Supporting creativity 2ed pb
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Second Edition Reviews of the first edition “In addition to expected information about developmental stages and caregiver response, Duffy discusses diversity and accessibility issues that affect children’s response to opportunities to express their creativity … an admirably detailed guide to creativity for persons involved in caring for young children.” Education Review “The strength of Bernadette Duffy’s book is her ability to share through tables, examples, theory and reflections her deep understanding of children’s creative process…” Montessori International Magazine Learning through the arts has the potential to stimulate open-ended activity that encourages discovery, exploration, experimentation and invention, thus contributing to children’s development in all areas of learning and helping to make the curriculum meaningful to them. Bernadette Duffy draws on her extensive experience of promoting young children's creativity and imagination to examine how visual representations, music, dance, imaginative play and drama can enable children to express their feelings, thoughts and responses. She highlights examples of good practice and provides practical guidance for those working with young children in a variety of settings, including home, school and centre-based care. Updated throughout, this second edition considers creativity and imagination in the light of contemporary initiatives such as Every Child Matters, Birth to Three Matters, Sure Start and the Foundation Stage curriculum.
ISBN 0-335-21859-8
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Duffy
Bernadette Duffy is Head of the Thomas Coram Early Childhood Centre. She originally trained as an early years teacher and has worked in a variety of early years settings. She is Vice-Chair of the British Association for Early Childhood Education and was part of the Working Group for the Birth to Three Matters Project, as well as of the QCA Foundation Stage working party which devised the Guidance for the Foundation Stage. She was made an OBE in June 2005.
Second Edition
Supporting Creativity and Imagination in the Early Years is essential reading for early years practitioners and students, as well as anyone who delights in young children's learning and development and wants to explore new ways of supporting it.
Supporting Creativity and Imagination in the Early Years
Supporting Creativity and Imagination in the Early Years
SUPPORTING EARLY LEARNING Series Editors: Vicky Hurst and Jenefer Joseph
Supporting Creativity and Imagination in the Early Years Second Edition Bernadette Duffy
Supporting creativity and imagination in the early years Second edition
Supporting Early Learning Series Editors: Vicky Hurst and Jenefer Joseph The focus of this series is on improving the effectiveness of early education. Policy developments come and go, and difficult decisions are often forced on those with responsibility for young children’s well-being. This series aims to help with these decisions by showing how developmental approaches to early education provide a sound and positive basis for learning. Each book recognizes that children from birth to 6 years old have particular developmental needs. This applies just as much to the acquisition of subject knowledge, skills and understanding as to other educational goals such as social skills, attitudes and dispositions. The importance of providing a learning environment that is carefully planned to stimulate children’s own active learning is also stressed. Through the series, readers are encouraged to reflect on the education being offered to young children, through revisiting developmental principles and using them to analyse their observations of children. In this way, readers can evaluate ideas about the most effective ways of educating young children and develop strategies for approaching their practice in ways that offer every child a more appropriate education. Published and forthcoming titles: Jonathan Doherty and Richard Bailey: Supporting Physical Development and Physical Education in the Early Years Bernadette Duffy: Supporting Children and Imagination in the Early Years 2nd edition Lesley Hendy and Lucy Toon: Supporting Drama and Role Play in the Early Years Vicky Hurst and Jenefer Joseph: Supporting Early Learning – The Way Forward Caroline Jones: Supporting Inclusion in the Early Years Linda Pound and Chris Harrison: Supporting Music in the Early Years Linda Pound: Supporting Mathematical Development in the Early Years 2nd edition Iram Siraj-Blatchford and Priscilla Clarke: Supporting Identity, Diversity and Language in the Early Years John Siraj-Blatchford and Iain MacLeod-Brudenell: Supporting Science, Design and Technology in the Early Years John Siraj-Blatchford and David Whitebread: Supporting Information and Communications Technology Education in the Early Years Marian Whitehead: Supporting Language and Literacy Development in the Early Years
Supporting creativity and imagination in the early years Second edition
Bernadette Duffy
Open University Press
Open University Press McGraw-Hill Education McGraw-Hill House Shoppenhangers Road Maidenhead Berkshire England SL6 2QL email:
[email protected] world wide web: www.openup.co.uk and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121–2289, USA First published 1998 Reprinted 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006 First published in this edition 2006 Copyright # Bernadette Duffy 2006 All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, W1T 4LP. A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library ISBN-10: 0 335 21859 8 (pb) ISBN-13: 978 0335 21859 2 (pb) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP data applied for
Typeset by YHT Ltd, London Printed in Poland EU by OZGraf S.A. www.polskabook.pl
For Tricia 1965–95
‘I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the heart’s affections and the truth of imagination’ Keats, Letter to Benjamin Bailey 22 November 1817
Contents
List of tables Acknowledgements Series editors’ preface Introduction
ix x xi xv
Part One What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
1
1 The importance of creativity and imagination
3
2 Defining creativity and imagination
15
3 The creative process
27
Part Two How do creativity and imagination develop?
43
4 Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years
45
5 Creativity across the curriculum
56
6 The contribution of the arts to learning
74
7 The development of the visual and performing arts
92
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Contents Part Three Theory into practice
113
8 The role of the adult
115
9 The organization of space, time and social contexts
131
10 Extending the range of experiences
146
11 Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing
160
Conclusion
180
Bibliography Index
183 189
List of tables
I.1 3.1 3.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 8.1
The links between this book and xviii The Foundation Stage and the creative process 39 Art Key Stage 1 attainment targets 40 The contributions of the arts to all areas of learning 77 Two- and three-dimensional representations and the opportunities for learning they offer 79 Musical experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer 83 Dance experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer 85 Imaginative play experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer 88 Appreciation and appraisal and the possibilities for learning they offer 89 The development of drawing 95 The development of painting 100 The development of textural awareness and textile skills 102 The development of three-dimensional awareness and representation 103 The development of musical awareness and skills 105 The development of dance 107 The development of imaginative play 109 The specific role of the adult at different stages of development 128
Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful to the many children, parents and colleagues I have had the privilege to work with over the last 26 years, some of whom will recognize episodes in the book. Special thanks go to all those involved in the Dorothy Gardner Centre and Thomas Coram Centre. Jenefer Joseph and the late Vicky Hurst showed great faith by asking me to write the first edition of this book and gave me a lot of encouragement, help and support along the way. I continue to be very thankful for their initial support and the many doors they opened for me. The publication of the first edition led to me making links with others interested in this field, from Scotland to Saint Lucia, and this book draws on the insights I have gained from them all, sadly too many to mention but far too important to forget. My nieces and nephews, Tom, Matty, Katie and Nancy feature throughout this edition as they did in the last. They are now of an age to give their approval and I am pleased, and relieved, that they are happy to do so. I am indebted to them and their parents, Angela, Jackie and both Pauls for allowing me to share and use episodes from the early years of their lives. Since the first addition I have been lucky enough to acquire a new niece, Orla, and four new nephews, Dylan, Fynn, Aiden and Tadhg who have also contributed to this edition. Thank you to Dominic and Delaney for four of the new additions! Finally thanks to my parents Mary and Jim – both have been an endless source of inspiration and encouragement from my earliest years and continue to be so.
Series editors’ preface
The publication of this second edition is testimony to the demand for and the success of a book of this kind. We believe that the first edition, in 1998, played an influential part in raising the profile and understanding of the importance of the creative arts in children’s lives. During the last seven years much has emerged from government ministries: The Department for Culture, Media and Sport’s (DCMS), Culture and Creativity (2001); the DfES’s Birth to Three Matters (2002); ‘Excellence and Enjoyment’ (2003); and Every Child Matters (2004). Again, the Qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) published Creativity: Find It, Promote It (2003a). Moreover, research such as Findings from the Pre-school Period: Summary of Findings (2003, EPPE), and several other books and papers have all recognized the importance of promoting and fostering the arts from the early years and throughout education. This book is one of a series which will be of interest to all those who are concerned with the care and education of children from birth to 6 years – childminders, teachers and other professionals in schools; those who work in playgroups; private and community nurseries and similar institutions; governors, providers and managers. We also speak to parents and carers, whose involvement is probably the most influential of all for children’s learning and development. Our focus is on improving the effectiveness of early education. Policy developments come and go, and difficult decisions are often forced on all those with responsibility for young children’s well-being. We aim to help with these decisions by showing how developmental approaches to
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Series editors’ preface young children’s education not only accord with our fundamental educational principles, but provide a positive and sound basis for learning. Each book recognizes and demonstrates that children from birth to 6 years of age have particular developmental learning needs, and that all those providing care and education for them would be wise to approach their work developmentally. This applies just as much to the acquisition of subject knowledge, skills and understanding, as to other educational goals such as social skills, attitudes and dispositions. In this series, there are several volumes with a subject-based focus, and the main aim is to show how that can be introduced to young children within the framework of an integrated and developmentally appropriate curriculum, without losing its integrity as an area of knowledge in its own right. We also stress the importance of providing a learning environment which is carefully planned for children’s own active learning. The present volume explores the exciting worlds which embrace all the Arts, shows their attractiveness to children almost from birth, and demonstrates the importance of the stimulation of the imagination for the all-round development of human beings. It has been said that without imagination there is no forgiveness, no love, no moving out towards each other – surely qualities so desperately needed in these troubled times. Access for all children is fundamental to the provision of educational opportunity. We are concerned to emphasize anti-discriminatory approaches throughout, as well as the importance of recognizing that meeting special educational needs must be an integral purpose of curriculum development and planning. We see the role of play in learning as a central one, and one which also relates to all-round emotional, social and physical development. Play, along with other forms of active learning, is normally a natural point of access to the curriculum for each child at his or her particular stage and level of understanding. It is therefore an essential force in making for equal opportunities in learning, intrinsic as it is to all areas of development. We believe that these two aspects – play and equal opportunities – are so important that they have been highlighted in each volume in this series. Throughout this series we encourage readers to reflect on the education being offered to young children by revisiting the developmental principles which most practitioners hold, and using them to analyse their observations of the children. In this way, readers can evaluate ideas about the most effective ways of educating young children, and develop strategies for approaching their practice in ways which exemplify their fundamental educational beliefs, and offer every child a more appropriate education.
Series editors’ preface The authors of each book in the series subscribe to the following set of principles for a developmental curriculum:
Principles for a developmental curriculum . .
.
.
. .
.
.
.
Each child is an individual and should be respected and treated as such. The early years are a period of development in their own right, and the education of young children should be seen as a specialism with its own valid criteria of appropriate practice. The role of the educator of young children is to engage actively with what most concerns the child, and to support learning through these preoccupations. The educator has a responsibility to foster positive attitudes in children to both self and others, and to counter negative messages which children may have received. Each child’s cultural and linguistic endowment is seen as the fundamental medium of learning. An anti-discriminatory approach is the basis of all respect-worthy education, and is essential as a criterion for a developmentally appropriate curriculum (DAC). All children should be offered equal opportunities to progress and develop, and should have equal access to good-quality provision. The concepts of multi-culturalism and anti-racism are intrinsic to this whole educational approach. Partnership with parents should be given priority as the most effective means of ensuring coherence and continuity in children’s experiences and in the curriculum offered to them. A democratic perspective permeates education of good quality, and is the basis of transactions between people. Vicky Hurst and Jenefer Joseph
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Introduction
Example James, aged 6 and Daniel, aged 4, are parading slowly round the table. At the table sit their parents, grandparents, aunt and uncle finishing a meal and arguing the relative musical merits of Mozart, Dire Straits and Deep Purple. James leads and explains to Daniel, ‘we’re climbing the Himalayas to find Baby Jesus. It’s a dangerous journey’. Round and round the table they go, James miming climbing a rope and Daniel copying him. As they go Daniel serves tea using a toy tea set to the adults at the table who pretend to drink and ask how the journey is progressing. Suddenly James stops, ‘we’re at the top, look there’s Baby Jesus!’. Daniel runs to get a toy panda, ‘this is Baby Jesus!’.
What are James and Daniel doing? They are obviously not in the Himalayas and Daniel’s panda is not Baby Jesus! The adults with them do not find this behaviour strange; quite the reverse. They join in the pretence when asked and support it through questions about the boys’ progress up the pretend mountain to find Baby Jesus. It would appear that in this family, as in many others, the use of the imagination to create a pretend situation is fostered and appreciated. In the following chapters I will argue that creativity and imagination are vital and that they have an important function in early childhood and throughout life. I will seek to explain why the sort of behaviour exhibited
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Introduction by James and Daniel, and countless other children we know and care for, should be valued and encouraged. I will assert that creativity and imagination should be a central focus of their education. This is an excellent time to be talking and thinking about creativity and imagination. For many years it seemed as if creativity had been relegated to the back seat in education, but now it is clearly making something of a come back. Creativity is stressed by central government including the Prime Minister: ‘The government knows that culture and creativity matter. They matter because they enrich all our lives’ (DCMS 2001). Creativity is also stressed in the guidance offered to practitioners: ‘By providing rich and varied contexts for pupils to acquire, develop and apply a broad range of knowledge, understanding and skills, the curriculum should enable pupils to think creatively and critically, to solve problems and to make a difference for the better’ (QCA 1999: 11–12). Creativity and imagination are part of the process of learning across all curriculum areas and the definitions and process of creativity I explore in the following chapters are applicable across the curriculum. However, I will be paying particular attention to the role of the arts in promoting creativity and imagination and looking in details at: . . . .
two- and three-dimensional representations music dance imaginative play and drama.
These experiences are sometimes described as the visual and performing arts. Learning through the arts is beneficial in its own right and contributes to children’s development in all areas of learning. The arts are increasingly seen as a way of joining up the curriculum and making it meaningful to children and young people. During the last few years there have been several national initiatives to raise the profile of the arts within education, including Arts Mark, Big Arts Week, the Arts Education Interface, Space for Sport and Arts and Creative Partnerships. Through the arts children express their feelings, thoughts and responses. The arts have the potential to stimulate open-ended activity which encourages discovery, exploration, experimentation and invention. All these skills are vital to creativity and imagination. There is a growing awareness of the abilities and potential of young children. The right of young children to maintain and develop these abilities and potentials is now recognized. ‘Every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts’ (Article 31 of the United Nations Rights of the Child). In this country
Introduction xvii Every Child Matters and the Children Act (DfES 2004) enshrine in legislation the right of every child to: . . . . .
Be healthy Stay safe Enjoy and achieve Make a positive contribution Achieve economic well-being.
Creativity, imagination and the arts have a part to play in ensuring that this does happen for all children. I have drawn on my experience of promoting young children’s creativity and imagination in a variety of settings over the last 26 years. The settings include home, school and centre-based care, and this book draws on the practical experience of adults living and working with young children in these settings. Table I.1 shows how the learning experiences described in this book relate to the requirements of other publications. My aim has been to use real-life examples of young children’s development and their growing competence to show the richness of their creativity and imagination. I have drawn on research findings to inform everyday practice and have restricted academic or professional jargon to a minimum. In Part One I look at the contribution of creativity and imagination, ways of defining them and the creative process. Part Two looks at how creativity develops and Part Three explores how we can put theory into practice. Examples of good practice are highlighted in boxes and each chapter ends with a list of ‘Things to think about’ and suggestions for further reading. This book is for all those who delight in young children’s learning and development and want to explore new ways of supporting it. I hope that it will help readers to reflect on principles and practice, challenge assumptions and encourage discussion. Bernadette Duffy The Thomas Coram Centre
Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (QCA 2000b) Heading Creative Development
Includes Art Music Dance Imaginative play Stories
Birth to Three Matters (DfES 2002)
Heading A Competent Learner
Includes Making connections Being imaginative Being creative Representing
Table I.1 The links between this book and . . .
Includes Art Music Dance
Heading Art in the National Curriculum Music in the National Curriculum Physical Education in the National Curriculum – Dance
National Curriculum (QCA 2000a)
Includes Art Music Dance Imaginative play
Heading Creativity and Imagination
Supporting Creativity and Imagination in the Early Years
Part One What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? The future belongs to those who do not rein in their imagination Chukovsky (1963: 122)
1
The importance of creativity and imagination
Introduction This chapter will examine the: .
importance of creativity and imagination for the individual
.
importance of creativity and imagination for society
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need to respond to a rapidly changing world
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dangers of undervaluing creativity and imagination
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importance of visual literacy
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importance of creativity and imagination for children
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contribution of creativity and imagination to other areas of learning.
Creativity and imagination Creativity and imagination are much used words and it would appear that we think that they are, generally, a good thing. The media urge us to be creative with the meals we prepare and the way we decorate our homes. As I was finishing this edition Radio 4 launched a series of programmes on creativity with the aim of helping listeners to discover the psychology, science and myth behind creativity. The quotes in the
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? introduction demonstrate that creativity is now seen as a crucial element in education. For Cecil et al. (1985) creativity is an indicator of quality in early childhood settings and a high degree of mental health in the individual. We are urged to promote creativity and imagination in our settings and schools: .
.
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Birth to Three Matters stresses the importance of promoting children’s creativity from their earliest years (DfES 2002) and includes being imaginative and being creative as two of its components. The Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage describes creativity as a cross-curricular theme as well as an area of learning in its own right: ‘Creativity is fundamental to successful learning. Being creative enables children to make connections between one area of learning and another and to extend their understanding’ (QCA 2000b: 116). The review of the national curriculum emphasized creativity as an important aim: ‘By providing rich and varied contexts for pupils to acquire, develop and apply a broad range of knowledge, understanding and skills, the curriculum should enable pupils to think creatively and critically, to solve problems and to make a difference for the better. It should give them the opportunity to become creative, innovative, enterprising, and capable of leadership to equip them for their future lives as workers and citizens. It should enable pupils to respond positively to opportunities, challenges and responsibilities, to make changes and to cope with change and adversity’ (QCA 1999: 11–12). The Primary Strategy, Excellence and Enjoyment, says that ‘promoting creativity is a powerful way of engaging pupils with their learning’ (DfES 2003: 3.27). The QCA project ‘Creativity. Find It, Promote It’ is very clear about the importance of creativity: ‘Learning to think and behave creatively can transform pupils’ lives . . . It increases their motivation, selfesteem and levels of achievement. Beyond school, it enriches their lives and prepares them for the world of work’ (QCA 2003a: Introduction).
This emphasis on the importance of creativity and imagination is not new. Froebel in the 19th century associated creativity and imagination with the inner life of the child: ‘We become truly Godlike in diligence and industry, in working and doing, which are accompanied by the clear perception or even the vaguest feeling that thereby we represent the inner in the outer’ (1826: 31). Creativity and imagination are seen as a good thing and have a long tradition in early childhood settings. But why
The importance of creativity and imagination are they important? What is the point of creativity and imagination? Who are they for?
The human need to be creative The human desire to be creative has been present throughout history in all communities. Creation myths devised by religious and cultural groups reflect this desire. A number of these use the imagery of human creativity to express divine creativity. The clay of the potter is used as the raw material of creation – the Creator moulds and sculpts the clay to create human beings. For example, the Chinese story of creation describes how Numa, the mother goddess, created people from the river mud to ease her loneliness. Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions describe God creating man and woman from the dust of the ground. In Greek mythology Prometheus uses clay to make little images of the gods (Lynch 1992). These myths emphasize the desire to create, the pleasure in the creation and the sense of ownership towards the created. These emotions are reflected in our own experience of creativity. The sense of pleasure and satisfaction derived from the creative process is part of all our experience, whether this is finding a solution to a practical problem, preparing a special meal, writing an assignment which has stretched our understanding or composing a piece of music. As we can see from the existence of prehistoric cave paintings, from earliest times human beings have made their mark using the materials available to them. The desire to represent and share our experiences with others, for example through art, music and dance, seems to be a basic human characteristic. Trevarthen (1995) argues that we are born with this need to share and understand the ideas, thoughts and feelings of others and from this need the representations of our culture, such as the visual and performing arts, have developed. We have all been touched by a powerful experience of beauty in the visual or performing arts, maybe in our response to a beautiful painting or a piece of music and again the myths human beings have created reflect this. For example, there is a Hindu story which tells of the God Vishnu turning himself into a dancing girl to stop the demons from gaining the nectar of life. The beauty of the dance absorbs the demons and allows the gods to gain the nectar. As human beings we need to exercise our creativity and imagination, we need to represent our thoughts, impressions and feelings.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
Everyday resourcefulness We are all users of artefacts and ideas that are the result of creative thought, for example through the clothes we wear and the technology we use. Most of us are also makers who rely, in some way or other, on our creativity and imagination, maybe as artists or artisans or in everyday situations, such as in the arrangement of our living spaces to produce a pleasing environment. Society has always needed people who are creative and imaginative, people who are able to come up with creative solutions to problems and imaginatively combine previously unconnected ideas and skills. Creative and imaginative experiences give us the opportunity to: . . . . . .
develop the full range of human potential improve our capacity for thought, action and communication nurture our feelings and sensibilities extend our physical and perceptual skills explore values understand our own and other cultures. (Calouste Gulbenkian 1982)
The need to respond to a rapidly changing world The world we live in is changing rapidly and the pace of change has never been faster. We live in a world that sometimes feels very unpredictable, and where we are increasing required to be self-directed (Craft 2001). We do not know the challenges that will face the children we work with in their adult lives but we do know that in order to meet these challenges they will need to be creative and imaginative and grow into adults who can: . . . . . . . . .
deal with the unexpected and extend current knowledge to new situations bring together previously unconnected information use information in a new way and experiment with novel concepts formulate new problems rather than wait for others to define the problem for them deal with incessant change and know what to do when they get stuck be able to reappraise values and ways of working modify and monitor their world think flexibly and play with ideas and materials empathize with others
The importance of creativity and imagination . . . . . .
work with people from a range of cultures, language and religions collaborate in various ways with different people take risks and be innovative make mistakes and learn from them focus attention while remaining open to a range of possibilities respond imaginatively to challenges.
According to Fisher (2003) the current emphasis on creativity started in America after World War II with the need to train scientists and engineers in response to global competition. This has led to stressing the importance of creativity not only for the individual but for the benefits of the economy and the economic success of the country. Creativity has become important in economic and political fields as well as in its role of empowering individuals and organizations (Jeffery and Craft 2001).
The dangers of undervaluing creativity and imagination We have come through a period when we seemed to undervalue creative and imaginative ways of thinking in our education system. It is good that there has been a change recently but we must always be aware of the possibility of a return to previous ways of thinking and be clear about their dangers. Bruner (1986) argues that we have placed great value on logical and systematic thought, and that intuitive thought has not received the attention it deserves. This has led to an overemphasis on the ability to retain and repeat facts, to be impartial, dispassionate and detached. It can mean that learning is not gained through first-hand experiences but based on accepting the understandings of others with the result that our ability to see the world through our own eyes decreases. When only the rational aspects of learning and development are stressed we deprive ourselves of the human ability to think. The growth of scientific and technological ways of knowing has been associated with the undervaluing of the creative and imaginative ways. But we undervalue the creative and imaginative at our peril. As Heckscher explains, ‘in every great discovery there has always been somewhere along the line a creative act, a leap of imagination’ (1966: 98). Science and technology require the ability to think creatively as much as any of the arts subjects traditionally associated with this aspect of learning. For example, Newton’s discovery of gravity involved a creative jump from the observed event of the apple falling, to the theory of gravity – an immense generalization.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? Zohar and Marshall (1997) see the divide between science and the arts as unnatural and seek to redress the imbalance. Today’s scientists often employ the vocabulary of aesthetics in describing their work. It is not unusual for a theory to be described as ‘beautiful’ or ‘elegant’. There should be no conflict between the two modes of thinking, between the logical and the intuitive. It is not a case of either/or but of both. They offer complementary views and, when combined, advance our understanding of the world in which we live and our ability to respond creatively to the challenges it presents.
The importance of visual literacy In communities where creativity and imagination are championed, visual literacy is promoted. Visual literacy involves the ability to identify and describe what we see, and evaluate its aesthetic qualities and fitness for purpose. For example, when looking at a painting, sculpture or textile, we may consider the visual effect the artist was trying to create and decide whether the materials and methods used have achieved this. When assessing man-made environment we may consider the materials used and the way in which they are arranged. Is the effect pleasing to the eye? Are they the right materials for the purpose for which they were intended, for example, does the roof leak? The urban sprawl that blights many areas is a direct result of the lack of visual literacy in many of our communities (Pickering 1976). Drab surroundings and poorly made products frustrate and depress us. As a society we are visually illiterate and not well versed in the appreciation of beauty. We need to learn how to see and: . .
.
be able to look critically with knowledge and understanding of, for example, aesthetic values, design, construction have the vocabulary to describe and comment on what we see. For example, the elements of art – line, tone, texture, pattern, colour, shape, form and space have the desire to promote and produce an aesthetically pleasing environment.
Visual literacy is everyone’s entitlement. Adults who lack insight and the ability to understand the perceptual world, who are illiterate and inadequate in one of the most fundamental domains of human experience, have been denied their entitlement (Pickering 1976).
The importance of creativity and imagination
The importance of creativity and imagination for the child It is not only for the sake of future society that we need to educate young children in ways that emphasize and encourage their imagination and creativity but for the here and now. As stated in the Preface to this series, education in the early years is valid in its own right. By encouraging creativity and imagination we are promoting children’s ability to explore and comprehend their world and increasing their opportunities to make new connections and reach new understandings. Young children are naturally curious about the people and world around them and they want to know more about their relationship to them. Through their imagination children can move from the here and now into the past and the future, to what might be and beyond. They are freed from the world of immediate sensations. Through their creative and imaginative endeavours children: . . .
. . . . .
communicate their feelings in non-verbal and pre-verbal ways. For example, using gestures, movement and dance express their thoughts. For example, by painting and drawing comprehend, respond and represent their perceptions and understanding of the world. For example, by the roles they adopt in their imaginative play experience beauty and lasting value express their cultural heritage and increase their understanding of other cultures think about and create new meanings solve problems and gain mastery gain self-esteem. For instance, by celebrating their identity (see Figure 1.1).
They can create an image and view of the world that is uniquely their own. By examining children’s creative and imaginative expressions we can find out what they know about their world, what they consider important and how they choose to represent it.
The importance of representation Children need to represent their experiences, their feelings and ideas if they are to preserve them and share them with others. When we represent we make an object or symbol stand for something else, for example, we may use our imagination to pretend that the toy doll is a real baby or draw a picture that symbolizes our experience of going to the zoo.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
Figure 1.1 Carla, aged 4 years 6 months, created this self-portrait by lying on a sheet of photographic paper which was then exposed to light.
Spoken language is also a form of symbolic representation, words standing for something in the real world. Matthews (1994) stresses the significance of children acquiring this ability. From it springs the understanding to comprehend other forms of symbolic representation such as written language and mathematics. Representation has a central role in cognitive development and it is through symbolic representation that children acquire the facility for abstract thought. Once children can separate objects and actions from their meaning in the real world and give them new meanings they are no longer tied to the concrete world and start to think in an abstract way. For example, if they can pretend that a stick is no longer a stick but is to be used as if it were a pencil, they can start to understand that the marks ‘c a t’ on a page, which do not look or sound like a cat, can be used to represent a cat. Children represent their experiences in a number of ways. They may: . . . .
draw a picture describe an experience in words use role play to act out a situation build a model using blocks
The importance of creativity and imagination . . .
use movement and dance to express an emotion paint a picture compose a piece of music.
Children use their representations to explore, to solve problems, to think about and create new meanings. Different forms of representation enable them to address problems in various ways and gain new insights. The ability and opportunity to represent offers children a sense of control which enhances their self-image. Too often activities that are labelled as creative in schools, nurseries and at home are about filling time, learning a set of techniques or decoration rather than being truly creative, intellectual activities. Preprinted, adult-directed and mass-produced artwork does not lead to creativity. The images that the children create using these methods are not their own. Such work may occupy children and fill empty walls. It may look pretty and be admired but it will not encourage imagination and creativity. In the following example you can see how easily an adult’s good intentions can go astray. Children are kind and want to make us happy – we must be very careful not to misuse this.
Example Many years age I decided that the reception class children I worked with would create a picture to represent Spring. I carefully cut out hills for the background and showed the children how to represent grass using sponge printing. I decided to use egg boxes to create flowers and explained to the children how to cut them to make daffodils and crocuses. Bulrushes and lambs were made using painted cotton wool. I was pleased with the finished result. The children showed less enthusiasm. They had worked hard to produce the display but the end result had little relevance to them. The inner city area in which the school was situated did not feature green hills, lambs or bulrushes! The children had not been involved in discussing the images that represented Spring for them or how to produce these images. It was not an example of the children’s creativity but of mine. Creativity is about representing one’s own image, not reproducing someone else’s.
McKellar (1957) is clear about the difference between reproduction and creativity. When we are engaged in reproduction we use a single source of information and the result is predictable. When we are being creative we use information from a variety of sources which are fused together to
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? produce an integrated whole. These sources may include images that other people have created but this is combined with information from other sources, including our imagination. Simply copying the image of another is reproduction, not creativity. When we are being creative we are initiating a response, open to a range of possibilities, doing it differently and being innovative. Children are surrounded by ready-made images and will naturally assimilate and draw on the images of their culture (Matthews 1994). For example, many 1-year-olds recognize the sign for the McDonald’s hamburger chain or the bus stop and early drawings of houses often owe more to traditional images of houses they have seen than to the realities of the child’s own home. Part of our role is to ensure that the children have the opportunity to explore a range of representations both from their own and other cultures and times. However, children must also have the opportunity to go beyond this, to produce representations that reflect their own experiences, thoughts and feelings. A few years ago I saw children’s copies of van Gogh’s sunflowers on many walls in early year’s settings. Next copies of Monet’s water lilies appeared, only to be replaced by Matisse and Picasso. Each major exhibition seems to result in young children across the country being asked to produce copies of famous paintings! These painting are wonderful images, and van Gogh, Monet, Matisse and Picasso were highly creative individuals. Young children should be shown these images but they should be shown to inspire rather than simply to copy.
