Subject-verb agreement in English and Pashto a comparative study

Ministry of Higher Education Kabul Education University Faculty of Language and Literature

BA Degree Monograph

Subject-Verb- Agreement in English and Pashto Languages Advisor: Pohyalai Abdul Habib Khalid Prepared by: Esmatullah Niazi Department: English Language and Literature

Academic Year 2014

Table of Contents Preface………………………………………………………………………….. I Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………... II Abstract…………………………………………………………………………IV Introduction…………………………………………………………………….1 Subject –verb according to verb tenses………………………………………2 Simple Present Tense Construction...........................................................…...2 Past tense construction………………………………………………………...5 The Future Contraction……………………………………………………….7 Subject- verb according to the nouns used as subjects of the sentences…..10 Count Noun as Subject of a Sentences………………………………………10 Non-count as Subject of a Sentences…………………………...……………12 Collective Noun as Subject of a Sentence……………………………...……15 Infinitive as Subject of a Sentence…………………………………………..19 Gerund as Subject of a Sentence…………………………………………….21 What Are the Rules? .......................................................................................23 Challenges of Grammar Rules………………………………………………25 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….26 References……………………………………………………………………..28

Preface The booklet that I have written about “subject – verb agreement in English and Pashto” is useful for English as a second language and those who are seeking how to write correct sentences. Subject-verb agreement is crucial issue for non-native speakers, since majority of them is not well equipped with the necessary knowledge and skill of making sentences with correct usage of subject verb structure. The booklet in particular focus on the relationships of SVA in English and Pashto, since in Pashto, there is a unique type of verb for each subject as the second form of verb go (went) is the same for all subjects pronouns in English, but they are different in Pashto. Very important for those who teach English language to master and teach their students the right form the monograph discusses different aspects of subject verb agreement and their relationship between English and Pashto languages. I would like to thank Pohyalai Abdul Habib Khalid for his insightful thoughts in providing this monograph whose feedback and comments are worthwhile. This monograph entitled “subject – verb agreement English and Pashto.” contains very useful and important information about how to use and know about deferent at subject – verb agreement in English and Pashto, a comparative study”. That will help the readers to have complete information about subject – verb agreement in English and Pashto.

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Acknowledgements I am grateful to Almighty Allah the most merciful and the most compassionate that enables me to write my monograph under the title of “subject – verb agreement in English and Pashto”. In addition, I would like to express my articulate my sincere thanks and appreciation to all the respected instructors of Languages and Literature Faculty, English Department for their instruction, guidance and hardworking whose valuable suggestion especially to my advisor Pohyalai Abdul Habib Khalid who was a good friend, instructor and guide. His ideas taught me how to prepare the monograph in terms of format, content and references. . In conclusion, I keep crossed my fingers to the almighty Allah for the sake of my kind instructors to be success in their future specially the instructors who instructed me at the Kabul Education University Languages and Literature Faculty in English language Department.

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Abstract Some of the similarities and differences between subject-verb agreement in English and Pashto has been explained in this monograph. This study also indicates how the SVA structure is similar and different in both English and Pashto languages. The overall idea of SVA is that the subject should agree with its related verb in number and person, but this is not the case in Pashto language. That is, in Pashto present tense (in the case of both transitive and intransitive verbs) the subject of the sentence agrees with its related verb in number, person and gender, but in the past tense intransitive sentence, he subject agrees with its verb in number, person and gender. Another distinct feature found out in the study is that English non count nouns are always considered singular and show agreement with singular verbs. In Pashto, however, some non-count nouns are singular and some are plural. The singular non count nouns used as subject of the sentence with singular verbs and the plural ones agree with plural verbs. Also, infinitive, as subject of the sentence, in English is considered singular and agrees with a singular verb, but infinitive in Pashto is considered plural masculine and agrees with a plural masculine verb.

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Introduction Subject verb agreement refers to the fact that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number. In other words, they both must be singular or they both must be plural. You can’t have a singular subject with a plural verb or vice versa. The tricky part is in knowing the singular and plural forms of subjects and verbs. This monograph is comprehensive and has somewhat broader information about ‘subject – verb agreement in English and Pashto’. It is written from different resources and different scholars’ idea regarding subject- verb agreement in English and Pashto and its importance. The monograph discusses the concept of subject-verb agreement, its types, and the approaches of how to make SVA, and suggestions for teachers when it comes to teach or use subject-verb agreement. It includes some strategies on how to make, use, and teach SVA form in English and Pashto languages. Here I mentioned that how to match subjects and verbs, pronouns and antecedents, and maybe even a few outfits. You find out how agreement works with collective nouns and indefinite pronouns, too. Agreement is a biggie, because it occurs at least once a sentence. Agreement means that sentence parts match. Subjects must agree with verbs and pronouns must agree with antecedents. Otherwise, your sentences will sound awkward and jarring, like yellow teeth with a red tie. Here I defined what a subject is and explained that every sentence has a subject and that it is a noun or a pronoun. We can also give the tip that the subject is usually at the beginning of the sentence. Provide example sentences and have our students to find the subject. Simple sentences make the best examples, and we should make sure that we vary subjects with nouns, pronouns and proper nouns. So you will find all others information entitled subject-verb agreement during to read this monograph and I’m hopeful that I have make it as well as the rules of MOHE (ministry of Higher Education) assigned for preparing monograph as a final project of university graduated students.

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Subject –verb according to verb tenses Simple Present Tense Construction Swan, (2003) explains that in English present tense, the use of suffix-s with the singular verb from should not be forgotten. This means that in present intransitive and transitive sentences, the verb agree with the subject in person (first, second and third) and in number (singular and plural). Swan, (2003) writers that in English, the third person singular (he, she, it) used as subject of sentences requires –s form of the verb as “washes”, “play”, “fixes”, and “studies”. However, other persons such as the first person singular “I”, the first person plural “we”, the second person singular and plural “you” and third person plural “they” require the base form of the verb as shown below: 1. Ahmad studies English. 2. Roya likes sweets. 3. I like rice. 4. We meet once a week. 5. Suleiman goes to the park. 6. You drive carefully. Swan, (2003) noticed that the third person singular subject in sentences 1 and 2 show agreement with the-s form of the verb “studies” and “like” and “meet”. Moreover, the third person plural subject (Suleiman and Babak) in sentences 5 and second person singular and plural subject “you” in sentences 6 agree with base form of the verb “drive”. In present tense, the English verb BE has three forms, including “is”, “am” (singular) and “are” (plural). The verb “is” is used with the third person singular (he, she, it), “am” is only used with first person singular “I” and “are” is used with the first person plural “we”, the second person singular and plural “you”, and the third person plural “they” as shown in the following sentences: 1. He is an engineer.

