a b l i s h e d r i g h t s o f t h e l a n d h o l d e r s i n t h e s e a r e a s is n o t d i s p u t e d , t h o u g h it w a s q u a l i f i e d , i n f a v o u r o f t h e

here

government,

elsewhere in the text; see Section V I I below. A s w i t h t h e d i s c u s s i o n of kharâj

l a n d p r o p e r , this m a t e r i a l c a n ,

i n d e e d m u s t , b e i n t e r p r e t e d as r e f l e c t i n g a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n

those

w h o w o u l d assert local or traditional rights against those ( g o v e r n ­ ment

agents)

who

would

impose

taxation

at

discretion.

The

m a t e r i a l o f t h e d i s p u t e h a s b e e n e d i t e d i n s u c h a w a y as t o , i n t h e e n d , s a n c t i o n t a x a t i o n at d i s c r e t i o n .

Vll T h e l a n d s k n o w n a s iqta'

lands and the process w h e r e b y the state

transferred or allotted l a n d s — a q t a ' a — i s discussed in c h a p t e r

9.

A t first sight t h i s is a m o r e t h a n u s u a l l y d i s o r d e r l y c h a p t e r . R a h b i ' s text

provides

a faş I d i v i s i o n i n the

middle.

m i s p l a c e d a n d c o m p o u n d s the d i s o r d e r .

1 6

T h i s is

obviously

I n fact the d i v i s i o n s a r e

q u i t e s i m p l e . T h e r e i s , first, a s e c t i o n b e g i n n i n g , A s to B a s r a a n d K h u r a s a n . . . J u r i s t i c d i s c u s s i o n h e r e is f o l l o w e d by a s i n g l e h a d i t h w h i c h r e l a t e s to t h e t o p i c i n q u e s t i o n . T h i s is c h a p t e r 9(1). w h o l e o f t h e r e s t o f t h e c h a p t e r , 9(2),

is a b o u t iqta'.

It m a y

The be

t r a n s l a t e d a n d set o u t as f o l l o w s . 1. A b ü

Yûsuf

said. L a n d in Iraq or the H i j a z or Y e m e n

or T a ' i f

T h e n a t u r a l d i v i s i o n t a k e s p l a c e at

414.2, u n m a r k e d . T h e e x t r a — e r r o n e o u s — d i v i s i o n t a k e s p l a c e t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f my Para. 1 ( = i .

415).

(wa-lâ

fî yad

(wa-lâ milkan li-ahad).

Al.-KHARAJ

ahad),

OF

ABU

YUSUF

or not in the ownership of

131 anyone

or being without legitimate heirs, or being without

any sign of cultivation: on such lands, if they are allotted by the imam (aqta'a)

to a person who cultivates them, then the recipient of this

allotment should pay, on kharâj lands, kharâj

. . . and, on 'ushr lands,

'ushr . . . 2.1. A U land, allotted by the imam by iqta . if it was conquered by force, is subject to kharâj. 2.2. U n l e s s the imam makes it 'ushr land. 2.3. T h a t is up to the imam: if he gives land by iqta', kharaj laud, if he considers it appropriate to impose upon it the 'ushr, or an 'ushr and a half'ushr, or two 'ushrs, or more, or kharâj, or whatever he thinks ils people can bear, he may impose it. I trust he is free in this matter. Whatever he desires he may do. 3 . E x c e p t with regard to the H i j a z , M a k k a , Madina, and the Y e m e n . T h e r e can be no kharaj in these areas. A n d the imam may not it is not legitimate—change this or transfer these lands from the status imposed upon them by the Prophet of G o d . 4. 1 have explained this to you. So adopt whichever of the two views you prefer. A c t in whatever way you consider most beneficial to M u s l i m s , most advantageous to the élite and the masses, and most secure for you in your religion. 5.1. A b ü Yûsuf said. W h e n lands are allotted by iqtâ', by righteous governors (wulât mahdiyyun), whether in the Sawad or the A r a b lands, or the Jibâl ( W e s t e r n I r a n , the Z a g r o s ) , if the lands belong to the categories we have mentioned on which the i m a m has the right of iqtâ', then it is not legitimate (lâ yahillu) for those caliphs who come after them to repossess these lands from those who have gained possession, whether through sale or inheritance. 5.2. Rulers who seize land from one person's possession and give it by iqtâ ' to another arc in the position of usurpers (ghâşib) . . . 5 . 3 . It is not permissible for the i m a m to allot by iqtâ'to one person what is the right of another, whether M u s l i m or Treaty-subject (mu'âh'ul). N o r may he deprive such a one of his possessions except by virtue of a rightful claim against him (illâ bi-haqq yajib ta-hu 'alay-hi)

. . .

5.4. L a n d in my view is just like other goods (bi-matizilat al-nuil). T h e i m a m may reward from the treasury one who has been useful to Islam, or

or the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a or elsewhere, being waste land, not belonging to anyone (ghâmirun minima laysa li-ahad), or not in the possession

" ' T h i s c h a p t e r b e g i n s at A b ü Y û s u f . i . 409.

of anyone

KITÂB

one who has provided strength against the enemy. I le may act in this held in whatever way he considers best for Muslims and most beneficial to their situation. L i k e w i s e lands. T h e i m a m may give them by iqtâ' to whomsoever he wishes, that is, from the categories [of land] which I have mentioned. 5 . 5 . I do not consider that he should simply leave land in which there is no

132

T H E

KITA

B

A L - K11A

RAJ

O E

A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

one with rights of ownership or which is uncultivated. L e t the imam give it

as iqtcV. (Wcı-lâ aril an yatruka ardan lâ milk li-ahad fi-ha wa-la hattâ yuqd'a-ha

al-imam.)

'imâra

F o r that is more conducive to productivity a n d

likely to maximize the kharaj—a'mar

U-'l-balad wa-akthar

li'1-kharüj.

5.6. T h i s is the definition of iqttV in my view. 6. A b ü Y û s u f said. T h e Prophet of G o d used to give land by iqta'.

[Seven

hadith, of which five present the Prophet as giving land by iqtâ'; one relates to ' U t h m â n ; a n d one to a number of C o m p a n i o n s who acquired possession of kharaj lands, presumably by iqta']

KITÂB

AL-KHARAJ

O F

A B U

133

Y U S U F

r e w o r k i n g o f m a t e r i a l a l r e a d y u s e d . I f o n e c o m p a r e s , for e x a m p l e , P a r a g r a p h s 4.1

a n d 4.2 w i t h P a r a g r a p h 5.2

from chapter 6 (see

a b o v e , S e c t . V I ) , it w i l l b e e v i d e n t n o t o n l y that t h e s a m e r u l e s a r e b e i n g e x p r e s s e d b u t that t h e s a m e s y n t a x a n d p h r a s e o l o g y is b e i n g e x p l o i t e d , w i t h e x p a n s i o n s . H o w e v e r t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f r u l e s h e r e is not s i m p l y otiose. C h a p t e r 6 dealt w i t h a type of land called

qata'i'

w h o s e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n s w e r e s a i d to b e t h r o u g h a n c i e n t a n d n o w u n r e c o r d e d iqta ; it a l l e g e d t h a t t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n h a d e x i s t e d

7. A b ü Y û s u f said. T h e s e athdr show that the Prophet used to allot land,

in the past; a n d that certain lands in the S a w a d ,

by iqtâ', and that the caliphs did likewise . . . T h e y did not give away by

h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n s , must b e t r e a t e d differently from other hinds; in

iqta' what was the right of Muslims or Treaty-subjects (wa-lam

p a r t i c u l a r t h e y m u s t b e s u b j e c t to 'ushr

haqq muslini wa-lâ

yuqti'u

tnu'âhid).

n o r e c o r d s o f t h e s e iqtd's;

8. A b ü Yûsuf said . . . from the Prophet of G o d . Whosoever seizes one

Effectively,

having

a n d not kharaj;

these

there were

the claim w a s o n e of ancient

rights.

i n t h e t e x t , t h e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n s w e r e c o n c e d e d , but

inch of earth, having no right to it, G o d will collar him with the seven

t h e t y p e o f t a x a t i o n w a s n o t . T h e qata'i'

earths.

government discretion.

P a r a g r a p h i h e r e e f f e c t i v e l y m a k e s t w o p o i n t s : ( i ) that a l l o t m e n t s

to a n c i e n t r i g h t s , b u t d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y

o f l a n d (iqtd')

o f iqtd'.

w e r e to be ( a x e d at

T h e p r e s e n t b l o c k o f m a t e r i a l is n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s e c l a i m s b y t h e i m a m m a y t a k e p l a c e in a n y o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s

s p e c i f i e d , a n d ( 2 ) t h a t s u c h l a n d is t h e n a s s i m i l a t e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f

o w n e r s h i p , u s u f r u c t , a n d t a x a t i o n i n iqtd'

t a x a t i o n to s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d . T h e l a t t e r r u l i n g w a s n o t a n c i e n t a n d

we

not o b v i o u s d u r i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n of chapter 5(2), w h i c h argued

t h a t l a n d g i v e n by iqtd' is s u b j e c t t o — n o t 'ushr

e x t e n s i v e l y f o r s u c h l a n d b e i n g s u b j e c t to t h e 'ttshr,

c l a u s e m a y b e a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n b r i n g i n g 2.1

during

the composition

of

chapter

6,

which

nor indeed

contains

some

phenomenon

I t r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t to e x p r e s s t h e r u l e s

are plunged

governing

lands. A t Paragraph

immediately into m u d d l e . Paragraph

2.1

b u t khardj.

2,

states T h e if-

into line with the rule

at P a r a g r a p h 1. P a r a g r a p h 2.2 first a c c o r d s t h e i m a m d i s c r e t i o n t o

a r g u m e n t s j u s t i f y i n g t h e 'ushr t a x a n d c o n t r a r y a r g u m e n t s f a v o u r i n g

r e n d e r iqtd'

g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n (5.3 a n d 5.5 v e r s u s 5.4 a n d 5.6; s e e S e c t . V I

d i s c r e t i o n , g i v i n g t h e i m a m r i g h t s to i m p o s e w h a t e v e r h e l i k e s o n

a b o v e ) . T h e a r g u m e n t i n f a v o u r o f g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n w a s at

such land. T h e wording

that p o i n t w i t h o u t t e c h n i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n a n d c l e a r l y i n n e e d o f

Paragraph

t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o r t . H e r e , b y t h e a r g u m e n t o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , this is

statements

effectively

expresses

s u p p l i e d : iqta'

t h a t s y s t e m , a n d kharaj,

l a n d s i n khardj

a r e a s a r e a s s i m i l a t e d to

w e h a v e s e e n , is a p r o p o r t i o n a l t a x a t i o n

c o n t r o l l e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a s s e s s m e n t o f c a p a c i t y . 'Ushr a r e l i m i t e d , w i t h i n t h e text o f t h e Kitdb Arabian kharaj.

P e n i n s u l a . H e n c e a l l iqta'

al-Khardj,

areas

o n l y to t h e

l a n d s in I r a q a r e s u b j e c t to

P a r a g r a p h 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e final stage i n t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f a

juristic problem.

Situated

s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h iqtd',

here

at t h e b e g i n n i n g

of a

l a n d s s u b j e c t to 'ushr,

5.4

and phraseology

in the previous

of

absolute

a familiar

t h e n P a r a g r a p h 2.3 e x t e n d s t h e o f 2.3

section (chapter

Government

conventional

c o r r e s p o n d s to 6 ) , both

discretion.

rule,

being

Paragraph

repeated

on

3

numerous

o c c a s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w o r k . P a r a g r a p h 4 r e f e r s b a c k to t w o views a n d m a k e s n o sense i n its present context.

D i d it p e r h a p s

r e f e r to 2.1 a n d 2.2 at a t i m e w h e n t h e y w e r e n o t s e p a r a t e d f r o m 4 by 2.3

a n d 3?

might choose

I n t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s it m a d e s e n s e : t h e i m a m between

i m p o s i n g khardj

a n d 'ushr.

( I t is w o r t h

lengthy

n o t i n g t h a t , i n c h a p t e r 6, P a r a g r a p h s 5.4 a n d 5.6 g a v e e x p r e s s i o n

it m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s o n e o f t h e last

to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n , first in t h e t h i r d

i t e m s t o e n t e r t h e t e x t , d e l i b e r a t e l y p r o m o t e d to i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n

person

w h e r e it g o v e r n s t h e c o m p l e x m a t e r i a l o f P a r a g r a p h s 2 to 8, w h i c h

r e p e a t e d at P a r a g r a p h s 2.3 a n d 4 . C l e a r l y a r e d a c t o r ( o r r e d a c t o r s )

reveal much greater

uncertainty.

It is i m m e d i a t e l y e v i d e n t t h a t P a r a g r a p h s 2 to 8 a r e i n p a r t a

then

in the second

person.

Here

the same

pattern

is

h a s g o n e t h r o u g h t h e w o r k at l e a s t t w i c e t r y i n g to r e n d e r it s u i t a b l e f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n to t h e p r i n c e . )

134

T H E

KITA

B

AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U

T H E

Y U S U F

T h e g r o w t h o f t h e text reflects t h e g r o w t h o f j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t . It c a n b e r e c r e a t e d t h u s :

135

Y Û S U F

I f l a n d w a s left u n c u l t i v a t e d t h e i m a m h a d t h e right to the government retained the

proof of ownership was not forthcoming). Of

(a)

t h e y a r e s u b j e c t to

(b)

u n l e s s t h e i m a m m a k e s t h e n 'ushr

(c)

i n f a c t , t h e i m a m c a n t a x at d i s c r e t i o n .

to

O F A B U

r i g h t t o r e p o s s e s s it a n d r e a l l o t it i f t h e l a n d w a s u n c u l t i v a t e d ( o r if

'ushr.

2. A c o u n t e r - c l a i m w a s m a d e :

N o , i n kharaj

AL-KHARAJ

r e a l l o t it. H a v i n g g i v e n l a n d b y iqtâ',

1. S o m e p e o p l e c l a i m t h a t iqtcY l a n d s w e r e s u b j e c t to

3.

useful.

KITAB

kharaj,

the seven

represent

land;

hadith

the Prophet

given

at P a r a g r a p h

6 , three

a s a s s i g n i n g l a n d b y iqtâ'

not o n l y

but a d d that

subsequent caliphs recovered a n d reassigned the same lands. In

a r e a s t h e y a r e s u b j e c t to kharaj

a n d i n 'ushr

areas

t h e first o f t h e s e h a d i t h w e find ' U m a r e x p r e s s i n g the r u l e , l i a m a n o w n s l a n d , t h e n a b a n d o n s it f o r t h r e e y e a r s , w i t h o u t c u l t i v a t i n g i t ,

'ushr.

T h e last s t a t e m e n t h a s t h e m e r i t o f b e i n g b o t h l o g i c a l l y s a t i s f y i n g

a n d i f , t h e n , o t h e r s u n d e r t a k e i t s c u l t i v a t i o n , t h e y h a v e m o r e right

a n d p r a c t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e ( s i n c e t h e a r e a u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n is t h e

to i t . I n t h e s e c o n d ' U m a r i s s e e n t o r e a s s i g n a n iqta

S a w a d w h e r e a l l l a n d s a r e kharaj

to the owners

l a n d s , i . e . e f f e c t i v e l y t a x a b l e at

of n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o p e r t y . I n t h e fifth, t h e P r o p h e t a s s i g n s l a n d to

d i s c r e t i o n ) . E x p r e s s i o n o f this rule h a s b e e n p r o m o t e d to initial

Bilâl b. al-Hàrith, and ' U m a r , subsequently, a n n o u n c i n g , ' Y o u are

position ( P a r a .

u n a b l e t o c u l t i v a t e i t ' , r e a s s i g n s it (yuqti'u-ha).

1) w h e r e it g o v e r n s m a t e r i a l w h i c h still

reveals

earlier layers of thought accumulating round the p r o b l e m .

P a r a g r a p h 5, d i v i d e d h e r e f o r c o n v e n i e n c e i n t o six s e g m e n t s , explores t w o areas of thought:

first,

T h e s e precedents

c o n s i d e r a b l y w e a k e n t h e r i g h t s o f p o s s e s s i o n in iqta

1 7

t h e i m a m ' s right to a l i e n a t e

l a n d a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e c o n s e q u e n t r i g h t s a c c r u i n g to t h o s e w h o

land a n d

certainly u n d e r m i n e , i n favour of the g o v e r n m e n t , the tremendous j u r i s t i c effort t h a t g o e s i n t o e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t iqtâ'

lands cannot be

repossessed a n d reassigned.

a n d 5.2, e c h o i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y

P a r a g r a p h 8 is a s i m p l e m o r a l r e m i n d e r a b o u t a v o i d i n g i l l i c i t

o f a n e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n ( c h a p t e r 6, 5.2), e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e i m a m

s e i z u r e . S i n c e t h e final r u l e s a r e t h a t t h e i m a m m a y g i v e l a n d s to

h a s a right t o a l l o t l a n d s a n d d o e s n o t h a v e a r i g h t t o r e p o s s e s s

whomsoever

these allotments. R u l e r s w h o d o so a r e usurpers. P a r a g r a p h

discretion,

r e c e i v e s u c h l a n d . P a r a g r a p h s 5.1

repeats

but qualifies

this

generalization

by reference

5.3

to t h e

possibility of a legitimate g o v e r n m e n t claim against a n allottee. widest

undermines

discretionary all those

terms.

claims

A n d Paragraph

to p e r m a n e n t

5.5

effectively

secure

possession

a c c r u i n g t o t h e a l l o t t e e s o m u c h s t r e s s e d at 5.1

a n d 5.2, as a l s o i n

a n d subject

to

reclaim

o f t a x at h i s

and reassignment

if n o t

cultivated o r not defended by proof of ownership, the i m a m c a n h a r d l y h a v e felt u n h a p p y .

P a r a g r a p h 5.4 r e p e a t s t h e g e n e r a l r i g h t s o f t h e i m a m t o a l l o t , i n the

he wishes, o n condition of payment

W e have n o w an apparently complete understanding of taxation in t h e l a n d s o f t h e S a w à d :

they are all subject to proportional

taxation at g o v e r n m e n t discretion. I n the lands w h e r e possession a r i s e s f r o m e i t h e r a n c i e n t o r r e c e n t iqtâ',

the imam has certain

t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n at c h a p t e r 6. T h e e x p r e s s i o n is c l u m s y b u t

r i g h t s o f r e p o s s e s s i o n a n d r e a s s i g n m e n t . I t is p r o b a b l e , t h o u g h n o t

the i n t e n t i o n is c l e a r : t h e i m a m m a y u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s

s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d , t h a t t h i s i s t r u e a l s o o f kharâj

reallot lands w h i c h have once been alienated. T h e conditions are

This

a b s e n c e o f o w n e r s h i p o r a b s e n c e o f c u l t i v a t i o n . T h e first c o n d i t i o n

c o n t r i v a n c e — a t r u l y s p l e n d i d Ma—achieved

is p e r h a p s n o t v e r y

plicity o f conflicting claims about the juristic status o f these lands.

1 7

effective;

1 8

the second was probably

more

L a t e r H a n a f i t h i n k i n g a r o u n d t h e s a m e p r o b l e m w a s t o suggest t h a t r e v i v e d

a n d a l l o t t e d l a n d s (aqta'a), kharaj

completely

unified system

lands in general.

of tax collection

is a j u r i s t i c

in spite of a multi-

F r o m t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , w e l e a r n a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t a x a t i o n at t h e

i f irrigated by n a t u r a l supplies o f w a t e r , were subject to

a n d , i f w a t e r e d a r t i f i c i a l l y , w e r e s u b j e c t t o t h e 'ushr. T h i s has g e n e r a t e d

o f i t s f e w o c c u r r e n c e s is i n Passage A , w h e r e i t is s p e e i l i e d t h a t kharaj p a y e r s have

s e c o n d a r y i n t e r p o l a t i o n s i n t h e t e x t ; e . g . at P a r a . 5.4 i n c h a p t e r 6 ( s e c " S e c t . V I

their

a b o v e ) . E v e n this docs n o t represent the limits o f H a n a f i c o m p l e x i t y (confusion!)

possession (ftaydi-him

w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t a x s t a t u s o f l a n d a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o m o d e s o f i r r i g a t i o n ; see Z a y n

to

a l - D l n I b n N u j a y m . Bahr,

o w n e r s h i p . R e a d i n g o n l y t h i s t e x t , i t is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r a l l o u é e s h a v e o w n e r s h i p o r

1 8

T h e t e r m milk

v . 105.9 f f .

is u s e d w i t h g r e a t r e s t r a i n t t h r o u g h o u t

t h e Kitab

al-Kharaj,

b o t h w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o kharaj l a n d s i n g e n e r a l a n d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o fV/ia'lands. O n e

land

in ownership

possession

(milk).

A l l other

references

t o kharaj

payers

e t c . ) . L i k e w i s e i n t h e g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o[iqla,

a n d usufruct

are frequent;

m e r e l y p o s s e s s i o n a n d u s u f r u c t o f iqta

there

a r e n o specific

speedy

relcrenccs

relcrenccs to

l a n d s . I t is p r o b a b l e t h e y h a d o w n e r s h i p ;

b u t t h e r e d a c t o r s m a y h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y left a l o o p h o l e f o r p o t e n t i a l

exploitation.

13°

T H E Kİ TÂ B A L-KUARÂJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

KITAB

Al.-KHARAJ

OF A B U Y U S U F

137

t i m e the book w a s p r o d u c e d . It h a d b e e n v a r i e d , l o c a l , b a s e d o n

p r o b a b l y c a m e d i r e c t l y after I . I , p r i o r to t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f

fixed r a t e s , c o n t r o l l e d b y e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m , j u s t i f i e d b y r e f e r e n c e

A t P a r a g r a p h 2, t h e a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h Basra, a n d K h u r a s a n i n

to

c o n v e n t i o n a l j u r i s t i c t e r m s is a b a n d o n e d . T h e r e is a sunna

precedent,

it w a s i n t h e p r o c e s s

of becoming

a

standard

1.2.

there,

p r o p o r t i o n a l t a x , i m p o s e d w i t h o u t l o c a l v a r i a n c e , at t h e d i s c r e t i o n

a n e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e , a n d t h e y s h o u l d be left to t h e i r e s t a b l i s h e d

o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t , i n i t i a l l y at t h e r a t e s p r e s c r i b e d ( t w o fifths, o n e

p r a c t i c e , a b o u t w h i c h w e l e a r n n o t h i n g . C o m p a r e d w i t h the q u i t e

t h i r d , o n e q u a r t e r ) . ( O r r a t h e r , that w a s t h e a s p i r a t i o n ; a b o u t t h e

e v i d e n t d e s i r e by t h e r e d a c t o r s to c o l l e c t , p r e s e n t , a n d c o n t r o l

achievement,

j u r i s t i c m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g to t h e S a w a d , this is p e r f u n c t o r y

this

text

teils us n o t h i n g . )

p o s s e s s i o n w a s a r e s u l t o f iqta, recent, there ('ushr

were

n o t kharaj)

attempts

In the areas

where

either ancient and unrecorded, or to establish favourable

in the

extreme.

tax status

b u t t h e s e w e r e d e n i e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t .

IX C h a p t e r 3, e n t i t l e d O n S y r i a a n d t h e J a z i r a ( N o r t h - W e s t

VIII

Meso­

p o t a m i a ) , b e g i n s w i t h a p r i n c e l y q u e s t i o n a s k i n g for i n f o r m a t i o n

W h a t of a r e a s b e y o n d the S a w a d ? O f the original g r o u p of nine

about the c o n q u e s t s in those areas a n d the i n c i d e n c e of treaties

c h a p t e r s p r o p o s e d f o r a n a l y s i s , w e h a v e n o w d e a l t w i t h c h a p t e r s 2,

t h e r e . T h e r e s p o n d e n t indicates that he has written for information

5, 6, a n d m o s t o f 9 ( = 9 ( 2 ) ) . C h a p t e r 7, r e l a t i n g to t h e A r a b i a n

to a s h a y k h i n t h e J a z i r a .

Peninsula,

h e h a s d e r i v e d h i s i n f o r m a t i o n n o t f r o m t h e fuqahd'

need

not detain

u s : t h e ard

al-'Arab—land

of the

1 9

T h e a n o n y m o u s s h a y k h i n d i c a t e s that b u t in t h e

B e d o u i n , i n c l u d i n g a l l its m a j o r t o w n s a n d c i t i e s — i s s u b j e c t to t h e

f o r m o f h a d i t h f r o m t h o s e r e p u t e d to k n o w h a d i t h . (The

'ushr.

h e r e are traditional jurists, those w h o rely o n locally established

T h e r e is a m a r g i n a l p r o b l e m w i t h p a r t o f t h e Y e m e n , w h i c h

fuqahd'

n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us h e r e .

c u s t o m rather t h a n o n stories about the distant past. T h e s h a y k h

T h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g to B a s r a a n d K h u r a s a n , c h a p t e r 9 ( 1 ) , is a s follows:

( = a n c i e n t s t o r y ) is i n d i c a t i n g h i s p r e f e r r e d m o d e o f j u s t i f y i n g t h e

(or

perhaps

the redactor)

in stating

a preference

for h a d i t h

law.) T h e information given by the shaykh can be s u m m a r i z e d a n d 1. r. A s to B a s r a and K h u r a s a n , they arc in my view of the same status as the Sawad. r.2.

W h a t is conquered by force is kharaj land. What is subject of a treaty

agreement should be assessed in accord with the agreed sum and not increased. W h e r e the people submit, their land is 'ushr land. 1.3. I do not distinguish between the Sawad and these lands in anything. 2. B u t a custom has been established there—jurat 'alay-ha sunnatun— and the caliphs of the past have put that custom into effect. H e n c e 1 consider that you should confirm these lands in their present circumstance; that is the situation and practice is based on it—fa-ra'aytu an tuqirra-ha

'ala hâli-hâ wa-dhfdika

'l-amr w a 'alay-hi

al-'amal.

3 . A b ü Y û s u f said. [Hadith . . . from Sha'bi: B a s r a , Isfahan, etc. were taken by conquest under ' U m a r . ] T h e r e d a c t o r s w e r e c l u m s y at P a r a g r a p h 1. I f B a s r a a n d K h u r a s a n are

of the same

conquered

by

status

force

as t h e S a w a d

without

treaties

(¡.1),

then

they

a n d a r e kharaj

were lands.

set o u t s c h e m a t i c a l l y as f o l l o w s ; full t r a n s l a t i o n o f a s m a l l s e g m e n t o f m a t e r i a l is g i v e n at P a r a g r a p h 9. 1. T h e Jazira prior to the Conquest belonged

partly to the G r e e k s

( B y z a n t i u m ) partly to the Persians. 2. A b u ' U b a y d a and his generals set out for Syria. T h e y conquered the provinces of J o r d a n , D a m a s c u s , a n d H i m s , by force; |no treaties], 3 . A b u ' U b a y d sent Shurahbil to Q i n n i s r i n . H e conquered it. 4 . S h u r a h b i l sent T y a d b . G h a n a m a l - F i h r i against R u h a ( E d e s s a ) . E v e n ­ tually the people of the city sued for a treaty. T y a d wrote to A b u ' U b a y d a about this; and he, in turn, consulted M u ' a d h b. Jabal. M u ' a d h said, A c c e p t the treaty from them, but give it to them on condition they pay whatever they are capable of—'aid an yu'addu al-tdqa. T h i s was done. 5. T h e r e is dispute on how the people of E d e s s a responded. Some say they accepted this treaty on the basis of capacity. Some say they held out for a treaty based on a fixed sum. G o d knows best what happened. 1 9

The

Bulaq

cdn.,

confusingly,

has

Hira.

Though

clearly

erroneous

the

P a r a g r a p h r .2 i n t r o d u c e s t h e b a s i c g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a b o u t a l l l a n d s —

S a l a f i y y a Press e d n . preserved t h i s r e a d i n g i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i r o w n m a n u s c r i p t ;

which

see A b u Y u s u f , Kharaj

ought

n o t to be r e l e v a n t ,

if 1.1

is t r u e . P a r a g r a p h

1.3

( S a l a f i y y a c d n . ) , 42.

138

T H E

KİT

AB

Al.-KHARÂJ

OF

A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

KiTAB

AL-KHARAJ

OF A B U

Y U S U F

6. T y a d proceeded to H a r r a n and offered them the same terms as E d e s s a .

c l a i m — a n d 1 t a k e it to r e p r e s e n t the g o v e r n m e n t ' s v i e w — i s t h a t

T h e s e were accepted. 7 . T h e small towns and villages allowed themselves to be assimilated to

they

the pattern of agreement accepted by the nearest city. 8. T h e caliphs after the Conquest treated the small towns and villages according to the pattern of the nearest cities; except in the matter of provisioning the a r m y — i l i a fiarzaq al-jund; that was laid on the villages not the cities. 9. T h o s e skilled in argument say: O u r established right is [recorded] in our possession—haqqu-na fi aydi-na. R u l e r s before you have treated us in accord with [its provisions]—hamala-na 'alay-hi man kana qabla-kum. It is registered in your diwans—wa-huwa thdbit jidawawlni-kum. Y o u are ignorant and we are ignorant of how it was in the early days (ft awwal alamr). So how can y o u think it permissible to submit us to new practices, different from those established, and for which you have no records? [ H o w can you] deny the practice registered [in documents] in your possession, in accordance with which we have always been treated? ro. T h a t part of the J a z i r a which was in the hands of the Persians was abandoned by them after the defeat at Q a d i s i y y a . 11. T y a d imposed a poll tax: for every person, one dinar plus two madds of wheat, and two measures each of olive oil and sesame oil. T h e letterwriter comments, ' I have not heard that this is based on a treaty, nor on registered practice, nor on tradition (riwaya) from the ftujahd', nor is it based on sound transmission (isndd). 1

12.

W h e n A b d a l - M a l i k took power, he sent D a h h a k b. A b d a l - R a h m a n

who reassessed what was to be collected. H e counted the population, assumed that every person was working, calculated the annual income of a w o r k e r , subtracted from it expenses in food, clothing, servants, etc., subtracted also from this notional income the income of feast days [when there was no work and consequently no income] and found that the surplus income per person per year was four dinars. H e imposed this as a poll-tax. 13. H e also imposed a tax on land, which varied according to distance from the local city. L a n d near the city was subject to one dinar for every hundred jaribs; land farther off was subject to one dinar for every two hundred jaribs. O n vineyards, the tax was one dinar per thousand grape stocks, near the city, and one dinar per two thousand, at a distance. T h e definition of near was less than a day's journey.

previously.

It

is a g o v e r n m e n t

redaction

of

juristic

m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d f r o m t h e J a z i r a . S y r i a is d i s m i s s e d in a s e n t e n c e (Para.

2);

it is c l e a r l y

agreed

stipulation

to p a y of

n o t at i s s u e . E d e s s a , h o w e v e r ,

is.

The

according

payment

at

to t h e i r c a p a c i t y

capacity

( P a r a . 4).

is e x t e n d e d

to

The

I larran

at

P a r a g r a p h 6, to the s m a l l t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s at P a r a g r a p h 7 , a n d effectively Persians

to t h a t p a r t o f the J a z i r a w h i c h h a d b e e n h e l d by the at

Paragraph

extraordinary. produced

I take

10.

The

it to

be

material a

genuine

at

Paragraph

echo

of

at e i t h e r E d e s s a o r H a r r a n e x p r e s s i n g

9

is

arguments

objections

to

r e f o r m s i n t a x a t i o n . T h e o b j e c t o r s s t a t e that t h e r e h a d b e e n tin e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e b a s e d o n r e c o r d s p r e s e r v e d by b o t h s i d e s a n d that t h e g o v e r n m e n t

has a b a n d o n e d

that practice

in f a v o u r

of

innovations. T h e government justification was clearly a statement of

what

happened

objectors

claim

' i n the

that

early

neither

days'—fi

they

nor

the

awwal

al-amr.

lire

government

know

anything about these early days. T h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t that t h e a r g u m e n t p u t f o r w a r d b y the g o v e r n m e n t a b o u t ' t h e e a r l y d a y s ' is p r e c i s e l y that s t o r y w h i c h w e n o w h a v e i n P a r a g r a p h 4. T h e g o v e r n m e n t j u s t i f i e d n e w procedures

taxation

by m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e r e c o r d of h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s

that

w e r e a l l e g e d to h a v e t a k e n p l a c e in t h e d i s t a n t p a s t . T o a r g u e t h a t n o o n e , n e i t h e r the g o v e r n m e n t n o r the l o c a l p e o p l e , n o w what

had happened

in t h o s e d a y s ,

was

perhaps

knew

not w i s e .

An

a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e o f a r g u m e n t w a s to p r o d u c e a d i f f e r e n t a n d m o r e accommodating demands

version of history.

If the government

on ancient historical events,

it b e c o m e s

bases

its

necessary

to

r e s p o n d i n l i k e t e r m s . T h i s , I t h i n k , is t h e o r i g i n of the statement

at P a r a g r a p h

5.

It w a s

the g o v e r n m e n t

agents

ikhtildf who

a l l e g e d t h a t t h e p e a c e - t r e a t y at E d e s s a w a s b a s e d o n p a y m e n t c a p a c i t y to p a y . It w a s p r e s u m a b l y t h e E d e s s a n s w h o

at

responded

t h a t t h e t r e a t y h a d n o t i n fact t a k e n t h i s f o r m . T h e o b j e c t i o n gets a polite but ineffective m e n t i o n . P a r a g r a p h s 6 a n d 7 must certainly be r e a d as f o l l o w i n g o n f r o m P a r a g r a p h 4, d i s r e g a r d i n g P a r a g r a p h

5Paragraph

T h i s m a t e r i a l m u s t h e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e s a m e w a y as the m a t e r i a l s discussed

E d e s s a w a s t a k e n by t h e M u s l i m s as a r e s u l t o f a t r e a t y i n w h i c h

11

r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r effort to a v o i d

government

c l a i m s . It s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be r e a d t o g e t h e r w i t h P a r a g r a p h 5; i . e . t h e s e a r e t h e fixed a m o u n t s w h i c h , it is i m p l i e d , w e r e i m p o s e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e E d e s s a n s r e f u s i n g to a g r e e to a t r e a t y that s p e c i f i e d capacity.

And

t h e s e a m o u n t s a r e n o t m u c h to w o r r y

about.

It

w o u l d s e e m r e a s o n a b l e to g u e s s t h a t t h e s e s u m s c o n f o r m to the

140

THE

KİT

A B

A L - K11A

R A İ OF

ABU

YUSUF

THE

established payments o f the Edessans at this p e r i o d ( o r represents w h a t they w o u l d like t o p a y ) ; this is what was preserved in t h e i r registers. F o r t h e m o d e o f p a y m e n t , we should read t h e m in the light o f Paragraph 8 : the food payments were assessed per head but were m a d e i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y by the r u r a l districts. T h e poll-tax was assessed p e r h e a d , b u t was presumably p a i d in a single l u m p sum by the local notables in E d e s s a — w h o may or may not have extracted a d i n a r f r o m every person. T h a t w o u l d be a m a t t e r o f indifference t o the g o v e r n m e n t ' s tax agents. I f i n d e e d the Edessans cleverly p r o d u c e d a version o f historical n a r r a t i v e w h i c h w o r k e d t o c o n f i r m t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p a y m e n t s , the g o v e r n m e n t agents were n o t impressed. T h e ' s h a y k h ' w h o w r o t e this letter f r o m Jazira clearly indicates that t h e i r claims may be disregarded (Para. n ) . Paragraphs 12 and 13 may safely be t a k e n as representing the new g o v e r n m e n t claims: f o u r dinars per head together w i t h cash payments on agricultural produce, representing, p r o b a b l y , a significant increase over the payments specified at Paragraph 11. W h y are these a t t r i b u t e d to ' A b d a l - M a l i k ? T h e g o v e r n m e n t was clearly having t r o u b l e w i t h the local Edessans, w h o perhaps first d e n i e d t h a t a n y t h i n g was k n o w n a b o u t the Conquest a n d t h e n p r o d u c e d a story t h a t w o r k e d i n t h e i r favour. T h e g o v e r n m e n t accordingly t u r n e d t o a slightly later p e r i o d t o establish the rates. I t may w e l l be the case that ' A b d a l - M a l i k had i n fact o r g a n i z e d some k i n d o f tax survey. Some such t h i n g is r e c o r d e d in the early Syriac source, D e n n i s o f T e l l M a h r e ( D e n n i s ' s account however clearly draws o n the l i t e r a r y motifs p r o v i d e d by the Gospel account o f a R o m a n c e n s u s ) . This t r a d i t i o n and the existence o f o t h e r stories i n d i c a t i n g ' A b d al20

D e n n i s o f T e t l M a h r e , 116. C f . D a n i e l C. D c n n e t , Conversion, 45-6. For D e n n i s ( o r D i o n y s i u s ) o f T e l l M a h r e , see J o h n H c a l e y , ' S y r i a c sources a n d the U m a y y a d p e r i o d ' . D e n n i s locates the census i n t h e y e a r 1003 ( = 691-2 cif) and states t h a t t h i s was t h e first t i m e t h e l l a g a n t e s h a d i m p o s e d a p o l l t a x . D e n n e t c o m m e n t s , ' B y i t s e l f , t h e passage seems i n c r e d i b l e . T h i s census was n o t t h e first m a d e b y t h e A r a b s , n o r was t h i s t h e first c a p i t a t i o n tax. [ T h i s ] . . . is i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e o n e - d i n a r p o l l - t a x r a t e w h i c h ' l y a d is r e p u t e d t o h a v e i m p o s e d . ' N o w , t h e r e are c e r t a i n l y p r o b l e m s w i t h r e a d i n g D e n n i s , n o t a b l y w i t h r e g a r d t o his use o f l i t e r a r y m o t i f s t o p o r t r a y t h e 'census'. B u t he is n e a r e r t o t h e p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n t h a n A b ü Y û s u f or any k n o w n version o f the T y a d story. D e n n e t b e l i e v e s t h a t ' A b d a l - M a l i k r e f o r m e d w h a t T y a d h a d i m p o s e d . I b e l i e v e t h a t the stories o f T y a d a n d ' A b d a l - M a l i k in the f o r m they have in A b ü Y û s u f e m e r g e d in the m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r d c e n t , i n o r d e r t o b o l s t e r r i v a l a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e t a x rates t o be i m p o s e d o n t h e p e o p l e o f E d e s s a . 2 1 1

K I I A B

A L - K11A

R A J

OF

ABU

YUSUF

I 4 I

M a l i k ' s interest in a d m i n i s t r a t i v e reforms w o u l d constitute a nucleus p r o m o t i n g f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f similar m a t e r i a l .

X

T h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o the city and oasis o f N a j r a n constitutes one m o r e example d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t , precisely in so far as it relates t o the lands o f I r a q ( i . e . those lands that may be presumed to be d i r e c t l y subject t o the tax a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n B a g h d a d ) , all the m a t e r i a l i n the Kildb al-Kharaj is susceptible t o the same i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o c a l and j u r i s t i c materials advocating t r a d i t i o n a l payments and fixed sums w e r e g a t h e r e d , c o n t r o l l e d , and redacted by g o v e r n m e n t agents w h o s u b m i t t e d t h e m to i n t e r p r e t a t i v e arguments designed t o advocate t a x a t i o n at capacity, according t o g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n , and usually i n the f o r m o f a p r o p o r t i o n a l tax. N a j r a n was a C h r i s t i a n settlement in S o u t h e r n I r a q . The people o f this area c l a i m e d t o be the same people as had once lived i n N a j r a n i n Y e m e n . N a j r a n in Y e m e n had p l a y e d a part i n the h i s t o r y o f the Prophet. C l a i m i n g t o be the same p e o p l e , the Christians o f N a j r a n i n I r a q had an excellent basis for the p r o d u c t i o n o f arguments r e l a t i n g to t h e i r tax status. T h e P r o p h e t , it appears, had c o n f i r m e d the people o f N a j r a n ( Y e m e n ) in the possession o f t h e i r lands, subject t o certain c o n d i t i o n s . These c o n d i t i o n s had been specified i n a w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t transferred t o the p e o p l e o f N a j r a n by ' A m r b . H a z m acting as the Prophet's agent. T h i s d o c u m e n t ( o r a copy o f i t ) was n o w (still) i n the possession o f the people o f N a j r a n ( I r a q ) . It stated i n effect t h a t they w e r e freed f r o m all charges on l a n d , a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , and goods, b u t must deliver an a n n u a l p a y m e n t o f a thousand hullas (an article o f c l o t h i n g , p r o b a b l y a simple cloth w r a p p e r ) , whose average value w o u l d be one uqiyya ( o k e ) each. T h e y were also r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e h o s p i t a l i t y for the messengers and agents o f the P r o p h e t ; a n d , i n case o f t r o u b l e i n the Y e m e n , m i g h t be r e q u i r e d to p r o v i d e up to t h i r t y suits o f a r m o u r , t h i r t y horses, and t h i r t y camels t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n m i l i t a r y activities in that area. A n y loss or destruction o f these military supplies w o u l d be compensated by a r e d u c t i o n in the p a y m e n t o f hullas. I n r e t u r n for this, the 2 1

2 1

A b u Y t i s u f , i . 470 IT. F o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r i n the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e Kildb al-Kharaj,

sec Sect. X I I b e l o w .

142

T H E

K1TAK

A L - KM A RAJ

O F

A B U

p e o p l e o f N a j r a n h a d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f G o d (jiwdr g u a r a n t e e o f t h e P r o p h e t (dhimmat

al-nabi)

T H E

Y U S U F

Allah)

a n d the

a s to t h e s e c u r i t y o f

equivalent jizya)

KITA/!

AI.-KHARAJ

of the combined

OF

land-tax

A B U

Y U S U F

a n d poll-tax

¡43

(khardj

and

i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f N a j r a n . T h e p o l l - t a x is d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g s t

their property, their lives, their lands, their dwellings, their mode

adult m a l e s a n d not i m p o s e d o n w o m e n a n d children. The land-tax

a n d their places

is a p p l i c a b l e , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e t h e r t h e l a n d h a s o r h a s not b e e n

of worship, their religion in general,

a n d the

s o l d to M u s l i m s , D h i m m i s , T a g h l a b i s , w o m e n ,

i n d e p e n d e n c e of their bishops a n d other religious dignitaries. ' U m a r h a d t h e s e p e o p l e r e m o v e d f r o m Y e m e n to I r a q , ' b e c a u s e he feared

their influence o n the M u s l i m s — k h d f a - h u m

Muslimln.

O n that

confirming

them

Prophet

'aid

1

occasion,

he issued

in t h e rights that

in his document.

a second

had been

'Umar's

document,

specified

document

7-

by the

contained

M u s l i m governors of Syria

and Iraq,

if a n y p e o p l e

'aid 'ahd rasul Allah

. . . fa-amma

-

al-yawm

fa-la. Now,

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e c o m m e n t s is a r g u a b l y

unclear.

to

tax: t h e y affirmed s i m p l y that t h e p e o p l e of N a j r a n paid an a n n u a l

ba'd,

that the

m a r k e r s ) . T h e first s t a t e d

kdna dhalika

T h e string o f d o c u m e n t s h a d nothing to say about land-tax o r poll-

be

as s e g m e n t

innamd

two

i m p o r t a n t a d d e n d a ( i n t r o d u c e d b y t w o s u c c e s s i v e amma understood

or minors. T h e

d u t y o f h o s p i t a l i t y a n d m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t is n o l o n g e r e f f e c t i v e

of N a j r a n

d o n a t i o n o f 1,000

hullas

of a specific

fixed

value. T h e comment

i m p o s e s t h e v i e w t h a t this fixed p a y m e n t is in fact t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f

passed through their territories, should provide t h e m with agri-

a combined

c u l t u r a l l a n d . T h i s l a n d , if w o r k e d by t h e m , w a s t h e i r s (fa-huwa

d o c u m e n t s a n d m u s t c e r t a i n l y b e s e e n as a part o f t h e u n i f y i n g

la-

land-tax

a n d poll-tax.

T h i s is not i m p l i e d in t h e

it w a s a c h a r i t y g i v e n f o r G o d ' s s a k e a n d a r e c o m p e n s e to

principle w h i c h

h a s effectively

t h e p e o p l e o f N a j r a n f o r t h e i r l a n d ( w h i c h t h e y h a d b e e n f o r c e d to

standard system

of proportional land-tax.

abandon).

N o n e s h o u l d m a k e a c l a i m against t h e m , n o r m a k e

w h e t h e r t h e s e c o m m e n t s a r e i n t e n d e d to i m p l y t h a t , i n p r a c t i c e ,

illegitimate d e m a n d s o n t h e m . T h e s e c o n d a d d e n d u m stated that

and accepting the o n e t h o u s a n d - / u J ' a c l a i m , the people of N a j r a n

a n y M u s l i m s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d to h e l p a p e r s o n f r o m

Najran

m u s t n o w c o n t i n u e to p a y n o t t h e fixed s u m , b u t its e q u i v a l e n t , i . e .

a g a i n s t i n j u s t i c e (zulm),

dhimma.

khardj

hum):

F u r t h e r , t h e i r jizya

for the people o f N a j r a n h a d a

s h o u l d n o t be i m p o s e d

m o n t h s a f t e r a r r i v i n g i n a n a r e a (jizyatu-hum yaqdamu),

f o r a p e r i o d o f 24 matruka

. . . ba'da

an

n o r s h o u l d t h e y b e r e q u i r e d to p a y i n a n y t h i n g e x c e p t

in the cloth w h i c h they m a n u f a c t u r e d . T h i s d o c u m e n t from ' U m a r

p l u s jizya.

brought

most

of Iraq

What

under a

is n o t c l e a r is

P o t e n t i a l l y at l e a s t , g o v e r n m e n t d e m a n d s o f t h i s

k i n d a r e h e r e a n t i c i p a t e d . I a m i n c l i n e d to r e a d t h e c o m m e n t s a s failing o n l y t h r o u g h c l u m s y e x p r e s s i o n to m a k e it c l e a r that t h e c l a i m s o f N a j r a n to c o n t i n u e its t r a d i t i o n a l fixed p a y m e n t o f hullas

1.000

a r e b e i n g r e j e c t e d in f a v o u r of imposition o f the s t a n d a r d

w a s confirmed by letters from ' U t h m a n a n d from ' A l i , e a c h o n e

l a n d - t a x t h r o u g h o u t I r a q p l u s p o l l - t a x o n a d u l t m a l e s . N a j r a n is

r e p e a t i n g that the people of N a j r a n h a d these established rights,

being accommodated

a n d u r g i n g M u s l i m s to a c t t o w a r d s t h e m w i t h j u s t i c e a n d t o h e l p

emerge elsewhere, irrespective of the claims put forward by local

them

communities.

against

injustice;

indeed

'Uthman's

letter

r e d u c t i o n i n t h e i r a n n u a l p a y m e n t s , o f 30 hullas, they h a d suffered

proposes

a

because of what

at t h e h a n d s o f M u s l i m s a n d ' f o r t h e s a k e o f

God'.

to t h e u n i f o r m s y s t e m that w e h a v e

I n a f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , i n t r o d u c e d b y qala Abu addendum

to ' U m a r ' s

document,

Yusuf.

seen

t h e first

i m p l y i n g that t h e p e o p l e o f

N a j r a n m i g h t c u l t i v a t e l a n d i n I r a q a n d S y r i a , free o f t a x a t i o n , is

T h i s excellent story, a c c o m p a n i e d by a string of d o c u m e n t s , all d u l y w i t n e s s e d a n d d a t e d , m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e

d i s c o u n t e d . I f t h e p e o p l e o f N a j r a n b u y khardj N a j r a n ) , t h e y s h o u l d p a y khardj

claims of the people of N a j r a n . It will be evident h o w systematically

khardj

t h e s e d o c u m e n t s w o r k i n t h e i r f a v o u r . T h i s m a t e r i a l is p r e s e n t e d i n

N a j r a n p r e v e n t e d t h i s . T h e c l a i m m a d e in t h e s e c o n d a d d e n d u m to

t h e first h a l f o f t h e c h a p t e r , i n t r o d u c e d b y qala Abu princely

question.