Conclusion If we want adults who are creative and imaginative we must start now, in their earliest years. We are educating children for life and the attitudes that we promote at this stage will remain with them. If we do not promote creativity and imagination, children will not become the people we need them to be. It is important to take a long-term view. Only preparing children for the short term, whether this is the next test or the next stage in their education is short sighted. We are in the business of preparing children for a future that we can only imagine. The need to measure and test can lead to a narrowing of the curriculum and a concentration on the logical and systematic ways of thinking we looked at earlier. If we only teach what is easy to measure and test we will lose much that is valuable. At a time when there is an emphasis on the basic skills of literacy and numeracy it is crucial to remind ourselves of the importance of creativity
The importance of creativity and imagination and imagination in their own right and in the contribution they make to other areas of learning. We need to resist any attempt to curtail or limit the development of creativity and imagination in the early years and beyond. If we do not ensure plenty of opportunities for learning that are first hand, that encourage children to think for themselves, to play and to take risks, we will raise a generation who, to quote Oscar Wilde, ‘know the price of everything and the value of nothing’ (1969 Lady Windermere’s Fan, Act III). Through a curriculum rich in creative and imaginative opportunities young children have the opportunity to develop skills, attitudes and knowledge that will benefit all areas of their learning and development. If our wishes for the children are to become reality we must plan provision for young children that encourages and develops creativity and imagination. We need to find ways of promoting what we value and making our beliefs real. Creativity and imagination come from the human ability to play, and civilization rests on this ability. It is essential that we foster the human capacity for creativity and play. If we do not we will be left copying old ideas. Involvement in creative and imaginative experiences should be for life.
Summary This chapter has: .
outlined the importance of creativity and imagination for society and young children
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identified the dangers of undervaluing creativity and imagination
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stressed the importance of visual literacy
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looked at the importance of representation.
Further reading Craft, A. (2001) ‘Little c creativity’, in A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education. London: Continuum. Craft looks at the nature of creativity and its value for the individual and society. Matthews, J. (1994) Helping Children to Draw and Paint in Early Childhood. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? Matthews looks at the development and importance of graphic representation. McKellar, P. (1957) Imagination and Thinking. A Psychological Analysis. London: Cohen and West. A study of the interaction of reason and the imagination. Pickering, J. (1976) ‘Visual education for young children’, in D. Bothwell (ed.), Beyond Aesthetics: Investigating into the Nature of Visual Art. London: Thames and Hudson. Pickering offers a justification for visual education. Trevarthen, C. (1995) The child’s need to learn a culture. Children and Society, 9, 1: 5–19. Trevarthen argues that babies are highly motivated to learn about their culture.
Things to think about .
How do you express creativity and imagination in your own life?
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Could you explain the importance of creativity and imagination to someone else?
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Is there agreement between yourself and those you live and work with about the importance of creativity and imagination?
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How do you encourage creativity and imagination in your work with young children?
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Defining creativity and imagination
Introduction This chapter will: .
look at the debates round defining creativity
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look at big C and little c creativity – the creative continuum
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look at definitions of creativity and imagination
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look at the link between creativity and imagination
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look at the characteristics of creativity in young children
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identify the links with aesthetics and art
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identify the links with play.
Defining creativity The experiences we offer children in their earliest years are crucial in their future development. The richer these early experiences are, the more opportunity children will have to develop the dispositions and understandings that they need now and in the future. Everyone believes they know what creativity and imagination are and can recognize them when they see them and value them, as can be seen by the range of
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? response I got when I asked people for the definitions quoted later in this chapter. But defining creativity and imagination can be difficult and there is much debate about how creativity in particular is characterized and identified (Gardner 1993; Fisher 2003). Definitions may: . . . . . .
limit creativity to the production of an artefact, for example a painting restrict creativity and imagination to the ‘arts’, as being only to do with painting or music see them simply as a skill – something which can be taught by means of instruction view them as something that will develop if the conditions are right include stereotypical concepts, for example that certain groups of people are naturally creative limit creativity and imagination to the gifted few.
Years of research have gone into trying to define creativity. Part of the difficulty is that the term is applied to individuals, a process and products. We talk about: . . .
creative individuals – or who we are a creative process – or what we do (which we will look at in detail in the next chapter) creative products – or what we make.
Big C and little c creativity – the creative continuum There has been a lot of research, for example by Gardner (1993) and Feldman (Feldman et al. 1994), which focuses on what may be described as high creativity or ‘big C’ creativity. At this level creativity is associated with innovation, novelty, excellence in a particular field or domain, for example music, science or literature. It is recognized by the informed consensus of peers in the field, those who know something about the subject in which the creative act takes place. Big C creativity is about a break with past understandings or perspectives, a challenge to a domain, about something new and remarkable, something that transforms and changes a field of endeavour in a significant way (Feldman et al. 1994). This is the creativity of geniuses such as Freud, Einstein, Picasso or Stravinsky. It can be about mastering a domain, for example as Mozart did when he mastered his art better than anyone else at the time, or about creating a new field, for example as Freud did when he invented his own field of medicine. A creative act may not be given the seal of approval by
Defining creativity and imagination others at the time it first appears, for example Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring was scorned when it was first preformed. Recent thinking distinguishes between this high or ‘big C’ creativity and ‘little c’ creativity. ‘Little c’ creativity enables individuals to find routes and paths to travel (Craft 2001). It is a process of conscious invention and describes the resourcefulness of ordinary people rather than extraordinary contributors. Little creativity is not about mastering a field but about personal agency. Perhaps the best way to think about creativity is as a continuum with at one end the highly creative geniuses described by Gardner, Feldman and others, and at the other the everyday resourcefulness that we all have access to as described by Craft. While each of us has the capacity to be creative where we are in the continuum will depend on the dispositions we are born with, the ways in which these are nurtured by those around us and the opportunities we have to immerse ourselves in the creative process. The example of Rory demonstrates the sort of resourcefulness Craft is talking about in a young child.
Example Rory, aged 4, comes into the dining room where an adult is reorganizing the space. ‘What are you doing?’, he asks and the adult explains that she is sorting the room out to make enough space for the cooking area and needs to make sure it will be safe. Rory responds, ‘so the little ones don’t go there to burn themselves or get in the fridge, that like the twins at home, you need to put up a gate’. The adult replies that that was what she was thinking ‘but when I put the gate up it keeps hitting the table’. Rory suggests, ‘then move the table’ and the adult answers, ‘then the children can’t get round it to sit down at lunchtime’. Rory pauses, looks round the room and spends some time considering the problem. Finally he answers, ‘well . . . we’ll just have to move all the furniture then!’
Defining creativity and imagination We need to develop definitions of creativity and imagination that: . . .
are not elitist recognize that all children have the ability to be creative and imaginative makes the most of the talents of all children
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? . .
embraces the idea that all children need opportunities to play with ideas acknowledges the importance of an environment which encourages and values creativity and imagination.
Creativity and imagination are often linked together, for instance in the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (QCA 2000b), but they are not interchangeable. If we want to promote them effectively we need to be clear about what they are and how they relate to each other. We also need to be clear about their links with areas such as aesthetics and play. On the following pages are a number of definitions of creativity and imagination. The definitions are taken from a variety of people. Some are well-known researchers and educationalists, and others are simply people I stopped and asked at random! Each of their definitions is slightly different and reflects their experience and area of expertise. For example, Robert’s definition sees creativity as intrinsic to humanity. This reflects his life as a musician and composer. He is continually striving to be creative and therefore defines it as part of human nature.
Creativity is: ‘a thinking and responding process that involves connecting with our previous experience, responding to stimuli (objects, symbols, ideas, people, situations) and generally at least one unique combination’. Parnes (1963: 5)
‘to create – to bring into existence’. Oxford English Dictionary
‘the expression of original ideas, an intrinsic part of humanity’. Robert – Musician and composer
‘imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are original and of value’. NACCCE (1999)
‘the ability to make what you picture exist’. Francis – Gardener ‘producing something with inspiration’. Caroline – Mother of three
‘being clever and designing’. James – aged 6
Defining creativity and imagination ‘the ability or capacity to mentally or physically construct or reconstruct reality in a unique way’. Theresa – Educational facilitator ‘an advanced form of learning that involves a finely tuned symphony orchestra of mental attitudes and capabilities playing together in complicated rhythm’. Claxton (2003: 3)
‘the impetus for learning’.
‘to fulfil our potential’.
John – Early years educator
Elizabeth – Early education lecturer
‘When I look in the fridge and make a meal out of what is there’. Delegate at early years conference
Creativity These definitions show that creativity involves: . . . . . .
the ability to see things in fresh ways learning from past experiences and relating this learning to new situations thinking along unorthodox lines and breaking barriers using non-traditional approaches to solving problems going further than the information given creating something unique or original.
McKellar (1957) states that all creative thought has external sources which may be remote or recent, conscious or unconscious. Creativity does not occur in a vacuum. The creative element is in connecting and rearranging information from these sources. For McKinnon (1962) while creativity involves a response or idea that is novel, it is not enough simply to be novel. There must be, to some extent, a problem to solve. For this author true creativity involves sustaining an insight, evaluating it and elaborating on it to develop the insight to the full. It is a process that extends over time and is recognized by its originality, adaptiveness and realization. It must be fit for purpose. Creativity is learning at its most powerful (Claxton 2003). We are being creative when we find solutions to problems we encounter in our lives or when we make new connections which deepen our understanding. For me creativity means connecting the previously unconnected in ways that are new and meaningful to the individual concerned. To do this we need:
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? . . . .
the necessary skills and abilities to realize our ideas a rich and diverse body of knowledge and understanding to explore and find new combinations the attitudes and dispositions that enable us to continue with a task until our ideas are realized time to become immersed.
Imagination is: ‘more important that knowledge. For knowledge is limited while imagination embraces the whole world’. Albert Einstein
‘play without action’. Vygotsky (1978: 43) ‘the ability to conjure up visual, tactile, or aural images in one’s mind’. Robert – Musician and composer
‘the ability to picture what doesn’t exist’. Francis – Gardener ‘imagination – a mental faculty for forming images not yet present’. Oxford English Dictionary
‘seeing what isn’t there, Daniel thinking there’s a ghost in the wardrobe’ James – aged 6
‘the ability to form rich and varied mental images or concepts of people, places, things, situations not presents’. Isenberg and Jalongo (1993: 7) ‘a cognitive capacity to picture in one’s mind an alternative reality’ Theresa – Educational facilitator
‘imagination – fancy, inspiration, vision . . .’.
‘what makes us human’. Jo – Nursery teacher
Roget’s Thesaurus, 1985
Imagination These definitions demonstrate some of the elements that are part of imagination. To imagine is to:
Defining creativity and imagination . . . . . . .
detach oneself from the tangible world and move beyond concrete situations not be restricted to the immediate perceived world internalize perceptions separate action and objects from their meaning in the real world and give them new meanings bring together and integrate experiences and perceptions contemplate what is not but might be pretend.
The way in which our perceptions are turned into images, stored and used, will depend on the individual. Different people appear to have a preference for particular images, and the ability to imagine varies between individuals (McKellar 1957). For example, when we imagine we may draw on: . . .
visual experiences – what we have seen aural experiences – what we have heard tactile experiences – what we have felt.
Fantasy is a form of imagination where what is imagined has little resemblance to the real world. If imagination is defined as the ability to think ‘as if’, fantasy is the ability to think ‘what if’ (Weininger 1988). For me imagination is internalizing our perceptions, and using them and objects to create meanings that do not depend on the external world. Fisher (2003) distinguishes between simply reproducing in the mind external objects that are absent in the present and when the imagination goes beyond reproduction derived from external objects to fuse new concepts from existing ideas. The first can be described as imaging while the second can be described as imagination.
The links between creativity and imagination As we can see from the definitions we have looked at, creativity and imagination, while they are not the same thing, are clearly connected. Creativity involves the use of the imagination. For example: .
Velcro, which makes clothing so easy to fasten, was created as the result of its inventor’s observation that burrs caught on his clothing as he crossed a field. He examined the burrs closely and noticed the tiny hooks that attached themselves to his clothing. From this observation he used his imagination to envisage the model for a fastener. Many people over the years had noticed this capacity in
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
.
burrs but he was the first to see the wider application. He used his creativity to connect his observation of the burrs to the needs of clothing. In order to engage in work on population genetics, scientists utilize imaginary numbers. The square root of minus one does not exist in real life but is crucial to formulas used in this field. Without this imagined number it would not have been possible to solve number problems and thinking would not have progressed.
All our future (NACCCE 1999) identifies four characteristics of creativity and these include imagination as a key element: . . . .
thinking or behaving imaginatively this imaginative activity is purposeful these process must generate something original the outcome must be of value in relation to the purpose.
As stated earlier creativity always involves imagination. When we are making new connections we often use our ability to imagine in order to detach ourselves from the immediate world, internalize our perceptions and explore a range of possibilities. But we are not always being creative when we are using our imagination. For example, children’s imaginative play can be repetitive; they may simply be repeating well-known roles and scenarios. Francis’s definitions of imagination and creativity can help us to see the difference – while imagination is the ability to picture what does not exist, the creative element is in turning what we imagine into reality. Or as Froebel puts it, when we are being creative ‘we give body to thought; we render visible the invisible’ (1826: 31).
The characteristics of creativity in young children A number of the definitions of creativity and imagination we have used so far focus on the discovery of the new, of connecting the previously unconnected, and the ability to internalize our perceptions using our imagination. How do we relate these definitions to young children? Most of the things they discover are not new, but have been discovered by others long before. However, these discoveries are new to the child. We define creativity in children as being when, for the first time, they make a connection that they have not previously made. Isenberg and Jalongo (1993) offer these ways of defining creativity in the early years. Children are being creative when they: .
explore and experiment
Defining creativity and imagination . . . .
use language and play to make sense of the world concentrate on a single task for a long period bring order out of chaos and do something new with the old and familiar use repetition to learn something new (see Figure 2.1).
The example of Genise shows one child engaging in this process.
Example Genise, aged 4 years and 5 months, visited Richmond Park with her key worker group. This was her first visit to the park and what interested her most were the deer. The antlers were especially fascinating. Genise commented, ‘they’re like trees!’. She gathered twigs to take back to the Nursery Centre and attached them to a band of card to make her own set of antlers. Genise found her own way to create antlers. She had not seen anyone else make antlers before but connected the shape of the antlers she observed to her knowledge of trees and twigs. She used her knowledge of hat making to create a band to attach the antlers to.
We need to ensure that children have appropriate ways to develop their creative potential. Sadly, childhood creativity does not always lead to adult creativity as it is easily suppressed by inappropriate experiences and inadequate responses. We will be exploring the role of the adult in Part Three.
Links with aesthetics and art Creativity and imagination are often linked with aesthetics. For example, Aspects of Primary Education: The Education of Children Under Five produced by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate in 1989 describes the aesthetic and creative area of learning as ‘central to children’s learning’ (HMI 1989: 29). Aesthetics is the investigation of beauty in colour, form and design. It includes responding to and taking pleasure from what is considered beautiful, whether in art, dance, music or life. Creativity and imagination are linked with art in Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on Human Rights which defines art as ‘the whole range of creative and imaginative self-expression undertaken by people of all cultures, classes and ages’. In the National Curriculum creativity and imagination are also seen as
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
Figure 2.1 Young children are being creative when they explore and experiment, use play to make sense of the world, concentrate on a single task for a long time and do something new with the old and familiar. Adam, aged 2 years 3 months, spent two hours creating his own representation of an airport using blocks.
part of art, and as a component of the programme of study children should be taught to express ideas and feelings, record observations, design and make images and artefacts. Children do this from a young age as can be seen in Figure 2.1.
The links with play There are many links and overlaps between the creative process and play. Play and creativity share many of the same characteristics. They both involve: . . . .
an attitude and a process a state of mind and disposition the ability to cope with uncertainty the ability to explore new ideas
Defining creativity and imagination . . . .
divergent thinking, which is the ability to look at a problem in a variety of ways a lack of constraint the existence of choice creating and recreating.
Imagination and creativity are firmly rooted within play (Moyles 1989) and playfulness remains part of the creative process throughout life. Play promotes the flexibility and problem-solving skills that are needed to be creative. Artists will often talk about playing with materials to discover new, creative combinations. By continuing to be playful as adults, by consciously using the characteristics of play, we are able to gain information through all the senses rather than being limited to second-hand information or predetermined outcomes. An attitude of playfulness enables imaginative possibilities to remain and imaginative leaps to take place (Prentice 1994). Play is part of the creative process as well as a process in its own right and does not always lead to creativity.
Conclusion In this chapter I have offered a variety of definitions. The definitions I will use in this book are that creativity is about connecting the previously unconnected in ways that are new and meaningful to the individual; and imagination is about internalizing perceptions and ascribing objects and events with new meanings. Creativity and imagination may be hard to define but they are part of what makes us uniquely human.
Summary In this chapter I have: .
looked at the creative continuum
.
offered a number of definitions of creativity and imagination
.
established a working definition of creativity and imagination
.
argued that creativity and imagination are a state of mind and disposition
.
stressed that creativity and imagination are part of a process
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emphasized the link between creativity and play.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
Further reading Craft, A. (2001) ‘Little c creativity’, in A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education. London: Continuum. Feldman, D.H., Czikszentmihalyi, M. and Gardner, H. (1994) Changing the World: A Framework for the Study of Creativity. Westport, CT: Praeger. Isenberg, J.P. and Jalongo, M.R. (1993) Creative Expression and Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chapter 1 offers definitions of creativity and discusses creativity in young children. McKellar, J. (1957) Imagination and Thinking. London: Cohen and West. Chapter 1 looks at imagination, thinking and the dream. Chapter 2 looks at mental imagery. Moyles, J. (1989) Just Playing? Buckingham: Open University Press. Chapter 5 deals with the links between play and creativity. National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT) (2003) Creativity. Primary Leadership Paper, 10 September 2003. This paper looks at some of the debates about creativity and gives case studies of schools that are developing their creativity.
Things to think about .
Are you clear about the attributes of creativity and imagination?
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Consider the definitions of creativity and imagination. Do you agree with them?
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How would you define creativity and imagination?
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How are creativity and imagination demonstrated by young children?
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Do those you work and live with share your views?
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The creative process
Introduction This chapter will: .
establish the importance of understanding the creative process
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investigate the processes involved in mastering equipment and materials
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explore the processes involved in exploring ideas
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explore a model of the creative process in young children
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stress the importance of errors
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examine Athey’s work on schema
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look at the creative process in Birth to Three Matters, the Foundation Stage and Key Stage 1.
The importance of understanding the creative process In Chapter 1 I described creativity as a way of thinking, a process. The ability to think creativity, to connect the previously unconnected in a meaningful way, is apparent at all ages and stages of development. The creative process involves selection, reasoning and hard thinking. It
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? involves a condensation of perceptual information and its transformation into a new form (McKellar 1957). If we are to encourage the creative process we must understand as much as we can about it. There appear to be two main stages in this process. Children need to: . .
explore and master equipment, materials and ideas use this mastery to make new connections.
Exploring and developing mastery of materials and equipment Before children can use materials and equipment for their own purposes and express their own creativity they need to gain mastery over equipment and develop a range of skills. Sometimes children can short-circuit this by gaining the help of someone who has already achieved mastery. But if they are not to be always dependent on others children need to develop their own mastery. Hutt (1979) observed that children go through two stages of play when faced with new material or equipment. First they engaged in a period of epistemic play and this was followed by ludic play:
Figure 3.1 Philip, aged 2 years and 4 months, exploring the texture of a down puff.
The creative process .
.
Epistemic play: here the child considers ‘What is this? What does this it do?’. As a new material or piece of equipment is investigated and possibilities searched for. In Figure 3.1 a 2-year-old boy is exploring the properties of a down puff. Ludic play: when the child wonders ‘How can I use it?’. This occurs when the child knows about the material or equipment and is practising his or her skills.
To deepen and develop their understanding of material and equipment children need to be able to use all their senses. The example of Samuel, Damian and Dean shows a group of children engaged in this process.
Example At the age of 18 months Samuel, Damian and Dean were introduced to paint by Kim and Lydia, the nursery officers in the toddler room. The room was carefully prepared so that the children would have the opportunity to explore the new materials freely. Tables and chairs were removed, the walls and floor covered with lining paper and bowls of paint in primary colours were laid out on the floor. The children were also carefully prepared! Clothes were removed and baths of warm water were ready to bathe the children when they had finished. At first the children were tentative and looked to the adults for reassurance that the paint was available for them to use freely. First fingers, then hands were placed in the paint, the paint was smelt and tasted as well as touched and looked at. The children used their hands and feet to explore. They discovered that the paint made marks and that the movements they made with their hands or feet influenced the mark on the paper. From time to time the children would look at the adults for reassurance and Kim and Lydia would indicate their approval. By the end of the session the children had mastered new skills and concepts related to paint. They knew some of the properties of paint, for example that it dripped and could be used to make a variety of lines and shapes. They were becoming aware that when they mixed two colours together a change took place and a new colour was created. By the end of the session their ability to control the paint and the marks it made had increased. The adults had left the children to explore the paint safely. Each child had made their own discoveries and learned by watching the other children present.
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important?
Exploring and developing mastery of ideas The theories of McKellar (1957) and others give us an insight into the creative process at work in our thinking. During this process we need to saturate ourselves with ideas, to become so familiar with the concepts involved in the particular problem we are solving that we can recall them automatically. When people are exploring a problem or developing mastery of a new piece of information they appear to go through a number of stages. They: . .
. . . .
become aware of a problem, a new idea or pieces of information start to tackle the problem by brainstorming ideas and using their existing knowledge and understanding to identify connections, similarities and differences ponder and allow the idea to incubate. This may take place over a number of days or minutes have an insight into the problem, a moment of illumination that helps them to understand the problem or the new piece of information identify a possible solution, establish a meaningful connection and become aware of a solution. This is the moment of creativity test the solution or understanding of the idea for themselves or with others which may lead them to modify their solution or understanding.
This process is similar to Piaget’s idea of disequilibrium, when thinking has to change to incorporate new information. It is this process that moves children through the stages of development we will be discussing in the next part. Children’s interpretation of the world is challenged when they take on the new information and find that they now have two contradictory views of the same event. This causes them to question their view point and raises doubts about which interpretation is the correct one. This results in cognitive disequilibrium and this sense of unease motivates them to change their thinking to accommodate the new perspective, as can be seen in the examples from Thomas Coram Early Childhood Centre. When we are involved in exploring new ideas, the process we engage in is both conscious and unconscious. It requires what McKellar (1957) calls ‘receptivity’, the ability to be receptive to what others have done before and to information gained through our own perceptions. During the process we move backwards and forwards in our thinking – it is not a linear approach. The creative process is about being open to possibilities and ‘what ifs’ and may also include the intuitive. Periods of reflection
The creative process Examples 1. Bubbles intrigue the babies at the Thomas Coram Centre and watching their first encounter is fascinating. Their previous experience has led them to believe that spherical shapes such as bubbles are solid and can be held so as the adult blows the bubbles they reach out to catch them. But as soon as their hand closes on the bubble it vanishes! The look of surprise on their faces as they puzzle on this new insight is a moment of cognitive disequilibrium. 2. Three-year-olds experiencing cornflour for the first time can have a similar reaction. They see what appears to be a solid surface and reach in to take a handful. At first the cornflour stays solid but then it turns into a liquid and drips through their fingers causing them to rethink their understanding of materials.
play an important role. Frequently our solution or grasp of an idea will lead us on to a new idea or problem – a new challenge to overcome.
The creative process Though Hutt’s work concentrates on the creative process as it relates to children’s mastery of equipment and materials, and McKellar focuses on exploring ideas, there are many similarities in the processes they describe. The creative process can be defined in a number of ways. For Claxton (2003) there are eight elements in the creative process: immersion, inquisitiveness, investigation, intentions, imagination, intuition, intellect and imitation. In the QCA framework for promoting creativity within early learning goals and core subjects of the national curriculum, Creativity: Find It, Promote It (QCA 2003a), the following elements are identified as being part of the creative process: . . . . .
posing questions and challenges making connections and seeing relationships envisaging what might be and being imaginative exploring ideas and keeping options open reflecting critically on ideas, actions and outcomes.
The Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (QCA 2000b) describes creativity as a cross-curricular theme and many of the stepping stones in
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? the different areas of learning include references to the creative process and emphasize the importance of children having the opportunity to: . . . .
be curious and interested explore and find out discover similarities, differences and patterns construct and create.
A model of the creative process in young children Cecil et al. (1985) offer us a model of the creative process that is very helpful in our work with children and reflects the work of people such as Hutt, McKellar and Claxton. It is the basis for the framework below. There are four elements in this process: .
Curiosity – or what is it?
Children are alert, interested and want to know more. They are inquisitive. Their attention has been taken. .
Exploration – or what can and does it do?
Children can be observed actively investigating objects, events or ideas. They are often using all their senses to gather information. Watching others can also be part of their investigation and children become expert noticers (Claxton 2003). They question and ponder, and there is a tolerance of not knowing. This part of the process may be apparent in the words the children use but may also be implied through observation of the child’s body language, gesture and expression. .
Play – or what can I do with this?
Children initiate a period of total immersion characterized by spontaneity and often without clear final objectives. There is no attempt to label and analyse, instead they steep themselves in experience and engage in imaginative activity. They may be physically playing or playing with ideas, sometimes pondering while they are doing something else. As there is little or no focus on a predetermined product they are free to examine all kinds of detail during this period that they may have missed if they had been concentrating on the end product. This is an opportunity to practise and consolidate the skills and knowledge they have acquired in the earlier levels. It is also an opportunity for the imagination to come into play and ideas from the unconscious to bubble
The creative process up. Children become aware of patterns and start to see possible connections. .
Creativity – or what can I create or invent?
The child discovers uncommon or new approaches to the materials or problem they are investigating. They may have played with the rules they thought applied and reach a new conclusion, for example about why things float or sink. They take risks and make new connections. These levels overlap and evolve out of each other. Children will go backwards and forwards between the levels which may take place over a period of a few hours or over many days. The process can be seen in Figure 3.2 and in the example of the drum exploration.
Example The children at Dorothy Gardner, aged between 1 and 5 years, had been exploring hand drums as part of an investigation of the music associated with celebration. This led on to an interest in drum kits and Stan, a drummer, brought his kit to show the children. This was the first time that most of them had seen a drum kit at such close range and had the opportunity to play it. The initial reaction was curiosity: the children looked and touched the different drums, the cymbals, the sticks and beaters. They asked Stan questions – what were the names of the different parts of the kit? How did he play them? What was the hole in the bass drum for? How did he carry so many drums and cymbals? He showed them how he got a range of sounds from the kit and how he used his hands and feet together to produce rhythms. The children then explored the kit themselves. They tried different sticks, brushes and beaters and found out how they sounded on the different drums. They varied the force with which they hit the drums, and used their hands to feel the vibrations made when the drums and cymbals were hit. As the children became more confident they played with the skills and knowledge they had acquired, practising and perfecting them. For the youngest children the thrill of getting an impressively loud sound was the culmination of the process. The older children created their own rhythms and patterns. Some spent the whole session perfecting a particular rhythm, only stopping when it was time for Stan to leave. The way in which different children used the drums varied, sometimes according to age and skill, sometimes according to personality and interest. For some children the process halted at the exploration or play stage, but others went on to create their own patterns and rhythms or represent their experience through drawings.
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Figure 3.2 Curiosity, exploration and play overlap as Amina, aged 2 years and 2 months discovers the possibilities inherent in a variety of musical instruments.
The importance of errors The creative process is characterized by risk taking, trying things out and experimenting. For every truly creative act there will be many that didn’t succeed, where the ideas or materials connected didn’t work. These apparent failures are crucial to the creative process. If children know the result already they are not engaging their creativity, or are not discovering something new to them. It is at the point when children discover that something they thought would work does not, or that a guess was not correct, that they find out something they had not realized before and understanding moves on. This allows them to refine their approach to the problem or material under investigation. Children have the ability to work things out and develop their thinking by themselves – errors are important as they move thinking on. They are vital to the
The creative process creative process. Creativity is about knowing what to do when you make a mistake and the spin you put on things when they don’t work. It is about thinking ‘what can I learn from this?’ and the importance of making new mistakes rather than repeating the old ones. If children are to feel free to make mistakes they need to be in control of the creative process. They need to know that the adults around them understand the importance of pursuing seemingly irrational ideas. When children are making errors they are operating at the limits of their abilities, whether cognitive or physical, and are stretching themselves. Or as a friend says to his drum students, ‘if you’re not making mistakes, you’re not trying hard enough!’
Schema Children’s behaviour reflects their growing interest in the world around them – the physical world, the people in it and their relationships to the child. Sometimes children seem to become interested in patterns of behaviour that appear to be random, pointless, and sometimes downright annoying! For instance, they continually throw things, or take objects from one place to another or spend long periods of time wrapping articles up. Athey (1990) looked at commonalities and continuities in young children’s thoughts and behaviour. She identified patterns of repeatable behaviour that young children engage in, and offers us an insight into their function for the child and the process involved. Drawing on Piaget’s work, Athey called these repeatable patterns of behaviour schema and argues that they are crucial to learning as they enable the child to focus on a particular concept and explore it in depth. When children are involved in a schema they are engaged in a creative process, as they are making new connections and reaching new understandings. Among the common, repeatable patterns of behaviour that Athey and others have observed are schema of: . . . . .
Rotation – an interest in things that turn. For example, wheels and cogs. Enclosure – and interest in enclosing spaces. For example, drawing closed shapes, building barricades. Enveloping – an interest in completely covering objects or space. For example, wrapping parcels, wrapping up things or dolls in blankets. Trajectory89 – and interest in objects and people moving or flying through the air. For example, planes, rockets, leaping, throwing. Transporting – an interest in moving objects or collections of any kind
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from one area to another. For example, using a bag or truck to move blocks from one corner of the room to another. Connecting – an interest in fastening or joining things together. For example, connecting railway carriages and train tracks, tying knots and so on.