2. We are Muslim.

2. She is at home.

4. You are in Afghanistan.

5. It is our class.

6. They are American.

In Pashto present tense, according to Kwhishkay, (2001) the subject agree with the verb in person and number. That is, like English, both transitive and intransitive verbs show agreement with the subject in number and person. That is if the subject is singular, the verb must also be 2

singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural. Kwhishkay (2003) points out that a verb in present tense shows agreement with the first and second person (I, we and you) in person and in number, but it shows agreement with third person (he, she, it, and they) only in person (p. 76) as shown in the following example: Transitive verb ]za kotә pӛkauam[

.‫ زه کوټه پاکوم‬.1

I the room cleans.

I clean the room.

]mung kotә pӛkao[

.‫ مونږ کوټه پاکوم‬.2

we the room clean

We clean the room

]za kotә pӛkawe[

.‫ ته کوټه پاکوی‬.3

You the room clean

You (singular) clean the room.

]ta kotә pӛkauәy[

.‫ ته کوټه پاکوی‬.4

you the room clean

You (plural) clean the room

]day kotә pӛkaue[

.‫ دی کوټه پاکوی‬.5

he the room cleans

He clean the room

]dә kotә pӛkaue[

.‫ دا کوټه پاکوی‬.6

.She the room clean

She clean the room

]duy kotә pӛkaue[

.‫ دوی کوټه پاکوی‬.7

.They the room clean

They clean the room.

Kwhishkay, (2001) noticed that the verb ]‫پاکول‬pӛkawal- to clean[ used in the above sentences is transitive and ‫( کوټه‬kotә- room) is the subject of the verb. The subject ]‫زه‬Za- I[, the first person singular in sentences 1, the first person plural ]‫مونږ‬mung-we[ in sentences 2, the second person singular ]‫ ته‬ta- you[ in sentences 3, the second plural ]‫ تاسی‬tase- you[ in sentences 4 show agreement with the verb ]‫پاکول‬pәkawal- to clean[ in number and person. As a result of this, The verb ]‫پاکول‬pӛkawal- to clean[ has deferent forms for the first and second person. In all of these sentences, the pronouns used as subjects can refer to both males and females and same forms of the 3

verbs are used if either of the gender is used. For instance, the subject ]‫زه‬Za- I[ in sentences 1 and ]‫مونږ‬mung-we[ in sentences 2 refer to both male and female and the same form of the verb used. And Kwhishkay, (2001) added more in contrast, the third person singular masculine pronoun ‫ ]دی‬day- he[ in sentences 5, the third person singular feminine pronoun ]‫ دا‬dӛ- she[ in sentences 6, and third person plural pronoun (both male and female) ]‫ دوی‬duy- they[ in sentences 7 show agreement with the verb ]‫پاکول‬pӛkawal- to clean[ only in person. Thus, the same form of the verb ]‫پاکول‬pӛkaue- clean[ is used with third person singular and plural, masculine and feminine. Intransitive verb [ Zә lӛmbam[ I swim. ]tә lӛmbәy[

.‫ زه المبم‬.1

You swim. I swim. ] mung lӛmbo[

.‫ ته المبی‬.2 You swim.

We swim.

.‫ مونږ المبو‬.3

] tӛse lӛmbәϒ [

We (masculine and feminine) swim. .‫ تاسی المبی‬.4

You are swim. ] day lӛmbi[

You (masculine and feminine plural) swim. .‫ دی المبی‬.5

He swim. ] dӛ lӛmbi[

He swims. She swims.

.‫ دا المبی‬.6

] duy lӛmbi[

She swims. .‫ دوی المبی‬.7

They swim.

They swim.

Kwhishkay, (2001) believed that in these sentences, the verb ]‫ المبل‬lӛmbal- to swim[ is an intransitive verb and agrees with the subjects as the transitive verb ]‫ پاکول‬pәkawal- to clean[ did with its subjects in the previous examples. That is, the subjects, first person singular ]‫ زه‬Za- I[ in sentences 1, the first person plural ]‫ مونږ‬mung-we [ in sentences 2, the second person singular ]‫ ته‬ta4

you[ in sentences 3, the second person plural ]‫ تاسی‬tӛse- you[ in sentences 4, show agreement with the verb ]‫ المبل‬lӛmbal- to swim[ in number and person. Notice that these subjects have the same agreement with the transitive verb ]‫ پاکول‬pәkawal- to clean[ in the previous examples. It is important to note that all of these sentences the pronouns can refer to both males and females and the same forms of the verbs are used if any gender is used. For instance, in the sentences ]‫ زه المبم‬I swim.[ the subject ]‫ زه‬Za- I[ can refer to both male and female. That is, the same sentences and same form of the verb is used whether a male is talking about himself or if a female is talking about herself. In contrast, the third person singular (masculine) ]‫ دی‬day- he[ in sentences 5, the third person singular (feminine) ]‫ دا‬dӛ- she[ in sentences 6, and third person plural ]‫ دوی‬duy- they[ in sentences 7, show agreement with verb only in person. Because of this, the same form of the verb ]‫ المبی‬lӛmbi- swim[ is used with third person singular and plural, masculine and feminine.

Past tense construction Robsson, (1996) has mentioned that unlike present tense, English verb in the past, except the verb BE, has only one form which agree with the subject regardless of person and number. Notice the use of “went” (the past tense form of the verb “go”) and the use of “walked” (the past tense form of the verb “walk”) with all persons (first, second and third) - singular and plural. 1. I

went to the park last night.

2. You

went to the park last night.

3. We

went to the park last night.

4. They went to the park last night. 5. He

went to the park last night.

6. She

went to the park last night.

7. I

walked to the school.

8. You

walked to the school.

9. We

walked to the school.

10. They walked to the school. 11. He

walked to the school.

12. She

walked to the school.

As Robsson, (1996) mentioned before, the only verb that shows a difference between singular and plural persons in the past tense in the verb BE. That is, the verb BE agrees with the subject in person and number and, therefore, has two past tense forms- “was” (singular) and “were” (plural). “Was”, the past tense form of “is” and “am”, is used with singular persons. It is used with 5

the first person singular “I” and the third person singular “he, she and it” whereas “were”, the past tense form of “are”, is used with the first person plural “we”, the second person singular and plural “you” and the third person plural “they”. 1. I was at home last night. 2. He was at home last night. 3. She was at home last night. 4. The dog was at home last night. 5. She was watching television in her bedroom. 6. It was sunny and hot yesterday. 7. You were at home last night. 8. We were at home last night. 9. They were at home last night. 10. The students were taking the exam. In Pashto, according to Tagey and Robsson, (1996), the construction which parallels the simple past tense of English is called the past perfective tense. They say that it formed by adding the past tense personal endings to the past perfective stem of the verb. The subject-verb agreement feature in Pashto past tense varies based on the type of the verb. That is, in intransitive past sentences (i.e. sentences containing verbs), the verb agrees with the subject in number, person whereas in past tense transitive sentences (i.e. sentences containing transitive verbs), the verb agrees with its object in person (first, second and third), number (singular or plural), and gender (masculine or feminine) not with its subject. feroz kӛbal tә lӛr[

1. .‫فیروز کابل ته الړ‬

Feroz Kabul to went

Feroz went to Kabul

] parvez bӛm tә waxot[

2. .‫پرویز بام ته وخوت‬

Parviz room climbed

Parviz climbed the roof.