T h e presentation

is f o l l o w e d

c o m m e n t s m a r k e d a g a i n w i t h t h e f o r m u l a qala Abu e x p l a i n t h a t t h e o n e t h o u s a n d hullas

Yusuf by

a

Yusuf.

and a set o f These

a r e to be u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e

a n d jizya

land (sc. outside of

a n d s h o u l d n o t i m a g i n e that t h e

p a y m e n t s (sic) e f f e c t e d f o r t h e l a n d s a n d h e a d s o f

' U m a r ' s d o c u m e n t , n a m e l y t h a t i m m i g r a n t s s h o u l d be r e l i e v e d o f p o l l - t a x f o r u p t o t w e n t y - f o u r m o n t h s is n o t s e p a r a t e l y

addressed

b u t is c e r t a i n l y a l s o to b e u n d e r s t o o d as d i s c o u n t e d . T h e last s e n t e n c e s o f this s e c t i o n a r e as c h a r m i n g as t h e y a r e

144

T H E

KITÂB

A L - KIIA

RAJ

O F

A B U

T H E

Y U S U F

KITÂB

A L - KIIA

RAJ

O F

A B U

145

Y U S U F

o m i n o u s : ' I t is fitting t h a t [ t h e p e o p l e o f N a j r a n J b e t r e a t e d w e l l

of complexity

a n d h o n o u r a b l y , that they s h o u l d be a c c o r d e d the rights of their

K h u r a s a n a r e provided w i t h only the most casual o f references.

dhimma,

L a n d s still m o r e d i s t a n t , s u c h as E g y p t a n d b e y o n d , a r e g i v e n n o

that

that they should not be b u r d e n e d b e y o n d their capacity,

they

should

not be treated

with

i n j u s t i c e , e t c . ' It is t h e

r e f e r e n c e to b u r d e n i n g to c a p a c i t y t h a t r e v e a l s t h e f a m i l i a r h a n d o f

a n d detail only for the lands of Iraq. Syria a n d

m e n t i o n at a l l . T h e A r a b i a n

P e n i n s u l a , though all the relevant

m a t e r i a l s h a v e n o t b e e n p r e s e n t e d h e r e , is a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d , if

the g o v e r n m e n t r e d a c t o r . T h e r e d a c t o r g o e s o n to affirm that t h e y

not w i t h t h e s a m e c a r e f o r d e t a i l as is e v i d e n t in r e s p e c t o f I r a q .

w i l l n o t b e s u b j e c t to c o n s c r i p t i o n o r 'ushr, a n d t h a t a n a g e n t w i l l

The

b e s e n t to c o l l e c t t h e t a x i n t h e i r a r e a — y u b ' a t h ilay-him

j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t , is s u c h a s t o g i v e a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e i r o r i g i n s

him min The

final

manyajbi-

nature

of the d o c u m e n t s ,

biladi-him—etc.

and of the intentions of those

s e c t i o n o f this c h a p t e r g o e s b e y o n d o u r i m m e d i a t e

redacted

them.

Some

a n d their incorporation w h o gathered,

of the materials

within

organized, and

m a y be r e l a t i v e l y o l d ,

c o n c e r n : it d e a l s w i t h t h e l a n d s o f N a j r a n i n t h e Y e m e n . T h e y a r c

expressing a very general sense o f the typology of lands. Most of

to b e u n d e r s t o o d as d e l i v e r e d to t h o s e c u r r e n t l y c u l t i v a t i n g t h e

the m a t e r i a l s ,

l a n d a n d s u b j e c t to a tax o f t w o t h i r d s o n n o n - i r r i g a t e d a n d o n e

s u p p o r t f o r a k n o w n tax s y s t e m at a t i m e w h e n it w a s t h r e a t e n e d

third o n irrigated land.

by p l a n s f o r tax r e f o r m . W h i l e p o s s i b l y i n c o r p o r a t i n g o l d e r v i e w s ,

E x c l u d i n g t h e last i t e m , i n w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t r e d a c t o r t u r n s to a d i f f e r e n t

problem,

r e l a t i n g to c o n t e m p o r a r y

Y e m e n , the

however,

are designed

to p r o v i d e

specific

local

t h e s e c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d as a c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d ad hoc r e c o r d o f local p r a c t i c e , p r o d u c t of a specific time a n d a specific political

w h o l e o f t h i s c h a p t e r c a n b e r e a d as m a d e u p o f m a t e r i a l s w h o s e

situation.

origin a n d organization are parallel to the origins a n d organization

C h r i s t i a n j u r i s t s . A l l o f t h e m h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t to a g o v e r n m e n t -

Some

of

materials

produced

by

inspired

Jazira).

represents

local

claims

a n d is

not only

been

h o m o g e n e o u s l i t e r a r y f o r m s b u t a l s o f o r t h e final i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

of the material

responsible

have

o f o t h e r m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g to t a x a t i o n i n I r a q ( = t h e S a w a d a n d t h e Some

redaction,

these

for the imposition of

a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o u c h e d i n f o r m s o f a r g u m e n t s u i t e d to t h e f a s h i o n s

t h e j u r i s t i c c l a i m s , that i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e i n g a l w a y s s u c h as t o

of the d a y , a n d , m o r e particularly, to the forms a d o p t e d by the

f a v o u r t a x a t i o n at g o v e r n m e n t d i s c r e t i o n , s u b j e c t t o a s s e s s m e n t o f

government.

capacity, a n d usually in the form of a proportional tax. A l l claims

It s e e m s that the p e o p l e o f N a j r a n w e r e marginally

quicker than the people of E d c s s a in discovering for themselves a

to

historical

khardj

role

that

might

constitute

an effective

argument

in

fixed-rate

t a x a t i o n — a n d these are evident in different forms for

l a n d s , f o r t h e qatd'i\

f o r iqta

a n d for N a j r a n — a r e

lands, for the lands of the

matters o f p e r s o n a l taxation ( a n d civil status). O v e r l e a p i n g the

Jazira,

c a n c e l l e d in favour

period of t h e C o n q u e s t , they f o u n d their status g u a r d e d by the

specifying capacity a n d ( e x c e p t in the case of E d c s s a ) p r o p o r t i o n a l

of

arguments

even older a n d m o r e valued events o f the Prophet's lifetime. It d i d

taxation.

n o g o o d . T h e i r a r g u m e n t a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o n t r o l l e d by a

T h i s b o o k m u s t t h e n b e r e c o g n i z e d , i n m o r e o r less its p r e s e n t

government redactor, w h o , accepting their basic c l a i m s , adds only

f o r m , a s t h e p r o d u c t o f a s i n g l e r e d a c t i o n a l effort c a r r i e d o u t o v e r

the e f f e c t i v e g l o s s that t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p a y m e n t o f 1 , 0 0 0 hullas

is a

a l i m i t e d p e r i o d of t i m e , a n d for a specific p u r p o s e . T h e r e a r e

substitute

the

o c c a s i o n a l h i n t s o f l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n s , b u t it is difficult to be s u r e

substitute w o u l d be collected. T h e further claims based o n the

that e v i d e n c e p o i n t i n g i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n is not b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t e d as

a d d e n d a to ' U l n a r ' s d o c u m e n t w e r e discounted.

evidence

f o r khardj

a n d jizya,

implying

that

henceforth

of developments

in thought

and argument

during the

process o f r e d a c t i o n a n d the p r o v i s i o n of c o m m e n t that a c c o m p a n i e d redaction.

XI T h e Kitab

al-Khardj

o f A b u Y û s u f is a c o m p e n d i u m o f d o c u m e n t s

w h i c h , i n s o f a r as t h e y r e l a t e to t h e l a n d - t a x , a c h i e v e a h i g h l e v e l

It is p e r h a p s futile to a t t e m p t j u d g e m e n t s

of such a

n i c e t y . It m a y , h o w e v e r , be a s s e r t e d t h a t , a l t h o u g h the i n d i v i d u a l chapters reveal evidence of remarkable juristic subtlety, mastery

of relevant arguments,

a n d absolute

complete

d e d i c a t i o n to t h e

a c h i e v e m e n t o f a u n i f i e d a n d j u s t i f i e d s y s t e m o f t a x a t i o n in I r a q ,

146

T H E

K I T A B

A /.-KIIA R AJ

OF A B U

Y Ü S U F

T H E

the o r d e r i n g o f c h a p t e r s is m u c h less h a p p y . T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l b e taken up m Section X I [ below. What

w a s the date of the redaction of these materials'' T h e

arguments which I have put forward in Chapters

1 to 5 offer a

number of relevant considerations.

authenticity

o r qala al-Shdfi'ih

Yiisuf

of no significance in assessing the

of attributions.

I n fact,

they

a r e l i k e l y to s i g n a l

r e d a c t i o n p o s t e r i o r to t h e life o f t h e n a m e d a u t h o r i t y . 2. T h e r e a r e n o s e c u r e e x a m p l e s o f a n y w o r k s o f I s l a m i c

bah

redacted before the third o r fourth decades o f the third century. 3- l i r e e a r l i e s t w o r k s s h o w o n l y m a r g i n a l c o n c e r n f o r P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . T e r m i n o l o g i c a l l y , t h e y a r e b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t ra'y demonstrate thought

organic

about

development

problems, founded

a n d s t r u c t u r a l p a r a l l e l s (qiyds) 4- S y s t e m a t i c

promotion

o f the law through

and

logical

on consideration of category

of M a l i k , transmitted through

A real systematic interest in hermeneutic argument based o n

a p p e a l to P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h c a n h a r d l y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r the H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n p r i o r to t h e c o r p u s o f w o r k s a s c r i b e d to A h m a d b M u h a m m a d a l - T a h a w i ( d . 321), i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Kitdb

w o r k i n g in E g y p t .

Ahkdrn

al-waqf

However

the

of A b u B a k r A h m a d b

U m a r a l - K h a s s a f ( d . 26 F ) c o n s i s t s o f P r o p h e t i c a n d C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h h i e r a r c h i c a l l y r a n k e d , w i t h P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h p r o m o t e d to initial p o s i t i o n . 6. T h e

Hanafis

produced

a

bundle

of

works

relating

to

administrative matters in the middle years of the third century Two

of the more

Ahkam

al-Waqf.

significant

o f these were

T h e first o f t h e s e ,

the works

entitled

ascribed to Hilal

al-Ra'y

( d . 245) c o n t a i n s n o s y s t e m a t i c a p p e a l , i n d e e d n o a p p e a l o f a n v kind,

to

Prophetic

precedent.

described a n d attributed

Kitdb Adab

T h e second

to K h a s s a f .

is t h e w o r k

ius't

K h a s s a f also produced

a

al-Khardj

classified w i t h the other H a n a f i administrative d o c u m e n t s then the p e r i o d 2 4 0 - 6 0 is l i k e l y . I n t e r n a l l y a n d o f itself t h e w o r k offers f e w clues. The

Fihrist

of I b n al-Nadim

a n d later

Hanafi

biographical

waqf

a n d j u d i c i a l office, p r o d u c e d a Kitdb al-Khardj

of the A b b a s i d C a l i p h a l - M u h t a d i .

2 2

at t h e r e q u e s t

A l - M u h t a d I r e i g n e d for o n l y

o n e y e a r f r o m 255 to 256. N o w , if A b ü Y û s u f h a d p r o d u c e d p r i o r to 182 t h e b o o k t h a t w e n o w k n o w as t h e Kitdb

al-Khardj

in t h e

f o r m w e n o w h a v e it a n d w i t h t h e s u b t l e t y that w e h a v e r e c o g n i z e d i n i t , t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n little n e e d f o r a n o t h e r c a l l f r o m t h e C a l i p h to a faqlh

to p r o d u c e a n o t h e r s u c h w o r k . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , if t h e C a l i p h a l - M u h t a d i s u m m o n e d

Khaşşâf

to

produce

such a w o r k , then he might well have produced a work

which

called u p o n the authority of A b ü Yûsuf. T h e r e w a s an obvious f o r m o f t h e b o o k is n o t s u r p r i s i n g f o r a p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e m i d d l e t h i r d c e n t u r y ; a n d it is e q u a l l y u n s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e b o o k ,

once

by

A b ü Yûsuf.

T h e Kitdb

al-Khardj

of A b ü Y û s u f

is, then,

possibly, a w o r k of Khaşşâf. T h e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d , i n so far as it c a n b e k n o w n from the e x t r e m e l y n a r r o w focus of the m a j o r annalists (in practice limited

to T a b a r i

and Mas'üdî),

suggests

a very

appropriate

background for the production of a w o r k w h i c h has the character­ istics

displayed

by

the

Kitdb

al-Khardj.

Under

the

Caliphs

M u s t a ' i n (248-52) a n d M u ' t a z z (252-5), the annalists present a picture

of

courtly

intrigue,

faction,

and competing

Turkish

generals. T h e s e caliphs were weak and incompetent, a n d without p o w e r , p o l i c y o r w i l l . M u ' t a z z w a s f o r c e d to r e s i g n f r o m office i n favour of M u h t a d i by the T u r k i s h generals, l e d by Şâlih b. W a s i f , and

w a s k i l l e d s e v e r a l d a y s l a t e r . T h e r e a s o n f o r this c h a n g e o f

c a l i p h , e n g i n e e r e d b y t h e T u r k i s h t r o o p s , w a s that they m o n e y a n d the treasury w a s e m p t y .

2 3

wanted

A c c o r d i n g to T a b a r i , t h e

s i t u a t i o n h a d b e e n ' m o v i n g t o w a r d s t h e d i s a s t r o u s for s o m e t i m e .

al-qddi.

I f t h e s e p o i n t s a r e a c c e p t e d a n d c o n s i d e r e d to b e r e l e v a n t , t h e n t h e Kitdb

147

Y U S U F

p r o d u c e d , s h o u l d g e n e r a t e , o f i t s e l f , t h e m y t h t h a t it w a s a u t h o r e d

Y a h y a b . Y a h y a . T h a t b o o k e m e r g e d c.270. 5-

O F A B U

f e l i c i t y i n a s c r i b i n g to h i m s y s t e m a t i c o p i n i o n s o n t a x a t i o n . T h e

w i t h i n t h e legal s y s t e m .

o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h h a s o n e o f its

e a r l i e s t r e a l i z a t i o n s i n t h e Muwatta'

A L-KHARAJ

s o u r c e s a f f i r m t h a t K h a ş ş â f , i n a d d i t i o n to h i s k n o w n w o r k s o n

1. T h e u s e o f f o r m u l a i c p h r a s e s o f t h e t y p e qala Abu quia Malik,

K I T A B

is m o s t l i k e l y to b e l o n g to t h e m i d d l e d e c a d e s

of the third century. Its systematic promotion of Prophetic hadith s u g g e s t s t h a t w e m u s t l o o k to t h e y e a r s after 240.

I f it m a y be

2 2

S e z g i n . Geschichte,

i . 436-8; A b ü 1 - F a r a j M u h a m m a d I b n a l - N a d i m ,

Tihrist,

259 ( E n g . t r „ 509-10); Q u r a s h i , Jawdhir. i . 87-8; L a k n a w l , Tawaid, 29. Alı h al-Husayn al-Mas'üdî, Munij. iv. 144-97: the resignation ami death o l Mu'tazz, 178 ff'. Sec, for an overview of the period, Hugh Kennedy, The Trophel and the age of the caliphates, 171-5. 2 3

148

THE

K I T A B AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

THE

KıTÂB

AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U

149

Y U S U F

I n t h e y e a r 252, h e s t a t e s , t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e s t i p e n d s (arzaq)

of the

d e m a n d s to m a k e as w e l l . T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , as p r e s e n t e d b y

Turks,

(three

T a b a r i , t o o k t h e f o r m o f a d e c o r o u s to a n d f r o o f l e t t e r s t h r o u g h

the Westerners

(Maghâriba),

a n d the Shâkiriyya

s e p a r a t e m i l i t i a s ) w a s e s t i m a t e d at m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d m i l l i o n

intermediaries,

dinars,

clearly extremely

years.

w h i c h w a s t h e kharaj

2 4

income

of the kingdom

for two

I n the following year, the T u r k s , the Farâghina, a n d the

Ushrüsiniyya

(incorporating two m i n o r , probably T u r k i s h , militias)

rioted, demanding

t h e i r arzaq

for the previous

four

months.

2 5

the brothers

of the caliph.

threatening, however,

T h e situation w a s

for the inability of the

c a l i p h a n d h i s T u r k i s h g e n e r a l s to act a g a i n s t t h e s e mawâlî

t h e m , c o n c e d i n g every single n e w petition, until, having placated

U n d e r M u h t a d i , t h i n g s i m p r o v e d , at l e a s t i n o n e r e s p e c t , t h a t t h i s

t h e mawall,

c a l i p h h a d p e r s o n a l i t y , p o l i c y , a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n . H e is p r e s e n t e d

control. T h e r e h a d b e e n a mutiny of some k i n d .

as s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y

situation

abstemious a n d careful about

finances.

He

26

WAS s u c h

that they r e p e a t e d l y offered to do exactly w h a t w a s d e m a n d e d of they

proved

were

a b l e to g a t h e r

no long-term

loyal

advantage

troops

and regain

R e s o l v i n g this

to the c a l i p h , w h o

adopted a high-profile religious policy, throwing out the singers

e v e n t u a l l y o v e r r e a c h e d h i m s e l f i n h i s a t t e m p t to d i v i d e a n d c o n q u e r

and

the T u r k i s h g e n e r a l s . H e w a s i g n o m i n i o u s l y k i l l e d .

the singing-girls a n d a b a n d o n i n g the g a m e s , the frivolity, a n d

the w i l d - b e a s t spectacles that h a d p l e a s e d his i m m e d i a t e p r e d e c e s ­ s o r s . H e r e i n s t i t u t e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f h o l d i n g rnazâlim which

he himself

sat before

the public,

giving

c o u r t s , at

judgement.

2 7

M a s ' ü d i asserts that h e b a n n e d the d r i n k i n g of w i n e , m a d e a s h o w of justice, l e d F r i d a y prayer in the mosque a n d gave the

khutba,

the F r i d a y s e r m o n , himself. T h e people consequently b e c a m e fed u p w i t h t h e sight o f h i m a n d t o o k p a r t i n t h e e v e n t s t h a t l e d to h i s being k i l l e d .

2 8

l i e b r o u g h t t h e 'ulama'

t h e s t a t u s o f t h e fuqaha",

into his e n t o u r a g e ,

and treated them with civility.

2 9

raised Neither

T a b a r i n o r M a s u d i g i v e d e t a i l s a s to h o w this p o l i c y w o r k e d . T h e r e a d i n g o f T a b a r i a n d M a s u d i is n o less difficult a t a s k t h a n t h e r e a d i n g o f A b ü Y ü s u f s Kitâb

al-Kharaj.

d e s p e r a t e f o r m o r e i n c o m e a n d a c a l i p h h a d a c h i e v e d office w h o s e g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e is c o m p a t i b l e about

w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n that h e d i d

it a n d t h a t h i s a c t i o n s w o u l d

be justified by

a p p e a l to r e l i g i o u s l y o r i e n t e d a r g u m e n t . T a b a r i is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y interested in tax-collecting initiatives, but, in the course of the c o m p l e x e v e n t s l e a d i n g to t h e d e a t h o f M u h t a d i , h e r e v e a l s t h a t there h a d been

financial

i n n o v a t i o n s , t h e d e t a i l s o f w h i c h , it m u s t

be a d m i t t e d , a r e far f r o m c l e a r . It s e e m s t h a t i n t h e m o n t h o f Ş a f a r , i n t h e y e a r 256, t h e

mawall

of K a r k h a n d D u r , two districts in S a m a r r a , d e m a n d e d c o m m u n ­ i c a t i o n w i t h t h e c a l i p h . T h e y w i s h e d , o f c o u r s e , to p r o f e s s

their

u n d y i n g a l l e g i a n c e to t h e e l e c t e d c a l i p h , b u t h a d a n u m b e r o f 2 4

?

Ta'nkh. 1685. 1736. ~

M u h a m m a d b. Jarir al-Tabarî, l b l d

- '720 .

"'' I b i d .

189.

2

7

Ibid.

2K

t h e y r e l a t e to

1687. M a s ' ü d î . Mitruj. i v . 183. 2 5

Ibid.

w h i c h a r c of present

financial

matters, the following

p o i n t s a r e to b e

noted: 1.

t h e s t i p e n d s o f t h e mawall

were

2. w o m e n a n d n e w c o m e r s (dukhalâ') t h u s u s i n g u p t h e kharaj 3.

still i n a r r e a r s ; were being given stipends,

i n c o m e ; this s h o u l d b e s t o p p e d ;

the organization of military payments h a d been changed since the days of M u s t a ' i n ; the changes s h o u l d be r e s c i n d e d ;

4.

allotments

(iqtâ'ât)

were

being

c a u s i n g f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e i n kharàj

H o w e v e r , the picture

is a d e q u a t e to e s t a b l i s h t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t : t h e c a l i p h a l c o u r t w a s

something

I t is t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e r e v o l t i n g mawâll

i n t e r e s t . T a b a r i lists t h e i r d e m a n d s o n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s . I n s o f a r a s

made

to

military

leaders,

income; these too should be

rescinded; 5.

t a x - f a r m i n g c o n c e s s i o n s (qabâla) this s h o u l d be s t o p p e d .

w e r e b e i n g m a d e to

mawâlî;

3 0

it is n o t b y a n y m e a n s e a s y to w o r k o u t p r e c i s e l y w h a t s o c i a l a n d political situation lies b e h i n d this string of c o m p l a i n t s .

Clearly

t h e r e h a d b e e n i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e financial s y s t e m a f f e c t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f kharaj.

T h e mawâlî

both

w a n t e d to

go b a c k t o t h e d a y s o f M u s t a ' i n ( d . 252), w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e changes w e r e recent, beginning in the short reign of M u ' t a z z . T h e government financial

was engaged

reforms

which,

i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e mawâlî

in a number whether

of administrative a n d

correctly

or not, had been

of K a r k h a n d D u r a s c a u s i n g a d i l u t i o n

of t h e i r i n c o m e a n d a d i m i n u t i o n i n t h e i r p r e s t i g e . T h e d e t a i l s a r e d i f f i c u l t , p e r h a p s i m p o s s i b l e , to r e c o v e r . T h e p o i n t o f i m m e d i a t e r e l e v a n c e is t h e e v i d e n c e o f w h o l e s a l e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e Tabari,

Ta'nkh, 1796, 1798-9.

financial

150

T H E KITAB

A L-KHARAJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

s y s t e m , w h i c h is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e Kitâb Kharâj

al-

during the reign o f M u h t a d l . A l l the points of concern

a r t i c u l a t e d b y t h e mawall a u t h o r o f t h e Kitâb

c o r r e s p o n d to points o f c o n c e r n to the

al-Kharâj

(for those not already c o v e r e d , s e e

Sect. X I I , b e l o w ) . Also

relevant

KITAB

A L - KHAR

A J

O F A B U Y U S U F

r e c o g n i z e d a s r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e Kitdb (pseudo)

A b u Yusuf.

I n both

works,

151

al-Khardj

C o n q u e s t s a n d the treaties that brought hostilities to an e n d s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d as bearers o f ideological a n d juristic messages. s h o u l d b e r e a d less f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y p r o v i d e

to t h e a r g u m e n t

t h a t t h e Kitâb

al-Kharâj

was

of

the stories of the A r a b They

aboul the

p e r i o d o f the C o n q u e s t s (surely limited) t h a n for their reflection o f

p r o d u c e d i n t h e r e i g n o f M u h t a d l is t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n

ideological structures a n d juristic arguments i n the third century.

of i n t e r e s t . T h e focus o f interest w a s i n I r a q b e c a u s e that w a s t h e

T h e a t t e m p t to r e c o n s t r u c t f r o m this k i n d o f m a t e r i a l a picture o f

area directly controlled from B a g h d a d .

t h e s o c i a l a n d financial s i t u a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e C o n q u e s t

A secondary interest in

the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a is e x p l a i n e d by t h e fact that that w a s t h e

is s u r e l y a n a c t o f a c a d e m i c f u t i l i t y . N o a m o u n t o f c o m m o n s e n s e ,

t r a d i t i o n a l a p a n a g e o f t h e h i g h e s t r a n k i n g r e l a t i v e s o f t h e c a l i p h ; it

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e c o u l d d i s c e r n t h e c o r e o f t r u t h that

was a l s o , o f c o u r s e , source a n d focus o f their religious prestige.

lies b e h i n d these s t o r i e s , w h i c h a c h i e v e d their present form

T h e further extremes of the Islamic E m p i r e were controlled by

t h a n t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s a f t e r t h e e v e n t s t h e y p u r p o r t to d e s c r i b e ,

independent dynasties.

Syria a n d the Iranian

plateau were

still

in a n a t m o s p h e r e o f d o u b t a n d d i s p u t e , w h e r e e v e r y f r a g m e n t o f a

nominally under the control o f the caliph but tax collection w a s

story

might

become

the vehicle of a contemporary

completely

government

reforms

reflected

under

the control

p o s t e d to these a r e a s . al-Kharâj,

3 1

h a d ceased

of whatever

military

agent w a s

B a s r a , d i s m i s s e d i n a s e n t e n c e in the to b e g o v e r n e d

from

Baghdad

Kitâb

with the

more

i n t h e Kitdb

claim. T h e

al-Khardj

were

new

policies, justified b y m a n i p u l a t i o n o f stories about the distant past. T h e basic c o m p o n e n t s o f these stories n o doubt h a d already c o m e

revolt o f the Z a n j early in the reign of M u h t a d l . ( A t n o p e r i o d

to

p r i o r to this c o u l d B a s r a h a v e b e e n a m a t t e r o f indifference to t h e

o w n s a k e o r m a n i p u l a t e d as a m e a n s of defending o r justifying

tax-collecting authorities of B a g h d a d . )

c u s t o m a r y p r a c t i c e s . T h e r e is n o doubt w h a t s o e v e r that c u s t o m a r y

It m a y , fairly safely Kharâj

of A b u Yûsuf

Samarra

in the years

astonishingly

detailed

I t h i n k , b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e Kitâb is a p r o d u c t 255-6.

of the political situation i n

Used

a n d lively

al-

with

picture

care,

it p r o v i d e s a n

of the

i n local legend, w h e r e they might be e n j o y e d for their

practice

a n d its m o d e s

o f justification

h a d developed

i n the

p r e v i o u s t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s , a n d that a c o r r e s p o n d i n g multiplicity of stories h a d c o m e into existence.

and,

I t is n o t s u g g e s t e d h e r e that t h e s e stories w e r e totally s u b o r d i n a t e

i n d e e d , m o r e broadly, of the social situation i n I r a q i n the middle

to t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t a x d i s c u s s i o n s . T h e r e is m u c h p l e a s u r e t o b e

years o f the third century.

derived from a good battle, a n d a good story-teller will k n o w h o w

T h e h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Kitâb read

for what

arguments.

it t e l l s

us about

w o r k o f B a l a d h u r i , t h e Futüh to

the middle

decades

al-Kharâj

contemporary

S i m i l a r m a t e r i a l is m a d e al-Buldân.

o f the third

financial

figure

must be

attitudes a n d

available i n the historical T h i s w o r k , w h i c h belongs century,

should

n o w be

to m a n i p u l a t e e v e n t s t o p l e a s e h i s a u d i e n c e . B a l a d h u r i w a s a c o u r t historian.

to w h i c h

he organized

his material

were

rule:

the Conquests

were

centrally organized,

by a

legitimate

succession o f caliphs, w h o w e r e the legitimate antecedents of the present

T a b a r î reports that w h e n M u ' t a z z was deposed a n d M u h t a d l came t o p o w e r , t h e T u r k i s h g e n e r a l i n R a y y , f e a r f u l f o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f these i n t r i g u e s , d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n w i t h his a r m y t o S a m a r r a . B u t he n e e d e d m o n e y . A c c o r d i n g l y , h e i n i t i a t e d a d v a n c e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r ' s kharâj—much t o t h e disgust o f the l o c a l p e o p l e , w h o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e y p a i d kharâj i n o r d e r t o secure m i l i t a r y p r o t e c t i o n , w h e r e a s h e w a s c o l l e c t i n g i t i n o r d e r t o a b a n d o n t h e m a n d so d e p r i v e t h e m o f m i l i t a r y p r o t e c t i o n . T h e g e n e r a l , M ü s â b . B u g h a , w a s u n w o r r i e d b y these complaints. H e was clearly i n complete independent control o f collection a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f taxes i n t h e area o f R a y y . T a b a r î , Ta'rlkh, 1738-9. 3 1

T h e ends

diverse b u t certainly included t h e justification o f A r a b , caliphal

justify

incumbents;

their

victories,

symbol

of C o d ' s

favour,

t h e present position of the caliph a n d his tax-collecting

initiatives. I n a subtly different f o r m , a n d over a n a r r o w e r range o f m a t e r i a l , t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t w a s b e i n g a r t i c u l a t e d in t h e Kitdb Khardj.

al-

( T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u c h m a t e r i a l just at a p e r i o d w h e n

c a l i p h a l p o w e r w a s w a n i n g is a r e l e v a n t

observation—legitimacy,

not p o w e r , h a d b e c o m e t h e i s s u e . ) S o m e fifty y e a r s l a t e r , T a b a r i inherited a vast, c o m p l e x set o f n a r r a t i v e s — t h e fossilized remains

152

T H E Kl TÂB

AL-KHARAJ

O F A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

K1TÂR

A L - K II A RAJ

O F A B U

of two h u n d r e d years of functioning, primarily oral, n a r r a t i v e —

20. O n t h e r e n t i n g o f l a n d

a n d c r e a t e d from this a history o f early I s l a m . M o d e r n historians

21.

h a v e a s y e t m a d e little p r o g r e s s i n d i s c e r n i n g w h a t p r i n c i p l e s h e

22.

O n canals, wells, rivers, a n d irrigation

brought to b e a r i n o r g a n i z i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g this m a t e r i a l .

23.

O n hayfields a n d m e a d o w

(ijara)

O n i s l a n d s in t h e T i g r i s a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s lands

24. O n t a x - f a r m i n g i n t h e S a w a d , e t c . 25.

XII this section

I will

provide

a complete

overview

c h a p t e r s r e l a t i n g t o l a n d a n d l a n d - t a x i n t h e Kitâb

of all the

al-Kharàj.

It will

be c o n v e n i e n t to re-present a n d e x t e n d t h e original set o f nine chapters, presented in Section

I V . T h e chapter-headings

here a r e , with s o m e minor contractions, those provided

given in t h e

printed editions.

1. O n fay ' a n d

kharàj

2.

O n what w a s done in the S a w à d

3.

O n Syria a n d the Jazira

27. O n 'ushur 28. O n c h u r c h e s , r e l i g i o u s b u i l d i n g s , a n d c r o s s e s Floating chapters: Fi.

O n w h a t is t a k e n f r o m t h e s e a

F2.

O n m i n e s , treasure-trove, etc.

F3.

O n honey, walnuts, almonds, etc.

a n d F3 b e t w e e n c h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6. I n B u l a q , F i a n d F3 c o m e

1,

after

c h a p t e r 14; F2 is w i t h o u t a s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r - h e a d i n g a n d f o r m s a n

Companions

integral e l e m e n t w i t h i n the c h a p t e r p r e c e d i n g this g r o u p .

W h a t s h o u l d be done in the S a w â d [ 5 ( 1 ) . T h e kharàj

These

lands

5(2). T h e qatâ'i'] 6. O n t h e qatâ'i' 7.

jizya

[ T w o c h a p t e r s o n the social status of D h i m m i s ]

In R a h b i , F i a n d ¡ 2 a r e s i t u a t e d i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e c h a p t e r

4. H o w A b u B a k r a n d ' U m a r d i s t r i b u t e d [ s t i p e n d s e t c . ] to t h e 5.

(taqbil)

O n the C h r i s t i a n s of the B a n i T a g h l i b , etc.

26. O n t h o s e s u b j e c t t o In

153

Y U S U F

chapters

are probably

fully

comprehensive

in their

provision o f detail as to m o d e s o f l a n d h o l d i n g a n d taxation in the m i d d l e o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y in I r a q , less detailed o n t h e A r a b i a n

O n the H i j a z , M a k k a , M a d i n a , the Y e m e n , a n d the land of

Peninsula, a n d totally inadequate for other areas. W e have seen

the

that t h e r e d a c t o r is i n c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f h i s m a t e r i a l a n d h a s a

Arabs

8. T h e K h a w â r i j

p u r p o s e f u l a n d c o h e r e n t a p p r o a c h to t h e e d i t i n g o f a l l i m p o r t a n t

9(1).

sections a n d c h a p t e r s . N o n e t h e less there are c h a p t e r s w h i c h s h o w

Basra and Khurasan

[9(2). 10.

little o r n o s i g n o f h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e . T w o s u c h a r e c h a p t e r s 10 a n d

Iqtâ']

O n t h e s u b m i s s i o n o f p e o p l e o f t h e ahl al-harb,

etc. (Passage

14 ( P a s s a g e A a n d P a s s a g e B ) . I t is t r u e t h e y c o n t a i n n o t h i n g o f

A)

g r e a t i m p o r t , a n d e v e r y t h i n g t h e y d o c o n t a i n is d e a l t w i t h m o r e

11.

D e a d lands etc.

c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y e l s e w h e r e . C h a p t e r 13 is o f a s i m i l a r t y p e : it t o o

12.

O n the ruling i n relation to

13.

T h e people

of the villages

contains a presentation of the basic typology

murtadds a n d lands; t h e cities a n d their

the l a n d s c o n q u e r e d b y f o r c e . T h e s e c h a p t e r s a r c r e p e t i t i v e a n d

people 14. 15.

D e f i n i t i o n s o f 'ushr

17. 18. 19.

a n d kharàj

not w e l l - p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e b u n d l e o f c h a p t e r s r e l a t i n g to t a x a t i o n

land (Passage B )

and landholding.

T h e s t o r y o f N a j r a n a n d its p e o p l e

16. O n

sadaqât

T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f i n a d e q u a t e systematic-

O n r e f u s a l t o p a y sadaqât O n increases

of land, and an

a s s e s s m e n t o f ' U m a r ' s fateful d e c i s i o n to i m m o b i l i z e , n o t d i s t r i b u t e ,

c o n t r o l o v e r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c h a p t e r s . F a i l u r e to d i s c o v e r t h e

a n d o n its d i s t r i b u t i o n

a n d decreases

a n d o n the agricultural

land

c o r r e c t o r a n y d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n 9(1) a n d 9(2) is o n e e x a m p l e . T h e

(diyâ ')

discussion

of

O n t h e s e l l i n g o f fish f r o m t h e s w a m p s

disjointed.

I n o r d e r to get a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n it is

the basic

category

of

kharaj

lands

in

Iraq

is

154

T H E

KITAB

A L - K I 1 A R A J

O F

A B U

Y U S U F

T H E

KITAB

A I.-KHARAJ

O F

A B U

155

Y U S U F

n e c e s s a r y t o r e a d c h a p t e r 2 i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c h a p t e r 5(1) a n d

t h e r e f o r e b e n o difficulty i n k e e p i n g s e p a r a t e sadaqat

the first p a r t o f c h a p t e r 18 ( s e e a b o v e , S e c t i o n V ) . T h e l a s t p a r t o f

T h e r u l e i m p l i e s s i m p l y t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r o f the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a

c h a p t e r 18 s p e c i f i e s t h e d u t i e s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s o f t a x - c o l l e c t o r s , i n

has independent

h i g h l y m o r a l t e r m s : la yahillu

r e v e n u e to t h e c e n t r a l t r e a s u r y i n S a m a r r a . T h e f a v o u r a b l e tax

li-wali

al-kharaj

an . . . H e r e , t h e

control of his

finances,

and

kharaj.

remitting none of his

s i t u a t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r , its h e a d i n g , a n d its p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e t a i l

r e g i m e a c c o r d e d to t h e P e n i n s u l a reflects i n p a r t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d

all s e e m i n a d e q u a t e .

difficulties

An

obvious

d e s i d e r a t u m is t h a t t h e r u l e s r e l a t i n g t o I r a q b e

in controlling

the area

but, more

s o , its s p e c i a l

l e g i t i m i z i n g r o l e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e c a l i p h a t e . It

s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h o s e r e l a t i n g to t h e A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a . T h e l a t t e r

w a s o f s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e that the A r a b caliph o f

a r e a h a s s p e c i a l t a x - s t a t u s , b e i n g s u b j e c t to

sadaqat/'ushr/zakdt,

ruling over the A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g a n d ideally M u s l i m communities

Baghdad,

three terms largely interchangeable. T h e r e are also special rules

of the N e a r E a s t , should also control A r a b i a . A r a b and M u s l i m :

g o v e r n i n g r e v o l t s , r e b e l s , a n d w a r f a r e i n that a r e a . I n o r d e r to g e t

t h e t w o i d e o l o g i e s m e t i n A r a b i a . T h e e x t r e m e d i s t a s t e felt for t h e

a n o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e s e r u l e s , o n e n e e d s first t h e g e n e r a l

B a n l T a g h l i b , a n A r a b C h r i s t i a n t r i b e ( c h a p t e r 2 5 ) , reflects t h e

t y p o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d at c h a p t e r s 10, 13, a n d 14.

More

same ideological conviction. A r a b s (tribal a n d P e n i n s u l a r ) ought

d e t a i l s a r e p r e s e n t e d at c h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8. T h e l a t t e r c h a p t e r is o n l y

to b e M u s l i m s . T h a t w a s w h y t h e i r l a n d s — t h e i r a b o r i g i n a l l a n d s —

a f e w l i n e s l o n g a n d s p e c i f i e s s i m p l y that t h e K h a w a r i j h a v e e r r e d

c o u l d n o t b e s u b j e c t to kharaj,

in t r e a t i n g ' A r a b '

'ushr,

villages like n o n - A r a b

villages; their practice

s y m b o l o f s u b m i s s i o n , b u t o n l y to

s y m b o l o f b e l o n g i n g to t h e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h a t t o o

d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e v a l i d p r e c e d e n t . T h e r e f e r e n c e is p r o b a b l y to

w a s w h y murtadds—in

the s p o r a d i c e m e r g e n c e

p u n i s h m e n t s . T h e loyalty that the caliph d e m a n d e d w a s based o n

o f i n d e p e n d e n t g o v e r n o r s i n that

r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e e v e n t s o f ' A l l ' s t i m e (pace covers

the rules

of warfare

Peninsula. Chapter

16

against

rebels

d e a l s w i t h sadaqat

area,

Rahbl). Chapter (murtadds)

12

in t h e

o n flocks a n d herds.

his

Arab

descent

ideological mawdli,

claims

the P e n i n s u l a — w e r e subject to exemplary

a n d his high recognized

status

even

in Islam.

by

imported

These troops,

were the

a n d could hardly be sustained without control of A r a b i a .

C h a p t e r 17 c o n t i n u e s t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f this t a x , i . e . t h e u n i q u e t a x

It s h o u l d n o t b e i m a g i n e d t h a t t h e t a x - s t a t u s a c c o r d e d to A r a b i a i n

system

t h e Kitab

o f the Peninsula, with

rather

generalized

a g a i n s t r e f u s a l to p a y , a n d o t h e r s u b j e c t s . Inter alia,

injunctions t h e c a l i p h is

al-Khardj

w a s o n e o f g r e a t a n t i q u i t y . C h a p t e r 8, O n t h e

K h a w a r i j , w a s d e s i g n e d to d e a l w i t h t h e fact t h a t r e c e n t h i s t o r y

a d v i s e d to c h o o s e a r e l i a b l e m a n to o v e r s e e t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f

did n o t reflect

sadaqat,

I d e o l o g i c a l l y t h e r e f o r m w a s e x p r e s s e d as a r e t u r n , to t h e p r a c t i c e

to e n s u r e that there s h o u l d be n o m i x i n g of

i n c o m e a n d kharaj

i n c o m e , a n d to d i s b u r s e t h e sadaqat

sadaqat

income in

a c c o r d w i t h 0.9:60. T h e discussion of the Q u r a n i c eight categories is j u r i s t i c a l l y n e a t , d i s p l a y i n g a d e q u a t e

coverage of everything,

a n d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c final d e f e r e n c e to t h e n e e d s o f t h e s t a t e . O f t h e r e c i p i e n t c a t e g o r i e s , t h e first to r e c e i v e f r o m r e v e n u e a r e t h e t a x collectors.

T h e second

is t h e c a t e g o r y

fi

sabil

Allah,

u n d e r s t o o d t o r e f e r to t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f r o u t e s (islah muslimin).

here

turuq

al-

( T h e reference is p r o b a b l y to the m a j o r c a r a v a n routes

to M a k k a a n d M a d i n a . ) P r o v i s i o n f o r t h e p o o r c o m e s t h i r d a n d should be dealt with locally. W i t h the surplus, the i m a m m a y do what

h e l i k e s as l o n g as h e d i s t r i b u t e s w i t h i n t h e Q u r a n i c a l l y

specified

categories.

to a n e a r

relation

t h a t w a s n o w g i v e n to t h e a r e a .

o f t h e C o m p a n i o n s . I n f a c t , it w a s n e w . A

general

survey

of material

relating

of the reigning

caliph.

There

would

t o t h e P e n i n s u l a is

c o n s i d e r a b l y e a s i e r t h a n a s i m i l a r s u r v e y o f m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g to Iraq.

This

reflects

both

inadequacies

in organization

and the

c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g to I r a q . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e last feature

I have

already

suggested:

Iraq

w a s d i r e c t l y s u b j e c t to

caliphal g o v e r n m e n t , w a s therefore the primary source o f caliphal i n c o m e . I n t h a t a r e a , a n d o n l y i n t h a t a r e a , d o e s t h i s b o o k reflect a deliberate

a n d systematic

collecting

and analysis

of

juristic

m a t e r i a l s . M i s c e l l a n e o u s a n d r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r m a t e r i a l is g a t h e r e d at c h a p t e r s 19, 2 1 , 22, 23, a n d i n t h e floating c h a p t e r s . T h e r u l i n g s o n t h e r e v i v a l o f d e a d l a n d s at c h a p t e r 11

In practice, control of the Peninsula was traditionally handed over

the tax-status

have some

systematic

and s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e . Systematically they a r c related to the d i s c u s s i o n s o f iqtd' ( s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s a n d a r g u m e n t s a r e e x t e n d e d

156 to

THE

cover

the

Symbolically,

KITAB

cases they

Al,-KHARAJ

of

OE

islands etc.,

confirm

h a n d of the redactor. A

again

ABU

YUSUF

presented

THE

in chapter

2i).

the characteristic controlling

r u l e , p r o b a b l y of l o c a l a n d t r a d i t i o n a l

o r i g i n s , is p r e s e n t e d , n a m e l y t h a t w h e n a m a n r e v i v e s d e a d l a n d , it

KITAB

OF

ABU

YUSUF

w e a v i n g t h a t p r o d u c e d t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l m a s t e r p i e c e in t h e s e r v i c e of c a l i p h a l a b s o l u t i s m . The

tax-farming chapter

finishes

up with general advice

about

the a p p o i n t m e n t of suitable a n d reliable tax-agents a n d a passage

is h i s . T h i s is o v e r l a i d by t h e a s s e r t i o n that t h e i m a m m a y g i v e

in w h i c h t h e r e d a c t o r

d e a d l a n d s a s iqtä',

tnazâlim

o r o t h e r w i s e d o w h a t he l i k e s w i t h t h e m ; a n d

AL-KHARAJ

urges

t h e c a l i p h to sit r e g u l a r l y

in t h e

c o u r t i n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e e d s of t h e p e o p l e a n d

t h e r u l e o f p o s s e s s i o n o n r e v i v a l is s u b j e c t to t h e p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e

in o r d e r to s e c u r e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f

i m a m . ( I n the Shäfi'I tradition we find o n e of n u m e r o u s r e a s s e r t i o n s

agents

o f a l e s s s e r v i l e a t t i t u d e to t h e g o v e r n m e n t : if a M u s l i m r e v i v e s

t h o u g h w h e t h e r e f f e c t i v e l y o r n o t is u n k n o w n . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n

and

governors.

Muhtadi,

we

have

s e e n , did just

this,

d e a d l a n d it is h i s , a n d T d o n o t c a r e w h e t h e r t h e S u l t a n g r a n t s it

to d o u b t t h a t t h e r e d a c t o r / a u t h o r g e n u i n e l y b e l i e v e d that a b s o l u t e

[ f o r m a l l y ] o r n o t ' — w a - I ä ubäli

g o v e r n m e n t by a n i m a m o r c a l i p h , a c t i n g i n a c c o r d w i t h p i e t y , h i g h

yu'ti-hi.y

a'tä-hu

iyyä-hu

al-sultßn

aw

lam

C h a p t e r 20 r e l a t e s to t h e s h a r e - c r o p p i n g c o n t r a c t o f

muzära

'a.

33

Chapter

principles,

24

deals with tax-farming

(qabäla,

taqbll),

i.e.

the

systematic

stewardship

would

be

an

effective

to t h e t i m e s .

system w h e r e b y the i m a m gives an a r e a into the h a n d s of a n agent o r a m i l i t a r y officer for a fixed p e r i o d of t i m e i n r e t u r n for a sum

and

m e a n s , p e r h a p s t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e m e a n s , of p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l s u i t e d C h a p t e r 26 e s t a b l i s h e s t h e t h r e e - t i e r jizya,

c h a p t e r 27 d e a l s w i t h

fixed

customs duties c h a r g e d on goods transported along the roads, and

o f m o n e y , l e a v i n g t h e m in effect to e x t r a c t w h a t t h e y c o u l d

c h a p t e r 28 p r o v i d e s (at l a s t ) i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e t a x r e g i m e a s it

from

the

peasants

during the

limited period of their control.

a p p l i e d to t h o s e a r e a s w h i c h h a d e f f e c t i v e l y m a i n t a i n e d a c l a i m to

T h o u g h highly c o n s c i o u s o f the d a n g e r s a n d deficiencies of this

a system established o n the basis of a treaty, n a m e l y H ı r a , U l l a y s ,

practice, the redactor's presentation modulates from an entirely

a n d ' A y n T a m r ( s e e c h a p t e r 2, d i s c u s s e d at S e c t . V ,

above).

negative v i e w t o w a r d s — a s o n e might a n t i c i p a t e — a n a c k n o w l e d g e ­

T w o c h a p t e r s r e m a i n u n m e n t i o n e d , c h a p t e r s 1 a n d 4. C h a p t e r 1

m e n t of c a l i p h a l d i s c r e t i o n s u b j e c t o n l y to r a t h e r g e n e r a l safeguards.

is s t r i k i n g l y w e l l - p l a c e d . I t is a n e c e s s a r y t r a n s i t i o n a l a r g u m e n t

'The

differentiating moveable

C o m m a n d e r o f t h e F a i t h f u l is t h e m o s t p e r s p i c u o u s i n h i s

consideration

of

these

b e n e f i c i a l to t h e kharäj

matters.

Whatever

he

considers

p a y e r s a n d m o s t c o n d u c i v e to m a x i m i z i n g

t r e a s u r y i n c o m e , h e s h o u l d d o ; e i t h e r by qabäla wiläya

most

(farming)

or

( t r a n s f e r to a m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r ) , s u b j e c t to s a f e g u a r d s a n d

s u b j e c t to m o v i n g a g a i n s t t h e mutaqabbil p r e v e n t o p p r e s s i o n of the p e a s a n t r y ,

a n d t h e wäli'm o r d e r to etc.'

defend

'Umar's

b o o t y a n d l a n d . I t s s o l e p u r p o s e is to

d e c i s i o n n o t to d i s t r i b u t e c o n q u e r e d

lands, a

p u r p o s e e f f e c t i v e l y f u l f i l l e d b y a s s e r t i n g t h e r e l e v a n c e of 0 . 5 9 : 7 ¬ 10. are

M o d e r n scholars have d o u b t e d whether these Q u r a n i c verses here

appropriately

used,

and have

wondered

accordingly

whether ' U m a r misused them or whether they w e r e only later

T h e piety a n d the

a t t r i b u t e d to h i m . ' ' U m a r m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e f o r g o t t e n . T h e s t o r y

c o n c e r n are n o d o u b t w e l l - m e a n t a n d seriously i n t e n d e d , but they

is a j u r i s t i c c o n s t r u c t , a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n f o r m s t h a t e m e r g e d i n o r

do not limit the discretionary p o w e r s

after t h e m i d d l e y e a r s o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , a l l o f t h e m so d e n s e l y

3 4

of the i m a m , w h i c h

are

3

1

r e c o g n i z e d h e r e a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w o r k . T h e r e a r e r e a s o n s for b e l i e v i n g t h a t K h a s s ä f , if i n d e e d , a s I s u p p o s e , h e is t h e r e d a c t o r a n d to a g r e a t d e g r e e t h e a u t h o r o f this w o r k , d i d not h a v e t i m e to e n j o y w h a t e v e r r e w a r d h e w a s o f f e r e d for h i s l a b o u r s ; b u t it is i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e t h a t h e m e r i t e d r e w a r d for t h e p a t i e n t j u r i s t i c

, 2

S h ä f i ' I , Vmm, v i i . 230.5/213-14.