Children’s involvement in a particular schema is demonstrated by their repeated interest in aspects of the physical world which demonstrate these elements and in forms of representation which allow them to explore their current schema. Nina’s example shows one child exploring a schema.
Example Nina, aged 2 became captivated by rotation. At home her mother reported her fascination with the tumble dryer, rotating microwave tray and washing machine. ‘Round and round the garden’ was her favourite song. Meal times became more exciting, if slightly messier, by Nina’s discovery that plates and bowls could be made to spin! At nursery the space in the garden enabled her to experiment and represent her schema with larger body movement. She could spin until dizzy and fall down safely on the safety surface; she could rotate on the roundabout and was particularly delighted by the way clothes and hair spun out as she went round. Her drawings during this period mirrored her absorption. Using as many different colours as possible she built up layers of spirals and circles.
The creative process and Birth to Three Matters, the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage and the National Curriculum. Creative people are not passive! While we may value creativity and wish to encourage it, creative children can be viewed as troublesome by some because they question and want to explore possibilities rather than accepting the views of the adults around them. This may be hard for the adult concerned. We may: . .
feel that children are threatening our authority by not accepting our view point be unconfident in our knowledge, understanding and skills and therefore unwilling to let children move beyond the prepared lesson plan
The creative process .
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feel that a state of anarchy will ensue! It is important to remember that we are not talking about unbridled self-expression. The creative process is about intellectual freedom, the freedom to explore ideas, not the freedom to do what you want welcome the children’s curiosity but feel pressurized by time constraints to rush the children on to the next learning objective.
Curriculum demands, especially at Key Stage 1, can make it appear that the best solution is to prepackage children’s learning to ensure that the whole curriculum is covered. However, we ignore the creative process at our peril. In Chapter 1 we looked at the value of creativity and imagination, and notwithstanding how hard it is, if we believe that they are crucial to children’s current development and to future societies, we must ensure that children have the time and space to engage in the creative process. We are supported in this by the frameworks and guidance we use. Birth to Three Matters The importance of children having access to the creative process is evident in Birth to Three Matters (DfES 2002) and some examples are listed below: .
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A strong child includes the component ‘Me, I and I’ which is about the child’s realization of their own individuality, recognizing personal characteristics, preferences and finding out what he or she can do. The creative process emphasizes open-ended experience and offers the child the chance to make their own choices and reach their own conclusions. It enables them to discover their own individual preferences and find out what they can do. A skilful communicator includes the component ‘Making Meaning’ which involves understanding and being understood, influencing others, negotiating and making choices. Creative experiences bring children together and offer meaningful opportunities to listen and respond to others. Children are able to understand the importance of negotiating and understanding each other and realize that relating in this way is beneficial to all. A competent learner has many links with the arts and creativity, indeed one component is ‘Being Creative’. This includes responding to the world creatively and is about exploring, discovering, experimenting with media and movement, developing competence and being resourceful. Through the arts children are able to respond
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creatively. There is no right or wrong way to use the materials or resources and the emphasis is on exploration and discovery. A healthy child includes ‘Emotional Well-being’ which involves emotional stability and resilience, and being able to express feelings. The creative process encourages the ability to solve problems and to persist with challenges. This helps to develop a sense of mastery or resilience in the child, which is closely linked to well-being.
The Foundation Stage Table 3.1 shows some of the links between the creative process and the stepping stones and Early Learning Goals in each area of learning. It demonstrates that unless we ensure that young children have the opportunity to engage in the creative process they will not have the opportunities they need to deepen their understanding. Key Stage 1 There need be no conflict between Key Stage 1 requirements and encouraging children to engage in the creative process either. The National Curriculum Handbook (QCA 2000a: 11–12) outlines the importance of creativity and points out that the curriculum should enable children to think creatively, solve problems, become innovative and respond positively to challenges. This is reflected in the Art Key Stage 1 attainment targets which include a number of references to the creative process (Table 3.2). Again, in the Music at Key Stage 1 children should be taught how to: . . . . . . . .
create musical patterns explore, choose and organize sounds and musical ideas respond and review explore and express their ideas and feelings about music using movement, dance, expressive and musical language make improvements to their own work. listen with concentration and to internalize and recall sounds with increasing aural memory combine musical elements and use them expressively understand how sounds can be made in different ways and described.
The National Curriculum requirements outlined above reflect the stages of the creative process. In order to meet our responsibilities to children we have to give them opportunities to engage in the creative
The creative process Table 3.1 The Foundation Stage and the creative process Personal, social and emotional development
Communication, language and literacy
Mathematical development
Children: . Show curiosity and interest . Have an exploratory impulse . Have a positive approach . Display involvement . Persist for extended periods . Take risks and explore . Are interested, excited and motivated . Initiate ideas . Tackle problems and enjoy self-chosen challenges . Make connections to different parts of life experience
Children: . Question why things happen, and give explanations . Experiment and explore . Stick to, reflect and modify . Give new meanings to objects and actions, treating them as symbols . Rehearse, reorder and reflect . Link significant events and sequence how events lead into one another . Make patterns in experience through linking cause and effect . Organize and clarify thinking and ideas
Children: . Show sustained interest . Show curiosity and observation . Offer comments or ask questions . Spot errors and compare . Show awareness of similarities . Recognize orientation . Recognize patterns . Talk about same and different . Initiate, choose and adapt . Offer solutions to problems . Use own methods to solve a problem . Use developing ideas and methods to solve practical problems
Knowledge and understanding of the world
Physical development
Creative development
Children: . Show curiosity and observe . Are interested . Examine objects to find out more . Investigate objects and materials by using all of the senses . Find out about and try out . Observe features of objects/events . Look closely at similarities, differences, patterns and change . Ask questions about why things happen and how things work . Adapt work . Begin to differentiate
Children: . Experiment with different ways of moving . Initiate new combinations . Move with imagination . Observe . Explore materials . Effect changes to the materials
Children: . Show an interest . Explore and experiment . Differentiate and make comparisons . Describe . Represent and construct . Combine different media . Choose for a purpose . Work creatively and create . Pretend that one object represents another . Use imagination . Explore an experience using senses . Respond to comments and questions, discuss creations
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What are creativity and imagination and why are they important? Table 3.2 Art Key Stage 1 attainment targets Level 1 . .
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Pupils respond to ideas They use a variety of materials and processes to communicate their ideas and meanings, and design and make images and artefacts. They describe what they think or feel about their own and others’ work.
Level 2
Level 3
. Pupils explore ideas. . They investigate and use a variety of materials and processes to communicate their ideas and meanings, and design and make images and artefacts. . They comment on differences in others’ work and suggest ways of improving their own.
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Pupils explore ideas and collect visual and other information. They investigate visual and tactile qualities in materials and processes, communicate their ideas and meanings, design and make images and artefacts for different purposes. They comment on similarities and differences between their own and others’ work, adapt and improve.
process. Indeed in the most successful schools Ofsted (2002) found that there was no conflict between children having the opportunity to engage in creatively and also achieving in the National Curriculum. In these schools practitioners had taken control of the curriculum and were creative and innovative in how they taught.
Conclusion There is a fine balance between ensuring that children are offered materials, equipment, ideas and experiences that are challenging, but not so far removed from the children’s existing experiences and knowledge that they are perceived as threatening. The degree of novelty needed to stimulate investigation needs to be just right. Too much newness in the experiences we offer can lead children to become anxious as they are unable to link the new experience to their existing frameworks. The link between the creative process and security is strong. If we get the balance wrong and children feel insecure and uncertain they will cease to explore, and the result may be avoidance rather than creativity! Yet if the experience, material or situation offered is too familiar it offers no challenge and can lead to the child ignoring it rather than becoming involved. In the next part we will be looking at how creativity and imagination
The creative process develop, what creativity looks like across the curriculum and the particular contribution of the arts to creativity and imagination.
Summary This chapter has: .
stressed the importance of knowing the process involved in creativity
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suggested that the first stage is mastery of equipment, materials and ideas
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suggested that the second stage is using these for our own creative purposes
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emphasized the importance of errors
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looked briefly at schema
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looked at how the Birth to Three Matters, the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage and Key Stage 1 guidance emphasize the importance of the creative process.
Further reading Athey, C. (1990) Extending Thought in Young Children: A Parent–Teacher Partnership. London: Paul Chapman. Athey analyses over 5000 observations of children and provides positive interpretations of a wide range of children’s behaviours. Cecil, L.M., Gray, M.M., Thornbug, K.R. and Ispa, J. (1985) Curiosity, exploration, play: the early childhood mosaic. Early Child Development and Care, 19: 199–217. This article describes the background to the model referred to in this chapter. Claxton, G. (2003) A Perspective on Creativity. Primary Leadership Paper, 10 September. London: National Association of Head Teachers. This article describes the eight ‘I’s of creativity. Hutt, C. (1979) ‘Play in the under fives: form, development, and function’, in J.G. Howells (ed.), Modern Perspectives in the Psychiatry of Infancy. New York: Bruner Marcel. Hutt explains her ideas on children’s play. McKellar, P. (1957) Imagination and Thinking. London: Cohen and West. Chapter 8 looks at the conditions of creativity and the creative process. Ofsted (2002) The Curriculum in Successful Primary Schools. London: HMSO.
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Things to think about .
Can you identify examples of the creative process in your own life?
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How do you feel when you are disturbed when engaged in this process?
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How do you feel when you make a new discovery?
Part Two How do creativity and imagination develop? We sing before we talk. Trevarthen ‘Music in Mind’, Channel 4, transcript (1996)
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Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years
Introduction This chapter will explore: .
the implications of brain research
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the development of personality
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the importance of developmentally appropriate approaches
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the interconnectedness of all aspects of development
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Bruner’s concept of the spiral curriculum
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the development of imagination.
Born to be creative We are born to be creative. Just watching a young baby shows us that we are curious from birth, we want to find out about the world we are in, the people in it and how it all works. But while we are predisposed to be curious (the start of the creative process) whether this disposition develops or not is largely the result of the environment and interactions we experience. While, as we saw in Chapter 1, creativity is a human characteristic, there are also skills involved and these need opportunities
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How do creativity and imagination develop? to be practised and developed. We have all seen young children who come to settings and schools full of curiosity and creativity. Sadly, we have also all seen how quickly this can be suppressed when the children encounter an environment that does not value this. In Part Three we will be looking in detail at the ways in which we can ensure that this does not happen but it is important to be clear about what it is we are seeking to nurture and develop so we start this section by looking at the relationship between child development, creativity and imagination.
The implications of brain research In recent years we have learned more and more about the brain and how it works. Gopnik et al. (2001) show how brain research has revolutionized our ideas about childhood, the human mind and the brain. Babies’ brains are designed to enable them to make sense of the world around them. As they use their senses to explore the world they find themselves in, they create mental images and this helps the child to make sense of new experiences by comparing them to the images they already have. As more of these images are created connections form between them and these enable the child to make increasing sense of the world. Creativity means connecting the previously unconnected in ways that are new and meaningful to the individual concerned. Recent research has established that more connections, synapses, are made in the first years of life than at any other time of life. Babies and young children think, draw conclusions, make predictions, experiment and look for explanations. The reason they can do so much so early is because they have the help of the people who care for them (Gopnik et al. 2001). Gerhardt (2004) points out that love is essential to brain development in the early years of life as baby’s earliest relationships shape their developing nervous systems. We know that even before a baby is born the uterine environment and the impact of substances such as alcohol have a profound effect on the development of the brain. For the brain to develop effectively it is important that babies and young children have a secure and steady source of positive emotion, a nutritious diet and stimulation of the senses (though not all at the same time!) in an atmosphere free from stress but with a degree of pleasurable intensity. There needs to be a series of novel challenges that are neither too hard nor too easy, social interaction and active participation rather than a passive observation (Diamund and Hopson 1998). However, while the research on brain development has provided us
Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years with valuable insights Blakemore (2000) argues that we should treat this research with caution. Although we know that more synapses are made in the first year we don’t know if that necessarily makes us more creative. We also need to be cautious about the idea that there are critical periods for certain functions of the brain to develop. Most of the research on critical periods has been done with animals or in extreme circumstances and does not necessarily mean that we can reach the same conclusion for all babies and young children. One of the most amazing things about the human brain is its plasticity throughout life. There is little evidence that enriched environments accelerate brain development so it is much more important to think how learning occurs rather than when. As practitioners we need to develop a functional understanding of the brain and its processes to ensure that we are not vulnerable to pseudoscientific fads (McNeal 1999). We need to retain what Gopnik et al. (2001) describe as a protective scepticism which makes us very suspicious of any attempts to sell formulas, such as flash cards or music tapes, for making babies and young children smarter. ‘One of the things that science tells us is that nature has designed us to teach as much as it has designed babies to learn’ (2001: 201). This is evident in the examples of Callum and Mary.
Examples Callum is 6 weeks old and is already benefiting from interactions with the adults around him. At family gatherings he is surrounded by his siblings and cousins, who range from 3 to 14 years, and by older relatives and friends, some of whom are in their 80s. Throughout the day people of all ages take the opportunity to interact with him. They talk to him making eye contact, rock him and sing to him, stroke his face and hands and take him for walks around the house and garden describing what is around them as they go. Everyone seems preprogrammed to want to interact with the new baby. Mary, aged 2, is trying to get the top off a bottle without success. Ben, aged 11, notices her difficulties and shows her what to do, talking her through what he is doing as he demonstrates. Mary watches carefully. Once finished Ben puts the top on loosely and hands it back to Mary to try again. This time she succeeds and is delighted by her achievement.
We need to be creative to ensure that babies and young children can practise and develop their innate ability to learn and we can exercise our innate ability to teach them. Brain development is important but
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How do creativity and imagination develop? creativity is more than cognition and the personality, the dispositions and attitudes we develop in our earliest years may well be more important.
The development of personality Blakemore (2001) in his paper ‘Early Learning and the Brain’ argues that we have much to learn from cognitive psychologists about the kinds of things that appear to emerge at particular stages of development and how we can act on this knowledge in our work with children. Our sense of being an individual emerges between 6 to 8 months and 2 years, and between 1 and 4 years we are developing a sense of our selves and our beliefs in relation to others. This includes the notion that other people can have views, opinions and knowledge that are different to our own. We are starting to develop a concept of other people’s minds. This development is essential in enabling us to recognize that it is legitimate for other people to hold different views and that by bringing different views together we can work more powerfully than by working alone. For Blakemore these are the things that our brains are set up to develop in the early years – learning about ourselves, others, cooperation and collaboration – all the things society needs and which, if we combine them with creativity, enable us to respond to the challenges for society and the individual we identified in Chapter 1. Blakemore’s thinking seems to link with that of Goleman (1995) and his work on emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is being able to recognize emotions in oneself and others, pay attention to them, understand their significance, think about and understand them and then take into account how to act in response. The ability to do this is related to our ability to imagine empathizing with others.
A developmentally appropriate approach to creativity and imagination While each child is unique, children do go through recognizable and similar stages in their development, and different experiences will be appropriate at different stages in the child’s development. If we know the likely pattern of development we will be better able to match what we offer to the children we are responsible for and so meet their needs and interests at a given moment in time. Or to put it another way, we will be
Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years
(a)
(b) Figure 4.1 Children’s abilities vary, as can be seen in these drawings by (a) a boy aged 4 years 3 months and (b) a girl aged 4 years 3 months.
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How do creativity and imagination develop? able to ensure that the experiences we offer are developmentally appropriate as stated in the Preface to this series. Imagination is linked to development, the ability to imagine increases as children get older. Creativity can occur at any age, as we established in Chapter 2; it is about connecting the previously unconnected. As we learn and develop our ability to make connections increases – we have more information to combine and more skills to employ. Imagination and creativity are both influenced by learning and experience and as we can see in Figure 4.1 children of the same age may show a marked variation in their abilities. Children’s development is dependent on a number of components: . . .
maturation – children’s genetically preprogrammed inheritance learning – the experiences and opportunities children have to practise social – the culture, race, social class of individual families or communities and their expectations for children.
The interconnectedness of all aspects of development All aspects of development are interlinked, children develop as a whole, not in separate pieces! Each aspect of development interacts and overlaps to facilitate the development of imagination and creativity. For example: 1
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Cognitive development – The development of the imagination and creativity is part of children’s cognitive development. Many of our theories about cognitive development come from Piaget (1926, 1951). His work has been criticized for providing a model of development which underestimates young children’s thinking powers and the role of the adult as educator (Trevarthen 1995). But the emphasis he puts on children creating their own understanding of the world through their experience is useful. Piaget introduced the idea of stages of development and of sequential changes in children’s mental structures. As children progress through these stages their ability to engage in creative and imaginative experiences increases. In turn, the projection into an imaginary world stretches their conceptual abilities and involves a development in their abstract thought. The complexity involved in this process makes imagination the highest level of early development (Vygotsky 1978). Perceptual development – The development of creativity and imagination is also part of children’s perceptual development. We perceive the world through our senses. As their senses of sight, hearing and touch develop, children’s ability to perceive and understand the
Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years
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world increases. They develop tactile, visual, auditory, spatial and movement perception and this development has an impact on many of the experiences we will be looking at in the following chapters. For instance, new-born babies cannot synchronize their eyes, but by about the sixth month they are able to reach for an object they can see and at about a year they can follow rapidly moving objects. By age 3 children’s visual perception is similar to that of an adult. This ability to see with understanding has a direct impact on their ability to represent. Physical development – Young children use their physical abilities to explore the world and get to interesting objects. Babies start their explorations with everyday things and mastery of materials. How can objects and materials be used? Can they be thrown, draped, crunched up? What are they used for? As their ability to sit, crawl and walk increases children see the world from new angles and their view of the world widens. Once children become confident walkers their hands are free to explore more of the world around them. As they are no longer concentrating on remaining upright, children are able to give their full attention to exploring objects and material. Objects previously unreachable can be taken down and explored. Increased manipulative skill means that objects can be twisted and turned; materials can be tipped and poured. Physical development, especially the growth in the children’s fine manipulative skills has a profound influence on their ability to represent. From birth children develop their ability to hold and grasp. This growing physical competence is reflected in the range of lines, shapes and forms that appear in their creative and imaginative expressions and representations. Language development – Language, imagination and creativity all involve the ability to represent experience symbolically, whether this is a spoken word standing for an object or an empty yoghurt pot standing for a cup of tea. The listening skills and attention to details that are part of most forms of creative and imaginative representation are also crucial to language and literacy development. As children’s use of spoken language develops they are better able to express their thoughts and ideas to others. This enhances their imaginative play and enables the development of complex storylines which involve negotiation with others. In turn the narratives they develop through imaginative play inform the stories they tell and write. Writing involves the fine manipulative skills that develop through exposure to many forms of creative expression. Trevarthen (1995) has drawn our attention to the link between music and language. Babies recognize and respond to the musical elements of speech, rhythm,
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accents, dynamics and timbre, and from this develops their ability to use and understand spoken language. Songs which engage young children usually have a clear beginning, middle and end and as this structure becomes well known to children it provides them with a ‘rhythm story’ to follow and anticipate. Familiarity with this structure helps them to understand the structure of written stories that they will encounter later. Social and emotional development – As children’s social and emotional awareness and skills develop, they are able to join with others to express their creativity and imagination, for example, they develop the self-discipline and cooperative skills involved in working as part of a group. In return creative and imaginative experiences offer children the opportunity to express themselves and reflect which enhances their social and emotional development. The opportunity to explore a wide variety of roles in imaginative play, and to experience the art, music and dance of different cultures, develops children’s understandings of their own and other cultures.
The example of Marie shows how, at a week old, she has already started on the journey into creativity and imagination.
Example At a week old Marie already: . . . . .
widened her eyes as her father sang to her, engaged by the sound tried to imitate her aunt as she stuck out her tongue was soothed by the rocking and swaying movements her grandmother used gazed intently at the pattern of the lining in her crib and appeared to be attracted by the light coming through the window nuzzled into her mother’s neck as she held her and seemed to be taking delight in the feel of her mother’s skin.
The spiral curriculum Children’s development should not be seen as progression up a ladder. Bruner’s (1977) concept of a spiral is a more useful image. As their abilities evolve young children are able to explore an ever-widening world. They do not leave behind the interests and understandings of earlier stages but add on to these to develop an increasingly complex view of the world and their relationship to it.
Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years For Bruner there are basic themes at the core of all subjects. Deeper understanding comes from learning to use these in progressively more complex forms. For example, the young child using her fingers to spread spilt food is developing an understanding of the way in which marks are made and she will build on this to develop an understanding of drawing and other forms of representation. Learning experiences that are offered to children must reflect their current level of development and offer the possibility of further development but they must be developmentally appropriate.
The development of imagination Vygotsky’s (1978) observation of young children and the theories he developed from these indicate the crucial role of imagination in the development of the human mind. The ability to imagine is what makes us uniquely human. Until the second year of life he found little evidence of this ability. The emergence of the imagination appeared to be connected with the frustrations children experienced when their desires were not immediately gratified. For the baby, needs are straightforward and either quickly gratified or forgotten, but as children grow this changes. Their wishes and aspirations become more complex, less realizable and less capable of instant fulfilment. For example, they may want to pour the tea out as they have seen adults do and become angry and frustrated when for safety reasons they are not allowed to. Imaginative play develops when children experience this frustrating gap between their needs and the gratification of these needs. But while this desire cannot be realized in the real world it can be satisfied in the imaginative world, where they can pretend to pour the tea and offer it to their parents. The imaginative world children create enables them to realize in their imagination the things that cannot be realized in reality. Through imaginative play children resolve the tensions of everyday life. The development of the ability to imagine is linked to Blakemore’s view that it is around this time that children start to develop the concept that other people may have different perspectives. The ability to imagine enables children to put themselves into the position of the other person. Objects may support the imaginative process as ‘transitional objects’. These objects no longer have the meaning they have in the real world but are used to represent a missing object, for example, children may use stones to represent money while playing shops. The stones act as a prop or pivot (Vygotsky 1978). Without the stones to help them the children would find it hard to engage in the imaginative process. Initially
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How do creativity and imagination develop? transitional objects need to share many characteristics with the object being imagined but, gradually, the need for physical similarity between the actual object and the imagined object decreases. Eventually children no longer require an actual object to support their imaginative play but can pretend the object is there. Bruce (1987) draws on Winnicott’s (1971) different use of the term ‘transitional object’. For Winnicott a transitional object appears to be used by children to represent their mother when she is absent, and this can help children to separate from her. Bruce has developed this idea to include children’s use of a transitional object to stand for the child himself or herself, or as a companion for the child as can be seen from the example of Emily.
Example Bubbie was a toy rabbit which Emily has had since she was a week old. Emily slept happily with Bubbie present but without it, Emily found the separation from her parents hard. When she stayed with her grandparents Bubbie came too. The smell and feel of Bubbie comforted Emily and represented her parents and home, allowing her to hold on to them in her imagination. By the age of 2 Emily was using Bubbie to represent her. When given a biscuit Emily pretended to feed it to Bubbie before eating it herself and when Emily was reprimanded Bubbie was told off in turn by Emily! Bubbie also acted as a companion, for example Emily talked to Bubbie as she lay in her cot.
Conclusion The most effective way to meet the needs of individual children is through experiences that are developmentally appropriate. As in all aspects of their development children’s character and disposition will play a part in how individual children respond to the opportunities offered to them. But the attitudes and knowledge of the adults around them are crucial. If they are surrounded by informed adults who give clear messages that those creative and imaginative experiences are to be valued and enjoyed children’s development will be enhanced.
Child developments, creativity and imagination from birth to 6 years
Summary This chapter has looked at: .
how we are born with the desire to explore the world
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recent research on the brain
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the importance of developmentally appropriate experiences
.
the interrelatedness of all aspects of development
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Bruner’s concept of a ‘spiral curriculum’
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the role of imagination in children’s development.
Further reading Blakemore, C. (2001) Early learning and the brain. Royal Society of Arts lecture, 4 February. This paper looks at brain research and its implications for educators. Bruner, J. (1977) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner explains the concept of the spiral curriculum. Gopnik, A., Metfzoff, A. and Kuhl, P. (2001) How Babies Think. London: Phoenix. This book provides a synthesis of research in philosophy, psychology, computing and neuroscience on babies and what they know. Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. In Chapter 7 Vygotsky examines the role of play in development.
Things to think about .
What do you think are the implications of brain research in cultivating children’s creativity and imagination?
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Can you identify examples of children’s growing imagination?
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Creativity across the curriculum
Introduction This chapter will look at: .
creativity across all areas, aspects and subjects
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the dangers of a narrow approach
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the importance of access to a wide range of experiences
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the importance of access for all
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valuing children’s race, religion, culture, class and ethnicity
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valuing children’s gender
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valuing children with additional needs
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valuing children’s voices
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working with parents and carers
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the need for depth of experience
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the need for differentiation
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some example of creativity in action across the curriculum.
Creativity across the curriculum
Creativity across the curriculum As we saw in the previous chapter children are born with a strong desire to explore the world around them and from this innate curiosity creativity develops. Creativity is part of every area of the curriculum and all areas of learning have the potential to be creative experiences. The creative process, which we looked at in Chapter 3, is as applicable to personal, social and emotional development; communication, language and literacy; mathematical development; knowledge and understanding of the world; and physical development as it is to art, music dance and imaginative play. Translating ideas, concepts and experiences into representations involves many thinking skills. Creativity and imagination are important in their own right and also because they foster the development of the whole child by promoting learning across the curriculum. There is some debate about whether creativity is subject specific or a general characterisitic. Is it the same process in each field or domain? I would argue that it is the same process but that it manifests itself differently in each domain. For example, in mathematics creativity is about problem solving rather than creating something – I am told that doubleentry bookkeeping is highly creative! Before looking at examples of creativity across the curriculum we need first to look at the curriculum as a whole.
The dangers of a narrow approach Too often young children are given access to a narrow range of creative and imaginative experiences which are limited and superficial. For example, opportunities to paint can be restricted to using a small number of ready-mixed paints, with no choice of brush or paper texture, size or shape. As a 6-year-old boy told me, ‘I like painting best but you can only paint at ‘‘choosing time’’. Miss says only one person at a time, no paint on the floor, don’t mix the paints, one picture each so everyone gets a turn and only if you’ve finished all your work. I don’t think that’s fair’. This sort of conditions led to impoverished provision and depressed thinking. If children are to become competent and use the media for their own ends they need the opportunity and time to explore a wide range of experiences.
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The importance of access to a wide range of experiences Each experience a child has offers possibilities for learning and if we are not aware of these we may miss opportunities and impede children’s progress. We need to ensure that the creative and imaginative experiences we offer are: . . .
broad – they must include the full range of experiences balanced – they must not concentrate on one area of experience and restrict or neglect the rest accessible – children’s access should be monitored and their learning and development systematically assessed.
While some of the experiences will be available all the time and provide our core provision, others may be introduced for a limited period in response to children’s interest and needs. By giving children access to a variety of experiences we offer them the opportunity to learn and develop: . . .
attitudes, feelings and dispositions knowledge and understandings skills and abilities
and to use these in their own creative and imaginative ways. Each of these features of learning is important. For example, there is little point in teaching children the technical skills involved in reading if they do not also have the desire to use these skills. Conversely, it is frustrating to have a burning desire to create a sound but to lack the technical skills necessary to achieve it. While knowledge and skills can be taught, attitudes and feelings cannot be learned through direct instruction but only develop in an environment that is encouraging and values these attributes. Creative and imaginative experiences encourage a wide range of: DISPOSITIONS AND ATTITUDES fun appreciation enthusiasm curiosity willingness
confidence
experimentation persistence
values
sharing
perseverance enjoyment cooperation
acceptance excitement
concern self-discipline helpfulness
self-motivation
reflection
evaluation
pleasure lack of inhibition
self-esteem
concentration respect for others
Creativity across the curriculum As adults we divide experiences into different areas of learning or subjects. Children will not divide or perceive the experiences on offer in this way. For them, experiences are not compartmentalized and attitudes, knowledge and skills do not develop in isolation from each other. The example of Leeanne shows this.
Example Leeanne, aged 5, was involved in acting out the story of Cinderella. This had gone on over a number of days and with each retelling the narrative became more complex and detailed. She reached the point in her drama when she needed the ball gown. With the help of a nursery nurse student, Leeanne created the gown from lengths of cloth fastened with safety pins and decorated with stapled-on braiding. Once the gown was completed she returned to her imaginative play and continued the story. At the end of the session she chose to record her experience by drawing a picture of the ball, which she shared with her mother at home time. Leeanne’s learning covered a number of experiences: she engaged in imaginative play, used textiles and drew. She demonstrated a variety of attitudes, knowledge and skills. For example, cooperation, perseverance, knowledge of fabrics and their properties, knowledge of fairy tales, how to measure lengths of cloth, fine and gross motor skill. For Leeanne these were not experienced as separate, but as a whole.
Access for all As we established in Chapters 1 and 2 creative and imaginative experiences are not only for those identified as gifted. Everyone has an entitlement to the full range of experience and to reach their full potential – the principles which underpin this series reinforce this message. But the society we live in assigns different value to different groups of people based on their: . . .
race, religion, culture, class and ethnicity gender additional needs such as special educational ones or disabilities.
People in particular groups are seen as inferior, for example, people whose skin is not white, people who have certain medical conditions (HIV, mental illness), or people who come from particular religions (Muslims, Jews). Children who belong to families in these groups can
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How do creativity and imagination develop? find that their access to the creative and imaginative experiences they need is limited because of beliefs based on the view that they are inferior. Children from some groups appear to display marked ability in certain aspects of creativity and imagination. However, we need to be cautious about ascribing this to innate ability. It is just as likely to be the result of upbringing and expectations. For example: .
.
Some groups of Chinese children have highly developed drawing skills at an early age due to the value placed on and early instruction in these skills by the communities in which they live (Cox 1992). Boys often appear to be better than girls at creating three-dimensional representations with construction materials. While this may be partly the result of innate differences, most of the difference is due to the greater encouragement boys receive (Moyles 1989).