] ferozә kabal tә lӛrә[

3. .‫فیروزه کابل ته الړه‬

Feroza Kabul to went

Feroza went to Kabul

Lizӛ bӛm tә waxtlә[

4. .‫لیزا بام ته وختله‬ Lisa climbed the roof.

Liza roof to climbed

Maclin, (2001) noticed that subject nouns ]‫فیروزه‬feroz[ in sentences 1 and ]‫ پرویز‬parviz[ in sentences 2 are masculine nouns and, therefore, agree with masculine verbs ]‫ الړه‬lӛr- went[ and 6

]‫ وخوت‬waxot- climbed[. In contrast, ]‫ فیروزه‬ferozә[ in sentences 3 and ]‫ لیزا‬lizӛ[ in sentences 4, are feminine subject and show agreement with feminine verbs]‫ الړه‬lӛra- went[ and ]‫ وختله‬waxtalәclimbed[. ] mӛ xatakәy waxur[

1. .‫ما خټکی وخوړ‬

I melon ate.

I ate melon.

] mӛ hindwanә waxura[

2. .‫ما هندوانه وخوړه‬

I watermelon ate.

I ate watermelon.

] mӛ xataki waxural[

3. .‫ما خټکی وخوړل‬ I ate melons.

I melons ate.

4. [.‫ما هندوانی وخوړلی‬r

] mӛ hindwana waxwaralә[ I ate watermelons. I watermelons ate. Maclin, (2001) has writtenThe subject, in all of the four sentences, is the first person singular ]‫ ما‬mӛ-I[ and it can be noticed that the verbs agree with subjects not with the subjects. That is, in sentences 1, the object ]‫ خټکی‬xatakәy- melon[ is a singular masculine noun, the verb ]‫وخوړ‬waxur-ate[ is also a masculine verb to show agreement with it. In sentences 2, the object ]‫هندوانه‬hindwanә- watermelon[ is a singular feminine noun and the verb ]‫ وخوړ‬waxurә-ate[ is also a singular feminine verb. Likewise, in sentences 3, the object ]‫ خټکی‬xataki-melones[ is plural masculine noun and, thus, it agree with the plural masculine verb ]‫ وخوړل‬waxural-ate[, and in sentences 4, the object ]‫ هندواڼی‬hindwane- watermelons[ is a plural feminine noun and, thus, it shows agreement with the feminine verb ]‫ خوړ‬waxwara- ate[.

The Future Contraction Maclin, (2001) writers that a tense form used to indicate that the event described by a verb will take place at a future time are called future tense. According to her, English uses a variety of verb forms to express future time: 1. The Afghan president travels to United States of America tomorrow. 2.

The Afghan president traveling to United States of America tomorrow.

3. The Afghan president will travels to United States of America tomorrow. 4. The Afghan president is going to travel to United States of America tomorrow.

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Most often English future tenses is mainly formed with the use of the model auxiliary verbs “will”(in America English) or “shall” (in British English with I and we) plus the base form of main verb. Like all model auxiliaries, the verbs “will” and “shall” neither show agreement in person nor in number. Notice that in all of the following sentences, the same form of the verb “attend” is used with all person- singular and plural. 1. I will attend the 5th annual conference of ELTAA.1 2. We shall attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. 3. You will attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. 4. We will attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. 5. They will attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. 6. She will attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. 7. He will attend the 5th annual conference ELTAA. Likewise, Pashto future tense shows something that happens in future time. According to Zyar (2003), Pashto future tense is formed by adding the article ]‫ به‬bә- will[ to the present incomplete form of the verb as shown in the following sentences. The subject- verb agreement has the pattern as the subject- verb agreement in present tense. That is, the verb shows agreement with the first and second persons in person and in number, but it agrees with the third person only in person.

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(ELTAA= English Language Teachers’ Association for afghan)

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]zә bә wobә ucaxam[

.‫ زه به اوبه وڅښم‬.1

I will water drink.

I will drink water.

] tә bә wobә ucax e[

.‫ ته به اوبه وڅښی‬.2

You will water drink.

You (singular) will drink water.

] tӛso bә wobә ucaxe[

.‫ تاسو به اوبه وڅښی‬.3

You will water drink.

You (plural) will drink water.

] mung bә wobә ucaxo[

.‫ مونږ به اوبه وڅښو‬.4

We will water drink.

We will drink water.

] dӛ bә wobә ucaxi[

.‫ دا به اوبه وڅښی‬.5

She will water Drink.

She will drink water.

] dәy bә wobә ucaxi[

.‫ دی به اوبه وڅښی‬.6

He will water drink.

He will drink water.

] doәy bә wobә ucaxi[

.‫ دوی به اوبه وڅښی‬.7

They will water drink.

They will drink water.

Swan, (2003) believed that the verb ]‫ څښل‬caxal- to drink[ used in above sentences is a transitive verb and ]‫ اوبه‬wobә-water[ is the object of the verb. Notice the first person singular ]‫زه‬ Za- I[ in sentences 1, second person singular ]‫ ته‬ta- you[ in sentences 2, the second person plural ]‫ تاسو‬tӛso-you[ in sentences 3, the first person plural ]‫ مونږ‬mung- we[ in sentences 4 show agreement with the verb ]‫ څښل‬caxal- to drink[ in number and in person. Thus, the verb ‫څښل‬has different forms (I.e. verb endings indicating person) for the first and second persons, showing subject- verb agreement in person and number. But, feminine third person singular subject ]‫ دا‬dӛshe[ in sentences 5, the masculine third person singular ]‫ دی‬dәy-he[ in sentences 6, and the third person plural (feminine and masculine) ]‫دوی‬doәy- they[ in sentences 7 show agreement with the same form of the verb. That is, the same form of the verb with‫ ]ی‬I[ ending ]‫ څښی‬caxe- dring[ is used for all of them, showing subject- verb agreement in person only. Subject- verb agreement, in future perfect construction, is quite similar to simple future construction. According to Swan (2003), English future perfect construction is formed as “shall/will have+ past participle “and is used to say that something will have been done, completed or achieved by a certain time in the future.