1 3

F o r w h i c h , sec f u r t h e r , B a b e r J o h a n s e n . Land lax and A b u Yüsuf. i i . S-Q.

rent, c h . 3.

C f . D e n n e t c o n t r a H a r t m a n n : ' W h e t h e r o r n o t ' U m a r d i d r e c i t e these verses is a m a t t e r o f n o g r e a t w e i g h t ; w h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t h a t , w h a t e v e r his r e a s o n s , he d e c i d e d t h a t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a l l t h e M u s l i m s t h e l a n d s o f t h e S a w a d s h o u l d be the inalienable property of the Slate. T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e p o i n t is c o m p l e t e , precise a n d v o l u m i n o u s . " D e n n e t , Conversion, 21-2, m y i t a l i c s . I fear D e n n e t e x a g g e r a t e s the h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e s o u r c e s . A b u Y û s u f c o u l d n o t in any case p o s s i b l y be r e a d as c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e S a w a d b e c a m e ' t h e i n a l i e n a b l e p r o p e r t y o f the S l a t e ' . It r e m a i n e d i n t h e possession o f , a n d p r o b a b l y t h e p r o p e r l y o f t h o s e w h o w o r k e d i t . The g o v e r n m e n t r e s e r v e d t h e r i g h t t o tax t h e l a n d i n the i n t e r e s t s o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . I n s o m e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e l a w . e v e n t h a i r i g h t m i g h t be 3 5

lost; cf. J o h a n s e n , Land tax and rent, chs. 4 a n d 5.

158

T H E

KITAB

A L - K HA

permeated

with contemporary

RAJ

OF

A B U

YUSUF

THE

j u r i s t i c c o n c e r n s t h a t it m u s t b e

KITAB

A L - K H A R A J

OF

A B U

Y U S U F

159

Mııhâjirün o r A n ş â r , e t c . C h a r a c t e r s like ' A b b â s , ' A l î , the w i v e s

i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o v e r f r o m t h i s a p u t a t i v e h i s t o r y o f e v e n t s that

"I

occurred

having r e c e i v e d so m u c h i n s u c h a n d s u c h a r a n k . O f those w h o

more

than

two hundred years

prior to these

stories

had

b e c o m i n g part of written literature. T h e story o f ' U m a r ' s i m m o b i l i z a t i o n o f land must be understood century,

namely

that

the land

of Iraq

was held,

apparently in o w n e r s h i p , by a variety of people, M u s l i m a n d n o n -

been

mawali

early

converts

or witnessed

Badr,

both

Arabs and

were recipients of the hand-outs.

A l l o f t h i s m a t e r i a l m u s t reflect m o d e s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t i p e n d s

as a m e a n s t o e x p l a i n a n d j u s t i f y w h a t w a s a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e i n t h e mid-third

the P r o p h e t , a n d other C o m p a n i o n s a r e variously specified as

to m i l i t a r y ( a n d s o c i a l ) g r o u p s i n t h i r d - c e n t u r y I r a q .

It w a s t h e

v a r i o u s t e n s i o n s w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n t h e s e g r o u p s that w e r e b e i n g

M u s l i m , claiming a variety o f types o f o w n e r s h i p a n d tax-status.

expressed w h e n statements were made about A b u B a k r or ' U m a r

A p r o b l e m arose thus: if there h a d b e e n a n A r a b C o n q u e s t , w h y

o r g a n i z i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t i p e n d s t o t h i s g r o u p o r to t h a t , in

had

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h this p r i n c i p l e o r that.

the land not been

transferred

into the ownership

of the

c o n q u e r o r s , as w a s i m p l i e d by the general rules relating to b o o t y ? T h e answer w a s provided, because

' U m a r h a d immobilized the

In spite o f the o b v i o u s intellectual control that governs most o f 1 he c h a p t e r s w i t h i n t h e Kitab

al-Kharaj,

s o m e c h a p t e r s a r e free o f

l a n d , e t c . T h e full n e a t n e s s o f t h e a n s w e r w a s n o t a c h i e v e d a l l at

any c o n t r o l l i n g c o m m e n t . H e r e i n t h e c h a p t e r o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s , n o

once.

a I t e m p t is m a d e to h a r m o n i z e t h e v a r i o u s c l a i m s that a r e a d v a n c e d

T h e various

components

of this a n d other

stories

were

d e v e l o p e d i n r e s p o n s e to t h e needs a n d conflicts o f g o v e r n m e n t s ,

through the m e d i u m o f assertions about the practice of A b u B a k r

l a n d o w n e r s a n d , p e r h a p s , p e a s a n t s . I n t h e Kitab

al-Kharaj,

a n d ' U m a r . T h e c h a p t e r is a l s o o u t o f p l a c e . T h i s a n d t h e o t h e r

how

of a unified a n d

arguments

were

martialled in advocacy

w e sec-

j u s t i f i e d s y s t e m o f t a x - r e v e n u e . T h i s is t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e Kitab Kharaj:

al-

t o e l a b o r a t e a n d j u s t i f y a t a x s y s t e m b y r e f e r e n c e to a

unilar deficiencies of o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h I h a v e pointed to in this M-ction

suggest

that

after

a period

of careful

preparation the

ai c u m u l a t e d m a t e r i a l s w e r e h u r r i e d l y o r c a r e l e s s l y g i v e n t h e i r

final

m y t h about c o n q u e s t , to exploit the potential implications o f the

lorm;

myth

invert t h e i r final f o r m a t a l a t e r d a t e a t t h e h a n d s o f a d i f f e r e n t

i n o r d e r to s e c u r e m a x i m u m uniformity

( a n d , no doubt,

alternatively

that they

were simply

abandoned

a n d only

e f f i c i e n c y ) i n t h e t a x s y s t e m o f I r a q . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t

person

that m a n y c o m p o n e n t parts o f that m y t h w e r e i n place prior to

M u h t a d i ' s f a l l f r o m p o w e r after o n l y e l e v e n m o n t h s w a s s u d d e n

the

a n d s u r p r i s i n g . U s u a l l y j u d g e d b y h i s t o r i a n s t o b e firm, a b l e , a n d

production

of this

book;

but the manipulation

o f those

c o m p o n e n t s i n t h i s w o r k is m a s t e r l y .

composed

of a series

from

those

w h o originally

prepared

them.

p i o u s , t h e a n n a l i s t s a l s o p r o v i d e h i n t s that h e w a s u n p o p u l a r . It

C h a p t e r 4 is o u t o f p l a c e , s i n c e , a l o n e i n t h i s b u n d l e o f c h a p t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f khardj,

o r group

it d e a l s w i t h d i s t r i b u t i o n . I t is

of ten hadith

with

no

accompanying

•-corns l i k e l y t h a t h i s r e f o r m s i n t h e s p h e r e o f t a x a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d to

h i s u n t i m e l y fall f r o m

power.

O n the other hand, the two

succeeding caliphs e n j o y e d relatively long a n d prosperous reigns,

c o m m e n t a r y . T h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f t h e h a d i t h is t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

w h i c h might suggest that the reforms w e r e t e m p o r a r i l y

of w e a l t h to M u s l i m s i n the days o f A b u B a k r a n d ' U m a r . T h i s

I he H a n afi j u r i s t , K h a ş ş â f , w h o h a d b e e n r a i s e d to h i g h status, fell

must

with h i s p a t r o n , a p p a r e n t l y

(arzaq

b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e l a t i n g to t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t i p e n d s a n d u'tiyyat)

in the middle years of the third century. A b u

B a k r is p r e s e n t e d as originally distributing to the people

(al-nds),

all o f t h e m , w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n o f r a n k . ' U m a r a b a n d o n e d

this

practice in favour o f a graded a n d hierarchical m o d e o f distribution. H e i n s t i t u t e d a s y s t e m o f r e g i s t e r s (dawawin).

hated by the local people.

effective. Ibn al-

N a d i m informs us that, i n t h e confusion following the death o f M u h t a d i , K h a ş ş â f s h o u s e w a s p l u n d e r e d a n d m a n y of his b o o k s lost.

T h a t K h a ş ş â f is t h e c o n t r o l l i n g h a n d b e h i n d t h i s b o o k c a n n o t b e

T h e factors defining

u n a m b i g u o u s l y p r o v e d , b u t t h e b a l a n c e o f e v i d e n c e p o i n t s firmly

o f relationship to the

m that d i r e c t i o n . T h i s r e d a c t o r d i s p l a y s r e m a r k a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l

P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d , a n d priority i n I s l a m , b a s e d o n s u c h factors

Imesse, c o m p l e t e control o f the relevant m a t e r i a l , a no doubt w e l l -

rank

were

lineage,

based

o n nearness

as h a v i n g t a k e n p a r t i n t h e B a t t l e o f B a d r , o r b e l o n g i n g t o t h e

l60

THE

meant

concern

KITAR

A L - K H A R A J

for the welfare

OF

to the notion of absolute

sphere

taxation.

He

does

Y U S U F

of the p e o p l e ,

submission of

ABU

and

complete

caliphal authority in the

not represent

Islamic

law; he

7

represents o n e strand of the juristic tradition, a powerful strand, f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d u p o n by j u r i s t s w h o s e r v e d g o v e r n m e n t s . within

the H n a f i a

tradition,

however,

a n d outside

Both

o f it t h e

LITERARY FORM AND

o p i n i o n s w h i c h i n this b o o k a r e e x p r e s s e d only to be o v e r l a i d c o u l d be a n d w e r e , s o m e t i m e s systematically, r e v i v e d . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l deficiencies have

perhaps

made

SOCIAL C O N T E X T

it difficult t o

p e r c e i v e c l e a r l y t h e r e m a r k a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l a n d fixed p u r p o s e that m a r k s this b o o k .

T h i s d o e s n o t q u i t e e x c u s e t h e fact

that

1

m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n c o n t e n t to r a n s a c k r a t h e r t h a n t o r e a d it. T h e y h a v e e x p l o i t e d it r e p e a t e d l y f o r h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t

Q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d to t h e o r i g i n s o f M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e

it c a n n o t

b e e n m o s t frequently f r a m e d in respect o f n o r m s ( o r positive l a w ,

supply.

informative history

I t is i n f a c t

o n e of the most

exciting a n d

sources for a direct understanding of third-century

a n d will

in time

yield much

more

t h a n this

summary

Ch.

8 ) o r i n r e s p e c t o f h e r m e n e u t i c t e c h n i q u e ( C h . o ) . N o less

i n s t r u c t i v e is t h e q u e s t i o n , a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s C h a p t e r , o f l i t e r a r y

s u g g e s t s . I n its o w n r i g h t it i s , i n s p i t e o f t h e p r o b l e m s I h a v e

form

identified,

literature

one of the most

productions of early Islamic

unified fiqh.

a n d controlled intellectual

F o r t h e h i s t o r y o f fiqh a s a n

a n d social

context.

T h e characteristics

a r e sufficiently

distinctive

juristic

a search, not

initially for parallels o f legal content or technical methodology, but for a Sitz

r e l a t i n g t o t h e l a n d - t a x , it i s , o f c o u r s e , a b o o k o f r e m a r k a b l e

match a n d account for literary structures.

is d e s c r i b e d h e r e is

of early

to p r o m p t

i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c i p l i n e , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r for t h e history of the laws i l l u m i n a t i o n . T h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g that what

have

im Leben.

R e q u i r e d is a s e t o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h

F u n d a m e n t a l to t h i s e x e r c i s e is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e w r i t t e n

essentially a theory o f taxation reflecting the political realities a n d

fiqh

c l a i m s o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y c a l i p h a l g o v e r n m e n t r e m o v e s at l e a s t s o m e

that w a s p r o d u c e d i n t h e p e r i o d . E v e n t h e w h o l e o f t h e w r i t t e n

of t h e c o n f u s i o n that h a s p u z z l e d o b s e r v e r s a n d analysts.

corpus

t h e l a t t e r a r e l a t e r H a n a f i fuqahd',

Among

w h o w e r e r e q u i r e d to t r a n s f o r m

texts that h a v e s u r v i v e d a r e only a part o f the written c o r p u s would

thought,

this a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to t h e s a m e

implied

arguments into a timeless presentation of G o d ' s law.

haddatha,

not constitute

the outer

for a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e l y both

by the basic

qultu-qdla,

rawa,

wide

formulae

akhbara,

boundaries

world

of juristic

o f o r a l a c t i v i t y is

of surviving

books

(qala,

etc.) a n d by the numerous

n a m e d t r a n s m i t t e r s a b o u t w h o m it is n o t s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y w r o t e anything.

Further,

fiqh

was only

one amongst

a number

of

r e l i g i o u s a n d s e c u l a r d i s c i p l i n e s w h i c h g e n e r a t e d b o o k s at r o u g h l y the s a m e p e r i o d a n d w i t h b r o a d l y s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . W h e t h e r in t h e r e l i g i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s o f tafsir

o r zuhd

s e c u l a r d i s c i p l i n e o f adab

or i n history, genealogy, a n d

tribal

lore

(sird,

maghazi,

(paideia) ansab,

a n d 'ibdda

ayyum),

the basic

or in the literary

f o r m u l a e c o n f i r m a u n i v e r s a l n o t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e as that w h i c h is (orally) transmitted. The

paradox

o f w r i t t e n literature testifying

to s o m e

kind of

s i g n i f i c a n t o r a l a c t i v i t y is n o t i n i t s e l f u n u s u a l . M u c h o f t h e c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f late A n t i q u i t y , i n v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g , w a s

162

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CONTEXT

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p p e a l to, a n d exploitation of both written a n d

b o o k s but segments; not v e r b a t i m but in accord with their private

oral skills.

perceptions

1

T h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s that a r i s e i n a s s e s s i n g

the salient features of such a culture, h o w e v e r , are considerable.

private

and needs;

modes

not in

fixed

b u n d l e s , but a c c o r d i n g to

of acquisition, selection, and preservation. T h e

I n t h e c a s e b e f o r e u s , t h e s e a r e m i t i g a t e d i n p a r t by t h e f r a m e w o r k

r e s u l t a n t m a t e r i a l is u n i f o r m i n e x p r e s s i o n b e c a u s e t h e s c h o l a r s

o f a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e first s i x C h a p t e r s o f t h i s w o r k , a n d i n

belonged

part by the availability of biographical a n d other w o r k s

compositional formulae. It shows parallel a n d divergent

which

to the same

e x t e n d t h e field o f e n q u i r y . T h i s t o t a l i t y o f s o u r c e s p e r m i t s t h e

ments because

identification o f four i n t e r r e l a t e d factors w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d the

divergent solutions.

m i l i e u that p r o d u c e d early j u r i s t i c w o r k . P r e - e m p t i v e l y

surveyed

literary

world

meditation on problems

and drew generated

o n the

same

develop-

parallel and

T h e scholar's notebook a n d the institutional redaction are then

these are:

the t w o basic types of early juristic literature. O f the former there

1.

m a y b e n o e x t a n t e x a m p l e s . T h e i r e x i s t e n c e , h o w e v e r , is s e c u r e l y

the significant role of oral creativity (Sect. I I ) , qualified by

2. w i d e s p r e a d

literacy s y m b o l i z e d in the use a n d c i r c u l a t i o n of

notebooks (Sect. I l l ) ; 3.

the broad

a n d informal social basis for early

jurisprudence

inferred from the forms a n d s o m e t i m e s from the express words of institutional r e d a c t i o n s , a n d it is c o n f i r m e d by n u m e r o u s r e f e r e n c e s in biographical a n d other literature; see Section I I I below. I n a p p l y i n g t h e w o r d ' b o o k ' to t h e s e t w o b a s i c t y p e s it is n o t

(Sect. I V ) , qualified in turn by 4.

the gradual process of professionalization a n d bureaucratization, in a s o c i a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l context of s o m e c o m p l e x i t y ( S e c t . V ) .

D e m o n s t r a t i o n a n d elucidation of these factors will be u n d e r t a k e n in succeeding Sections. M u c h h o w e v e r

that is r e l e v a n t to s o c i a l

c o n t e x t c a n b e d i s t i l l e d f r o m t h e l i t e r a r y a n a l y s e s o f C h a p t e r s 1 to 6 alone. T h e s e prompt the following r e m a r k s . The

nature

degree

a n d function of literacy

erf s e g m e n t a t i o n

that

is r e f l e c t e d

characterizes

early

in the high

juristic

texts.

T h e r e , a r g u m e n t is b u i l t b y t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f s e g m e n t s to c r e a t e collocations, variously skilled or careless. Segments travel. B o t h within books a n d between b o o k s , they recur, exhibiting m i n o r or m a j o r r e w o r k i n g . T h e gathering o f segments a n d their organization i n t o m o r e o r less h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p i l a t i o n s is a result o f r e d a c t i o n a l activities, often sequential a n d over long periods of time, w h i c h must b e associated w i t h a single geographical location: invariably a city ( C o r d o b a , Q a y r a w a n , C a i r o , B a g h d a d , B u k h a r a ) , p r o b a b l y a m o s q u e , s o m e t i m e s , p e r h a p s , a g o v e r n m e n t office ( t h e Kitab

al-

Kharaj),

o r a q a d i ' s court (the Ffanafi a d m i n i s t r a t i v e texts, for

example

H i l a l a l - R a ' y a n d K h a s s a f o n waqf).

segments

a n d their

subordination

to

T h i s gathering of

uniform

formal

devices

i m p l i e s at l e a s t r u d i m e n t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t r o l . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e scattering of segments must be related to the p e r s o n a l initiatives of individual 1

s c h o l a r s , w h o , o r a l l y o r i n w r i t i n g , t r a n s m i t t e d not

See L . A l e x a n d e r , ' T h e l i v i n g v o i c e ' : a n d b e l o w , C h . 7, Sect. V I I .

i n t e n d e d t o s u g g e s t that t h e y e x i s t e d as s t a b l e t e x t s , r e p l i c a t e d i n multiple editions a n d distributed. T h e scholar's notebook

was

p r i v a t e a n d o r g a n i c , a l w a y s u n i q u e , a l w a y s s u b j e c t to c h a n g e . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e d a c t i o n l i k e w i s e w a s u n i q u e a n d s u b j e c t to o r g a n i c g r o w t h ( a n d d e c a y ) t h r o u g h t i m e . U n t i l c a n o n i z a t i o n , it w a s n o t , as a u n i t , c o p i e d o r d i s t r i b u t e d ; t h o u g h it m a y h a v e b e e n a p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r m a n y s c h o l a r s , at a n y stage i n its g r o w t h . C a n o n i z a t i o n a c h i e v e d , t h e institutional r e d a c t i o n b e c a m e subject to c o p y i n g , distribution,

and commentary,

conforming

subsequently

to t h e

n o r m a l i m a g e o f t h e b o o k as s t a b l e i n c o n t e n t a n d r e p l i c a t e d i n m a n y e d i t i o n s . T h e fate o f p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s w a s , as w i l l b e s e e n , varied; see Section I I I . A p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r c a n o n i z a t i o n is c e r t a i n l y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a u t h o r i t y a n d t h a t is l i k e l y to h a v e b e e n i n m a n y c a s e s p o l i t i c a l , a n d to reflect

alliances between

é l i t e . T h e Kitâb Muwatta

al-Kharâj

the political a n d the scholarly

is a n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e , b u t s o is t h e

o f M a l i k ( p r o d u c t erf A n d a l u s i a n , n o t M a d i n a n p o l i t i c s ) .

T h e Mudawwana

o f S a h n u n reflects n o t o n l y t h e a c h i e v e d p o l i t i c a l

s t a t u s o f t h e 'ulamâ'

in Q a y r a w a n

but also the scholarly a n d

p o l i t i c a l p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h a t city t h r o u g h o u t N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s a n d c o n s e q u e n t a c c e s s to f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e posts as a factor p r o m o t i n g c a n o n i z a t i o n is c o n f i r m e d by

the negative

and uncertain

cases.

Where

schools

did not

a c h i e v e political integration until a relatively late date ( a n d then o n l y p a r t i a l l y , as w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e Shafi'Ts) t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n a l

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texts r e m a i n e d open and d e v e l o p i n g for a longer t i m e . W h e r e schools failed e n t i r e l y i n p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n a n d i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m ( t h e M a l i k i s i n B a g h d a d ) t h e i r texts have disappeared. I t is not a full b u t a fairly secure conclusion that the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the jurists in the bureaucratic structure ( p o l i t i c a l ) and i n the i n s t i t u t i o n of 'schools' (social) conduced t o the c a n o n i z a t i o n of texts. ( B u t some p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l factors m i g h t also be recognized as l i k e l y to cause closure o f a d e v e l o p i n g t e x t ; see C h . 1, Sect. V I I and C h . 3, Sect. V I , w h i c h propose t h e decisive emergence o f the use o f Prophetic h a d i t h as a source o f law as j u s t such a f a c t o r . ) V e r y l i t t l e can be extracted f r o m early j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e as t o the social or professional characteristics of the class or classes i n v o l v e d . T h e scholars are not identified as a social g r o u p . T h e r e are no systematic rules r e l a t i n g t o the profession o f scholarship (as there are f o r , say, m e r c h a n t s ) , nor are there any rules g o v e r n i n g relationships a m o n g scholars or between scholars and other groups (as there are rules g o v e r n i n g relationships between a man and his wife o r a slave and his o w n e r ) . T h e inference seems permissible that the status of scholar was i n i t i a l l y i n f o r m a l and undefined. T h e scholars were the elders o f the c o m m u n i t y , bearers o f t r a n s m i t t e d k n o w l e d g e , people of w e i g h t and d i g n i t y w h o gained their r e p u t a t i o n and t h e i r status, n o t f o r m a l l y f r o m the p r i o r structures of society, b u t i n f o r m a l l y as a result o f personality and p u b l i c perception. T h e y d i d n o t r e m a i n thus. T h e t h i r d century sees a m o v e m e n t from a j u r i s p r u d e n c e w h i c h is a p r e d o m i n a n t l y oral and socially diffuse i n f o r m a l process towards a j u r i s p r u d e n c e w h i c h is a complex l i t e r a r y d i s c i p l i n e , the prerogative of a highly t r a i n e d and socially distinct élite. T h a t m o v e m e n t ( n o t t r a n s i t i o n , for the end o f the process was centuries o f f ) , signalled by the terms professionalization and b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n , was no d o u b t i n part a n a t u r a l process but was also affected by school c o m p e t i t i o n and by government policy. T h e r e was c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o m a j o r schools in the early and middle, decades of the t h i r d c e n t u r y , and added c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m the Shafi'i school (and n u m e r o u s local s c h o o l s )

2

Compare the early ikhUlaf documents of the Hanaff tradition, discussed at Ch. 3 Sect. V above and showing exclusive concern with I lanafî-Mâlikï dispute, with later ones. e.g. the Kitâb Ikhtilaf al-fuqaha of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Tahawi. which shows a considerable increase in variant authorities. 2

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later. This c o m p e t i t i o n , a significant factor p r o m o t i n g development i n m o d e s o f a r g u m e n t , must also reflect t h e existence o f social a n d p o l i t i c a l rewards f o r t h e w i n n i n g p a r t y . T h e g o v e r n i n g a u t h o r i t i e s were the p r i m a r y sources o f r e w a r d and d e m a n d e d not o n l y coo p e r a t i o n t o w a r d s o r d e r and p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f local affairs, b u t also systematic p u b l i c defence of their policies, consistent w i t h the l e g i t i m i z i n g norms o f the age. T h e j u r i s t i c class was d r a w n i n t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and r e q u i r e d lo establish relationships w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t . Financial independence and consequent i n t e l l e c t u a l independence c o u l d be retained o n l y i f t h e system preserved its i n f o r m a l i t y (for e x a m p l e , if i n d e p e n d e n t l y w e a l t h y merchants and traders were also j u r i s t s ) or i f secure and i n d e p e n d e n t financial backing c o u l d be secured (for e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h d o n a t i o n o f waqfs). T h e first o f these c o n d i t i o n s was ever less l i k e l y t o be f u l f i l l e d . W i t h increasing o r i e n t a t i o n towards a u t h o r i t a t i v e canons and other w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l , the i n f o r m a l emergence o f j u r i s t i c experts was i n fact replaced by a f o r m a l structure for the t r a i n i n g o f a professional class. T h a t t r a i n i n g was based o n l i t e r a c y , h e r m e n e u t i c skills, t h e preservation o f canons, and the creation and study of artistically controlled legal textbooks. T h e second c o n d i t i o n , in various ways and degrees for m a n y centuries, was f u l f i l l e d . T h i s c o m p l e x o f social processes may be r e n d e r e d m o r e precise a n d focused by reference t o w o r k s o t h e r t h a n the j u r i s t i c texts themselves, a task t a k e n up i n the next f o u r Sections. O f available sources, t w o types w i l l be e x p l o i t e d . T h e first is the b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f N o r t h A f r i c a n scholarship represented by the Tabaqat 'ulama' Ifrlqiyya, c o m p i l e d by A b u ' l - ' A r a b M u h a m m a d b . A h m a d a l - T a m i n u ( d . 333) and M u h a m m a d b. a l - H a r i t h a l K h u s h a n i ( d . 3 6 6 ) , a n d the Ta'rikh al-'ulama'wa-'l-ruwat li-'l-'ilm bi'l-Andalus o f I b n a l - F a r a d i ( d . 403). T h e s e , r e l a t i v e l y late w o r k s , m u s t be read i n the light o f the evidence p r o v i d e d by the early j u r i s t i c texts. T h e Hanafis i n I r a q d i d n o t produce a ( s u r v i v i n g ) b i o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o f similar date. I n consequence, the second type o f l i t e r a t u r e t o be e x p l o i t e d here is the adab t r a d i t i o n of the m i d d l e t h i r d c e n t u r y , p r o d u c e d i n I r a q and represented here by Jahiz ( d . 253) a n d I b n O u t a y b a ( d . 276). These w r i t e r s , l i v i n g precisely i n the p e r i o d w h e n , according t o m y analysis, m u c h o f the early j u r i s t i c m a t e r i a l reached or was d e v e l o p i n g towards its final f o r m s , p r o v i d e a b r o a d e r p i c t u r e o f the l i t e r a r y w o r l d o f the

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t i m e , a p i c t u r e w h i c h w i l l be seen t o be i n all respects c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e p i c t u r e d e r i v e d f r o m the n a r r o w l y j u r i s t i c m a t e r i a l . I t w i l l be e v i d e n t that m a n y features o f fiqh l i t e r a t u r e , and the tensions it e m b o d i e s , are n o t t o be e x p l a i n e d solely i n terms of j u r i s t i c issues b u t r a t h e r by reference t o b r o a d social trends that affected early M u s l i m society as a w h o l e .

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167

qawm asked h i m . A t ä ' b . A b i R a b ä h r e p o r t s , W e w e r e sitting w i t h I b n ' A b b ä s (kunnä jalüsan Inda) . . . w h e n one o f his c o m p a n i o n s said (fa-qäla la-hu ba'du ashabi-hi) . . . O n e o f I b n M a s ' ü d ' s julasä'said . . . ' H a j j a j b. ' U m a r was sitting w i t h Z a y d b. T h ä b i t (jalasa 'inda) . . . A s k e d a b o u t s o m e t h i n g , Z a y d i n v i t e d H a j j a j t o give his o p i n i o n . G o d forgive y o u Z a y d , said H a j j a j ; we sit w i t h y o u (najlis ilay-ka) to learn f r o m y o u ( i . e . not to give o u r o w n v i e w s ) . ' A m r asked ' A t ä ' a b o u t s o m e t h i n g and one o f the qawm i n t e r r u p t e d (rajul min al-qawm). F r o m ' U m a y r b. Sa'd alN a k h a ' î : I was a t t e n d i n g a majlis (kuntu ji majlis) at w h i c h was ' A i m n ä r b. Y ä s i r , w h o proposed for discussion (dhakara) such and such a p r o b l e m . I b n ' U m a r posed a p r o b l e m to the Prophet of G o d (dhakara li-rasül Allah)? ' U r w a b. a l - Z u b a y r r e p o r t s . W e were discussing that w h i c h occasions wudü'—tadhäkarnä mü yakün min-fıu al-wudu. Sa'id b. a l - M u s a y y i b said t o his c o m p a n ­ ions (ashäb). W h a t do y o u say a b o u t such and such? T h e qawm were silent—sakata 'l-qawm. I b n al-Qäsim saw M a l i k o n a F r i d a y , w h i l e the i m a m was i n the p u l p i t , still s i t t i n g ; M a l i k and his c o m p a n i o n s w e r e i n a halqa—wa-Mälik mutahalliq fi ashäbi-hi. M â l i k was discussing s o m e t h i n g and d i d n o t stop his discussion— yatahaddath wa-la yaqta' hadîtha-hu. M â l i k i n f o r m e d I b n alO ä s i m that he had seen some o f the ahl al-'ilm i n the past s i t t i n g i n a halqa on a F r i d a y and engaged in discussion (yatahaddath)." 3

c

4

r

6

II

A r a b M u s l i m society o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the early decades of that c e n t u r y , was a m i l i e u p r o d u c t i v e o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s does not mean s i m p l y that people spoke a lot o r that they w e r e i l l i t e r a t e . R a t h e r , they h a b i t u a l l y engaged in a creative activity i n v o l v i n g the p r o d u c t i o n , r e c e p t i o n , and transmission o f o r a l m a t e r i a l s , w i t h i n a system o f f o r m a l rules. T h e rules are reflected i n a standard technical t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h constitutes o u r p r i m a r y clue t o the existence and the nature of the a c t i v i t y . M u c h o f this section w i l l therefore be devoted to d e m o n s t r a t i o n and e l u c i d a t i o n o f this t e r m i n o l o g y . T h e activity t o o k place p r i m a r i l y i n the mosque, b u t also in the market-place a n d , perhaps m o r e f o r m a l l y , i n the courts of governors. D i a c h r o n i c a l l y the prestige o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e decreased t h r o u g h o u t the century as the m a t e r i a l c o n t e n t o f the m o r e serious and a u t h o r i t a t i v e disciplines was transferred t o the w r i t t e n m i l i e u . ( O r a l display c o n t i n u e d t o be i m p o r t a n t ; b u t the d e p l o y m e n t of literate skills and f o r m a l r h e t o r i c a l techniques a r o u n d oral e x h i b i t i o n , one feature of m a t u r e M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e , is not at issue here.) T h e technical t e r m i n o l o g y o f j u r i s t i c discussion—the o r a l process—is d o m i n a t e d by the w o r d jalasa ( t o sit) and its derivatives. O n e sat w i t h a master, or w i t h one's colleagues, w h o w e r e one's julasci'. T h e s i t u a t i o n was a majlis. T h e master was distinguished f r o m those w h o gathered r o u n d h i m : they were the qawm, o r , w i t h i n t i m a t i o n s of higher s t a n d i n g , his companions (ashab). T h e circular shape of such groups generated the alternative t e r m halqa and the v e r b a l f o r m tahallaqa. T h e d o m i n a n t t e r m for discussion is hadith, verbs haddatha and tahaddatha; less c o m m o n is kallama and its derivatives. T o broach a subject for discussion was dhakara o r dhakara. T h e j u r i s t i c texts p r o v i d e significant e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n . ' U m a r b . D h a r r said, W e sat w i t h A b u Ja'far (jalasnâ da) . . . and one of the

7

9

w

T h e t e r m hadith m e a n t the process o f discussion, b u t also a segment o r i t e m o f t r a n s m i t t e d i n f o r m a t i o n , o r a precedent. Its m e a n i n g overlaps w i t h the w o r d athar. W i t h reference t o a n u m b e r o f C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h , S h a y b ä n i stated t h a t M â l i k h i m s e l f h a d t r a n s m i t t e d these h a d i t h (ahädith); so h o w , he asked, can these äthär be a b a n d o n e d , w h e n äthär o f a similar k i n d are n o t a b a n d o n e d . H e r e , hadith and athar are synonyms; it is p r o b a b l e that h a d i t h is the less specific t e r m : M â l i k has t r a n s m i t t e d these segments o f i n f o r m a t i o n , so h o w can t h e y , qua precedents (äthär), be neglected? T e c h n i c a l use o f the verbs kallama and takallama can j u s t be discerned i n j u r i s t i c texts. M â l i k was approached a b o u t 1 2

A b ü Yûsuf, Kharäj, Rahbî, i . 607-8/Bulaq, 51.10 (which gives ' A m r b. Dinar for 'Umar b. Dharr). Shaybünî, Muwaita', 48. Ibid. 182. Ibid. 184. Both ibid. 37. I b i d . 45. 4

6

9

5

7

Malik. Muwaita', Bâb al'-wudü' min mass al-farj.

'•" Sahniin. Mudawwana, i . 37. 1 2

8

Shaybäni, Kitäb al-Hujja, i . 67.

1 1

I b i d . 148.

l68\

L I T E R A R Y

somethings—kullima

FORM

A N D

fi dhdlikaP

S O C I A L

The

L I T E R A R Y

C O N T E X T

l o c u t i o n takallama

islam m e a n t t o be o r become a M u s l i m .

bi-'l-

The

A N D

S O C I A L

169

C O N T E X T

Q a d i o f Q a y r a w a n , used t o gather people o f o p p o s e d views in his majlis and encourage t h e m t o debate—kdna yajma 'u fimajlisi-hi

1 4

T h e N o r t h A f r i c a n b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l confirms a n d t o a degree extends this v o c a b u l a r y .

FORM

A m i r Ziyadat

Allah

I b r a h i m b . a l - A g h l a b was jdlis w i t h a n u m b e r o f famous

b.

mukhtalifayni The

wa-yughri

bayna-humd

fi

t e r m i n o l o g y o f the discursive

'l-mundzara.

al-

13

process is consistent

and

fuqahd'.

c o n t i n u o u s as between the j u r i s t i c texts o f the m i d - t h i r d century

A f t e r a t i m e , the p a r t i c i p a n t s , the qawm, decided t o leave—ardda

and the b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l o f the early f o u r t h c e n t u r y . T h i s is

'l-qawm al-qiydm,

an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r o l o n o u r use o f the later texts, w h i c h in many

i.e. they ' s t o o d ' after s i t t i n g .

1 5

A b u H a y t h a m al-

L u ' l u ' i and D a h y u n sat w i t h (jalasa da) A b u T a l i b a l - A b z a r i i n

different

his hanut, his b o o t h i n t h e m a r k e t . T h e y w e r e j o i n e d by Y a h y a b .

present. T h e t e r m ndzara m e a n i n g t o engage in f o r m a l debate is

Salam w h o i m p a r t e d his l e a r n i n g — d h a k a r a haditha-hu.

n o t (as far as 1 have f o u n d ) attested i n j u r i s t i c w o r k s . T h i s may be

Sa'id b .

16

ways read

the past according

to the n o r m s o f their

M u h a m m a d b . a l - H a d d a d had 'sat' w i t h the people o f Q a y r a w a n

an accident, b u t it i m p l i e s a refinement o f jurisprudence i n t o a

since reaching

p u b l i c art f o r m a n d is l i k e l y t o reflect a process o f

m a t u r i t y — j a l a s t u al-nds

means o f course t h a t he

had

bi-hddhd

played

'l-balad:

an active

11

he

development

part in their

that t o o k t i m e . I t is f u r t h e r m o r e characteristically a court a c t i v i t y .

discussions. W h e n A b u a l - R a b f p r o p o s e d a s o l u t i o n t o a p r o b l e m ,

I n a d d i t i o n t o the e x a m p l e above: when ' A b d u l l a h b. A b i Hassan

o f w h i c h S a h n u n d i s a p p r o v e d , he (Sahnun) t u r n e d t o the ahl al-

visited t h e g o v e r n o r Z i y a d a t A l l a h a l - A g h l a b i , he f o u n d A s a d b .

majlis and d e n o u n c e d i t as a t r i c k , a hila. its cognate jalasa,

ls

T h e w o r d qa'ada,

also f u n c t i o n e d w i t h some f o r m a l resonance.

' A b d a l l a h b . A b i Hassan t o o k his place (qa'ada) scholars h e l d at the A g h l a b i d c o u r t . [talking

in]

a

like

session,

a

majlis,

1 9

than

at a session o f

N o one was f o n d e r the

son

of

Sa'id

M u h a m m a d ; w h e n he t o o k up his place (qa'ada maq'adan) else desired t o s p e a k .

20

F o r m a l p u b l i c debate is a

b.

here d e m o n s t r a t e the emergence o f this a c t i v i t y w h i c h , w i t h its discursive process i n general.

'an sadri majlisi-hi.

qad

Y o u could not

T h i s same M u h a m m a d b .

he m i g h t hear s o m e t h i n g that w o u l d cast d o u b t o n t h e efficacy o f his o w n a c h i e v e m e n t .

21

A s a d b . al-Furat was h o l d i n g f o r t h one day

(haddatha bi-hadith)

c o n c e r n i n g the vision o f G o d o n t h e last d a y ,

when Sulayman al-Farra',

s i t t i n g at the back o f t h e majlis

i n t e r r u p t e d (takallama).

21

(fi

A b u '1-'Abbas,

should be distinguished f r o m the

I t is f r e q u e n t l y possible t o discern the e t i q u e t t e o f

1 5

off-centre i n his o w n majlis, i m p l y i n g that the n o r m was o t h e r w i s e . I s m a ' i l b. R a b a h al-Jazari a t t e n d e d the halqa

he s h o u t e d f r o m the back o f the halqa. Is it because o f m y dress t h a t 1 a m k e p t at a distance? I b n W a h b shouted b a c k , C o m e h e r e , c o m e close. I s m a ' i l a p p r o a c h e d

so near t h e i r knees t o u c h e d . ^

T h e story is i n t e n d e d to convey a message about the irrelevance o f styles o f dress, possibly o f p o v e r t y , t o scholarly status. B u t it shows

Ibid. 100 and 114; note that hadilh here does not mean a segment of information, but the process of talking: dhakara hadttha-hu, i.e. he gave of his skills, he produced a discussion; he did not produce a hadith, meaning a single item of transmitted information with an isndd. Ibid. 104. Ibid. 124-5. ''> Ibid. 88. Ibid. 151. I b i d . 133. I b i d . 82. 2 0

2 1

normally marked

by t h e i r

Discussion t o o k place i n t h e mosque, but also, e v i d e n t l y , in a

A b u 'l-'Arab, Tabaqat, 86.

16

1 S

of ' A b d a l l a h b.

W a h b , w e a r i n g a tallis—a sack. H e was n o t i n v i t e d t o the f r o n t . So

p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a study c i r c l e .

Sahnun, Mudawwana, i . 87. Ibid. 178-9; cf. Shafi'i, Umm, i . 168.7/147.27.

1 7

discursive

sessions. M u h a m m a d b . ' A b d u s , we have seen, sat modestly and

also t h a t the rank o f scholars was 14

standard

feature o f j u r i s t i c a c t i v i t y i n the classical p e r i o d . T h e references

o n p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o p i l g r i m a g e for fear

al-majlis),

24

significant stress on display,

za'ilan

the question o f

of

' A b d u s , h a v i n g gone o n p i l g r i m a g e , never listened again t o a

mu'akhkhar

anta.

M u h a m m a d b . ' A b d u s was f o u n d one day

have t o l d t h a t he was sahib al-majlis. 'speaker' (mutakallim)

the d e b a t e — n a z i r

n o one

s i t t i n g m o d e s t l y and off-centre i n his o w n majlis—ajidu-hu jalasa . . . mutawddi'an

a l - F u r a t a n d A b u M i h r a z d e b a t i n g (yatandzardni)

i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s . T h e A m i r i n v i t e d ' A b d u l l a h t o take part in

2 2

m a r k e t b o o t h , at the c o u r t o f a r u l e r , a n d , p e r h a p s , at a private house.

T h e m o s q u e was u n d o u b t e d l y the n o r m . I s m a ' i l b. Rabah

2 6

was l i s t e n i n g t o Sahnun (yasma'u Ibid. 136-8. " Ibid. 87-8, ad Malik.

2 3

2

2 4

'inda) in the mosque w h e n he

I b i d . 88.

Ibid. (17-8.

170

L I T E R A R Y

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

LITERARY

saw a t a i l o r sewing r i g h t t h e r e i n the mosque. H e asked Sahnun i f this was p e r m i s s i b l e ; o n receiving a negative r e p l y , he t h r e w the t a i l o r o u t . Sahnun drove the heretics f r o m the F r i d a y mosque i n O a y r a w a n : several different groups had h e l d halqas t h e r e . 2 7

2 8

T h e Kitab al-Bayan of Jahiz, a w o r k no m o r e t h a n i n c i d e n t a l l y concerned w i t h fiqh, reflects the same o r a l c u l t u r e , i t s technical t e r m i n o l o g y is b r o a d l y the same as that of the juristic and b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s . T h e m a i n locus of o r a l activity is still the mosque ( t h o u g h t h a t a c t i v i t y is n o t necessarily d e v o t e d t o religious o r j u r i s t i c t o p i c s ) . ! b n al-Sammak began ' t a l k i n g ' one day—ja'ala yatakallamu—while a slave g i r l listened t o his speech (kaldm). ' R a b i ' a t a l - R a ' y , the j u r i s t of M a d i n a , was t a l k i n g one day and w e n t o n a n d o n (kdna yatakallamu wa-akthara). Fadl b. Tsa alR a q q a s h i was a fine t a l k e r a n d story-teller (kana mutakalliman qdssan mujidan). ' A m r b. ' U b a y d , H i s h a m b . H a s s a n , and m a n y fuqaha' ( m e a n i n g wise m e n , n o t jurists) used t o 'sit' w i t h h i m — jalasa ilay-hi. ' A b d al-Samad t a l k e d (takallama) for three w h o l e sessions (thalathat majdlis tammd) about the c r e a t i o n o f mosq u i t o e s . R a q a b a b. M a s q a l a was i n v i t e d t o a majlis t o t a l k i n i t — li-yatakallam fi-hi. Iyyas b . M u ' a w i y a came t o a halqa—one of the halqas o f Q u r a y s h i n the mosque at D a m a s c u s / He d o m i n a t e d the session—istawla 'aid 'l-majlis. Y o u come t o us i n the dress o f a beggar and speak w i t h the speech o f k i n g s — tukallimu-nd bi-kaldm al-muluk, they said t o Iyyas. M u h a m m a d b . Hafs, a m a n o f great k n o w l e d g e and t r a n s m i t t e d w i s d o m (kathir al-'ilm wa-'Tsamd') c o u l d be f o u n d i n his halqa at the m o s q u e . A Syrian said, I was i n the halqa o f A b u M u s h i r at the mosque in Damascus w h e n we raised the t o p i c (dhdkarna) o f speech a n d its genius, o f silence and its n o b i l i t y . M a y m u n b. Siyah, w h e n he sat w i t h a group—jalasa ild qawm, used t o say, W e are a p e o p l e far f r o m h o m e , so p r o v i d e us w i t h discussions that we can d e l i g h t i n — haddithu-nd ahadith natajammalu bi-ha? T h e diverse segments that m a k e u p Jahiz's w o r k c o n f i r m his sense o f the o r a l background t o his w o r k , being introduced by the usual terminology o f o r a l transmission: qdla, rawd, haddatha-ni, khabbara-ni, etc. 2

30

31

3 2

33

4

35

3 6

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

171

T h e Kitdb al-Bayan is a characteristic w o r k o f adab, c o n f o r m i n g to the p a t t e r n o f the educational miscellany. I t gathers u n d e r b r o a d t h e m a t i c headings discrete segments o f m a t e r i a l ( p o e t r y , t a l e , a n e c d o t e , a p o p h t h e g m , j o k e ) and by c o n t r i v e d j u x t a p o s i t i o n ( t h e l o n g and the s h o r t , gross and refined, general and p a r t i c u l a r , etc.) aims t o edify, i n s t r u c t , and d e l i g h t . B u t i l also imitates r e a l i t y . I t is, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , a w r i t t e n re-creation o f the o r a l m i l i e u w h i c h e n g e n d e r e d i t : a session, a majlis, w h e r e the t o and f r o o f discussion is enacted by historical and c o n t e m p o r a r y characters f r o m the t i m e o f the P r o p h e t onwards. ( T h e subject-matter o f the discussion is discussion itself, its virtues and vices, its desirable and undesirable q u a l i t i e s . ) T h e r e is no obvious reason for d o u b t i n g w h a t the t e r m i n o l o g y signals t h r o u g h o u t , n a m e l y t h a t , i n some sense, t h e origins o f Jahiz's m a t e r i a l are o r a l . B u t this is n o t t o concede m u c h , for this o r a l m i l i e u is n o t one where the p a r t i c i p a n t s are necessarily incapable of r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g . I n p r e s e n t i n g the m a t e r i a l u t i l i z e d i n this and in the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g Sections, it is n o t i n t e n d e d t o i m p l y that the p a r t i c u l a r events and characters were historically t h u s ; rather that the concepts and t e r m i n o l o g y represent the s i t u a t i o n as i t was i n , r o u g h l y , the first h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y — d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f g r o w t h and emergence o f the earliest j u r i s t i c texts, the p e r i o d also o f Jahiz's early w o r k . I t is the w o r l d p i c t u r e w h i c h is at issue. I t is f u r t h e r d e n i e d that any consideration o f the biographies o r b i o g r a p h i c a l anecdotes a c c o r d i n g t o the c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r i n g o f the characters w o u l d reveal a n y t h i n g about the historical developm e n t o f social i n s t i t u t i o n s o r ideas in the t h i r d c e n t u r y . Principles a n d processes that e m e r g e d i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y and later w e r e l i k e l y t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o prestigious early figures, and m i g h t be used i n t e r p r e t a t i v e l y t o elucidate a b i o g r a p h y o r explain a w r i t t e n text.

1

2 7

A b u T-'Arab, Tabaqat, 68.

2 9

' A m r b. Bahr al-Jahiz, Bayan, i . 104 Ibid. 306. I b i d . 308. I b i d . 98. I b i d . 102. I b i d . 259.

3 1

3 4

3 7

3 2

3 5

~ Ibid. u)2. I b i d . 102. I b i d . 174. I b i d . 264. h

3 U

3 3

%

Ill B o o k s were an i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y c u l t u r e t h o u g h t h e i r value and t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n w e r e , at least at first, secondary t o the process o f o r a l transmission. Such as existed were for the most part p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s . I n the Tabaqat the w o r d samd' takes on a technical c o l o u r i n g i m p l y i n g just such a w o r k , a private w r i t t e n r e c o r d o f a master's d i c t a . K h a l a f b. M u h a m m a d had a sama' f r o m

172

L I T E R A R Y

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

so-and-so—kana la-hu soma' min . . H a k a m had a sama' Abd

al-Rahmdn

soma's

wa-lbn

Lahfa.

SOCIAL

C O N T E X T

173

f r o m ' A w n his transmission f r o m I b n W a h b and made notes. B a k r n o w reads his notes back t o his teacher, ' A w n , and asks a b o u t the n a t u r e o f the transmission f r o m I b n W a h b t o ' A w n . ' A w n replied

li-Abi

ka-sama

l i k e the

defensively,

'l-Khdrija

shay'an?

al-Qdsim

his fasting, his p r a y e r , and all his activities i f he had received this

Ibn

I b n a l - Q a s i m and A s h h a b are, o f course, t w o o f the

m a j o r sources f o r t h e Mudawwana;

A N D

A b u '1-Kharija was

and A s h h a b — r a ' a y t u

sama an min Malik b. Anas mudawwanan 40

39

FORM

min

f r o m M a l i k w r i t t e n o u t (mudawwan)

of I b n al-Qasim

wa Ashhab.

A n d M u h a m m a d b. al-

3 , s

f r o m a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e — l a - h u sama'

wa-Mdlik

seen w i t h a sama'

L I T E R A R Y

C O N T E X T

it was t h e i r

soma's—written

Has anyone b e i n g i m p u g n i n g me—a-quia ahad

fi-na

H e t h e n swore a great o a t h , M a y G o d negate his s t r i v i n g ,

m a t e r i a l i n any way o t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h qiraa:

he had read it

[back] t o I b n W a h b , w h o had [ p r e v i o u s l y ] read it to h i m . T h i s

w o r k s o r n o t e b o o k s bearing t h e i r n a m e — w h i c h had been u t i l i z e d

story derives its p o i n t f r o m t h e currency o f suspicions that some

t o d e r i v e m a n y o f t h e segments i n t h a t w o r k .

people had developed

n o t e b o o k s w h i c h d i d not reflect

genuine

T h e existence o f a sama' f r o m A o r B does not i m p l y that A

t r a n s m i s s i o n . W h a t was here b e i n g i m p l i e d was that a complete

or B had p r o d u c e d t h a t w o r k ; i t means at best that a listener had

f o r m a l system o f b o o k p r o d u c t i o n was in place at I b n W a h b ' s t i m e .

m a d e notes o n w h a t he had h e a r d f r o m A or B . B a h l u l b. R a s h i d

I b n W a h b h a d a fixed t e x t b o o k ; he read it to his p u p i l w h o t o o k it

p r o p o s e d to his c o m p a n i o n s t h a t they should visit A b u ' 1 - K h a r i j a

d o w n v e r b a t i m ; t h e p u p i l t h e n read i t back t o the master w h o

w h o had b r o u g h t the J ami' o f Sufyan, i n o r d e r to hear i t f r o m

checked i t against his o w n copy. T h i s is an elaborate j u s t i f i c a t i o n

him.

