EACHING UN
REPARED STUDENTS
Strategies for Promoting Success and Retention in Higher Education
J(athleen F Gabriel Foreword by Sandra M. Flake
STERLING, VIRGINIA
To
Isaac, and 11lcas. CI1L·oUt·iI.~eI1lCi'lt. I!Jldl'nt,!J)(/'mg
COPYRIGl1 i
©
First Edirion,
1.00::1
Ie'
9
8
6
2008 BY STYLFS PCBlfSH£:.IG,
5 4
r LC.
and love,
CONTENTS
ix FOREWORD
1.
UNrRU'ARED AND ATRISK COLLEGE STUDENTS
2.
PHILOSOPlllCi\I FOl'NDATIONS
3.
THE FIRST WEEK OF CLASS
C()nclu~ioll
!\S,',C,',Sl1l,--fll
InuoJucc
25
and Grades
EJucation Sup pOl t Centers, and Tips for Success ofBeiu\JOl Use ,wJ follo\\-Up
4.
LCdIEU-CUltctcJ
BEGIN WITH CONSIS! EN! COG:Ti\CT
4I
Cbs.::. ,\UcllJ,mcc for At-Risk Students
5·
LEl\RNIl'G STYLES AND TIlE SCIENCE OF EEARNINl;
uil
57
viu
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 6.
7.
EMBRACING LEARNER·~ENTFRED EDUCATION
I !NTERWE:WI'
A!,\D TEACHiNG
87
am gra,teful for the suppurt am! guidancc of several peu!,le wltu gcnCl' otisly gave of their time to assist me in \vtiting (his book. First, I am deeply indebted to my son, badc M. Gabriel, who ,J"':l)S made time to read, and edit :til ch'lprers despite his ('tremel; busy schedule. His
consu.nt cnthusiJ.Slll for ,ltHJ intclcSl in this project lu,'; been i[l\-aluJbk-, and
wirhuut his help, there would be no book.
I :uso want to thank and acknowledge the incredible support from
8.
eral colleagues: Dr. Julia George-Borva)" ivls. Mary Anne Schi:J\'one, l\1r. TE(=H~:IQ'JES FOR PRO\fOTlNG AC/\[)E"nC INTEGRITY
C!!EArING
Todd Snedden, Dr. Mary Ellell Pdlllbookian. and Ms. Joanne Walser. Their I03
feeJlJ:lck, meaningful their A
,ion to
cOllt1ibuti0n~,
and edits wcre significant. .In addition,
and teaching cxperti.:-c kept n1e on the right track.
hcaHfdt dunks to nly lltany stw..lenl::. who haH~ gillen me permistheir persunal stories.
EVUl
though Il1<"t sugge"ed that I
their names, in the end, J changed all of their names in order to respect their
COJllt'fChcllSiuIl
privacy.
I am so appreciativc of Dr. Sandra Flake for her willingn"', to review my book and write the
John
EPILOGUE: fI!'\AL THOUGHTS Pro.moting a Richel Campus Invironment API'I:NUIXA APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPE!'\D[X D
I want to give a very special thank you to
Judy E. Coughlin, produuioll fllJlLlgC! ar St) Ius, fot he! ,pimdic! :md L,11cful attention to "lIlhe I2I
[25 I25 I3 1
[35' I"lDEX
ft.HC\\'Old.
KnoniI'g, prcsidwt and publishcl of Stylus. I am also grateful to details.
Finally, I am .:xtremely indebted to
Ill}
husbnd, "Gabe," for his can·
sLlnt C1H. OULlgcll1ent, Ull\\ dvcrillg pJticllCC, :loJ cllitortdl suggcstioll~.
outstanding educator fur
As an
than 30 years, his instincts :Uh! insights \\'ere
fabull'n,. Kathleen F. Gabriel Chico, Califolllia August
2008
FOREWORD
K
arh!een Gabriel's d!hl
Relent':oil
Higlm
EdlUlIjO!l
is an illv,dmLk
tool fnr college ,llld university faculty whether or not they teach
unprepared studento, The phi!mophy underlying the ,rppruaches and the Gabriel
t'IlYtronnlcllt are
to
Idp studUlts unJcrsund
llUW
to learn in a
(o!lege
useful for wurking witl1 aU sludenb, including those ,vho
are adequately or well prepared to take on college, Bue of course, these approaches arc Lest suited and will significantly hdp stuJents who arc chal!eng,x! by collcge-!clc!m,ltCi j,d anc! \Vh" need to del clop the skills to succeed in an aCldcmk Earlier in
Iny
career I spellt sevcl:l1 years as a facuIty Inel11beI
\\"01
king
"itl! unprepared college Sludems, filSt in an cqtul OppOtillllity program ar the Uni'Cisil), of ';;;'iscot"jn,ivrilwaukce, and then as director of a reading
and \\'litlng centel and tClCluion progIam~ for students ofeolar and imrnigtant stueleills at the Univctsit.y of l\firwcsota's General College, Gabriel's
book and her examples immedi-ltdy brought to mind the impact. that leaching stUdents whu needed Jddilion,il prep-ll:1tioll for college h,,,] on me, I had not re
\\de
dullcIlgeJ JIld sttppottcd in
their learning, The stralegies Gabriel outlines work ef[cnil'ely with students who need Jcvelop their .ski1JS-p~ll tkLlL1J ty
U11('('
they tetlin.'
dIe il11pOltdnce
of tbose
skills and how much they will need them, I still remember Vince, who showed no
(OULCrn
about his low grades on two
bill
who uttle into my o!Tice gready COllLCrIlcd when the grade on his third papel indicated only ,]urginal
papers
hacl-I
As he put it, "I knew the first them ,mel didn't try, Bur I knew I could get
rORE\VORD
xii an A or a B if J tried, and on this one, I tried!" That third paper was the
to le:un enough to ",luc education beyond the credential, She teaches all of
catalyst for Vince; learning how to improve his writing suddenly became
us ways to make that happen,
impuftJ.flt. \/if1LC
but in thal SeHlester he took
beulllle a great
the first major step;; to becOllling a COlllpetent writer. He also learned that to write well, trying was rhe fitst step, not the last, Gahriel tecognizes too that studems \Vitli good abilities may still be unpltp
[01
learning at the college level, Gaps in skills are the result of
!lot
learning 11m\" to study, lww to read colkgc-Icvd !llaterials~ how to man-
age
ho\\ to !-eaJ a ~rlhblL". how to (0111nlUnicate in \vriting. and so on.
[wther, students who afe ill ptepared for highCl education often value the
dedicafed to 1m ptO\ ing student learning. This book promotes inq.Ho\".:J leartling in a
of high cxpccLltiollS. It is a primer for all of us who
believe in the value of a
1 igOIOUS
education that r()stcr~ de\ clupmcnt of
lulUv. ledge and skilLs for a Jifetime, It recognizes
students learn better in
an em ironlllCilt where they l!llCkrsl:llld the expectations, where they learn duough :lpplication and practice, and
ruultipk p:1th\\'ays to knowl-
edge and skills resnlt in lifelong learning and education, This book also id~as for tho.':>c of us eng:!.g.cJ in
pnwiJes
wOlking \vith a full speLlI HHI
of stude!lts, flom the unplcparcd and often unengaged to the \VeIl-prepared and dedicated cessful tiLl!
Gabtiel recogniZes there
multiple paths to suc-
~'nd facuity !llCIUbcrs can guide ;:,tudents to finding the path-
help them to be
Let me close with a final recollection, Robin decided to get an educ:ltioll to
a factory worker who
stand",d of living, He came into
my o[(,ce one day near the end of his first semester in college and proudly halldLel
a book~-~the first he had eVel read wid,om it being required of
him, He had COIlle to the
to
his standard of living and
would do so, Lmhe had also implOved
ulldelswnding of what it meant
to be
He \\ould
HOW
read books on his own, for both learning
and t:njO}m~1JL Kathleen Gabriel u!ldt~rstanJs that successful stude1lts develop the ability to learn enough to get that credential-the degtee-and
Sandra M, Flakc Provosr and Vice President
t<1f Academic Affairs
Calii"rnia State University, Chico
I UNPREPARED AND AT-RISK COLLEGE STUDENTS Myth or Reality?