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1. I shall/will have completed the work by 08:00 am tomorrow morning. 2. The government will have built three buildings by March 2013. 3. She has cleaned the kitchen by the time you come here. Pashto future perfect tense is formed the same way as Pashto future tense is formed. Like it is in the past tense construction, the transitive verbs in future perfect construction agree with the object in number and gender as shown in the examples below. [Sulaiman bә kor jor karay wi]

.‫ سلیمان به کور جوړ کړی وی‬.1

Sulaiman will the house have built.

Sulaiman will have built the house.

[Sulaiman bә koronә jor kari wi]

.‫ سلیمان به کورونه جوړ کړی وی‬.2

Sulaiman will the house have built.

Sulaiman will have built the houses.

[Sulaiman bә xawke jorә kare wi]

.‫ سلیمان به څوکی جوړه کړی وی‬.3

Sulaiman will the chair have built.

Sulaiman will have made a chair.

[Sulaiman bә xawkigӛni jore kare wi]

.‫ سلیمان به څوکی ګانی جوړی کړی وی‬.4

Sulaiman will chairs have built.

Sulaiman will have made chairs.

According to Swan, (2003) in sentences 1, the singular masculine noun object ‫[ کور‬korhouse] agrees with the singular masculine verb ‫[ جوړ کړی‬jor karay- built]. Similarly, in sentences 2, the plural verb ‫[ جوړ کړی‬jor kari- built]. In sentences 3, the singular feminine noun object ‫[څوکی‬xawke-chair] agrees with the singular feminine verb ‫[ جوړه کړه‬jorә kare-made] and in sentences 4, the plural feminine noun object ‫[ څوکی ګانی‬xawkigӛne- chairs] agrees with the plural feminine verb ‫[ جوړ کړی‬jore kare- made].

Subject- verb according to the nouns used as subjects of the sentences Count Noun as Subject of a Sentences Khwishkay, (2001) has written that English grammar usually shows the difference between one and more than one. One is called singular and more than one is called plural. Also, certain nouns that English speaking people think of as abstract or as mass (i.e uncountable nouns) are usually singular in English. To be sure about the way English uses a word, it is important to look it up in a reference book such as the Oxford Advanced Learning Dictionary or the Longman Dictionary of

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contemporary English (Quirk et al., 1998). Countable nouns that indicate more than one person or thing are plural in English as shown in the table below. Regular Noun

Irregular Nouns

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Star

Stars

Man

Men

Teacher

Teachers

Woman

Women

Student

Students

Child

Children

Girl

Girls

Tooth

Teeth

Box

Boxes

Goose

Geese

Book

Books

Foot

Feet

Dog

Dogs

Mouse

Mice

Table 2: singular and plural forms of English Count Nouns

In English, the subject and main verb of a clause must agree with each other in number. That is, we need to use a singular verb with a singular noun or pronoun (as in example 1 and 3 below), and we need to use a plural verb with a plural noun or pronoun (as in examples 2 and 3 below). Evan though many people do not follow some of these rules in speaking, they must be followed in formal writing. 1. A girl studies at the library. 2. Girls study at the library. 3. The man is cleaning the yard. 4. The men are cleaning the yard. Similarly, count nouns in Pashto according to Tagey & Robsson, (1996) and Khwishkay, (2001) have singular and plural forms. A count noun, when used as the subject of sentences, shows agreement with verb in number, person and gender, as illustrated bellow. Singular Forms of Nouns

Plural Forms of Noun

Boy- [halak]‫هلک‬

Boys- [halakӛn] ‫هلکان‬

Book-[kitӛb] ‫کتاب‬

Books-[kitӛbunә] ‫کتابونه‬

Pen- [qalam] ‫قلم‬

Pens- [qalamunә] ‫قلمونه‬

Man- [sarәy] ‫سړی‬

Men-[sari] ‫سړی‬

Notebook-[kitӛbcә] ‫کتابچه‬

Notebooks- [kitabce] ‫کتابچی‬

Table 3: singular and plural forms of Pashto count nouns

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[halak lӛr]

.‫ هلک الړ‬.1

The boy went.

The boy went.

[hәlәkӛn lӛral]

.‫ هلکان الړل‬.2

They boys went.

The boys went.

[kitӛbxә worakә ŝwә

.‫ کتابچه ورکه شوه‬.3

The notebook lost be.

The notebook was lost.

[kitӛbxe worake ŝwe]

.‫ کتابچی ورکی شوی‬.4

The notebooks lost were.

The notebooks were lost.

Tagey & Robsson, (1996) believed that it is noticeable that the singular masculine noun subject ‫[ هلک‬hәlak-boy] in sentences 1 agrees with singular masculine verb ‫[ الړ‬lӛr-went], and the plural masculine noun subject ‫[ هلکان‬hәlәkӛn- boys] in sentences 2 shows agreement with the plural masculine verb ‫[ الړل‬lӛral- went]. Similarly, the singular feminine noun object ‫[ کتابچه‬kitӛbcenootbooks] in sentences 3 shows agreement with the singular feminine verb and its related word ‫[ ورکه شوه‬worakә ŝwә- lost] and the plural feminine noun subject ‫[ کتابچی‬kitәbxe- notebooks] in sentences 4 shows agreement with the plural feminine verb and its related word ‫[ ورکی شوی‬worake ŝwe-lost].

Non-count as Subject of a Sentences Quirk, et al., (1998) mentioned that in English, non-count nouns (also called mass nouns) are nouns which have only one form singular form. They do not have plural form and the critical “the” and “a” do not precede them. So, it is important to learn which words are countable and which are uncountable in English Quirk, et al., (1998). Countable and uncountable classification differs very much in different languages. Such difference can also be observed in English and Pashto languages. As illustrated in the following examples, English non-countable nouns used as subjects of sentences are used in agreement with singular verbs. 1. Gold was discovered in Afghanistan. 2. The money is in bank. 3. The water is running. 4. This information is difficult to understand. 5. Knowledge brings understanding. 6. Your advice helps us.