( A b u '1-

o f a b o o k o r b o o k s b e a r i n g the isndd, B a k r - ' A w n - I b n W a h b . I t

T h e r e may have been a text

cannot be accepted as a correct reflection o f b o o k p r o d u c t i o n i n

4 1

T h e w o r d Jami'

K h a r i j a h a d a sama'

here is a substitute for sama'

f r o m Sufyan).

produced.

I b n W a h b ' s t i m e : i t reflects a system t h a t grew u p i n the m i d d l e

H o w e v e r , i f A b u ' 1 - K h a r i j a t r a n s m i t t e d m a t e r i a l f r o m Sufyan, the

a n d later decades o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , a system t h a t responds

m a t e r i a l w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y have been

precisely

w i t h this t i t l e c i r c u l a t i n g at the t i m e the Tabaqdt was

his o w n selection

and

r e c o r d i n g o f Sufyan's dicta. I t is possible that just as the w o r d Muwatta\

a p p l i e d t o t h e dicta o f M a l i k , d i d n o t necessarily i m p l y a

p u b l i s h e d b o o k , b u t r a t h e r any r e c o r d i n g o f M a l i k ' s system, so the w o r d jami'

f u n c t i o n e d for Sufyan.

I n any

case some

people

d o u b t e d w h e t h e r A b u '1-Kharija's sama' or jami' f r o m Sufyan was a genuine and r e l i a b l e transmission. A certain m a n asked A b u '1Kharija,

D i d you

[ r e a l l y ] hear f r o m

Sufyan?

Abu

'1-Kharija

became a n g r y , his face swelling l i k e a B e r b e r ' s . Yes, I h e a r d f r o m Sufyan, he s a i d , I h e a r d f r o m S u f y a n .

42

M o d e r n academics are not

t h e o n l y ones w h o have d o u b t e d w h e t h e r

the c i r c u l a t i o n o f

n o t e b o o k s was an adequate guarantee o f reliable t r a n s m i s s i o n . I t used to be said t h a t i n t h e b o o k s (kutub) o f ' A w n b. Y u s u f alKhuza'T the phrase haddatha-nt

implied jama'whereas

akhbara-ni

i m p l i e d ijdza. T h e d i s t i n c t i o n i n v o l v e d here was e x p l a i n e d t h r o u g h an anecdote a b o u t B a k r b. H a m m a d . W h e n B a k r h a d

finished

r e a d i n g the b o o k s o f I b n W a h b t o ' A w n , he ( B a k r ) asked h i m ('Awn)

about

t h e n a t u r e o f his sama'

from

Ibn Wahb.

The

s i t u a t i o n here is t h a t B a k r is a student w i t h ' A w n . H e has heard 3 8 4

A b u 'l-'Arab, Tabaqdt. 116.

" I b i d . 72.

4 1

I b i d . 72.

• Ibid. 74.

t o the p r o b l e m s o f abuse attendant u p o n an

W h e n ' A w n insisted t h a t he h a d heard his m a t e r i a l f r o m I b n W a h b qird'atan,

he a f f i r m e d at t h e same t i m e t h a t h a d i t been a

m a t t e r o f ijdza he w o u l d have said so. H e r e , ijdza i m p l i e s an i n f e r i o r m o d e o f transmission. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h a t m o d e are i n d i c a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g . A m a n approached I b n W a h b w i t h his b o o k s (kutub) in a sack, saying, These are y o u r b o o k s . H a v e y o u checked

a n d compared—sahhahta

wa-qdbalta?

I b i d . 72.

said I b n W a h b .

Yes. G o t h e n a n d t r a n s m i t t h e m (haddith bi-hd) for I give y o u m y p e r m i s s i o n (ajaztu

la-ka).

M a l i k , i t is said, acted i n t h e same

43

way. The

distinction between

qird'a

and

ijdza,

and

the

whole

p r o g r a m m e o f c h e c k i n g and c o m p a r i n g , should be u n d e r s t o o d as a p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p e d system o f b o o k p r o d u c t i o n , here backdated t o I b n W a h b and M a l i k . T h e r e a l i t y o f the early s i t u a t i o n was that t h e o w n e r o f a n o t e b o o k c o n t r o l l e d its contents. Interested parlies w r o t e d o w n t h e i r sama'

f r o m so-and-so. T h e r e is no reason to

suppose t h a t one man's sama' w o u l d be the same as another's f r o m

w

4 2

earlier

system o f p r i v a t e transmission.

4 3

Ibid. 105-6.

L I T E R A R Y

174

t h e same master.

EORM

A N D

S O C I A L

L I T E R A R Y

C O N T E X T

I t is perfectly possible

t h a t t w o listeners

at

the same majlis w o u l d t a k e notes o n d i f f e r e n t d i c t a ; they m i g h t

(madhahib)

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

o f M a l i k and his c o m p a n i o n s .

C O N T E X T 46

175

H e had c o m p i l e d i t ,

n o t M a l i k . ' A b d a l - ' A z I z b . Y a h y a al-MadanT heard f r o m M a l i k —

r e c o r d t h e m m o r e o r less i n t h e i r o w n w o r d s ; they m i g h t even r e a d

his muwatta' a n d o t h e r t h i n g s — a n d heard also f r o m a l - L a y t h , I b n

t h e m back

D a r a w a r d i a n d o t h e r s . H e recited his b o o k s o n l y f r o m m e m o r y —

to the master—these different notes—and

get

his

a p p r o v a l . I n the e n d they w o u l d be p r e s e r v i n g and t r a n s m i t t i n g

wa-kutubu-hu

their

amongst others h e a r d f r o m h i m — s a m i ' a min-htt.

own

material, not

a

'book'

by

the

master.

I t is

the

transmitters' authority or artistry that might eventually precipitate a real fixed text a t t r i b u t e d t o a n a m e d master. B e t w e e n

a

first

n o t e b o o k a n d an achieved fixed text t h e r e m i g h t be m a n y stages. B o o k s a n d n o t e b o o k s w e r e , o f course, transferable,

as

were

their contents. M u h a m m a d b. a l - H a r i t h al-Khushanl, final compiler o f A b u ' l - ' A r a b ' s Tabaqat, f o u n d i n t h e b o o k (kitab) o f D a h m a n b . a l - M u ' a f i such a n d such an a n e c d o t e .

44

T h e Tabaqat itself was n o t

o r i g i n a l l y a p u b l i s h e d t e x t . A l - K h u s h a n i , t h e final e d i t o r , a c q u i r e d it ( n o d o u b t i n its u n i q u e copy) f r o m A b u ' l - ' A r a b and a d d e d his o w n m a t e r i a l . Sahnun saw a b o o k i n the hands o f his students (talaba)

i n w h i c h t h e r e was

a hadith from

I b n Razin

from

' A b d a l l a h b . N a n ' . Sahnun s u m m o n e d I b n Razin and asked h i m w h e t h e r he h a d h e a r d f r o m (sami'a

miri) I b n N a f i ' . I b n R a z i n

confessed t o e c o n o m y w i t h the t r u t h a n d was accused o f forgery (tadlis). W h a t scorpions w i l l come o u t o f the w o o d w o r k w h e n I a m d e a d ! said S a h n u n .

A >

B u t the scorpions in the w o o d w o r k were a

p a r t o f t h e h u m a n s i t u a t i o n a n d s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n by m o d e r n scholars w h o m i g h t w i s h t o p o r t r a y , perhaps, the real M a l i k a n d

innama amla-ha min hifz. M u h a m m a d b. Sahnun The

47

muwatta'

o f M a l i k here refers t o t h e law p r o p a g a t e d by h i m and not t o a specific

book.

I t is difficult

to think

w h a t is i m p l i e d by

the

suggestion t h a t a m a n r e c i t e d his b o o k s o n l y f r o m m e m o r y : w h a t is recited f r o m m e m o r y is n o t a b o o k i n the usual sense o f the w o r d . I t is l i k e l y t h a t ' A b d a l - ' A z i z h e a r d f r o m M a l i k a n d t r a n s m i t t e d w h a t he l i k e d , o r r e m e m b e r e d , o r t h o u g h t he had h e a r d ; that those w h o i n t u r n h e a r d f r o m h i m made notes and that these notes are the ' b o o k s ' o f ' A b d a l - ' A z i z . Reference t o b o o k s , t h e n , is not i n f r e q u e n t i n the N o r t h A f r i c a n biographies t h o u g h l i t t l e e n o u g h w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h the u b i q u i t o u s reference t o o r a l transmission. T h e h a n d f u l o f references t h a t suggest a f o r m a l system f o r the transmission o f earlier (sama'),

fixed-text

decades o f

the

b o o k s reflects the later r a t h e r t h a n the century.

Private

records

o n the o t h e r h a n d , c e r t a i n l y p r e d a t e d the

of

auditions

Mudawwana

and are l i k e l y t o have been a consistent feature o f l i t e r a r y life f r o m the early t o the later p a r t o f the c e n t u r y . I n the Ta'rikh

al-'ulama'

wa-'l-ruwat

li-'l-'ilm

bi-'l-Andalus

of

I b n a l - F a r a d i , the same p i c t u r e is presented o f an essentially o r a l

his j u r i s p r u d e n c e . E v e n t h a t story a b o u t Sahnun is n o t an accurate

w o r l d o f c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , w i t h a single d o m i n a n t a u t h o r i t a t i v e

r e f l e c t i o n o f his t i m e . T h e w o r d 'students' (talaba) is n o t a t e r m

c a n o n , the Mudawwana

used at t h a t p e r i o d t o describe p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a session. O n l y l a t e r ,

p r i v a t e sama' w o r k s . M a n y o f the l a t t e r were e v e n t u a l l y g a t h e r e d

of Sahnun,

a n d a large c i r c u l a t i o n o f

w i t h the f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f the social status a n d t h e qualifications o f

i n t o a c o m p e n d i u m k n o w n as al-Mustakhraja

t h e j u r i s t i c class, d i d t h e r e d e v e l o p an i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

Selection

b e t w e e n teacher a n d s t u d e n t , together w i t h an increasing c u r r e n c y

A h m a d a l - ' U t b i ( d . 255). T h i s is an A n d a l u s i a n w o r k , a p p a r e n t l y

o f b o o k s . T h e sahib majlis w i t h his julasa',

or ashab, or qawm

was

min al-asmi'a,

The

of Sama s, associated w i t h the name o f M u h a m m a d b.

the p r o d u c t o f an i n i t i a l c o l l e c t i o n m a d e by ' U t b i d u r i n g his travels

p a r t i c i p a t i n g w i t h his peers i n a discursive a c t i v i t y . H e was not

t o N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e c o l l e c t i o n a c q u i r e d considerable fame

engaged i n a t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e f o r y o u t h s . ( I f they w a n t e d t o

p r o m p t e d a m a j o r c o m m e n t a r y as late as the sixth c e n t u r y by A b u

l e a r n , they sat n o d o u b t at the b a c k , w h i l e the

acknowledged

elders sat at the f r o n t , t h e i r knees t o u c h i n g . ) or Collection—la-hu

kitab samma-hu al-majmu'a.

He

h a d c o m p i l e d i t o n t h e subject o f fiqh a c c o r d i n g t o the o p i n i o n s A b u T-'Arab, Tabaqat, 106.

4 5

' 1 - W a l i d I b n R u s h d ( d . 520), grandfather o f the p h i l o s o p h e r I b n R u s h d . T h e final e d i t i o n o f the Mustakhraja

M u h a m m a d b . I b r a h i m b . ' A b d u s h a d a b o o k w h i c h he n a m e d t h e majmu'a

Ibid.

119.

and

is l i k e l y t o represent a

slightly later p e r i o d t h a n the l i f e t i m e o f ' U t b i . A c c o r d i n g t o I b n alF a r a d i , the e d i t i n g o f the a c c u m u l a t e d m a t e r i a l t o o k place at the hands o f ' A b d a l l a h b . M a h m u d a l - A ' r a j ( d . c.310) w h o d i v i d e d i t r>

Ibid.

133.

Ibid. 7 « .

Ij6

LITERARY

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

L I T E R A R Y

i n t o chapters f o l l o w i n g the p a t t e r n o f the Mudawwana. * Formally the m a t e r i a l i n this w o r k is n o t substantially different f r o m t h a t o f the Mudawwana and n e i t h e r its origins n o r its relatively early date need be d o u b t e d . D o m i n a t e d by ra'y and g i v i n g expression t o a huge v a r i e t y o f c o n f l i c t i n g o p i n i o n s , most o f t h e m g o i n g back t o M a l i k , the w o r k was n o t a d m i r e d by those w h o f o l l o w e d I b n W a d d a h . T h e Mustakhraja is f u l l of mistakes, said I b n W a d d a h (for w h o m see C h . 2, Sect. V f ) . 4

4 9

W h i l e it w o u l d be an i n t e r e s t i n g and possibly valuable academic exercise t o a t t e m p t t o recover a series oi soma's f r o m I b n Rushd's c o m m e n t a r y , the task need n o t be u n d e r t a k e n here. T h e effort b e h i n d t h e w o r k confirms that p r i v a t e samd's were the d o m i n a n t f o r m o f w r i t t e n j u r i s p r u d e n c e i n the m i d d l e years o f the t h i r d century. T h e creation f r o m these of m a j o r compendia is exemplified i n the Mudawwana and i n the Mustakhraja, the f o r m e r i n i t i a t e d by Sahnun and a c q u i r i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a c k i n g , the latter r e t a i n i n g t h e character o f a p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e . I n t h e Kitdb al-Baydn o f Jahiz, the u b i q u i t y of n o t e b o o k s as an a d j u n c t t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o r a l activity is c o n f i r m e d . T h e best o f gifts, said F u d a y l , is a saying o f w i s d o m (kalima min al-hikma), w h i c h can be m e m o r i z e d a n d passed o n . Juxtaposed t o t h i s , Jahiz offers t h e a n o n y m o u s , A m a n w r i t e s d o w n the best that he hears, and he m e m o r i z e s the best t h a t he writes d o w n . A n d , M a k e t h a t w h i c h is i n y o u r books a treasure s t o r e d , that w h i c h is i n y o u r heart ( i . e . m e m o r i z e d ) ready m o n e y — i j ' a l ma fi kutuhi-ka bayta mdlin wa-md fi qalbi-ka li-'l-nafaqa. A B e d o u i n disagreed w i t h this s e n t i m e n t : a w o r d preserved i n y o u r heart is better t h a n ten in y o u r notebook—harfun fi qalbi-ka khayrun min 'asharatin fi tumdri-ka I n c o m p a r i n g the r h e t o r i c a l abilities o f I b n a l - Z u b a y r w i t h those o f Sa'Id b. a l - ' A s and his s o n , Jahiz expressed his surprise t h a t t h e w o r d s o f t h e f o r m e r had filled the n o t e b o o k s o f the l e a r n e d — a n n a Ibn al-Zubayr qad mala'a dafdtir al-'ulamd' kaldman—while of the latter they had preserved almost n o t h i n g . T h e w o r l d o f o r a l c u l t u r e no d o u b t had its i l l i t e r a t e s , whose artistic skills w o u l d n o t thereby be d i m i n i s h e d , b u t precisely at the 5l>

5 1

Ibn al-Faradi, Ta'rlkh, i i . 8 (no. 1104) for ' U t b l ; i . 260 (no. 665) for 'Abdallah. Ibid. i i . 8. The material of the Mustakh-raja ean be found in Muhammad b. A h m a d ibn Rushd's Bayan. Jahiz, Bayan, i . 258. " I b i d . 314. 4 8

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

177

m o m e n t w h e n that c u l t u r e became reflected i n w r i t t e n w o r k s t h a t have been preserved, it was a c u l t u r e o f p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s . I t m u s t suffice here s i m p l y t o affirm that a m a j o r i m m e d i a t e source o f J à h i z ' s m a t e r i a l is p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s , his o w n or o t h e r people's. H e had access perhaps t o some p u b l i c ( p u b l i s h e d ) w o r k s but t h e m a j o r i t y even o f these w o u l d n o t be a u t h o r e d w o r k s . W h e n we learn o f K M l i d b. Safwân that he was a m a n o f eloquence and that his skills were reflected i n a b o o k ' w h i c h circulated amongst the (professional) copyists'—kitdb yaddr JÏ aydi alwarrdqin^ —(meaning t h a t they copied i t o n spec in hope o f a sale), w e must n o t i m a g i n e t h a t K h â l i d h a d p r o d u c e d the b o o k ; nor even t h a t the b o o k w h i c h circulated was a stable text free from e m e n d a t i o n , o m i s s i o n , a d d i t i o n , or creative r e w r i t i n g . T h e r e was no one i n charge. J â h i z h i m s e l f must be recognized as ( n o t the first b u t ) amongst the first t o c o n t r o l the p r o d u c t i o n o f books: his m a t e r i a l was g a t h e r e d , selected, and organized by a single a u t h o r , self-consciously aware o f an artistic task, w h i c h was also a financial one. H e had the i n t e n t i o n o f p r o d u c i n g copies t h a t w o u l d precisely replicate his finished w o r k and he e m p l o y e d copyists to this e n d , i n t e n d i n g also t o secure p r o f i t s , d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y , f r o m this authorial activity. 2

I t w i l l be c o n v e n i e n t at this p o i n t , p r e - e m p t i n g a m o r e d e t a i l e d analysis o f I b n Q u t a y b a ' s œuvre, t o illustrate f r o m his Kitdb alMa'drif t h e e x e m p l a r y fate o f some p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s and t h e casual approach to transmission o f some p r i v a t e scholars. Sufyàn a l - T h a w r l bequeathed his books t o T m â r a b . Y û s u f — a w s â ild 'Imàra b. Yusuf fi kutubi-hi. ' I m â r a w i p e d t h e m clean and b u r n e d t h e m — m a h a - h d wa-ahraqa-hd. I t is possible that I b n Q u t a y b a d e r i v e d some satisfaction f r o m the t h o u g h t that the books o f one w h o m he classified w i t h the ashdb al-ra'y ( i m p l y i n g disapproval) were b u r n t . B u t i t was a waste; w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l s , w h e t h e r v e l l u m , p a p y r u s , o r even paper were all capable i n v a r y i n g degrees o f being cleaned and reused. This was the l i k e l y fate o f most private notebooks—unless indeed they contained some items that appealed to t h e new o w n e r . These w o u l d be transferred to his o w n c o m m o n p l a c e b o o k . I b n Q u t a y b a tells us on the a u t h o r i t y of A b t r H â t i m that A b u Q u h l b a bequeathed his books t o A y y u b . T h e y were b r o u g h t f r o m Syria and transferred t o A y y u b w i t h the result 53

4 9

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Ibid. 340.

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'Abdallah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba, Ma'arif, 218.

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that ' t h e y got m u d d l e d up w i t h w h a t I had heard f r o m h i m directly'—fa-khalatat 'aid ba'di ma sami'tu min-hu. A y y u b , i t is e v i d e n t , d i d n o t keep the ' b o o k s ' he received separately f r o m the m a t e r i a l he had h e a r d o r a l l y f r o m the same master. H e copied the m a t e r i a l he l i k e d i n t o his o w n n o t e b o o k s and subsequently c o u l d not distinguish the different origins o f these materials. A l s o f r o m A b u H a t i m : W h e n Q a t a d a d e l i v e r e d a g o o d t a l k (haddatha bi-'lhadith al-jayyid) and t h e n w e n t o n t o s o m e t h i n g new, Shu'ba r a n after h i m ('adawtu wara'a-hu = h u r r i e d l y w r o t e d o w n w h a t he had h e a r d ) so t h a t Q a t a d a s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t , for he ( Q a t a d a ) used to rely o n m e m o r y and n o t w r i t e d o w n — l i - a n n a - h u kdna yahfaz wa¬ Id yaktub. I t was Shu'ba w h o passed j u d g e m e n t on t h e dicta o f Q a t a d a a n d d e c i d e d w h a t t o w r i t e d o w n and w h a t n o t t o w r i t e d o w n ; i t was Shu'ba w h o p r o d u c e d Qatada's b o o k . 5y

W h e t h e r i t actually h a p p e n e d thus w i t h these characters is i m m a t e r i a l . W h a t we infer is t h e same as that we i n f e r r e d f r o m the M a l i k i b i o g r a p h i e s , the same indeed as we m i g h t infer f r o m the actual f o r m s and structures o f early fiqh: books were o r i g i n a l l y the p r o d u c t o f f o l l o w e r s , n o t masters. B o o k s t h e n c i r c u l a t e d a n d were d e s t r o y e d , b u t n o t before t h e i r contents had been ransacked a n d transferred t o o t h e r n o t e b o o k s . I n the process o f c i r c u l a t i o n , the f o r m a n d contents o f p a r t i c u l a r items were liable t o change. N o t every k e e p e r o f a n o t e b o o k was equally scrupulous. W a q i d i is I b n Q u t a y b a ' s source for the f o l l o w i n g . I b n Jurayj w e n t t o H i s h a m b. ' U r w a a n d said, T h e n o t e b o o k (sahifa) y o u gave t o so-and-so, is i t y o u r hadith? Yes, said H i s h a m . Subsequently W a q i d i o v e r h e a r d I b n J u r a y j t r a n s m i t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n the f o r m haddatha-nd Hisham. i b n J u r a y j was thus c l a i m i n g t o have heard d i r e c t l y what he h a d f o u n d i n a n o t e b o o k b e l o n g i n g t o a t h i r d p a r t y . H e had a d m i t t e d l y made an e x t r e m e l y p e r f u n c t o r y check w i t h the alleged source o f this m a t e r i a l , b u t he h a d certainly not h e a r d it f r o m H i s h a m . I b n J u r a y j e x p l a i n e d his conduct: People are i n d e e d at variance o n a sahifa i f , h a v i n g t a k e n i t away w i t h o u t r e a d i n g it (sc. back t o the o w n e r ) , one t h e n transmits i t i n the f o r m uhaddith. B u t if one reads it (back t o the o w n e r ) , it is the same as hearing ( f r o m the master) d i r e c t l y — h u w a wa-'l-sama wdhid. This was a very cavalier a t t i t u d e t o n o t e b o o k s . I n t e l l i n g the story W a q i d i was d e s t r o y i n g t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f any isndd e x h i b i t i n g the l i n k H i s h a m 5t

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b. ' U r w a - I b n J u r a y j . N o t h i n g follows f r o m this story about the t i m e o f I b n J u r a y j . Since W a q i d i d i e d i n 207 and c o u l d n o t therefore be a direct t r a n s m i t t e r t o I b n Q u t a y b a , we cannot even be sure t h a t this is g e n u i n e l y W a q i d l ' s m a t e r i a l . S o m e o n e , h o w e v e r , was d e t e r m i n e d t o i m p u g n I b n J u r a y j , for I b n Q u t a y b a reports also the f o l l o w i n g , again f r o m W a q i d i . I b n Jurayj asked A b u B a k r t o w r i t e o u t some o f his better hadith-- aluidiih nun ahadithi-ka jayydda. A b u B a k r w r o t e o u t a thousand and handed t h e m o v e r ; n e i t h e r d i d A b u B a k r read o u t the m a t e r i a l nor d i d I b n Jurayj read i t back t o h i m . Subsequently W a q i d i saw (hat I b n Jurayj h a d e n t e r e d i n t o his books (qad adkhala [1 kutubi-hi) many ahddith o f t h e f o r m haddatha-ni Abu Bakr. I t is p r o b a b l e that again the i n t e n t i o n is t o cast d o u b t s o n isndds e x h i b i t i n g the link A b u B a k r - I b n J u r a y j . T h e stories, h o w e v e r , reveal the practices o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y ; i n g o o d faith or in bad faith t r a n s m i t t e d i n f o r m a t i o n was l i k e l y t o c l a i m pedigrees that i t d i d not deserve. People w o u l d read t o I b n L a h i ' a h a d i t h that were not his, and he w o u l d keep s i l e n t — i m p l y i n g acceptance. Someone spoke t o h i m about t h i s . W h a t fault o f m i n e is this? he r e p l i e d ; they come w i t h a b o o k , read i t t o m e , t h e n go away again. I f they asked m e , I w o u l d tell t h e m it was n o t m y t r a n s m i s s i o n . 51

58

T h e social response to these p h e n o m e n a was n a t u r a l l y that the system d e v e l o p e d c o n t r o l s . T h e master m i g h t check m a t e r i a l t r a n s m i t t e d i n his name by insisting that the contents of a n o t e b o o k be read back t o h i m . W h e n this p r o v e d an inadequate c o n t r o l , t h e n t h e master was l i k e l y t o take f u l l c o n t r o l over p r o d u c t i o n and transmission; he w o u l d compose his b o o k i n w r i t t e n f o r m , r e a d i t o u t to his students, and r e q u i r e t h e m t o read back t h e i r notes t o be checked against his o r i g i n a l . Some authorities h a d secretaries; professional scribes (warrdq) emerged: a f o r m a l system o f checking and correcting (muqdbala wa-tashih) developed. T h u s d i d authors and real b o o k s — m u l t i p l e editions o f precisely t h e same t e x t — e n t e r the w o r l d o f A r a b i c l i t e r a t u r e , rather l a t e r , p r o b a b l y , in fiqh t h a n i n adab. T h e process was slow and u n e v e n . Some o f the first ' b o o k s ' were perhaps personal collections, i r r e g u l a r l y d e r i v e d f r o m all kinds o f sources, t h r o u g h

Ibid. I b i d . 221. See further al-Qadi ' l y a d , Al-lbna, leaching and transmitting texts. s 7

5 4

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'Abdallah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba, Ma'arif, 197. I b i d . 203-4. I b i d . 214. 5 6

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perhaps generations o f n o t e b o o k s , finally crystallized as, say, the Jami' o f Sufyan a l - T h a w r i . The transition from a predominantly oral milieu to a bookd o m i n a t e d m i l i e u was effected i n the course o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i o n o f n o t e b o o k s . T h e process was no d o u b t u n e v e n , the s i t u a t i o n different in different geographical areas and in d i f f e r e n t areas o f scholarly a n d artistic a c t i v i t y . I n the w o r l d o f fiqh, i n N o r t h A f r i c a , the c o m p l e t e absence o f any established w r i t t e n j u r i s t i c w o r k p r i o r t o t h e emergence o f the Mudawwana confirms t h a t p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s and a c o n c o m i t a n t stress on oral a c t i v i t y h a d been t h e n o r m , i t is easy t o p o s t u l a t e , m o r e difficult t o p r o v e , t h a t t h e emergence o f n o t e b o o k s was itself a sequel t o a p e r i o d w h e n o r a l law w i t h o u t w r i t t e n a i d had been the n o r m . I n I r a q , i n t h e field o f adab, the g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m notebooks that w e r e an aid t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o r a l creativity t o notebooks that made some c l a i m t o being finished w o r k s o f w r i t t e n art may have p r e c e d e d the life of Jahiz. B u t the uncertainties o f a t t r i b u t i o n a n d d a t i n g i n the field o f early A r a b i c l i t e r a t u r e suggest that this t r a n s i t i o n was, at best, a slow and u n c e r t a i n process. E v e n conceding all the m a r g i n a l and d o u b t f u l cases, it is safe to assert that the A r a b i c language, p r i o r t o 200, d i d not have a significant established canon of w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e . I n a context w h e r e the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s were the p r o u d and conscious bearers o f a diverse w r i t t e n c u l t u r e ( t h o u g h n o t necessarily i n the language they h a b i t u a l l y s p o k e ) t h a t was perceived as a weakness, g i v i n g rise t o the c u l t u r a l p o l e m i c o f the Shu'ubiyya ( b e l o w , Sect. V ) . T h e result o f the c u l t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n , w h i c h I have located p r i m a r i l y i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , was o f course a change i n the nature o f p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y , n o t j u s t i n the w o r l d o f fiqh. T h e b r o a d processes o f o r a l transmission w h i c h were d i r e c t l y responsible for some o f the m a t e r i a l that became w r i t t e n in the early decades o f the c e n t u r y suffered a decline i n prestige. T h e focus o f p u b l i c concern m o v e d t o the transmission and preservation o f w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l a n d t o the transfer o f such m a t e r i a l i n t o o r d e r l y , and i f possible a r t i s t i c , structures. Whereas the bearers o f a u t h o r i t y in the A r a b - M u s l i m cities o f c.200 were p r i m a r i l y engaged i n an o r a l activity and w e r e at least n o t handicapped by i l l i t e r a c y , this c o u l d not be affirmed o f the p e r i o d c.300 ( t h o u g h i n d e e d i t seems l i k e l y that t h e liveliness o f the o r a l m i l i e u c o n t i n u e d : some disciplines, for example those associated w i t h zuhd and tasawwuf, emerged

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o n l y later i n t o w r i t t e n f o r m s ) . T h e process and the d i r e c t i o n o f change seem clearly m a r k e d i n our texts, but the dating is a d m i t t e d l y u n c e r t a i n and subject t o many constraints. IV E a r l y j u r i s t i c m a t e r i a l does n o t identify the social status o f its n a m e d tradents. A u t h o r i t i e s i n the Mudawwana arc variously r e f e r r e d t o as rijal al-'ilm, aid al-'ilm,"" the 'ulamâ," the fuqaha'f the fuqaha' and t h e 'ulama'? Ibn al-Musayyib, Ibn Y a s a r , ' U m a r b. ' A b d a l - ' A z î z , and Y a h y a b. Sa'id simply as names appear i n a l i s t . T h e r e are no clues to indicate that one in this list was first G o v e r n o r o f M a d i n a and later C a l i p h in Damascus. T h e H a n a f i b o o k s , o w i n g p r o b a b l y t o an accident o f style, show a m a r k e d preference for the t e r m fuqaha'f but equally fail t o p r o v i d e any b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n social origins. 59

[

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T h e Tabaqat is m o r e suggestive: i n so far as i t m e n t i o n s the social class o f its characters it confirms that these experts i n the law m i g h t come f r o m any and every b a c k g r o u n d . Y a h y a b. Sulayman a l - K h a r r â z , n o t e d for his k n o w l e d g e o f a r i t h m e t i c , was i n v i t e d t o j o i n t h e diwan, that is, the local c h a n c e r y . ' A b d a l - ' A z î z b. Y a h y a a l - M a d a n î was an i t i n e r a n t m e r c h a n t w h o came t o Q a y r a w a n w i t h m u s k , i n t e n d i n g t o sell i t , but r e f r a i n e d f r o m d o i n g so w h e n he discovered that t h e local g o v e r n o r c l a i m e d sole rights to b u y this s u b s t a n c e . A b ü D â w ü d was an 'attar, dealer i n m e d i c i n a l drugs and p e r f u m e s . ' A w n b. Y û s u f used t o sell l i n e n (kattan) f r o m his b o o t h in the m a r k e t . A b û Y a h y a H a m m â d b. Y a h y a was a m e r c h a n t — k â n a tâjiran. " I b n N â f i ' was a g o l d s m i t h or j e w e l l e r , şâ'igh. W e have seen other examples o f authorities w h o h a d a b o o t h , a hânüt i n the m a r k e t . T h e presence o f artisans o f r e l a t i v e l y l o w status is perhaps a l i t t l e s u r p r i s i n g , even t o the transmitters. M a r w a n b. A b i S h u h m a used t o make m u d bricks w i t h his o w n h a n d s — k â n a ya'mal bi-yadi-hi al-lüb. H e w o u l d give 66

67

68

6 9

7

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Sahnün, Mudawwana, v. 5. Ibid. vi. 52 anil 97; 21. I b i d . vi. 105. ' h i d . v. 9. Ibid. i i . 97. " Ib'd- v. 16. e.g. Shaybânî, Muwatla', 5 3 , 94 and passim. See also the works ol Tahfrwl, discussed at Ch. 9 , Sect, i f and Ch. 9, Sect. TV. A b u T-'Arab, Tabaqal, 9 0 - 1 . Ibid. 78. I b i d . 117. I b i d . 105. Ibid. 11S. Ibid. 119. 9

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away one t h i r d o f his i n c o m e as c h a r i t y , devote o n e t h i r d t o his f a m i l y , a n d w i t h the r e m a i n i n g t h i r d he w o u l d buy clay for the b u s i n e s s . I b n G h a n i m was a q a d i . So o f course was Sahnun. A n d some ( b u t n o t all) o f his predecessors as qadis were w o r t h y of recall as a u t h o r i t i e s . ' A b d a l l a h b. A h m a d b. T a l i b became Q a d i o f Q a y r a w a n and held sessions i n w h i c h he encouraged v i r t u o s o debate—yughni fi 'l-munazara. HabTb had charge of the mazalim c o u r t u n d e r Sahnun (sahib mazalim Sahnun). A s a d b . al-Furat was p u t i n charge o f t h e a r m y by an A g h l a b i d governor—walla-hu 'aid 'l-jaysh—prior t o its b e i n g dispatched t o Sicily. N o t h i n g in his early career suggests t h a t he was a soldier; i t is l i k e l y t o be his o r g a n i z a t i o n a l abilities that w o n h i m this p o s t . 72

7 3

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T h e A g h l a b i d governors are not amongst those w h o k n o w the law. T h e y s u m m o n e d the 'ulamd' w h e n they were faced w i t h a difficult p r o b l e m . T h e y i n v i t e d the jurists t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n sessions at t h e i r c o u r t ; and they m i g h t t r y t o b r i b e the jurists t o w i n t h e m t o t h e i r s i d e . T h e y recognize the a u t h o r i t y o f the j u r i s t s , but they are n o t o f t h e m . 7 8

79

T h e peculiar a u t h o r i t y o f governors and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s perhaps meant t h a t , given the r i g h t circumstances and t h e i r active p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the processes o f discussing the l a w , they m i g h t in certain areas have d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e influence i n f o r m u l a t i n g the law. S u c h , h o w e v e r , was n o t i n e v i t a b l y nor even usually t h e case. W h e n a mukdtab (a slave i n the process o f b u y i n g his f r e e d o m by instalments) o f I b n a l - M u t a w a k k i l died i n M a k k a , leaving a part o f his mukdtaba u n p a i d , some o t h e r debts, and a d a u g h t e r , the local a d m i n i s t r a t o r was nonplussed and sent t o ' A b d a l - M a l i k b. M a r w a n . ' A b d a l - M a l i k i n s t r u c t e d h i m first t o pay off the debts, then the r e m a i n i n g mukdtaba. and t o transfer the r e m a i n d e r o f t h e i n h e r i t a n c e t o t h e daughter a n d o t h e r heirs. T h e story is r e c o r d e d i n t h e Muwatta' Shaybdni a n d t h e Muwatta' Yahyd. I t does n o t i m p l y that the g o v e r n o r ( h a b i t u a l l y ) made up the l a w b u t that in this case his decision was t h o u g h t t o give satisfactory expression to i t . T h e s o l u t i o n was.recorded because a p p r o v e d . m

Equally, 7 2

7 4

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possibly

m o r e , characteristic

A b u M-'Arab, Tabaqat, 115-16. Ibid. 85. ' I b i d . 136-8. I b i d . 83. Ibid. 106.

is the occasion I b i d . 116. " I b i d . 116. ' Ibid. 86.

when

7 3

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ShaybanI, Muwatta', 306; Malik, Muwatta'. Kildb al-mukdtaba, Bab al-qada' fi 1-mukdtab. 811

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M â l i k was asked by the g o v e r n o r o f M a d i n a t o reduce the n u m b e r o f rak'as p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e qiydm ( v i g i l ) o f R a m a d a n . I forbade h i m t o reduce the n u m b e r , said Mâlik—nahaytu-hu an yanqus min dhdlika shay an; this is the practice that 1 f o u n d the people c o n f o r m i n g t o , i t is ancient custom—al-amr al-qadim alladhilam yazal 'alay-hi al-nds. T h e governor cannot change the established law and must s u b m i t t o the c o m m a n d s o f a j u r i s t . Sahnun asked I b n a l - Q â s i m , w i t h regard t o straying camels, w h e t h e r M â l i k r e q u i r e d t h e wall (the local g o v e r n o r ) t o sell t h e m — h a l kdna Malikya'mur al-wdll. Mâlik said. Straying camels are n o t t o be sold. H e is also r e p o r t e d t o have said that a certain g o v e r n o r consulted h i m o n j u s t this m a t t e r and he gave h i m this reply—istashdra-ni, ashartu? G o v e r n o r s consult the juqaluV in o r d e r t o discover the law or i n the hope of finding a way r o u n d i t . Such are the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e early j u r i s t i c texts, b r o a d l y c o n firmed in t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l (see above o n the A g h l a b i d s ) . sl

2

I f governors d i d n o t m a k e the l a w , they m i g h t none the less be i n f l u e n t i a l i n so far as they t o o w e r e t h i n k i n g members of society, capable o f reflection o n the k n o w n law. Some local a u t h o r i t i e s , governors, judges, or administrators might w i n in their own right the status o f scholar o r j u r i s t ; this they w o u l d do by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the sessions o f those a c k n o w l e d g e d already t o have this status. W h e n this happened t h e i r names appear i n the n a m e d authorities o f this school or t h a t . M a n v â n b. a l - H a k a m (as governor o f M a d i n a ) engaged i n discussion w i t h j u r i s t i c a u t h o r i t i e s , even o n m i n o r p o i n t s o f the law o f p u r i t y . 8 3

T h e diffuse authority of the elders of the c o m m u n i t y — m e r c h a n t s , traders, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , some a r t i s a n s — w h o met i n the mosque o r i n t h e m a r k e t - p l a c e t o express t h e i r i n h e r i t e d w i s d o m and t o discuss t h e ancient t r a d i t i o n d i d n o t last the c e n t u r y . B y the early f o u r t h c e n t u r y , sitting i n the same mosques, and m u c h less i n the m a r k e t - p l a c e , w e r e professional jurists s u r r o u n d e d by s t u d e n t s . 84

Sahnün, Mudawwana, i . 222. I b i d . , xv. 176-7. Ch. 3, Sect. I V . I t is important to note that the early works of fiqh do not provide any evidence to suggest that caliphs as such were recognized as lawmakers. See Ch. 8 , Sect. V I . I t is not my intention to suggest that the older more informal system just disappeared. I t was marginalized. But the basic processes of informal social control could and still can be found to dominate in areas where literacy, formal education, and bureaucratic central control have not completely ousted them. Consider the role of the elders in Al-Tayyib Salih's Sudanese novella, 'Urs al-Zayn. 8 1

8 3

8 4

8 2

L I T E R A R Y

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

L I T E R A R Y

Increasing l i t e r a c y and t h e a t t e n d a n t processes o f professionali z a t i o n were factors affecting n o t o n l y the j u r i s t s . T h e b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l i n I b n Q u t a y b a ' s Kitàb al-Ma 'ârif relates t o the general ( o r a l , at least allegedly) transmission o f A r a b c u l t u r e b u t i t shows the same sense o f w i d e l y diffused social a u t h o r i t y , effectively c a p t u r e d already i n I b n Q u t a y b a ' s t i m e by literateurs whose skills were f o r m a l a n d l i t e r a t e . T h o u g h the i n f o r m a t i o n is presented unsystematically, his characters t o o reveal themselves t o be a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , m e r c h a n t s , and artisans. Ismâ'ïl b . ' U l y a was one o f t h e notables (khiydr al-nds); he had charge o f t h e mazàlim c o u r t at B a g h d a d . M u h a m m a d b. ' A b d a l l a h a l - A n s à r ï also had a p e r i o d . i n charge o f the mazàlim. W a k i ' b. a l - J a r r a h served in the treasury, the bayt al-mdl. ' A s i m a l - A h w a l had charge o f the m a r k e t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the hisba, i n K u f a . Z a y d b. Z a r l , ' f o l l o w i n g i n his father's footsteps, l o o k e d after the governor's m i l i t i a , t h e shurta, i n Basra. ' A b d a l l a h b. a l - M u b à r a k died r e t u r n i n g f r o m a r a i d ; he was perhaps a professional soldier. O f merchants a n d traders we find a c o p p e r s m i t h , a dealer i n herbs and drugs, a seller o f clarified b u t t e r , dealers in c l o t h i n g and i n cloths (tayyàlisï a n d anmàiï); also a teacher, a professional scribe, and a secretary. O f K h à l i d a l - H a d h d h â ' ( K h a l i d the C o b b l e r ) , w e l e a r n that he was so-called because he used t o ' s i t ' w i t h the cobblers—yajlis ilâ 'l-hadhdhà'ïn; o r , possibly, because, h a v i n g t a l k e d (takallama) o n an aspect o f k n o w l e d g e , he w o u l d say, F o l l o w this h a d i t h — i h d h i 'aid hàdhd 1-hadîth. K h à l i d d i e d i n 141, but these c o m m e n t s are an effort t o e x p l a i n his name in a p e r i o d w h e n i t was n o l o n g e r k n o w n w h y he had this n a m e . V e r y possibly he was a c o b b l e r , b u t . by I b n Q u t a y b a ' s t i m e , i t was n o t i m m e d i a t e l y conceivable that a l o w - r a n k i n g artisan s h o u l d have status as an a u t h o r i t y . 8 5

8 6

87

8 8

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

'85

l a y i n g c l a i m to special rights o f g u a r d i n g , i n t e r p r e t i n g , and p r o d u c i n g legal texts was n o t m e r e l y a l i t e r a r y p h e n o m e n o n ; for the texts t h e y guarded specified h o w people were to act and i m p l i e d w i d e social a u t h o r i t y . T h e capacity o f the law to change and d e v e l o p w h e n i t was frozen i n t o words o n paper ( o r papyrus, or v e l l u m ) was not necessarily p r e - e m p t e d , but the mode of change was clearly different f r o m w h a t i t had been w h e n the law was consensually w o r k e d o u t t h r o u g h discussion or w h e n w r i t t e n texts had o n l y an ancillary role. T h e developing prolessionalization o f t h e j u r i s t i c classes was i n t i m a t e l y related t o t h e i r d e x t e r i l y i n controlling written materials and c o m m i t t e d them to a hermeneutic discipline w h i c h alone c o u l d validate and perpetuate their claim to authority.

8 9

V

9 0

91

9 2

T h e m o v e m e n t o f a u t h o r i t y conceptually f r o m an o r a l t o a w r i t t e n e n v i r o n m e n t e n t a i l e d its m o v e m e n t socially f r o m a b r o a d s p e c t r u m o f social classes t o a n a r r o w e r b a n d o f suitably educated persons. W i t h i n t h e field oifiqh, t h e emergence o f a l i t e r a t e élite i b n Outayba, Ma'Srif, 221. Ibid. 227. I b i d . 221. I b i d . 222. «" I b i d . 222. I b i d . 223. I b i d . , Azhar al-Sammân, 224; 'Affân b. Muslim al-Saffâr, 228; Dâ'ûd b. ' A b d al-Rahmàn al-'Attâr, 223; A b u T-Walïd al-Tayyàlisî and A b u Dâ'ûd al-Tayyâlisï, 227; H a j j â j al-Anmâtî, 227. Ma'lâ b. Asad was a teacher, 228, A d a m al-'Àsqalânï a scribe (warrâq), 'Abdallah b. Sàlih secretary to Layth, 228. Ibid. 219. 8 5

8S

(

9 1

9 2

8 6

8 7

9,1

T h e emergence o f a distinguishable social class, t h e fuqahd', was a p h e n o m e n o n i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d t o , and perhaps m a r g i n a l l y later than the emergence and individuation of a corresponding academic d i s c i p l i n e , fiqh. D e m a r c a t i o n o f disciplines w i t h i n the Islamic c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n was i n the e n d a finely d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t o o l w h i c h h a d social as w e l l as academic i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e A n d a l u s i a n Ta'rikh al-'ulamd', d e p i c t i n g the life o f I b n W a d d a h , states t h a t he j o u r n e y e d t w i c e t o the East, first i n quest of the ascetic sciences (zuhd a n d 'ibdda), secondly i n quest of h a d i t h . T h a t separation o f types o f k n o w l e d g e a n d , by i m p l i c a t i o n , o f personnel reflects e d u c a t i o n a l practices i n t h e t i m e o f the biographer and need not be historically c o m p e l l i n g for I b n W a d d a h ' s l i f e t i m e . T h e N o r t h A f r i c a n Tabaqdt i n f o r m s us that Sahnun met I b n a l - Q a s i m , A s h h a b , and others i n t h e field oifiqh, i n the field o f h a d i t h Sufyan b. ' U y a y n a , I b n W a h b , and o t h e r s . T h a t o f course is an inference f r o m the n a t u r e a n d contents of the Mudawwana and reflects the t r e n d t o w a r d s academic specialization that characterizes a subsequent p e r i o d . T h e a u t h o r i t y statements in the Mudawwana ( = h a d i t h ) are n o t so different f r o m dialogue m a t e r i a l ( = fiqh) as to w a r r a n t assumptions a b o u t clearly demarcated disciplines (cf. above, C h . 1). 9 3

9 4

9 3 9 4

Ibn al-Faradl, Ta'rikh, ii. 17 (no. 1 136). A b u 'l-'Arab, Tabaqdt, 102.

186

L I T E R A R Y

FORM

A N D

S O C I A L

L I T E R A R Y

C O N T E X T

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the t e r m s fiqh and faqih f r o m t h e general

Qutayba.

juristic understanding accomplished

S O C I A L

C O N T E X T

I n his d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the transmission

n o t yet

fully

c u l t u r e (represented

i n the o r d i n a r y l i t e r a r y A r a b i c o f t h e early

third

and the ashdb

and was

9 5

A N D

new o n e ; i t was already significantly advanced i n t h e t i m e o f I b n

c o n n o t a t i o n s o f ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' t o the specific c o n n o t a t i o n s o f is w e l l k n o w n

FORM

of

Arabic

i n the biographical accounts o f the

tdhi'iin

al-hadith

i n his Kitab al-Ma'drif)

he shows the

c e n t u r y . W h e n Jahiz stated t h a t ' A m r b. ' U b a y d , H i s h a m b. Hassan

requisite analytic a p p r o a c h . D a w u d a l - T a ' I , t o cite one e x a m p l e ,

and m a n y fuqaha'

sat w i t h F a d l b. Tsa, he was using the w o r d

developed skills in h a d i t h , fiqh, nahw, ayydm al-nds, and

fuqaha'

general

I f the last f o u r o f those can be translated as l a w , g r a m m a r , h i s t o r y ,

to

specifically

imply

wisdom

j u r i s t i c skills. E v e n

and

discursive

skills,

i n j u r i s t i c biographies,

not

where

j u r i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s are necessarily i m p l i e d , t h e t e r m fiqh has a

and asceticism,

la'ablnul.'""

the p r o b l e m t h a t remains in c o m p l e t i n g the list

illustrates precisely the f o r m v . c o n t e n t d i c h o t o m y .

d o u b l e aspect, i m p l y i n g a s k i l l ( o l d e r usage) and a system. Sahnun

Whatever the difficulties, i t is at least clear that the differentiation

said o f B a h l u l b. R a s h i d t h a t he was an u p r i g h t m a n b u t d i d not

and d e l i n e a t i o n o f academic disciplines, at a conceptual level, was

have as

w e l l advanced i n the m i d d l e decades o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y .

yakun

m u c h fiqh

'inda-hu

(=

juristic understanding)

min al-fiqh ma 'inda ghayri-hi,

as

others—lam

But A b u Yahya

96

That

these e m e r g e d o u t o f an i n i t i a l l y m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s c u l t u r a l

H a m m a d b . Y a h y a was the first t o b r i n g t o Q a y r a w a n the fiqh ( i . e .

m a t r i x is perhaps the most l i k e l y s u p p o s i t i o n . ( W a n s b r o u g h

system) o f ' A b d a l - M a l i k b. M a j i s h u n .

argued

A

typology

attempted,

of

early

remains

Islamic

elusive,

9 7

literature,

in part

though

because

of

frequently formal

and

persuasively for the separate d e v e l o p m e n t

has

o f law

and

s c r i p t u r e , t h e l a t t e r , at least i n its canonical f o r m , later t h a n the f o r m e r , and p r o d u c t o f p o p u l a r l i t u r g i c a l and preaching a c t i v i t y .