Not eve! ythng thJt is bced
c~m
be
until it is faced
T
he number of academiully ullprcp,ucd and at-risk students enrolling in coILge~ and unt\ c.t:-,itics is increasing. In a 1l:1tlullal
6urvcy of college professors conJuctcd
by
oj Higher
the
of college ClCulty members reponed that their "uJcnts "arc ill pretJJfcJ for the delluIllis of highct edlfcariull" (Sa11off, 2006, p, I). 44%
Results from the ,"-'nerican College Testing Program (ACT) in 2006 suppott the pwfcsso,,' pelcepti,,". The," results shu" that 49% of high schoo!
graJuates do llOt have the reading skills they need to succeed in college (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, \'{I'hitt, & Assuciates, 2005, p. I). For those who ,Htend college, about 25~(' of first-time student; at 4-year colleges and uni· versities requile at lea" I ye,u ofremcdial coutoes (AJelman, 2004; Horn & Berger, 2004; Kuh et aI., 2005, p. 1). These SlJtistics llUY be surplising, but they do not fully describe the auituJc of toJ;]y's college students. As \X:~ClllllT (2U02) explains, they once did. They in tel-fllel'S ;{nJ
do
nul ll~akr.; lC;';PO!L-.;iblc
Icu ;~ing
dc,-i;:)ion~..
Having little
L"J'J
mctuy stullelHs to look for easy pu:,h them hard.. _ . O{.wl0u"\}J these
of "11 studcuts, bur most faculty quickly Lulkg<:: ::.~udcnL) toJdY is far more' challenging than it
tiut
once was. (pp. 95-96)
Research Conncil 2004), In fact, as the TlUmbel of ttquj;cJ t1~:n:lupllh:!lL31
courses increases, so do the odds that the stuJC:!lt \vill Jwp out (Burley,
Butner, & CejJa
2001:
CCSSE), (Kuh et aL
Many of the at-risk Sludents
skdls. college placemcll[ (eHS
St:l've
as a LJ;J1l1er to registering for the college
English and math ciasse, needed for genetal duc,uic)!l requirements, thus [urcing the StLHJeuts to take
c()Hcge-Icvd
rl:mcJ.i~ll COUlses
"However, at luau)'
to prepare them for these
these
studC1LS arc
noL PIC\'ClllcJ frotn cUl0Ili:lg in social science. hurnanit.ics ltlJ 50111C science ..
J
courses, where they can quickly falter. \X hen
all studclllS' abilities
dnJ . ntltudcs in s<~veral specific areas, (([aculty lllcl11bl:rs
'::'3.\'
that stucit'llts are
illdcLqucltc writers, have uouble unJctol:wJillg din""I! r;utctiab, fall short
p,
2)
doomed to failure eithcr because thcv
academically disqu:liified by . rut :It-risk or llJ1prTpdfcJ students with tIl:lJCqUJ.tc reading and writing
200"
officials or because they decide
to
!cdve the ullivC[sity with a low grade point avetage, The cosr of losing these students can be high for the studc:nt's, their Lnlilics, and the universilies that lose them, \VhCll
lose sludents to academic failure, they
nOt
lose human potential but also real dollats and cents in the form lllltiollllWUlCS, aJdillOl1;1! fC50urces
ani)'
of lost
e,,-pt:nJcd Oil recruiting n.:pLlCemC!1t stu-
dents, and so Otl, As wlkges and u!livc,,;t;es have examined which students ate and afe not completing degtee pI ugr~ms, the resulting srndies reve:li that for histOri, gLldu:llion rates are ::.ignifil.Jlltl) 10weL
cally ulldcrscrvcd
in krru\\lcdgc of science and math, h;lVe poor study habits, and lack motivation " (Sanoff, 2006, p, I), \\ !tik
IC[Ol11t;,
at
L!lC
high scbx)l level ha\'c been proposcJ, many uni-
versiLies auJ culleges have already csu.blishcd SU11l111Cr !ltSL.gcllCUr;(Jll
pl0g1~UllS
that 'target
students, and others vITho tradi-
tionally have had low levels of retelllion and/or college gradu:uiull tates, These ',um!"et pwgtams succeedIng
In
to set these students on the right path for
coJege since "rnost stuJelll ,ltU ition occurs during the first
year of college" (\'V'ankat,
2(0)"
p, 173)' M
tutoring center services~ hired retentioll speciali~ls, offLTcd Jt:velupll1~nlJ.l
coutses for unprepared students, and e>.panded first'year expet iellce progr:l111.') dut tl! get the" 'CU"""';"l",'C;;"
Still, the
arc bleak Kuh et
a1. (2005) report
of studems who took at least
remedial
ieaJillg_ COt~[:~ i~ c~lkge do !lot ulHain a degree or certificate within eight of cnrOUllclll (p, I), abo report the follo>\ing: ~lJJ1
fOLlltlt
of 4-}tdl (ol1~gc ::,l.Udellts who have to take three or
ICflluJiJJ da::.~e~ leave college a[u:l lhe filst year (AJdrnall, Commu~
nity College Survey of Student
(CCSSE)
200~;
National
Ahhough grealCl Ilumb<.:!s of minority stuJents are entering college than l.ompau.::J with nonminori~it:'). POOl t.:ulkgc lumpininll
tilt'
racial-cthnit... gap in grad-
uation rat.('~ medii dldt too man} c.tLH1Cllts a!t: not J.Lljuiling the desired
Lwv,+.:dgc, skills,
..111L1 (ol1lpctCllcies
Kinzie, Cruce. Shoup, & Gonyea,
The cost of fusing sludcuts is
needed f()r the
200 7,
21.<:[
century. (Kuh,
p. S)
\\"OH!SOInC-
to college uf!ldal.). In
U':SPOlbL
to the tevuh ing-duor scenario, many colleges and UJl ive"ities have addcd and increased academic support retention coordinator::, and beyoud the tt;lditiOll:D tutoring and V\riling ~en(ers. Even though the odds are agaimt at-risk and unpfqJlfed swdcnts, there are those who do make it, Not only have academic support progr:l1m illlprovcd the ch:lllcCS of success for at~risk stUdCUb, but so have the actions of indjvidu.u facully memoers, In his srudy Blose (1999) noles thar in selecinstilutions
\I
here faculLy and suff luve high Itvels of c"peculium f{lf
all their students, then ('rcgdtdlcss of individu~lL) prior acadC111!C history. studenls tend w respond and behave as the faculty expected in a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy" (p, 84), When profC"ors "treated the swdenls
:1'
STl'Dl:':'JI S
ronm~nt of
St!.lJCIltS~al1 students, even those who
adrnittcd
as undcrachiz.:"ing or ullprCp,ut'J stwl.::nts~'-lChicve an increased level of per-
[onn.Hlce (p. 84). Thus, 10\\
Jnd gndu;uion ratcs for unprcp'llcd
can be imptuved, and faculty can have a major impact JCC()Jllf,Eslling this. How pro
COLLEGE STUDENTS
llNPREPARED AND
academically capable, ;mJ hdJ thcm to high st:l!ld
professors are looking for answers to address the gr()\\ing
enrolled in their courseS, who UllJCl PCI-
form, and who are reluctanr to seek help. "l\ludl of the existing liter:Hllte focuses on dCI·e1uping general theoretical models of help-seeking, but suggestions for illlencllliollS" (Chung & Hsu, 2006, p. 25'1)·
offer
The purpose of Ihis buok is to prolide professors (and their graduate t,'ach-
(es"" , teach dJld !meract with at-tisk ,tudems makes the differ-
ing asslst3nts) \vith teaching sLratcgies anJ l11CdlOJ.'.> that will prornolc stu-
intellectual dcvelupll1Clll and
dent engagement and imprOlT pu formance for all the st"dents in rheit
(Halaw
studcllt and f:lCllity
rapport with ,J",ir smJcnts both in and out of the cbssroom, and have a
classes, but especially for those who ale at risk or tlllpttt,",cd, without !icing high sr,ulCLuds or expectations.
influcncc" on srudents' intdlcclUal and personal develOplttCilt (1l:l.Lm
lIf educ,llionally effective colleges, Kuh et at. (2005) found that "the most SllCCC"[lli ScilOUh bJl
to stlcceed" (I'. lSI).