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Pashto non-countable (or mass) nouns are also called ‫[ د جنس نوم‬jens nom- materials noun] by Reshteen (1994). Like English, Pashto mass nouns refer to noun that is not countable. Tagedy and Robsson (1996) write that a number of Pashto mass or non-count nouns function in ways similar to English mass noun like “chalk”, “wheat” and so on. As mentioned before, English mass nouns regularly occur only in the singular form, but according to Tagey and Robsson (1996) Pashto mass nouns either occur only in a singular or only in a plural form and denote things as “liquid”, “grain” or other elements that are not countable in practice as illustrated below: “water-[woba] ‫اوبه‬

wheat- [γanam] ‫غنم‬

Gold- [Zar] ‫زر‬

butter[kwoc] ‫کوچ‬

corn- [jwӛr] ‫جوار‬

yougurt-[ maste] ‫مستی‬

Cooking oil- [γowari] ‫غوړی‬vegetable- [sӛba] ‫سابه‬

Milk- [šode] ‫شودی‬

medicine- [dermal] ‫درمل‬

grass- [waxa] ‫واښه‬

barley-[worbaše] ‫( ”اوربشی‬p.60)

Tegey and Robsson (1996) add that some Pashto non count nouns, among the non-count nouns provided, are used as singular and plural. Singular

Plural

‫[ خټه‬xata]- mud

‫[ خټی‬xate]

‫[ایره‬irә]-ash

‫[ ایری‬iri]

‫[ خاوره‬xӛwra]- soil

‫[ خاوری‬xӛwre]

‫[ غله‬γala]- grain

‫[ غلی‬γale]

‫[ شکره‬šakara] shugar

‫[ شکری‬šakare]

‫[ مالګه‬mӛlga]- salt

‫[ مالګی‬mӛlge]

Table 4: Singular and plural forms of Pashto non count nouns (adapted from Tagey and Robsson, 1996, p. 62)

Tagey and Robsson, (1996) pointed that it is worth nothingthat the above nouns show agreement with above in number and gender. That is, the singular non count nouns agree with singular verbs and the plural non-nouns agree with plural verbs. The noun endings determine the masculine and feminine gender of the nouns and show agreement with the verb in gender also. 13

1. .‫خټه ډیره ده‬ There is a lot of mud 2. .‫خټی ډیری دی‬ There is a lot of muds. Notice that in sentences 1, the feminine singular non-count noun ‫[ خټه‬xata-mud] agree with singular feminine verb ‫[ ده‬dә- is] and the plural feminine non count noun ‫[ خټی‬xate- mud (plural)]in sentences 2 agrees with the plural feminine verb ‫[ دی‬di- are] Moreover, Tagey and Robsson (1996) explain that among these non-count nouns, listed below, some are always singular, particularly the names of Afghan food. “(cooked) rice [chaláw] ‫چلو‬

kebob- [kabáb] ‫کباب‬

Pilaf- [chaláw] ‫پلو‬

soup- [xurwá] ‫”ښوروا‬

(p. 61)

Robsson, (1996) these nouns, which are always singular, show agreement with the singular verb. As stated before, the final endings determine the masculine and feminine genders and then determine agreement with the verb. The subject noun ‫[ کباب‬kabӛb- kebab] in sentences 1 is a singular masculine noun and, therefore, agrees with a singular masculine verb ‫[ دی‬day-is]. Similarly masculine noun ‫[ ښوروا‬xurwӛ- soup] in sentences 2 is a feminine noun and shows agreement with singular feminine verb ‫[ ده‬dә- is]

[kabӛb pox de]

.‫ کباب پوخ دی‬.1

Kebab ready be

The kebab is ready

[xurwӛ paxa dә]

.‫ ښوروا پخه ده‬.2

The soup ready be

The soup is ready.

Furthermore, Tagey and Robsson, (1996) state that among these nouns, some nouns (listed below) are always plural and show agreement with plural verbs as shown in the following example. ‫[ اوبه‬wobә- water] in sentences 2 is a feminine noun and shows with the plural verb ‫[ دی‬di- are]

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“flour – [wrә] ‫اوړه‬

water- [wobá] ‫اوبه‬

milk- [šode] ‫شودی‬

Lentils- [dál] ‫دال‬

food- [khwӛrá]‫( ”خواړه‬p.61)

[wobә khwáge di]

.‫ اوبه خوږی دی‬.1

Water sweet are.

The water is sweet.

[šarӛb pә eslӛm ke harӛm di]

.‫ شراب په اسالم کی حرام دی‬.2 Wine is illegal in Islam.

Wine in Islam illegal is.

Collective Noun as Subject of a Sentence According to Swan, (2003) collective nouns are the nouns which refer or stand for groups of more than one noun and usually include people or animals. English collective nouns, when used as subject of sentences, have special agreement with the verb. According to Swan(2003), most collective nouns have both singular and plural forms like “team” and “teams”, the plural form always takes a plural verb, but the singular form may take a singular verb or a plural verb. The singular verb is used with most of singular collective nouns if the group as a unit or refers to a unit, and the plural verb is used if the group is acting separately and individually.

1- The translator team has translated various technical texts. 2- Our team is winning the game. 3- The working committee of ELTAA working committee meets once in a month. 4- The committees stay at their homes during the conference. According to Swan, (2003) notice that in sentence 1, the “team” refers to each individual member of the team and. The verb “have” is, therefore, plural. In sentence 2, the noun “team” refers to a unit or a group and, therefore, shows agreement with a singular verb “is”. Similarly, in sentence 3, the committee is acting as one unite and reaches a decision and

15

agrees with singular verb “meets” whereas in sentence 4, the committee in acting as individuals and shows agreement with plural verb “stay”. According to Quirk et ai. (1998), the singular collective nouns may be notionally plural that is, in British English the verb may neither be singular or plural. 1. People in Afghanistan are not happy with security. 2. The audience were enjoying every minute of the game. 3. England has won the cup. 4. ELTAA committees have made all arrangements for the 4th annual conference. Quirk et al. (1998) further explain and write that the British English, the choice of singular or plural verbs depends on whether the group is considered as single unite, or as a group of individuals. Thus, in British English, the plural is more likely in plural than in singular because attention is directed at the individual reactions of members of the audience. Notice that the mentioned nouns are considered singular in these sentences. 1. The audience was enormous. 2. The public consists of you and me. 3. The crowed has been dispersed. Quirk et al. (1998) pointed that opposed to the sentence “the audience was enormous”, the sentence “the audience were enormous” might be interpreted or refer to an audience of enormous people. According to Quirk et al. (1998), the plural is more often used in speech whereas singular a probably preferred in writing. For grammatical subject- verb agreement matter (according to Quirk et al., (1998), it is generally safer in British English to use the singular verb where there is a doubt whether the noun refer to unit or an individual. On the contrary, in American English singular collective nouns are generally considered as singular. For example, terms for the government and for sports teams are nearly always treated as singular in American English, but other terms may (less commonly than in British English) take plural verbs (Quirk et al., 1998). 1. The government has planned talks with its opposition. 2. Afghanistan has a lot of natural sources. 3. The public has a right to have a good life. (British English) 4. The public have a right to have a good life. (American England)