1 0 1

substantive overlaps ( a n d i n p a r t because o f p r o b l e m s i n d a t i n g

Separate d e v e l o p m e n t

o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s , reflecting divisions o f

and historical development). John Wansbrough, for w h o m typology

class as w e l l as Sitz im Leben,

is a m a j o r analytic device, o n several occasions has a t t e m p t e d t o

c u l t u r a l m a t r i x . ) T h e r e are grounds for t h i n k i n g that fiqh was the

is n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a c o m m o n

define categories w h i c h w i l l b o t h catch and appropriately distinguish

first m a j o r discipline t o acquire a separate i d e n t i t y and t o generate

the literature he studies. O n e o f his most general approaches suggests

specialists w h o c o n s t i t u t e d a d i s t i n c t social class. T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t

five

may be detected in the d i f f e r e n t approaches t o law by Jahiz and

kinds

literature:

of

linguistic m a t e r i a l

poetry,

Qur'an,

that

represent early

h a d i t h , ayydm,

and

Arabic

papyri.

His

I b n Q u t a y b a . I n the large adab w o r k s o f the f o r m e r ( t h e and

also be a d a p t e d a n d reused for general l i t e r a r y d e s c r i p t i o n ;

as

e m b e d d e d w i t h i n the body o f m a t e r i a l t h a t is d e e m e d t o constitute

m i g h t his t y p o l o g y o f confessional types ( p r i m i t i v i s t , s c r i p t u r a l i s t ,

general c u l t u r e . I n the w o r k s o f the l a t t e r , a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r , there

ritualist, e t c . ) .

9 8

I have a t t e m p t e d a refinement o f

exegetical types t o w a r d s

five

structures:

lexis,

orthography,

i n s t r u m e n t a l and syntax,

Wansbrough's five

ideological

rhetoric, and

allegory;

the

Hayawdn)

jurists

and

juristic argument

Bayan

t y p o l o g y o f exegetical l i t e r a t u r e (haggadic, h a l a k h i c , etc.) m i g h t

are

firmly

is suspicion a n d distaste for precisely this d i s c i p l i n e , w h i c h is n o w clearly a separate discipline. Expressly articulated i n the al-hadith,

t h e distaste is also e v i d e n t

Mukhtalif

i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n

of

p r o p h e t i c h i s t o r y , t h e o l o g y , eschatology, l a w , and tasawwuf. A l l

b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l i n t h e Ma'drif.

o f these, i t m i g h t be a r g u e d , exist i n t h e Islamic t r a d i t i o n b o t h as

sections o n Successors (tdbi'un),

jurists (ahl al-ra'y),

( m o r e o r less) i n d e p e n d e n t academic disciplines and as exegetical

mitters (ashdb

so organized

modes.

d e v i a t i o n o f t h e j u r i s t s f r o m the t r a d i t i o n . Transmission was f r o m

9 9

according

The

d r a w i n g o f lines is n o t a r b i t r a r y and must

t o t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e analyst o r according

vary

t o the

degree o f focus o n f o r m as o p p o s e d t o c o n t e n t . N o r is t h e task a £7(ii), s.v. -Fiqh-. " A b u V A r a b , Tabaqal, 103.8. I b i d . 118. '' John Wansbrough, Studies, 90 and 119; Wansbrough, Milieu, 55. Norman Caldcr, 'Tafsir'. 1,5 9 7

8

9 9

al-hadith)

102

are

T h e r e , the three sequent as

and trans-

to m a r k

the Successors t o the t r a n s m i t t e r s ; t h e j u r i s t s , d o m i n a t e d by failed to take u p and pass o n the c u l t u r a l b a t o n .

6

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 2

I b n Qutayba, Ma'drif, 224. Wansbrough, Studies, 170 ft'. and Milieu, 78-80. I b n Qutayba, Ma'drif, 186 ff., 2 i 6 f f . . 219 ft'.

the ra'y,

LITERARY

FORM A N D S O C I A L

CONTEXT

LITERARY

Pace I b n Qutayba,/ir//z was n o t so far separate f r o m t h e general stream o f A r a b i c c u l t u r e as t o be i m m u n e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l processes t o w h i c h the latter was subject. T h e a m b i t i o n o f adab t o c o n t a i n a n d express the w h o l e of A r a b i c c u l t u r e makes it a c o n v e n i e n t c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t o demonstrate w h a t those processes w e r e . F o u r o v e r a r c h i n g issues, d e v e l o p i n g sequentially t h r o u g h o u t the t h i r d c e n t u r y and i n t o the f o u r t h , affected t h e expression o f a l l aspects o f A r a b i c M u s l i m c u l t u r e . T h e y arc: 1. the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a tension r e f l e c t i o n , p a r t i a l l y resolved by

between

transmission

and

2. a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f P r o p h e t i c a u t h o r i t y as relevant t o all areas o f c u l t u r a l l i f e ; this i n t u r n r e q u i r e d 3 . t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a t h e o r y o f integral o r a l transmission. T h e w h o l e was guaranteed and j u s t i f i e d by 4 . s u b s u m p t i o n o f c u l t u r a l disciplines t o the n o t i o n of s c r i p t u r a l ( Q u r a n i c ) sanction. ( T h e Islamic l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f tafsir can be described as the systematic c o m p a r i s o n of the sacred text w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t disciplines: o r t h o g r a p h y , lexis, syntax, e t c . The effect is n o t s i m p l y t o d r a w o u t the m e a n i n g o r meanings o f Q u r a n i c l o c u t i o n s , b u t a l s o — a n d possibly m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y — t o d e m o n s t r a t e Q u r a n i c sanction for the disciplines.) 1 0 3

T h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o t i o n s o f transmission ( i n t e g r a l ) and reflection ( c r e a t i v e ) was a r t i c u l a t e d o n m o r e t h a n one occasion by M u h a m m a d b. a l - H a r i t h al-Khushani, editor o f the N o r t h African Tabaqdt. H e h e a r d a certain shaykh w h o p r o p o s e d (dhakara) the s u p e r i o r i t y o f fiqh (reflection) over m u c h transmission and g a t h e r i n g o f r e p o r t s — d h a k a r a fadl al-tafaqquh 'ala kithrat alriwaya wa-jam' al-akhbdr. H e also records that w h e n S i m a d i h i , w h o was a c k n o w l e d g e d t o be s k i l l e d in g a t h e r i n g t r a n s m i t t e d m a t e r i a l (riwdya), came across a real dispute he never k n e w w h a t to do t i l l he sought a fatwa o r asked an authority—istaftd wasa'ala. A h m a d b. M u h a m m a d used t o ask Y a h y a b. ' U m a r questions (masd'il) w h i c h he w o u l d then repeat o n a second occasion a n d get precisely t h e same answer w i t h no differences i n w o r d i n g o r changes i n r u l i n g . A l - K h u s h a n i c o m m e n t e d that this showed stagnation i n the reflective process, lack of range i n t h i n k i n g , a n d an [ u n h a p p y ] r e s t r i c t i o n t o w o r d s m e m o r i z e d — 104

105

m 1 0 5

Calder, 'Tafsir'. Ibid.

"

) 4

A b u T-'Arab, Tabaqat, 106-7.

FORM A N D SOCIAL

CONTEXT

JoQ

rukud al-nazar wa-qdlat al-ijdla li- 'l-fikr wa- . . . 'l-iqtisdr 'ala 7maqal al-mahfuz. ^ T h e t e n s i o n thus a r t i c u l a t e d was i n fact never resolved and is already present i n the earliest layers o f juristic w r i t i n g . F i n a l l y e m b o d i e d i n a standard series o f technical t e r m s — fiqh, ray, nazar versus hifz, riwdya, hadith—it was at first a d i s t u r b i n g , and consequently a p r o d u c t i v e , t e n s i o n . A k i n d o f resolution was f o u n d i n t h e b a c k w a r d search for a u t h o r i t y w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d in the figure o f the Prophet and in the n o t i o n o f Prophetic e x e m p l u m . T h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d i n t i m e a ( m o r e o r less) fixed c a n o n o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e (the collections o f H u k h a r i , M u s l i m , et a/.), h a v i n g t h e status o f r e v e l a t i o n and p o t e n t i a l l y open t o h e r m e n e u t i c analysis. T h e t e n s i o n , t h e n , was between a ' l i t e r a l ' and a m o r e o r less avowedly i n t e r p r e t a t i v e approach to revealed texts. G i v e n t h e 200-year gap between the Prophet's death and t h e c o m m i t m e n t t o P r o p h e t i c a u t h o r i t y , i t w i l l be obvious w h y the jurists ( a n d others) had t o insist o n and d o c u m e n t a p e r i o d o f i n t e g r a l o r a l transmission i n the h i s t o r y of A r a b i c c u l t u r e . T h i s is n o t an issue w h i c h affected o n l y j u r i s t i c or even broadly t h e o l o g i c a l matters: t h e w h o l e o f A r a b i c c u l t u r e was affected i n v a r y i n g degrees by these concerns, precisely i n the m i d d l e decades o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y . 10

C o n s i d e r f o r e x a m p l e some differences b e t w e e n Jahiz's Kitdb al-Baydn and I b n Q u t a y b a ' s 'Uyun al-akhbdr. B o t h w o r k s are made up o f discrete segments j u x t a p o s e d , and g r o u p e d by reference t o b r o a d t h e m a t i c headings. I n the f o r m e r , the segments are i n t r o d u c e d by a large and varied t e r m i n o l o g y o f o r a l transmission. A m o n g s t the a u t h o r i t i e s cited are t h e P r o p h e t and the C o m p a n i o n s , w h o figure, w i t h o u t f o r m a l p r o m o t i o n , s i m p l y as members o f a larger galaxy o f A r a b i c heroes. C i t a t i o n s are rarely p r o v i d e d w i t h isndds o f any l e n g t h , and w h e n these d o occur they appear t o be r a n d o m a n d t o bear no message. B y contrast, i n Ibn Q u t a y b a ' s w o r k , t h e t e r m hadith and its derivatives are significantly p r o m o t e d t o bear t h e p r i m a r y b u r d e n o f expressing and d e f i n i n g the b o d y o f i n h e r i t e d m a t e r i a l . Prophetic dicta are consistently m a r k e d as h i g h - r a n k i n g b o t h by p r o v i s i o n o f a lengthy isndd and b y p r o m o t i o n t o i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n in a chapter (hub). Related h i g h - r a n k i n g m a t e r i a l d e r i v i n g its status f r o m p r o p i n q u i t y to the P r o p h e t , for e x a m p l e , C o m p a n i o n m a t e r i a l , is subject t o the Ibid.

134.

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same m a r k e r s o f r a n k a n d , i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o bdbs, is l i k e l y t o appear i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l hierarchical o r d e r . T h e p r i n c i p l e s are i n fact t h e same as those used f o r t h e sequential o r d e r i n g o f m a t e r i a l in the Muwatta' and i n K h a s s a f s Akhdm al-waqf, only more loosely a p p l i e d as befits an a r t - f o r m i n w h i c h heterogeneity is a f o r m a l v i r t u e . O n a larger c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f I b n Q u t a y b a ' s w o r k , i t w i l l be seen that i t reflects consistent elevation o f the t e r m hadith to denote A r a b i c t r a n s m i t t e d c u l t u r e (the 'Uyun a n d the b i o graphical parts o f the Ma'drif), a special interest i n P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h ( t h e Mukhtalif al-hadith), a c o n c o m i t a n t interest i n the B e d o u i n b a c k g r o u n d t o A r a b i c and P r o p h e t i c c u l t u r e (Al-Shi'r wa-'l-shu'ard'), and an interest i n Q u r a n i c language (the Ta'wU mushkil al-Qur'dn). H i s l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n encapsulates the c u l t u r a l p r i o r i t i e s o f a c e n t u r y . I t is j u s t possible t o suggest that the w h o l e o f this l i t e r a r y achievement can be related t o the m o v e m e n t k n o w n as t h e S h u ' u b i y y a , that is t o acute c u l t u r a l and l i t e r a r y c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f the Islamic E m p i r e i n the m i d d l e decades o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y . tm

]m

1 0 9

I n t h e 'Uyun, the t e r m i n o l o g y o f o r a l transmission is c o m m o n (qdla, haddatha-ni, etc.) even, for e x a m p l e , w h e r e Jahiz is q u o t e d , w h e n one m i g h t suspect and can f r e q u e n t l y identify a w r i t t e n source. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , m a n y instances w h e r e w r i t t e n sources are freely r e f e r r e d t o , e i t h e r a n o n y m o u s l y (kataba ba'd alkuttdb) o r o t h e r w i s e (wa-fiAdah Ibn al-Muqaffa', qara'-tufi l-Tdj, " e t c . ) . T h e m a t e r i a l that is a c k n o w l e d g e d t o be d e r i v e d f r o m w r i t t e n sources is m o r e often t h a n n o t e x p l i c i t l y ' f o r e i g n : a Persian w o r k c o n c e r n i n g A r d e s h i r , " the Persian w o r k k n o w n as t h e Mirror (d'in), a b o o k f r o m I n d i a , the KalUa wa-Dimna, a G r e e k b o o k (kitdb min kutub al-Rum), o r i n d e e d t h e Gospels o r t h e T o r a h . I b n Q u t a y b a ' s e v i d e n t eclecticism o n t h e o n e h a n d and t h e d e l i b e r a t e d v a r i e t y o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o n the o t h e r m i l i t a t e s against a precise a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the tension that underlies this 1 1 0

lu

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118

" "

Ch. 2, Sect. I I , Ch. 3, Sect. I I , Ch. 6, Sect. X I . For which, see Wansbrough, Studies, 219 and 222-4. See Goldziher, Studies, i . 137-63; H . A . R. Gibb, 'The social significance of the Shuubiyya". See 'Abdallah b. Muslim Ibn Outayba, 'Uyun, i i . 41, which is derived from ' A m r b. Bahr al-Jahiz, Bukhald', 91-2, with minor variations, reflecting the free approach of copyists. ) 7

) s

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Ibn Outayba, 'Uyin, i . 84; and passim.

1 1 2

"

Ibid. 155. Ibid. 85. 104, et al.

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I b i d . 60. I b i d . 394-5.

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Ibid. 76.

I b i d . 239. I b i d . 248.

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d e m a r c a t i o n . N o n e the less t h e r e is clearly some degree of c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y oral t r a d i t i o n w h i c h is A r a b i c and M u s l i m and a p r e d o m i n a n t l y w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n w h i c h is I n d i a n , Persian, G r e e k , C h r i s t i a n , or Jewish. O n e aspect o f this t e n s i o n , c u t t i n g across the n o r m s o f the genre, finds formal a r t i c u l a t i o n i n so far as I b n Q u t a y b a systematically prefers to begin each new bdb w i t h one o r several o r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d items, i n t r o d u c e d by haddatha-ni, g u a r d e d by lengthy is/tads, and h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d so as t o m a r k ( r o u g h l y ) the c o n v e n t i o n a l r a n k i n g o f t h e P r o p h e t a n d his C o m p a n i o n s . N o w , the difference b e t w e e n o r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d k n o w l e d g e ( A r a b i c , M u s l i m , and ideally P r o p h e t i c ) and w r i t t e n k n o w l e d g e ( G r e e k , I n d i a n , Persian, etc.) does not necessarily reflect a difference i n I b n Q u t a y b a ' s use o f sources. T h e oral t r a d i t i o n was also by this t i m e d e r i v e d f r o m b o o k s . Conceptually h o w e v e r the d i s t i n c t i o n is o f t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e . I b n Q u t a y b a conceived o f the A r a b M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y as distinguished f r o m others by its possession o f a b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e ( c u l t u r e ) w h i c h had been o r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h generations and was n o w preserved for p o s t e r i t y i n , for e x a m p l e , the w o r k s o f Jahiz a n d , e v i d e n t l y , i n those o f I b n Q u t a y b a himself. T h i s p r o m o t i o n o f an A r a b i c body o f w i s d o m , c o n v e n t i o n a l l y assessed as the p r o d u c t o f a lengthy p e r i o d o f o r a l transmission, a n d capable o f being a t t r i b u t e d specifically t o the P r o p h e t o r generally t o a B e d o u i n ethos, may be recognized as a p a r t of the a n t i - S h u ' u b i atmosphere w h i c h characterized t h e m i d d l e decades o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y . T h e e v i d e n t weakness o f the A r a b M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y , i n r e l a t i o n t o n e i g h b o u r i n g c u l t u r e s , h a d b e e n , i n i t i a l l y , t h e absence o f any a c k n o w l e d g e d canon o f l i t e r a r y excellence. T h e remedying o f t h a t weakness was i n t i m e t r i u m p h a n t l y achieved. T h e c o n d i t i o n o f that t r i u m p h is reflected i n the c o m p l e x claims made for the specifically A r a b i c a n d M u s l i m t r a d i t i o n : it was B e d o u i n in its o r i g i n s , i n t e g r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h generations, d i v i n e l y sanctioned a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by the A r a b i c P r o p h e t , and s y m b o l i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d by the o v e r a r c h i n g a u t h o r i t y of an Arabic divine B o o k . T h a t v i s i o n , i t m i g h t be a r g u e d , d e t e r m i n e d m u c h o f the literary and i m a g i n a t i v e achievement o f Islamic society for a thousand years. I b n Q u t a y b a was n o t the first t o articulate its o u t l i n e s , but he was one o f its most assiduous, persuasive, and w i d e - r a n g i n g

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exponents. T h e difference between the vision and historical reality lies i n the t e n s i o n between transmission and c r e a t i v i t y . Those w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n c u l t u r a l activity ( o r a l ) i n t h e ' A r a b ' cities o f t h e N e a r East created f r o m the diffused a n d inextricable c o m p o n e n t s o f A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern cultures a new A r a b i c a n d M u s l i m c u l t u r e , w h i c h is u n i q u e . J â h i z a n d I b n Q u t a y b a ( n e i t h e r o f A r a b o r i g i n , b o t h A r a b i n c u l t u r e ) were i n different ways d i s t u r b e d b y the creative aspect o f that a c t i v i t y . F o r t h e m , A r a b i c c u l t u r e was p r e d o m i n a n t l y t r a n s m i t t e d , n o t created. W h e n I b n Q u t a y b a detected apparently A r a b i c disciplines that were markedly inventive (fiqh), he t r i e d t o b r i n g t h e m back t o transmission b y c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e h i g h e s t - r a n k i n g elements o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d t r a d i t i o n , P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h (the Mukhtalif al-hadith). B o t h w r i t e r s k n e w t h a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s o f A r a b i c c u l t u r e were largely n o n A r a b , a n d so, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , a d m i t t e d that t h e preservation o f indigenous A r a b i c c u l t u r e d e p e n d e d u p o n the i n t e g r a l and faithful transmission o f the mawàlï. I m p l i c i t w h e r e v e r there is d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n s o f those w h o t r a n s m i t t e d A r a b i c c u l t u r e ( f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 per cent of those w h o figure as al-tàbi'ûn wa-man ba'da-hum i n I b n Q u t a y b a ' s Ma'àrif there are statements i m p l y i n g n o n - A r a b o r i g i n s ) this occasionally f o u n d explicit a r t i c u l a t i o n . F r o m J â h i z ' s E p i s t l e t o F a t h b . K h â q â n , ' O n t h e virtues o f t h e T u r k s ' : t h e mawàlï have t r a n s m i t t e d m u c h o f the sunna . . . i n m a n y o f its aspects because they are themselves A r a b , i n c l a i m , i n 'àqila, a n d i n i n h e r i t a n c e . . .; hence they say mawlâ al-qawm min-hum, t h e mawlà o f a t r i b e is a m e m b e r o f the t r i b e . " T h a t the mawàlï are A r a b s is a claim easily conceded; the h i s t o r i a n o f early A r a b i c c u l t u r e w i l l be u n w i l l i n g t o grant t h a t , i n a c o m m u n i t y defined b y its c o m m o n allegiance t o t h e A r a b i c language and t o the Islamic f a i t h , racial origins made any significant difference. T h e p r o b l e m o f distinguishing A r a b , m e a n i n g descended f r o m the inhabitants o f t h e A r a b i a n Peninsula, a n d A r a b , m e a n i n g an A r a b i c speaking i n h a b i t a n t o f t h e F e r t i l e Crescent, m i g h t be a m a t t e r o f t h e o r e t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e t o t h i r d - c e n t u r y w r i t e r s , but t h e n o t i o n o f walà' ( a f f i l i a t i o n ) made i t u n r e a l a n d , s o o n , i r r e l e v a n t . 119

1 2

For this term, see Ch. 8, Sect. I F ' A m r b. Bahr al-Jâhiz, Fi manâqib al-Turk, 4.14-15; cf. 19.8. This citation must stand in isolation, merely suggestive o f the value of this risâla for the history o l the Shu'übiyya. 1 1 9

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T h e processes, t h e n , w h i c h affected the d e v e l o p m e n t o f j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , causing that t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m the b r o a d l y discursive type d o m i n a t e d b y ra'y, t o t h e h e r m e n e u t i c type d o m i n a t e d by appeal t o P r o p h e t i c p r e c e d e n t , were n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e j u r i s t i c sphere. A n i m p o r t a n t factor affecting the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Islamic j u r i s p r u d e n c e is simply that the j u r i s t s belonged t o A r a b - M u s l i m society; a n d that society, i n t h e course o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , became c o m m i t t e d t o a p a t t e r n o f c u l t u r a l expression w h i c h e v o k e d a B e d o u i n past, an A r a b P r o p h e t , a d i v i n e B o o k , and integral transmission o f o r a l c u l t u r e t o the A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g cities o f t h e F e r t i l e Crescent a n d N o r t h A f r i c a , A l l f o r m s o f A r a b i c c u l t u r e that were n o t a v o w e d l y foreign showed at least some characteristics that reflect this p a t t e r n o f ideas; a l l p a r t i c i p a t e d t h e r e b y i n a r e m a r k a b l e f o r m a l h o m o g e n e i t y , o f w h i c h t h e most s t r i k i n g feature is perhaps the u b i q u i t o u s isnad.

VI T h e factors, b o t h social a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l , w h i c h g o v e r n e d t h e emergence a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f fiqh l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h o u t the t h i r d c e n t u r y should p r o b a b l y be recognized as widespread. T h e organic g r o w t h o f school texts, under loose i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t r o l , and subject t o successive redactions, for e x a m p l e , is n o t a feature solely o f j u r i s t i c w o r k s . T h e great c o m p e n d i u m o f A r a b i c g r a m m a t i c a l studies, the Kitdb o f Sibawayhi ( d . between 166 and 1 9 4 — s i c ) , may be t h o u g h t to show evidence o f a similar history. L i k e w i s e , at least o n e o f the t w o theological w o r k s a t t r i b u t e d t o A s h ' a r i ( d . 324), the Kitdb al-lbana, witnesses a s t r u c t u r a l disorder t h a t m a y reflect a l o n g process o f organic g r o w t h , a c c r e t i o n , redaction, e t c . Such processes (evident i n these examples f o r w o r k s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e late second a n d early f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s ) , presupposing a w o r l d o f n o t e b o o k scholarship a n d school redact i o n s , result i n systematic pseudepigraphy. T h e t e r m r e d a c t i o n , h a r d l y o n e t h a t has a c q u i r e d a precise scholarly significance, suggests perhaps no m o r e t h a n processes usually a n o n y m o u s and m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the c o n t r o l l e d a u t h o r i a l activity o f Jahiz and I b n Q u t a y b a . B u t the w o r k s even o f these w r i t e r s betray social origins a n d ideological c o m m i t m e n t s w h i c h are identical w i t h 1 2 1

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Cf. R. J. McCarthy, Theology, 231-2.

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those o f t h e j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n . I t is difficult t o conceive that the characteristic f o r m s o f the e d u c a t i o n a l miscellany c o u l d have arisen except i n a c u l t u r e w h e r e o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and n o t e b o o k l i t e r a c y w e r e i n some degree o f creative c o m p e t i t i o n . B e t w e e n loose redactions o n the one h a n d a n d a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l o n the o t h e r , lies t h e w o r l d o f o r g a n i z i n g e d i t o r s h i p . T h e Tafslr of T a b a r i (the J ami' al-Bayan) shows some features of organic g r o w t h ( t h e untidy accumulation of hadith material bundled under Quranic lemmas and r a r e l y subject t o even t h a t basic r e d a c t i o n a l process w h i c h brings P r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l t o i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n ) and some features o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l (the s t r u c t u r e d arguments and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h i c h p r o v i d e an i n t e l l e c t u a l frame for the h a d i t h ) . I t is perhaps a t e x t , i n i t i a l l y a p r o d u c t o f organic g r o w t h , finally so m u c h c o n t r o l l e d by its e d i t o r as t o w a r r a n t classification as an authored book. T h e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f organic texts, pseudepigraphy, and l o n g - t e r m r e d a c t i o n a l activity as features o f some t h i r d - c e n t u r y m a t e r i a l must affect assessment even o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h has n o t ( y e t ) been s h o w n t o be organic. A case o f m u c h relevance t o the arguments p u t f o r w a r d i n this b o o k is t h a t o f the great collections o f h a d i t h . A p p a r e n t l y the p r o d u c t o f the devoted and o r d e r l y activity o f a single p e r s o n , w o r k s l i k e the Sahihs o f B u k h a r i a n d M u s l i m s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be recognized as e m e r g i n g i n t o final f o r m at least one g e n e r a t i o n later than the dates r e c o r d e d for the deaths o f the p u t a t i v e a u t h o r s . T h e recent p u b l i c a t i o n o f the h a d i t h c o l l e c t i o n o f ' A b d al-Razzaq al-San'ani ( d . 211) has appeared t o some m o d e r n scholars t o p e r m i t o f new insights i n t o early h i s t o r y . H o w e v e r , I s h o u l d be u n w i l l i n g t o concede its early date u n t i l the f o r m , the c o n t e n t , a n d the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f its h a d i t h are c o m p a r e d systematically w i t h s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l i n early j u r i s t i c texts a n d i n the s t a n d a r d ( a p p a r e n t l y l a t e r ) collections. H a r a l d M o t z k i has used this w o r k as t h e basis for a h i s t o r y o f Islamic ( M a k k a n ) fiqh i n the second c e n t u r y . C o n c e d i n g l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g t o the i n s t a b i l i t y o r c r e a t i v i t y o f o r a l o r n o t e b o o k t r a d i t i o n s , unconcerned w i t h organic texts o r p s e u d e p i g r a p h y , a n d o v e r l y sanguine a b o u t t h e i n d e p e n d ence o f the b i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , his w o r k does n o t q u i t e 1 2 2

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o f history that he

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VII Jacob N e u s n e r , i n 1971, i n the context o f a lengthy discussion o f ' p a r a l l e l o m a n i a ' , r e m a r k e d that 'studies o f l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n i n late a n t i q u i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n varieties o f Semitic l i t e r a t u r e , are at an early s t a g e ' . H e w i s h e d t h e r e t o argue against t h e t o o easy scholarly assumption t h a t c u l t u r a l parallels indicate c o n t i n u i t y , direct b o r r o w i n g , o r i n d e e d any k i n d o f b o r r o w i n g . T h e caveat has been r e i t e r a t e d f r e q u e n t l y since that t i m e b u t has n o t always p r e v e n t e d even the most careful scholars f r o m a r t i c u l a t i n g , occasionally, doubtful theories about genetic relationships between parallel c o m p o n e n t s o f t w o cultures. Neusner and his students have, o f course, i n the last t w e n t y years considerably increased o u r k n o w l e d g e o f Jewish and i n p a r t i c u l a r R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s facilitates c o m p a r i s o n , b u t also constitutes a t e m p t a t i o n towards m a k i n g the R a b b i n i c Jews n o t o n l y a p o i n t o f c o m p a r i s o n , but somehow a p o i n t o f influence o r o r i g i n , for all ( l a t e r ) N e a r Eastern p h e n o m e n a that constitute a p a r a l l e l t o the R a b b i n i c experience. 1 2 4

1 2 5

M a n y o f t h e basic c o m p o n e n t s o f the c u l t u r a l w o r l d w i t h i n w h i c h the l i t e r a r y discipline of fiqh emerged can be rediscovered i n a R a b b i n i c c o n t e x t : a f o r m a l i z e d system for t h e transmission and reception o f k n o w l e d g e ; a focus o n the t e r m i n o l o g y o f ' s i t t i n g ' t o debate, discuss, and teach; a v a r i e d stress o n m e m o r y and reflection as p r i n c i p l e s p o t e n t i a l l y i n tension; a general appeal t o authorities i n the past: a significant r o l e f o r p r i v a t e n o t e b o o k s ; the emergence o f canons as a result of, variously, organic g r o w t h , r e d a c t i o n , e d i t i n g , a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l ; widespread pseudepigraphy, etc. T h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f these c o m p o n e n t s is, o f course, variable. T h e y s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be r e c o g n i z e d , i n r e l a t i o n t o c o m m u n i t y i d e n t i t y , as n e u t r a l . I n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , they figure also i n the history o f R o m a n l a w , o f G r e e k r h e t o r i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l studies, i n t h e teaching o f crafts i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d , and i n the early h i s t o r y o f the C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h . T h a t the f o r m a l w o r l d o f 1 2 6

1 2 3

A fortiori the rijal works associated with these collections. Bukhari's AlTa'rikh al-kahir is probably a post facto description of the Sahlh, not a set of criteria governing the collection of its materials. 1 2 2

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1 2 4 1 2 5

1 2 6

See Harald M o t z k i , Die Anfänge der islamischen Jurisprudenz. Jacob Neusner, Aphrahal and Judaism, 188. e.g. Wansbrough, Milieu, 51-4. For a general cwerview of the role and the implications of orality in ancient

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A r a b i c l i t e r a t u r e , as it emerged i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , s h o u l d e x h i b i t most o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l features o f N e a r Eastern l i t e r a r y life can h a r d l y occasion surprise and does not i m m e d i a t e l y raise questions a b o u t the p a r t i c u l a r — a s opposed t o the g e n e r a l — o r i g i n s o f A r a b i c and M u s l i m c u l t u r e . A r a b i c l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e is not usefully described as a p r o d u c t o f H i j a z i invaders, subject t o sequential influences; it is a p r o d u c t o f city life i n the F e r t i l e Crescent, achieving significant w r i t t e n f o r m o n l y after t h e year 200, by w h i c h t i m e t h e Peninsular c o m p o n e n t ( n o t i n any case a n e w e l e m e n t i n the l o n g history o f B e d o u i n incursions t h a t m a r k s N e a r Eastern h i s t o r y ) was i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n a c o m p l e x new self-defining c u l t u r a l m a t r i x , whose single most i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l is surely its language. T h a t the ' A r a b s ' b r o u g h t t h e i r language w i t h t h e m f r o m the Peninsula is also n o t , i n spite o f the l i t e r a t u r e t h a t asserts i t , the most c o m p e l l i n g historical f o r m u l a t i o n . A r a b i c t o o is a p r o d u c t o f city life i n t h e Fertile Crescent, p o s t e r i o r t o and consequence o f A r a b acquisition o f p o w e r . T h e contents o f its l i t e r a t u r e , w h e n it e m e r g e d , i n all the abundance and v a r i e t y o f s u r v i v i n g witness, suggests t h a t few aspects o f p r e - I s l a m i c Near Eastern c u l t u r e d i d n o t i m p i n g e u p o n the c u l t u r a l life o f the A r a b cities. O u t s i d e o f a small q u a n t i t y o f specifically a n d l i t e r a l l y translated m a t e r i a l , there lies, b e t w e e n t h e p r e - I s l a m i c a n d the post-Islamic r e a l i z a t i o n o f N e a r Eastern c u l t u r e , a p e r i o d o f diffusion a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n , d o m i n a t e d by creative and re-creative o r a l a c t i v i t y . T h a t p e r i o d — o f choices, i n t e g r a t i o n , d e v e l o p m e n t , c r e a t i o n — m u s t make i t difficult t o assert, and i n m a n y cases impossible t o p r o v e , t h a t this o r t h a t i t e m o f M u s l i m c u l t u r e depends u p o n a s i m i l a r i t e m w h i c h happens t o be r e c o r d e d i n a d i f f e r e n t a n d earlier N e a r Eastern C o m m u n i t y . T h e c o m m o n responses o f M u s l i m and o t h e r N e a r Eastern c o m m u n i t i e s t o a physical e n v i r o n m e n t , t r a d i t i o n a l social p a t t e r n s , a diffused c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e , and shared language w i l l adequately 1 2 7

education, Alexander, 'The living voice'; for Rabbinic schools, David M . Goodbiatt, Rabbinic instruction; lor Rabbinic texts, Jacob Neusner, Purities (inter alia); for the Christians (and for references to the Greek rhetorical and philosophical traditions), B. Gerhardsson, Memory and manuscript; for Roman law, F. Schulz, Roman legal science; for a comparison of hermeneutic techniques, P. S. Alexander, 'Quid Athenis et Hicrosolymis'. It is not irrelevant to note that some similar features emerged in philosophical and juristic educational circles in medieval France: R. W . Southern, 'Paris and Chartres'. 1 2 7

See further, Ch. 8, Sect. I I I . below.

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account f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s and parallels. L o n g t e r m creative and reflective structure-building, and varied intellectual and imaginative play o v e r m y t h s and concepts w i l l account for the u n i q u e character o f t h e v a ri o us c o m m u n i t i e s . (See f u r t h e r C h . 8, Sects. I l l and I V and C h . 9. Sect. I I I . )

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amongst the people are so dealt with—astahsinu dhdlika li-anna aymdn al-nds 'alay-hi. T h e r e was also, o f course, some o p p o s i t i o n to practice, b u t w h e n this is a r t i c u l a t e d it merely confirms that the jurists w e r e reacting t o w h a t people d i d . E v e n w h e n e x p l i c i t reference is absent, any general reading of early j u r i s t i c w o r k s w i l l reveal m a n y passages where the images o f e x t e r n a l social and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y are so relatively free f r o m n o r m a t i v e o r reflective o r v i r t u o s o p a t t e r n i n g that they p e r m i t — a t v a r y i n g distances—a glimpse o f social practice. C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e , the d e t a i l e d analysis o f tax law i n Chapter 6 o f this w o r k . N o o n e , I t h i n k , w o u l d w i s h t o relate the diverse n o r m a t i v e claims o f the Kitdb al-Khardj t o some k i n d o f theoretical b o r r o w i n g f r o m o t h e r legal systems. I t was the developed legal conventions o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y I r a q and the established t r a d i t i o n s of tax-collecting that gave rise t o its arguments. 8

8 THE

ORIGIN

OF NORMS I Joseph Schacht's analysis o f early M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e led h i m t o the conclusion t h a t the 'raw m a t e r i a l ' o f j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t was the practice o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . I n describing that practice he f o u n d i t convenient to distinguish between popular and administrative features, b u t he d i d n o t i m p l y that j u r i s t i c norms were identical w i t h social n o r m s , f o r the jurists variously endorsed, m o d i f i e d , or r e j e c t e d w h a t they o b s e r v e d . H e c o u l d find n o p r i n c i p l e o f difference b e t w e e n the various local schools, and n o p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r g o v e r n i n g the attitudes of a p a r t i c u l a r school, going so far as to characterize their responses as 'purely f o r t u i t o u s ' . The responses o f local j u r i s t s became the idealized a n d s t r u c t u r e d n o r m s o f a school t r a d i t i o n w h i c h Schacht designated the ' l i v i n g t r a d i t i o n ' (sunna i n pre-classical usage), d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i t thereby f r o m classical usage w h i c h relates t r a d i t i o n t o P r o p h e t i c d i c t a . 1

2

Practice is i n d e e d one of the m a j o r factors affecting the discussions o f early M u s l i m law. D i r e c t reference t o it is f r e q u e n t . F r o m the Mudawwana; this is the sunna t h a t I have f o u n d people f o l l o w i n g — h i y a al-sunna 'alay-hd adraktu al-nds? i t is the practice o f the p e o p l e — w a - h u w a min amr al-nds; wa-hddhd ma 'alay-hi alnds? etc. S i m i l a r locutions are a w e l l - k n o w n feature o f the Muwatta'? I n t h e H a n a f i w o r k s , such reference is less c o m m o n , b u t i n d e e d present: hakadha amr al-nds, hakadhd 'amal al-nds. I n a p r o b l e m a t i c case r e l a t i n g t o the results o f an o a t h , ShaybanI announces t h a t he prefers such and such a view because oaths 4

1

1

3

6 7

Schacht, Origins, 213; and see all of pp. 190-213. Sahnun, Mudawwana, i . 63. I b i d . 22. Goldziher, Studies, i i . 198-9; Schacht, Origins, 61-9. ShaybanI, As!, i . 72, 76. 4

2

5

I b i d . 58-81. I b i d . 39.

T o a general t h e o r y o f origins based o n practice, Schacht added a n u m b e r o f concessions t o f o r e i g n influences ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y R o m a n or J e w i s h ) . T h o u g h perhaps not w o r k e d o u t i n all possible d e t a i l , his t h e o r y as a w h o l e is b o t h flexible and c o n v i n c i n g . M o r e p r o b l e m a t i c , at least t o the present w r i t e r , is Schacht's sense o f dates. H e locates the origins o f fiqh i n the b e g i n n i n g o f the second c e n t u r y , w h e r e I w o u l d locate t h e m , o n the basis o f the c h r o n o l o g y presented i n this w o r k , i n the b e g i n n i n g o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y . ( I t is a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i m p e r a t i v e that o n l y after analysing the texts i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r o w n t i m e s h o u l d they be used as sources for earlier h i s t o r y ; a n d the caveats g o v e r n i n g that exercise are very l i m i t i n g i n d e e d . ) T h e most significant failure o f Schacht, h o w e v e r , is t h a t he gives l i t t l e systematic expression t o the n o t i o n that n o r m a t i v e and v i r t u o s o p a t t e r n i n g can become ends i n themselves, can b e c o m e ( i n t h e history o f Islamic law d i d f r e q u e n t l y become) p r i m a r y generators o f change and d e v e l o p m e n t i n legal t h e o r y . 9

I d o n o t t h e n wish t o suggest t h a t there are any cases at all where w h a t is described i n a l a w - b o o k is the o r d i n a r y practice o f the people. T h e practices o f the c o m m u n i t y are filtered t h r o u g h at least one a n d possibly several systematizing m i n d s . I n some areas o f the l a w , logical reflection and free speculation are m a j o r factors affecting structure and d e t a i l . I n o t h e r areas, what is at issue may be a m a t t e r o f practical social c o n t r o l , and the struggle evident i n 8

I b i d . 487.

Schacht. Origins,

see index under 'foreign influences*.

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O n e i n s t i t u t i o n o f Islamic law for w h i c h B e d o u i n origins have been c l a i m e d is t h a t k n o w n as the 'dqila} T h i s t e r m designates a social g r o u p whose sole f u n c t i o n , i n the j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , is t o p r o v i d e c o m p e n s a t i o n o n b e h a l f o f its m e m b e r s i n cases o f n o n - d e l i b e r a t e i n j u r y o r k i l l i n g . T h e t e r m for compensation is diya. F r e q u e n t l y translated i n t o E n g l i s h as b l o o d m o n e y , w i t h c o n n o t a t i o n s of t r i b a l vengeance, this t e r m functions i n legal discussion p r e d o m i n a n t l y w i t h o u t these c o n n o t a t i o n s . Diya is a payment (usually financial) f a l l i n g due i n case o f accidental ( o r quasi-deliberate) i n j u r y o r k i l l i n g . I n cases o f deliberate i n j u r y o r k i l l i n g t h e p e r p e t r a t o r is subject t o qisds, a t e r m i n d i c a t i n g r e t r i b u t i v e justice a c c o r d i n g t o the p r i n c i p l e o f lex talionis. I n such cases t h e p e n a l t y may be c o m m u t e d , subject t o n e g o t i a t i o n between the p e r p e t r a t o r and the i n j u r e d p a r t y o r his heirs, and replaced by a negotiated ( n o t a fixed) s u m , to be p a i d o u t o f the p e r p e t r a t o r ' s o w n p r o p e r t y . ( T h i s , c o n f u s i n g l y , is also called diya.) T h e p e n a l t y f o r n o n ­ deliberate i n j u r y , fixed and graded according t o t h e i n j u r e d part o r parts o f t h e b o d y , t h e diya, is p a i d n o t by t h e p e r p e t r a t o r b u t by his 'dqila. T h e 'dqila is thus a c o m m u n i t y o r segment o f c o m m u n i t y c o m m i t t e d t o t h e p r o v i s i o n o f co-operative aid i n cases o f n o n ­ deliberate i n j u r y . T h e r e is n o prima facie reason w h y these basic 2

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conceptions ( t h a t i n j u r e d parties deserve c o m p e n s a t i o n , that those w h o lacked i n t e n t i o n t o i n j u r e should n o t be r e q u i r e d t o pay i n f u l l , t h a t c o m p e n s a t i o n s h o u l d be according t o fixed rates, and that it s h o u l d be p a i d co-operatively by a specified c o m m u n i t y o r segment o f c o m m u n i t y ) s h o u l d be related to B e d o u i n practice. T h e i n t e n t i o n s and the w o r k i n g s o f this complex o f laws may be f u r t h e r analysed. W h e n n o n - d e l i b e r a t e k i l l i n g o c c u r r e d w i t h i n the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s , the established diya was 1,000 g o l d dinars o r 10,000 silver d i r h a m s . T h i s sum was t o be p a i d over a p e r i o d o f t h r e e years t h r o u g h the shared p a r t i c i p a t i o n of all adult male m e m b e r s o f an 'âqda. T h e i n t e n t i o n o f thus spreading the b u r d e n ( e x p l i c i t l y a r t i c u l a t e d ) was t h a t no person s h o u l d be u n d u l y distressed by the financial o b l i g a t i o n . T h e H a n a f i t r a d i t i o n specified that no person s h o u l d pay m o r e t h a n 3 o r 4 dirhams in toto (so i n the Aşl; a m i n o r i t y o f later t h i n k e r s suggested i t m i g h t be 3 or 4 d i r h a m s i n a single y e a r ) . T h e M â l i k i t r a d i t i o n specified that each s h o u l d pay according t o his a b i l i t y , t h e r i c h m o r e t h a n the p o o r . ' T h e descriptive t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h surrounds the concept makes a p p r o p r i a t e reference t o s o l i d a r i t y and m u t u a l h e l p . T h e 'dqila are ahl nusra wdhida, ahi yad wdhida. T h e y help one another—yatanâşarüna. T h e y are a g r o u p c o m m i t t e d t o m u t u a l support—rifdan li-ba'di-him min ba'di-him wa-'awnan liba'di-him min ba'di-him, * etc. These citations are f r o m the H a n a f i Aşl; the facts are the same i n the M â l i k i t r a d i t i o n . 13

4

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1 6

from their neighbours, but not quite freely. Some elements of foreign culture were incompatible with the principles of patterning on which they were constructing their universe; others were compatible. Zaehner suggests that the Jewish abomination of creeping things may have been taken over from Zoroastrianism. Whatever the historical evidence for the adoption of a foreign element into Judaism, we shall see that there was in the patterning of their culture a pre-formed compatibility between the particular abomination and the general principles on which that universe was constructed. Secondly, from Charles M . Radding, on the intellectual history of medieval jurisprudence in Medieval jurisprudence, 13: Too often left out has been the history of the mental processes by which thinkers worked from the problems posed by their disciplines to the solutions they came to propose. Yet thinkers do not, if they arc more than hacks, transmit tradition unaltered or invent ideas to fit the desires of their patrons or audiences [or borrow ideas from neighbouring cultures!]. Thinkers exist in a dialectical relationship with their traditions: shaped by what they learn, to be sure, but also, by the effort of their own cognitive processes, reconstructing that tradition. The drama of cultural and intellectual history lies in the working out of the tension posed by this dialectic, and the historian who loses sight of this interaction has missed the most interesting part of the story. 1 2

Schacht, Origins,

207; R. Brunschvig, ad ''dqila'

in £ / ( i i ) .

I t w i l l be e v i d e n t t h a t the 'dqila r e q u i r e d i n the event o f a death w o u l d i n v o l v e , according t o the Hanafis ( a n d this is o f course a m a t t e r o f t h e o r y ) , t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of 2,500 adult males. T h e precise figure need n o t be t a k e n t o o seriously b u t one must n o t e that this is n o t a f a m i l y affair: the social g r o u p is large a n d , w i t h i n a c i t y , must be s o m e t h i n g l i k e a quarter or even a series o f quarters. C o m p e n s a t i o n payments (diya) for injuries less t h a n death m i g h t i n v o l v e fewer years and fewer people (a smaller 'àqila). W h e n , i n the case o f a d e a t h , t h e 'dqila was unable so t o spread the b u r d e n as t o achieve the m a x i m u m p a y m e n t of three t o f o u r dirhams by i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e n the nearest t r i b a l g r o u p related by lineage Shaybâni. Aşl, iv. 660-1. Sahnün, Mudawwana, xvi. 195-6. Shaybâni, Aşl, iv. 663-4. Cf. 'Abdallah b. Mahmüd al-Mawsilï, Al-lklıliydr, v. 60. for 3-4 dirhams in toto; and A h m a d b. Muhammad al-Quduri, al-Mukhlasar, in Haddâdi. i i . 189, for 3-4 dirhams per year. Sahnün, Mudawwana, xvi. 198. '• Shaybâni, Asi, iv. 661-2. See further, Wael B. Hallaq, 'The use and abuse of evidence'. 1 3

1 4

1 6

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the text w i l l be to create a w o r k i n g system o u t o f the relative messiness o f r e a l i t y ; even t h e n the t e m p t a t i o n o f j u r i s t i c elegance w i l l n o t be e n t i r e l y a v o i d e d . T h e i m m e d i a t e source o f any a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a legal system is a p r i o r a r t i c u l a t i o n of the same legal system. I n d e p e n d e n t l y of social r e a l i t y , a created i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r u c t u r e , w h e t h e r considered in its parts or as a w h o l e , will generate problems (logical, terminological, analogical) w h i c h d e m a n d s o l u t i o n at a p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l level. T h a t solutions can be sustained at a p u r e l y theoretical level seems u n l i k e l y , for t h e r e can have been few jurists whose interest i n s t r u c t u r e was exclusive o f an interest in practice, o r vice versa. I t is therefore i n the d y n a m i c i n t e r p l a y between schema and r e a l i t y , academic p a t t e r n i n g and social p r a c t i c e , that the o n g o i n g creative r e a l i t y o f Islamic law is f o u n d . E v e n given that b r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , the desire for a simple s o l u t i o n is to be resisted. Social c o n t r o l , pious c o n v i c t i o n , reflective logic, v i r t u o s o display, i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y : at least all o f those had a share in the shaping o f the law. A n d b e y o n d t h a t , we cannot be sure h o w m u c h o f the c o m m u n i t y was affected by the law t h a t has b e e n p r e s e r v e d , o r w h i c h social groups o r classes d e e m e d themselves b o u n d by i t , o r even w h e t h e r all o f the legal topics o f the p e r i o d have i n fact been preserved. N o n e the less the idea o f creative i n t e r p l a y between structure and p r a c t i c e , schema and r e a l i t y , may be p r o p o s e d as b o t h a necessary a n d , w i t h i n l i m i t s , a sufficient m o d e l for describing the emergence and d e v e l o p m e n t o f Islamic law. T h e stress t h r o u g h o u t the f o r m a t i v e a n d i n t o the classical p e r i o d is p r o b a b l y o n schema at the expense o f r e a l i t y . ( T h e post-classical p e r i o d , by contrast, w i l l be characterized by n u m e r o u s p e r m i t t e d d i s r u p t i o n s o f the schema, consequent o n social and p o l i t i c a l change.) I n the prel i t e r a r y p e r i o d , for w h i c h we have no direct evidence, it is p r o b a b l e t h a t the opposite was the case: legal systems that d e p e n d p r i m a r i l y o r exclusively o n o r a l t r a d i t i o n are by n o means free o f systematic a n d s t r u c t u r a l concerns, b u t the f o r t u n a t e shortness o f h u m a n m e m o r y ensures r a p i d a n d indefeasible a d a p t a t i o n to social change. 1 0

A l t e r n a t i v e s to this t h e o r y o f d y n a m i c i n t e r p l a y between schema "' See, for an illuminating analysis of oral law systems from an anthropologist's

viewpoint. Max Gluckman, Barotse Jurisprudence, Politics, law and ritual.