Children are aware of the values and judgements of the adults around them from a young age. The distorted opinions that develop from exposure to beliefs that are based on prejudice and discrimination will stay with them. Young children need to preserve, develop and value their own worth and the worth of those around them. This does not mean treating all children in the same way but ensuring that all children feel valued. If all children are to achieve this the adults who are part of their lives must be aware of: . . .
the prejudice that exists in society the ways in which beliefs based on prejudice affect children’s opportunities to learn and develop their creativity and imagination the steps that can be taken to challenge and overcome prejudice and ensure equal opportunities for all children.
The range of abilities evident in any group of children make it extremely unwise to simply assume competence, or lack of it, on the basis of membership of a certain group. The abilities they display may be the result of innate ability but can also be the outcome of encouragement from the adults around them. We need, therefore, to ensure that all children have access to a broad range of experiences.
Valuing children’s race, religion, culture, class and ethnicity The materials, equipment and experiences we offer should reflect a wide variety of cultural experiences. This is especially important for monocultural settings where children may not have the opportunity to encounter cultural diversity in their community, and when home
Creativity across the curriculum cultures emphasize clearly defined roles for each gender. Creative experiences and imaginative play offer children the opportunity to explore lifestyles outside their immediate family and to gain an insight into the lives of others. It is important to avoid reinforcing stereotypes, for example, that all Indian women wear saris, or adopting a ‘tourist’ approach, such as only showing images of people from ethnic minorities in artificial and exotic settings. The aim is to increase children’s understanding by showing them images that reflect the real-life experience of families from a variety of cultures. Stereotypical ideas of class may limit children’s access, for example, some forms of creative expression such as ballet and opera are seen as not being relevant to working-class children. Children from different religious groups can also find their access curtailed, for instance it is sometimes assumed that children from Muslim families are not allowed to depict the human form. In fact the depiction of the human form is only prohibited in mosques. There are many wonderful examples of Muslim artists representing the human form, for example in miniatures. The experiences children have in their homes and communities will affect their uptake of the creative and imaginative experiences we offer. The experience of imaginative and creative play alongside an older sibling or friend can enhance younger children’s play. In communities where they are part of an extended family or a network of close friends, young children will often have skills that children of a similar age, without access to these networks, lack.
Valuing children’s gender Young children are interested in gender differences and explore the roles adopted by each. While it is essential that children develop a positive self-image, part of which involves their identification with others of the same gender, we need to make sure that this does not limit their access to creative and imaginative experiences. The challenge is to confront stereotypes which limit access, and offer experiences which extend children’s horizons. We need to think carefully about the labels we use, for instance, calling the imaginative play area of a classroom the ‘Wendy house’ or ‘home corner’ will not discourage boys to use it. Similarly we need to monitor children’s use of the physical environment to ensure equal access. For example, girls may be reluctant to use construction materials if these have been monopolized by boys and are therefore seen as ‘boys’ toys’. Bloom and Sosniak (1981) examined longitudinal studies of creative people and found that early experiences which de-emphasized traditional roles were significant.
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
Valuing children with additional needs Children with additional needs are sometimes offered a limited curriculum with the view that they need to give all their attention to the acquisition of so-called basic skills – though as we saw in Chapter 1 what could be more basic than the desire to create? However, in many ways the experiences that form the creative and imaginative range have particular relevance to children with additional needs. These experiences encourage an open-ended approach to learning and enable children to use all their senses, including those which may be impaired. When children have a condition such as autism, art and music may offer a means of self-expression and creativity when spoken language fails them. Creative and imaginative experiences can offer children with special educational needs the opportunity to order their understandings and inner worlds and share these with others. Music and dance can express meanings which surmount the need for words. Children who have marked abilities may also experience difficulties. Marked ability in one part of the creative and imaginative range of experience, for example music, may lead to an over concentration on that area and a neglect of other aspects of creativity. It is essential to ensure that children with additional needs are not intentionally or unintentionally excluded. The challenge is to adapt or expand the experience so that everyone can get involved. The example of Anderson shows how a group of practitioners tried to do this.
Example Anderson, aged 4 years and 6 months, was visually impaired. His key worker observed his reluctance to engage in forms of representation which involved fine detail and confined locations, such as drawing while seated at a table. She responded by rearranging the outside space to included large sheets of paper attached to the wall for painting and drawing. Anderson responded with enthusiasm. He concentrated for long periods and returned to his drawings to refine and develop the images (see Figure 5.1). The opportunity to work on a large scale enabled him to make full use of his available sight and the more spacious surroundings allowed him to move without fear of bumping into a person or object. By assessing Anderson’s particular needs and altering the way in which he had access to drawing experiences his key worker helped him to engage in an aspect of creative expression he had previously been denied.
Creativity across the curriculum
Figure 5.1
Anderson engaged in representing a snail.
Valuing children’s voices The content of children’s imaginative play often gives us an insight into their preoccupations, for example the superhero play that many young boys often engage in (Holland 2003). But we need to be aware that our attitudes may stop us listening to the voice of the child. Anning and Ring (2004) found that boys’ use of drawing for meaning making was unacknowledged by practitioners until they were at the stage of visual realism. Holland (2003) also found practitioners reluctant or unable to accept the child’s voice in superhero play. Children with additional needs can also find their voices are unheard. In some cases access to the arts is limited because programmes for the children focus on what they can’t do and practitioners concentrate on plugging the gaps. In other cases lack of imagination on the part of the adults leads to children not having access to opportunities because the additional support they may need is not forthcoming. In both cases children’s voices are left unheard.
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
Working with parents and carers The importance of working in partnership with parents is a key theme in Birth to Three Matters (DfES 2002) and the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (QCA 2000b) and this is especially true when it comes to encouraging creativity. We need to think: . . .
How do parents feel about creativity? Do all parents feel the same? Are there differences based perhaps on age, culture, gender, class and faith?
There is no such thing as a typical parent! Values and traditions differ between parents, and it is important that practitioners respect this and give parents opportunities to discuss and share their views. Some early years practitioners express concern, and on occasion annoyance, at certain parents’ unwillingness to allow their child to freely explore materials such as paint, clay or water. The example of Simon shows the importance of taking parents’ concerns seriously and working with them.
Example During a home visit to Simon’s family it became apparent that his parents were concerned by the emphasis that the centre put on creativity and the arts or ‘getting messy’, as his mother and father put it. They explained to the staff that they did not see the point in encouraging the children to get messy and in the process ruining their clothes, and would like Simon kept away from such activities. Simon’s parents were not alone in this view. While respecting the parents’ viewpoint the staff also felt that it was important for parents to have an opportunity to understand why the centre valued creativity and the arts. Staff organized a series of workshops on mark making which gave parents an opportunity to come and explore the creative process with their children. Some were organized during the day and others in the evenings. Children and parents had the opportunity to create large-scale paintings while listening to music, to paint on silk, and to use inks and other materials to explore colour mixing and printing. At the end of each workshop there was time for staff and parents to talk together about what had gone on and what they thought the children had got from the experience. Feedback was very positive. For a number of parents this was the first time since their own school days that they had the
Creativity across the curriculum opportunity to paint and they rediscovered their own pleasure in mark making. Parents were impressed at the level of concentration the children showed when they were absorbed in representing their ideas. After a few weeks Simon’s parent started to bring his younger sister to the workshops so that she could enjoy getting messy. As Simon’s mother said, ‘If they come home messy you know they’ve had a good day!’
Depth Not only do we need to make sure that children have access to broad and balanced provision, we also need to be aware of the importance of ensuring that children are able to deepen their understanding. There is a danger that in trying to ensure that children have access to the breadth of provision our approach becomes superficial and they end up with a series of activities rather than the opportunity to delve into an experience. Children need time to explore and opportunities to repeat and return to experiences, so as to deepen their understanding. Access to differing experiences allows children to increase their understanding by solving problems in different ways. Representing the same experience or idea through the different media enables children to explore it in depth. Using an unlikely medium to represent an image or idea, for instance, drawing a loud sound or making the sound of sunshine, challenges children’s thinking and skills. The medium they finally choose reflects: . .
their mastery of that medium the properties the medium brings to solving the problem they wish to solve.
For example, children can explore and deepen their understanding of pattern by encountering the same concept in a variety of media: . . . .
pattern you can hear – music, for instance rhythm – ta, taa ta, taa, ta or repeated phrases in a song pattern that moves – dance, for instance – up and down, up and down or a sequence of steps pattern you can feel – texture and textile, for instance – under and over, under and over, in and out, in and out, or the feel of the weave pattern you can see – draw, model and paint, for instance, light and shade, decoration, repeated sequences of colour or shape
seeing patterns is a key element in the creative process and is crucial in many subjects, especially mathematics and science.
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Children can also deepen their understanding through opportunities to represent their experiences and ideas using action, images and traditional symbols. Bruner (1982) describes these three ways of processing information as: 1
2
3
The enactive mode – based on action, learning through doing, for example, children representing fast and slow using their body movements. The iconic mode – replacing the action with a drawing or using an image to stand for an object or concept, for example, children representing fast and slow using marks and signs they have devised themselves. The symbolic mode – using traditional symbols (musical notation, writing, numbers), for example, children using music notation to represent fast and slow.
Through these modes children are able to produce their own representations, store and retrieve information (see Figure 5.2). At different ages different modes will predominate. For example, young children will readily use actions to represent their experiences, whereas they are less likely to use codes such as music notation. There is sometimes a tendency to neglect the enactive mode as children grow older but is important to ensure that all the different modes continue to be available to children as each can offer new insights and deepen understanding. If children are going to have the opportunity to delve into experiences and deepen their understanding they need: . . . . . .
access to materials and equipment time to explore materials and equipment an understanding of the properties of materials and equipment the chance to develop their skills and understanding time and opportunities to use their skills and knowledge to create their own representations a variety of social contexts: working alone, alongside others, in pairs, in groups.
Differentiation While it is essential to ensure that all children have the opportunity to experience a wide range of experiences, it is also crucial to recognize that the needs of individual children will vary over time and that the needs of the children in any group will vary at any one time.
Creativity across the curriculum
Figure 5.2 Alison, aged 4 years 6 months, who is starting to use traditional musical notation to represent tunes
Children’s learning needs will vary according to their: . . .
ability stage of development interest (see Figure 5.3).
In response we need to differentiate the experiences we present, to match the experience we are offering to the learning needs of the individual children we are offering it to. For example, through the questions we ask, and the responses we expect from different children, we can increase the complexity of the experience on offer. By breaking the experience and explanations we give into smaller, more manageable steps we can maximize understanding for less able children. Creative and imaginative experiences offer children the freedom to use the materials in an openended way. As there is no pre-prescribed end product individual children are able to use the materials in a way that matches their own learning needs. The adults’ expertise is in enabling children to develop mastery and the freedom to explore at their own level by finding ways to develop the skills and concepts children need at the time they need them. To do this we must be sensitive to: . . .
what to introduce, and when, by being aware of the typical stages children go through and what is developmentally appropriate the processes involved in creativity when to intervene and when to stand back.
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Figure 5.3 We need to match what we offer to the interests of individual children. Georgia, aged 3 years 10 months. The caption under the representation reads ‘Georgia was fascinated by the stuffed owl (she asked) ‘‘Was it real?’’. She represented it using pen, buttons and feathers. She remembered to draw its ‘‘beak, wings, and talons’’ ’.
Some examples of creativity and imagination across the curriculum Personal, social and emotional development Goleman’s (1995) work on emotional intelligence, our ability to tune into others and empathize with them, shows the link between imagination and emotional development. Without imagination we cannot gain an insight into the experience of others, guess what they are feeling or think or decide what may be socially acceptable. Working together encourages a sense of self-respect and valuing of others. This area of learning also includes the development of dispositions, attitudes and self-confidence. Creativity builds on children’s curiosity and encourages a positive
Creativity across the curriculum approach to new experiences. Children display a high level of involvement and are able to select and use resources independently. Through the creative process children can develop concentration, problem solving, planning and seeing things through to completion. Literacy Approaches to literacy which emphasize the mechanics of reading to the exclusion of creativity limit children’s development as readers and writers. Reading development builds on representation through making marks. Ascribing meanings to these marks helps children to understand the symbolic nature of written language. The narratives children develop through their imaginative play provide the basis for writing stories as can be seen from the example of Laura.
Example Laura, aged 3 years, was fascinated by fairy tales. Her interest had been supported by her parents and key worker at the nursery she attended. Laura had spent much of her time during the previous week engaged in acting out her own versions of fairy tales and at the suggestion of her key worker recorded these in a book. She wrote various letters to which she ascribed meaning and read these to the adult in charge. She illustrated the story as she went. Her story told of a little girl who wanted to be a princess. To achieve this she needed a princess dress but her mother would only let her have a workday dress and told her she was a little girl not a princess and that it was time for bed. Laura drew tighter elements of her understanding of real life and used her knowledge of fairy tale to create her own story, with its own meaning.
Mathematics Mathematics and creativity are sometimes seen as mutually exclusive and the way many of us were taught mathematics, with an emphasis on getting the right answer rather than creating our own understandings, has left some practitioners with a distinct lack of enthusiasm! Grey’s (1997) work shows that children who are successful mathematicians are those who have learned how to develop new facts from old ones in a flexible way. Seeing patterns is at the heart of mimetic and the example of children exploring patterns shows 4-year-olds demonstrate this.
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Example A group of 4-year-olds had been exploring pattern with their teacher. They became aware that repletion is the key to patterns and began to identify patterns in the environment. For example they recognized the waltz rhythm – 1, 2, 3; 1, 2, 3; 1, 2, 3. They created their own patterns when they organized the fruit snack: apple, orange, banana, pear, apple, orange, banana and pear. While examining the number square two the children discovered another pattern: the number at the end of each row ended with a zero 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. No one had drawn the children’s attention to this. They had used their knowledge of numbers and their growing awareness of patterns.
If we see mathematics as a set of skills to learn rather that problems to be solved we will discourage children’s creativity. Real-life problems such as organizing a class celebration can give children opportunities to use their mathematical skills (Hanley 2004). Science and technology Science is all about being open to possibilities, living with uncertainty, thinking ‘what if’. It is about finding patterns rather than knowing facts and it is a highly creative subject. Scientific understanding is developed through the investigations that occur when children are presented with unfamiliar materials and resources and exposed to a variety of materials and their properties. The glue example shows one such exploration.
Example During her observations of a group of 2- and 3-year-olds Sam noticed that they were far more interested in exploring the properties of the glue she had provided for them rather than using it to stick the materials available in the workshop. Sam decided to encourage this exploration so she set aside a table covered in a plastic sheet for the glue exploration. The glue was available to the children throughout the day and was left overnight ready for them to continue their exploration the next day. Over the next few days the children poured and dripped glue onto the plastic sheet. They added other materials to the glue – food colouring, glitter, bits of paper – to see what happened. As the glue dried the children observed that it changed from opaque to clear and they could see the different materials embedded in the layers. This process went on for over a week.
Creativity across the curriculum The practitioners observed the children as they created the glue surface and recorded the children’s development in the different areas of learning. For example, the children worked together as a group and developed dispositions such as persistence and concentration thus promoting personal, social and emotional development. They explored the properties of materials and developed their knowledge and understanding of the world. The children were given time and space to explore. Their ideas were valued and responded to.
Design and technology fosters curiosity. They involve solving problems to create something of use. In design technology there is a need to play with ideas and materials to discover how they work and how they can be used. The example of Victor shows how he uses his understanding of technology.
Example Victor, aged 5, was part of a group of Year 1 children discussing a forthcoming visit to a farm during which they would find out how milk was made into cheese. The children were encouraged to explore a range of possibilities and various suggestions were made. Some thought that it was to do with magic while others remembered their experience of shaking cream in a jam jar to make butter. Victor listened carefully and commented that it would take a long time to shake the milk and the farmer must have a quicker way. After the discussion Victor went away to ponder the problem and created his own diagram of a cheese-making machine. Victor drew on his knowledge of butter making and his understanding of machines and combined these to reach his own conclusion.
Creativity and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Like creativity ICT has a cross-curricular role. Through the appropriate use of ICT we can enhance our learning across the curriculum. For the youngest children objects such as mobile phones are often the props they use to engage in imaginative play. As children get older ICT enables them to try out their ideas on screen before they try them out in real life, for example seeing how a design looks from different angles. This enables them to explore a wider range of possibilities than would be possible in real life and take risks with their design that they may be reluctant to take with an actual model.
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Creativity, geography and history Geography, or a sense of place, involves introducing children to maps as a means of representation. In creating a map we do not record everything we see but make decisions about what the key things to record are and why. Topography is in some ways an act of fiction. Not only do we choose what to represent but also how to represent it. Geography is about our relationship with the world around us, both natural and man made, and involves the ability to imagine different environments and their possible impact. History is about connecting events and hypothesizing about causes. It involves imagination and being able to put ourselves into someone else’s shoes as the example of Nina illustrates.
Example Nina, aged 4 years and 6 months, went to visit the Foundling Museum and during the visit was told about Captain Coram. A few days later she was playing in the garden and started acting out a story based on her knowledge of Captain Coram. ‘I’m Nelly and I am a little girl at the Foundling Hospital and nice Captain Coram is looking after me because my mummy can’t’.
Conclusion Children are not empty vessels. They have their own ideas and thoughts, their own desire to create. Our responsibility is to ensure that we build children’s current skills and understandings and expand this by providing new opportunities that develop their attitudes, skills and knowledge across a broad range of experiences. Creative development is an area of learning in its own right in the Foundation Stage and the guidance emphasizes the link between creativity and the arts. In the next chapter we will be looking in detail at this relationship.
Creativity across the curriculum
Summary This chapter has: .
addressed the dangers of a narrow approach that leads to depressed thinking
.
established the importance of access to a wide range of experiences
.
stressed the importance of access for all children
.
discussed the importance of breadth and balance, depth and differentiation
.
looked at the voice of the child and working with parents and carers
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examples of creativity across the curriculum.
Further reading Bruner, J. (1982) ‘What is representation?’, in M. Roberts and J. Tamburrini (eds) Child Development 0–5. Edinburgh: Holmes McDougall. Bruner explains the concept of the enactive, iconic and symbolic modes. Hanley, U. (2004) ‘Mathematics in creativity in the primary curriculum’, in R. Jones and D. Wyse (eds) Creativity in the Primary Curriculum. London: David Fulton. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1994) The Early Years: Laying the Foundations for Racial Equality. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. Siraj-Blatchford argues that racism is inherent in society and damaging to all. Siraj-Blatchford, J. (1996) Learning Technology, Science and Social Justice: An Integrated Approach for 3–13 Year Olds. Nottingham: Education Now Publishing Cooperative.
Things to think about .
How do you ensure that the children you care for have access to broad, balanced, relevant and personalized experiences?
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How do you address inequality in your work?
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How are you ensuring that creativity is part of all areas of learning?
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The contribution of the arts to learning
Introduction This chapter will look at: .
the role of the arts in promoting creativity and imagination
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the arts and the early years
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the contribution of the arts to all areas of learning
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two-dimensional experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
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three-dimensional experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
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musical experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
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dance experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
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imaginative play experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
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experiences which encourage appraising and appreciating.
The contribution of the arts to learning
The arts and creativity Frequently creativity and the arts are seen as the same thing, however, this is not the case. Involvement in the visual and performing arts does not necessarily mean involvement in creativity. As we saw in Chapter 1 many art experiences offered to young children are dull, repetitive and far from creative. The arts are still sometimes undervalued in the early years. On a visit to a reception class I joined a group of children who were drawing. After watching me draw for a few moments one of the children asked, ‘can’t you write yet?’ Children pick up messages about what is important and has status from the adults around them. This child had obviously got the message that drawing was a preparation for writing rather than an activity that has value in its own right. The arts have a particular contribution to make and when they are introduced to children in appropriate ways can enrich and stimulate. They encourage interaction between the different areas of the brain that deal with emotion and reason. By using the arts practitioners are supporting the development of positive dispositions and providing meaningful links across the curriculum. All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture and Education (NACCCE 1999) points out that the expressive arts are a central factor in exploring creativity. There is also a growing body of evidence to support the role of the arts in stimulating young children’s cognitive, motor, language and social-emotional development (Clark et al. 2002). ARTS alive!, the QCA (2003b) curriculum development project, has identified ways in which the contribution of the arts to pupils’ education can be maximized. The key message to come out of this research is that investing in the arts can transform schools. Involvement in the arts can raise standards, change attitudes, improve behaviour and increase the quality of teaching and learning. Arts and the early years In 2002, the Arts Council of England commissioned the Thomas Coram Research Unit, at the University of London Institute of Education, to conduct a national study of the arts in the early years (Clark et al. 2002). They collected the views of key providers in the arts and early years sectors and also identified and described examples of current practice in the arts in the early years. The research revealed a strong belief in the value of the arts in the early years. Ninety-two per cent of respondents regarded increasing selfesteem and encouraging creative thinking as ‘very important’ aims. More
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How do creativity and imagination develop? than three-quarters of respondents (78 per cent) saw learning through the arts as a ‘very important’ aim. The arts were seen as having an intrinsic value but also as being a useful gateway to learning in other subjects. Practitioners and artists reported benefits to parents when their children were involved in the arts, including opportunities to become involved in their children’s learning and the chance for self-expression. They also reported benefits for themselves including being inspired through working with other professionals and facing new challenges for their own practice and assumptions. The study revealed that almost three-quarters of respondents (71 per cent) already included music in work with young children and 68 per cent had included visual arts and crafts. An example of this is the Thomas Coram Centre’s relationship with its local art gallery.
Example The children at the Thomas Coram Centre have had the opportunity to work with artists from its local gallery, the October Gallery. The starting point for this particular project was a practical one – creating seats for the courtyard entrance to the nursery. Artists from the October Gallery worked with the children to create designs for the seats based on animal forms. The practical aspects – how to make the seats stand up, and the aesthetic aspects how the create pleasing shapes – were all looked at. Drawing up prototypes to try out ideas was a new experience for the children as was the process of selecting the best designs from a range. Working with the artists gave the children a chance to develop new skills, such as drawing up designs, and to work with new materials, such as concrete and tiles. The opportunity to work with a group of artists for over a year meant that children, staff and artists developed an understanding of each other and real relationships were formed. While the process was important the end results were also very important to the children. The animals they created to sit on are very precious to the children and have become part of the nursery – a number of children greet each animal in the morning and say farewell at the end of the day.
The contribution of the arts to all areas of learning Engagement in the art contributes to learning across the curriculum as can be seen in Table 6.1 and Box 6.1.
The contribution of the arts to learning Table 6.1 The contribution of the arts to all areas of learning Personal, social and emotional
Communication, language and literacy
. Concentration, staying on task, problem solving, planning and seeing things through to completion . Representing experiences, feelings and thoughts. For example, by using drawings, painting and imaginative play . Learning to learn to share, interact and observe others. For instance, through working together on joint projects Spiritual and moral . Creative processes link children with the idea of creation in world religions . Exposure to the arts through which children learn about their own and other cultures . A sense of self-respect and valuing of others, for example, through appraising
Speaking and listening . Opportunities to speak and listen, for example when negotiating roles and sharing resources . Understanding the elements of music, such as rhythm and pitch, from which develops children’s ability to speak Reading . Understanding the process of representation which leads to understanding the symbolic nature of written language Writing . The fine motor skills which are needed for writing. For example, through drawing, or using woodwork tools . The narrative skills necessary for storytelling
Mathematics . Understanding patterns in two- and three-dimensional representations which helps children to identify number patterns later on . Concepts of shape, size, line and area which they will use to classify and sort objects . The opportunity to explore spatial concepts, for example, through block play and other forms of threedimensional representation . The opportunity to explore measurement in meaningful contexts, while constructing models and textiles . Symbolic representation, which introduces children to the concepts, they will need to explore numbers
Physical . Opportunities to develop and practise fine motor skill. For example, through cutting, drawing, sculpting, playing an instrument . Gross motor skills. For instance, through dance and block play . Planning, performing and practising physical skills . Linking actions and work with others. For example, through dancing together and working on large construction . Exposure to dance traditions . Exploring mood and feeling using movement . Body control, balance, coordination and poise
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Box 6.1
Knowledge and understanding of the world
Science/Technology
History/Geography
. Exposure to a variety of materials and their properties. For example, through using a wide range of methods for fastening – sticking, tying, nailing – discovering the most appropriate method for a particular task. . Cause and effect, for instance, through experimenting with different ways of balancing blocks. . Representations based on observations of the natural world which develop an understanding of life and living processes. . Opportunities to cut, fold and fasten. . Problem solving, for example, deciding the best media to use to create a representation. . Introducing the children to ICT in meaningful contexts such as imaginative play.
. Opportunities to reflect on what children know about their locality and the wider world, for instance, through representing their local environment using a variety of media. . Sequencing events and objects, for example, when creating a pattern on a piece of clay. . Expressing views on attractive and unattractive features of the environment. . Exposure to artefacts, dance and music from a variety of cultures and times which help children to develop a sense of time and place. . Representation and a sense of spatial awareness which is needed in map making.
Two- and three-dimensional experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer (see Table 6.2) Two- and three-dimensional experiences are often referred to as the visual arts. Making our mark whether in paint or stone seems to be a human need. Too often art can become part of an art lesson using prepackaged schemes of work which do little to engage children. As we saw in Chapter 1 there is a difference between reproducing and representing. Two-dimensional experiences include: . . . . .
drawing – defining shapes and events with line painting – defining areas of surface colour printing – making marks by pressing textiles – creating woven surfaces and fabrics photography – creating images with the chemical action of light on film.
. . . .
. communication . hand and eye coordination . tidiness . carefulness . accuracy . safety
. colours, tints, shades, density . how to mix a range of colours . how to lighten and darken colours . the properties of paint texture . how to represent forms, texture, movement colour by using paints . two-dimensional surfaces . the importance of flat surfaces when printing . properties of different surfaces . pattern
Printing using a wide range of: . objects – hands, natural and found materials, raised and embossed . surfaces – paper, card, fabric, walls, clay . forms – patterns (repeated and single), natural shapes, manufactured
Painting using a wide range of: . hues – primary, secondary; shades – pastels, dark, light . sorts of paint – powder, block, natural dyes, ready mixed and self-mixed . techniques for applying paint – fingers, feet, a selection of brushes, marbling, spraying, splashing, stencilling . surfaces – paper and card of different sizes and textures
. pattern, shape, line, tone, form, space, proportion . types of drawing materials and equipment . uses materials and equipment . drawing from a range of traditions . how to represent texture, shade, pattern movement, with marks
Drawing using a wide range of: . graphic and mark-making tools – fingers, pencils, charcoal, computer . surfaces – different textures and sizes of paper and card, chalk boards, computer screens, permissible walls and pavements . subject matter – physical attributes, abstract concepts such as the sound of a drum, recording movement . investigating marks and the qualities of lines, rubbings
recording fine manipulation gross motor skills correct use of tools, equipment and materials
observation interpretation estimation measurement experimentation investigation prediction problem-solving recollection . . . . . . . . .
Knowledge, understanding, concepts
Experience
Skills and abilities
Two- and three-dimensional representations and the opportunities for learning they offer
Table 6.2
Knowledge, understanding, concepts . textiles and their properties . weaving and sewing techniques . textiles from a range of cultures and times . use of clothing to represent membership of cultural, social or religious groups . know that cameras can take photographs . light sources . light sensitive paper . how to exclude light . the effect of excluding or increasing light . names of shapes of the blocks and their relative sizes . properties of paper, wood, card . correct use of tools and implements, glue guns, staplers, scissors, etc. . balance . tessellation and pattern
Textiles using a wide range of: . techniques – plaiting, twisting, winding, sewing, dyeing, applique´, printing, knitting . cloths and threads – wool, canvas, hessian, linen, string, cotton, printed materials, raffia, straw, grasses, twigs
Photography using a range of: . cameras . light sources and images . light-sensitive paper
Constructing – forming representations by fitting together using a wide range of: . commercial and found materials – bricks, blocks, Lego, wood . different ways of joining – using glue gun, gluing, tying, knotting, hammering, threading, looping, nailing, screwing, brass fastening, paper-clipping, stapling, treasury-tagging, binding, interlocking pieces . different ways of parting – cutting, tearing, sawing, punching hole . different forms – mobiles, collages, models
Continued
Experience
Table 6.2
joining parting measuring comparing size, shape, height . estimating volume . balancing blocks . . . .
Skills and abilities
Skills and abilities . coordination of eyes, hands and fingers
Knowledge, understanding, concepts . properties of materials . effect of removing portions from mass
. of which materials can be modelled . of the effect of manipulating plastic substances
Sculpting – forming representations by chiselling or carving using a wide range of: . materials – wood, salt, sand, stone . tools – hands, fingers, cutlery, saws, commercial tools . techniques – carving, hammering
Modelling – working plastic materials into shape using a wide range of: . materials – papier-maˆche´, clay, dough . tools – hands, fingers, cutlery, commercial tools . techniques – moulding, pinching, scooping, flattening, rolling, thumbing, squeezing, attaching, wedging
Continued
Experience
Table 6.2
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Three-dimensional representations include: . . .
constructions – forming representations by fitting together sculpting – forming representations by chiselling or carving modelling – working plastic materials into shape.
Experiences under this heading offer opportunities to represent using the elements of art: . . .
. . . . .
pattern – repetition of shape, colour, light texture – characteristics or quality of surface colour – hue (property of colour – red, orange etc.), intensity, saturation, brilliance, primary colours (red, yellow, blue), secondary colours (combinations of primary colours – orange, green and violet) line – a mark, stroke, strip, dash tone – lightness or darkness, shade shape – outline form – three-dimensional experience of shape space – area between shapes.