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In Pashto according to Tagey and Robsson, (1998) collective nouns are those nouns which refer to a group of things as shown in group I below. However, unlike English, these nouns can also be pluralized (as in group 2 below) if they refer to more than one group of things. Group1: Collective Nouns “‫[ ټولګی‬tolgay]- group‫[ رمه‬ramә]- herd ‫[ ټولی‬tolay]- group

‫[ پاده‬pӛdә]- cattle

‫[ سازمان‬sӛzmӛn]- organization, association

‫[ ګوند‬gond]- party

‫[ ټولنه‬tolanә]-community

‫[ ولس‬wolas]- nation” (p. 65)

Group 2: Singular and Plural Collective Nouns Singular group (Singular)

Individual group (plural)

“community – [tolana] ‫ټولنه‬

Communities –[tolane] ‫ټولنی‬

Group –[tolay] ‫ټولی‬

Groups- [toil] ‫ټولی‬

Class- [tolgay] ‫ټولګی‬

Classes- [tolgi] ‫ټولګی‬

Party- [gond] ‫ګوند‬

Parties- [godonә] ‫ګوندونه‬

Table 5: Pashto collective nouns (adapted from Tagey and Robsson, 1996, p. 62)

Agreement of verb with collective noun used as the subject or object of the sentence depends on whether the collective noun refers to a single group. If the collective noun refers to single group, it requires a plural verb. The agreement between the collective subject noun or object noun and verb occurs according to number and gender agreement that take place in the past tense, but such agreement does not exist in present tense tagey and Robsson, (1998). [koxi xapalә ramә waploralә] The nomad his hard sold. [koxiyano xaplae rame waploralә] The nomads their herd sold. [dә defӛ wazӛrat dә askaro yaw tolay kandahӛr tә wӛstӛwa] The Ministry of Defense of soldiers, a group Kandahar to sent [dә defӛ wazӛrat dә askaro tolivkandahar ta wӛstӛwal] The Ministry of Defense soldiers groups Kandahar to sent. 17

.‫ کوچی خپله رمه وپلورله‬.1 The nomad sold his herd. .‫ کوچیانو خپلی رمی وپلورلی‬.2 The nomads sold their herd. .‫ د دفاع وزارت د عسکرو یو ټولی کندهار ته واستاوه‬.3 The Ministry of Defense sent a group of soldiers to Kandahar. .‫ د دفاع وزارت د عسکرو ټولی کندهار ته واستول‬.4 The Ministry of Defense sent groups of soldiers to Kandahar. Quirk et al. (1998) noticed that in the above transitive past tense examples, the verbs show agreement with objects. In sentence 1, the singular feminine collective ‫[ رمه‬ramә-herd] used as the object of the verb agrees with singular feminine verb ‫[ وپلورله‬waploralә- sold], and in sentence 2, the plural feminine collective noun ‫[ رمی‬rame-herd] used as object of the verb, agrees with the plural feminine verb ‫[ وپلورلی‬waplorale-sold]. Similarly, the singular masculine collective noun ‫[ ټولی‬tolay-group] in sentence 3 shows agreement with the singular masculine verb ‫[ واستاوه‬wӛstӛwa-sent] and the plural masculine collective noun ‫[ ټولی‬toilgroup] in sentence 4 shows agreement with plural masculine verb ‫[ واستول‬wӛstӛwal- sent]. Furthermore Robsson, (1998) agreement between singular and plural collective nouns is clearly indicated in the following two examples of intransitive sentences. That is, the feminine singular collective noun‫[ رمه‬ramә-herd] herd in sentence I shows agreement with singular feminine verb ‫[ راغله‬rӛγlә-came]. Likewise, the plural feminine collective noun ‫رمی‬ [rame-herd] in sentence 2 agrees with plural feminine verb ‫[ راغلی‬rӛγle-came]. [ramә rӛγlә]

.‫ رمه راغله‬.1

The herd came.

The herd came.

[rame rӛγle]

.‫ رمی راغلی‬.2

The herds came.

The herd came.

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Infinitive as Subject of a Sentence Martin and Wern, (2001) in English, the infinitive is formed by placing the word “to” before the base form of a verb. The infinitive can be used as a noun, as an adjective, and as an adverb. When used as a noun, the infinitive is a kind of noun with certain features of the verb. That is, the infinitive can be used as a complement of the sentence, as an object of the verb and as a subject of the verb. It can also take an object when the verb is transitive. Different function of infinitive is shown in these examples.

1. To learn Arabic is easy. 2. She likes to swim. 3. Students love to read book. 4. My pleasure is to recite the Holy Quran. In all these sentences, the infinitive is used as nouns, but they possess different function. That is, in sentences 1, the infinitives “to learn” are used as the subject of the sentence, but like a verb it also takes an object “Arabic”. In sentence 2, the infinitive “to swim” is used as the object of the verb “like”. In sentence 3, the infinitive “to read” is used as the object of the verb “love”, but like a verb it also takes the object “book”. In sentence 4, the infinitive “to recite” is used as subject complement but like a verb it also takes an object “the Holy Quran”. Furthermore, Martin and Wern (2001) explain that the word “to” be frequently used with the infinitive form, but it is not an essential part of or sign of it. That is, after certain verbs like “bid”, “let”, “make”, “see”, “hear”, “watch”, and “have”, the infinitive without “to” (underlined in the following examples) is used (p.90). The stated authors say that in grammar, the verbs “hear” “see” and “watch” are called verbs of perception, and the verbs “make”, “let” and “have” are called causative verbs. The use of the word “to” before these verbs is considered incorrect. 1. The teacher made the students leave the class. 2. I let him use my computer. 3. She made her son milk. 4. We heard him cry. 5. I had Jamil buy boy me some clothes. 19

The infinitive without “to” is also used after modal auxiliaries and after special expression as shown below.

Infinitive without “to” after modal auxiliaries: 1. Muslims must follow all fundamental of Islam. 2. I will call my friend. 3. He may come home tonight. 4. My brother can speak Arabic and Urdu.

Infinitive without too after special expressions: 1. She had better come to the class. 2. Students had rather study than watch films. 3. Ahmad would rather speak English in the meeting. As Martin and Wern, (2001) pointed in this study only focuses on the function of infinitive as the subject of a sentence, it will not focus or cover the other uses of infinitive. The infinitive, as a noun, used as the subject of a sentence is always considered singular and agrees with a singular verb, a situation that can be observed in the following examples. In these sentences (1-5), the infinitives “to build” “to get”, to keep”, “to know” and “to teach” are used as subject of the sentences. But like verbs, the infinitive in sentences 1, 3, 4 and 5 also take objects; “a house”, “the environment”, “all people” and “our children”. Notice that these entire infinitive forms show agreement with singular verbs (“needs in sentence 1, “takes” in sentence 2, “is” in sentence 3, “is” in sentence 4 and “is” in sentence 5). Also notice that the plural noun objects “all people” and “our children” do not affect the verbagreement because the verbs agree with subjects “to know” and “to teach” not with their objects. 1. To build a house needs a lot of money. 2. To get to Kabul University takes me one hour. 3. To keep the environments clean in our duty. 4. To know all people in the city difficult. 5. To teach our children the Islamic values is our duty.