The judicial process, and

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and r e a l i t y (perhaps o n l y a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f Schacht and one w h i c h is n o t i n t e n d e d a p r i o r i to exclude the possibility of foreign influences) as a t h e o r y o f origins (for i t is i n t e n d e d l o exclude all theses w h i c h postulate for Islam a single geographical or t e m p o r a l p o i n t of o r i g i n ) take the f o r m p r i m a r i l y o f claims about genetic descent or large-scale b o r r o w i n g . ( A n aberrant suggestion that theorigins o f M u s l i m law lie i n speculative exegetical comment on the Q u r ' a n w i l l be dealt w i t h b e l o w . ) A t least some forms o f such claims must be rejected o n general historical considerations. T o assert, for e x a m p l e , o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n revealed by the early law-books to be c u r r e n t i n the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s of the early t h i r d c e n t u r y that it is the genetic descendant o f a particular pre Islamic B e d o u i n practice is almost certainly w i t h o u t interest. 1 heexigencies of m o r e t h a n 150 years of city l i f e , and m o r e than 150 years o f j u r i s t i c speculation o n city l i f e , are q u i t e evidently the m o r e p r o x i m a t e origins o f a given i n s t i t u t i o n . T h e focused, creative, and adaptive interest o f generations cannot be simply discounted. L i k e w i s e w i t h respect to b o r r o w i n g : a c o m m u n i t y w h i c h has oris i n the process o f d e v e l o p i n g a c o r p o r a t e i d e n t i t y w i l l be incapable o f i d e n t i f y i n g , never m i n d b o r r o w i n g , specific features o f f o r e i g n cultures, unless its o w n structures are i n some way receptive to those foreign features. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of structures t h r o u g h w h i c h to frame questions and p r o b l e m s necessarily precedes the capacity t o b o r r o w — a n d w i l l always complicate the question w h e t h e r a b o r r o w i n g actually t o o k place, for a capacity t o frame a q u e s t i o n implies a capacity to create an answer. N o n e o f this is i n t e n d e d as a means t o deny that M u s l i m c u l t u r e was influenced by A n c i e n t N e a r - E a s t e r n c u l t u r e . M u s l i m c u l t u r e is e v i d e n t l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f Near-Eastern c u l t u r e . I t is, h o w e v e r , a means o f insisting that w h a t emerges is new and w i l l n o t be adequately described o r e x p l a i n e d by i d e n t i f y i n g bits and pieces and r e l a t i n g t h e m to f o r e i g n bits and pieces w i t h vague assertions o f b o r r o w i n g and/or genetic descent. W h a t defines the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y is the g e n e r a t i o n of structures w h i c h h o l d and give m e a n i n g to t h e i r c o m p o n e n t e l e m e n t s . " " I cite two passages, which illustrate the kind of approach I would wish to endorse. First from Mary Douglas, discussing here "The Abominations of Leviticus'

in Purity and danger, 4c):

Of course no culture is created out of nothing. The Israelites absorbed freely

204

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O F NORMS

(nasab) a n d registered i n the diwan was t o be j o i n e d t o the o r i g i n a l

b l o o d a n d f a m i l y d o n o t affect t h e separate o r g a n i z a t i o n o f city-

'dqila f

d w e l l e r s a n d B e d o u i n ; B e d o u i n are n o t t o act f o r c i t y - d w e l l e r s ,

1

T h e m e a n i n g o f t r i b a l g r o u p (qabila)

a n d lineage (nasab)

here

has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h B e d o u i n tribes a n d m i g r a n t groups; and

a n d vice versa, even i n t h e case o f b r o t h e r s . L i k e w i s e i t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e D h i m m i s h a d 'dqila systems. T h e

very l i t t l e t o d o w i t h real genealogies. B o t h t h e H a n at! a n d t h e

Asl refers t o t h e i r established systems (la-hum

Maliki

The

texts

have

their primary

specifically

exclude

describing.

W e should

reference

the Bedouin

from

understand

to city life.

t h e system

that

They

they

are

the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

Mudawwana

confirms

that

Christians

'awdqil and

ma'rufa).

12

Zoroastrians

c o n s t i t u t e d 'dqilas e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e i r tax-groups o r their villages ( o f t e n , p e r h a p s , t h e same t h i n g ) .

2 3

Shan't, t o o , assumes that t h e

quarters w i t h i n M u s l i m cities was n o r m a l l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t r i b a l

D h i m m i s w i l l have 'dqilas, t h o u g h he shows a normative preference

n o m e n c l a t u r e . B y t h e early t h i r d c e n t u r y that n o m e n c l a t u r e h a d

for t h e i r b e i n g based o n nasab a n d agnatic relationships

('asaba)r

4

little t o d o w i t h genetic origins o r A r a b (Peninsular) lineage, b e i n g

N e w m e m b e r s o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y were i n t e g r a t e d i n t o

r a t h e r t h e p r o d u c t o f generations o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , t h r o u g h various

'dqilas. F r e e d m e n a d o p t e d t h e t r i b a l names o f t h e i r patrons a n d

formal

Reference t o ' t r i b e s '

became a p a r t o f t h e i r 'dqila. I n I r a q a free m a n . desiring t o j o i n

w i t h i n cities need n o t be confusing as l o n g as it is r e m e m b e r e d t h a t

the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y , c o u l d , after c o n v e r s i o n , i f he so desired,

a n d i n f o r m a l types o f a f f i l i a t i o n .

the r e f e r e n t m a y be civic c o m m u n i t i e s , l o n g settled a n d o f m i x e d

enter i n t o a c o n t r a c t o f muwdldt w h i c h p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h a t r i b a l

o r i g i n s , s h a r i n g a n e i g h b o u r h o o d , a n d having a c o m m o n l o y a l t y

n a m e a n d an 'dqila. N o n - M u s l i m s sometimes e n t e r e d i n t o such

expressed t h r o u g h t r i b a l names ( a n d perhaps a p r e f e r r e d f u n d o f

c o n t r a c t u a l relationships w i t h one another. N e w converts t o I s l a m ,

m y t h a n d story nostalgically related t o a B e d o u i n e t h o s — a city-

i f t h e y c o n v e r t e d w i t h o u t a muwdldt

d w e l l e r ' s m y t h , n o t B e d o u i n r e a l i t y ) . O n n u m e r o u s occasions t h e

w i t h t h e i r g r o u p a n d so b r o u g h t t h e i r 'dqila w i t h t h e m i n t o I s l a m ,

Asl reiterates t h a t f a m i l y relationships d o not necessarily c o r r e l a t e

o r w e r e d e e m e d t o be affiliated t o the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y as a

w i t h 'dqila o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t is civic u n i t s , registered i n t h e diwan,

w h o l e , w h i c h w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e t h e i r 'dqila. Just w h a t the last r u l i n g

a n d o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h t h e diwan, w h i c h are at i s s u e .

i m p l i e d i n practice need n o t concern us h e r e ; i t is l i k e l y that a l l

18

T h e j u r i s t i c texts p e r m i t us t o learn t h a t t h e B e d o u i n also h a d 'dqila

systems.

These w e r e

c e r t a i n l y subject

t o principles o f

contract, either converted

converts (perhaps e x c l u d i n g t h e lowest social classes) w o u l d find some social g r o u p i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h t o share a larger s o l i d a r i t y .

o r g a n i z a t i o n d i f f e r e n t f r o m those i n t h e city. T h e Hanafis have

O n l y one aspect o f 'dqila s o l i d a r i t y is reflected i n j u r i s t i c texts, t h e

some s t a n d a r d i z i n g suggestions t h a t the B e d o u i n tribes s h o u l d be

o b l i g a t i o n a n d t h e benefit o f c o m p e n s a t i o n payments i n case o f

subject t o the same rates and j u d i c i a l decrees as the c i t y - d w e l l e r s ,

non-deliberate i n j u r y .

w i t h i n t h e i r o w n system o f 'dqilas; ('ashira),

19

these were p r o b a b l y t r i b a l

b u t i n c l u d e d confederates a n d allies ('adid, halif).

20

In

N o r t h A f r i c a , city organization d i d n o t extend to the B e d o u i n , w h o h a d t h e i r o w n 'dqilas and t h e i r o w n rates (measured i n camels not c a s h ) .

21

B o t h M a l i k i s a n d Hanafis insist t h a t relationships o f

ShaybanT, Asl, iv. 664. Though payments are not specifically quantified in the Maliki tradition, they too recognize that in the case of an 'dqila lacking the ability to pay the diya, then the nearest tribal group—aqrab al-qabd'il—should be joined to the original group; Sahnun, Mudawwana, xv. 198. Both M a l i k i and Hanafi sources assume that the diwan is responsible for the administration of lineage groups within cities; Sahnun, Mudawwuna, xvi. 197-9; ShaybanT, Asl, iv. 661-2 for registered civic groups—the diwan—excluding family relationships, and 66s for the Bedouin system. ShaybanT, Asl, iv. 66s. I b i d . 661-2. Sahnun, Mudawwana, xvi. 197-9. 1 7

1 8

1 9 2 1

2 5

2 1 1

SaybanI, Asl, iv. 667-8. Sahnun, Mudawwana, xvi. 197-8. Shafi'T, Umm, v i . 117.7-11/106.9-10. This spare outline of the law must stand, pending an opportunity for greater detail. For wala' (freedmen), see ShaybanT. Asl, iv. 143 ff., or any standard law book ad wala'; for the contract o f muwdldt, ibid. 182-9(1; cf. also 245. The institution o f wala' and, to a lesser degree, muwdldt, are discussed in Patricia Crone, Roman, provincial and Islamic law; criticized in Hallaq. ' The use and abuse of evidence'. T w o notable weaknesses in Crone's analysis must be alluded to: (1) she fails to appreciate the significance of the 'dqila, apparently believing that the manumitter is 'saddled with the responsibility for the payment of blood money' [on behalf of the freedman] (p. 90), which is simply not true. Conversely, (2) she finds that the freedman is at a significant disadvantage in view of the manumitter's claim on his inheritance. But this claim is residual and in many cases would not operate. Certainly, if the freedman had no heirs, the claim might be absolute. But, i f he had a large family, or if he arranged for transfer of wealth prior to his death, it would 2 2 2 3

2 4 2 3

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T h e social r e a l i t y b e h i n d the j u r i s t i c rules is at least t h i s , that there was no r o o m i n N e a r - E a s t e r n society of this p e r i o d for the nuclear f a m i l y o r t h e isolated i n d i v i d u a l . People l i v e d i n , a n d o w e d allegiance t o , g r o u p s , w h i c h , i n t h e case o f M u s l i m s , were t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e m a r c a t e d by reference t o t r i b a l lineages. W h a t e v e r o t h e r f u n c t i o n s these groups served, they certainly p r o v i d e d m u t u a l s u p p o r t i n case o f n o n - d e l i b e r a t e i n j u r y . W h e t h e r in a r o u g h and ready w a y or i n the systematic way envisaged by j u r i s t i c texts need n o t concern us for the m o m e n t . I t is q u i t e e v i d e n t that the 'aqilas o f f e r e d substantial c o m m u n a l benefits and existed w i t h a sufficient degree o f f o r m a l i t y t o achieve a degree o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n b o t h i n N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d , m o r e so as we shall see, i n Iraq. N o w , as an e x p e r i m e n t i n h i s t o r i c a l reasoning one m i g h t propose e i t h e r t h a t the M u s l i m s d e r i v e d the 'aqila f r o m an earlier t r i b a l system, i n s t i t u t e d by the A r a b conquerors (so Schacht and B r u n s h v i g ) ; o r t h a t they a d o p t e d its various features f r o m t h e i r sedentary n o n - M u s l i m neighbours, w h o quite clearly also possessed some such system. F r a m e d t h u s , there are obvious reasons for p r e f e r r i n g t h e l a t t e r o p t i o n : first, because the experience o f t r a d i t i o n a l c i t y - d w e l l e r s and sedentary peoples was m o r e l i k e l y t o serve the needs o f t h e c i t y - d w e l l i n g M u s l i m s (and t h e c i t y - d w e l l i n g M u s l i m s w e r e n o t t h e descendants o f B e d o u i n , b u t , by the t i m e o f o u r texts, o f i n e x t r i c a b l y m i x e d o r i g i n s ) ; secondly, because t h e t e x t u a l expression o f j u r i s t i c rules i n this area defines a stable, w o r k i n g , n o r m a t i v e system, capable o f bureaucratic o r g a n i z a t i o n , aspiring t o , b u t n o t necessarily a c h i e v i n g , c o n t r o l o f c o n t e m p o r a r y Bedouin systems. I f the Bedouin recognized c o m m u n i t y groupings, w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e d c o m m u n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for n o n - d e l i b e r a t e i n j u r y , w i t h fixed rates o f p a y m e n t , o v e r fixed periods o f t i m e , t h e n this m i g h t w e l l be due t o the influence o f the r e l a t i v e l y c i v i l i z e d and/or o r g a n i z e d cities. T h e r e seems n o effective way o f d e c i d i n g o n questions thus f r a m e d i n respect o f p a r t i c u l a r o r i g i n s , b o r r o w i n g , a n d influence. C l e a r l y all c o m m u n i t i e s i n the r e g i o n at this t i m e needed some system for dealing w i t h p r o b l e m s o f n o n deliberate i n j u r y a n d k i l l i n g , so as t o p r e - e m p t the capacity o f such events t o cause d i s c o r d and v i o l e n c e . B y a n a t u r a l process, local c o m m u n i t i e s in cities a n d villages, h a v i n g some degree o f

OF

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207

c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t y and s o l i d a r i t y , and sharing perhaps some k i n d of c o m m u n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , acknowledged t h e i r willingness t o deal w i t h these matters as a c o m m u n i t y and devised means for d o i n g so. T h e d i r e c t i o n s o f influence were no d o u b t many and c o m p l e x . I n the case o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s o f I r a q and N o r t h A f r i c a , we h a p p e n to have a t e x t u a l reflection o f the systems d e v e l o p e d . T h a t they h a d b o r r o w e d t h e i r systems f r o m neighbouring c o m m u n i t i e s , or that they had i n h e r i t e d t h e m from a specifically B e d o u i n o r i g i n , seem m a r k e d l y less satisfactory statements o f the historical s i t u a t i o n t h a n that they had developed these systems i n response t o social a n d historical needs along w i t h , and i n p a r a l l e l t o , n e i g h b o u r i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . I n o r d e r t o sustain his thesis o f B e d o u i n o r i g i n s , Brunschvig is f o r c e d t o c o m p r o m i s e t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f the j u r i s t i c texts. T h e H a n a f i texts are deemed t o be i n n o v a t o r y . These i n n o v a t i o n s arc f o l l o w e d 'as an e x p e r i m e n t ' by 'some early M â l i k ï s ' . T h e o r i g i n a l and p r i m i t i v e features o f the law are preserved i n the Shâfi'î system a n d i n later M à l i k ï w r i t i n g s . T h u s the c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y early texts testify t o a late stage o f d e v e l o p m e n t and the late texts t o t h e o r i g i n a l and p r i m i t i v e . B e t t e r surely t o take the texts i n the right o r d e r . T h e early H a n a f i and M a l i k i m a t e r i a l s , a r t i c u l a t i n g a d i s t i n c t l y bureaucratic and city-based a p p r o a c h , represent ( s o m e t h i n g l i k e ) the system as i t was i n the early t h i r d century. T h e Shâfi'î m a t e r i a l is significantly later, p r o d u c t o f m u c h n o r m a t i v e t h i n k i n g , a n d displays some characteristic features o f Bedouinization. T h e later M â l i k ï s are influenced by Shâfi'î developments. 2 6

2 7

F o r the purposes o f the present a r g u m e n t , it is b o t h unnecessary and undesirable t o derive f r o m the j u r i s t i c texts all that they m i g h t offer t o w a r d s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f social reality i n the p e r i o d o f their p r o d u c t i o n , i n t e r e s t i n g and challenging t h o u g h t h a t e x p e r i m e n t m i g h t be. Several features o f the H a n a f i discussion, h o w e v e r , are w o r t h a m e n t i o n . L i k e m u c h early H a n a f i m a t e r i a l , i t seems t o be the result o f a bureaucratic i n i t i a t i v e . This is reflected first i n the insistence, several times r e p e a t e d , that all claims for diya p a y m e n t s s h o u l d be t a k e n before a j u d g e , and t h a t payments s h o u l d n o t begin t i l l after a j u d i c i a l decree t o that effect. Secondly, A d 'aqila in £ / ( i i ) . - See Patricia Crone, 'Jahili and Jewish law*. 154 and 198-201. Cf. above. Ch. 7. Sect. V . 2 6

not operate. The inheritance claims set up by a contract of muwalal were even more vestigial.

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c u r i o u s l y , and u n i q u e l y t o I r a q , t h e payments are n o t t o be made by i n d i v i d u a l s b u t are t o be d e d u c t e d , by the diwan, f r o m t h e a'tiyya ( a n n u a l stipends) o r f r o m the arzdq ( m o n t h l y stipends). B o t h o f these policies reflect an effort by the local g o v e r n m e n t t o gain c o n t r o l o v e r the 'aqilas and diya p a y m e n t s . T h e context is m i l i t a r y : the i n h a b i t a n t s of the city w h o are i n receipt o f stipends m u s t be p r i m a r i l y those w h o are available for m i l i t a r y service (perhaps n o t exclusively so). I f groups w h o are i n receipt o f g o v e r n m e n t stipends i n c u r 'dqda o b l i g a t i o n s , the requisite sums w i l l n o t be p a i d o u t b y i n d i v i d u a l s b u t h e l d back by t h e diwan, and presumably delivered by the diwan t o those w h o , having previously acquired a j u d i c i a l decree t o t h a t effect, are its l e g i t i m a t e recipients. 28

T h e puzzle here is n o t that there s h o u l d be some such i n i t i a t i v e , b u t that the local references t h r o u g h o u t the discussion s h o u l d be K u f a and B a s r a , r a t h e r t h a n , say, B a g h d a d . E v e n at the t i m e of Shaybani ( a n d I s h o u l d be r e l u c t a n t to concede that any c o m p o n e n t o f t h e Asl c o u l d be that early) the m i l i t a r y significance o f K u f a and Basra h a d declined b e y o n d the p o i n t w h e r e i t w o u l d seem sensible t o elaborate rules, r e l a t i n g t o those cities, w h i c h specifically dealt w i t h m i l i t a r y c o m m u n i t i e s . B a g h d a d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , l i k e S a m a r r a l a t e r , was composed p r i m a r i l y o f city units and quarters designed t o a c c o m m o d a t e the caliph's t r o o p s a l o n g w i t h t h e i r families a n d o t h e r hangers-on; and I w o u l d accordingly guess t h a t the real reference is t o that c i t y . Rules are f o r m u l a t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o K u f a and B a s r a , b u t t h e bureaucratic i n t e n t i o n is to see t h e m c a r r i e d o u t i n B a g h d a d . K u f a a n d Basra have become the paradigms and the precedents f o r life i n B a g h d a d . T h a t geographical d i s l o c a t i o n is p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e Mudawwana w h i c h , though it u n d o u b t e d l y expresses rules relevant t o Q a y r a w a n , expresses t h e m as i f they had d e r i v e d f r o m and were relevant t o M a d i n a . R e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f this k i n d o f d i s l o c a t i o n is a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o discovering w h a t h i s t o r y (social r e a l i t y ) lies b e h i n d the l a w and w h a t law lies b e h i n d h i s t o r y — h o w m u c h o f t h e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l ' K u f a ' reflects t h e bureaucratic demands o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n B a g h d a d .

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A c a d e m i c studies o f the origins o f Islamic law have come t o focus o n t h e R o m a n and the Jewish systems as the most significant ( t h o u g h n o t t h e o n l y ) outside p r o v i d e r s o f j u r i s t i c d e t a i l . Those w h o have argued for R o m a n influence have been effectively analysed and c r i t i c i z e d by Patricia C r o n e i n her Roman, provincial and Islamic law. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , she u n d e r t a k e s , for her o w n p a r t , a contrastive study o f wald' (a t e r m designating the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a p a t r o n and his f r e e d m a n ) i n t h e Islamic, R o m a n , A r a b i a n , and R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l s y s t e m s — w i t h a view to establishing w h i c h system influenced I s l a m . T h e difficulty of the exercise is nicely exemplified i n t h e response o f W a e l H a l l a q , w h o , focusing o n d e t a i l n o t p r i n c i p l e , demonstrates that she has failed either t o p r o v e t h a t Islamic law m i g h t n o t be based o n B e d o u i n practice o r t h a t i t must be based on p r o v i n c i a l l a w . " L i t t l e m o r e c o u l d be expected. A r g u m e n t s o f this k i n d do n o t lead t o definitive conclusions ( w h i c h is n o t a reason t o abandon the c o m p a r a t i v e study o f legal systems, b u t a reason for c a u t i o n i n asserting b o r r o w i n g s and influence). 19

3

C r o n e ' s c o n c l u s i o n s — a t a sufficiently high level o f generalizat i o n — a r e n o t w i t h o u t force: a l l Near-Eastern systems m i g h t be described as p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a c o m m o n j u r i s t i c k o i n e . ( T h e disadvantages o f this t e r m have been n o t e d e l s e w h e r e . ) " This k o i n e is 'usually o f G r e e k or ancient Near-Eastern o r i g i n ' ( w h i c h one c o u l d h a r d l y d e n y , and w i t h w h i c h one c o u l d h a r d l y be c o n t e n t ) . B u t 'the S h a r f a is p r o v i n c i a l law recast w i t h Jewish concepts at its backbone and n u m e r o u s Jewish (and other foreign) elements i n its substantive p r o v i s i o n s ' . T h i s is c e r t a i n l y p r o b l e m atic. I f Jewish law is a p a r t o f t h e k o i n e it must be expected t o share w i t h Islam s o m e , and may share m a n y , concepts and p r o v i s i o n s w i t h o u t p r o v o k i n g any assumptions a b o u t origins or a d o p t i o n s . I t is i n fact unclear w h e t h e r C r o n e intends Jewish law to be a p a r t o f the k o i n e . I f the statement 'the S h a r f a is p r o v i n c i a l l a w ' means t h a t M u s l i m law (a c o m p l e x o f d e v e l o p i n g systems) is N e a r - E a s t e r n law and belongs t o the f a m i l y o f Near-Eastern laws, 1

32

'' Crone, Roman, provincial and Islamic law,

311

1-17.

Hallaq, 'The use and abuse of evidence', 79-91.

Wansbrough, Studies, 87. ' Crone, Roman, provincial and Islamic law, 92-3.

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Shaybani, Asl, iv. 663-5, and throughout the chapter.

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then the first phrase is u n p r o b l e m a t i c , b u t w h e r e does the second part o f that sentence come f r o m ? C r o n e ' s c o n v i c t i o n s a b o u t the Jewish presence i n Islamic law were first stated i n a b o o k w r i t t e n w i t h M i c h a e l C o o k . ' T h e r e , this v i e w was based o n casual reference t o Schacht and m o r e particularly t o A . J. Wensinck's ' D i e Entstehung der muslimischen Reinheitsgesetzgebung'. T h i s is yet another listing of juristic details t h a t do n o t have the significance c l a i m e d for t h e m . P u r i t y systems have e m e r g e d i n diverse social groups at various stages i n their d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y are geographically widespread a n d w h e r e v e r they emerge they reveal c o m m o n features. T h e y are concerned w i t h w h a t comes o u t of the b o d y , w i t h p a r t u r i t i o n , menses, sexual fluids, u r i n a t i o n , and defecation. T h e y are l i k e l y to be d i s t u r b e d by corpses and by d e c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e y usually recognize t h a t i m p u r i t y is i m p a r t e d t h r o u g h l i q u i d s not solids. W h e r e animals are i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the system, p r e d a t o r y animals are l i k e l y t o be i m p u r e . W h e r e p r e d a t o r y animals are i m p u r e , the dog and the cat, i f they are domestic animals, are g o i n g t o present category p r o b l e m s . These can be solved, for example by shifting the d o g i n t o a category o f its o w n , either as p a r a d i g m a t i c f r i e n d t o m a n ( Z o r o a s t r i a n ) o r intensified example o f i m p u r i t y . With respect t o these a n d o t h e r basic features, all ancient Near-Eastern systems are s i m i l a r n o t o n l y t o each o t h e r b u t t o systems w e l l b e y o n d t h e confines o f the N e a r East. 3

3 4

3 3

W i t h respect t o the t w o m a j o r Jewish systems—the b i b l i c a l and the R a b b i n i c — e v e n the most casual c o m p a r i s o n between t h e m and the Islamic system w i l l reveal that the latter is altogether a smaller a n d less c o m p l i c a t e d business. W e n s i n c k ' s ( p r e - e m p t i v e ) c o n c l u s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , is t h a t the Islamic system is an a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t h e R a b b i n i c . I n t h e R a b b i n i c system, things and people r e n d e r e d i m p u r e can transfer that i m p u r i t y at various removes. I n the I s l a m i c system even a m e n s t r u a t i n g w o m a n does n o t i m p a r t i m p u r i t y t o o t h e r people o r t o things. This is a m e l i o r a t i o n . T h e M u s l i m s w o n d e r w h e t h e r h u m a n corpses i m p a r t i m p u r i t y : Jewish influence. T h e y answer negatively: a m e l i o r a t i o n . T h e Islamic rules •

P. Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarbm, 30-2, 37-8, and 180 n. i t . Douglas, Purity and danger, for a rapid and accessible survey of purity systems and their significance(s). In India as well as in the Middle East; see Wright, The disposal of impurity, 105, n. 48. w

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o n t h e c a r r i o n o f animals are q u i t e i n h a r m o n y w i t h the Jewish rules a n d the t w o c o m m u n i t i e s share a c o m m o n sense o f t h e i m p u r i t y o f dogs and pigs. A m o n g s t t h e things w h i c h i m p a r t i m p u r i t y is h u m a n e x c r e m e n t ; and the M u s l i m s , f o l l o w i n g the Jews, specify a l i g h t e r i m p u r i t y i n the case o f b a b i e s . 36

A l l o f this is q u i t e worthless. A n y system w h i c h recognizes the p o l l u t i n g effects o f u r i n e , e x c r e m e n t , and v o m i t w i l l spot the fact that babies are a p r o b l e m , and w i l l not need the Tosefta t o h e l p t h e m f o r m u l a t e a q u e s t i o n r e l a t i n g t o this issue. P u r i t y systems d e v e l o p i n response t o systematic logical q u e s t i o n i n g . T h e basic premises g i v e n , reflection alone w i l l generate p r o b l e m s a n d s o l u t i o n s . C a r r i o n is i m p u r e . H u m a n corpses are instances o f c a r r i o n . A r e they t o be assimilated for j u r i s t i c purposes or is a h u m a n b o d y t o be distinguished f r o m t h a t o f o t h e r animals? T h e m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e q u e s t i o n are clear. T h e Jewish system solves the p r o b l e m by m a k i n g t h e h u m a n corpse a p a r t i c u l a r l y e x t r e m e and effective source o f i m p u r i t y . T h e M u s l i m system removes t h e h u m a n corpse f r o m the category of the i m p u r e . These are characteristic and logical responses t o p r o b l e m s of this k i n d . N e i t h e r i n the f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e question n o r i n the generation o f a s o l u t i o n d i d the M u s l i m s r e q u i r e Jewish influence. T h e presence o f pigs i n the M u s l i m system may be secondary (above, C h . 4 , Sects. I l l and I V ) ; t h e i m m e d i a t e influence is o f course t h e Q u r ' a n , the u l t i m a t e influence need n o t be ( o n l y ) t h e Jews. Pigs a n d dogs had been recognized as p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p u r e as early as the H i t t i t e s and this h a d p r o b a b l y become a general Near-Eastern p r e j u d i c e (outside t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n c o m m u n i t y ) . ' W e n s i n c k is p a r t i c u l a r l y struck by the fact t h a t i n J u d a i s m a n d i n Islam the carcasses o f fish a n d locusts do n o t i m p a r t i m p u r i t y t o w a t e r . T h i s , he c l a i m s , shows as g o o d as surely that the younger system is d e p e n d e n t o n the o l d e r . I t is, h o w e v e r , equally possible that the peculiar qualities o f fish a n d locusts ( w h i c h may be eaten w i t h o u t r i t u a l s l a u g h t e r — n o blood-system) was recognized t h r o u g h o u t several o r a l l N e a r - E a s t e r n c o m m u n i t i e s . W e n s i n c k ' s selection o f the w o r d Entstehung, r a t h e r t h a n some w o r d i n d i c a t i n g influence, is p a r t i c u l a r l y u n f o r t u n a t e , for i t is i n d e e d t r u e t h a t t w o similar and c o n t i g u o u s systems m i g h t w e l l have influenced one a n o t h e r ; t h e 3

3 4

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A . J. Wensinck, 'Die Entstehung', 62-4.

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Wright, The disposal of impurity, 105, n. 47.

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fish a n d the locusts m i g h t be an e x a m p l e , t h o u g h t o establish the p o i n t w i t h any degree o f c e r t a i n t y c o u l d w e l l be impossible. I n t h e e n d , the most r e m a r k a b l e feature o f the M u s l i m system o f p u r i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o the Jewish is its capacity t o resist influence. N o t h u m a n corpses, n o r r e d heifers, n o r leprosy, n o r leprous houses, n o r t e n t s , n o r e a r t h e n w a r e vessels, n o r secondary o r t e r t i a r y c o n t a m i n a t i o n , n o r a host o f o t h e r things t h a t b o t h e r t h e R a b b i s enter i n t o the m a i n stream o f Islamic t h o u g h t . A n d t h e m a i n focus o f the Islamic s y s t e m — p u r i t y for purposes o f p r a y e r — does n o t reflect the m a i n focus o f the Jewish s y s t e m — p u r i t y f o r purposes o f eating. T h e c l a i m t h a t the M u s l i m system is an a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t h e R a b b i n i c system w i l l n o t stand. T h e reverse o f this f o r m u l a t i o n is m o r e l i k e l y t o be t r u e . T h e R a b b i n i c system is a c o m p l e x and rarefied e l a b o r a t i o n o f a c o m m o n N e a r - E a s t e r n set o f beliefs a b o u t p u r i t y ( c o m p l i c a t e d by its h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e l a t i o n ship t o t h e b i b l i c a l laws). T h e M u s l i m system is p r o b a b l y very near to t h a t c o m m o n o r basic system; and has p r o v e d o n the w h o l e r a t h e r resistant t o efforts at m a k i n g i t m o r e c o m p l e x . 3 8

Subsequent t o the claims o f Hagarism, b o t h C o o k and C r o n e have separately c o n t r i b u t e d m a j o r studies t o this t h e m e . C r o n e ' s effort ( i n r e l a t i o n t o the o a t h k n o w n as qasâma) purports to d e m o n s t r a t e b i b l i c a l influence o n the Hanafis and R a b b i n i c a l influence o n the M â l i k î s . I n o r d e r t o achieve the first o f those conclusions, she creates an ingenious l i n k b e t w e e n D e u t . 21: 1-9 and t h e H a n a f i law o f qasâma, requires a Pentateuchal p e r i o d i n the h i s t o r y o f the A r a b s ( s t r e t c h i n g i n t o the U m a y y a d p e r i o d ) , R a b b i n i c a l Jews w h o lent the A r a b s a copy o f t h e i r P e n t a t e u c h , a n d , g e n e r a l l y , a degree o f f a i t h i n t h e possibility o f h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o n the basis o f refractory l i t e r a r y m a t e r i a l e m e r g i n g m u c h later t h a n the facts t o be d o c u m e n t e d t h a n I w o u l d w i l l i n g l y concede. T h e R a b b i n i c a l influence o n the M â l i k î s is n o t less based o n p a r t i a l a n d selective s i m i l a r i t i e s . C o o k ' s magnificent conspectus o f ' E a r l y M u s l i m d i e t a r y l a w ' comes t o a miserably u n c e r t a i n c o n c l u s i o n . T h e Islamic system, c o m p a r e d t o t h e L e v i t i c a l system, m i g h t be a ' w o r n c o i n ' ( a m e l i o r a t i o n again). O n the o t h e r h a n d it m i g h t be a different c o i n e n t i r e l y . T h i s is honest and is a b o u t as m u c h as need be said. 3 9

4 0

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For the host of things, see Neusner's twenty-two volume Crone, 'Jahili and Jewish law'. Michael Cook, 'Early Islamic dietary law', 269-70.

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O f course M u s l i m law shares m a n y features w i t h Jewish l a w , w i t h R o m a n and p r o v i n c i a l l a w , w i t h some aspects o f B e d o u i n p r a c t i c e , and i n d e e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n law ( i t c o u l d h a r d l y be c l a i m e d t h a t i t was f r o m the Jews t h a t the M u s l i m s ' b o r r o w e d ' the n o t i o n o f a m o n t h o f fasting). N o one w o u l d w i s h t o deny t h a t , i n some sense, t h e origins o f Islamic law lie i n N e a r - E a s t e r n c u l t u r e . W i t h i n that c u l t u r e , R o m a n , H e l l e n i s t i c , Jewish, C h r i s t i a n , S e m i t i c , and Persian elements w e r e w i d e l y , and had been f o r c e n t u r i e s , diffused. T h e m e d i a o f diffusion v a r i e d : amongst t h e m , p o p u l a r s t o r y - t e l l i n g , secular e d u c a t i o n , religious p o l e m i c , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and business practice. B u t precisely these media were n o t funnels, p e r m i t t i n g the i n t e g r a l passage o f a p a r t i c u l a r i t e m f r o m insular c u l t u r e t o insular c u l t u r e . T h e contrast is m a r k e d w h e n w e consider j u s t w h a t c o n d i t i o n s were r e q u i r e d f o r integral transfer o f a c u l t u r a l i t e m t o t a k e place. T h e transfer o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y t o A r a b i c c i v i l i z a t i o n is a case i n p o i n t . A n established d i s c i p l i n e , w i t h an accepted c a n o n o f basic texts, was transferred i n t e g r a l l y i n t o A r a b i c , t h r o u g h precise l i t e r a r y t r a n s l a t i o n and w i t h k n o w ledge o f its u l t i m a t e origins and its (Syriac) translators a n d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s . E v e n u n d e r these circumstances, a certain a m o u n t o f d i s l o c a t i o n o f the heritage t o o k place. W h a t e v e r transfers t o o k place f r o m A n c i e n t N e a r - E a s t e r n c o m m u n i t i e s t o I s l a m i n the legal sphere, the m e d i u m was o r a l n o t w r i t t e n ; p r a c t i c a l n o t t h e o r e t i c a l , dialectical and creative, n o t m e r e l y receptive. T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n o f an i n t e g r a l system b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d , o f b o o k s o r texts or codes b e i n g specifically translated f o r this p u r p o s e , n o t even a m o d e s t l y large ( a n d systematic) agenda o f legal items t h a t can be u n e q u i v o c a l l y related t o a single earlier c o m m u n i t y . T h e p r e - I s l a m i c c o m m u n i t i e s o f t h e M i d d l e East i n c l u d e d m o r e varieties o f Judaism and o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a n w e can n o w i d e n t i f y , t o g e t h e r w i t h vestigial or i n t r u s i v e Semitic and pagan cults, Z o r o a s t r i a n , and Persian m o v e m e n t s . R e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e largely autonomous, doctrinally creative, and polemically engaged. T h e m o t i f s o f i n t e r - f a i t h p o l e m i c need n o t correspond t o t h e m o t i f s o f ( i n t e r n a l ) d o c t r i n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . Cross-cultural i n f l u ence i n c l u d e d business and leisure contacts, possibly a secular 41

Jacob Neusner, Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism for a general survey of three religious groups; Aphrahat and Judaism for inter-faith polemic and its failure to reflect internal doctrinal development. 4 1

214

T H E

(community

ORIGIN

OF

neutral) education

NORMS

T H E

system based o n a H e l l e n i s t i c

t r a d i t i o n , a n d religious r i v a l r y . A t any p o i n t i n t i m e the d e f i n i t i o n

ORIGIN

OF

NORMS

m o t i f s , m i g h t be r e l a t e d q u i t e specifically

215

t o , for example,

the

R a b b i n i c a n d n o t t o any o t h e r religious g r o u p . I t does n o t f o l l o w

o f c o m m u n i t y i d e n t i t y d e p e n d e d o n shared allegiance to a n u m b e r

t h a t t h e M u s l i m s b o r r o w e d n a r r a t i v e items f r o m R a b b i n i c a l Jews.

of c u l t u r a l structures ( j u r i s t i c , m y t h i c , t h e o l o g i c a l , p o l e m i c a l , e t c . )

T h e d i f f u s i o n o f story t h r o u g h N e a r - E a s t e r n c u l t u r e was n o n -

w h i c h were never i n static e q u i l i b r i u m . T h r o u g h time the mosaic o f

sectarian and c o n t r o l l e d less by t h e o l o g i c a l t h a n by n a r r a t i v e and

competing communities resolved itself into three m a j o r divisions—

d r a m a t i c demands.

t h e C h r i s t i a n , t h e R a b b i n i c J e w i s h , and the M u s l i m . I n spite o f t h e

o t h e r cycles i n c l u d i n g stories o f G r e e k ( t h e A l e x a n d e r l e g e n d ) , o f

I n a d d i t i o n t o a Prophetic cycle, there w e r e

l i t e r a t u r e , i n d i g e n o u s and s c h o l a r l y , w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o find for the

I n d i a n ( t h e B i d p a i fables), a n d o f t r i b a l A r a b i c o r i g i n . I n the case

last o f these a s i n g l e — t e m p o r a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c — p o i n t o f o r i g i n

o f t h e first t w o o f these, as also i n the case o f the P r o p h e t i c tales,

( t h e H i j a z , t h e seventh c e n t u r y ) , an alternative m o d e l o f c o m m u n -

t h e h i s t o r y o f d i f f u s i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l e x because w r i t t e n

ity development is available and insistent. I t postulates a widespread

texts ( w h i c h w e r e i n t i m e , i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , translated i n t o

m o v e m e n t o f self-realization b y geographically diverse communities,

l i t e r a r y A r a b i c ) , at least p o t e n t i a l l y , r e s t r i c t e d the free d e v e l o p -

w h o , b e n e f i t i n g f r o m the decay o f I m p e r i a l p o w e r ( B y z a n t i n e and

m e n t o f m o t i f s i n an o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

Persian) and the consequent emergence o f A r a b political hegemony,

T h e transfer o f P r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l i n t o A r a b i c m a d e i t equally

g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a set o f c u l t u r a l artefacts and structures w h i c h

available t o t h e various c o m m u n i t i e s o f the N e a r East. T h e l o n g

defined

h i s t o r y o f r e t e l l i n g m u s t have i n v o l v e d a d o u b l e process o f first

an i d e n t i t y . T h e w h o l e set o f c u l t u r a l artefacts

is, o f

course, i n d e f i n i t e l y large, b u t t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r c o m p o n e n t o f

r e m o v i n g c o m m u n i t y - s p e c i f i c items w h i c h i m p e d e d diffusion and

M u s l i m c u l t u r e w o u l d be s i m i l a r t o p a r a l l e l c o m p o n e n t s o f o t h e r

then,

c u l t u r e s — w h i c h w e r e d e v e l o p i n g at the same t i m e and i n the same

p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n i t y purposes. T h e history o f a single n a r r a t i v e

c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l m a t r i x — d o e s n o t occasion surprise and need

u n i t a n d its g r a d u a l

n o t p r o m p t a search for specific

specifically

origins and b o r r o w i n g s .

The

o r i g i n s o f M u s l i m c u l t u r e lie i n the experience o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s o f the M i d d l e East and i n u n c o u n t a b l e systematic responses t o that e x p e r i e n c e . Judaeo-Christian

Given

the general

diffusion

of

ideas t h r o u g h o u t the p r e - I s l a m i c M i d d l e E a s t ,

some o f t h e b r o a d e r concepts o f c o m m u n i t y i d e n t i t y w e r e perhaps inescapable, f o r e x a m p l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y by reference t o t h e n o t i o n s o f P r o p h e t and B o o k ; but these w e r e t h e c o m m o n p r e r o g a t i v e s o f several f l o u r i s h i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e emergence o f A r a b i c w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e at c.200 provides evidence f o r o n l y the last stages i n a l o n g process o f c o m m u n i t y d e f i n i t i o n .

within

communities,

of

adapting

the

r e f o r m u l a t i o n to reflect

stories

to

serve

and to justify

a

M u s l i m e n v i r o n m e n t I have d o c u m e n t e d elsewhere.

T h e task n e e d n o t be repeated

here.

4 2

T h e transfer o f n a r r a t i v e items f r o m one m a t r i x o f c o m m u n i t y i d e n t i t y t o a n o t h e r is a process w h i c h m a y have influenced the d e v e l o p m e n t o f M u s l i m law. I n a series o f m e t i c u l o u s l y argued a n d cautiously expressed p a p e r s , G . R. H a w t i n g has suggested, w h i l e d i s c l a i m i n g a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a very

general

conception

process o r c h r o n o l o g y , t h a t c e r t a i n features o f Jewish

of

sanctuary

t r a d i t i o n have b e c o m e ( i m p e r f e c t l y ) e m b e d d e d w i t h i n j u r i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l accounts o f the M u s l i m s a n c t u a r y .

43

T h a t something o f

this sort has o c c u r r e d seems u n d e n i a b l e ; t h o u g h i n d e e d n o t a l l t h e peculiar a n d i n t r u s i v e elements w i t h i n the Islamic structures can

F o r some aspects o f the m e d i a t e d c u l t u r e t h a t became M u s l i m culture,

the

question

of

origins

Norman Calder, 'From midrash to scripture'. See also the larger history of the Abraham legend in" Arabic, in Reuven Firestone, Journeys in holy lands. As an instance of the removal of community-specific material from a narrative, compare (he biblical and other Jewish versions of what happened after the sacrifice of Isaac (always involving a blessing of some kind for the people of Israel) with the Arabic version (predominantly involving a neutral blessing for all monotheists, but, in a more community-specific version naming the Muslims as those to be saved); Firestone, 132-5. See G. R. Hawting, 'The origins of the Muslim sanctuary at Mecca'; 'The disappearance and rediscovery'; ' " W e were not ordered with entering i t " ' . 4 2

IV

is n o t q u i t e

so

recalcitrant.

A m o n g s t t h e p o p u l a r story-cycles t h a t c i r c u l a t e d , o r a l l y and i n w r i t t e n f o r m s , i n early M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s was a P r o p h e t i c cycle w h i c h i n c l u d e d all t h e m a j o r O l d Testament and N e w

Testament

legends. T h e o r i g i n s o f these are perfectly clear a n d , f o r p a r t i c u l a r

4 3

2l6

T H E

ORIGIN

OE

T H E

NORMS

be r e l a t e d t o specifically Jewish sources. O n e o f the i n t e r e s t i n g features o f t h e apparently Jewish i n t r u s i o n s , h o w e v e r , is that they are n o t j u r i s t i c i n o r i g i n . I t is haggadic m a t e r i a l , b i b l i c a l a n d M i d r a s h i c n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h t h r o w s u p all t h e features specifically n o t e d b y H a w t i n g t h r o u g h o u t his s t u d i e s as Jewish. N o w , t h e transfer o f n a r r a t i v e m o t i f s w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y related t o t h e sanctuary i n Jerusalem t o the sanctuary at M a k k a is a f a m i l i a r feature o f M u s l i m versions o f m a n y sanctuary s t o r i e s . I t m i r r o r s n o t o n l y t h e demands o f a M u s l i m audience b u t also perhaps a d e l i b e r a t e p r o p a g a n d a i n i t i a t i v e . I a m therefore t e m p t e d t o see t h e Jewish features o f the M u s l i m sanctuary and o f M u s l i m sanctuary law as p r o d u c t o f a c o m m o n n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n , developed w i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y for specific r e l i g i o - p o l i t i c a l purposes. T h e y do n o t i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t influence o f one religious g r o u p o n a n o t h e r . 44

45

T h e r e are, t h e n , e x t e r n a l influences o n t h e structure o f M u s l i m law. I n this case they are recognized because they are i n t r u s i v e . T h e source o f these elements, h o w e v e r , t h o u g h external t o the l a w , are i n t e r n a l t o the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h e m e d i a t i o n and acceptance o f P r o p h e t i c tales and sanctuary m y t h s preceded t h e i r i m p i n g e m e n t o n the law. T h e stoning penalty for a d u l t e r y may c o n s t i t u t e a f u r t h e r e x a m p l e o f a legal rule d e r i v i n g n o t i n i t i a l l y f r o m j u r i s t i c t h i n k i n g , b u t r a t h e r f r o m a n a r r a t i v e t h a t had b e c o m e p a r t o f c o m m u n i t y m y t h . M o s t persuasive is J o h n W a n s b r o u g h ' s suggestion that the origins o f the law here lie i n 'the haggadic t o p o i t r a d i t i o n a l l y e m p l o y e d t o i l l u s t r a t e the test o f t r u e p r o p h e t h o o d ' , i.e. t h e story h a d become a p a r t o f sectarian p o l e m i c before it was transferred t o the l a w . 4 6

T h e m o t i f s o f i n t e r - c o m m u n i t y polemic need n o t be i d e n t i c a l w i t h the m o t i f s and structures o f i n t r a - c o m m u n i t y d o c t r i n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( t h o u g h h a r m o n i z a t i o n may take place over t i m e ) . I n his studies o f Q u r ' a n a n d p r o p h e t i c b i o g r a p h y , W a n s b r o u g h has argued that the content o f these materials is a result o f p o l e m i c a l See H a w t i n g , "Origins', 46-7; 'The disappearance and rediscovery', 47-8, 52. Some features of the literary sanctuary have been recognized by Yehuda Nevo as more suited to archaeological sanctuaries recently excavated in the Ncgev. He thinks it is these that have dominated some literary descriptions, creating (as noted by Hawting) problems and inconcinnities within Muslim literary recreations of their sanctuary. See Yehuda D . Nevo and Judith Koren, 'Muslim descriptions'. The sacrifice of Isaac is one, but much of the story of Abraham is adapted to a Makkan setting: Calder, 'From Midrash to scripture'; Firestone, Journeys in holy 4 4

4 5

lands, 61-103. 4 6

Wansbrough, Studies, 198; cf. 193-6. See also John B u r t o n , Sources, ch. 7.