Musical experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer (see Table 6.3) Music is one of the performing arts. Music is a form of communication that is spiritual, emotional and intellectual. Zoltan Kodaly, the Hungarian composer and advocate of singing, stated that ‘there is no complete person without music’. It seems as if we are ‘hard wired’ (Trehub 2003) for music and music is more fundamental to humans that language. Research is increasing showing the unique contribution that music makes to our sense of well-being. This has led to hospitals such as the Chelsea and Westminster in London including live performance as part of the life of the hospital, which has been found to reduce healing times and decrease stress. Sadly, too often we are only involved in music as consumers rather than as makers and lose out on the potential of music to improve the quality of our lives. We have an opportunity to address this balance in our work with children – music is for everyone, not just the gifted few! Music works best when it is part of the daily life of the setting and school (Young and Glover 1998). It includes using voice, sounds, tuned instruments, untuned instruments and so on to: . . .
produce musical sounds perform compose.
Skills and abilities . listening, discriminating and memorizing . experimenting with sounds – turn-taking – voice control (breathing, singing, humming) . being part of a group . plucking, hitting, pressing instruments with accuracy . playing as part of a group – turn-taking, patience . cutting, fastening, to make instruments . recording sounds – operating tape recorders, making marks . reading music using child’s symbols, colour coded and traditional notation . interpreting sounds and symbols
Knowledge, understanding, concepts . things that make a sound . vibration produces sound . different sound effects of wood, strings, skin . tempo, rhythm, pitch, dynamic . names of instruments . correct usage of instruments . awareness of audience and venue . simple pieces and accompaniments . repertoire of songs from a range of cultures and traditions . instruments and music from a range of cultures and traditions . that sound can be represented by symbols . that musical ideas can be communicated to others . ways in which sound can be represented . names of notes, their values and position of notes on stave . pentatomic scale . that major and minor chords can be related to moods
Producing a wide range of musical sounds and performing by: . using voice and mouth – shouting, humming, singing . body – hand clapping, finger clicking, feet stamping, rubbing . found materials – kitchen utensils, blocks, building textures (gravel, bricks, wood) . homemade instruments . keyboards – piano, organ . percussion – tuned (glockenspiel, bells) untuned (drums, shakers) . wind – trumpets, pipes, whistles . strings – violins, guitars, sitars . interpreting the work of others – from memory and simple scores . playing and performing with others
Composing and recording sound in response to a wide range of stimuli through: . opportunities to experiment with sound . memorizing simple patterns to accompany songs . representing sounds and patterns using – child’s own symbols and traditional notation . producing sound effects . improvising musical patterns . composing own pieces of music . recording own music . recording sound in different ways – memory, tape recorders, CD players, own marks, notation and scores
Musical experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
Experience
Table 6.3
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Musical experiences offer children the opportunities to explore and represent using the following elements: . . . . . . .
timbre – characteristics or qualities of sound texture – the way sounds are put together pitch – high/low, higher/lower dynamics – volume, loud/quiet, louder/quieter tempo – speed, fast/slow, faster/slower, rhythm, pulse duration – long/short harmony – two or more musical sounds produced together
to provide: . .
structure – the organization of sounds, melody, combining musical phrases and patterns composition – creation and formulation of work.
Dance experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer (see Table 6.4) This is another performing art. Movement is a natural response to music and moving to music is a way of listening (Young and Glover 1998). Dance is about using movement to express an idea or feeling rather than a physical process. It is about being in the here and now, in the moment. Dance is the art form of movement and is about immersing oneself in the movement, letting go and tuning in. It is about creating with bodies in space. Movement becomes dance when it includes creativity and imagination. While all dance is movement not all movement is dance (Davies 1995). When introducing young children to dance it is important to ensure an appropriate balance between the acquisition of skills and the child’s voice. In dance children often engage in collaborative creativity through joining in with other children, taking on different roles and combining strengths. Dance includes using expressive movement to: . . .
produce dance perform dance compose dance.
Experiences under this heading offer opportunities to explore and represent using the elements of movement: . .
basic actions – travelling, jumping, turning, rolling, balancing gesture – using face, fingers, hands, arms, feet
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. names of parts of body . spatial awareness . direction and position of words – left and right, up and down, backwards and forwards, side to side . sequence words – next, first, last . speed words – fast, slow, quicker . how to move body in a particular sequence of movement . movements related to tempo and mood . music can be interpreted in movement . movement can be represented by symbols . movement – line, form, pattern . way body moves – hands, feet, arms, legs, whole body . steps . use of symbolic movement . ways of recording movement
Producing and performing using movement expressively and creatively by: . moving the body – what can the body do and which parts of the body move? . moving in space – level, directions, pathways, sizes . moving in time – dynamics, tempo in terms of time, weight, space, flow . moving with others – with a partner, in a group, with an object . moving in response to music and sound . develop a repertoire of movements to express what is heard and felt . dances from different cultures and traditions . interpret and execute movements
Composing and recording in response to a wide range of stimuli by: . representing stories, music and ideas through dance . representing patterns that move . recording steps and movement using children’s own symbols . recording steps and movement using traditional symbols
tiptoeing and sliding wriggling and twisting rolling and balancing dashing and diving galloping and kicking shaking and squatting initiating waiting turn listening discriminating
jumping and bouncing swinging and swaying stretching and arching turning and bending spinning and twirling stepping and skipping crawling and contracting stopping and starting
Skills and abilities
Knowledge, understanding, concepts
Dance experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
Experience
Table 6.4
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
Figure 6.1 A group of 3- and 4-year-olds working with professional dancers to produce a dance that represents their ideas on growth.
. .
stillness – frozen movement pattern – linking and repeating actions and gestures.
Imaginative play and drama and the possibilities for learning they offer (see Table 6.5) There is a close connection between imaginative play and drama. Imaginative play is the beginning of drama. Drama is about our ability to feel what it would be like to be in someone else’s shoes. Experiences under this heading offer opportunities to explore and represent: . . . . . .
actions roles relationships situations characters from a variety of sources narratives and stories.
The contribution of the arts to learning
Figure 6.2 Candice, aged 1 year 10 months, and Harry, 1 year 9 months, using their knowledge of adult roles and actions in their play with telephones.
Appraising and appreciating and the possibilities for learning they offer (see Table 6.6) Experiences under this heading offer children opportunities to: . . . .
watch, listen and feel respond to and comment on appraise and evaluate appreciate their own expressions of creativity and imagination and those of others.
This can be seen in the example of appraising and appreciating.
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listening and recalling observing others tidying up and dressing writing, recognising signs washing-up, mopping squeezing and sweeping fine manipulative skills gross motor skills drying up, cleaning estimating, measuring caring for clothes sorting and matching using face paint joining in, negotiating leading and being led
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
suitable clothes for particular roles sequence and characters of stories appropriate props for different scenes use of different body language and verbal . relationships and their responsibilities . household tasks – cooking, phoning community roles and responsibilities a story has a beginning, middle and end how to join in at appropriate times how to negotiate how to lead or be led how to improvise how to develop a narrative
. . . .
. . . . . . .
Imitative play – copy actions of parents and carers using a wide range of: . small world toys, and puppets . props – real and miniature objects . dressing-up clothes
Imaginative play – using experiences to create own scenario: . socio dramatic play – based on the adult roles children see around them, for example relationships (mothers), functional roles (shopkeepers) . character roles – based on fantasy characters from television, fairy and folk tales . using realistic props and models . using abstract and unstructured props – cardboard boxes . pretend props – finger for toothbrush . imagined props – miming
Skills and abilities
Knowledge, understanding, concepts
Imaginative play experiences and the possibilities for learning they offer
Experience
Table 6.5
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
the properties of material the elements of art, music, dance the creative process – for example, in printing how things are constructed and deconstructed the values concerns and preoccupations of others intentions of others and gauging their success purposes of creative and aesthetic expression the way representations and artefacts enhance the environment in which we live the role of dance, music, art in life the role and work of artists and crafts people history and cultures vocabulary to describe and discuss what they see, hear and feel
Knowledge, understanding, concepts
Appreciation and appraisal and the possibilities for learning they offer
Opportunities to experience a wide variety of creative and imaginative representations including: . their own . other children’s . their own culture and tradition . other cultures and traditions . their own time . others’ time . through recordings and copies . live performance – music, dance . hearing the work of others . paintings, sculpture, drawings
Experiences
Table 6.6
. . . . . . . . . . .
listening watching feeling responding articulating commenting critical skills appraising evaluating appreciating valuing
Skills and abilities
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How do creativity and imagination develop? Example Sabrina, aged 3 years and 2 months, Elizabeth, aged 3 years, Maurice, aged 4 years and 1 month, and Teddy, aged 4 years 6 months, were painting alongside each other mixing the colours they wanted using block paints in the primary colours and a selection of brushes. Each child was involved in creating their own representation but was also aware of, and interested in, the work of the others. Sabrina was engaged in representing a house when she turned to Maurice and said: Sabrina: Maurice:
That doesn’t look like a house. That’s because it’s not a house, it’s a brown bear. I’m trying to get brown but it’s gone purple. Teddy (to Sabrina): Well, that doesn’t look like a house, it looks like a mermaid, look there’s the tail. Elizabeth: You’re looking at it upside down, that’s the roof! Mermaids have legs! Teddy: No they don’t . . . well, I suppose they might have legs inside their tails. Sabrina: I’ll put the windows in . . . now it looks like a house. Maurice: It’s the mermaid’s house, that’s what it is!
Conclusion The arts have an important part to play in promoting creativity and imagination across the curriculum. However, it is important that in stressing their role in other subjects and areas we do not undermine their value in their own right. In the previous chapter we looked at the importance of offering children experiences that matched their development. Having identified, in this chapter, the range of arts experiences we want to offer, we will now go on to look at how the visual and performing arts develop over time.
Summary This chapter has: .
looked at the contribution of the arts to creativity and imagination
.
defined the range of arts experiences we wish children to explore.
The contribution of the arts to learning
Further reading Clark, A., Heptinstall, E., Simon, A. and Moss, P. (2002) The Arts in the Early Years: A National Study of Policy and Practice. London: Arts Council in England. Garvey, C. (1977) Play. London: Fontana. Garvey looks at the ways in which play helps children to learn. Morgan, M. (1988) Art 4–11. Oxford: Blackwell. This book offers ideas and suggestions for developing children’s art experiences. Trehub, S. (2003) ‘Musical pre-disposition in infancy: an update’, in I. Pertz and R. Zalorre (eds) The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Young, S. and Glover, J. (1998) Music in the Early Years. London: Falmer.
Things to think about .
Were you aware of the wide range of experiences covered by two- and three-dimensional representation, music, dance and imaginative play?
.
Do the children for whom you are responsible have access to a wide range of activities?
.
Look at the range of experiences listed. Can you add more?
.
Do you think some are more important than others? If so which and why?
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The development of the visual and performing arts
Introduction This chapter will examine: .
why we need to look at patterns of probable development
.
the development of two-dimensional representation, in particular drawing, painting and textiles
.
the development of three-dimensional representation
.
the development of music
.
the development of dance
.
the development of imaginative play and drama.
Patterns of probable development The stages that will be outlined in this chapter should not be read as a ladder. Children do not start at the first rung and progress until they reach the top! Perhaps it is better to see them as a continuum. Children don’t leave behind the earlier stages as they develop but build on them and deepen their learning. The earlier stages are the foundation. The stages of development outlined are to assist us, the adults, in offering
The development of the visual and performing arts experiences that respond to the individual child. They help us to support children’s learning by being aware of what has gone before and where children may be going in the future. They help us to be alert to children’s possible interests and needs at different stages in their development. The charts are not tick-lists to measure children against. Children will revisit earlier stages of development and in early stages will show elements of later learning, and children with special educational needs may take longer to move through the stages.
The development of two-dimensional representations From birth children are exposed to visual imagery. They are surrounded by the images of others. Children’s ability to represent in two dimensions has sometimes been seen as simply the move from non-representational images (drawings or paintings that do not look like the items being represented, at least in the view of adults!) to representational images (drawings and images which resemble the items being represented). Piaget (1951) identified three stages in this process: 1 2 3
Fortuitous realism – children notice similarities between the random marks they have made and objects they have seen. Intellectual realism – children represent what they know, not what they see. Visual realism – children represent what they see, not what they know.
Matthews (1994) sees the development of two-dimensional representations as a much more complex process and argues that visual realism is apparent at an early stage. Children’s early representations are more purposeful than Piaget’s theory suggests. For example, they show an awareness of composition by targeting new marks in a way that relates to existing marks. When they do this children are showing awareness of the arrangement of lines and the spaces between them as seen in Figure 7.2a. Tahlia paused and looked at the drawing before she made each line and appeared to be placing each line with reference to the existing lines. For example, the marks at the bottom of the page all intersect at a central point. The images children produce are not only to do with representing static and photographically accurate images but also about exploring and representing movement and the qualities of materials (Matthews 1994). So for example, a child may draw lots of streaky lines next to his car and say ‘this car is going very, very fast’ as Tarek has done in Figure 7.1. Early representations are closely connected with children’s growing
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
Figure 7.1 Tarek, aged 3 years, ‘a car going very, very fast’.
awareness of their physical actions and movement. Children’s images can focus on representing various aspects and viewpoints. They may highlight: . . . .
configurative aspects – to do with space dynamic aspects – to do with action (as in Figure 7.2) specific view points – drawn from a particular view point object specific features – to do with the main features of an object.
A single representation may include one or a combination of the list above, the deciding factor being which features of the object, experience, feeling or idea are important to the child concerned.
The development of drawing (see Table 7.1) Drawing guides children’s observations of the world (Matthews 1994). From birth babies are interested in pattern and are attracted to those which show marked contrasts of light and dark and are related to the features of the human face. Early representations are a way of leaving one’s mark. Children build on the early marks they have made with food and drink with their fingers and hands when they are given access to graphic materials. Matthews links these early stages, sometimes referred to as ‘scribbles’, to the babbling stage of language development. Early
The development of the visual and performing arts Table 7.1 The development of drawing Children: Birth–1 year
. imitate actions and movements using their whole body . are aware of patterns which have strong contrasts and resemble the human face . make intentional marks, for example, with food using finger and hand . are aware that movements result in a mark
1–2 years
. . . .
2–3 years
. uses pincer grip to hold graphic materials . produce continuous line and closed shape to represent inside and outside . combine lines and shapes . produce separate but linked shapes
3–4 years
. name marks, and symbolic representation is emerging . experiment with the variety of marks that can be made by different graphic materials, tools and surfaces . unaided, use a circle plus lines to represent person, often referred to as a ‘tadpole person’ . start to produce visual narratives
4–5 years
. are able to produce a range of shapes and sometimes combine them, for example, to produce a sun . draw shapes and figures that appear to float in space on the page . draw figures which include more details, such as arms, legs, hands, fingers, eyebrows . subdivide space on page to show higher and lower
At 6 years
. draw figures that are grounded and use lines for ground and sky . display depth by making figures in the distance smaller to indicate further away . include more detail in their drawings, for example, windows, door and chimneys on buildings . drawing has more narrative features, for example, may feature a number of episodes from the same story
make a variety of marks, sometimes described as scribbling are aware that different movements make different marks grip pen or crayon using palm of hand make marks which record and represent the movement of their bodies and other objects . draw overlapping and layered marks
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
Figure 7.2a–e Examples of the development of drawing (a) Lines overlapping and intersecting at a central point – girl, aged 1 year 10 months
drawing, like early language is about exploring rules. Marks at this stage are closely connected to movement. The marks children are making at this stage reflect three basic arm movements: 1 2 3
vertical arch – made by a swiping gesture with a downward circular action horizontal arch – made by a wiping or fanning gesture push and pull – made by a reaching and grasping gesture.
From these marks and movements children develop a continuous line which is later used to produce a closed shape. By separating a space from the surrounding area they can represent inside and outside. The closed shape will take on a variety of meanings, depending on children’s wishes. For example, in Figure 7.2b the closed mark represents ‘my tummy button’.
The development of the visual and performing arts
(b) Closed shapes – boy, aged 2 years 3 months
(c) Circles plus lines used to represent a person – boy, aged 3 years 5 months
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How do creativity and imagination develop?
(d) People with arms, legs and hands under a sun – girl, aged 4 years 6 months
The shapes and patterns that children develop in their drawings are initially personal to them and later they develop images that can be shared with others and used to communicate thoughts, feelings and ideas. Kellog’s (1970) work has shown that children from a wide variety of cultures create similar symbols in the early stages of representation. As they develop, children’s drawings show increasing detail and control (see Figure 7.2a–e). This is reflected in their ability to translate the shapes they see into marks on the page.
The development of painting (see Table 7.2) The use of colour allows children to dramatically increase the information they can give through their representations. Painting allows us to explore light and colour. Colour affects us all and this is reflected in the language we use. We talk about being green with envy, feeling blue or seeing red. At birth babies are able to distinguish bright and dark and have some perception of colour, especially bright, clear colours such as red. Early encounters with paint will concentrate on its tactile qualities,
The development of the visual and performing arts
(e) ‘My mummy dancing with her hair flying out’ – girl, aged 5 years
the potential to squeeze and manipulate thick paint, the trickling effect of thin paint. These explorations are crucial, as during this period children are developing mastery of the paint and an understanding of the techniques that can be used to control it. Once these skills have been acquired children can to use paint for their own purposes. Later children explore paint’s ability to cover areas of surface, to overlap, to mix and to layer. According to Matthews (1994), children’s fascination with layering paint may be to do with early attempts to represent three dimensions. As their technical skills develop children are able to place blocks of colour alongside each other to create a patchwork effect. Paint is also used in a linear fashion to draw. The ability to handle paint and to draw accurately gradually come together, and children are then able to use paint to create images that draw on its unique qualities. An interest in mixing paint is present from an early stage and children need opportunities to practise these skill. As their mixing skills improve children should have the chance to mix their own colours in response to what they see.
99
100 How do creativity and imagination develop? Table 7.2 The development of painting Children: Birth–1 year
. explore texture using all their senses. For example, the texture of food . are aware of colour and light, especially clear, bright colours such as red
1–2 years
. . . .
2–3 years
. use paint to code separate marks . ask the name of the colour of objects and know the names of some colours . are able to sort and match colour hues
3–4 years
. . . . .
4–5 years
. are able to name secondary colours . are able to mix their own colours, know that adding white lightens a colour and that black darkens it. . choose the appropriate brushes and paper for task. For example, know that thin brush will produce fine line . use paint to produce representational forms and patterns . describe their intentions, and comment on outcomes in their painting . are starting to match colours used in painting to colours seen, when representing realism
At 6 years
. . . .
explore the textural qualities of paint using feet, hands, mouth use hands, feet, and fingers to manipulate paint on surfaces are aware of colour in their environment use paint to make intentional marks
know the names of primary colours are interested in mixing their own colours enjoy exploring a range of brushes and surface use paint to produce separate and overlapping blocks of colour are able to sort and match colour shades
include fine detail in their paintings are able to mix a wide range of colours with exactness place small areas of colour accurately place colours side by side with precision
Computer paint programs are a useful addition to their range of experiences. Children quickly learn that the angle of the painting and the painting surface are different. The screen may only show part of the painting movement. They also quickly realize that there is no possibility for paint to mix and run.
The development of the visual and performing arts 101
Textural awareness and textiles (see Table 7.3) Textiles are part of our lives – the clothes we wear, the bedding we curl up under and the curtains and rugs we use in our homes. Our awareness of textiles starts with our awareness of texture. Some of our earliest memories may be about the feel of things – the prickly woollen jumper we didn’t want to wear, the silky edge of the blanket that we rubbed as we went to sleep. Children are surrounded by textiles from birth and discriminate from a young age between textures they like, which soothe them, and those that are uncomfortable. The texture, touch and feel of material and fabrics are important to us. At birth the mouth is the most sensitive part of the body and children use this to explore texture and form. Later children will use their hands, as well as their mouths, to explore texture and discover whether a surface is: . . . . .
hard or soft rough or smooth cold or hot itchy or silky fluffy or jagged.
In previous generations, and in many communities today, the production of fabric and clothes were part of the life of every home. Clothing is part of our culture and Trevarthen’s (1995) research suggests that babies as young as 9 months old are aware of clothes. As children grow they become aware of the clothes appropriate to different situations. The clothes we wear become an expression of who we are and are very much part of our identity. As children’s physical skills increase, their ability to produce textiles for themselves develops. Textile production introduces the child to the functional aspects of textiles as well as a form of creative expression.
The development of three-dimensional representation (see Table 7.4) We experience the world through three dimensions: height, width and depth. Babies have an awareness of this from a young age. For example, babies are aware of size consistency, they know that objects remain the same size as they move towards us even though they look as if they are becoming larger (Karmiloff-Smith 1994). This is often forgotten and we limit children’s access to representing in three dimensions, giving
102 How do creativity and imagination develop? Table 7.3 The development of textural awareness and textile skills Children: Birth–1 year
. are soothed by the feel and touch of carers’ skin and hair . use their mouth to explore the texture and feel of food and objects . use hands to explore the fabrics they are wrapped in, their soft toys, the skin and hair of carers . take pleasure in certain textures and experiences discomfort from others
1–2 years
. are aware of the different textures of clothing and bedding and show marked preferences . enjoy feeling and comparing different textures and textiles . are aware of the textural qualities of favourite clothes, blankets, toys . are aware of clothes for different situation, for example, a coat when it’s cold . enjoy trying to dress by themselves
2–3 years
. enjoy dressing and undressing dolls and pretend to wash clothes . are able to describe surface textures in simple terms, for example, describing a woollen jumper as prickly . are aware of the need to wear certain clothes for particular occasion, for example, an apron for painting
3–4 years
. are interested in what clothes, toys, etc, are made from . can discuss the qualities of different material, for example, towel as rough, velvet as smooth . are interested in the properties of different materials, for example, waterproof clothing . are able to explore different surface textures through rubbings, and can sort objects by feel . are interested in textile techniques of construction, for example, sewing and plaiting
4–5 years
. can produce textiles using simple weaving, printing, dyeing, etc., techniques . have a wide vocabulary to describe different textures . use lengths of fabric to produce simple garments
At 6 years
. have greater skill in production of textiles. For example, can manipulate waft under and over accurately while weaving . use sewing to produce simple clothes for dolls and toys . are interested in decoration and detail . are aware that clothes are worn to indicate membership of cultural, social and religious communities
The development of the visual and performing arts 103 Table 7.4 The development of three-dimensional awareness and representation Children: Birth–1 year
. experience the world in three dimensions . handle, feel and manipulate three-dimensional objects and materials using hands, fingers and mouth . use eyes to explore form . enjoy manipulating food . experience three-dimensional construction such as mobiles
1–2 years
. . . .
2–3 years
. construct using ready-made forms, for example, blocks, bricks, boxes . use construction materials, such as blocks, horizontally, for example, will line up blocks to create a road . stack, roll and line up objects . use hands to roll, pinch, coil dough and clay
3–4 years
. . . .
4–5 years
. uses fingers and tools to create forms that represent ideas . engages in complex block play, for example, use blocks to create a structure that can be entered . are interested in decorating the surface of malleable materials such as clay . can record constructions through drawings
At 6 years
. are aware of a variety of natural and manufactured forms . express their own ideas in a variety of media . can produce plans for three-dimensional structures and follow them
heap objects and demolish structures mix and stir flour and water manipulate dough and clay tear and crunch paper and card
construct using raw materials such as clay, wood, card use hands and tools to manipulate materials and create forms add features to surfaces using fingers and tools use construction materials vertically, for example, will balance blocks to create towers
preference to representing the world they experience in two dimensions. Construction and malleable materials give children opportunities to represent the world in three-dimensional forms. Gura’s (1992) research on children’s block plays shows how access to these materials enables children to develop their representations of the world in ways which two-dimensional materials cannot match. Although blocks do not have the fluidity of paint or the fineness of drawing with a
104 How do creativity and imagination develop? pencil, they can be used just as creatively as these or other art materials. Blocks can be moved and rearranged an infinite number of times to produce the most satisfying design whereas paint, for example, once applied to paper becomes a permanent feature of the work. Models and constructions can have a top, bottom, sides, front and back, as well an inside and outside. If they are large enough they can be walked around and entered. By working together children can create sophisticated design. Children often use a wide range of objects in their three-dimensional representations, not necessarily materials specifically designed for the purpose. Most adults who live with young children have experience of chairs and tables being turned into spaceships and boats or tins from the cupboard being used to create towers. While these representations may not always occur at convenient times they are evidence of a creative and imaginative approach to the use of materials and growing confidence in three-dimensional representations.
The development of music (see Table 7.5) The steady pulse of the body, the rhythm of steps, and the heart beat, mean that the rhythm of music is natural to us. And we are born with the most portable of instruments, the human voice. Babies in the womb respond to sound and at birth are able to distinguish their mother’s voice. They turn towards familiar voices, experiment and expand the range of sounds they can make. Young children are fascinated by the sound properties of objects – one of the reasons why dropping rattles is so attractive! Long before they can talk babies can match the pitch and chant of songs (Trevarthen 1995). There is a great deal of research on musicality in infancy and increasing evidence that young babies have an impressive range of musical capabilities (Pond and Harrison 2003; Trehub 2003). There is a natural connection between music and body movement. A baby responds to music with his or her whole body and this is reinforced by the apparently instinctive rocking that adults engage in as they croon and sing to them. Parents introduce babies to the popular music of the day and use music to regulate their babies’ moods. As well as singing lullabies they will sing and dance with their babies to the radio and records. Between 6 and 12 months babies will sing to others if their audience is a familiar, appreciative adult. They are becoming aware of performing music, albeit at a rudimentary level (Trevarthen 1995). By the age of 2 children’s auditory perception for high-frequency tones are comparable to an adult’s and later development focuses on making
The development of the visual and performing arts 105 Table 7.5 The development of musical awareness and skills Children: Birth–1 year
. are sensitive to dynamics and timbre, for example, are startled by loud sound . respond to the human voice and recognize the sound of the mother’s voice . read emotion in voices . are comforted by lullabies and engage in vocal play . associate sounds with things
1–2 years
. imitate adult vocalizations and melody and rhythm appear in them . engage in musical performances . are interested in the source of sounds and manipulate materials to produce sound, for example, tin lids . use both hands when making sounds
2–3 years
. attempt to imitate sound or tune and uses melody patterns from learnt songs spontaneously . explore the sound potential of household objects . can use hands independently and clap to rhythm in song
3–4 years
. are developing voice control . can play simple rhythm instruments and respond to a suggested rhythm . can name familiar tunes, knows and join in with some songs . are aware of beat, tempo, melody and pitch
4–5 years
. know some basic concept – high/low, long/short, fast/slow . know names of range of musical instruments . can sing complete songs from memory with a degree of accuracy . sing spontaneously and enjoy group singing . listen to recordings with help
At 6 years
. . . . .
have a sense of pitch, rhythm, melody can demonstrate some musical concepts sing with increased accuracy have a sense of harmony can use hands and feet independently
sense of what they hear. As children grow they become more competent in their music making as their ability to use and respond to musical elements increase. From a young age children, in this culture, are aware of recorded music and the desire to record their own music increases as they grow.
106 How do creativity and imagination develop? At first they will use their own symbols to represent sounds but gradually they will be able to understand and use traditional notation.
The development of dance (see Table 7.6) In dance the body is the instrument and to use this instrument to the full, children need opportunities to develop and practise a range of actions and gestures. Movement is the natural response to music and young babies respond to it with a range of movement. They seem unable to remain still! Baby’s gestures, facial expressions and movements are eloquent and can be used to convey a wide range of feelings. They are mimics and copy the people around them. Adults’ voices and gestures are endlessly fascinating to babies and opportunities to imitate with a receptive adult are crucial to their development. Babies are introduced to dance at a young age and by the age of 4 months will show signs of dance-like play in response to music (Trevarthen 1995). The 2-year-old who shouts ‘watch me dance!’ is already very aware of the role of audience and spectator. Children gradually learn which movements work well together and ways in which these movements can be joined together to produce a dance. It is not unusual to see groups of children in settings and school performing the latest dance routine with an alarming degree of accuracy! This knowledge of movements and the ways in which they are creatively combined to produce dance can lead children into composition. As they grow children’s movements become increasingly controlled, fluid and graceful and this is reflected in the quality of their dance.
The development of imaginative play and drama (see Table 7.7) It used to be thought that children’s imaginative play developed through similar stages to that of other forms of play: . . . .
onlooker – watching as others engaged in play solitary – playing by themselves parallel – playing alongside another child cooperative – playing with another child.
However, the work of people such as Goldschmied and Jackson (1994) has shown that very young children demonstrate that they can engage in
The development of the visual and performing arts 107 Table 7.6 The development of dance Children: Birth–1 year
. are sensitive to dynamics, for example, are startled by loud sounds . respond to music with their whole body by bouncing, rocking and swaying . are aware of and interested in movement for its own sake and explore own movements . imitate gestures and expression . read emotions in facial expressions and have a repertoire of eloquent expressions and gestures
1–2 years
. . . .
dance when asked, if music playing jump up and down are fascinated with mirrors and watch their own expressions are becoming more confident in walking and running
2–3 years
. . . .
move arms and legs with some synchronization walk smoothly and at various speeds will respond the tempo of a piece of the music join in songs involving finger play and action rhymes
3–4 years
. start to experiment with different body movements in response to music . enjoy exploring and practising movements for its own sake . march in time to music and walks on tip-toes . can switch from one movement to another during dance
4–5 years
. are able to master a wider range of movements, for example, skips, hops and forward jumps . move with increased awareness of rhythm . are able to use movement to interpret music, for example, will respond to ‘sad’ music . perform simple dance steps
At 6 years
. are able to improvise movements in response to the tempo of the music . are able to remember steps, for example, in folk dance . are able to work with others to compose, practise and perfect a dance . move with greater fluidity and grace . are able to perform increasingly complex series of movements . display increased narrative in their choreography
108 How do creativity and imagination develop? cooperative play. For example, given opportunities, children under a year old will offer objects to other babies and look for the same object that they have seen another child exploring. It is perhaps better to think of these as styles of play. Each is present at each stage of development, and at some stages more of a particular style will predominate. From their first year children imitate the people around them and from this tendency the imitative and imaginative develops. Imitative play involves children copying or imitating. Initially this will occur during an experience, for example, babies will copy the facial expression of carers. Later this will involve reconstructing the event after it has taken place, for example children using the gestures and movements involved in their sleep routine while playing with a doll. As they grow, their ability to imagine influences the nature of their play. Hiding games where the adult hides his or her face behind his or her hands and then removes them to reappear encourage children to imagine what does not exist. Imaginative play involves making up and internalizing actions. Children are not simply copying what they have seen but adding their own ideas. Play based on relational roles becomes increasingly complex as children develop and the narratives which are created include more characters and episodes. The role of fantasy increases as children develop and the scenarios they create are no longer restricted to their first-hand experience of the world but include characters and events from stories and television. Sometimes children’s fantasy play is discouraged. It is seen as an avoidance of the real world and as reinforcing stereotypical images. For example, superhero play such as Power Rangers is thought to encourage violence, and fairy tales to reinforce beliefs about physical beauty. However, Payely (1988) presents a very persuasive argument for allowing superheroes and Bettelheim’s (1976) work highlighted the importance of traditional fairy tales in children’s development and the role of particular tales at particular stages in children’s development. The contribution they make to children’s creativity and imagination means that a suitable place must be found for these aspects of imaginative play. Holland (2003) explores this further and documents the work of practitioners who are actively addressing children’s interests and finding ways to support them appropriately. There comes a stage in imaginative play when the stories children are acting out are developed and extended. This growing ability to create a story leads to the beginning of drama. Drama focuses on the human experience (Hendy and Toon 2001). It is about empathy, and as children develop their ability to empathize increases. They become experienced players who use ideas as well as props as a stimulation or provocation.