Overview In chapter
"Philosophical
we must use a myriad of actions rhat students with rcal OPPOllLlllitics for
If we do not,
principk fur Jcyclopillg teaching go;d~ for each course that we teach. In rhi~ guiding prjnLilJk~ t.hat COIl:.>tltute the [ULlllliuioli
of my teaching pllilosoplry, wherein my ultimate goal is to pf<)l'ide OppUllU nities for success for all college students, fucllsing panicu!:"I) on gis'ing unprepared sllldeIlls a real chance to make ir.
are simply
In chapter 3, "The First \'Veek of Class;' I discu" how we tan augmenl
tiIllC, ouly pretending
students' enthusiJSIll and IHotiYdlion by de:dd) expbiuiug and iJcntif) in!;
oblig:.uiol! of pruvidi.llg 0J..'por tUllilicCJ to
the guals and objectives of the class and the specific procedures and expecta-
.':>tLhlc!1b up for failure and, at the
rulfiIkJ a
will proli,l" unptepared
and principles about teaching.
After a teaching philosophy is established, ir can be used as the guitling chaplet, I describe the
As cJucuors, \ve have an obligalion to all of out stw..lents, including those who ullF,cF
' I explain that anicubting "
teaching philosophy can help c1atif}
our diH:!Se popuLltioH in roday's society. Astin (1999) writes.
tIons thal StL~Jcllts lllUSf IHeet to succeed. As prorcssors, we nlust do this in
the first week of class. Our in writing (e.g., the sylLtbus)
shaulJ be C01ll11lullicated vet billy and 'e)
rl,at our smdenrs, as well as "undves, can
refer to the cxpettatiom throughout rhe semester. Chapter 3 addre"e" the various lO.mponcnts of a leJ.rllcr-ccnteleu syllabus and how ir can be used 8.S
a guiJe for slUciclll sucet". If a posi,ive and interactive tone is set during the effective "!(:wclI1L1I" cJu,-J.tioll \\ou;J do mo~c dun
Lo
alleviate our most serious act.ion \",'c could take.
(p. roJ
first week of the semester, the bendits will be reaped througlwut (he rest of the course.
PruviJing opportunities [or interactions \,."ith YOLlI stuJents and anlOIlg, yoUl students (i.e .. .:.,luUcnt·to·stuJ:.:nt contJ.ct) is
Whik most
have audcmic support centers (hat strive to
the: ptoblcm.s of lo,'v tetcnt!{)H rates of at-risk students, many
ent for retention. Chapter 3 also
with ere"ting an atmosphere for pro-
nlottng apprupri;ltc and engaging behaviu! 3nd discusses techniques for
lJ~PREr/\RED
ST!':OENTS
These initial steps will guiJc professurs as they plan lessons and activities
CllI"J:Ol'lme"nL that cmbuces Ji,ersity and proof mcthllds thal puressurs and can usc to help stuJullS appteciate the benefits included" With Consi",tent Contact,') the connection between
is {:xa!111nCl.l Retentiun begins
1Nith
a
S(ll-
and achk\'i ng success is tied to regular :lttcnJ~UlLe.
stuJic:;, dlOW thal slUJCIlts \dw go to
rcgubdy earn
higher grades and are more likely to stay in college. This chapter Jiscusscs
f;.L.,ulty Clll
six steps that
t\l:,lly
i.mplcll1cllt that will increase class atten-
that
will engage ~tuJcnts so that they
Lall
fully panicip~ltc in achieving the'
Jcsircd learning outcorncs. Tbis chapter
the IlllportalkC of consider-
ing students' plior knowledge or lack of kuo"lcdgc. "If we ignore
Of aw.id p. !O8). To help students connect \ViLh new In,ltcria1. they I'Hllst rnJJzc ,-onncLtioll~ that n1akc sense to them. Th;, not only discusses to "pal k such connec[ur helping students find ways to catch
prior knowledge, it will hinder our teaching" (Zull.
up to the new matctial being presented. Chapter 7, "lmcrwea\"ing Assessment and Teaching," desuibe, tbe ben-
dance" of all sludems, tegardless of how prepared they may be for college"
efits of ongoing .l::;sc~,)nlCIJL'<;. /\...s prufC,)SOlS, "ve often
[Ullhcl mote, rhe ways ti,ese steps IcinE)fcc Chickering and Gamson's (1987)
Jr;lve any questiuns. {;sualIy, the lesponse
ar e exarnineJ.
Chapter 5, "Learning Styles and the Science of Learning," sets forth
2002,
is
;lSI;.
our students if thq:
silence. Yet, 'lftet the first exam
pwfcssob and swelcnts may be disappointed or [tustr:1tcd with poor
results. However, by using different types of
JSScs.\nlL'!1t
techniques and
several types of baning slyle invelllolies stuJents can take that will help
activities beforc. (dllJ in b,'\\Vccn) CX.J.1l1S, professors allJ :.-.tlH.lcnts can receive
shed light on indi\ iduol lcalning style p,e[ercnces. This chapter covers three
specific feedback on whuher students
~pecific rnoJeh. Such
students and increase their
studCBt,s' progress in applying, allJ.lYling, .:-.yrHhcsiLtng, or tlansfcr:-illg the
in rhe learning process a,<;: they discover new study
ideas of the COUise ,-untuH. :\11 cad; wdrning of tJroLlcln:. altows thl.'" teachc:r
ofleJmc,," In addition I discuss
to IntcTVt:lle quickl) to avoid i.li'>c{)uLlt;ing at-risk students. Chapter 7 also
sense of
1\.110vJcJgc G1E ClllPO\YCL
techniljllcs anJ methocL for cliffcJcm
Knowledge of learning
guspi"g the matetiaL and on the
the jlllpOt!-JJ1L~ of using different type:, of activitic.s that not only
engage studcnt.s allJ incre:LSf their participation in class, but also give the also, as \Vc tou can evaluate our o\vn
teaching styles and make sure that we have a variety of "Pf'lOaches and thd~ pb~' to V:lrjulb stllJcnt's
needs.
Chapter 6, "I!ll~)fJ.-.:inb Learner-Cent.ereJ Education,"
have
l'llCOUll:"l'lCJ
the
prOfCS~\)l centered to
question [rustr:llll1g (01 infUI1Llting), it also sho'ws th:.1t D1Jny student.). are
Tlli'
frUJll
those who are at risk. and lists specific ;teps plO[cS-
SOl'S can Idke r.u beeVIlle ledl!lel-cente!cd LGI.l..:hcI~~
including cst:1blishillg
course goals, dcvdopir:g desired learning OUtC01l1CS~ creating a IcarnerIbbu~.
\.\ dYS to l.u1l1bat chedting dnJ l1np!(1\''--'
qucsLI0tl, "Is it going [0 be on the test?" 'X"hile m()~( ptof~:-"sol,S find thi"
can benefit all
S)
Cheating," I present one's giaJiug sy~telns. During cl.J.~s
to 11l1prow:: thell retention and glJ.JuJ.tion rates, many
h;1\ e recug1l1zcJ tilJ.t sLirLillg the pCtbgogy focus
centered
whar
they are learning. In chapter 8, "TeJlniljltcs for PlOllloting i\c'ademic Integrity and Dis
read-
cn,·ilOl"lt'l,'nls. As community colleges and 4-year
learner
professor and stuelents feedback as students prepdle to
for
and ci~abl1shing a learning
obscs~ct.l
grades. Because of this ObSC,:,S10B, the student::. clppcar
W
be focused on doing \VeIl on ll';:.tS 3-lld Hot Ilcccssaril) on le;,uning the mate-
rial. In addition, profcssors hase to contend \,idl chc"1ling on tests and/ol srudellts who pbgiatilc papers. This to gLlding ::,tudCIl!:. pcrform3nccs an\J, a[ the
fO! discouraging
co,ers a ,'ariely of issues related tinle, pro\'idcs suggestiull',
By using rubtics, eni\Clsal Design sllJtegies, and
a Yo,"buhr)' strategy dldt call help
OUI
studellts-and particu-
2
larly those at risk-improve their reading and listening COlIlpIChcnsion, vve can help ,tudents illlplOve the way they prepare for tests, write their papers, :lnd cumplctc olLer fnu,"""UH,;
SUI11HUtt\,.: ac:slg11tlH:Ob.
ou"ucc.n cllgagUlleIH
At the same time,
\vill be
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
and academic integrity.
Conclusion
Yes, They Can!
I have tried to l11al,e this book "p;o[cssor friendly" for both the veteran and beginnel teachet. You can
the chapters that will best fit your needs,
at you can read the book in its entirety. Each chapter offers specific tools and illluactiol: t<,cltuiques specifically for at-tisk or ullp,cpa,ed students relating to the specific suhtopic. The ublc of ccntents is intended to guide your ,)de...:tions. Tbis b(lok is not a pJ.uacea for all prob!crns presented
by at-
I llava tI~at is to bo not so much by the pus:ticn that one has ',h,h,"'" ".,·hif'!, he has
1isk J.otI un plcpJ.! cd studeIlls, but it is hoped that the concepts and ideas
will support your efforts in reaching out to these
-BookerT
Take the ideas
you like, and tweak the ones that don't quite fit your teaching style, but above all, lealiLt illat
lOU
can make a difrercnce in helping aHisk studeIlls
lealn lllh\' to blUHllt ~uccess[uI college ;studeIlts.