ORIGIN

OF

NORMS

217

a c t i v i t y . T h a t a r g u m e n t is persuasive precisely f o r these materials. T h e same is n o t e v i d e n t l y t r u e o f t h e l a w . T h e structures o f t h e l a w are a p r o d u c t n o t o f e x t e r n a l l y d i r e c t e d p o l e m i c a l activity b u t o f i n t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d r e f l e c t i o n , s t r u c t u r e - b u i l d i n g , etc. W h e r e disr u p t i o n s a n d intrusions may be detected i n legal structures, they are due t o influences f r o m o t h e r structures w h i c h have already been a c k n o w l e d g e d as p a r t o f M u s l i m c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t y . M u s l i m j u r i s t i c systems were p r i m a r i l y i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h one a n o t h e r : the o n l y e x p l i c i t a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f e x t e r n a l influence i n early M u s l i m j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e consists i n references t o o t h e r s c h o o l s . T h a t c o m p e t i t i o n came t o be a r t i c u l a t e d as a r g u m e n t a b o u t a u t h o r i t y n o t about rules. T h e final result was that M u s l i m legal systems achieved unity i n an ideological sense ( c o m m o n submission to t h e n o t i o n s o f P r o p h e t i c and s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y ) , w h i l e preserving a diversity o f n o r m s and separate school identities. B u t all schools w e r e t h e n equally p a t i e n t o f influence, usually secondary and i n t r u s i v e , f r o m P r o p h e t i c n a r r a t i v e and f r o m Quranic norms. 47

V

E m e r g i n g as a series o f c o m p e t i n g systems ( m o r e than can n o w be i d e n t i f i e d ) , Islamic law discovered its n o r m s t h r o u g h the discursive and consensual experience o f local c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s . T h i s was a d y n a m i c process, a dialectical o n e , and one w h i c h may safely be assumed t o have come i n t o existence l o n g before w r i t t e n texts. O v e r 150 years, the diffusion o f ideas and o f rules was c o n t r o l l e d by p r a c t i c a l ( a n d perhaps i m p r a c t i c a l ) t h i n k e r s w h o , shaped n o d o u b t by the system they i n h e r i t e d , also r e c o n s t r u c t e d i t t h r o u g h creative consensual t h o u g h t . T h e play o f t h o u g h t over i n h e r i t e d schema a n d social r e a l i t y remains t h e m o s t p e r t i n e n t o r i g i n f o r a m a j o r i t y o f specific rules and structures i n Islamic law. T h e discovery of u n i t y amongst c o m p e t i n g systems depended o n the m o d u l a t i o n o f debate f r o m concern w i t h rules t o concern w i t h A rare acknowledgement of alien influence is found in a hadith cited by ShafiT, Umm, i . 18.5-6. T h e Prophet of God said " L e t your beards grow, and your moustaches; and dye your grey hair; do not resemble the Jews.'" Here the influence is adversative, and signals once again the difficulties of any claim that parallels indicate influence, for opposites also might indicate influence. That the reference is to the externals of Jewish appearance, and not to the structures of Jewish law, is also significant. 4 7

2l8

THE ORIGIN

OF

NORMS

THE

the a u t h o r i t y t h a t lay b e h i n d the rules. A r t i c u l a t e d first, and most casually, w i t h t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f ra'y, the j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f rules d e p e n d e d e v e n t u a l l y u p o n p r e c e d e n t , first j u r i s t i c ( M a l i k , A b u H a n i f a , e t c . ) , t h e n C o m p a n i o n , and finally P r o p h e t i c . O n e result of this was that Prophetic stories whose origins were i n d e p e n d e n t o f p a r t i c u l a r j u r i s t i c systems h a d at least the p o t e n t i a l t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e l a w . Consider the h a d i t h a b o u t t h e sevenfold washing o f a dish t h a t had been lapped at by a d o g . T h i s does n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o the o l d e r d o c t r i n e o f e i t h e r the M a l i k i s o r the H a n a f i s , b u t b o t h schools, w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g t h e i r o w n general t r a d i t i o n , accepted t h e h a d i t h t o a degree and accomm o d a t e d themselves t o i t . E v e n the Shafi'I system, w h i c h i d e o l o g i c a l l y was most i n c l i n e d t o a l l o w P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h their f u l l p o t e n t i a l f o r c e , d i d n o t m a k e this h a d i t h the analogical basis for the l a w , b u t r a t h e r a c c o m m o d a t e d i t and its i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h i n a system w h i c h was, b r o a d l y , that o f the M a l i k i s . P r o p h e t i c n a r r a t i v e t h e n , w h e t h e r its origins were legal and eccentric or n o n legal, e.g. p o l e m i c a l , m i g h t become a d i s r u p t i v e influence o n t h e l a w , w h e r e n o t c o n t r o l l e d by h e r m e n e u t i c a l devices. I n practice most p r o b l e m s w e r e resolvable, by v i r t u e o f the sheer q u a n t i t y o f P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h that d i r e c t l y served, or c o u l d be made t o serve, the purposes o f the law. (See f u r t h e r C h . 9.) T h e final stage i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f an ideal system o f a u t h o r i t y , an o v e r a r c h i n g structure o f u n i t y that embraced and p e r m i t t e d the actual d i v e r s i t y o f legal system, is represented i n the n o t i o n o f s c r i p t u r a l sanction. C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y the last s t a g e , this became, i d e o l o g i c a l l y , the first p r i n c i p l e o f Islamic legal j u s t i f i c a t i o n . Q u r a n i c n o r m s are perhaps i n o r i g i n the l i t u r g i c a l reflex o f local p r a c t i c e ; they are n o t always i n t e r n a l l y consistent and they are n o t always i n agreement w i t h those legal systems w h i c h happened t o be successful. T h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m s o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g Q u r a n i c n o r m s w i t h i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g M u s l i m h e r m e n e u t i c system have been sufficiently dealt w i t h e l s e w h e r e . H e r e it is o n l y necessary 48

49

The relatively late date of halakhic exegesis is conceded by Wansbrough, Studies, 170 ff.; as also the difficulties of attribution in early works (172, ad Muqatil) and of approach (ethical versus juristic, 173). The first systematic attempt to derive law from Qur'an is probably to be found in the Tafsir of Jassas (d. 370). Theoretical arguments preparing for this achievement are found in Muhammad b. Idris al-ShafiT's Risdla, for which see Ch. 9, Section V . Wansbrough, Studies, 170-202; B u r t o n , Sources, passim; and for an older but still valuable survey, Ignaz Goldziher, The Zdhiris.

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to a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e Q u r ' a n was an influence o n t h e l a w , usually secondary and i n t r u s i v e . T h i s was already n o t e d by Schacht and has been o n balance confirmed by recent scholarship. A c o n t r a r y view has been a r t i c u l a t e d o n occasion by J o h n B u r t o n , w h o , i n a series o f articles, and most recently i n his The sources of Islamic law, has i m p l i e d o r assumed o r stated that the origins o f fiqh lie (perhaps o n l y i n p a r t ) i n exegetical discussion a b o u t t h e Q u r ' a n . T h u s , w i t h reference t o three topics in M a l i k ' s Muwatta', he infers that

50

The Kur'an texts lay at the very heart of his discussions, and the manner in which they were severally treated suggests the centrality of the Kur'an in ihe intellectual activity of the Muslims. The intervening century and a half had, in other words, been an age of the exegesis of the Kur'an. From the minutest analysis of the revealed texts had flowed a stream of hadiths and views which were then taken by the Muslims as starting-point for the construction of the law.'" ' 1

It is d u b i o u s w h e t h e r Q u r a n i c texts i n fact lie 'at the heart' o f M a l i k ' s discussions; c e r t a i n that they very o f t e n p l a y n o p a r t i n those discussions. A n a l y s i n g t h e same w o r k , W a n s b r o u g h has ( c o r r e c t l y ) described reference t o scripture as ' m i n i m a l ' and 'an almost superfluous e m b e l l i s h m e n t ' . I n any case, B u r t o n k n o w s that he is guessing. W h e n texts emerge t h a t constitute real evidence for the n a t u r e o f fiqh, they d e m o n s t r a t e , even t o B u r t o n ' s satisfaction, that the Q u r ' a n is n o t t h e i m m e d i a t e source o f l a w a n d t h a t the p r o b l e m facing the j u r i s t s was precisely t o find arguments b y w h i c h s c r i p t u r a l origins for the law c o u l d b e — i n the face o f almost i n s u r m o u n t a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s — a s s e r t e d . T h a t exegetical c o m m e n t o n t h e Q u r ' a n must have been the origins o f j u r i s t i c speculation is u n p r o v e n and u n p r o v a b l e , a n d n o t a reasonable inference f r o m the n a t u r e o f early j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , w h e r e Q u r a n i c reference is rare a n d never exegetically w o r k e d o u t (save in some o f t h e arguments o f ShafiTs XJmrri). 52

53

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Schacht, Origins, 224-7; Wansbrough, Studies, 43-52. 170-200; Wansbrough, Milieu, 7 0 - 8 1 ; G. R. Hawting, 'The role of Qur'an and hadith', and 'Zihar and ild". B u r t o n , Sources, p. viii; cf. 30, 77, et at. Wansbrough, Studies, 171-2; Wansbrough, Milieu, 75. B u r t o n . Sources, ch. 2; cf. the review by A . Rippin, BSOAS 44.2 (1991), ((12-5. s o

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VI G o v e r n m e n t a l decrees, r o y a l edicts, and palace codes have i n some legal systems become the bases for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f systematic j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t . I n o t h e r s , n o t a b l y i n the early C o m m o n - L a w system o f E n g l a n d , j u d i c i a l precedents have served a s i m i l a r p u r p o s e . I t is i n s t r u c t i v e , t h e r e f o r e , t o n o t e t h a t none o f these plays any significant part i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Islamic law. W h a t was i n i t i a l l y preserved was p r e p o n d e r a n t l y the d i c t a n o t o f j u d g e s b u t o f j u r i s t s . A n d these, we have seen, w e r e i n i t i a l l y an i n f o r m a l a n d non-professional class o f local dignitaries whose a u t h o r i t y d e p e n d e d o n t h e i r consensual p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n j u r i s t i c discussion, a n d n o t u p o n t h e i r r o l e i n society. T h e processes o f professionalization and bureaucratic i n c o r p o r a t i o n d i d n o t change t h a t ; Islamic law r e m a i n e d , at least t h e o r e t i c a l l y , i n d i f f e r e n t t o the decrees o f governors a n d t o the decisions o f judges. N o m a t t e r h o w p r a c t i c a l l y effective these m i g h t be, they r e m a i n e d subject t o the j u d g e m e n t o f the law and w e r e i n n o sense at a l l a c k n o w l e d g e d t o be sources o f the l a w . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t reflects the social reality o f early M u s l i m societies w h i c h were largely self-regulating, w h e r e i n g o v e r n o r s a n d j u d g e s , i f they were t o be effective, p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e discovery of, and acted i n accord w i t h , local n o r m s . I n so far as t h e y d i d so, t h e i r names are a p a r t o f the galaxy o f a u t h o r i t i e s w h i c h g u a r d the early statements o f j u r i s t i c rules. I n so far as t h e y f a i l e d t o do so, they may appear as v i l l a i n s . 5 4

Patricia C r o n e , w h o has p r o m o t e d , generally w i t h reference t o an earlier p e r i o d t h a n I w o u l d recognize as yet accessible t o scholarly d e c i s i o n , and i n the c o n t e x t o f a h i g h l y personal historical t h e o r y , the notions o f R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l a n d o f Jewish origins f o r I s l a m i c l a w , has also p r o m o t e d the idea o f caliphal creation. T h e sources used b y C r o n e ( t o g e t h e r w i t h M a r t i n H i n d s ) t o m a k e this a r g u m e n t do n o t include any l a w - b o o k s . T h e h a d i t h - c o l l e c t i o n o f ' A b d al-Razzaq figures largely, so do the U m a y y a d poets and a n u m b e r o f b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s r e l a t i n g t o 5 5

56

The Lombard legal system discussed by Charles M . Radding in Medieval jurisprudence is one example. P. Crone and M a r t i n Hinds, God's caliph, 43-57. See also the review by N . Calder, in JSS 32 (1987), 375-8. They do include a reference to Schacht (God's caliph, 45, n. 18—specifying a curious page number to start from) whose assertions about the influence of the government are limited; see Origins, 198. 5 4

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governors a n d qadis. T h e a u t h o r s o f God's caliph conclude that 'there is n o simple way o f e x p l a i n i n g h o w the U m a y y a d caliphs came ever t o be i n v o k e d [ i . e . t o appear i n j u r i s t i c exempla] unless we accept t h a t legal a u t h o r i t y once resided i n the caliphal office i t s e l f . ' N o w , i n l a w - b o o k s , caliphs play o n l y an insignificant r o l e amongst m a n y others w h o f u n c t i o n as preservers and presenters o f the l a w . T h e i r presence and the ( m o r e significant) presence o f local governors and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e agents i n l a w - b o o k s , a n d i n f o r example the hadith-narratives o f ' A b d al-Razzâq, may be accounted for o n the general grounds t h a t they were i n f l u e n t i a l m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y and s h a r e d — a t least p o t e n t i a l l y — w i t h o t h e r influential m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y the responsibility f o r g u a r d i n g , p r e s e r v i n g , reflecting o n , and a r t i c u l a t i n g the l a w . T h e incidence o f c a l i p h a l e x e m p l a i n the M a d i n a n t r a d i t i o n ( M a l i k i law) is h a r d l y o v e r w h e l m i n g , b u t certainly noticeable. T h i s is due to the fact t h a t at least t w o U m a y y a d caliphs ( ' U m a r b . ' A b d al' A z i z a n d M a r w â n ) w e n t t h r o u g h a t r a i n i n g as local g o v e r n o r i n M a d i n a , and others grew u p t h e r e . I t is as a result o f t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the social process there and n o t as a result of their position as c a l i p h t h a t they e n t e r e d the body o f j u r i s t i c m y t h . 57

N o n e the less some c a l i p h a l decisions d i d enter the law where they w e r e t h o u g h t t o be i n accord w i t h i t ( C h . 7, Sect. I V , above) w h i l e some elements o f caliphal practice entered the law o n l y t o be c r i t i c i z e d . T h a t governors a n d t h e i r agents were i n some areas p r e p o n d e r a t i n g l y i n f l u e n t i a l is n o t t o be d o u b t e d . Schacht's identification o f three areas w h e r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e practice may be recognized as the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f the law (fiscal l a w , law o f w a r , and p e n a l l a w ) is no m o r e t h a n a first t h o u g h t o n this m a t t e r and is p r o b a b l y subject b o t h t o expansion and t o q u a l i f i c a t i o n . ( I t is not t o be r u l e d o u t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y a n d government initiatives influenced r i t u a l — t h e pilgrimage, perhaps— and i t is at least possible t h a t zakât grew up as that w h i c h constitutes its p r i m a r y d e f i n i t i o n , a local t a x , i n f a v o u r o f the local p o o r , i n d e p e n d e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ) A b u Yusuf's Kitâb al-Kharâ) represents a g o v e r n m e n t a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f j u r i s t i c a r g u m e n t f o r g o v e r n m e n t a l ends; significantly, i t is n o t presented as a g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , b u t as a discussion o f established practice. 5 8

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E a r l y M u s l i m j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e reflects the organic d e v e l o p m e n t o f j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t as a result o f reflection o n , and discussion of, first the real p r o b l e m s o f society a n d t h e n the conceptual p r o b l e m s o f j u r i s t i c discourse. A s the j u r i s t s became m o r e specialized, m o r e c o m p e t e n t , m o r e l i t e r a t e , m o r e professional, they w e r e subject t o a significant t w o f o l d and divergent pressure. O n the one h a n d , the i n t r i n s i c d e l i g h t o f t h e j u r i s t i c task d r e w t h e m away f r o m r e a l i t y t o w a r d s i m a g i n a r y cases, ever curiouser and curiouser, and towards logical structures ever neater and m o r e schematized. I n effect t h e system itself, irrespective o f its r e l a t i o n t o r e a l i t y , became the o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n . O n t h e other h a n d , the need t o m a k e the l a w w o r k i n an i n e v i t a b l y i m p e r f e c t h u m a n society r e q u i r e d gross r e a l i s m , t o u g h consciences, and c o m p r o m i s e — above a l l c o m p r o m i s e w i t h g o v e r n m e n t . A t t h e same t i m e , the c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n j u r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s ( o r i g i n a l l y local t r a d i t i o n s ) , the emergence o f w r i t t e n canons, t h e need for P r o p h e t i c and for s c r i p t u r a l ( Q u r a n i c ) a u t h o r i t y , and the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the law i n t o a n e d u c a t i o n a l h i g h w a y led t o o t h e r changes i n social p e r c e p t i o n and i n l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the law. M o s t o f the a t t e n d a n t processes w i l l r e q u i r e discussion o n l y i n a h i s t o r y of the classical p e r i o d o f j u r i s t i c t h o u g h t ; one requires f u r t h e r c o m m e n t w i t h i n the confines o f this b o o k . W i t h the p r o m o t i o n o f P r o p h e t i c e x e m p l a t o f u n c t i o n as source o f t h e l a w , the j u r i s t s were c o m m i t t e d t o a h e r m e n e u t i c a l task. T h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t o f an a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d o l o g y requires d o c u m e n t a t i o n .

9 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERMENEUTIC SKILLS I

I n j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , exempla e x h i b i t i n g the characteristic f o r m isndd + matn first f u n c t i o n as i l l u s t r a t i v e o f the law. L a t e r , b y t h e simple device o f p r o m o t i n g such exempla t o i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n i n an expository t e x t , they are made t o seem source o f t h e l a w a n d f u r t h e r c o m m e n t takes o n a h e r m e n e u t i c aspect. D i s c o v e r i n g and mastering the extended i n t e l l e c t u a l skills w h e r e b y the l a w i n its e n t i r e t y c o u l d be presented as deduced f r o m e x e m p l a , i d e a l l y P r o p h e t i c , became one o f the great i n t e l l e c t u a l adventures o f t h e M u s l i m j u r i s t s i n the second h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y a n d o n w a r d s , f t was n o t , h o w e v e r , the j u r i s t s w h o first d e v e l o p e d these skills; i t was t h e ashab al-hadith. F o r they first made t h e , i n i t i a l l y astonishing, c l a i m t h a t the l a w c o u l d be deduced ( i n its t o t a l i t y ) f r o m h a d i t h , and so p r o v o k e d the accusation t h a t they w e r e i n fact, t h e r e b y , i n v o l v e d i n e r r o r , lies, and c o n t r a d i c t i o n . ' I b n Q u t a y b a , w r i t i n g o n b e h a l f o f t h e ashab alhadith, conceded that m a n y h a d i t h had been i n v e n t e d , b u t c l a i m e d also t h a t these c o u l d be recognized and e l i m i n a t e d . F u r t h e r conceding that there was sometimes an appearance o f contradiction in h a d i t h he u n d e r t o o k t o d e m o n s t r a t e that this was a m a t t e r o f appearance o n l y . 2

H i s b o o k Ta'wil mukhtalif al-hadith consists o f an i n t r o d u c t i o n in w h i c h he identifies his o p p o n e n t s — t h e ashab al-kaldm and the ashab al-ra'y, and his a l l i e s — t h e ashab al-hadith. T h i s is f o l l o w e d by the m a i n p a r t o f the b o o k , an extensive catalogue o f selected hadith and Quranic fragments w h i c h exhibit apparent contradiction. 1

I b n Qutayba, Mukhtalif

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I b i d . 74-5, 86.

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O b s c u r i t y and a b b r e v i a t i o n i n the Q u r ' á n , according t o I b n Q u t a y b a , must be resolved by reference t o the sunna—al-kitab ya'ti bi-'l-jumal yakshifu-ha al-hadith wa-'khtisar tadulla 'alay-hi al-sunna. T h i s t h o u g h t and t h e use o f the t e r m jumal prefigures the classical d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n mujmal and mubayyan (obscure and c l e a r ) , b u t this t o o is n o t yet w h a t i t was t o b e c o m e — p a r t o f a systematic r e p e r t o r y o f h e r m e n e u t i c devices. T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n jumal al-fara'id ( i . e . h i g h l y general statements present i n the Q u r ' á n ) and t h e i r e l a b o r a t i o n (tabyin) t h r o u g h h a d i t h is a p a r t o f t h e h e r m e n e u t i c t h e o r y o f the Risála and has there a significantly m o r e s t r u c t u r e d r o l e t h a n in I b n Qutayba's w o r k . 8

I b n Q u t a y b a has a basic t e r m i n o l o g y for t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f h a d i t h : they m a y be i n v e n t e d (mawdu'); they may be weak o r strange (da'if, gharlb), sound or otherwise (sahih, saqim). H e has l i t t l e m o r e sophisticated t h a n t h a t , n o t even t h e category o f isolated h a d i t h (khabar wâhid), w h i c h was distinguished a n d e x p l o r e d i n S h â f i T s Risâla. T h o u g h he possesses t h e conceptual e q u i v a l e n t o f tawâtur (tatâbu' al-riwàyât 'an al-thiqât min wujûh kathïra), he does n o t k n o w t h e t e r m ( n o r does the Risâla). A f u n d a m e n t a l h e r m e n e u t i c category adduced and e x p l o r e d i n the Risâla is t h a t k n o w n b y t h e t e r m s 'âmm and khâşş, t h e general a n d the p a r t i c u l a r . T h o u g h t h e r e are n u m e r o u s instances w h e r e this t e r m i n o l o g y w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e , I have f o u n d n o instances at a l l w h e r e i t is used by I b n Q u t a y b a . T h e concept a n d technical t e r m f o r a b r o g a t i o n (naskh) and its value as a h e r m e n e u t i c device is k n o w n : i t can be a p p l i e d t o Q u r ' à n and h a d i t h . I t is also a c k n o w l e d g e d that the sunna o f the P r o p h e t m a y abrogate t h e Q u r ' à n — a l - s u n n a nàsikha li-'l-qur'ân. Some later w r i t e r s d i s l i k e d the f o r t h r i g h t n e s s o f this expression, t h o u g h none d e n i e d t h e reality b e h i n d i t . I b n H a n b a l is said t o have p r e f e r r e d the statement t h a t t h e sunna may e x p l a i n a n d clarify (tafsir, tabyïn) t h e Q u r ' à n ; b u t t h e dispute was about w o r d s n o t p r o c e s s . E x p l o i t a t i o n o f the 'âmm : khâşş distinction (and other distinctions) r e n d e r e d i t possible for t h e Shafi'I school as represented by the Risâla t o d e n y t h a t the sunna c o u l d abrogate the Q u r ' à n . I n o t h e r 3

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6

9

N o n - l i t e r a l usage is affirmed by I b n Q u t a y b a t o be a c u s t o m o f the A r a b s w h i c h must be recognized in religious texts. T h e p l a i n m e a n i n g o f a t e x t , for e x a m p l e , may be i n t e n d e d t o constitute a w a r n i n g o r t o i n s t i l fear (li- 'l-tarhib wa- 'l-tahdhir) and should n o t be t a k e n at face value. H e n c e a P r o p h e t i c i n j u n c t i o n t o k i l l t h e w i n e d r i n k e r o n his f o u r t h offence is r e m o v e d . A p a r t i c u l a r l y recalcitrant text may be subject t o j u d i c i o u s a m e n d m e n t , w i t h o u t any technical j u s t i f i c a t i o n . M e t a p h o r i c usage is recognized and e x p l a i n e d , sometimes w i t h o u t recourse t o a technical t e r m i n ­ ology. O n the o t h e r h a n d t h e A r a b i c language is k n o w n t o p e r m i t o f i m p l i c a t i o n , a l l u s i o n , and simile (imá', ishára, tashbih) and t h e reader must be sensitive t o these i n P r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e . I b n Q u t a y b a k n o w s t h e v e r b kanná and the n o u n kináya, i m p l y i n g m e t a p h o r , b u t uses t h e m sparingly, not systematically, and not always at points w h e r e t h e y w o u l d appear a p p r o p r i a t e . T h e Risála. by c o n t r a s t , shows n o ( o v e r t ) interest i n the category o f t h e n o n literal. 1 0

1 1

1 2

13

T h o u g h I b n Q u t a y b a ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e , c u n n i n g and resourcefulness tire e v e r y w h e r e e v i d e n t , as also his b r o a d sensitivity t o l i t e r a r y p r o b l e m s , he clearly does n o t have access t o a systematic h e r m e n e u t i c f r a m e w o r k such as is p r o v i d e d i n the Risála. I n all ShafiT, Risála, 106ff. ( = paras. 312ff.); and see also the analyses of John Burton, in The collection, 52-63 and Sources, passim. I b n Qutayba, Mukhtalif al-hadith, 87. Shafi'I, Risála, 176 ft. ( = paras. 486 f f . ) . '" I b n Qutayba, Mukhtalif al-hadith, 96. " I b i d . 99. I b i d . 152, ad mawtá. I b i d . 163. 7

I b n Qutayba, Mukhtalif al-hadith, 76. I b i d . 205; it looks in any case like an ad hoc achievement rather than a fundamental distinction. I b i d . 74, 194 ff. See A b ü 'Umar Yûsuf Ibn ' A b d al-Barr, Jàmi' bayàn al-'dm, 188-92. 4

5

6

22S,

respects the Risála contains a sophisticated and nuanced discussion o f naskh, representing a scholastic subtlety w h i c h transcends the basic ad hoc devices o f I b n Qutayba's w o r k .

These p r o b l e m cases are presented i n no p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r . T h e y cover m a t t e r s o f p r o p h e t i c h i s t o r y and theology as w e l l as legal m a t t e r s . A s a master o f adab, I b n Q u t a y b a was perhaps u n d i s t u r b e d b y t h e a b r u p t transitions and i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l j u x t a ­ p o s i t i o n s , and d i s i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s systematic t h e o r e t i c a l t h o u g h t . H i s s o l u t i o n s are ad hoc; his skills are those o f a sensitive littérateur r a t h e r t h a n a j u r i s t o r t h e o l o g i a n ; his t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k is large b u t n o t e v i d e n t l y scientific. W h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e systematic t h e o r e t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n o f S h â f i T s Risâla (a b o o k t h a t m u s t be r e d a t e d t o c.300: see b e l o w ) t h e r u d i m e n t a r y n a t u r e o f his categories a n d t e r m i n o l o g y becomes e v i d e n t .

3

S K I L L S

K 9

1 2

1 3

226

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

OF

H E R M E N E U T I C

categories except o n e , the Risala

T H E

S K I L L S

is a m o r e sophisticated w o r k and

D E V E L O P M E N T

O F H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

227

f r o m I b n Q u t a y b a ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and predecessors i n t h e

field

i t s h o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y be recognized as representing a later stage o f

o f h a d i t h c r i t i c i s m , w h o h a d n o d o u b t discussed m a n y o f the

development.

problems a n d p r o p o s e d some k i n d o f s o l u t i o n . M u c h t o o is the

The

single

category

w h i c h is signalled

Q u t a y b a and n o t d e v e l o p e d i n the Risala covering

allusion,

simile,

and

in Ibn

is t h a t o f t h e n o n - l i t e r a l ,

metaphor.

There

are

several

p r o d u c t o f the special skills o f I b n Q u t a y b a whose knowledge,

l i n g u i s t i c expertise,

and general

encyclopaedic

literary erudition

possible reasons f o r this. F i r s t , this category was less necessary i n a

made h i m a u n i q u e l y c o m p e t e n t figure. A s in so many o t h e r fields

work

so

his achievement was recognized and his b o o k s c o p i e d — n o t least

u n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s . S e c o n d l y , whereas I b n

by the j u r i s t s , w h o , already engaged i n the search for a u t h o r i t y ,

Q u t a y b a r e j e c t e d t h e t e r m qiyas

b o r r o w e d his w e a p o n s , a d a p t e d t h e m t o t h e i r o w n purposes, and

t h a t was

f o r , t h e Risala

devoted

exclusively

t o legal

matters,

and

a n d all t h a t i n his t i m e i t stood

accepts i t and gives i t a clear f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o

laid c l a i m t o his loyalties.

t h e analysis a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h a d i t h . A n u m b e r o f n o n - l i t e r a l usages m i g h t be e x p l a i n e d by reference various

types.

Thirdly,

discussed u n d e r t h e headings nasikh:

mansükh

t o qiyas

arguments o f

the m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t s 'dmm : khass,

of

jumal:

p e r m i t t e d n u m e r o u s and c o m p l e x

II

technique and

The d e v e l o p m e n t o f h e r m e n e u t i c technique amongst the jurists

resolutions

was i n i t i a l l y a n a t u r a l process, a result o f the emergence o f w r i t t e n

tabyin,

and so perhaps d i d away w i t h t h e need for extensive ( f o r m a l )

texts, so

appeal

m u c h less

flexible

t h a n m e m o r y and o r a l

tradition.

some

I .ngagement i n i n t e r - s c h o o l debate ensured t h a t t h e jurists became

suspicion o f appeals t o n o n - l i t e r a l usage because o f its real or

aware o f t h e clash o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e exempla and began t o devise

apparent arbitrariness. ( H o w e v e r , under the heading haqiqa:

methods f o r d e a l i n g w i t h i t . T h e i r skills d e v e l o p e d n o d o u b t i n

to the

non-literal.

There

may

also

have

been

majaz,

t a n d e m w i t h the general l i t e r a r y skills o f the c o m m u n i t y w i t h i n

i t became a s t a n d a r d p a r t o f later h e r m e n e u t i c t h e o r y . ) Perhaps the most significant single factor i n d i c a t i n g t h a t S h á f i T s Risala

h a d n o t y e t , at t h e t i m e w h e n I b n Q u t a y b a w r o t e , c o m e i n t o

existence is t h e l a t t e r ' s ignorance o f t h e d o m i n a n t message o f that w o r k . The painstaking distinction between t w o types o f knowledge, w h i c h constitutes almost h a l f the a r g u m e n t a t i o n o f t h a t b o o k , is c e r t a i n l y also its most i m p o r t a n t m e s s a g e ,

14

and i t is u n k n o w n t o

I b n Q u t a y b a . H e k n o w s the f u n d a m e n t a l s o f a t h e o r y o f ijtihad,

a

which they akhadlth

worked.

But

the p a r t i c u l a r attacks

o f the

ashâb

a n d , above a l l , t h e personal achievement o f I b n Q u t a y b a

p r o v o k e d m o r e systematic a n d p o i n t e d responses. H e r e is I b n < h i t a y b a asserting and i l l u s t r a t i n g the deficiencies o f the ashâb ra'y.

al-

H e is c i t i n g Ishâq b . I b r a h i m b . R â h a w a y h , t h e H e - s a i d

ligure.

e r r o n e o u s s o l u t i o n s w h i c h are n o n e t h e less r e w a r d e d . T h i s t h e o r y

I li- used to say . . . They M 1 l i n g upright, sleeping ii-newal of wudu'. A n d •.ubject to cancellation

he defends, i n c o n g r u o u s l y , w i t h reference t o t h e G o s p e l p a r a b l e o f

renew his

the w o r k e r s i n t h e v i n e y a r d .

Hut there is no distinction between the two cases. Except that there is no textual basis for the person who has fainted from which one can argue (o cancellation of his wudu'. But with respect to sleep, there arc several l i . u l i l h . Amongst them are the Prophet's words, The eye is [like] the thong on 1 he sphincter; i f the eye sleeps the thong is opened (infatah al-wikà'). A l s o , He who sleeps, let him perform wudu'. lie said, They declare that wudu' is necessary in the case of u < iiinhcncy, i f one is overcome by sleep. But they declare it unnecessary loi one who sleeps deeply in a kneeling or prostrating position—râki'an .ni' sajidan. He said, However these two positions are more likely than

w o r d i n d i c a t i n g t h e m e r i t o r i o u s effort made b y a j u r i s t t o achieve an answer t o a j u r i s t i c p r o b l e m , a n d i m p l y i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

1 5

H e is clearly u n a w a r e o f t h e m o r e

sophisticated defence m a d e available i n t h e

Risala.

T h e basic p r i n c i p l e s , t h e n , o f a t h e o r y o f h e r m e n e u t i c s

are

present i n I b n Q u t a y b a b u t n o t t h e i r systematic d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t came t o c o n s t i t u t e his w o r k p r o b a b l y t o o k place over

a p e r i o d o f t i m e ; the discovery

solutions was casual a n d ad hoc. 1 4 1 5

of

M u c h has clearly been d e r i v e d

Norman Caldcr, 'Ikhtilafaad ijma". Ibn Qutayba, Mukhtalif al-hadith, 146-8.

[the ashâb al-ra'y] claim that if a man sleeps while deeply while in that position, he is not subject to yet they are agreed that any person who faints is of his state of purity [and consequently has to

wudu'}.

228

T H E

D E V E L O P M E N T

OF H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

T H E

r e c u m b e n c y t o occasion c a n c e l l a t i o n o f p u r i t y . So t h e y n e i t h e r f o l l o w a r e p o r t (athar),

n o r c l i n g systematically t o

qiyds.

16

T h e ashdb al-ra'y here are the H a n a f i s . T h e y had e v o l v e d the rule that i n general sleep cancels wudu'. B u t sleep i n a standing, p r o s t r a t i n g , o r s i t t i n g p o s i t i o n (qd'iman, rdki'an, sdjidan, qd'idan) does n o t cancel wudu'} I b n R a h a w a y h , in a r a t h e r confused m a n n e r , objects. H e claims that t h e Hanafis are distinguishing i n v a l i d l y b e t w e e n s i m i l a r cases, n a m e l y that o f t h e f a i n t i n g person a n d t h e s i t t i n g sleeper; and they are disregarding the p l a i n m e a n i n g o f the P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h , w h i c h state i n a general sense that sleep entails wudu'. I n a second statement, I b n R a h a w a y h again affirms that w i t h regard t o recumbency a n d p r o s t r a t i o n t h e Hanafis are m a k i n g an i n v a l i d d i s t i n c t i o n . H e concludes that the Hanafis n e i t h e r f o l l o w established r e p o r t , i.e. the P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h , n o r qiyds w h i c h , according t o I b n R a h a w a y h , s h o u l d have led t h e m t o u n i f y the rules o n heavy sleep irrespective o f p o s i t i o n . ( T h i s q u o t e f r o m I b n R a h a w a y h is p r o b a b l y an example o f n o t e b o o k scholarship. I t does not demonstrate o v e r a l l c o n t r o l o f the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ; i t achieves its ends t h r o u g h clumsy j u n c t u r e and r e p e t i t i o n . ) 1

T h i s k i n d o f c r i t i c i s m was easy t o deal w i t h — t h e Hanafis had o n l y t o discover P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h w h i c h stated that wudu'was not i n c u m b e n t o n o n e w h o slept w h i l e s t a n d i n g , s i t t i n g , o r p r o s t r a t i n g . T h e y f o u n d such h a d i t h , e v e n t u a l l y i n p r o f u s i o n , and m a n y examples have e n t e r e d the m a j o r h a d i t h collections. I t is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e i n i t i a l assertion o f the H f i s had been that l i g h t o r fitful sleep d i d n o t occasion cancellation o f wudu'] o n l y i n the course o f debate d i d they become literalist and assert t h a t sleep, even deep sleep, i n a s i t t i n g , s t a n d i n g , o r p r o s t r a t i n g p o s i t i o n d i d n o t cancel wudu'. a n a

F i n d i n g n e w h a d i t h was one way o f dealing w i t h the attacks o f the ashdb al-hadith. N o t h i n g c o u l d be m o r e r e d u n d a n t t h a n I b n R a h a w a y h ' s strictures. A m o r e general mastery o f h e r m e n e u t i c skills was a c q u i r e d either i n the process o f debate o r by the systematic study a n d i m i t a t i o n o f I b n Q u t a y b a . T h e influence o f I b n Q u t a y b a ' s Ta'wU mukhtalif al-hadith is seen i n the Bay an mushkil al-dthdr of the H a n a f t j u r i s t A b u Ja'far A h m a d b. M u h a m m a d a l - T a h a w i ( d . 321). This w o r k is the same i n f o r m a t 1 6

I b n Q u t a y b a , Mukhtalif al-hadüh, 53-4.

S h a y b a n i , Asl,

i.

57-8.

D E V E L O P M E N T

OF H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

229

and s i m i l a r i n c o n t e n t t o I b n Qutayba's w o r k . I t consists o f a catalogue o f p r o b l e m cases i n w h i c h t w o o r m o r e apparently c o n t r a d i c t o r y h a d i t h o r fragments f r o m t h e Q u r ' a n are b r o u g h t together w i t h a v i e w t o h a r m o n i z a t i o n and denial o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n . L i k e the w o r k o f I b n Q u t a y b a , i t covers historical and theological as w e l l as legal p r o b l e m s ; m a n y o f the same p r o b l e m s are discussed i n b o t h w o r k s . T h e m a t e r i a l has been accumulated w i t h o u t any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o r d e r or s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n . The approach remains casual and ad hoc. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , a small n u m b e r o f technical advances w h i c h m a r k the passage o f t i m e and the a c q u i s i t i o n o f experience. Tahawi k n o w s the 'dmm: khdss d i s t i n c t i o n a n d uses i t i n a f a i r l y systematic m a n n e r . H i s r e p e r t o r y o f technical t e r m s is slightly w i d e r . ( I t is still difficult t o imagine that he k n e w the Risdla o f Shafi'i.) I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , Tahawi's w o r k shows a significant increase i n c o m p l e x i t y and a great deal of defensive a r g u m e n t designed t o justify H a n a f i law. 18

T h e positions a d o p t e d i n this w o r k sometimes differ quite r e m a r k a b l y f r o m positions a d o p t e d i n o t h e r w o r k s a t t r i b u t e d t o T a h a w i , n o t a b l y his Sharh ma'dnial-dthdr (for w h i c h , see Sect. I V , b e l o w ) . T h i s fact can, o f course, be explained: according t o one b i o g r a p h i c a l a u t h o r i t y the Ma'dni al-dthdr is the first and the Baydn mushkil al-dthdr the last o f his w o r k s . B u t this is post facto j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I n fact, s t r u c t u r e and a r g u m e n t a t i o n i n b o t h w o r k s is casual and o p e n - e n d e d , segmentation clear and a b r u p t , g r o w t h of argument t h r o u g h i n t e r p o l a t i o n and a d d i t i o n e v i d e n t ; i t is preferable t o consider b o t h w o r k s as school texts, a c c u m u l a t i n g over t i m e , and subject perhaps t o redactional supervision by T a h a w i . T h a t the texts b e l o n g to the early decades o f the f o u r t h century seems reasonable; T a h a w i d i e d i n 321. T h e y may have c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p after his d e a t h , b u t the emergence o f ShafiTs Risdla o n the one h a n d , a n d the establishment o f standard h a d i t h collections o n the o t h e r , must have made t h e m seem a m a t e u r i s h , and thereby b r o u g h t an e n d t o this k i n d o f c o m p e n d i u m . 1 9

T h e difference b e t w e e n I b n Q u t a y b a and T a h a w i deserves brief i l l u s t r a t i o n . O n e o f the p r o b l e m s dealt w i t h by I b n Q u t a y b a is the Much later, this deficiency was remedied in two successive redactions, a Mukhtasar and a Mu'tasar min al-Mukhtasar, which brought the legal material under the conventional chapter-headings of fiqh. See Bibliography, ad A b u ' I Mahasin Yusuf b. Musa. See the biographical introduction to Tahawi, Ma'dni al-dthdr. 1 8

1 9

230

T H ED E V E L O P M E N T O F H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

apparent conflict b e t w e e n t w o h a d i t h , i n one o f w h i c h t h e P r o p h e t is p o r t r a y e d as kissing his w i f e d u r i n g t h e fast, w h i l e i n t h e o t h e r he declares i t f o r b i d d e n t o kiss w h i l e fasting. T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n is resolved b y p o i n t i n g t o the e x c e p t i o n a l status o f the P r o p h e t . I t is f o r b i d d e n f o r an o r d i n a r y m a n t o kiss his wife d u r i n g the fast, b u t the P r o p h e t , b e i n g i m m u n e f r o m s i n — m a ' s u m , can do so w i t h o u t being subject t o t e m p t a t i o n : i t is l i k e a father kissing his son, o r t w o b r o t h e r s e m b r a c i n g . I b n Q u t a y b a extends this idea t o cover also t h e P r o p h e t ' s sleep. W h e r e a s m e n are n o r m a l l y subject t o i m p u r i t y i n sleep a n d r e q u i r e d t o r e n e w t h e i r wudu' after i t , t h e P r o p h e t is n o t . T h i s is based o n t h e w o r d s o f the P r o p h e t , M y eyes sleep b u t m y heart does n o t . T h i s account is simple a n d decisive. I t is also p r o b l e m a t i c ; systematic e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e assumption that the P r o p h e t enjoys u n i q u e status c o u l d destroy t h e w h o l e fabric o f t h e l a w i n its h e r m e n e u t i c aspect. T h e p r o b l e m o f sleep and its e n t a i l i n g cancellation o f wudii' is taken u p by Tahawi. His argument, more complex and more d e t a i l e d t h a n t h a t o f I b n Q u t a y b a , reveals a m o r e acute awareness o f the need t o distinguish b e t w e e n Prophetic a c t i o n w h i c h does and P r o p h e t i c a c t i o n w h i c h does n o t constitute a universal p r e c e d e n t ; a n d i t is extended t o i n c l u d e a defence o f t h e H a n a f i rules. H i s m a t e r i a l is d e p l o y e d over t w o chapters, the first focusing o n the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the P r o p h e t and o t h e r m e m b e r s o f his c o m m u n i t y , the second e x p l o r i n g the question w h a t k i n d o f sleep cancels wudu'. ( I n spite o f the o r d e r i n g , i t is e v i d e n t that m u c h o f the second chapter came i n t o existence p r i o r t o the first, since the w h o l e o f its p r o b l e m is i n fact solved by t h e h a d i t h w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s t h e first c h a p t e r . ) 2 0

T h e first c h a p t e r , t h e n , i n t r o d u c e s a P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h s t r i k i n g l y apt t o t h e H a n a f i v i e w p o i n t . I b n ' A b b a s saw the P r o p h e t pray the d a w n p r a y e r t h e n sleep e i t h e r i n a sitting o r a b o w i n g p o s i t i o n (sdjidun aw jdlisun); he even s n o r e d . L a t e r the P r o p h e t got up t o pray and I b n ' A b b a s r e m i n d e d h i m t h a t he had been asleep. T h e P r o p h e t r e p l i e d , Wudu' is o n l y necessary f o r one w h o sleeps i n a r e c u m b e n t p o s i t i o n (mudtaji'an), f o r that involves r e l a x a t i o n o f the muscles (istirkhd' al-mafdsil). T a h a w i ' s c o m m e n t a r y stresses t w o p o i n t s : wudu'is o n l y necessary for one l y i n g d o w n and the 'Ula 2

" A h m a d b. Muhammad al-Tahawi, Mushkil al-athar, iv. 351-4 and 354-60.

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231

or reason f o r this is r e l a x a t i o n o f t h e muscles. H o w e v e r , in another h a d i t h , also from I b n ' A b b a s , t h e P r o p h e t is seen t o l i e down, sleep d e e p l y , snore, a n d subsequently get u p t o pray w i t h o u t wudu'. T h i s , according t o Tahawi, must be t a k e n as representing the Prophet's singular status. T h e obvious o b j e c t i o n is f o r m u l a t e d : h o w does one distinguish these c o n t r a d i c t o r y precedents? Tahawi plays o n t h e fact t h a t t h e first o f these h a d i t h sees the Prophet e x p l i c i t l y i n f o r m I b n ' A b b a s o f the r u l e i n its general f o r m . T h e second, d e e m e d t o be l a t e r , though possibly i n the course o f the same d a y , reveals t o I b n ' A b b a s t h a t the Prophet is not i n this m a t t e r o f the same status as t h e rest o f his c o m m u n i t y . T h u s the t w o h a d i t h c o m p r e h e n d t h e w h o l e o f the law o n this q u e s t i o n . I t is necessary f u r t h e r t o consider t h e causal factor (ma'nan) which distinguishes t h e P r o p h e t f r o m the rest o f his c o m m u n i t y . T h i s is revealed i n t h e h a d i t h i n w h i c h t h e P r o p h e t says, M y eyes sleep, but n o t m y heart. Because o f t h i s , says T a h a w i , w e understand that the r e l a x a t i o n o f t h e muscles n o r m a l l y a t t e n d a n t o n sleep does n o t take place i n the P r o p h e t . T h i s passage does n o t use t h e t e r m s 'dmm a n d khass t h o u g h it m i g h t have d o n e . I t shows an interesting d e v e l o p m e n t o f the n o t i o n o f causal factor reflected i n t h e clearly synonymous t e r m s 'dla and ma'nd. ( T h e latter t o o k o n a m u c h m o r e specific technical c o n n o t a t i o n i n ShafiT's Risala, though i n the e n d i t was the f o r m e r w h i c h d o m i n a t e d technical discussion o f analogical thought.) 21

I n his second chapter d e v o t e d t o the p r o b l e m o f sleep, T a h a w i t u r n s i n i t i a l l y t o the t w o h a d i t h w h i c h had been the basis o f I b n R a h a w a y h ' s c r i t i q u e o f the H a n a f i p o s i t i o n . These are ( 1 ) T h e eye is t h e t h o n g o n the sphincter, so he w h o sleeps, l e t h i m p e r f o r m wudu', and ( 2 ) H e w h o sleeps let h i m p e r f o r m wudu'. T a h a w i , as a Hanafi, has t o neutralize t h e general i m p o r t of these h a d i t h , w h i c h seem t o i m p l y a general a n d unqualified need f o r wudu' after sleep. H i s first step i n that d i r e c t i o n is t o p r o d u c e a variant o f the o r i g i n a l thong-and-sphincter h a d i t h . M u ' a w i y a b . A b i Sufyan had heard the P r o p h e t say, T h e eyes are the t h o n g o n the sphincter, so if the eyes sleep the t h o n g is loosened (istatlaqa al-wikd'). That a p p a r e n t l y insignificant change i n t e r m i n o l o g y prepares the w a y for the a r g u m e n t that there is a causal factor ('ilia, ma'nd, sabab) 1 1

Shafi'i, Risala, 512, paras. 140 ft.

232

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

O F H E R M E N E U T I C

T H E

S K I L L S

D E V E L O P M E N T

O F H E R M E N E U T I C

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233

w h i c h distinguishes sleep i n general f r o m the p a r t i c u l a r sleep that

w e r e n e u t r a l as t o sectarian l o y a l t y . W h e n the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y

makes wudu'

was s u bje c t, at an i n t e l l e c t u a l o r l i t e r a r y l e v e l , t o s t r a i n s — w h i c h

necessary.

T a h a w i elaborates t h e a r g u m e n t for some t i m e before c o n c l u d -

w e r e themselves i n p a r t the c o m m o n strains and stresses o f N e a r

i n g w i t h a sequence o f eleven C o m p a n i o n h a d i t h w h i c h specify

E a s t e r n m o n o t h e i s m — t h e y r e s p o n d e d , as the o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s

that d o z i n g o r light sleep or sleep i n a sitting p o s i t i o n do n o t cancel

had r e s p o n d e d , by b u i l d i n g o u t o f the c u l t u r e they i n h a b i t e d , their

wudii'.

o w n p a r t i c u l a r structures

T h e f o r m o f these h a d i t h constitutes a precise defence o f

H a n a f i l a w — f o r e x a m p l e , f r o m ' U m a r , I f one sleeps s i t t i n g one

general c u l t u r e ('amm).

does n o t p e r f o r m wudu',

(khass),

w h i c h were reflections

of a

T h e y d i d n o t b o r r o w t h e i r structures, they

b u t i f one sleeps l y i n g d o w n , one does.

had first t o feel the need, and t h e n created in a new context the

Such f o r m u l a e w e r e also (and clearly l a t e r ) f o u n d t o have been

structures that served their purposes and reflected their mythology,

u t t e r e d i n an e q u a l l y decisive m a n n e r by the Prophet h i m s e l f ( a n d

w i t h all the p a r t i c u l a r i t y and difference

o n e o f the P r o p h e t i c f o r m u l a e has b e c o m e the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the

required.

that the new

context

first o f T a h a w i ' s t w o chapters). Tahawi

comments

that

these

Companions

special k i n d o f s l e e p — k h a s s min al-nawm—which wudu'.

distinguished

a

T h i s is t h e sleep w h i c h the Prophet p a r t i c u l a r i z e d — k h a s s a -

hu—by

saying t h a t i t caused r e l a x a t i o n o f the muscles. Sleep i n a

standing o r s i t t i n g p o s i t i o n , or i n a p o s i t i o n o f p r o s t r a t i o n , does n o t share the causal f a c t o r s — h e r e asbab—which recumbent position a cancellation o f

m a k e sleep i n a

o f a technical

wudu'.

terminology

o f hermeneutics

by

the

M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y was a product o f practical need and experience. H e r e we see an ad hoc a r g u m e n t c u l m i n a t i n g i n the assertion that one type o f sleep is 'special', khass. term,

as

used h e r e ,

I t is difficult t o c l a i m t h a t the

is an established

technical

one;

i t is a

conclusion d e r i v e d r a t h e r t h a n a p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e d . B u t the seeds o f a technical system are here and w e r e t o be elaborated in w o r k s l i k e t h a t a t t r i b u t e d t o Shafi'I. L i k e w i s e the terms 'dla, ma'na, sabab,

all used

here

as

synonyms

and

w i t h o u t any

and

obvious

t e c h n i c a l f r a m e w o r k , w e r e later t o be distinguished and i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n highly technical hermeneutic

structures.

I n asserting t h a t the d e v e l o p m e n t o f technical skills was o r g a n i c , p r a c t i c a l , e x p e r i e n t i a l , a response t o social and i n t e l l e c t u a l needs, i t is n o t m y i n t e n t i o n t o i m p l y t h a t the M u s l i m s just made t h e m up without

reference

to

any

past,

or

any

ShafiTs Risala

shows an astonishing technical f o r e g r o u n d i n g o f the

h e r m e n e u t i c device k n o w n as 'amm:

khass.

This is b o t h the first

m a j o r t o p i c addressed i n t h a t w o r k and one o f the l e n g t h i e r . W i t h i n the Jewish h e r m e n e u t i c t r a d i t i o n , the text k n o w n as the T h i r t e e n M i d d o t o f R a b b i I s h m a e l shows a similar c o n c e r n w i t h

T h i s single i l l u s t r a t i o n must serve t o m a k e t h e p o i n t t h a t the discovery

Ill

alone cancelled

non-Muslim cultural

experience. R a t h e r , the c u l t u r a l experience o f the A n c i e n t N e a r

this basic device: eight o u t o f t h i r t e e n principles refer g e n e r a l a n d the p a r t i c u l a r .