The development of the visual and performing arts 109 Table 7.7 The development of imaginative play Children: Birth–1 year
. imitate, or copy, the actions and behaviour of adults during an event. For example, they copy adults’ expressions . respond to adult-initiated imitating . enjoy playing games involving hiding the face
1–2 years
. imitate the actions or behaviour of adults after an event . are interested in discovering the use of everyday objects . begin to develop the ability to symbolize and are able to use realistic and miniature items to support symbolic play, for example, tea sets . may use a transitional object, for example, a teddy, to represent their mother in her absence . may use a transitional object to represent themselves
2–3 years
. enjoy copying the actions and behaviour of children of the same age . use scenarios from everyday life in their play, for example, making dinner . will use a transitional object which shares some characteristics with the object being represented . are interested in role play and will act out the roles they see around them . use actions to indicate the role they are adopting, for example, holding the baby doll to indicate that they are the parent . start to introduce a story line or narrative into their play
3–4 years
. will play alongside other children engaged in the same play theme, for example, firefighters . will play cooperatively as part of a group to act out a narrative . are interested in character roles, for example, characters from fantasy such as fairy tales or television
4–5 years
. are able to use as a transitional object, something which shares no characteristic with the imagined object, for example, a block can represent money . revisit imaginative play themes with increased complexity . enjoy performing short pieces of drama based on familiar stories or events
At 6 years
. are able to engage in pretence. They need no props to support their imaginative play. For example, they can mime brushing teeth . act out increasingly complex narratives in their imaginative play. There are more characters, action and items in each story line
110 How do creativity and imagination develop?
Conclusion In this chapter we have looked at patterns of development in the visual and performing arts. Some children simply enjoy particular aspects of imaginative play, two- and three-dimensional representation, or music or dance more than others and may develop more rapidly in this area. The role we adopt, the environment we create, the way we present experiences and materials are all crucial in ensuring that children have the opportunity to experience and develop. In Part 3 we will be looking at ways in which we can achieve this: . . . .
Chapter 8 – what are the roles adults need to undertake? Chapter 9 – how do we organize the environment to encourage creativity and imagination? Chapter 10 – in what ways can we extend children’s experiences? Chapter 11 – how can we assess, record and plan children’s creative and imaginative development?
Further reading Davies, M. (1995) Helping Children to Learn through a Movement Perspective. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Davies explores the role played by movement in the lives of children. Garvey, C. (1977) Play. London: Fontana. Garvey looks at the ways in which play helps children to learn. Gura, P. (ed.) (1992) Exploring Learning: Young Children and Blockplay. London: Paul Chapman. Gura and others explore block play and its contribution to children’s learning. Hendy, L. and Toon, L. (2001) Supporting Drama and Imaginative Play in the Early Years. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Matthews, J. (1994) Helping Children to Draw and Paint in Early Childhood. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Matthews draws on original research from three unique longitudinal studies and his work with nursery and infant children to interpret the meaning of children’s drawings and paintings. Morgan, M. (1988) Art 4–11. Oxford: Blackwell. This book offers ideas and suggestions for developing children’s art experiences. Pond, L. and Harrison, C. (2003) Supporting Musical Development in the Early Years. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
The development of the visual and performing arts 111
Things to think about .
Can you remember your early experiences of art and music?
.
How did the adults around you respond?
.
How do you think that influenced your development?
Part Three Theory into practice One never notices what has been done, one only sees what remains to be done Marie Curie
8
The role of the adult
Introduction This chapter will look at: .
how adults can foster creative and imaginative development
.
the range of roles adults undertake
.
the non-interventionist role
.
the interventionist role
.
Scaffolding
.
intervening with sensitivity
.
creating conditions which inspire children
.
developing creativity and imagination through our interactions with children
.
the role of the adult in each area
.
the role of the adult at different stages of development.
116 Theory into practice
How adults can foster creative and imaginative development Adults’ attitudes are crucial to the development of creativity and imagination in young children. If we do not create an atmosphere that values these areas of learning and development children will not respond. But what exactly is our role? . . .
Should we become directly involved or would this stifle children’s natural creativity? Should we provide the equipment and materials and stand back or would this result in a lack of progress and challenge? How do we balance the danger of overdirection against anxieties about becoming involved?
Often our own early childhood experiences influences can hinder us. We may have been told that we were no good at art or music. We may have been made to feel ungainly by an insensitive dance teacher (I was told by one that I moved like a clumsy elephant!) or as my brother was told, that he had ‘no imagination’. The embarrassment, anxieties and fears that these responses to our early creative and imaginative representations create, can resurface in later life. Do we have the ability to support young children’s creative and imaginative development? In this chapter we will be looking at these issues and hopefully finding some reassuring answers.
The range of roles adults undertake Supporting and promoting young children’s creativity and imagination involves us in a number of roles. We may be the child’s parent or an educator who is not part of the family. These different roles have different characteristics. Parents are, quite rightly, biased in favour of their children, while educators, who are not part of the family can take on a more objective role and introduce children to the expectations of a wider world. Parents are ‘experts’ on their own child, while other educators are experts on children at a particular age and stage of development. By each bringing their own perspectives and expertise together, we can provide the best for each child. Views differ on the roles adults should undertake when they are supporting young children’s creativity and imagination. For simplicity we will divide these into two approaches: .
Non-interventionist – those who think that adults should not become directly involved in young children’s creative and imaginative work.
The role of the adult 117 .
Interventionist – those who believe that the interaction between children and adult is key to children’s learning and development.
A non-interventionist role The history of art education offers insights into the changing views on the adult role in encouraging creativity. Pickering (1976) explains that in the 19th century children were viewed as inept artists who needed to be taught the skills and techniques that would enable them to produce art work that met adult expectations and purposes. One has only to look at the carefully crafted samplers produced by girls from a relatively young age to see this approach in action. The work of art educators such as Cizek (Viola 1937) and Richardson (1948) challenged this view and led to a change in attitude. They believed that: . .
Children were artists in their own right who should not be forced or pressed to produce images to meet adult expectations. Children’s self-expression was important.
These views have led to a concern that by intervening in children’s creative and imaginative processes adults may harm or even destroy children’s natural creativity by imposing on them adult views and preoccupations. If we intervene with a view that the purpose of art is to produce an image that is as realistic as possible and therefore think of children as failed realists we may do great harm by imposing inappropriate expectations which do not match children’s developmental stage. Adults are also fearful, sometimes with justification, that their involvement with children’s imaginative plays means taking it over and imposing on children’s imaginative processes. Some of the models of adult involvement used in play tutoring have developed from a view that children’s imaginative play is deficient in some way. As we saw earlier there can be cultural and religious reasons why children’s engagement in imaginative play differs. Another influence for those who advocate a ‘hands off’ approach has been Piaget’s views on children’s development. As we saw in Chapter 4, Piaget identified stages in children’s development. For Piaget, creativity is an aspect of cognition and so relies on children’s intellectual level. During the early stages of development young children do not yet think logically and are therefore unable to see different spatial and social view points. For Piaget children were rooted in immediate perception.
118 Theory into practice Progression from one stage to the next was the result of children’s efforts to assimilate and accommodate new experiences. Development was largely unaffected by adult’s interventions in the process, learning followed development and development was dependent on the child’s pace and could not be influenced by adults. Piaget’s influence has sometimes led to the view that the adult role is supervisory rather than interactive. The adult’s role is to provide a stimulating environment and to identify the stage of development individual children have reached so that appropriate materials can be presented, rather than to actively intervene in the learning process.
An interventionist role Cox (1992) has criticized some of the approaches to art education that have developed from the work of Cizek and Richardson. She argues against approaches which are based on the view that development and learning take care of themselves. While children may produce representations that delight the adult eye by their free use of materials as a result of these approaches, they do not necessarily deepen children’s understanding. When adults are unclear about how or when to aid children they tend to indiscriminately label everything as ‘good’. The result can be a strategy that is so ‘hands off’ that it leaves children without the skills and knowledge to progress, the consequence being that they become frustrated and develop an image of themselves as being no good at the performing and visual arts. Too often we hear older children and adults say ‘I’m no good at art or music, I can’t draw or sing’. Their initial delight in drawing, construction, painting, music making and role play turns to reluctance and uncertainty. Kindler (1995) observed children in her son’s daycare centre. She found that though the area was well supplied with a variety of materials the children took little advantage of them. Only when adults were physically present in the area and became involved with the children did the children’s participation, concentration and exploration increase. Her conclusion was that the mere availability of materials is not enough, adult input is essential. As we saw earlier, children are born with the desire to communicate with others. Human beings are essentially cooperative. We want to share our thoughts and feelings, and to do this we need physical actions, language and symbols. Meanings are established by communicating with each other, sharing thoughts and emotions through a range of representations (Trevarthen 1995). Young children want to share their creative and imaginative representations with adults and adults can help them
The role of the adult 119 increase their ability to communicate their thoughts, feelings and ideas through their representations.
Scaffolding Piaget’s views led him to undervalue the role of the adult. There is a danger that children are not presented with challenging experiences because they are not deemed ready to understand them. Before new experiences can be presented, children must be perceived as ready. Vygotsky (1978) offers us an alternative model. Unlike Piaget he stresses the importance of the social context – what children can do with other people. In Vygotsky’s view, Piaget’s work had led to a tendency to focus on what children can do unaided, what they already know or can do. Too often learning is directed at yesterday’s development. For Vygotsky, development is dependent on learning. It is through learning that children develop. Learning should be matched to the child’s level of development but should also take them beyond it (see Figure 8.1). Through his observations of young children, Vygotsky identified a period in which children need assistance to complete a task. This fell between two levels of development: .
.
The children’s actual level of development – this is a completed development cycle, when children understand a concept, skill or idea, and can use it on their own. Potential level of development – this is the level the children can achieve if supported by a competent learner.
The distance between the actual level of development and potential level of development is the ‘zone of proximal development’. Experiences and teaching targeted at this zone will best support the children’s learning. These are the functions that have not yet been mastered but are in the process of being mastered. This is where the adult should focus. Children need to interact with other people if their learning is to progress. Once children have internalized a concept, skill or idea and are able to use it by themselves, without the assistance of a competent learner, it becomes their actual level of development. Bruner (1975) built on Vygotsky’s ideas and introduced the concept of ‘scaffolding’ children’s learning from his observations of the way in which parents interact with their children and especially their role in language development. His observations led him to hypotheses that parents are extremely skilled at supporting their children’s learning by providing a ‘scaffold’ based on their intimate knowledge of the child. But
120 Theory into practice
Figure 8.1 A key worker scaffolds the learning of a group of 3- and 4-year-olds as they work with dough.
what is natural and spontaneous between the parent and child needs to be made conscious when we are working with children who are not our own. Children construct knowledge and add new information to what is already known. When they are presented with new information children look for similarities and differences to find ways to attach it to existing knowledge. Sometimes they need to deconstruct aspects of their understanding in order to incorporate the new knowledge. While children are engaged in this process they need ways of holding experiences together. They need a scaffold. The adult’s role is to provide this scaffold. When scaffolding children’s learning we need to be: . . . .
finely tuned to the children’s ability provide a flexible framework and be aware of where children may be heading base our interventions on supporting the child’s intentions rather than our own respond to and follow up remarks and comment from children.
The role of the adult 121
Intervening with sensitivity In Chapter 3 we looked at the importance of errors, of making mistakes, as part of the creative process. We only feel comfortable to try things out, to take risks and to make mistakes if we are emotionally secure. Csikszentmihalyi (2002) argues that happiness, or flow, is the optimum psychological condition for learning. Negative emotions narrow or restrict thinking while positive emotions broaden our capacity for thought (Fredrickson 2000). Learning is a shared activity and children’s attitudes are very much influenced by the adults around them. The way we present an experience can either encourage children to become involved or lead them to avoid the activity. Learning is communal activity (Anning and Ring 2004). Didactic, prescriptive teaching and limited expectations stifle creativity. In order for creativity to flourish it is necessary for children to be actively involved in the process of learning (Prentice 2000). Creative teaching is an art. It involves the practitioner in: . . . .
using their own imagination to make learning more interesting, exciting and effective taking risks leaving the security of structured lessons behind learning from the children.
Teaching for creativity involves ways of teaching that develop young children’s own creative thinking and behaviour (NACCE 1999). Creative learning is about children taking control of the creative process and owning it. The findings of Effective Provision of Pre-school Education Project (EPPE 2003) can help us to develop our thinking about teaching for creativity by focusing on the importance of adult–child verbal interactions. Sustained shared thinking is when practitioners and children ‘work together’ in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate an activity or extend a narrative. Sustained shared thinking develops and extends the child’s understanding. Key points from the EPPE research are: .
.
The balance between adult-initiated and child-initiated activities should be about equal and children should be encouraged to initiate activities as often as practitioners. Adult ‘modelling’, when the practitioner models through demonstration, is often combined with sustained periods of shared thinking.
122 Theory into practice . .
Open-ended questioning is also associated with more effective learning. Children’s freely chosen play offers many opportunities to promote learning when practitioners recognize its importance and interact with children while they play.
We are social beings, born with the need to represent and communicate our experiences. Through our interactions with others we grow and develop and our role as adults is to ensure that the children for whom we are responsible have this opportunity. The key is to know individual children and groups of children well, building on their previous experiences, current context and being aware of their futures needs. Interventions should support and extend children’s learning and development by adding the information or skill they need at the point they need it. We should not be rushing children but tuning into them. Interventions that are based on the view that children are failed realists or deficient some way are unhelpful, and undervalue young children’s considerable creative and imaginative expertise. We need to intervene with sensitivity, to provide an enabling context for children to grow and flourish. Our role is to: . .
create conditions within which children are inspired to be creative and imaginative develop children’s creativity and imagination through our interactions with them.
Creating conditions which inspire children As adults we need to: 1 2
3
be aware of the nature and value of creativity and imagination be knowledgeable about . the development and process involved . the range of experiences to be provided . the role of the adult . probable patterns of interest be aware of the importance of equal opportunities and the need for equality by ensuring that the environment, experiences and activities provided are: . equally inviting to children from a range of cultures . appealing to girls and boys . accessible to those with special needs
The role of the adult 123 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14
15
be honest about their personal prejudices and challenge their own assumptions value each child’s representations as unique and personal to her or him plan the physical environment: . does the environment feed the child’s imagination and stimulate their creativity? . do the children act in their own the space? . does the environment provide sufficient resources? . is there sufficient space for children to work and protection for work in progress? . is there space to display work? . is the environment exciting and aesthetically pleasing? (If not, see Chapter 9!) offer authentic experiences, ones that are meaningful to the children plan, observe, record and assess the children’s use of the environment and experiences (see Chapter 11) ensure that there is time and space for the child to work alone, as well as with groups of children and time to reflect (see Figure 8.2) deploy the available adults in the most effective way and encourage the children to use adults as a resource ensure that practitioners working together work as a team, develop trust and have time to reflect communicate with parents and others to ensure that: . they build on the children’s creative and imaginative experiences in the home and community . the parents of children are informed of their creative and imaginative experiences . parents are involved and influence the setting provide access to artists, crafts people, musicians, dancers act as researcher: . analysing research and its implications for our practice . analysing our own practice and modifying as necessary . discussing our work with others document the children’s work through photographs, videos and audio cassettes to enable them to look back and comment on their representations and share them with others.
124 Theory into practice
Figure 8.2 We need to ensure that there is time and space to work alone. Felix, aged 3 years 7 months, spent the morning by himself at the piano creating music based on the sounds of the church organ he had heard the day before.
Developing children’s creativity and imagination through our interactions with them As adults we need to: . . .
. .
be empathetic, that is, seeing the world through the eyes of the children offer children secure relationships which allow curiosity to flourish be facilitators enabling the children to – use their own abilities to full and acquire new skills – understand the process involved in creative and imaginative experiences – find their own voice and style, not simply to imitate others – be in control of representations they create – detect and identify possibilities within materials – discriminate and be critical of their own and others’ work recognize that the process may be more important than the product on some occasions demonstrate the use of new materials and equipment to children
The role of the adult 125 . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. .
. .
value children’s self-initiated activity and representations by being available, interested and involved with the children recognize the importance of knowing when to be silent, when to encourage, when to inspire and when to help offer a model of a more experienced learner or of creative and imaginative behaviour by working alongside children as a partner establish with the children clear guiding principles, such as rules for use of materials and acceptable behaviour extend children’s knowledge and skills through encouraging critical reflection and offering feedback present activities and experiences which emphasize exploration and active participation on the part of the children establish interactions which emphasize the role of adult and children learning together offer suggestions for developments based on your understanding of the child’s agenda support children wanting to get involved in shared activity by helping them to signal to others that they wish to become involved encouraging children who don’t get involved be genuine and honest. Praising every child’s every representation is not being honest, but offering constructive feedback and encouragement is discuss children’s representation with them. Help them to talk about how their representations work, the elements they have used and the feelings induced help them to make connections with the work of others pause before speaking and give children the opportunity to communicate their view of their work first. Do not assume that the adult interpretation is the correct one give children time to respond to questions and comments made by adults and other children recognize the importance of verbal and non-verbal communication in adults and children. Does your posture, expression, tone of voice and eye contact indicate interest or boredom?
The example of the diggers shows how Michael’s parents supported his emerging interests.
126 Theory into practice Example At 1 year 9 months Michael became passionate about diggers. According to his father this started on a trip to the local park when Michael spotted a digger. He spent some time observing the digger, watching how it moved and the effect it had on the earth. His interest was infectious and the workmen operating the machine stopped to enable him to take a closer look. They showed him the different parts of the machine and let him look in the cab. On his return home Michael demanded that his father draw him a picture of the digger and the ‘digger men’. His parents took his interests seriously and during the next few weeks helped to search out pictures of diggers in books and posters. They answered his questions about diggers and made time to look at diggers and other vehicles when they went out. Michael drew pictures of diggers with digger men, built up his collection of toy diggers and communicated his passion to any adult who visited! Anyone visiting the house was asked to add to his collection of digger drawings and Michael watched carefully as they drew, correcting any mistakes they made. He used his collection to act out stories involving diggers. Michael had become, with the support of his parents, an expert on diggers and their representation.
Example Siobhan, 4 years 11 months, and Louis 3 years 10 months, were in the construction area using the large blocks. Susan, a member of staff, was in the home corner nearby with two other children. Siobhan: Susan: Siobhan: Susan: Siobhan: Louis: Susan:
Susan, Susan I’ve made Ramah and Seta’s horse! Oh, wow! Yes. yes; That’s when Ramah rescues Seta and they fly away. And what happens next? Me and Louis are going to make the wedding. And me, and me, I’m Ramah! What do you need? (The exchange continues as props are identified and the children are helped by the adult to prepare for the wedding.)
The role of the adult 127 Example Shayma, aged 5, was working in the graphics area, engrossed in her drawing. When she finished Shayma came over to me, holding her drawing behind her back. Shayma: I want to show you something. Me: Oh, let me see, show me. Shayma: But I will only show you if you promise not to ask me to tell you about it. Me: What do you mean! Sheyma: Every time I show you something you say, oh, it’s lovely, do tell me about it!’ Sometimes I just want to show you my drawings, not tell you about them, sometimes they’re for looking at.
The role of the adult at different stages of development (see Table 8.1) As children grow and develop the nature of our interactions needs change in response. Table 8.1 gives some suggestions on how we might do this.
Conclusion Children do not require us to be perfect but they do require us to be committed. There will always be a conflict between our ideals and reality, between what we want to provide for children and the realities of our situation. We can become despondent and feel that there is little we can do. We can feel that the environment we find ourselves in is unsuitable and unsympathetic, or that we are not skilled enough. Whether we see this gap as failure or a challenge is up to us. But if we adopt an attitude of failure we fail ourselves and the children. In our work with children we adopt a variety of tasks. Perhaps the most crucial are: . .
creating relationships which encourage security and trust being models of the creative process in action in our own lives.
128 Theory into practice Table 8.1 The specific role of the adult at different stages of development The adult supports by: Birth–1 year
. recognizing the importance of repeating actions and sounds, imitating expressions, actions and sounds for the baby to copy . encouraging babies from 6 months onwards to move from a passive role to a more active, initiating role and responding to them . using changing, feeding and bathing times as opportunities to support baby’s curiosity by interacting with them . providing opportunities to explore objects and sounds by bringing them within the baby’s sight and reach, for example, mobiles . providing opportunities for the baby to explore everyday objects in an accessible way, for example in baskets . talking with the baby about what they see and responding to their utterances
1–2 years
. extending the length of the play episode and offering a commentary to the child . providing room, space and time to explore safely . providing a wider range and quantity of materials which offer plenty of opportunities for exploring what materials will do . providing opportunities for exploratory play . supporting emerging schema, for example, transporting, enveloping, heaping, collecting, fitting into and through . providing opportunities to explore inside and outside, trips to shops and parks, short journeys on public transport . being attentive and thereby increasing the learning potential of the experiences offered . offering children a commentary on their actions and gradually increasing the complexity of the language used . encouraging role play, copying what the adults around them do is important, for example, pretending to cook using dough
2–3 years
. providing security when new people or experiences are encountered . providing the companionship of other children who become increasingly important as partners in children’s play . helping children to build relationships with a wider range of adults who offer new roles to imitate and explore . supporting children’s interest in representing their experiences of a widening world by access to a variety of materials and toys . enabling children to choose the experience that matches their interest and needs
The role of the adult 129 Table 8.1 Continued 3–4 years
. organizing the day to allow sufficient time for child-initiated activities and experiences . ensuring that children have the skills they need to match the representations they wish to make as their wishes become more complex . introducing children to the work of others across culture and through ages and developing critical abilities
4–5 years
. ensuring props are available for fantasy play . supporting and encouraging the use of unrealistic props for imaginative play . helping the children to increase the complexity of the narratives they act, for example, through asking questions about what happened next and the characters’ motivations
At 6 years
. ensuring that there is still sufficient time for self-initiated activity as curriculum demands increase . encouraging children to work together to produce more complex representations than they can achieve alone . ensuring that children have a love of the visual and performing arts that will stay with them throughout life and the desire to be creative
Summary This chapter has established that: .
adults are crucial to children’s development in creativity and imagination
.
adults need to be aware of the variety of roles they have and find ways to accomplish them
.
concerns about intruding on children’s representations need to be addressed but we must also be aware of the importance of adult/ child interactions in learning and development
.
we need to create an environment where adults and children are learning together
.
we need to create an environment of trust for children and adults.
130 Theory into practice
Further reading Bruner, J. (1975) The ontogenesis of speech acts. Journal of Child Language, 2: 1–9. Bruner discuses the concept of ‘scaffolding’. Cox, M. (1992) Children’s Drawings. London: Penguin. Cox argues that drawing is a demanding skill with its own set of techniques. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002) Flow. London: Rider. Kindler, A. (1995) ‘Significance of adult input in early childhood artistic development’, in C.M. Thompson (ed.) The Visual Arts and Early Childhood. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Children. Kindler discusses the role of the adult and the necessity of adult input. Pickering, J. (1976) ‘Visual education for young children’, in D. Brothwell (ed.) Beyond Aesthetics: Investigations into the Nature of Visual Art. London: Thames and Hudson. Pickering looks at the changes that art education has experienced since its emergence in the 19th century. Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chapter 6 looks at the relationship between learning and development.
Things to think about .
How would you describe your view of your role?
.
Are there any aspects of your role that you feel unconfident about?
.
What can you do to build your own confidence?
9
The organization of space, time and social contexts
Introduction This chapter will look at: .
why the right environment is important
.
how the physical space can encourage creativity and imagination
.
how we use the time available to promote creativity and imagination
.
how we can deploy available adults
.
the importance of peers and opportunities to share with others in creative and imaginative experiences.
Why the right environment is important If we want children to express their creativity we need to provide an environment in which they can do this. There are two aspects we need to bear in mind: 1 2
the emotional environment we create the way we organize the environment.
In the previous chapter we looked at the importance of adult attitudes in the promotion of creativity and imagination. These attitudes create the
132 Theory into practice emotional environment. If we wish children to be creative we need to ensure that all children feel valued and accepted for themselves. Without this children will not feel sufficiently secure to take risks or make mistakes and these are crucial in the creative process. In this chapter we will be looking at the way we organize the environment. Curiosity is a key part of the creative process. If children are not in an environment that excites their curiosity and encourages them to explore and play they will not be creative. All children are entitled to creative experiences. The materials, equipment and experiences we offer should reflect a wide variety of cultural experiences. This is especially important for monocultural settings where children may not have the opportunity to encounter cultural diversity in their community or where home cultures emphasize clearly defined roles for each gender. Creative experiences and imaginative play offer children the opportunity to explore lifestyles outside their immediate family and to gain an insight into the lives of others. It is also essential to ensure that children with additional needs are able to access the full range of creative and imaginative experiences. The challenge is to adapt or expand the experience so that everyone who wishes can be involved. Increasingly children’s opportunities to explore freely are being curtailed. Parents’ concerns about safety may mean that children are no longer able to play freely in streets or parks unless they are closely supervised by adults. To compensate for the decrease in children’s free play opportunities there has been an increase in organized activity for children. Children often attend a variety of clubs, dance, music and drama groups from a young age. These are frequently adult directed and do not allow children the time and space to explore and create in their own ways. We need to find ways to reverse this trend and ensure that in the environments we create for children they do have the opportunities they need.
Organization of and access to space and resource The way in which we organize and use the available space inside and out is crucial in creating opportunities for children to express their creativity. Children need sufficient space to work and easily accessible resources if they are to make the best use of creative and imaginative experiences offered to them. The space will vary greatly. It may be in a home or in a centre-based setting. Each setting will offer its own possibilities. For example, it can be easier to create the sense of security that encourages
The organization of space, time and social contexts 133 creativity in a home-based settings, which is familiar to children, than in centre-based settings which can feel large and institutional. On the other hand, those in centre-based settings may be fortunate in having purposebuilt premises set aside for their sole use and designed with easy access to resources and the space for children to engage in a wide variety of creative and imaginative experiences. We need to look at each setting and maximize its potential for creativity and imagination. As for resources, to some degree creativity is resource led. Without access to resources it is hard for children to demonstrate their creativity, especially when trying to create two- and three-dimensional representations. The range of resources and organization we provide will determine what and how the children can create and how creative they can be. Creativity is about making meaningful connections, using ideas and/or materials in new ways. Our organization of space and resources will largely determine whether children can do this. Think about the age of the children and how they will need to use the space. For example, for the youngest babies accessibility is important and activities should be at their level on or near the floor. Water is much easier to explore when it is in trays on the floor and offers the opportunity to explore without wobbling. Sand is more accessible spread on a large thick plastic sheet, such as a pond liner, with a boundary of blocks to keep it in place. As children get more mobile they like to transport materials and mix them together. We can either spend our time trying to get them to stop or organize the room to support this interest. For example, place sand and water trays near to each other to allow for easy mixing and show the children how to use the dustpan and brush to help them take responsibility. While space and resources will vary between settings it is important that whatever is available is organized in a tidy way. It is frustrating for children and adults if they are delayed and possibly distracted by being unable to find a resource or piece of equipment at a crucial moment. Examination of the work areas of artists and crafts people often reveals well-organized space where everything is easy to locate and readily at hand. McKellar (1957) explains that the arrangement of the physical space can aid concentration, create a mood conducive to creativity and increase motivation. Children’s access to creative and imaginative experiences can be limited for a number of reasons, some valid, others less so. Lack of space and time, an unsympathetic caretaker or cleaner, adults’ degree of tolerance about mess, adults’ lack of understanding about the importance of these experiences can all have a major impact on creativity and imagination. For example, parents and other carers looking after children
134 Theory into practice at home may have limited space and resources available to them compared with centre-based settings. It may not be possible to offer as wide a range of experiences all the time, but the smaller number of children involved makes it possible to concentrate on the particular experiences that are engaging the children at any given time. Kitchen tables and floors provide surfaces to work on, blankets draped over tables and chairs provide a private space for children to reflect in and the everyday items and familiar routines of home life present excellent opportunities for imaginative play. The example in the introduction shows that a domestic setting is just as likely to encourage imagination as a purposebuilt centre filled with resources. The following examples show how staff in centre-based settings adapted their environment to meet the creative and imaginative needs of children.