A
111105t all colleges aild unh crsllics
11lissiOll slatl.'tlH:nts that arc
"dear and focused" and state "those things that the institutiun pru[csse~
to achieve \Ylthin its unique
p:micubr
eflvirulI!HClll
and \vith the
it has available" (Huba & Freed, woo, p. 100). Closely
related to a college's mission statement is its operating philoso!,I1\', which guides the college as it seeks to accomplish its illstitutioml
Kuh et
a!. (WOj) ,lefine the operating philosophy as fo!lows: [It] is composed of tacit understandings aLuut what i ... impu1t
to
the
:mJ unspoken but deeply held values and
beliefs about stuJcnts and their education. (p. 27)
\Vithill universities and colleges, various depamnents otten will also devise a missilJn statement, which fits in with or complements the overallmissiott of the school. Ivlissiull
and philosophics can set the theme of the
schouL just as a pro!esSol's personalnrissiun statement and teaching philuso
phy will manifest itself in the plO[C'SSOt'S teaching style and the way she or he interacts with students,
PH!LO::,O!'l-lICAL FOUNDAT10:-:S
II
:.pt-:iGcalIy incluJe in their lllission SOIllcthing about
not toO late to learn how to learn. Nevcnhele.')s, it takes rnore than just
at-!i.')k studellts. For example, \X'iastotl-Salem State 'University and Univer-
wishful thinking. As Wyoming T}'Us, three-time Olympic Gold Medal win·
sity of Texas at El Paso" emphasizc that every person has the potential to k,Ull [and the dedicated to exp
ner, put it in a t988 specch, "You need to have the three Ds: Drive, Determi-
nity for student.:- \\!w by lladiti01ulln(~.')Utc$
students, but only
not eKpected to succeed in
nation, and Desire." College teachers can inspire and support at-tisk
if these
.')tUJcIllS reCipIOLate vvith their own efforts.
higher educatiun" (Kuh et aI., 2005, p. 28). \',/hetlter or not a university has included such a JeJarJt:ull as part of its mi05ion statcmelll, nun)' imliyiduill facult)
in
oppurtunitic.'c for at-risk students
Lessons From the Best
anJ 11.l\'e included this as p,jJt of their pelsllwJ mission stdtC11lClll and teachIn the past
ing philosop!,).
no,,,, many great teadletS connecl \\"ith students anJ teach
them in a way that no othel teacher has thlOughoul tllJJse Itodclll.S' livos. These
Background
hal C a unique ability to open the mind, of students and allow
them to helieve that they really can learn and do what so many before have
Thele cue college profe"0rl who are interested in working with unptepared
told tbem they could
college student,. I knuw this flUm personal experienLe. Wnen I graduated
tcaching,
from high school, it looked as though I would not be able to get into the
methuds and techniJ.jlles of these special teachers.
local State college--or sUD,ive there even if I did get in. r had low to average high school grades; ltl) initial applicarion to a local college was denied. Following an appeal, [ filldlly accepted in late July, only one month before school started, under the "special admit" category. I still remember when freshman-year EngIisll pl\.,[essOl handed back my first college essay with a large red F on the top. To .r,ld insult to iniury, my professor asked me, in
nOUll
prmed to be an aberration rather than the
during my college cducltion. Other teachers believed in my ability,
anJ with a lot of hald w01k and ellcouragernelll, I learned how to learn and succeed in college. Arrer cullege gradaation,
r
accepted in a teacher-
program. As
J
high scht1ul teacher.
to CHell up.
daSSIOOlll.
to h~l\c an ilnp:lct on students, espe-
of Illy
Before my first year of
could bOllow, learn fi-om. and expand upon the
miracle worker, and in the film of the same name ahout her life and work (Penn, Coe, & Gibson, I962), lllallY of her teacbillg techniques ,wJ heliefs are revealed. To this day, b) shaping and rcinfO!cing \lur.~o
COllLillUCS
to influence
Ill)' tC:lLl!ing
phllosoph)
guiding principles.
is "hout j\nnie Sunivan's famous pupil Helen Keller,
who "as deaf crnd hlind. Before Annie a"ived, Helen's parents had failed to provide any JisdpJinc or ~Uth:tLUC
the) fdt
SOflY
ill
thcil daughter's life, prim:llil) hecause
for he,. HOLleYTr, Annie had high expect:HiollS for her swdent
l'eLause she believe,l in her ability
[0
leam. She held Helen Jl.umntabk for
something that no one had ever done.
cially a",de!I1j(~llr llonproductil"C or low-perfurming students. It often hap-
thClll
au: excel in tbe
that
One person I lecllned .lbout waS fumie Sullie crll, whom I c(!!lsider to be of the greatest teachers of all time. Annie Sulli\·.m is known as the
The "1irade
a very sarcastic ,,"oice, "How t.tiJ )lou get into college?"
ril,tundtcly, this
Ol1e
r decided
The JfirllciL V(orkL'J
,)!tU\VS
how Annie Sullivan's t,,"cIling methods changed her student's life. One particular scene in 7/Je
lXurker influenced me greatly. Ar
drat older students who have
noon at the family dining room table, 8-year-old Helen eaLs by grabbing
that it is probably ton late for academic experiences, I have
her dltd actually encourages tire belu,ior by JllOL ing
OV.ll
always disagreed with this notion, and still do. Even in college I believe it is
fouJ off her p,uents, uwtllcr 's, ,md gtandmothcr's plates. The family ignores to
the side as she moves
around the table. However, \\hw Hcbr reaches for ft.od on Annie's plate,
PHI! OSOI'HICAi rOl.'NDATIO;-":<:
Annie blocks her from doing so. The othel adults are offended rhat Annie vi--il1
to
a pallJ.cea [or all student,). Evt'll the progralns or colleges that dernO!l:;,lLllC
accolluuudatc the «poor child."
Instead Annie asks them
1:0
13
I anI conduced that no single teacher, class. or SUppOl t progrdm can be
leave, and the first lesson begins. Annie rries
have Helen sit in a chair and eat with a spoon, but Helen fights back. A
high levels of Success cannot help everr at-risk student. Sume p'O[CSSOl' will inspire some studell" and will [,
wrestling match ensues with Annie pulling Helen into a chair and putting a
professors. The \ er}
spoon into her hanet Helen resists-she throws the spoon across the room
seetn impossib1c to reach. No matter what kind of challenge:. y,te have \\'ith
plOfessolS \\ ill h,[\ e .,tudelles
their classes who
as she kicks, hits, even bites Annie. Annie finds more spoons. and there is
tile different types of stuslents
more rushing and pulling. The struggle goes on and on.
\vith our tC:J.ching philoc'ophy. Even if we don't \'-Tite down a nlission state-
As the falnil)
duxlou:;!y in the yard, they can hear the COIlllllotlon
W!lO
to college. we shuuld be LOll0iStellt
{llent or te-1Lhing philosophy, most of us have hasic beliefs about _"tuJcnb
hom the dining room. Finally, at about four o'clock, it is quiet. and Annie
and tea,hing tlrdt will guide us as
appears ..\lith her hair a mesS and her glasses bent. She dll!10unces to the
ing one's teaching philosophy in writing can be helpfuL and it is highly
develop policies Jnd ["dctices. Clarify-
family that Helen ate from her own plate, with a spoon, and she folded her
reuHnnlcnJcJ fu[ all teJ.lh(r~. furdl(,l111on.-\ if you b..lYC not :lln::aJ} JOHC so,
napkin. Annie said, "The room's a
LLltlSidcr expanding
but her napkin is rt)lded" (Penn
YOUI
reaching l'hilosophy so tiut it spcciflcall) includes
at-risk or ullprcp.::ucd students_
er a1.. '962). I leali1-e that wOlking with academicolly at-risk college students is not the Sdme as vV0Jking with someune \dlO is phy;:,ic:dly disabled, like the young
Guiding Principles
HeJen Keller. NuuLthclcS$. the gentral teaching phil(m,phy of accountabil-
By purpusely con~iJcring the unplCpa!cJ ~tlldr:l!ts had low success rates in cullege;.; anJ unlvcrsiliL's,
ity, high standards. and expecting appropriate hehavior is one that I embrace auu
tried ro uphold throughout my teaching career. Even when faced
with adversiry, JUlnie Sullivan sruck to her prir!Liplc, wirh true grit and a kind of fortitude all teachers need to have. "[olding a napkin" has become a symbol for
high
,lf1d stalld:.ln.1s, persever-
ance. and settling for nothing less.