20

According to the Robsson, (1996) Infinitive in Pashto does not show tense, but it indicates that something happens. Like in English, one common use of infinitive construction in Pashto is its use as a noun. The infinitive ends in suffix ‫[ ل‬-al] mainly attached to the stem as in ‫[ خوړل‬xural- to eat], ‫[ وهل‬wahal- to beat], ‫[ زده کول‬zdakawal- to learn] and ‫پریوتل‬ [pariwatal- to fall down], it is essential to know that unlike English, infinitive in Pashto is considered as plural masculine noun and agree with a plural masculine verb. [ de quräne karim zdakawl läzemi di] Of Quran learning essential are. [de šaräbo xaxal pa isläm ke mana di] Of wine drinking is Islam prohibited is. .‫ د قرآنکریم زده کول الزمی دی‬.1 It is essential learn the Holy Quraan. .‫ د شرابو څښل په اسالم کی منع دی‬.2 Drinking wine is prohibited in Islam. Notice the infinitives ‫[ زده کونکی‬zdakawal-to learn] in sentence 1, ‫[څښل‬xaxal- to drink] in sentence 2 show agreement with the plural masculine verb ‫[ دی‬di- are].

Gerund as Subject of a Sentence In English, a gerund is a verb ending in- ing which functions as a noun. As illustrated and underlined in the examples below, gerunds may become subjects, objects or complements in a sentence (Azar, 1998); as. 1. Nazira likes reading poetry. 2. Zarif is fond of watching films. 3. What I most dislike is smoking. 4. Playing cards is not allowed here. 5. We heard him reciting the Holy Quraan. In these examples, “reading”, “watching”, “smoking” and “playing” are formed from the verbs “read”, “watch”, “smoke” and “play” by adding the suffix –ing, and hence function as nouns. They are, therefore, verbal nouns and are called gerunds. According to Martin and

21

Wern (2001) in sentence 1, the gerund “reading” like a noun is the object of verb “likes”, but like a verb, it also takes an object “poetry”, and thus clearly shows that it has the force of a verb. In sentence 2, the gerund “watching” like a noun is the object of the preposition “of”, but like a verb it also takes an object “films”. In sentence 3, the gerund “smoking” is used as complement of the verb, and in sentence 4, the gerund “playing” is used as subject of the verb “is”, but like a verb it also takes an object “cards”. Similarly, in sentence 5, the gerund “reciting” is used as objective complement, and like a verb it also takes an object “the Holy Quraan”. As According to Martin and Wern, (2001) in this study does not focus on the use of the gerund as object or complement, it with only focus on the subject functions of gerund and its agreement with the verb. As stated before, gerund is a verb noun; it has no plural form in English and it is treated singular. The gerund used as subject of the clauses always takes a singular verb and a plural object after gerund (as in sentence 4 and 5 above) does not affect the subject- verb agreement because the verb agrees with the subject not with the object; as 1. Having an apple a day keeps a person healthy. 2. Praying five times a day is an obligation of every Muslim. 3. Teaching children needs a lot of efforts. 4. Gambling is an evil act in Islam. 5. Fasting in the month of Ramadan is an obligation for Muslim. In these sentences (1-5), the gerunds “having”, “praying”, teaching”, “gambling” and “fasting” are gerunds used as subjects of the sentences. Notice that these entire gerund forms show agreement with singular verbs, “is” in sentences 1, “is” in sentence 2, “makes” in sentence 3, “is” in sentence 4 and “is” in sentence 5. But like verbs, the gerunds (in sentence 1 and 3) derived from transitive verbs also take objects- “an apple” and “children”. Also notice that the plural noun objects like “children” in sentence 3 does not affect the verbagreement because the verb(s) in such cases agree with the gerund used as a subject not with a noun used as the object of the gerund. Pashto equivalent of English gerund was not found out in the course of this study, but it may be found out in another study. In general there is some roles generally about subject verb-agreement that 20 Rules of Subject Verb AgreementAccording to Martin and Wern (2001) While grammar is not as

22

static a science as is typically assumed, there are 20 rules of subject verb agreement that attempt to objectify part of the English language form. Most of the concepts of subject verb agreement are straightforward, yet some aspects of singular and plural usage in English grammar are more complicated.

What Are the Rules? 1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept. The dog growls when he is angry. The dogs growl when they are angry. 2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect agreement. The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good. 3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement. The colors of the rainbow are beautiful. 4. When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the subject will always be placed after the verb, so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly. There is a problem with the balance sheet. Here are the papers you requested. 5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use. Does Lefty usually eat grass? Where are the pieces of this puzzle? 6. If two subjects are joined by and, they typically require a plural verb form. The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon. 7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by and refer to the same person or thing. Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.

23

8. If one of the words each, every, or no comes before the subject, the verb is singular. No smoking or drinking is allowed. Every man and woman is required to check in. 9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also the verb is singular. Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident. 10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of the preposition determines the form of the verb. All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone. 11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or time. Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running. 12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, the verb is plural. Dogs and cats are both available at the pound. 13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb. Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the zoo. Neither the lion nor the bears have escaped from the zoo. 14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. Everybody wants to be loved. 15. Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both, all, some) that always take the plural form. 24

Few were left alive after the flood. 16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of the verb. To walk and to chew gum requires great skill. 17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence, they take the singular verb form of the verb; but, when they are linked by and, they take the plural form. Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies. 18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. usually take a singular verb form. The herd is stampeding. 19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular verb. The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks. 20. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb! For more examples, check out Examples of Subject Verb Agreement.

Challenges of Grammar Rules According to Martin and Wren (2001) pointed that the problem with some grammar rules from the perspective of modern linguistics is that there is not one absolute grammar in the English language. Most American native English speakers equate Standard English with being correct and any non-standard variation of English with being incorrect. In reality, however, the concept of standard American English is really the privileging of a particular dialect of English that originates from the Ohio River Valley. This is the dialect of English that the anchors of the nightly news speak and that we base our notions of correct and incorrect grammar on. It is important to recognize that no grammar is any more correct or incorrect than any other on a functional level, and our notions of correct and incorrect are culturally constructed.