Example A staff group became concerned by the children’s low interest in and use of the area of the nursery set aside for music and dance. The area was well-stocked with a range of musical instruments that were welllabelled and easy for the children to access. Despite this, observations of the children revealed that they rarely used the area for music and never for dance. Children who did use the area only stayed for a matter of minutes and seemed to be using the piano stool as a resting place between activities! Staff observed that the area was next to the book corner, listening area and the large construction area as well as near a passageway to the garden door. Proximity to the book and listening areas meant that children were not free to explore sound as this disturbed children who were reading. While in theory there was space to dance and move, the nearness to the construction area meant that this space got taken over by the large hollow blocks. Being on the route to the door was distracting. A discussion at a staff meeting reached the conclusion that the music and dance area was badly positioned. If the children were to explore music and dance freely, they needed to reallocate and reorganize the available space. After a great deal of discussion, argument and compromise, an alternative space was identified. Further observation of the children revealed higher levels of concentration, increased complexity in dance and movement and creative use of the musical instruments.
The organization of space, time and social contexts 135 Example Staff in a group for carers and young children wanted to create a space in their room specifically for babies. The room available was used by a large group of 0–3-year-olds and their parents and carers. Staff were concerned that babies did not have as many opportunities to explore and discover as the older children. In consultation with parents and carers they organized the space and resources to maximize the opportunities for creative explorations. They did this by: . .
.
ensuring that the area was sufficiently enclosed so that the babies could explore without disruptions from more mobile children organizing the resources in a way that was accessible to babies who were not yet mobile, for example, by organizing resources in treasure baskets (Goldschmied and Jackson 1994), hanging objects from string within reach of the babies as they sat, organizing tins and boxes on low shelves for babies who were starting to crawl providing materials and objects that stimulated all the senses, for example, mirrors at babies’ height on the wall for babies to watch their own expressions and those of others, reflective strips of paper hanging from the ceiling to catch the light, lemons and oranges in the treasure baskets to smell and taste, bells hanging from strings to shake, sealed plastic bottles containing seeds and pulses to rattle, lengths of fabric attached to the wall to feel and stroke
The babies responded to the environment with enthusiasm. Staff and parents observed them spending up to 45 minutes exploring the resources available, often in the company of another child (see Figure 9.1).
Auditing your setting Look around your setting. Does the environment you have created have a balance between the familiar and secure and the new and unexpected to provoke curiosity and excitement? Are there spaces for children to: . . . . . .
move and think with their bodies? work inside and out? be active, work alone or with others? reflect and contemplate? leave work in progress to return to later? work on a range of surfaces – table, wall, floor, easel?
136 Theory into practice
Figure 9.1 Bernice, aged 5 months, exploring an environment created to stimulate the baby’s creativity and imagination
Are there: . . . .
. . . . . .
spaces for storing and displaying a range of equipment and resources which are tidy, safe, accessible and clearly labelled? materials organized in ways that encourage children to combine them in new and creative ways? outside spaces that complement the inside space? materials and resources organized in ways the allow the children to take responsibility for their environment and combine them in new and creative ways? plenty of light sources especially natural light? sympathetic and stimulating uses of colour, form and texture in furniture and fittings? spaces for displays of children’s work and that of others, including mobiles and large constructions/sculptures? displays and resources reflecting a variety of cultural traditions? plants, prints, artefacts, materials, books to stimulate curiosity, exploration, play and creativity? records of work undertaken and kept in an accessible and appropriate form
The organization of space, time and social contexts 137 Are: . . . .
equipment and materials that could be dangerous if handled incorrectly stored and used in a way that maximizes safety? the equipment and materials that are accessible safe for children to use? floorings non-slip and even? the children aware of how equipment should be used and how they should behave towards each other?
Does every area of your environment promote creativity? Does the role play provision include: . . . . . .
opportunities to observe adults undertaking home and community roles? real-life resources such as kitchen equipment from a variety of cultures? resources to take on character and superhero roles? resources to extend the range of scenarios the children use? unstructured props that children can ascribe various meanings to, for example lengths of cloth to use as cloaks, sails, wrapping babies? resources for a variety of cultures?
Does the construction provision include: . . .
a range of construction materials? resources such as blocks that can be used flexibly, for example to create a boat one day and a sky scraper the next? construction materials that can be used in other areas, for example, large blocks that can be moved for imaginative play?
Does the graphics/literacy provision include: . .
.
a range of mark-making materials and equipment? written materials such as magazines, newspapers, car manuals, catalogues and so on that make connections with home and stimulate curiosity? opportunities to use writing for a variety of purposes and to explore a range of scripts?
Does the maths provision include: . .
an interesting and plentiful supply of objects for counting and measuring? resources for pattern making that excite children’s curiosity?
138 Theory into practice .
interesting challenges that encourage mathematical thinking, for example ‘How can we find out who is the children’s favourite super hero?’
Does the Knowledge and Understanding of the World provision include: . . .
maps and atlases that link to the locality and encourage questions from the children interesting artefacts from the past and a range of cultures to arouse curiosity and stimulate exploration? opportunities to use ICT resources creatively, for example metal detectors in the garden to hunt for ‘treasure’?
Does the malleable/sand/water provision include: . .
resources and opportunities to mix glue, flour, clay, sand, water and find out what happens? opportunities to combine small world resources and malleable resources to encourage children to tell stories and develop narratives?
Does the music and dance provision include: . . . . . . . .
a range of everyday objects and instruments for sound exploration? space to move freely, for example by moving furniture? opportunities to produce sound without disturbing others? opportunities to listen to tapes and records? mirrors for the children to observe their expressions and movement? opportunities to record and compose music and dance? opportunities to perform and watch others perform music and dance? drawing and manuscript paper to record and represent dance and music?
Does the visual arts provision include: . . . . . . .
a wide range of paints, paper and brushes? a wide range of mark-making materials and equipment? a wide range of collage materials? materials for weaving tapestry, printing? resources for sculpting, construction, modelling? encouragement to combine different media? opportunities to investigate the properties of materials including mixing paint?
The organization of space, time and social contexts 139 Does the outside provision include: .
. . . .
resources that complement the inside, for example, by enabling the children to attach huge sheets of paper to walls, fences, for drawing and painting? a wide range of resources that kindle curiosity? resources that stimulate exploration using all the senses? encouragement to combine different resources? space and time for creativity to flourish?
In the example from a play group practitioners use their creativity to increase opportunities for children’s creativity and imagination.
Example Practitioners at a community play group were concerned that children’s creativity was being curtailed due to restrictions the environment placed on them. The hall was used by a number of different organizations so at the end of each session everything had to be stored away. Added to this the tight schedule meant that there was little time to set up or clear away. The practitioners came up with the idea of using poles embedded in buckets of concrete which they could use in a variety of ways to change the environment. For example they linked them with lengths of fabric to produce enclosed areas, changing the fabric to encourage different moods. They threaded string between the poles and attached resources to them creating music areas, science areas or dressing up areas. The ingenuity of the practitioners turned an uninspiring hall into a place of curiosity and creativity.
Care of equipment and resources It is important to undertake regular risk assessments of the environment you are providing to ensure that you are aware of any dangers and have done your best to minimize them. For example the scissors, saws and other cutting equipment need to be kept sharp and clean: blunt instruments mean undue pressure which leads to accidents. Make sure that you know how to store and prepare the equipment and materials the children will be using. There is the potential for any equipment to be used inappropriately and possibly harmfully. To avoid an accident or mishap, and create an
140 Theory into practice environment that is conducive to creativity, we need to ensure that the children: . . .
know how to use equipment and material in the correct way show an awareness of the need for self-discipline and respect for others are aware of the importance of behaving appropriately to ensure their own safety and the safety of others. For example, they should not run or move carelessly while holding sharp objects such as scissors.
While there are common rules, each setting will also have their own rules based on their particular circumstances. It is important that we ensure an appropriate balance between safety and the freedom to experiment with resources and ideas. Adults need to make sure that the rules in use are genuinely to do with safety and respect for others and not to do with their own prejudices, bias or convenience!
Organizing time to promote creativity and imagination As we saw in Chapter 3 the creative process takes time. We need time to experiment and explore, to play and practise, to try new ideas and modify our representations in response to the feedback we get. This means that we need to think about how we organize the time available to ensure that the children can spend as much time as possible engaged in creative and imaginative experiences. As children get older it can seem that much of the school day is taken up with the core subjects, and that creativity and imagination are seen as a luxury or extra to be fitted in when the core curriculum has been delivered. A study of children’s transition from the Foundation Stage to Key Stage 1 found that children were being turned off learning due to long periods spent sitting on the mat and reduced opportunities for outside play and child-initiated experiences (Ward 2005). Lack of time is often cited as a reason for curtailing children’s creativity, especially in the reception year when the perceived demands of the numeric and literacy strategies seem to eat into the time available. But in Chapters 1 and 2 we saw how important these areas of experience are for all areas of learning, and that through creative and imaginative experiences children’s learning in the core areas can be enhanced. This is an opportunity for practitioners to engage their own creativity. A cross-curricular approach, that is, bringing different areas of learning or subjects together to explore an idea or project, allows us to draw on the appeal and potential of creative experiences to encourage learning
The organization of space, time and social contexts 141 and development in all areas of the curriculum. Such an approach enables children to deepen their understanding and make creative connections, increases their motivation as it makes more sense to them, and helps practitioners to join up the curriculum. An increasing number of primary schools are using this approach with great success. Example Practitioners at a primary school were concerned that the children were not showing the levels of engagement and enthusiasm for learning that they hoped and decided to adopt a different approach. The following elements were key: . . .
. .
.
stopping being an ‘am’/‘pm’ school and making breaks and assemblies fit round learning experiences rather than vice versa organizing their time into blocks which enabled children to explore things in depth using drama as a way of children getting into role and in role discussing their character before engaging in writing which led to more complex and exciting narratives using dance as a way of exploring a history theme such as the fire of London spending a week focused on writing using the arts as a way of developing speaking and listening and as a meaningful way to encourage writing skills seeing the skills developed through the arts as transferable to literacy and numeracy and therefore freeing the curriculum to give more time to these areas.
The school was delighted by the results – higher levels of engagement from the children and good results at Key Stage 2.
Whatever the circumstance or restraints we work under, we need to look at the time available and make sure that it is put to the best use: . . . .
Is the session organized in a way that allows for uninterrupted exploration and minimizes interruptions? Is there an appropriate balance between child- and adult-initiated activity? Is there time for children to work alone, and/or with other children and with adults? Can explorations continue over time – from morning to afternoon, from day to day, over weeks, allowing children to refine and develop their ideas and representations?
142 Theory into practice
The importance of peers in creative and imaginative experiences The importance of peers cannot be overemphasized, and the ways in which children are organized will determine the opportunities they have to work with a variety of children in groups of different sizes. Same- and cross-age groups have different characteristics. Working in cross-age groups enables younger children to observe and learn from more experienced learners, while the opportunity to scaffold the learning of younger children enables the older children to clarify their thinking. Children of the same age or at a comparable stage of development will often have similar interests and a desire to explore these together. The size of the group also has an impact: a pair might lead to exchanges of ideas and working together, while three or four may lead to the type of conflicts that can stimulate new connections and creativity. Experiences such as these help the children to become receptive to the ideas of others (Edwards et al. 1993). Often the hardest part for children can be the initial step towards collaborating with others. Garvey (1977) and others, have looked at children’s involvement in imaginative play, the roles they adopt and the plans they use. Children can initiate imaginative play in a number of ways and signal to others the plan to be followed. They may: . .
. .
ascribe a new identity to an object, for example, by using a stick as a sword to signal the introduction of a play plan based on knights invest an object with animate characteristics, for example, by pretending a doll is a baby crying to indicate play based on mothers and babies refer to non-existent objects, for example, miming brushing teeth with a tooth brush adopt a role, for example by saying, ‘I’m the bus driver and you’re the passenger and we’re going to the seaside’.
We can help children who find it difficult to become involved to develop these skills and so help them to benefit from the full range of imaginative play. These skills are transferable and will help the children to become involved in other creative and imaginative experiences. In imaginative play partners are often crucial. For younger children the opportunity to imitate and copy the actions of another child helps develop their play, while the elaborate narratives older children devise require a cast. Shared plans provide the narrative for imaginative play. Groups offer children an opportunity to take on different roles. The child can be:
The organization of space, time and social contexts 143 . . . . . .
the star or lead a supporting role the director the creator and expert the critic the audience.
Again, three-dimensional representation, especially work on large constructions, can be enhanced when children can work together. The results that can be achieved by the group, the complexity of the representations produced, are often far greater than those that the individual child working alone can produce. Working with other children on twodimensional representations offers children the opportunity to see how their peers use materials and solve problems. In music and dance what the group can produce is likely to be greater than that which the child can achieve alone. In many music and dance representations a group is essential in fully realizing the representation. The environment we create needs to allow each child to experience a range of roles as part of groups of different sizes.
Organizing the adults to support creativity and imagination As early years practitioners increasingly work in multi-agency teams we need to develop a multi-agency approach to our work and incorporate a wider range of expertise and perspectives into our thinking. In Chapter 8 we looked at the role of the adult and the range of roles we need to undertake. If we are to fulfil these roles we need to deploy the available adults in the most effective way. In a centre-based setting there may be a team of adults, while at home there may be only one. Whatever the number it is important that we take some time to think about the use of our time. Adults are a valuable resource that we cannot afford to squander. The following questions need to be addressed: . . . .
Are adults deployed to work alongside the children as they engage in the full range of creative and imaginative experiences? Are adults deployed outside as well as inside? Do adults have time to reflect with the children, to check ideas and the progress of investigations with children? Is there time and space for the adults involved with the children to meet to discuss, record, assess, plan and develop their practice and reach a shared understanding?
144 Theory into practice . . . .
Is there time for adults to record and document the children’s representations? If in a centre-based setting, are the children’s families and friends fully involved? Do the children use the adults as a resource? Is there time for adults to take on a range of roles: – observing the children – guiding, suggesting and explaining – restarting when they have become confused or lost – helping the children overcome difficulties and become remotivated – taking children by the hand and showing them how to do something?
Conclusion Young children and the adults responsible for them find themselves in a wide variety of settings. They may occupy purpose-built premises, share premises with others, and/or be at home. Each setting will have its own frustrations and limitations as well as its own particular ambience. All can be used to promote young children’s creativity and imagination if we, the adults involved, use our own creativity and imagination.
Summary This chapter has established: .
the importance of creating the right emotional environment
.
the importance of organizing the environment effectively to maximize creativity
.
the importance of ensuring that there is sufficient space to be creative and imaginative
.
the importance of ensuring that there is sufficient time for creative and imaginative explorations
.
that working with adults and other children is important and needs careful organization.
The organization of space, time and social contexts 145
Further reading Bruce, T. (2004) Cultivating Creativity in Babies, Toddlers and Young Children. London: Hodder and Stoughton. This book contains an excellent chapter on creating an environment to promote creativity. Edwards, C., Gandini, L. and Foreman, G. (eds) (1993) The Hundred Languages of Children. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. This book describes the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Garvey, C. (1977) Play. London: Fontana. Chapter 6 looks at pretend and imaginative play. Goldschmied, E. and Jackson, S. (1994) People Under Three: Young Children in Day Care. London: Routledge. Chapter 2 looks at organizing space for living, learning and playing. Ward, H. (2005) What I really hated at school today. Report of a study on the transition from the Foundation Stage to Key Stage 1. TES, 15 April.
Things to think about .
How does the layout of your setting promote creativity?
.
What are the limitations?
.
What action can you take?
.
How does your organization of time promote creativity and imagination?
.
What are the limitations?
.
What action can you take?
.
How do you organize the children to promote opportunities for creativity and imagination?
.
What else can you do?
.
How do you deploy the available adults and resources?
.
Can they be used more effectively?
10
Extending the range of experiences
Introduction This chapter will look at: .
why it is important to extend children’s access to creative and imaginative experiences
.
using the local environment
.
working with practising artists, musicians, performers and crafts people
.
using galleries, museums and live performance
.
using displays
.
appraising and appreciating of work of others.
Why it is important to extend children’s access to creative and imaginative experiences Creativity and imagination need stimulation. The setting alone cannot provide all that children need and it is important to recognize the role of the wider community in developing children’s creativity. Children are part of this wider creative community. The Curriculum Guidance for the
Extending the range of experiences 147 Foundation Stage (QCA 2000b) and The Primary Strategy Excellence and Enjoyment (DfES 2003) stress the importance of children having the opportunity to work alongside artists, musicians and crafts people. Exploring the local environment and sharing the creative and imaginative representations of adults in the community inducts children into their own culture and exposure to the representations of other communities introduces them to cultures other than their own. If children are to be creative and imaginative we must feed and inspire them by widening their experiences. When we are planning opportunities which extend the range of creative and imaginative experiences usually on offer, we need to: .
. . .
.
.
.
.
Decide what we want from the experience, for example, how will it build on children’s previous learning and development, create new opportunities for representation and creativity, and provide a stimulus for future learning and development? Decide how much time is available and how it can best be used. Be realistic about how much can be accomplished in the time available. Undertake a risk assessment if this is a new activity. Prepare ourselves and the children well. Talk to the children beforehand to explain the purpose of the experience and what they will be doing but leave some element of surprise. Ensure that there are sufficient adults for the number of children involved. If we are leaving the immediate premises, what is the adult:child ratio for the setting? Discuss the purpose, aims and expectations with helpers beforehand. Think about how the children will represent their experiences. If they are going to draw, is there a board to lean on and a way of attaching the paper? If they are going to record sounds to inspire music, can the tape recorder record with sufficient clarity? If cameras are used, is there a tripod or something similar for the children to rest it on? If we are going somewhere new, how do we get there? A visit before we take the children is a good idea. We can use this visit to gather relevant information, for example, what particular aspects of the location will most interest the children, does the journey involve potential problems (such as long escalators) and where are the toilets! Think about how the children will share their experience with others and how they will build on it during the following days, for instance, through role play.
148 Theory into practice
Using the local environment The local environment is part of the children’s everyday experience. By using this environment to promote their creativity and imagination we are: . . . . . .
encouraging children to value and take pride in their neighbourhood increasing their understanding of the community they come from sharpening their awareness of the world around them helping them to look in detail at the familiar and see new possibilities developing their visual literacy building on their previous learning.
We can make use of: . . .
the changing seasons by observing and recording the changes in the natural and manufactured world community festivals by drawing on the cultural, religious and social traditions of the district buildings by investigating homes, places of work and worship, bus and train stations, local landmarks.
At first sight some local environments may appear to offer little opportunity to develop creativity and imagination. For example, a run-down inner city area may lack well-kept parks, listed buildings and carefully designed public spaces but closer examination can reveal a wealth of opportunities. The old Victorian houses have intricate mouldings and stained glass, and the trees that line the streets reflect the changing seasons. Dandelions grow on derelict building plots. Community festivals bring displays of light, colour, music and dance on to the streets. All these add richness to the children’s lives and can inspire a range of representations. Guidelines: 1 2
3
Think about the various aspects of the local environment and the possibilities for creativity and imagination they could provide. You may be using a garden, school grounds or going further afield. Make sure there is plenty of time for the children to observe, discuss and record whatever aspect of the local environment they are focusing on. If you are visiting places of work, such as shops or fire stations, make sure you have spoken to those who work there before you arrive and that they agree to your visit.
Extending the range of experiences 149 4
5 6
Make links with people in the local community who can alert you to events such as fairs, carnivals and so on so that the children can be involved in the preparation as well as the finished event. Think about the equipment children will need, for example, magnifying glasses to look at plants and surfaces in detail. Do not overlook the potential of the familiar. Looking at the building they are in, with a creative and imaginative perspective, can open children’s eyes. They can identify the different materials used and decide why a particular material is used for a particular purpose. They can look for the elements of art – patterns, shapes, colour, tone, form and see how they are used individually and together. They can assess the aesthetic qualities of the building – how does it make them feel, which areas do they like best and why, how would they change things?
The example of Rosie’s work shows a practitioner making good use of the local environment.
Example As part of her evidence of competence in National Vocational Qualifications for Childcare and Education, Rosie submitted, in her portfolio, a record of the work she and a group of 3-year-olds had undertaken in their local environment. Rosie had observed the children’s interest in the local flora during a journey to the library and after discussion with the children they decided to investigate this aspect of their environment more fully. The children and Rosie spent an afternoon walking around the area looking for as many different plants as possible. They found a variety of flowers (dandelions, docks, thistles, daisies, viola, cow parsley), grasses and leaves growing wild on the canal verge, between paving stones and on the edge of derelict sites. Using reference books they found out the name of each specimen. They recorded their observations with drawings, rubbings and photographs, and Rosie wrote down comments the children made as they explored. On their return they created a display to share with other children and their parents.
150 Theory into practice
Working with practising artists, musicians, performers and crafts people Another way to extend children’s experiences is to bring artists and crafts people into the setting. Collaboration with artists may be one of the few opportunities early year’s practitioners have to see another professional engage with the children in their group. The artist may introduce a different approach to communicating with the children. This in turn may lead to new insights into individual children’s abilities. Ways of working together may include: . . .
demonstrating their work working alongside or with the children putting on a performance or display to share what has been created with others.
Such experiences offer children the chance to see the visual and performing arts in action. Through these experiences children become aware of the role and function of creativity and imagination in society and gain insights into their own and other cultures. Working alongside artists, musicians and crafts people gives children an opportunity to find out what is involved in their work. They can find out: . . . . .
what and how equipment and materials are used how equipment is cared for, for example, the care of paints and brushes the whole process involved, for instance, from preparation, execution of performance to clearing away and packing up the problems and practicalities, for example, transporting musical instruments and large pieces of work the satisfaction of having an audience for your work.
The influence of the work of practitioners at Reggio Emilia (Edwards et al. 1993) has led to many more opportunities for children to work with artists in early years as more people see how valuable this relationship can be. However, being an artist does not necessarily make you good at supporting children’s creativity. In our experience at Thomas Coram the best artists are those who are able to: . . .
spend time with the children getting to know them tune into children’s interests be alongside the children and deepening their understanding without taking over
Extending the range of experiences 151 . . .
use their expertise to help the children express and represent their ideas introduce the children to new materials, new techniques and ways of responding leave time for the children to immerse themselves in the experience.
As one artist we worked with put it, ‘it’s about being the children’s hands, helping them to express their ideas, not yours’ and the celebration example shows an artist working in this way.
Example As part of a focus on ‘Celebrations’ a group of 2-, 3- and 4-year-olds became aware of banners and their use in festivals, parties and other celebrations. In response the centre staff arranged for the children to work with Cathy, a local artist who makes banners. The purpose of the project was to introduce the children to banner making and the print process. The project started with a workshop for staff. This introduced the staff to the banner-making process and print-making techniques. They produced a small banner to share with the children and demonstrate the techniques they would be using. Cathy then came and worked with groups of children on two banners. They produced their own images to go on the banners. The children used a variety of techniques including finger painting and silk screen printing to transfer their images onto the banner. Cathy then pressed and prepared the banner for hanging. Through the project the children had an opportunity to develop their understanding of printing. They learned how images could be transferred to the banner (see Figure 10.1), they discovered that images could be repeated and reversed and they found out more about how colours mix and merge. They realized the importance of having a space to work undisturbed and the need to continue work on the banner over a number of days. At the end of the project the children shared their work with their parents and others in the centre through a display of the banners and the process involved.
Guidelines: 1 2 3 4
Ensure that the project has the support of colleagues, especially the senior management team. Ensure that parents are actively involved. Embed the project into the ongoing work of the setting. Be clear about the aim and focus of the experience. How are you
152 Theory into practice
Figure 10.1 Simon, aged 3 years 8 months, working with Cathy to produce a banner.
5
6
7
8
going to use the artist’s or crafts person’s time with the children? How will you follow up the project? How will you fund it? What can you afford to spend? Choose your artist with care. If possible use the recommendation of a colleague, parent or friend. You will also wish to make sure that the person you use is a suitable person to work with young children by taking up references and ensuring that police checks have been done. Be creative and imaginative. Parents and friends often have skills they can share or local arts forums, creative partnerships and regional arts councils may be able to recommend someone. Draw up a clear list of your expectations to share with the artist or performer beforehand. For longer projects draw up a job description to show how they will work as part of the staff team. Include your settings’ philosophy, aims and objectives. Meet with the artist or performer beforehand to discuss your expectations of the projects; the time and length of each session; the needs and abilities of the children; the number of children they will work with; practical arrangements including storage of equipment and materials and where to find tea and coffee!
Extending the range of experiences 153 9
10 11
12 13
Prepare yourself and the children well. Talk to the children beforehand and introduce them to the work of the artist or the field of performing or visual art they are going to explore. Identify a suitable project space where the artists and children can work and materials and equipment be stored. Record the progress of the project and the children’s response. This will enable the children to reflect on the experience and share it with others. Celebrate the end of the project with a display or performance. Be prepared for some disruption and changes to the usual pattern of the day.
Music gives practitioners a vehicle for getting to know the children and for bringing children together as a group, which reinforces sense of community (Young and Glover 1998). At Thomas Coram we have been fortunate in receiving support from the National Foundation for Youth Music to develop a music programme aimed at encouraging the innate musicality of adults and children which is described in the music-maker example.
Example At Thomas Coram we believe that musicality is an innate human characteristic and that involvement in music making gives children a chance to develop not only musical concepts and skills but also their self-esteem and well-being. As a staff team we were aware that music making was an area that many of us felt unconfident about and we needed a confident music maker to support our own musical development alongside that of the children. We wanted music to be embedded into the life of the centre not to be something a music teacher does once a week with the children. Children and staff attended regular music sessions with an experienced music maker and as staff confidence developed they took over the sessions with the support of the music maker. The sessions were linked to the ongoing work of the centre and the songs and music from the sessions became part of the day-to-day life of the centre. The children also had the opportunity to listen to and work with visiting musicians from a range of musical traditions and to share their music making with their parents and the wider community through performances.
154 Theory into practice
Visits to galleries, museums, theatres and other venues for the visual and performing arts Visits to galleries and museums offer children the opportunity to examine real works of art at close range. The experience of seeing an installation, sculpture or painting at life size and the opportunity to examine the texture of the surface is very different to looking at a print or model. Children are often drawn to paintings with a strong narrative element. During a trip to the Tate Gallery a group of nursery children revealed that their favourite painting was ‘Ophelia’. They were interested in why she was lying in the water and wanted to know what her mummy would say when she went home with a wet dress. But they were also fascinated by the abstract paintings hanging in nearby galleries and commented on the artists’ use of colour and the texture of paint. In recent years there has been a growth in gallery exhibitions specifically for young children and there are now many more opportunities for children to enjoy gallery visits. The experience of being part of an audience is a powerful one. Excitement and atmosphere build as the audience wait for the performance to start. For the period of the performance the everyday world is in suspense and the world of the imagination takes over. There is a big difference between listening to recorded music and live music. In a live performance there is an interaction between the music maker and the listener which intensifies the experience. The aspects of the performance that engage the children may surprise the adult. For example, one child spent an entire performance watching the way in which the lights changed, fascinated by the different effects that could be created. The example from the dance festival shows how powerful the experience of performance can be.
Example During a regular music and movement session we had found that for many children the medium of dance enabled them to express themselves in a way that words alone couldn’t. Children from Thomas Coram were invited to take part in Camden’s dance festival. This involved working with dancers to create a dance and then performing this at a local theatre alongside children and young people from Camden’s primary and secondary schools. Initially we had concerns about such young children taking part in a public performance as we did not want the children to feel pressurized to live up to adult
Extending the range of experiences 155 expectations. However, since taking part in the festival we have revised our ideas. For the children the experience of being performers in a proper theatre with a real audience was a magical one. There has been the excitement of going back-stage and finding out what happens behind the curtain. Then there has been pleasure of appearing before an appreciative audience, sharing their work with the wider community and knowing that their voices have been heard. The increase in their confidence and self-esteem has been marked.
Guidelines: 1
2 3 4 5
6
Many galleries, theatres and dance companies have education officers. Contact them and ask their advice. If possible, arrange for them to accompany your visit. Bear in mind the age of the children. What will appeal to them? Do not try to pack too much in on a visit to a gallery. It is better to look at one painting in detail than to try to cover the whole gallery. Find out if it is acceptable to take photographs to record the children’s experience before you visit. Talk to the children beforehand about museums, galleries and theatres. For example, what do they look like, how do people behave in them, and what do you do inside them? Talk about what they will be doing and seeing. Look at pictures, video and books. Bring the supplies necessary for the age group you are taking, for example, spare underwear or nappies for inevitable accidents and a first-aid kit.
Using displays Displays can be large or small. They may consist of an arrangement of interesting objects and materials on a window sill or be spread along a large corridor. Whatever their size, displays offer children the opportunity to: 1 2 3 4 5
celebrate and share their own work, in progress as well as finished observe and handle the work of other people across cultures and times see how others have handled materials and solved problems develop their aesthetic awareness and visual literacy stimulate and extend their range of representations
156 Theory into practice
Figure 10.2 A display of sunflowers from a variety of times and cultures
6
explore and focus on particular aspects of representation, for example: . use of colour, texture, line . particular sorts of artefacts – clothes, shoes, costumes . different representations – printing, drawing, textiles.
Guidelines: 1
2
3 4
Think about who the display is aimed at. Is it accessible to them? Is it as near as possible to the eye level of the intended viewer? (Figure 10.2) What is its aim? For example, celebrating children’s representations, improving the aesthetic qualities of the environment, sharing children’s achievement? How are children involved? For example, did they help to choose the items and arrange them; will they dictate the captions to be used? Are names, labels and explanations legible? Are there examples of handwritten as well as printed captions? Is the title clear, the wording
Extending the range of experiences 157
5
6 7 8 9
grammatically correct with correct spelling and punctuation? Are appropriate scripts used that reflect the languages used by the children? Does the background contrast and enhance the display or detract from it? Are different backgrounds used for different effects, for example, paper, corrugated card or material? Are drawings, prints and paintings mounted? Are mobiles and suspended work also used? Is the display well laid out? Are three-dimensional representations displayed? Are blocks or boxes used to vary the height of the display?