\dlO
trJJitional!~' have
prorcssors
ca~
have
guiding principles that include all types of studcllls we might have in our courses. The
guicling prillciples I try to roll,,\\' as I teach and work with
all studellts-at-risk "udents in parricular-are L
All stuclems. including those who
1I1lprel'areJ or at risk, can
become lifelong lealners. Significant ch:_mgc Icquircs LOIlUuillllC!lt and time.
3. Struggle is a necessary and imporrallt part oflife.
Philosophy Crystallized \'\.'hilc develuping a teaching philosophy, we as teachers can learn from as \vell as by drawing upon our
olhCl
UWll
Students must accept responsibility for their learning progress. ). Prufesscm should never do itlt students what studclllS can do for
teaching and
learning expel iellCes. Once a philosuphy is develuped, it can be used as a [ou!lll,uioll to g~.liJc
UIlL'S
students fail, or teachers
of te:lLhing and
\\ ith students.
These principles serve as tbe JOuIlJ.lllOn :lIl,-l Lore of my tL':Khing philo,;.,uphy_
to reach them, we should try to figure
out \vhy by asking, "Wl1at could I have Jone dHrcrentl.y?" \X/hen students
One
succeed, we may ask. "\>:;!hat things or Lludirions helped the students
The helief that at-risk studellts
achieve that success:"
other rout principles. Even in college it is not too late for studems, at.. risk or
becotHe lifelong lear1lers is the key to the
i'HILU:-.uI'Hl(>1.I
FOCNDATJONS
()
The llIlprcpared stuJents who were part of the acdcmiL SUppOtT pro-
otllt;'l\Vl:-:;e, to change tlteir 3ctJuni;.: habits. In fact, it is never too [ate to are more open to thl::; discovery
gram I direcled hac! ,cry 10\\ achie\'clllcrll scores when they started college.
than others. If Sllldeltts believe that "one is born with a certain level of ability in an
None of the siudents had reading or writing skills lhat Wl'le comidLlcd
atea and it cannot be changed . . . [they1 ",·i11 accept their failure.
low as the fifth-grade level. In every class I have ever taught in college, there
discu\ l:f one':.,
'-
of t:,t hopeic""cs> of thei! s[malion" (Dweck & Leggett, 1988, as cited by Svillid.j,
p. 162). Ho\\c\cl. stuJents who have this flame of
to the average college freshman's. and some had reading skills as
were always some sludents with academic deficiencies. However, 1110St of these studcnls rn"Je sigllifteanl imprm ements by the end of the semesler. For those who also pallieipaled in the academic supporl P")~'''Ill.
mind can be infiuenced and can change theit viewpoint'. Svinicki (20°4) points out that teaci'Lls call clWlgC
belief, about their ability by
mudding and by talking to the students about their efforts. She writes, "If focus on what can be done and on effort, rather than focusing on some Inboul ~lbiljt}, we ate
both moJcJing an apprupriate bcli(:f 3.nJ ellCDUf:lging
to reE'ame their thinking" (p. 162). In adJitiun, by employing
1l1ClhoJ~, engasing :)tuJCtlts, anJ IJru\'iJing them
Iealucr-ccillcleJ
!etclL~ck on lheir
1\ 1ll!
{)\\'H pI ogress aJ:d
will be able to chart their
college. they
though sonte ,,'ere slili behind.
II
made a tremenduus leap in a short period of rime and
uing to believe dut the} could slh':lceJ in the college the studellts who
of
itll this kind of FlOglC'S,
cllVlI0111l1Cnt.
begin()nc of
hI':' scores inlpruvc by three grade le\-ds at (he end of
his first year told me. "T never e"pected that I could do thad I feel pretty OIle
eXdlllrlc Lh.il show::. it is never too late to disowCT
one's abilities.
and become excellent (or very good) sludents.
Ut::l1lCllJOU:,
Thruughout rny teaching career I have had many, many Ie\V31dillg
ItHlfltCIH~-but the most le\\,~l1Jing ones years
they
!t;l\C
gIG\"
in their
ldll1l)' clJos. Seeing sluJeDls who started college
The second guiclirrg. principle of my te.lching philosuphy is the belief that SigllifiGUll change 1cquircs (UIll111ittllCllt and an invCSUnel1l in time frorn
studcllts curd professNs. It is impeulivc tlnt "uJellts be expected to attend
JJld e-ven go on to gtaJu3.~c school
a \\ o mlcrful e-mail from a fotmer student who is now in
Recently I
Principle Rvo
when students call or e-mail
enough to be ~uccessful in college, then gladuate, con-
UllPl;'P:,HCd
ti:Ul'.: to
scates hy as much as three lO four grade levels during their first ye,,,
proud." fIe is silllplr
iJIlpl()VemclllS.
()ncc 'J..t-l1sk Cltudt.J1L,) Ji,;lO\'U thd~ tbey can be .successful, they can make
!lldll)
irnpro\'~rnellts were even morE d!J.l11J.tic-IIlOSt irnprovcJ their reading
class, pay actentioll, ;11H': panicip~lte. '\CCill1Ct
reminds teachers that
even \\'hen they lIt\,it<: ':'LuJCl1b to meet -with thetn, some will not come, and
He wrote. "Can you believe it' \X/ho would have ever thought that I would
pro[e5so15 (llust ul,dcrSlarrd Ihal we "cannotlrclp slucletlls who do not want
hi~
help" (p. nr). However, those who do take the time to seek advice from
be doing this-and to beal all. my emplo) cr is paying my tuition." Olle of the best <-alb \..-dilje [roln a ::.tuJcnt WhD Wd!:, particubrly __lullcng-
ing for
he
Ille
a fic.,h;udn. Now Chancy works with at-tisk high
seho,,1 slu,blls, just as he once was. He called of tbe kids bckll l
Lcai..-h;:lg Inct1:od:, anJ
him
dLlt
he
he first
day to tell me how "bad" them. As
disLusscJ various
that he \:vas going to tiT> I could not resist
::.It!liLu
to
the
sHHJC.flLS
he
\YdS 11(.1\'\
Of lO,Use he al. cd} knew, and we had a good laugh about it.
helping.
,heir professors and
[rum lutoring centers or other types of aO-
Jernl": SUppOH ptogra.rn.) \\ ill often .)urprisc th::.:msclve:::. with their academic
abilities. Throughout the yeal'S, I have worked with manv students who pre-
\ioLlsly had not thrived in the
clJ.:;~HJOEl O-eclLL'>c
,kills. Some sluJcllts had sil1lply given up
01;
they ]~ckeJ the necessary
the idea of acaJcmic sucCess
because of uusrt;lliolf and prior f"ilures. Once these 'tIlJenls gave Up, they
PHILOSOPHICAl
I6 still got through school-not by learning, but hy faking it, cheating, and
some slud} tips
getting friends to help them out. Nearly every one of these students wanted
would sran meering every week
to do well, but
so much f;lilure some bQd written off all hope. In some
if student) .vue cooperative 3.nd friendly, instru...:wrs or professors 51n1-
ply gavc them a passing grade. The smooth p,rth ofIeast resistance had been foIlo\\ed withoutl1luch p:micipatiotl or effort on their parr. Often this made it easier for
adults around these sLUdents, but it inhibited tbe students'
ability to develop or progress. For these students to succeed, their commit-
ment to learnhg and tbeir teachers' willingness to
COf!c~ponding sup-
port would have to change.
allJ
FOUN[»\TrO~S
[7
advice, and that would be it. Then, when you said "I.ve tbought it \\ouId be once or maybe
twice a week We had no idea thac it would become part of our daily routine. \\,Te time
d.IlJ
:lbsolulely duclus. And it
an cnOlnwu::-. change in
efTort for both of us.
After that first innocuous meeting in my offi,:e and aftel snrviving tbeir semestcr of college, both students went on to grad'tdte from tbe university, aad one went on to gladuate school to earn her teaching certificate.