25

Conclusion This section of the paper provides a brief summary of the study’s finding. That is, the subject-verb agreement in English and Pashto: A Comparative Study investigated and studied word order, sentence structure and subject-verb agreement features of English and Pashto languages. In the study, it was found out that English and Pashto have some similarities and differences in the stated feature which, with no doubt, can make the teaching (for instructions) and learning (for the learners) of these features in the two languages easier. For instance, it was discovered that a verb is a key element in both English and Pashto sentence structure. Also, component (i.e. subject and predicate) of both English and Pashto sentences can be used in three different positions (at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end) in the sentence as explained in section. Moreover, the research questions (i.e. 1) do both English and Pashto only have subject-verb agreement pattern? 2) Do the subjects of both English and Pashto sentences agree with their related verbs only in number and Person?) Posed in the introduction of the paper can be answered with “No”. That is, English and Pashto do not follow the subject-verb agreement pattern only and the subjects of English and Pashto sentences do not agree. With their related verbs only in number and person. Based on Bergmann et al.‘s (2007) notion that the study of language variation is an integral part of linguistics, and each language is obviously different from the other, varying from structure to sound; this study found out that English and Pashto have different word order and they have different aspects of subject-verb agreement feature. For instance, English has the SVO word order and Pashto has the SOV word order. A major difference between English and Pashto subject-verb agreement feature is that in all tenses, with the use of all types of verbs and in any type of word order (unmarked and marked), the subject of an English sentence agrees with its related verb in number and person, but this is not the case in Pashto language. That is, Pashto has both subject-verb agreement and object-verb agreement features. The two types of agreements in Pashto depend on certain verb tenses, types of verbs and on the basis of persons. Contrary to English subject verb agreement where the subject agree with the verb in number and person, in Pashto subject-verb agreement and object-verb agreement feature, the stating the such agreement depend on the type of verb in number, person and gender. It’s 26

worth the subjects of both the transitive and the intransitive sentences agree with the verb in number and person. However, in past tense, the object of transitive verb agrees with its related verb in number, person and gender. In the case of gender, the verb also takes the feminine form if the subject or object is a feminine noun and the verb takes masculine form if the subject or object is a masculine noun. Another major difference in the subject-verb agreement feature of these languages is the agreement of infinitive and non-count nouns. That is, in English the non-count nouns and the infinitive forms are considered singular and, thus, they, when used as subject of a sentence, agree with singular verbs. However, Pashto the infinitive is considered masculine plural and agrees with a plural masculine verb. An English non-count used as subject of a sentence agree with a singular verb, but a non-count nouns can be singular and plural, and sometimes plural only; a situation where a singular noun agrees with a singular verb and a plural noun agrees with a plural verb. Finally, according to Bergmann et al.’s (2007) notion as sated before, English and Pashto languages have variant aspects of sentence structure, word order and subject-verb agreement. As a result of study’s findings, it can be observed that such type of comparative and contrastive study can assist both language teachers in teaching and language learners in learning.

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References A. Azar, B. S. (1998). Understanding and Using English Grammar (2nd ed). New Jersey, USA: prentice –Hall Regents Inc. Bergmann, A. Hall, K., Ross, S (Eds.) (2007). Language Files for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press. Choy, P. Clark. D. D. (2006). Basic Grammar and Usage. Boston, USA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Darling, C. subject- Verb Agreement. (1999). [Slides]. Harford, United States: Capital Community College. Maclin, A. (2001). Reference Guide to English: A handbook of English as a Second Language. Washington DC: Holt Rinehart and Winston Publisher. Negro, I. (2000). Subject-Verb Agreement with Present and Imperfect Tenses: A Developmental Study from 2nd to 7th Grade. European journal of psychology of education, 15(20), 113-133. Richards, J., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985). Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. England: Longman Group Limited. Roberts, T. (2000). Critics and Agreement. United States: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Quirk, R., Grambaum, S., Leech, G., Swartvik, J. (1998). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York, USA: Longman Group Limited. Swan, M. (2003). Practical English Usage (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Tagey, H. & Robsson, B. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Wren, P.C. & Martin, H. (2001). High School English Grammar and Composition (New ed.). 28

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‫‪B.‬‬ ‫تږی‪ ،‬حبییب هللا‪ ،‬نوی ژبپوهنه او ژبنی مسایل‪ ،‬پښتو ټولنه‪ ،‬کابل افغانستان‪ ۴۴۱۱ ،‬ل (‪۴۶۱۱‬م)‪.‬‬ ‫بنزل هربرت‪ ،‬د پښتو ګرامر‪ ،‬د محمد رحیم الهام ژباړه‪ ،‬د ژبو او ادبیاتو پوهنځی‪ ،‬کابل پوهنتون‪ ،‬کابل افغانستان‪،‬‬ ‫‪ ۴۴۱۱‬ل (‪ ۴۶۱۱‬م)‪.‬‬ ‫خویشکی‪ ،‬محمد صابر‪ ،‬پښتو غږپوهنه او ویپوهنه‪ :‬فونو لوژی‪ -‬مورفولوژی‪ ،‬د افغانستان کلتوری ودی ټولنه‪،‬‬ ‫جرمنی‪ ۴۴۳۱ ،‬ل (‪۴۶۱۱‬م)‪.‬‬ ‫رښتین‪ ،‬صدیق هللا‪ ،‬پښتو ګرامر‪ ،‬د سید محی الدین هاشمی ژباړه‪ ،‬یونیورسټي بک ایجنسی‪ ،‬پیښور‪ ،‬پښتونخواء ‪۴۴۳۱‬ل‬ ‫(‪۴۶۶۱‬م)‪.‬‬ ‫رښتین‪ ،‬صدیق هللا‪ ،‬پښتو ګرامر‪ :‬ژب ښودنه‪ ،‬خاور خپرندویه ټولنه‪ ،‬کابل افغانستان‪.‬‬ ‫‪۴۴۳۱‬ل (‪ ۴۶۶۱‬م)‪.‬‬ ‫رښتین زیور‪ ،‬زرغونه‪ ،‬پښتو نحوه‪ ،‬د ساپی د پښتو څیړنو او پراختیامرکز‪ ،‬پیښور‪ ،‬پښتونخوا‪،‬‬ ‫‪ ۴۴۳۳‬ل (‪.)۱۱۱۴‬‬ ‫زیار‪ ،‬مجاور احمد‪ ،‬پښتو پښویه‪ :‬ګرامر دوم چاپ (پایڅوړ‪ :‬د ژبپوهنی بنسټونه او غږپوهنه)‪ ،‬دانش خپرندویه ټولنه‪،‬‬ ‫پیښور‪ ،‬پښتو نخواء ‪ ۴۴۳۱‬ل (‪۱۱۱۴‬م)‬

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