Appraising and appreciating the work of others Opportunities to explore the work of others help children to develop their critical skills and to bring these skills to their own work. By looking at and listening to the work of others, children are able to enhance their own work. Seeing or hearing how other people have tackled problems offers starting points to tackle their own challenges. The constructive feedback of other adults and children in response to their own work is helpful to children and assists them in refining their representations. In order to share and discus their views the children need to have access to an appropriate vocabulary. The vocabulary they use should help them to: . . .
describe evaluate explain their own intentions and what they perceive to be the intentions of others.
It is important to ensure that: . . . . .
children are encouraged to use their own words to describe what they see, hear, touch and feel new and specialist vocabulary is introduced in a meaningful context children are encouraged to use an accurate vocabulary they are introduced to the elements of music, dance and art to describe what they perceive they look at the process involved as well as the end product.
158 Theory into practice Think in advance of the comments and questions you can use to stimulate discussion. How will you follow up and use the observations the children made? However, it is important to remember that art, dance and music are languages in their own right and many of their qualities are not captured by words. Media such as music are able to reach us in a very direct way that is beyond words. They have the ability to transcend words: we can say things with music that we could never say with words.
Conclusion By giving the children rich, first-hand experiences of the visual and performing arts, and the local environment, we feed their imagination and creativity. There are practical difficulties in arranging visits – transport, accessibility, sufficient adults, and sometimes we can find ourselves wondering if it is all worth it! But the enrichment that such experiences bring to young children’s lives and the quality of creative and imaginative representations that result mean that we must use our ingenuity and imagination to ensure that all children have these opportunities.
Summary This chapter has established that: .
children need opportunities to explore their local environment
.
children benefit from exposure to the work of others and opportunities to work with artist, performers and crafts people
.
displays have an important role to play in developing children visual and aesthetic awareness
.
appraising and appreciating the work of others helps children to develop their own work.
Further reading Clark, A., Heptinstall, E., Simon, A. and Moss, P. (2002) The Arts in the Early Years: A National Study of Policy and Practice. London: Arts Council in England. This report contains case studies of successful projects.
Extending the range of experiences 159 Manser, S. (1995) Artists in Residence: A Teacher’s Handbook. London: London Arts Board. This handbook gives guidance to those wanting to work with artists in school. It looks at the benefits to be gained and the types of work that can be undertaken.
Things to think about .
How do you use the local environment to encourage creativity and imagination?
.
Have you made contact with artists, crafts people, musicians and performers who can share their work with the children?
.
How often do the children for whom you are responsible have the opportunity to visit museums and galleries?
.
How do you use displays?
11
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing
Introduction This chapter will examine: .
the importance of the planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing cycle
.
the importance of involving children
.
the importance of involving parents
.
the cycle in practice.
The importance of the planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing cycle In the previous chapters I have outlined why creativity and imagination are important; the creative process; how children’s development influences their access to and use of creative and imaginative experiences; the range of experiences children should have access to; the role of the adult and organization of the environment. In this chapter we will look at how we ensure that we incorporate all these elements into our practice as part of a continuous cycle. Planning and implementing, observing, recording and assessing are the stages in this cycle. There is no single system of planning that suits all settings and all
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 161 children all the time – it is not a case of ‘one size fits all’. But there are principles which should underpin the systems we choose to use. Too often young children are given access to a narrow range of creative experiences, which are limited and superficial. Freely chosen play activities often provide the best opportunities for adults to extend children’s thinking (EPPE 2003). Planning for creativity should include time for extending child-initiated play as well as time for adult-initiated group work. Often it is better to make use of opportunities as they arise and plan retrospectively! We need to differentiate the experiences we present and personalize them and match them to the learning needs of the individual children we are offering them to. Creative and imaginative experiences offer children the freedom to use the materials in an open-ended way. As there is no pre-prescribed end product individual children are able to use the materials and ideas in a way that matches their own learning needs. The adult’s expertise is in enabling children to develop mastery and the freedom to explore at their own level by finding ways to develop the skills and concepts children need at the time they need them. The cycle helps us to think through how we will: .
. . . .
Ensure that the experience we offer matches the particular needs and interest of individuals and groups – why are we offering this experience at this time? Organize children’s access to creative and imaginative opportunities – is it better for children to work alone or as part of a group? Organize our own role – will we be observing, facilitating, demonstrating and acting as critical friends? Record and assess the children’s responses – how has the experience promoted the children’s creativity and imagination? Use the information we gather to inform the next cycle – what should we do next?
We are looking for teachable moments, chances to put our goals for the children’s learning into practice by making use of every opportunity. Sometimes we progress through the stages of the cycle in the space of minutes, maybe in response to a spontaneous event. On other occasions the cycle spreads over months or years. For example, we watch children over time to see how they are responding to the creative and imaginative environment we have created, we analyse our observations and plan our modifications. The example of Leon and Ann shows the cycle taking place over a short period.
162 Theory into practice Example Leon, aged 5, and Ann, aged 3, were sitting at the table with an adult, eating lunch. They heard the roadworks going on outside. ‘Chi, boom, chi, boom, chi, boom that’s the sound’, said Ann in a deep voice. ‘The drill is going buzz, buzz, buzz’, adds Leon, using a higher pitch. The adult responded by joining in and changing the pitch, making each of the sounds that the children had identified get higher and lower. Ann commented, ‘That’s like the organ downstairs, it goes up and down’. The adult suggested using the organ later to make the sounds of the road works and the children agreed with enthusiasm. During the afternoon the children used the organ and were introduced to the terms ‘high’ and ‘low’ to describe the musical elements they had identified.
The cycle is also used to support children’s learning and development over the medium term and we will be looking at examples of this later in the chapter. Whether the cycle is short, medium or long term, it needs to be manageable, clear and involve all those who have the children’s interest at heart. These include: . . .
the practitioners who are responsible for the children the children themselves the parents, if children are attending settings in the absence of their parents.
The importance of involving children Creative and imaginative representations are about the individual, their personal response to the world and the ways in which they choose to represent this. For this reason it is essential to involve children in the assessment and planning of their work. We need to find out from children: . . . .
What were their intentions? Why have they used materials or ideas in that particular way? Does the result satisfy them and are they happy with it? What would they like to do or know next?
Obviously children’s ability to engage in conversations of this sort increases with age. But with the support of a well-known and receptive
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 163 adult they can start to take part in this process from a young age. In the early stages adults will be using behavioural clues to gain an insight into the children’s views. For example, are they concentrating intently on the experience? Do they show satisfaction on completion? Do they return to the activity? Later we can use verbal clues. For example, has the child given a label to the representation? Is the child responsive to our commentary on the representation? Once children have developed the vocabulary to describe their own representations the presence of a receptive adult who listens to their explanations, asks questions and makes comments that demonstrate genuine interest is crucial. A trusting relationship, honesty and a shared understanding with an adult provides the security children need to discuss their representations, reflect on their learning and identify the next step.
Figure 11.1
A sad little girl and a swing.
Example Mona, aged 6, described and evaluated her drawing (see Figure 11.1). ‘It’s about a little girl who, once upon a time, wanted to go on a big girls’ swing and her mummy said ‘‘No! Little girls go on little girls’ swings’’ and the little girl was sad and waited to become a big girl (teacher asks how she made the girl look sad). She’s sitting by herself not
164 Theory into practice playing with her friends. I used crayons because they’re easier than paint (teacher asks why). They don’t drip and you can make the colours stay in the right place (teacher asks how she chose the colours). Red is my favourite colour (referring to colour of the little girl’s dress). I used blue for the sky because it’s blue and green for the grass because it’s green (teacher asks ‘‘does the picture look the way you wanted it to look?’’). I did the swing right, not the bit at the top that shouldn’t be there (refers to extra line on the frame of the swing). The little girl looks sweet! Ah! I’m good at drawing apple trees. I’m good at drawing’.
The importance of involving parents Children’s homes and family life often provide the ideas and themes that are reflected in their creative and imaginative representations. For this reason alone adults who work with children other than their own need to involve parents in their assessment and planning of children’s experiences. Without the input of parents we will lack access to these major influences on children’s representations and our assessments will be partial. Parents have a right to be involved in all aspects of their children’s learning. The role of nursery staff, childminders, teachers and others is to find ways of ensuring that this right is evident in their practice. Each setting needs to identify the best way to involve the parents of children in their particular group. Some parents may be concerned about gender issues, for example that their son enjoys dressing up as part of imaginative play. Other parents, especially as children get older, may be concerned that time spent on creative and imaginative experiences would be better used for another purpose, for example, literacy and numeracy. We need to take concerns of this nature seriously and take the time and effort to explain the value of creativity and imagination and the contribution they make to other areas of the curriculum. If parents feel confident that we are clear about what we are doing with their children and why we are doing it they will be reassured. We can involve parents in assessing and planning children’s creative and imaginative experiences by: . .
ensuring a welcoming atmosphere organizing occasions for practitioners and parents to meet to discuss individual children’s work, such as regular meetings to look at samples of children’s work, discuss observations, and draw up plans to support the children over the next few months
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 165
Figure 11.2
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Our house.
creating opportunities to discuss creativity and imagination and their value to children, for example, through curriculum workshops and displays of children’s work.
Example Mark’s parents discuss their son’s art portfolio with his teacher. Mark is 5 years old and in the reception class. ‘He really likes drawing. At home he has loads of pens and felt-tips and he uses them whenever he wants. Sometimes we sit with him while he draws but most of the time he gets on with it himself. He asks when he gets stuck though. When he was trying to draw our house (see Figure 11.2) he wanted to know how to draw the people in bed sideways. So we showed him. Of course he watches his older sister. She shows him how to do things and then a few days later you see what she’s taught him in one of his drawings. At one time we were worried that all he did was drawing, painting, sticking . . . he wasn’t interested in anything else but now he’s really good at writing, he can write his own name neatly, much better than some of the other children!’
166 Theory into practice
The cycle in practice Our aim is to extend children’s learning by identifying their current level of understanding and planning activities, experiences and explorations that will support them to the next stage. We can plan and evaluate creative and imaginative experiences in a number of ways: . . . .
through the use of themes and cross-curricular approaches through using children’s current schema by responding to children’s spontaneous interest through specific activities and experiences that focus on creativity and imagination.
We will also draw on guidance including: . . . .
Birth to Three Matters The Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage The Foundation Stage Profile The National Curriculum.
While, in reality, the different stages of the cycle overlap and spill into each other it is helpful to look at the role of each stage.
Planning This is the stage in the cycle when we think about the experience we are to offer: . . . . . . . . . .
How is it based on our observations of the children’s needs and interests? How will the children be involved in planning the development of the experience? How does it relate to their previous experiences? What experiences will be included? What are the possibilities for learning? Which aspects of Birth to Three Matters, the Foundation Stage or National Curriculum do we hope to address? How will we introduce the experience to the children? How will we organize materials, ourselves and the children? What role or roles will we be undertaking? How will parents be involved?
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 167
Implementing This is the stage in the cycle when we engage with the children in whatever role is most appropriate. This includes: . . . . . . . . .
introducing the experience and purpose clearly to the children helping them to make the link with their previous learning introducing new skills or concepts ensuring that the children have the opportunity to influence the progress of the experience scaffolding their learning as necessary acting as facilitator if required responding to the comments and observations they make (see Figure 11.3) giving them the opportunity to explore and play with the ideas or concepts introduced leaving time for new connections to be made and creativity to take place.
Figure 11.3 A key worker and group of 3- and 4-year-olds discussing the differences and similarities in skin tones before creating self-portraits.
168 Theory into practice
Observing While we engage with the children we observe their uptake and response to what is on offer: . . . . . . . .
What are they doing? Often we see what we expect to see not what children are actually doing. What are they preoccupies with? Are they engaging in the creative process? How are they using the equipment and materials that are available? (see Figure 11.4) What concepts are they using and how? What skills and attitudes are they demonstrating and which do they need to develop? What are the children’s comments and how do they demonstrate their knowledge and understanding? What is their actual level of development?
Observations may be written down and included as part of the children’s records. Whether written or not they should be used to assess the children and plan the next steps in their learning.
Figure 11.4 A key worker observing a 2-year-old painting and offering support by his obvious pleasure in her representation.
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 169
Recording We need to find manageable ways of recording our observations. It is not possible to record every aspect of children’s creative and imaginative experiences. If we attempted to do so we would spend all our time in the role of observer! We need to record that which is significant, that will help to assess and plan for the children. Our focus should be on recording children’s significant progress or difficulties. Over time these records will provide evidence of the children’s learning and development. We can record children’s creative and imaginative development in a variety of ways. These may include: .
.
.
.
Written observations of the children and transcripts of their comments: These are particularly useful for aspects of creativity and imaginative experiences which have no product, such as imaginative play. Portfolios of the children’s representations: These can include actual work products such as drawings, paintings or collages (large paintings or those containing layers of thick paint are better included as photographs), photographs of three-dimensional constructions, textiles and imaginative play, scientific explorations. Recording: Digital cameras are a great way of recording the sequence of events and can be used to record individual children’s progress in portfolios with accompanying notes. If you have access to a video camera record episodes of play to reflect on with the children, in team meetings and with parents. Video offers the opportunity to stand back and see the bigger picture and watching a video it is often possible to see things you missed at the time. Assessments and reviews of progress: Access to their records helps children to reflect on their past learning and thinking about the next steps.
Assessing This is the stage in the cycle when we evaluate the children’s experience. This may be in the form of a work product, observations of the process they went through, or a transcript of their comments. Children’s representations can be analysed and assessed in a number of ways. Sometimes their drawings are used to assess their emotional state and general intellectual ability. This may involve giving children’s work meanings that the children themselves did not intend (Cox 1992: Matthews 1994). When we assess their work we should concentrate on:
170 Theory into practice . . .
. . . . . .
What is the children’s assessment of the experience? What do they think they have achieved? What have the children achieved? How does it match with the aims we identified at the planning stage? What creative and imaginative knowledge, attitudes and skills have the children shown in their use of materials and equipment that they have not demonstrated before? Which concepts have they used and to what effect? How have the children worked as part of a group or as an individual? How has their use of materials or ideas demonstrated creativity and imagination? What new connections have they made? What is their understanding of the actual level of development and how do we help them to progress to the next stage? What have we achieved? How did our plans work in practice?
Planning the next steps This is the return to the start of the cycle. Having planned, implemented and assessed we decide how we will use the information we now have to inform our planning of the next cycle. The examples below show the cycle in action.
Example 1 Exploring sunflowers with a group of 2- and 3-year-olds Planning The children had grown sunflowers in the garden and staff used their continued interest to: . .
introduce them to representations from their own and other cultures and times extend the range and quality of their representations.
They planned to do this by: . . .
helping the children to create a sunflower display using the display to show children how other people have represented sunflowers supporting the children in using this information as they wished in their own representations.
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 171 They prepared by: .
. .
gathering representations of sunflowers for the children to use, for example, a wooden sculpture from Bali, a print of van Gogh’s ‘Sunflowers’, images on wrapping paper and margarine boxes ensuring that there was a wide range of resources for the children to use identifying possibilities for learning – the knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Implementation . .
.
. .
. .
staff introduced the exploration to the children by linking it to their interest in the sunflowers they had grown they showed them the sunflower representations they had collected and invited the children to bring their own examples from home, for example, one child brought in a hat patterned with sunflowers they invited the children to compare the real sunflowers with the representations of sunflowers and discussed similarities and differences, which ones children liked best, the materials and techniques that had been used drew their attention to the range of resources available children made their own representations of the sunflowers selecting from the wide range of materials available, for example, using blocks, collage materials, water colours, poster paints, printing they worked alone, in pairs or as part of a group (see Figure 11.5) the different resources available enabled them to focus on the aspects of the sunflowers that interested them.
Observation, recording and assessment The staff observed the children as they worked and recorded the children’s comments. Below is a sample from one child’s records as they relate to the exploration of sunflowers. This sample is only part of the record kept by the key worker. Observation sheet for Julie, aged 4 years and 2 months, at time of first observation. Please comment on the child’s creative and imaginative development (see centre policy for guidance) Date Observation
Support to further development
7/7 J looking at sunflowers in nursery garden, related them to sunflowers grown at home. Able to describe colour
organize visit, key group visit to J’s home to compare nursery
172 Theory into practice (‘it’s sunshine yellow’), shape/form (‘there’s a bit in the middle, with petals around the outside’) and size (it’s smaller than mine at home) discussion continued in key worker group
sunflower with home sunflower
8/7 discussion on walk to home – connected shape/form of sunflower to sun design on garden gate (photo + comments in portfolio), associated yellow on school sign with sunflowers (photo + comments in portfolio)
help J to make display of photos and comments with rest of group
11/7 J + Amy used blocks to create sunflower based on core and radial design of gate. At my suggestion recorded design by drawing plan on large sheet of paper attached to wall to put in their portfolios
J appears to be interested in representing sunflowers using core and radial design. Extend by introducing new materials
14/7 representing sunflowers using (1) matchsticks (2) pre-cut tissue circles – large circle in middle, smaller circles around edges. Items placed with accuracy, preoccupied with distance between each petal being the same (see portfolio)
create display of sunflower representations with J and other children to extend their understanding of images
18/7 observed examining items on display, brought in wrapping paper from home, asked about illustration of sunflowers using water colour and wet paper (‘how did he do that – sunflowers in the rain?’), put sunflower cushion over face and said ‘I’m a sunflower’
(1) explore representing sunflowers using movement and gesture (2) introduce watercolour + wet paper
22/7 compared effect of wet and dry paper, liked wet paper best (‘it’s gone fuzzy’) mixing colours – interested in a matching shades used to those seen on petals (‘it’s gone green not orange – that’s not right’), realized that colour changed if more water used. I
more work on mixing secondary colours from primary colours and how to lighten and darken hues
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 173 introduced the idea that the colour was more intense if less water was used 23/7 J, Amy and Emma used movement to represent sunflowers – rotating (‘this sunflower is twirling . . .’) curling and stretching (‘this is me growing up . . .’) swaying (‘the sunflower in the wind . . .’), used bells (‘this is the sunflower singing’)
find out if children want to (1) develop sunflower movements into dance (2) develop piece of music based on sunflowers
25/7 J commented on samples of her work and chose selection for portfolio featuring her work on sunflowers
discuss with parents and plan next steps
Figure 11.5 Two children worked together to produce a life-size representation of a sunflower
174 Theory into practice Next steps
As the exploration progressed the children became interested in matching the colours they saw to the colours they mixed. The staff noted that the children lacked the vocabulary to describe these shades and identifies the following next steps: .
.
.
Use the children’s previous experience of mixing primary colours to produce secondary colours to introduce them to the idea of shades. Ensure access to a range of materials and resources including watercolour brushes, paints in block and powder form and food colouring, white plastic bowls for mixing, sheets of white paper of different weights and textures. Deploy adults to work alongside the children to help them comment on the process involved and encourage the children to describe the colours they create.
Example 2 Exploring drums with a group of 3- and 4-year-olds Planning The aim was to build on the children’s self-initiated explorations of the drums and use this to extend their understanding of the instrument. The adults prepared by: . . . .
collecting a range of drums for the children to experiment with collecting books for reference arranging for a drummer to visit later in the day identifying the possibilities for learning – knowledge of the range of drums (tabla, snare, bongos, African drums), understanding that the way in which a drum is hit alters the sound produced, knowledge of the sounds that can be produced and introducing musical elements to describe the sounds heard such as high/low, loud/quiet, working as part of group, offering help to others and taking turns.
Implementation . .
the adult introduced the exploration by linking it to the children’s self-initiated exploration of drums she then explained about the planned visit from a drummer and she discussed it with the children – had they seen drums being played?
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 175
.
. .
How did they think drums produced sounds? How many different sounds did they think drums made? How do you play drums? the children used the collection of drums and reference books available in the room to identify the different types of drums, examine and identify the different parts of the drums, to produce different sounds using hands, fingers and beaters and described the sounds they had made some of the children used the pencils and paper available to record the different parts of the drum the children decided to combine the drums to make a drum kit ready for the visiting drummer. With help from the adult and information from the reference books they identified the different elements that make up a drum kit. They discussed which of the drums available looked most like those in the books and arranged them as shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6
Dave and Linda, 3 years, created their own drum kit.
Observation, recording and assessing The adult recorded the children’s observations and comments, for example, Dave knew that drummers played drums and said he had seen this on television. By the end of the session he was able to describe: .
the difference between drums and other instruments (‘you bang drums . . . with your hand or a stick’)
176 Theory into practice . . .
the range of sounds that can be produced (‘if you use your fingers it sounds like rain . . . the soft beater is quieter than the stick’) the different parts of the drum (‘that’s the shell . . . that’s the skin . . . you hit the skin to make the sound’) the difference between the snare and table drum (‘that’s made from wood, that’s from metal . . . the table is taller and it’s shiny . . . it’s got strings on it . . . you use your hands’).
Dave was able to use his hands and beaters to make loud and quiet sounds and use the correct terms. He chose to draw the tabla drum from the display of drums. Next steps . . .
visit from drummer to enable the children to practise their skills on wider selection of drums making their own drum recording the sounds of drums using their own symbols.
Example 3 Developing imaginative play with a group of 1- and 2year-olds Planning On their way to the local park the attention of a group of 1- and 2-yearolds was taken by road works that were taking place. The adults stopped to let the children take a closer look. They helped the children to identify the different vehicles involved, the traffic lights that were directing the traffic and the clothes the workmen were wearing. They introduced the children to new words such as bulldozer and tar. The children were excited by the experience and the adults decided to build on this interest. They: . . . .
gathered together a range of small toys such as trucks and play people cleared a large space in the room so that the children could play freely emptied sand on to the floor for the children to use in their play thought about the learning possibilities the play might offer, for example, the opportunity to represent their experiences, introduction to using narrative in their play, an increase in their vocabulary to include words related to the experience.
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 177 Implementation The next morning the children found the play materials waiting for them. . .
.
. .
the adults reminded the children of their experience of road works the previous day the adults also played with the materials alongside the children making up brief narratives as they played, for example, retelling the children’s visit to the road works the previous day the children quickly joined in. Initially they concentrated on moving the toys with appropriate sound effects but gradually they started to relate what they were doing to the other children in the group, for instance, introducing simple sequences where they each took play people to the pretend park and took turns on the slide some of the children began to introduce more complex narratives involving an accident when a motorcyclist went through a red light! the adults supported their play by discreetly providing resources as the children needed them, helping the children to negotiate potential conflicts and offering suggestions for new episodes in the story.
Observing, recording and assessing At the end of the day the adults discussed the children’s use of materials and recorded their observations about the success of the experience as a whole. They also recorded the significant progress that individual children had made. They concluded that: . . .
. .
the children had responded positively to the experience – all the children in the group had been involved with support, they had been able to play together as a group and joined together to produce new narratives individual children had been able to represent the aspects of the experience that most appealed to them, for example, Kevin had remembered seeing a rubbish truck trying to negotiate its way through the road works and it was this aspect that he represented. He developed his narrative to include an imagined episode involving the rubbish truck taking away the wrong things! the adults found that the children were responding to the new vocabulary they were introducing and using it for themselves the children were able to describe what they had done.
178 Theory into practice Next steps . . . .
to return to the site to allow the children to compare their representation with the real road works to take picture of the site for future use to extend the range of small props available to allow the children to extend their story lines to record the children’s narrative and use them with the photographs to make a book as a permanent record of the experience.
Conclusion The examples given in this chapter (and in the rest of the book) are drawn from real life. They are not meant to be perfect! Their purpose is to show how real groups of adults are trying to provide for young children’s creative and imaginative development with all the restraints and pressures that are part of everyday life. The planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing cycle is not an end in itself but a means to an end. The purpose of the cycle is to ensure that all children have access to the creative and imaginative opportunities we believe they need so that they can become the most creative and imaginative individuals they can be.
Summary This chapter has: .
identified the stages in the planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing cycle as they relate to the development of creativity and imagination
.
shown how these stage follow on and overlap
.
offered real-life examples of this process in practice.
Further reading Cox, M. (1992) Children’s Drawings. London: Penguin. Chapter 5 looks at the diagnostic use of children’s drawings.
Planning, implementing, observing, recording and assessing 179 Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2002) Birth to Three Matters: A Framework to Support Children in Their Earliest Years. London: DfES. Department for Education and Skill (DfES) (2003) Excellence and Enjoyment: A Strategy for Primary Schools. London: DfES. Matthews, J. (1994) Helping Young Children to Draw and Paint in Early Childhood. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Chapter 9 looks at how adults can help children to draw and paint, and the importance of record keeping. Qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2000b) Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage. London: QCA.
Things to think about .
How is your planning based on observations of individual children’s needs and interests?
.
How does your planning relate to the children’s previous experiences?
.
How are the children involved in planning the experiences on offer?
.
How do you introduce experiences to the children in ways that excite their curiosity?
.
How do you organize materials, adults and children to allow plenty of time for exploration and play?
.
How do you make time for and support child-initiated experiences?
.
How do you respond to the children’s ideas and reactions to the experiences you are offering?
.
How do you find out why they have used materials or ideas in a particular way?
.
How do you find out if the result/s satisfies them. Are they happy with it?
.
How do you find out how the children want to extend the experiences you have offered? What would they like to do or know next?
.
How are parents involved in planning?
Conclusion
In this book I have tried to stress the importance of creativity and imagination for young children and the society of which they are part. I have argued that creativity and imagination must be at the heart of the experiences we offer children to promote their learning, development and well-being. Involvement in creativity has the power to re-engage children and young people who have been turned off and feel excluded. Throughout this book I hope I have shown the high level of creativity and imagination children have. Young children are creative in their own right, indeed they have much to teach us about being creative. Children are freer from inhibitions about what ought to be and so are more open to possibilities. Our challenge is to retain, nurture and develop this – to support the child in their journey. Childhood is a time when all things are still possible. Creativity involves tolerance, the ability to have a go and to reflect on what we have learned. Through the use of our imagination we are able to empathize with others. When we see creativity not just as an attribute of an individual but as a collective attribute, and encourage a collaborative creativity that makes a worthwhile contribution, we have a means to make a real difference. Imagination can help us to understand others and creativity can enable us to resolve conflicts. Promoting creativity is not about giving children access to expensive equipment and materials, or providing exotic experiences but is to do with how we maximize our use of the environment we find ourselves in and draw out the most from our interactions with the children. Nor is it
Conclusion 181
Figure 12.1 Stuart, aged 2 years 3 months, using puppets to act out a narrative and engaged in the highest level of thought in early childhood.
about trying to accelerate children’s learning and development by intensive cramming or finding 100 uses for a brick! Our aim is to deepen their understanding and encourage a lifelong appreciation of, and involvement in, creativity and imagination. Knowledge is changing rapidly, yet in many ways we are still hanging on to a subject-based curriculum which focuses on the acquisition of knowledge. Subjects are important, they provide the content through which creativity and imagination are developed, but they should not be at the heart of the curriculum. I hope I have argued effectively that creativity and imagination should be. However, creatively and imagination have no value systems. They can be used for good or ill – many of the most successful criminal have been highly creative and used their imagination with purpose! Creativity and imagination have to be exercised in an ethical framework but when we combine creativity and imagination with dispositions such as compassion and care for others we have a powerful combination. If we further combine creativity and imagination with good judgement we have the potential to do good and enhance our own lives and those of others. Creativity and imagination can help us to gain meaning from life. Let us return to the example that I used in the introduction. James and
182 Conclusion Daniel are engaged in what Vygotsky describes as the highest level of thought in early childhood. They have created their own reality and can sustain this through the power of their imagination. This ability will enable them to solve problems, reach new understandings and perceive abstract meanings. It will enable them to become the creative, imaginative, and compassionate people we need them to be.
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Index
access to experiences, 58–60 aesthetics, 23–4 appraising, 87, 89–90, 157–8 art, elements of, 78 arts, role of, 75–6, 147 Athey, C., 35 Birth to Three Matters, xvii, 4, 36–8, 166 Blakemore, C., 47, 48 Bruner, J., 52, 91 cognitive development, 50 construction – see representation, three dimensional Craft, A., 17 creativity characteristics in young children, 22–3 continuum, 16–17 definitions, 15–19 important for the child, 9 important for society, 5–6 process, 27–8, 31–3 Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage, xvii, 4, 18, 31, 36, 38–9, 166
dance, 84–6, 106, 138 depth, importance of, 65–7 differentiation, importance of, 66 display, 155–7 diversity, 60–3 drawing, 94–8 Every Child Matters, xvii environment, 131 equipment and resources, 132–4 errors, importance of, 34–5 ethnicity, 60–1 Froebel, F., 4 galleries, use of, 122, 154–5 Gardner, H., 16 gender, 61 geography, 72, 78 Gopnik, A. et al., 46–7 history, 72, 78 Hutt, C., 28–9 imagination characteristics, 20
190 Index definitions, 17, 20–1 development, 53 important for the child, 9 important for society, 5, 6 imaginative play, 53, 86, 88, 137 information and communication technology, 71–2 interconnectedness of development, 50 language development, 51 literacy development, 69, 77, 137 local environment, use of, 148–9 McKellar, P., 11, 19 mastery, 28–30 mathematics, 69–70, 77, 137–8 Matthews, J., 10, 93–4 modelling – see representation, three dimensional music, 82–84, 104–6, 138 National Curriculum, xvii, 4, 38–9, 40, 141, 166 observation, 168 organization, 132–134, 140–1 outside environment, 135–6, 139, 143, 148–9 painting, 98–100 parents, importance of, 64, 164–5
peers, importance of, 142 perceptual development, 50 personal, social and emotional development, 51, 68–9, 77 Piaget, J., 30–1, 50, 117 physical development, 51, 77 planning, 166, 170 play, 24–25, 106–10, 142–3, 161 practising artist and performers, use of, 121–2 printing – see representation, two dimensional recording, 169 representation importance of, 9 three dimensional, 78–81, 101–4 two dimensional, 78–81, 93–4 schema, 35–6 sculpting – see representation, three dimensional special educational needs, 60–3 spiral curriculum, 52–3 teaching, 121–2 Trevarthen, C., 5 visual literacy, 8 voice of the child, 63, 162–4 Vygotsky, L., 53–4, 90