After bcing in the edlKation field for many years, it became quite apparellt to me that most at-tisk students have no idea what it takes to succeed
A telling eX:llnple of the time and effort that students must be willing to
ahet the sernestet bad begun. Wnen Emma and Mary Anue came to my
academically at the college level when they first begin. Tbe amount of time and coml1lilJ11ctlt that is demanded hom them often comes as a sbock. Another freshman student I lYOtked with stated, "I have dOlle lIlute work in fout weeks than I did in four years of high school." But he, like otbers,
office, I had thcn describe their classes and current grades. Both students
discovered the benefits of time alld dedication.
dev{)u.: in ordeI ro in1f'JfO\ t OCCUlted
Emma and Mary Anne,
hat.! Ds and Fs she
fresluncn student-athletes,
referred to me by their softball coach 6 weeks
single class, and one of the studelllS began to cry as
the details of het
As I outlined a semester plan and set up
Studenls
and will discove1
potential by bccolning proac-
tive about their own cJ.ul.,ation. Once irn,oIvcJ, they can develop a comlnit-
daily times for them to come to my office, both seemed surprised at the
ment to tbe process, Nonetheless, it has to start with students making a
frequency of the
cOHunitrllcnt to COIlle to class every single day, d.nd to dedicate thenlselves
and a little hesitant to devote so mucb of their
time to "school stuft~" Ultimately, however. both agreed to the daily meet-
to put in dle subsuntial time necesS
ings. By tbe eud of the semester, une stlrdent bad raised all of her grades to
students need at lerst one professor who is willing to spend time guiding hours that Emma and Mary Anne put in also meant that I
Cs, and the other had raised ber grades to a B, a C, and three Ds. Instead of
them, The
potcmially flunking out of SdlOOI or digging tbermelves into a grade point
was putting in extra bours. It
average deficit that would have been very difficult to overcome to regain
students to gtlide them on how to get sLuted, to
their atad~nlic eligibility. Emma and Iv1ary Anne \vere in a good
provide corteui\'e feedback on their wlitings, and so on. PlOfessOis who
build upon
pUSilioIl (0
their eligibility, and get on track f(1r gradua-
ovel
COU!S"
matetial. to
believe in giving at-risk studems a chance must make time to work with them, and, of LOutse, dHisk students must also make time to meet with
In the Later both student;:, exptc:s5.ed how grateful they were to have surVIved
tlLlt
lillie and commitIllent to meet with
I'hcy
said that the) bad put in more hours of study-
bad-or expected
to
vyhCIl
we
nlet. "tv; ElllJll:l SL.llcJ:
pro[e-ssors.
Principle Three The thid principle of my teachillg philosophy is derived from a very basic
Cdadl hJ.J told us
,Tty Ld....<;U
that if we came to see you, you could help
us, hut we didn't think that meant
tlwugtH \ve
going to meet \yith
had to sec you every day. \Xre YOII 2.
few times, you would give us
i, a allvl importam part of/ife. To illuminate this pri!lCiplc to my students, I ha,'e a ljuotatioll from Frederick Douglas> hanging in my office that reads: "lfthele is no struggle, there is no progless."
18
fE)\CHING
STUDFNTS
PHILOSOPHICA.1. FOUNDAT10NS
Learning how to work thwuglt problems and not give up when things are :lOt
goill~ SlllL,olhiy is vital
Your class--wdL
to'success in all aspects of life. There are no
but then
all my classes were hard. I
rCdll) ,
TO
flunking everydting.
the COJl'-cy.llcn..:es wue hid out . lIlJ
;It
tll'- _'amc rime;} plan
li~LL glinllnu of hope.
quick fixes, and anguish may be ;nvollnl. Some at-risk students may nor
of action was set up
want to go tlmiugh the otwgglc .md exenio:l
At £11,',(, I JiJn't think 1 diukl do it. But thell, after going to tutoring and coming to see you everr lhing:<. gut better. T couldn'r helieye hmv
the effort required to adlieve aCJllclnic success, to
is necessar),. Faced with :It,-risk students choose
in
help me, ,vell, if g:l'.'c': llll:
much it helped. I "ill hatd, but I learned a lor
give up, resi,tiHg those who are there to help rhem make changes. In a college setting,
to
lc:tching faculty, retention specialists, and others
<-!
that I passed my
It was rC2!h
support centers (i.e., lHultkuhural centers, 'writing labs, tutoring
centers. etc.) are well
Another ::It-risk sludellt. R~l) BlOnd, sh:lreJ \\ith fIle hi~ d\.lllbts about his
of the amid
tutoring .1ppoilllllClltS mel mcetings with their
and who do not
aLilit) to actually succeed in college. After I !:ad workeel wit.h him for about
show IIp for \\'utblwps on huw to imprO\c one's acadcnric skills (i.e.,
4 11l0tllh.':>, RaYlllOl\d cune into my ofTice, sat down, ,lull ~Huwullcc(.L "I can't
taking, note taking, yvriting, etc.), To counter this type ofbch:1\'iot, \X7eimer
Lelieve it. I know what's going on in class. I Can do this. I'm
"n~ed
that
(2002)
sludc:lts to
policies and practices that encourage
as leJ.rners, 111OL1vatc dlerl1 to become more
lIot dUlll!,'" I lis perception did not COIlle about easily-he had to exert hirmdf and work hard to get there.
I)espite their initial low conception about their chances of Success in
than what they are, and plOvidc the reSOUlees, experiences, and skills they need if they ate to move fOI\\
college, RuLen dnd Raj :nond both gradlLtled. It was nor easy. At-risk stu-
III).
[ortun,Jtdy, profcSSUl~ can try a few approaches when attetnpting to persuade at-r,sk sludell" ro put in the time and effort that is needed to i1nrrove,
dents need to be told from the outset that it will take work to be successful.
effort, and hard
students will be cOllYinceo not to miss class when
thev realize that the V
lose eligibility statu.s for extracurricular activities
or be in danger of l~sing their
fit~ancial
aid. Often an audcm ic adviser or
PrinczjJ/e Four The fourth principle of my tcaching f1lrilosoph)" is that students mUSt accept
coullSdor can also be helpfnl. I'or eX:lmplc, Ruben, an at-risk student who
respunsibility for their lccwring [Jrogless. Studen", like anyone else, need to
was taking a course I was teaching, asked if I would allow him to drop
hal'e goals and know it is theit r'''pollsibilit} tu achieve those goals. Ilelieving
my class even though the "drop" deadlinc had passed.
advi,er, and
I contacted Ruben's
thouglr he was failing rhe class at that time, there was still time
10
can be a big part of accepting responsiLility. Dreams do not
in
met with Ruben together. We told him that
and the}
get turor-
\X'ith lntience and tCll:!cit} to nurture this hope, "c canlnve a powerful
ing, put in extra rime, and pass the class. On the other hand, if he dropped
impact on at-risk students. Even though unprep:lIed and
the class, he \vould lose his st.atus as a full-time student because it was
ca,nnot simply be lalked
late to add anothet class. As a pal l-time
toO
his financial aid would be
jeoPJrdiLcd, and hi, health inSUtdllee might be canceled. Rnben decided to stick with my class. He meeting with 1m durillg ttly office hours
going to tuloring and \,'ithin two weeks, he
JUSt
not p'bsiLk wilholll vision and hope.
illlU
:U' risk
studellts
obt.linirrg self-confidencc, rhe words we use
when LltlUllg to such studellts call malze a uicicJ.l Jittctcnce. Positive and encouraging \\'olds ers,
LJ.n
bc cnIidling ~lnd l!lspiriag (lTdnH, 100-+). As teach-
help f,Jcilitatc
~tUJCllb' Success by inviting them to con1e
:1t
see us during office l1Ou15 to go
He passed mv class, and at the end of the semester he told me tlte [u11'..)\\ ing,:
thL material dnel/or
to tUL01ing and
Illtloducc :;,tUdCl1lS to IC
b ,"'''L'b'C> d'2r wmp!clllclll dIcit
(see
f[ACIII?'-.'C L" ,'Kc,'AKL,U
Illost of the selllcster. 'W'idl every absdlcc or l11i~~ing assigJlI11Cllf,
chapter 5 for furtbet Ji;;.:us.siun). Hov,'ever, there is usually an intervening
sorority
period of time before at-ri,k
she would gt\'C her oblig<1l..1011S to the sororiLy as an excuse. At the end of the
aClually gain confidence and under-
fOI
stand that they em make it, As students start to accept responsibility for
she can1e to my office crying and begging for nle not to give hel
their own progress, their hopes ofbeillg able to actually succeed ill academics
an F, which she had earned. She said, ''I'm not asking for you to just
will grow. This never happens quickly, but it can and does happen for many
me a higher grade-I will do extra work to earn it." As I handed her a tissue, I reminded ber that baving a "secret" or "special" deal wOllld not be fair to
plofessor or ddviser helrs them connect with
at-lisk "tuJCllL, the educational
the rest of the students
I discovereJ an vvith ~tllJt'fltt.