2 2

t o the

D i d t h e Jewish t r a d i t i o n influence t h e

M u s l i m ? I t may have d o n e ; t h e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s spoke the same language, l i v e d i n the same c u l t u r a l m i l i e u , shared m a n y c u l t u r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b l e m s , and h a d b o t h come i n t o possession o f a canonical

scripture

( Q u r ' a n and T o r a h )

and an extension

of

r e v e l a t i o n i n the f o r m o f P r o p h e t i c dicta ( h a d i t h and o r a l T o r a h ) ; like t h e Jews, and later, t h e M u s l i m s became c o m m i t t e d t o a h e r m e n e u t i c defence o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y as a c o m m u n i t y .

Clearly

there was a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the M u s l i m s w o u l d be influenced by the Jewish t r a d i t i o n , and m i g h t e v e n , k n o w i n g l y and consciously, r a i d the technical

armoury

o f t h a t c o m m u n i t y i n search o f

useful

weapons. A t a slightly d i f f e r e n t level o f influence a n d b o r r o w i n g , it m a y be t h o u g h t t h a t the M u s l i m s , because they debated w i t h t h e Jews o n legal as o n t h e o l o g i c a l m a t t e r s , i m p e r c e p t i b l y

acquired

skills w h i c h h a d p r e v i o u s l y o n l y b e l o n g e d to the o l d e r c o m m u n i t y . Without wishing

firmly

t o deny e i t h e r o f these p o s s i b i l i t i e s —

East h a d b e c o m e the c u l t u r a l experience o f A r a b i c speakers. T h e

w h i c h are i n d e e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s — I w o u l d suggest that they are n o t

M u s l i m s shared w i t h A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g Jews and Christians access

the best m o d e l s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the emergence o f h e r m e n e u t i c

t o a l i t e r a r y w o r l d , o r a l as w e l l as w r i t t e n , w h i c h was o f great

Babylonian T a l m u d , Bcrakhot, Wilna edn., 47b-aKa; also in Sifra, Introduction and in Siddurim.

a n t i q u i t y and c o m p l e x i t y ; m a n y c o m p o n e n t s o f this l i t e r a r y w o r l d

2 2

234

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skills i n t h e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f counteri n d i c a t i o n s . F i r s t , there is l i t t l e evidence i n M u s l i m texts o f systematic d e b a t i n g encounter b e t w e e n M u s l i m and Jewish j u r i s t s ; the paucity o f reference may be t a k e n t o reflect a real paucity o f occurrence. S e c o n d l y , once i t is recognized that the Risàla is n o t a p r o d u c t o f S h â f f ï ' s l i f e t i m e , the emergence of h e r m e n e u t i c skills i n the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y reveals itself r a t h e r as a l o n g slow organic process o f discovery and systematization. I t is significant that the earliest h e r m e n e u t i c arguments ( I m e a n those o f I b n Q u t a y b a ) are a r t i c u l a t e d by a littérateur a n d n o t by a j u r i s t . This suggests that the basics o f a h e r m e n e u t i c t h e o r y were a part o f the general l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e w h i c h was c a r r i e d by the A r a b i c language. T h i r d l y , the t h e o r e t i c a l bases o f the Jewish h e r m e n e u t i c system have l o n g been recognized as i n d e e d a p a r t i c u l a r manifestation o f a general i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l , diffused i n the M i d d l e East, n a t u r a l i z e d in M i d d l e - E a s t e r n c u l t u r e , and h a v i n g its origins ( o r some origins) i n M i d d l e - E a s t e r n H e l l e n i s m . T h e M u s l i m h e r m e n e u t i c system and the Jewish are, each, separately, a u n i q u e and distinct p r o d u c t o f a distinct c o m m u n i t y . I f they share certain features, it is because they share a c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u u m , and because all systems o f this t y p e must discover and rely o n some aspects o f language a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h are universal. 2 3

F i n a l l y , t h e precise details and arguments of the three m a j o r Jewish statements o f h e r m e n e u t i c p r i n c i p l e are s i m p l y n o t systematically repeated i n any o f the early M u s l i m sources. T h e Jewish references t o khallprat (general and p a r t i c u l a r ) are fully i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a w o r l d view w h i c h is Jewish, characterized by B i b l i c a l , M i d r a s h i c . and R a b b i n i c reference. C o n v e r s e l y , the earliest systematic account o f the 'amm : khâss device in I s l a m , n a m e l y t h a t o f the Risàla, is l o c k e d i n t o a M u s l i m structure of t h o u g h t a n d shows n o signs o f alien influence. I t n o t o n l y l o o k s l i k e a p r o d u c t o f M u s l i m t h o u g h t , b u t systematic consideration o f ( e a r l i e r ) h e r m e n e u t i c efforts ( I b n Q u t a y b a , T a h â w ï ) shows that i t is i n d e e d a consistent and logical p r o d u c t o f experience and 2 4

See David Daube, 'Rabbinic methods of interpretation' and 'Alexandrian methods of interpretation'; S. Lieberman. Hellenism, 47-82; Alexander, 'Quid Athenis et Hierosolymis?" In addition to the Thirteen Middot of Rabbi Ishmael, there are the Seven Middot of Hillel (Tosefta Sanhédrin 7:11 and Sifra), and the Thirty-two Middot of Rabbi Eliezer ben Jose (Babylonian T a l m u d , Berakhot. Wilna edn., 480-493). Cf. Philip Alexander, 'The Rabbinic hermcneutical rules'. 2 3

2 4

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D E V E L O P M E N T OF

H E R M E N E U T I C

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235

d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h i n the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . I t is n o t o r i o u s t h a t the m e a n i n g o f technical terms need n o t have m u c h t o do w i t h w h a t they signify. A f u l l analysis o f 'àmmlkhâss arguments i n M u s l i m fiqh, a n d o f khallprat arguments i n the Jewish t r a d i t i o n has h a r d l y been essayed by s c h o l a r s b u t a casual survey o f (parts o f ) the t w o t r a d i t i o n s does n o t suggest either that the b r o a d structures o r the c o n s t i t u t i v e elements show a n o n - t r i v i a l degree o f s i m i l a r i t y . T h e M u s l i m system, l i k e t h e Jewish system, s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as a u n i q u e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t , c o m p l e t e l y explicable as a p r o d u c t o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y o f the M u s l i m s in the t h i r d century. 25

IV T a h â w ï ' s Sharh ma'ânï al-âthâr is i n some respects a very similar w o r k t o his Mushkil al-àthàr. I t is a w o r k o f hermeneutics. T h e p r i m e focus o f a t t e n t i o n is P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h . These are d e p l o y e d in so far as t h e y seem t o e x h i b i t c o n t r a d i c t i o n e i t h e r w i t h one another or w i t h the structure o f the law as u n d e r s t o o d by T a h â w ï . T h e arguments he adduces are i n t e n d e d t o resolve c o n t r a d i c t i o n and to d e m o n s t r a t e that the p r i n c i p l e s o f H a n a f i law can be established by reference t o P r o p h e t i c h a d i t h a n d , conversely, t h a t , w h a t e v e r the appearances t o the c o n t r a r y , there are no reliable P r o p h e t i c hadith that contradict H a n a f i l a w . T h e techniques he uses do not suggest t h a t there is m u c h t e m p o r a l o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l distance b e t w e e n this w o r k and t h e Mushkil al-âthâr. T h e partisan nature o f a r g u m e n t is never i n d o u b t ; chapters o r lengthy segments o f a r g u m e n t are l i k e l y t o e n d w i t h the c l a i m that the m e a n i n g o r meanings d e r i v e d f r o m t h e reports that have been analysed are consistent w i t h the o p i n i o n s o f A b u H a n l f a and/or A b u Y ù s u f and/ o r M u h a m m a d al-Shaybani. T h e w o r k is m u c h larger t h a n the Mushkil. I t deploys a far larger n u m b e r o f P r o p h e t i c and other h a d i t h . T h e m a t e r i a l is organized systematically according t o the n o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f fiqh discussions. I w o u l d guess the w o r k t o be later t h a n the Mushkil, t h o u g h it is n o t a m a t t e r o f i m p o r t a n c e . T h e m a t e r i a l is p r o b a b l y organic i n its o r i g i n s , b u t very m u c h under the c o n t r o l o f the final r e d a c t o r , w h o may w e l l h a v e been Tahâwï. But cf. argument. 2 5

Alexander

Samely, 'Between

scripture', ex.

3,

for a khallprat

236

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF H E R M E N E U T I C S K I L L S

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF H E R M E N E U T I C S K I L L S

T h e p a r t i s a n n a t u r e o f t h e w o r k leads n o t s i m p l y t o ad hoc arguments

b u t t o a r b i t r a r y and irresponsible

Prophetic

and

Companion

dicta.

This

is

manipulation of

nowhere

easier

to

P r o p h e t , i t tends t o be at a b o u t t h e level o f Successor t h a t

237 isnads

start c o n v e r g i n g . T h i s is t r u e even w h e n the h a d i t h emerge and acquire isnads

w e l l i n t o t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h centuries.

More

e x e m p l i f y t h a n i n arguments based o n /snad-criticism, o f w h i c h

p a r t i c u l a r l y , it can be

there are several h u n d r e d s i n this b o o k . T h e o r d e r l y principles o f

between

the science o f 'Urn al-rijdl

c r i t i c i s m , w h i c h , again because t h e y share a c o m m o n respect for

were clearly n o t k n o w n t o TahawT, a n d ,

groups,

s h o w n t h a t w h e n there is c o m p e t i t i o n

t h e y engage i n a m u t u a l process o f

isndd-

i n d e e d , w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t w o r k e d out t i l l some t i m e after his

the g e n e r a t i o n o f the C o m p a n i o n s and the Successors, tends t o

d e a t h . ( T h i s fact s h o u l d be n o t e d by those w h o m i g h t w i s h t o c l a i m

focus o n o u s t i n g a h a d i t h by destroying the t h i r d o r f o u r t h l i n k .

that B u k h a r i ' s c o l l e c t i o n o f h a d i t h and his b i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s had

G r o u p X asserts that the l a w is such and such o n the basis o f a

been c o m p l e t e d p r i o r t o the date n o r m a l l y adduced f o r his d e a t h ,

h a d i t h w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g isnad:

namely

an

k n o w s t h a t t h e law is n o t such and such and so is d e t e r m i n e d t o

excessively t e d i o u s business, b u t i t derives an added i m p o r t a n c e

criticize this h a d i t h . I t cannot criticize the Prophet, the Companion

for academics w o r k i n g on the early history o f Islam i n v i e w o f the

o r , p e r h a p s , the Successor. I t p o i n t s o u t that C has a bad m e m o r y .

256;

cf.

Ch.

7,

Sect.

V I . ) Analysis

o f isnads

is

Prophet-A-B-C-D-E.

Group Y

c o n t i n u i n g l i n g e r i n g respect f o r the C o m m o n - L i n k t h e o r y . First

G r o u p A , p e r c e i v i n g the weakness o f the l i n k B - C ,

e l a b o r a t e d by S c h a c h t ,

t h e i r p o s i t i o n by discovering a n e w isnad e x h i b i t i n g the l i n k

26

this t h e o r y is based o n the o b s e r v a t i o n

that f o r m a n y h a d i t h i t can be established t h a t t h e i r isnads

display

s o m e t h i n g l i k e the p a t t e r n s h o w n i n F i g . 1. I t is v a r i o u s l y argued

where

J

is k n o w n t o have an excellent

memory.

strengthen Group

B-J, B,

convinced this cannot be r i g h t , discovers an isnad w i t h the l i n k B -

that this p h e n o m e n o n either m i g h t , or can, o r must be i n t e r p r e t e d

K , w h e r e K is a n o t o r i o u s h e r e t i c . O r , w o r s e , t h e y discover the

as m e a n i n g t h a t B i n v e n t e d the h a d i t h in q u e s t i o n .

l i n k B - K - J , w h e r e w e l l - m e a n i n g J has been f o o l e d by n o t o r i o u s K.

I n i t i a l l y , and possibly

f o r some t i m e , G r o u p A

will keep

r e p a i r i n g the bad l i n k , u n t i l t h e y give u p and t r y an e n t i r e l y

Prophet

different isnad.

T h e t o - a n d - f r o o f isnad c r i t i c i s m focuses o n w e a k

links w h i c h are characteristically the t h i r d o r f o u r t h l i n k s i n an isnad.

T h i s leads t o the c o m m o n - l i n k p h e n o m e n o n , w h i c h reflects

n o t h i n g whatsoever a b o u t the origins o f the matn o f a h a d i t h ; i t reflects isnad c r i t i c i s m and c o m p e t i t i o n i n or after the second half D

G

o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y .

J

H e r e is a real example dhakar,

21

f r o m T a h a w i . I t relates t o mass

al-

a p r o b l e m , it w i l l be r e c a l l e d , on w h i c h the M a l i k i s a n d

t h e H a n a f i s t o o k simple o p p o s i n g positions. T h e M a l i k ! p o s i t i o n was based o n the h a d i t h f r o m B u s r a w h i c h , i n the Muwatta'

Fig. t .

Y a h y a , h a d the f o l l o w i n g isnad: I n fact, the p h e n o m e n o n is d e m o n s t r a b l y a p r o d u c t o f a q u i t e different scenario.

W h e n a h a d i t h (main—the

existence w h i c h was

accepted

t e x t ) came i n t o

by several different factions

or

groups w i t h i n I s l a m they t e n d e d each to ' c a p t u r e ' the o r i g i n a l h a d i t h and p r o v i d e i t w i t h an isnad

reflecting t h e i r g r o u p . Since

nearly all groups recognized t h e c o m m o n heroes o f the age o f the 2 6

Schacht, Origins, 163-75.

of

M a l i k - ' A b d a l l a h b. A b i B a k r -

M u h a m m a d b. ' A m r - ' U r w a b. a l - Z u b a y r - M a r w a n b. a l - H a k a m Busra b i n t S a f w a n - P r o p h e t .

I n the f o l l o w i n g analysis, I give

T a h a w i ' s a r g u m e n t i n schematic f o r m . 1.1. Hadith: A b u Bakra-Husayn b. M a h d i - ' A b d Zuhrl-'Urwa-Marwan-Busra-Prophet.

2 7

Tahäwi, Ma'am al-athär, i . 43-8.

al-Razzaq-Ma'mar-

240

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

hadith with,

he

claims,

OF H E R M E N E U T I C

impeccable

isnads

T H E

S K I L L S

all advocating

the

o p p o s i t e p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e o n l y t h i n g t o n o t i c e here aside f r o m the a r b i t r a r y i n v e n t i o n and i m p u g n i n g o f isnads

( a n d the i n v e n t i o n

shape

and

D E V E L O P M E N T

became

the

i n t e l l e c t u a l achievements

OF H E R M E N E U T I C

Risdla

of

Shafi'I,

241

S K I L L S

one

of

the

finest

o f early M u s l i m j u r i s t s i n the field o f

exegetical t h e o r y , a n d by far the most i n f l u e n t i a l .

in o r d e r t o i m p u g n ) is the w a y t h a t the focus o f dispute is o n w e a k l i n k s . A l l o f t h e q u o t e d isnads

d o w n t o Paragraph

8 . 0 accept

' U r w a as t h e p e r m a n e n t t r a n s m i t t e r o f this b u n d l e o f h a d i t h . Thereafter

the

advocates

of

a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e n e w isnads isnads

this p o i n t

tried

also developed

different

early

w e a k l i n k s . Some

show attempts t o r e p a i r the w e a k l i n k ' U r w a - B u s r a

by

s u b s t i t u t i n g a m o r e acceptable figure for B u s r a . Set o u t i n tree diagrams, these various isnads w o u l d probably indicate a d o m i n a n t c o m m o n l i n k i n ' U r w a and/or a key figure i n Z u h r i , etc. The

Common-Link

Theory

is

not

quite

an

aberration

of

s c h o l a r s h i p , f o r i t has some uses; see a b o v e , C h a p t e r 2, Section V I . B u t t h e presence o f ' U r w a i n all these isnads

does n o t p r o v e

that he i n v e n t e d o r p r o p a g a t e d this h a d i t h . H e is a c o m m o n l i n k because t h e l i n k after h i m became a focus o f dispute. T h e dispute t o o k place i n the second h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y , i t was d u r i n g this p e r i o d t h a t all o f these isnads

w e r e discovered ( o r i n v e n t e d ) . T h e

c o m m o n - l i n k p h e n o m e n o n as a feature o f h a d i t h l i t e r a t u r e relates t o a m e t h o d o f isnad c r i t i c i s m c u r r e n t amongst j u r i s t s and others i n the second

half

o f the

third

century.

The

materials

of

this

p a r t i c u l a r d i s p u t e w e r e g a t h e r e d a n d stored w i t h i n H a n a f i circles u n t i l a r e d a c t o r ( o r redactors) t o o k t h e m i n h a n d a n d gave t h e m t h e i r present f o r m . T h i s s t o r i n g o f materials a n d r e d a c t i o n t o o k place, w e m u s t assume, i n E g y p t , where T a h a w i spent his scholarly life. T h e materials thus reflect local debate i n E g y p t H a n a f i s a n d M a l i k i s . A t t h e level o f isnad been

a

singularly

sterile

and

between

c r i t i c i s m it must have

unexciting

debate

(unless

we

V ShafiTs

Risdla

has

provoked

considerable

comment

3 0

and

a

c o m p l e t e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n . I t is a ( f a i r l y ) w e l l - o r g a n i z e d w o r k i n which

a number

of

hermeneutic

arguments

and

devices

are

discussed a n d e x e m p l i f i e d i n a d e t a i l e d and o r d e r l y m a n n e r . Its a r g u m e n t t h a t obedience

t o the P r o p h e t is necessary and c o m -

manded

is w e l l k n o w n .

i n the

Qur'an

signalled are: 'dmm : khdss;

ndsikh

3 1

The

: mansukh;

major

jumal:

devices

tabyln.

At

the l o g i c a l centre o f t h e w o r k is a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o types o f k n o w l e d g e , one t h a t p e r m i t s a n d one t h a t does n o t p e r m i t o f c e r t a i n t y . T h i s is f o l l o w e d by discussion o f the t w o m a j o r sources o f u n c e r t a i n t y , n a m e l y khabar

wahid

a n d qiyaslijtihad

w i t h some lesser m a t t e r s i n c l u d i n g ijma')?

2

(together

I n an earlier w o r k I

have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e logical cohesion o f t h e section w h i c h begins w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t , K n o w l e d g e is o f t w o t y p e s . f a i l u r e o f the b o o k t o present

33

I t is a m a r k o f t h e

itself adequately

t h a t its h a r d -

w o r k i n g E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t o r m o v e d the first chapter o f this section t o a d i f f e r e n t ( a n d m u c h less suitable) s i t u a t i o n ; and m o v e d a number

of

other

chapters

as

well.

3 4

I n fact

the

book

has

c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e cohesion t h a n is t h e r e conceded. I n m y earlier study I r e m a r k e d o n 'the subtlety o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e n d e a v o u r ,

the

constant r e p e t i t i o n [ a n d ] the consistency o f effort w h i c h are all d e m o n s t r a b l e b e h i n d the scholastic dryness o f the t e x t ' . 1 a m still 3 5

conscious o f this w o r k as a r e m a r k a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l achievement

recognize i n this game o f i n v e n t i o n a d i s a r m i n g sense o f i r o n y ) . I t remains

unexciting and

manifestations.

u n i n t e r e s t i n g i n its t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

29

A n d yet i t was also i n E g y p t , and p r e s u m a b l y at a b o u t this t i m e , t h a t Shafi'I circles were e l a b o r a t i n g the arguments t h a t finally t o o k

3 0

Schacht, Origins, see index s.v. Shafi'I; Burton, The Collection, 21-30, 52-63,

and see index; Calder, 'Ikhtilaf and ijma".

Schacht, Origins, passim; Burton, The Collection, 21-30, 52-63, and see index. IjincV for Shafi'I as a separate topic (i.e. when it does not mean agreement on the meaning or significance of revelation) signifies agreement of the people at large 3 1

3 2

The limitations of the Common-Link theory were to a degree appreciated by Schacht, Origins, 166 ff. Michael Cook and Patricia Crone have more reservations

on a matter not dealt with in revelation. That there was anything at all not covered

provincial and Islamic law, 27-31. Juynboll thinks that common links 'are entitled to our most painstaking scrutiny', Muslim tradition, 216, and see all of 206-17. The impetus he has given to the theory is probably responsible in part for its continued use; see e.g. Powers, ' O n bequests', 193-7-

Calder, 'Ikhtilaf and ijma", 72 and 73-7. Calder, 'Ikhtilaf and ijma". Majid Khadduri, Islamic jurisprudence, 52-3. Calder, 'Ikhtilaf and ijma", 71.

2 9

(but not in my opinion enough), Early Muslim dogma, 107 ff. and Roman,

by revelation was a belief abandoned by most later jurists. The notion of ijma' alnds—on something not covered by revelation—became a useless category. Cf. 3 3

3 4 3 5

238

1.2.

T H E

D E V E L O P M E N T OF

H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

T H E

When 'Urwa heard Marwan's comment, derived from Busra, he paid

no attention to her hadith—lam yarfa' bi-hadithi-ha

ra'san.

1.3. So Marwan sent a police officer to her, who returned, confirming that the Prophet had commanded wudu' after touching the penis. 2.0. Tahawi's comment: 2.1.

The

phrase lam yarfa'

bi-hadithi-ha

ra'san

is to be taken as

a

declaration of weakness (tad'if) by 'Urwa against Busra. 2.2. This is confirmed by Rabra who was amusingly and wickedly rude about Busra in this context. 2.3. Also by I b n Zayd who confirms that the tradition is not thus and adds to the general impugnment of Busra. T a h a w i ' s v e r s i o n o f the isndd o f this h a d i t h (1.1) is technically respectable. M a ' m a r [ b . R a s h i d ] and Z u h r i are usually associated w i t h M a d i n a a n d they t r a n s m i t t e d t o the respected Y e m e n i scholar ' A b d a l - R a z z a q , etc. T h e matn, h o w e v e r , has acquired a H a n a f i twist. I n its M a l i k ! f o r m — t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m , against w h i c h this one was d e v e l o p e d — ' U r w a was seen t o accept the r e p o r t f r o m B u s r a . H e r e ' U r w a is seen t o have r e j e c t e d Busra's v i e w . I t w i l l be n o t e d that b o t h sides have accepted t h a t ' U r w a is reliable. T a h a w i m i g h t have s t o p p e d h e r e , b u t this game depended o n o v e r k i l l . 3.0. I n any case Z u h r i never heard this hadith from ' U r w a ; it is a product of forgery (tadlis). For the same hadith is reported thus: 3.1. Yunus-Shu'ayb b. L a y t h - L a y t h - I b n Shihab [ a l - Z u h r i ] - ' A b d a l l a h b. A b i Bakr b. Muhammad-'Urwa-Marwan-Busra-Prophet. 3.2. I t follows that Z u h r i did not hear it from 'Urwa directly. A n d the presence of 'Abdallah b. A b i Bakr considerably lowers its grade. They, the Malikis, admit that the presence of 'Abdallah b. A b i Bakr makes a mockery of an isndd. 2!i

H e r e , T a h a w i abandons the h a d i t h e n t i r e l y , even the version t h a t is useful t o t h e H a n a f i s , and p o i n t s t o an isndd w i t h a w e a k l i n k . This is o n l y t h e first o f n u m e r o u s such isndds.

D E V E L O P M E N T OF

H E R M E N E U T I C

S K I L L S

239

T h e p o i n t b e i n g l a b o u r e d here is that the g o o d l i n k Z u h r i - ' U r w a is b r o k e n ; even i f t h e h a d i t h was passed t o Z u h r i , i t was t h r o u g h an unreliable authority. 5.0. Some say that the link after 'Urwa is his son, Hisham b. 'Urwa, who cannot be impugned. For example: 5.1. Ibn A b i ' U m a r - ' U b a y d A l l a h b. Muhammad al-Timi l lammad b. Salama-Hisham b. ' U r w a - ' U r w a - M a r w a n - B u s r a - P r o p h e t . 5.2-5.5. Four other isnads all displaying the link H i s h a m - ' U i w a - M a r w a n Busra Prophet. 5.6. Reply: Hisham too did not take it from his father, but heard it from A b u Bakr and then reported it from his father by forgery {tadlis), as proved by: 5.7. Sulayman b. Shu'ayb-Khaslb-Humam-Hisham b. 'Urwa Abu Bakr b. M u h a m m a d - ' U r w a - M a r w a n , etc. H e r e we see a t o t a l o f five isndds i n w h i c h a bad l i n k is replaced w i t h a g o o d l i n k : ' U r w a passed i t straight t o his s o n , H i s h a m . Z u h r i has been a b a n d o n e d . T a h a w i ' s reply t o this c o u l d h a r d l y be m o r e a r b i t r a r y : he s i m p l y interpolates the j o k e r , A b u B a k r b. M u h a m m a d , b e t w e e n H i s h a m and his father. H e i m p l i e s that this is e n o u g h t o devalue all the g o o d l i n k s . 6.0. Some say it is reported from 'Urwa by others than Z u h r i and Hisham as in: 6.1. Muhammad b. Hajjaj and Rabi' the M u ' a d h d h i n - A s a d - I b n Lahi'aA b u 'l-Aswad-'Urwa-Busra-Prophet. 6.2. Reply: Who would ever rely on Ibn Lahl'a? H e r e and i n t h e f o l l o w i n g several examples i t seems t o me that all pretence at seriousness is lost. Isndds

are m u l t i p l i e d and dismissed

in a casual, a r b i t r a r y , and i n d i f f e r e n t fashion.

4.0. Another version has it that the intermediary between 'Urwa and Z u h r i is, not 'Abdallah b. A b i Bakr, but A b u Bakr b. Muhammad, as follows: 4.1. Sulayman b. Shu'ayb-Bishr b. B a k r - A w z a ' i - I b n Shihab [ a l - Z u h r l ] A b u Bakr b. Muhammad-'Urwa-Busra-Prophet.

7.0. What about: A b u B a k r a - A b u Dawud-Hisham-Yahya b. A b i K a t h i r - a man-'Urwa-'A'isha-Prophet? 7.1. Reply: H o w can you argue this? 8.0. What about: ' A l l b. Ma'bad-Ya'qub b. I b r a h i m - I b r a h i m b. Sa'dIbn Ishaq-Muhammad b. M u s l i m - ' U r w a - Z a y d b. Khalid-Prophet? 8.1. A n d : Ibn A b i Dawud-'Ayyash al-Raqqam-'Abd a l - A ' l a - I b n Ishaq, etc.? 8.2. Reply: H o w can you set up Ibn Ishaq against those who oppose him on this matter?

For the difficulties in nomenclature and identity of Ibn Shihàb/Zuhrï, see G. H . A . Juynboll, Muslim tradition, 146—58.

R e g r e t f u l l y , T a h a w i has t e n m o r e isndds i n each one o f w h i c h he finds some fault o r a n o t h e r . H e also has six splendid Prophetic

2!i

242

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

O F H E R M E N E U T I C

t h o u g h I a m m o r e i n c l i n e d n o w t o see

S K I L L S

T H E

D E V E L O P M E N T

O F H E R M E N E U I T C

S K I L L S

243

i n the r e p e t i t i o n ( a n d

v i e w o f t h e j u r i s t s as a class. I t a r t i c u l a t e d a g u l f b e t w e e n those

consequent r e d u n d a n c i e s ) a n d i n t h e apparent failures o f organiz-

w h o k n o w , w h o have the r i g h t t o debate, and t o d i f f e r , a n d those

a t i o n that b o t h e r e d t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t o r signs o f o r g a n i c g r o w t h

w h o d o n o t k n o w (nutqallids).

and

d e p e n d e n t f o r t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f the law o n those w h o k n o w .

redaction.

The

book

deserves

a

more

careful

literary

d e s c r i p t i o n t h a n has so far been a t t e m p t e d but that need not be

w h o are

a s u b o r d i n a t e class, 3 7

A t h i r d feature o f these p e r c e p t i o n s , and o f equal i m p o r t a n c e , is

c a r r i e d o u t h e r e . T h e arguments I set out in Chapters 4 and 5 w i l l

that

adequately account f o r m y present scepticism about the a t t r i b u t i o n

i n t e l l e c t u a l p l a y ; and so p e r m i t t e d that r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e w o r k t o S h â f i ' î ; and t h e a r g u m e n t s o f this C h a p t e r w i l l

o f j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e that is c l a s s i c a l

perhaps suffice t o show h o w m u c h m o r e c o m f o r t a b l y t h e w o r k fits

c a n n o t achieve the stasis o f c e r t a i n t y , he is c o m m i t t e d ( t h r o u g h

i n t o a p r o p o s e d d a t i n g o f c . 3 0 0 t h a n i n t o any earlier p e r i o d .

G o d ' s d e l i b e r a t e w i t h h o l d i n g o f secure k n o w l e d g e ) t o e t e r n a l

T h e specifics o f the t h e o r y presented in the Risdla a n d t h e many

they

liberated

the

juristic

tradition 38

into

aesthetic

and

fiqh. Precisely because man

d e b a t e , d e b a t e , that is, o n t h e significance o f r e v e l a t i o n . It is

p e r i o d have

h a r d l y t o be expected t h a t a l l t h i n k e r s w i l l rejoice equally in the

T h a t aspect o f

u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f the law (some embraced as others feared i t ) and

his a r g u m e n t a t i o n w h i c h t o m y m i n d is the most i m p o r t a n t and the

the b o u n d a r i e s o f u n c e r t a i n t y are a p a r t o f the debate. O n e useful

refinements

that were

developed

in the classical

received t o date adequate academic d e s c r i p t i o n .

3 6

most l i b e r a t i n g i n t e r m s o f its influence o n t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f

a n d effective account o f t h e m a t t e r , w h i c h may i l l u s t r a t e the p o i n t ,

fiqh,

is p r o v i d e d , f a i r l y late i n the t r a d i t i o n , by the H a n b a l i scholar I b n

h o w e v e r , deserves r e p e t i t i o n . T h e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t

j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f ikhtildf, of

knowledge,

and

based o n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o types

established

a kind

of

flexibility

and

tolerance

Q u d a m a ( d . 6 2 0 ) , i n his Rawdat focuses

al-ndzir

wa-jannat

al-mundzir.

He

i n a significant passage o n the q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r all

(already perhaps i m p l i c i t i n some earlier j u r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e ) i n so far

mujtahids,

w i t h their d i v e r g e n t views, are c o r r e c t .

as t h e n o t i o n o f v a r i a t i o n was n o w b u i l t i n t o the system a n d its

n o r can any one o f t h e m ever achieve c e r t a i n t y that the v i e w he has

3 9

T h e y are n o t ;

negative i m p l i c a t i o n s n e u t r a l i z e d . T h e m o t i v e s f o r this achievement

a d o p t e d is t h e single c o r r e c t v i e w t h a t corresponds t o G o d ' s w i l l .

are m u l t i v a l e n t b u t n o t obscure. T h e arguments r e s p o n d t o and

T h e search f o r that single c o r r e c t v i e w , h o w e v e r , m u s t n o t be

n e u t r a l i z e t h e divisions w i t h i n the geographically and i d e o l o g i c a l l y

a b a n d o n e d : a n d so the scholars o f the M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y are

various ancient schools; they c o n s t i t u t e a p r i n c i p l e o f transcendent

c o m m i t t e d , f o r all t i m e , t o the play o f h e r m e n e u t i c a r g u m e n t .

unity

T h e r e can be n o ' r o l l i n g u p o f the carpet o f d e b a t e ' .

whereby

a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s i n debate

c o u l d recognize

in

4 0

A n d carpets

themselves a u n i f i e d a n d catholic b o d y . B y the same t o k e n , the

o f debate are precisely w h a t , f o r a t h o u s a n d years, the M u s l i m

c o n t e m p o r a r y scholars m i g h t associate themselves w i t h t r a d i t i o n s ,

jurists have w o v e n , always ( m o r e or less) f u n c t i o n a l , b u t also o f a

o r t r a d i t i o n a l figures o f the I s l a m i c past, g o i n g back t o a n d i n c l u d i n g

p a t t e r n e d beauty that appeals as insistently t o the i n t e l l e c t as a

a l l o f the C o m p a n i o n s a n d Successors, irrespective o f r e c o r d e d

Persian carpet does t o t h e eye. I t is i n its p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h a t

d e v i a t i o n o r divergence i n j u r i s t i c conclusions. I t is t h e a c k n o w -

a c h i e v e m e n t that S h a f i T s Risdla

l e d g e m e n t o f p e r m i t t e d divergence

c o m m u n i t y . I f this r e a l i z a t i o n was a gradual achievement o n the p a r t o f all t h e M u s l i m j u r i s t s , i t r e m a i n s n o n e the less t r u e that its first o r d e r l y a r t i c u l a t i o n comes i n this Risdla,

p r o d u c t o f the Shâfi'î

school a n d , p r o b a b l y , i n its present f o r m , o f c.300. T h e t h e o r y h a d a n o t h e r h a p p y effect, at least f r o m t h e p o i n t o f

See Calder. 'Ikhtildf and ijmd", 71; also Norman Catder, 'Doubt and prerogative' for the workings of these arguments in a ShlT context. I use the word here to cover all of the developments in the post-formative period up to and including the nineteenth century, being not at ail convinced that scholarship has yet distinguished any meaningful lines of cleavage, temporal or typological, within the bulk of fiqh literature. 'Abdallah b. Ahmad Ibn Qudama, Rawdat al-ndzir, 324-34. I b i d . 332. 3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

3 6

achieves its greatest i m p o r t a n c e .

that creates u n i t y w i t h i n a

See Burton, The Collection and Sources, passim; Majid Khadduri, Islamic

jurisprudence; also the general accounts of Muslim hermeneutics in Goldziher, The Zdhirls and Wansbrough, Studies (170-202); also the several works of Wael B. Hallaq (inter alia 'Considerations', 'The development of logical structure').

T R A N S I T I O N S

10 TRANSITIONS O v e r t h r e e chapters I have argued t h a t i n l i t e r a r y f o r m , n o r m a t i v e c o n t e n t , and h e r m e n e u t i c t h e o r y , Islamic j u r i s p r u d e n c e is an organic p r o d u c t o f A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m society i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . It reflects the social a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l tensions o f t h a t society and c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f mechanical b o r r o w i n g o r alien influence, n o r in terms o f c o n t i n u i t y w i t h , for e x a m p l e , a B e d o u i n past: t h a t w o u l d be t o ignore the social c o m p l e x i t y o f M u s l i m society, its l o n g history o f city l i f e , and the d o m i n a n t presence t h e r e o f n o n - B e d o u i n . I t is p r o b a b l e that n o n - M u s l i m elements i n t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n w o r l d o f the ' A b b â s i d E m p i r e experienced s i m i l a r tensions. ( A l l o f the c o m m u n i t i e s o f the M i d d l e East p a r t i c i p a t e d in the p o l i t i c a l , social, and i n t e l l e c t u a l consequences o f A r a b p o l i t i c a l h e g e m o n y . ) I n such a m i l i e u , b o r r o w i n g , i n f l u e n c e , and c o n t i n u i t y are all present; b u t fresh creative t h i n k i n g a r t i c u l a t e d t h r o u g h c o m p l e x , i n d e t e r m i n a t e , b u t indigenous social and i n t e l l e c t u a l structures w o u l d seem t h e onlyway effectively t o e x p l a i n such d e v e l o p m e n t s as are r e n d e r e d visible by the l i t e r a r y residue o f the p e r i o d . T h e characteristics o f the p e r i o d , b o t h l i t e r a r y and social, i n so far as they i m p i n g e p a r t i c u l a r l y o n the p r o d u c t i o n o f j u r i s t i c w o r k s , have perhaps been sufficiently i n d i c a t e d . I t remains t o ask at w h a t date the features o f this d e v e l o p m e n t a l phase so changed as t o m a r k t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a n e w h i s t o r i c a l phase. T h e question is o f course p r i m a r i l y analytic: it serves the need o f the h i s t o r i a n t o establish types, create divisions, and m a r k boundaries. B u t , like most exercises i n p e r i o d i z a t i o n , t h e a r g u m e n t I offer here includes the suggestion t h a t the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the process w e r e n o t e n t i r e l y u n a w a r e t h a t s o m e t h i n g had been left b e h i n d . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l d i v i s i o n between the f o r m a t i v e and 'classical' periods o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e focuses o n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y as the p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . This is clearly a correct p e r c e p t i o n 1

1

Sec e.g. Chafik Chehata, Études de droit musulman, i . 17; also Ya'akov

245

( t h o u g h w h e t h e r accompanied as yet by a reasonable and precise c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the t w o p e r i o d s may be d o u b t e d ) . A v o i d i n g reliance o n dates, I w o u l d propose that a useful s y m b o l o f the e n d i n g o f one phase and the b e g i n n i n g o f another may be found i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f Mukhtasars. T h i s t e r m covers a type o f juristicw o r k w h i c h i n the p o s t - f o r m a t i v e periods had diverse forms and functions. T h e earliest examples, h o w e v e r , are quite clearly simply a t t e m p t s t o s u m m a r i z e the k n o w n l a w , w i t h i n a given t r a d i t i o n . In these respects a l o n e , t h e y are significant: they m a r k a need t o gather a n d s u m m a r i z e the past w i t h a view t o b u i l d i n g o n it and they also signal a satisfaction w i t h school loyalties and consequent p l u r a l i s m , w h i c h is perhaps d i f f e r e n t f r o m the m o r e c o m b a t i v e atmosphere o f earlier texts. In t w o o t h e r respects they have still greater s y m b o l i c value. F i r s t , t h e y are a u t h o r e d texts. T h e y represent the effort by p a r t i c u l a r n a m e d i n d i v i d u a l s t o b r i n g the i n h e r i t e d t r a d i t i o n , w i t h all its d i v e r s i t y o f o r a l and w r i t t e n sources, t o o r d e r . N o n e w o u l d d o u b t t h a t the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h a t o r d e r i n g belongs t o the i n d i v i d u a l i n q u e s t i o n , w h o , i n u n d e r t a k i n g the task, is m a k i n g some sort o f c l a i m to a personal l i t e r a r y achievement. T h e characteristic texts o f the f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d are n o t l i k e this: n o m a t t e r h o w r e a l o r s t r o n g the a u t h o r i a l o r redactional presence, i t represents itself as m e r e l y t h e m e d i u m for the school t r a d i t i o n . Pseudepigraphy and the absence o f claims t o personal a u t h o r i t y are the n o r m . T h e t r a n s i t i o n is as i m p o r t a n t as the emergence o f the i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l e d artist erf t h e Renaissance, in contrast t o the a n o n y m o u s s k i l l e d craftsmen o f m e d i e v a l a r t , and as difficult t o p i n d o w n . T h e Mukhtasar o f t h e H a n a f i jurist Q u d u r l ( d . 428) is no longer a w o r k o f the f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d . T h e earlier Mukhtasars o f T a h a w i ( d . 321) and M a r w a z i ( d . 334) represent, h o w e v e r , precisely t h e relevant t r a n s i t i o n a r y features. T h e y are ambivalent and u n c e r t a i n a b o u t the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e and l i t e r a r y role o f the a u t h o r . M a r w a z i is sometimes a s k i l l e d and creative summarizer o f the b o o k s he i n h e r i t e d ; at o t h e r times he falls back o n a despairing r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f sources w h i c h successfully resist his efforts at s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l . I n b o t h cases the achievement was sufficient t o c o n s t i t u t e an i n s t r u c t i v e m o d e l and t o generate a M e r o n , 'The development of legal thought'. Joseph Schacht is markedly early in his assessment of the transition, and, I would say, does not characterize it well,

Origins, 329, and introduction, 69-71.

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A b ü B a k r A h m a d b. ' A m r , Kitab Ahkätn al-Nafaqät

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al-

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wa-miftäh

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( R e f e r e n c e s in the text are

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b. M u h a m m a d ,

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Kltâb

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al-

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al-rusul

wa-'l-muluk

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al-äthär (2

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al-äthär

(4 vols.; Hyderabad, 1333). (See

Mahäsin for the Mu'tasar

min al-Mukhtasar

Kitäb Ikhtiläf al-fuqahä'',

under Abü '1

min Mushkil

al-äthär).

V o l . 1, ed. M . S. H . Ma'süml (Islamabad.

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Wansbrough, John, Quranic interpretation

d'orientalisme

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sources

and methods

of

scriptural

( L o n d o n Oriental Series, 31; Oxford, T977).

The sectarian milieu (London Oriental Series, 34; O x f o r d , 1978). Wensinck, A . J..

'Die Entstehung der muslimischen Reinheitsgesetz-

gebung', Der Islam,

5 (1914).

Wright, D a v i d , P., The disposal of impurity: and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Dissertation series, 101;

elimination

rites in the Bible

literature (Society of biblical literature,

Atlanta, Ga., 1987).

'Abbas, Ihsan 107 ' A b d a l - M a l i k 138,140-1,182 A b u Hanlfa 39, 105-6 A b u ' i - ' A r a b , Muhammad b. Ahmad 165

A b u Sulayman al-Juzjani 43 A b u Yusuf 39, 105-6 adab 165-6, 170-1, 188-93 analogy, analogical argument, qiyas 6 - 9 , 5 3 , 79, 81-3, 9 0 - 1 , 100 'dqlla 202-7 a-ra'ayta, see ra'y K. al-Asl, see Shaybani athar 12-17,40-4,53-4,56, 125, 167-8 see also hadith authority statements (exempla), see athar al-Baladhuri 118,121,150-1 BaqI b. Makhlad 36-7 al-Bayhaqi 88-90, t o i , 104 books and their development 162-3, 171-81,193-5 Brunschvig, R. 206-7 Bukhari 189, 194 al-Bulqlm.Siraj al-Din 83 B u r t o n , J. 219, 218 n . , 242 n. Busra, the hadith of 55, 6 0 - 1 , 98-9, 237-4" al-Buwayti 6 8 - 9 , 86 canonization 163-4 casuistic writing 5 - 6 , 45-9 cat as source of pollution, the 3, 24-6, 45,72,91 category creation 6 - 8 , 45-9 Common-Link theory, the 236-41 Cook, M . 210, 212, 240 n. Crone, P. 2 0 9 - 1 2 , 2 2 0 - 1 , 2 0 5 0 . , 207 11., 240 n. Dennis of Tell Mahre 140 diya 202-7

dog as source of pollution, the 2-3,7¬ 9, 14-17,30-4, 71-3- 75. 7N-82, 91 Edessa 137-41 fly as source of pollution, the 91,92-5 formulaic diction 26-7, 45-7, 52-3. 146 Goldziher, I . 2 o n . , 2 i n . , s 6 n . , 190 n . , 198 n . , 218 n . , 242 n. hadith, Prophetic 8, 12,12-14,21-4, 24-34, 55-6, 84-5, 90-2, 92-5, 98-100, 146-7, 218, 223-7, 227-8, 228-33,235-41 Hawting, G. R. 215-16 Hilalal-Ra'y 5 0 - 1 , 146, 162 Ibn ' A b d al-Barr 37-8, 246 Ibn al-Faradi 165 IbnQutayba 68, 165, 177-9, 184-5, 187, 189-91, 223-7, 227-8 Ibn Waddah 37, 176, 185 Ibn Wahb 12-14,172-3 Ijaza 172-3 ijtihdd 226, 241-3 ikhtilaf 4 0 , 4 0 - 4 , 4 9 , 5 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 86-7, 94-5,125-6,139 K. Ikhtilaf Malik wa-'l-Shafi'i 87 K. Ikhtilaf AbiHanlfa wa-lbn Abi Lay Id 86, 106 influences on Islamic law: Bedouin culture 202-7; Bedouinization 207; bureaucratic initativcs 207-8; caliphal decrees 220-2; popular narrative 214-17; practice 198-200; the Qur'an 218-19; Roman and Jewish law 199,209-14 isndd, defined 4 Ishaq b. Rahawayh 68,227-8

256

I N D E X

I N D E X

Jahiz 165, 170-1, 176-7, 187, 189-91 jizya (poll-tax) 107, 116-18, 142-4, '57 jurists, their social classes 164-5, 181-5 KabTsi, A . U . 107 kharaj 107; sec K. al-Kharaj K. al-Kharaj: the Arabian Peninsula 136, 154-5; basic divisions of land 110-15; Basra and Khurasan 136-7; date of composition 144-50; iqtd' 130-6; the Jazira 137-41; kharaj lands in the Sawad 116-24; Najran 141-4; organization of chapters 115-16, 151 —3; the qata'i' 124-30; its text and editions 106-7 al-Khassaf 5 0 - 1 , 146-7, 159-60, 162 al-Khusham, Muhammad b. al-Harith 165 Lcvi-Provcngal, E. 36, 20 n. L0kegaard, F. 121 Ma'la b. Mansur al-RazI 43 K. al-Mabsul, alternative title for K. al-Asl Malik b. Anas 20, 167, 172, 173, 174, 183; the Muwatta' 17,20-38, 163, 172,219 al-Marwazi, Muhammad b. Muhammad 51-2,245 mass al-dhakar 54, 54-5, 55-6, 96-8, 99-100,237-40 mawali 148-9, 192 M o t z k i , H . 194-5 K. al-Mudawwana, see Sahnun al-Muhtadi 147-50, 157 mukhtasars 244-7 Mukhtasar of Muzani, the see Muzani muqdsama 119-24 Muslim 189, 194 K. al-Mustakhraja min al-asmi'a 175-6 Muzani 69, 86; the Mukhtasar 86-103; compared with Rabi' 90-2, 95-6, 96-104 al-Muwalta' 172; see also, M a l i k , al-Shaybam Neusner,J. 195, 1 n . , 212 n . , 213 n. oral transmission, oral literature 161; madab 170-1; in Antiquity 161-2,

195-7; integral transmission and creative reflection 188-9; the oral process, as reflected in juristic İitcrature 166-70; and the Shu'übî movement 1 8 9 - 9 3 ; ^ books pcriodization of juristic literature 244-7 pig as source of pollution, the 71-3, 75, 78-82,91 sec

a

so

qiraa, sec ijdza qiyds, defined at 9; see analogy Our'an 188, 190; see also influences Rabbinic culture 195-6, 209-14, 233-5 al-Rabl' b. Sulayman al-Muradî 6 8 - 9 , 82-3, 86; see also Muzani ra'y (ara, yard, a-ra'ayla) 9, 12,45-7, 5 2 - 3 , 5 3 - 4 , 189, 193, 218; the ashdb al-ra'y 187-8,223,227-8 sadaqa 107; see also 'ushr, zakdl Safınım 1, 163, 169-70, 174, 182-3; the Mudawwana 1-19, 21, 24-8, 29-30, 52-3, 172, 175-6, 185 samd' 171-6 Schacht, J. 19, 21, 24, 31, 67, 82, 84. 198-9, 236, 9 n . , 19 n . , 20 n . , 28 n . , 53 n . , 68 n . , 106 n . , 202 n . , 220 n . , 221 n . , 241 n. al-Shâfi'î 67-9; contrasted with A b ü Yûsuf 156; the K. al-Umm 69-85; in the Mukhtasar of Muzani 86-104; the Risdla 224-7,229,231,233, 241-3 al-Shaybani 4, 39; the K. al-Hujja 56-7, 58-66; the K. al-Asl or the Mabsut 4 - 6 . 39-53; the Muwatta of Shaybânî 55-7, 63-6, 106 Shu'übî movement, the 188-93 sleep as a cause of pollution 9 7 - 8 , 101-4,230,230-3 su'r 2, 2 - 4 , 4-17, 45-9; see also water K. Tabaqdt 'ulama' Ifriqiya, see A b ü T'Arab al-Tabari 147-50, 194 a l - t a h a w i 66, 84, 228; the Raydn mushkil al-dthdr 228-33; the Mukhtasar 245-6; the Sharh ma'am al-dthdr 235-41

Ta'rikh al-'ulama . . . bi-'l-Andalus, see i b n al-Faradi transmission and creativity in tension 188-93; sec also oral transmission transmission of culture in Antiquity. the 161-2, 195-7,200-1,209-14; see also oral transmission

umm 83; see also Shäfi'i, K. al-Umm 'ushr 107, 125-6, 127-30, 131, 136, 144, 154-5; see also K. al-Khardj

257

Wansbrough, J. 23, 186-7,216,219, 190 n . , 209 n . , 218 n . , 242 n. water, its susceptibility to impurity: in the Mukhtasar of Muzani 9 0 - 1 ; in the Umm 69-73; 74-82; see also.vnV wazija (lawzijj 1 19-24 wudu 2. 2-4, 4-17, 24-30, 30-4, 96-8 Yahya b. Yahya al-Masmüdî 17,20-1, 34-8 zakdl 107; see also sadaqa, 'ushr

I

V W I I W K I I

(|.