t\'ViSl to this pJrtil.ubl philusophy when working
\,vltO \Vele
also melubu." of an athletic team on
Division
hell,
lllore imp"ltallr. it wOlIld not be fair to her. ;\5
I handed her more tissue, I lUld het rhe full()\\ ing:
I
college campus. For oome, the dream of playing professionally was strong
ClauJia, you Il8.VC made chuice:, tllloughulll the semester, and you have
a..f1d often COHlfh.:ted WiLh the dreanl of succeeding and gl.;1JUdtillg from
chm.en nol to u')llle
me [01 heir
until now--·cven though
in Febw:lI) , in l'viarch, and even in ApriL Now it is !\/by,
college, Some Llj,Jught that they had to choose berween the two. I never
I asked you
accepted that notion. Sllldellt··,llhktes ueed to kuO\\ (or be convinced) that
and it is too late. Next semester, I hope you wil! make JiHt'It.'nt choices.
they can strive f()'f both, and that they do not have to ~acrifice ac.ad:'::111!C
But, of course', ~t
to
\A..i1l
he up to
to
uccide
;lct on dw:,l..
succe:-,s for athletic success. \X/t:
aU Ldicv'~ that obL.ll11ing an educalion and
in the edu-
cational system, even with a!l its flaws, is a key to a fulfilling life. Bm sometimes we forget that students may not share the vision even though they have enrolled in
OUl
inslltuliuns. The \ i:::.ion
stl'ateJ, whether \\ ith
lidS
to be disLusscd and demon-
of g! ad:lJ.u.::s· earning
monials of alum.ni, or connections ,:vith dle
PO\VCf,
revealing testi-
career placement
cenrers. These kinds of actions may impire hupe fur our swdellls but don't absolve
from the need ro accept respomibility for their own
Anotber student wbo was failing came to srated, "I know
YOll
me before spring break and
are really mad at me." I told him, "I am not mad. I
totally respect rou~ {.1eci.sioll not to be in m)' class or in college. However, if that is
YUUl
Jecision, drop your cbsscs now heforc
YOll
\-vaste any Inore
money and my time." His jaw dropped. "\'Vell ... well," he sum!llerc,!' "I want to be here, and I want to be in vour cia"." I simply replied, "Then show me, John. Show me." He did, and he passed (barel), but he did prl's.)
I oftell post quotations on my office door that epitomize my teaching from John C.
philusoph). One that relates to this partidtlar principle
learning. can assist students \vit11 learning how to be responsible by
holdins them accol!t1uble. J ,I""e this pat[ of my philosophy with my stu· dents from the Ilrst week of class so rhey all know that no "last-minute deals" or "extra credit" will be offered for making IIp missed assigl1111Cllts or low test scores. Gtading policy and req,"ircillcrtts are ckarly explained in the sylU.>us and are .rho clic.urs.,cJ during the first \leek (see c!tapte",
[Lil t.het discUS0iu a). a [ew
and 6 fot
Iv1axwdl's (2007) book Trdent Is iVeuo Enough. He rcntinds his readers to teachable" (p.
I-,b.xwcll adds ach icc from J, Konrad Hole, who
wrote: If you ..:annot "t>c
ha\"ing talent \\'on'[ help you
If you cannot be flexible, having a goal won't help you.
If you If you
GUUlOt
If YOLl
(",llltlot
be glJ.lLful, hJ\ing abllnJ,U1ce \von't help you. be tnclltoublc, ha\ ins a future \von't help YOll. lx.- JUf..1hk, having a plan 'Non't help you. If you C.Ulllut he rCJ.duHc. hJyillg \V(:Hl't help YOLl (
200 7,
p.
UNPREPARED STUDENTS
PHILOS()PIIICAL rOLTNDATfClN:-;
The adyice from ~ laxwelI dnd Hole reinforces principle four: Students must he respo,,,iLk for their
learning. As professors, we can help stu-
rc::,pullsibiEty by lwlJing
dents
thCIH
of hooks or mapzincs in my home. I reaU) thought I had done this assignment right." I asked him why had he not talked to one of the resource libfCui:urs for help. He told me, "I
aLcuuntable.
embaIldssed
ask them. I guess T
didn't teally knuw how or what to ask them. Honcsdy. ! am kind of afraid to even approach those people. ..
Principle Five The final principle of my teaching philosophy is that professors shoulLl never do for students what they can do for themselves. In his book, Wuoden; A
On and Off/he Court, legendary University of Califomia, Los Angeles basketball coach Coach John W'ooden (1997) writes, "\~'by can't we realize that it only weakens dlOse we want to
help when we de things for them that they could do for themselves?" (p. 15)· However, there is a caveat with rhis decree. We should not assume that students know what rhings or how to do the things they should be doing for thumcil'Cs.
telling ,tucicIlts to do something on their own
does not mean they are capable of doing it. We may often have to help atrisk students get started and even teach them how to do what they need to do for themsdv,,, so ther develop the skills to actually become self-teliant anJ na-;:igclte tlllough the university. ~lan} at-tisk freshmen lack skills such as using the library and finding
applopli,llC sources for research papers. DUlninic, an at-risk student in my
I mean, I don't know any of them."
Instead of giving DUlninic anJ others \\'ho used incorrect sources an on the allIlUl
I had them reJo the bibliographies within a
few days. Once they had the proper resources, they
ready to write the
assigned paper. Bur Dominic, and other at-risk studems I worked with. dis coveted more than journal articles. By going to the libtaty and talking to one of the' librdrLlll.5; they were ~tLlc to
ledlll
ho\v to use an e\.uenlely valuahle
and imporullt resource that would be needed lhroughout theit college career.
I alsu bdieve that plOfcssOls shoulJ neVer lo\'.er their sLurdards or expec· tations because dley believe SLlLh
Sldlldcl1cis
or exp~LIaLion~ are too high. 1
often tell my students that I will not lower my sLll1dard, or expe(utic'l" because I believe they can achicve what I am asking them to do. S0I1lCtl111CS
because
a plo[c:,,Sor or aCIJC1ul':... ad\'ise!
COlUPIU1Uiscs
with stUJCll~'
prufc&sor (or adviser) does not want them to fail. \X'bilc we m;l\'
SOIl1cttrnes be lClnptcJ to lower ,staIHldids to dtnlOl1'llLltC a plogtdm's suc-
cess, we abo understand that the ultirnale test is the ,students' success.
IU\\Cl-divi"iun class, had tllmble recugnizing the diiTerence between maga-
teachers we
zine and journal articles, and he "as completely overwhelmed when trying
ered in the cL-lSSrOUlll and o\'crwhcllltcd in figuring out what to do about it.
to usc the library's online search sysrem. Many lieshmcn-not just those
who arc at risk---have tI.e same problem, but Dominic was still confused even afler a
and dCfnollsLLlliun [r01n the university's llbrJriJ.ll
on h<)\v to use the srstcm. \X hen he tUfneJ in his assignrncat, it was com-
lllUst
remember that llloSt of the at-risk studc!lts !rave [Cit smoth·
These stutlents need ill\"olvC1l1cnt, not extrication. They should not be rescued or disengaged [rom their learning problem,. They must be the major pJ.,yers in the pruce;s. No one
do it for them, but we need to provide
the suppm t and opportunity for them to gain the skii!s.
pletely wtong, with all of his articles dtawn not from academic journals but fruIn
I asked him fot a meeting, and when he arrived at my office, I smprised
Conclusion
him with a field trip to the library f()f a one-on-one session on finding
When wurking with swdents, there will he days when ev,,'phing goes
academic jOlIetU!; and learning how to ask dte libLIrian for help. Later he
wrong. I IO\\'C\Cl, if \\'C
told me, "I had no idea how much I had screwed up the
philusoph) ,me! a c1c~t i,lcd of what \\ c
did
like this
We
my high school, and we nevel had any kind
\ve believe in and have a sound teaching
tu accotllplish, then the princi·
ples of our lcach;,tg philusophy will see us through the "rduuu, times.
P:"I'REPARID Sf l:DE;.JTS
24
rh,ing
founJation to fall bxk on can pl<)\'idc teachers with a guide, keep
them on course, and help them make decisions that will be comisrcnt with their mission. The u,e pillCipks described in this chapter not only define Illy
kalhing philo::,()phy, but have aho besto\\'ed upon rne: the strc:ngth and
Jdc:1 !lli!l~uiun to face man} chaUcllgc-S. in
THE FIRST WEEK OF CLASS
as a teacher.
Sharing a Mission for Success
Tire iuture does not belong to those who are content with today
T
It will belong to those
he first week of coIlege lllaY he one of tll(: most important v,leeks Lolk-gc pro[essol~ .llld [or our ~tllJcnt;.,-bcGlllSe it is during:
[01 US
this time that we set the tone and climare for our comses. During
the first few class tlleetinp~not just the first day~\Ve meet
share with them who
OUI
slUdelllS.
are, present course goals, reveal intended learning
spdl out clas, ""pectatiom, and set up ground rules. How these cornpUll(:!lLS are
intfOdw..:cd to sLuJcnts help::. l.'swblish the cIassrooIll atmo-
dut we W~UH to
dC\';JOPl
expand, anJ reinforce duougllOut the scrnes(~OOL)
In her book,
Icmilllls us that
dim . !xcs conducive to learning are created by anion, not by atltl'_H~rh..C ment. If you WJ.lll LIt!\ tinJ of cIim:1tc in da.sstOo!;), you do nor get it iJldlhling linc;, in the s)lhbus saying dUl) uur d:l.':>\ will have ir.
It [c>ulu, fl0m it and,
The
:1ctiUll::> (al1J 2,OlECLilllC.,
inaCtion). You take aLlion to create to SUSLli~l
it. (p.
101)
\\c \\-ant to sustain Illust be inulKl.tK(xl [rUIl] the beginning.
One of the mo,[
aLliullS we take for setting up a positive and
26
THE FIRST \X'TEI< OF CLASS
STUDENTS
inviting cbssrovlll diuu.tc dldt is conducive for learning is to provide a writ-
others responded with slIuiLu
ten ~ylhbus. SyllaLi should be prOl ided for all students; however, for ar-risk
have until October 7."
or unprepared ,"udents who may not be vety good note takers or listeners, having a \\'...:11-\\ Litten sylLtbus that covers alll.-oursc proccdufCS, expcclalion::.)
[Un1111C1H5,
such as, "Yeah, me too, except J
Before evell pointing o lit the obvious-that thete ,,,mId be readings and notes to study-I looked
the first studem's syllabus and found
the bottom of the last page
P1CVClllivc IlleaSUfc prufcssob c::r.n ha\'e in tb.~ d~bsroom.
"s>ignmcms and class panicip,ltiun being part of the final grade. He did no't
~f.!n)'
professors prepare detailed syllabi before rhe first day of the semes-
sLaternent about pop
Oil
leading ;lSsigntnents, grading policies, and so on is crucial. It is the best
on the reading
understand that pop quiacs would occur randomly throughour the semesrer
ter with all aspects of the course and the course policies spelled out. Other
cerrainly before rhe first major exam on October 3. This at-risk stndent,
hnJlizillg certain aspects or rules of
like many others, had missed very imponant inform:uion about how he
plufwsors seek inpul fn.Hll students
the course during the first rev,1 cla.s:, meetings. In
latlC't case, a :-'UppltIIldlt
or "ddl'ndum sylbbu\ slwuld be handed out once the .It "den IS add their conand policies should always be written down,
lributl011S. Course
would be evaluated. The iul;Hmatiotl was there, but since the syllabus was poorly organizcJ, lhe ax-risk student JiJ !lot recognize the illlportance of the scattereJ Infornlatiun.
to lhcrn throughout the semester. Having SOllle kind
As professors, we can reach out ro unfllepared slUdellls hy designing
of course syllabus is usually required by all colleges and universities and is
syllabi that ate welcoming, clear, and thorough. Ptepbnning and preparatioll
(or fOlf11Jl agn:elllCIH) between plofcssors 2nd their
must take phce beforc the syllabus is composed. Also, a sylbb", checklist is
so tku :,(uJcllts can cunsidereJ to be a
C{)litrall
students (Baecker, 1998; Parkes & Harris,
2002;
\'Cankat, ~002). Furthermore,
useful when compusing or
syllabi. Checklists that identify possihle
"Your syllabus can be an impOltdi,t point of interactioll between you and
subtopics are readil)' a"dihble (see Appendix A for an example o[ a thorough
your s[ULlcms, both in and out of class" (Grunert, I997· p. 3).
checklist). The rest of this ehaptet disCllsscs s)!bb", compullents rhat haw implications for at-risk slUdel1ls.
Fot at-risk vtmicnt\, is made d'dibble as a
detailed and all-embracing written syllabus (that handour and nor only online) is absolutely essen-
tial. Many at-risk students lrdve ltouble making inferences about course tequirelllents and expel,t,uions. If these studellls
the first members of
Policy on No-Shows and Late Adds
their family to go ro college, calling home for advice is not an option. If they
Bd;)f<: the semester begins, as professors. we need to decide what to do about
lUle a learning dis.rbility or are unprepared, they may not be able to ascertain
students who are absent for the first or second class meeting, even though
thar
merdy implied (at not mentioned at
Asking for clJ.rihc.1Lion can be challenging. If LUiJ.ppl
~ll)
in a svlbbus.
they registered for class. At the
tirne, sutdents who are nOl Iegistered
p1O[es501 appears cold or
may request to add the course on the first or second dav of class. Before
fcd intilniJaLcJ and
deciding what to cia with these studcnts, consic\cr this: Du'ring the first class
Ll,lduble in any way, lIlO~t at-l1sk stulkllLS
likely will not go to that professOl's office for assistance.
meetings, you will establish
direLling an academic support program for at-risk college students, I found mall) ullprepared 5tudclllS had trImble deciphering their
nOl prcscnt~ they wiIl h:.l\T 1l1isscd the :lLtlYlric;,; that Cfc-:J.te a
all the at·risk students participating in the' .!Sked
lv put
dates .md due d
on their semeSler calendar. As the studcnts
doing this, onc studctll
shouted, "'V::'ow! I have nothing to do in this class until October 3." A few
class tone and clim:ue, anel if students are daSSrOOltl
com-
muniry. Thus, all olUdcllts need to be pteseltt from the beginning, especially at-risk students. Therefore, I and dropping or adding courses.
striLl polie)' for attendance
at-risk and unprepared Sllldcnts. the first week of class is panicularl) because they begin with
J
disad\anuge in terms of skills andlor
academic habits. Students who arc not at risk may be able to catch up and
28
TEACHING
STUDE";\JTS
TIlE FIRST
connect the dots en tcl-teir own, but unpr cpa red studellts who ate already are even more at risk if they are not in
class from the start
Ot-" ClASS
student infurmatiun system (SIS), looking at students' SAT or ACT scorcs can be a due,
bUI
be .')ure to notc whether the test
\\"':..5
taken during the
smdents' junior or :,crrio1 yeal of high school and if it "as taken multiple
At-tisk slUclcnrs must be in class by the second class meeting if the class
times, SLUdcllts who achieved high SAT or ACT scores during their juniot
meets two or three times a week, Ifit meets only once a week (for 3 at more
yeat of high school arc obviously nOt at risk, a!ld those with low scores mar
bours) , then by the second class meeting, it is probably too late for them to
have illlpro\'cd Juring their senior year. tIov/cvt:r. students \vho take the tcst
add the class, In most of my first classes, I will already have gone over the
multiple times may be at risk The high ,dlool cumuLlti,e grade point ay(t
syl1abu,s,
COllJU," ted
ice-lHcaking actIvities,
mate, For this tea.<:on I do !lot allo\\' class,
3JhJ
established rhe course di-
1 JJ!l1ini;)u:llivciy J!OP any registered stuJent who does not attend
the first and second class meetings, number of students on the firsr day of class needed suggest handing out the syllabus ~Hd
to
pcr[oIll1:lHce. to SIS inf01111ation,
YOll
ment (or campus) academic advisers or (oulIScJors fur
susrain the course, I to help recruit more
adlllillcd to the college
admit," it is plOlHbly heLause of his or her pOOt bigh scho:,l If you do not have
If ),ou are an adjunct faculty member and do not !rave the minimum
cbs~
age and unk can als0 be helpful, If the ,tl"lmt
to add arrer the first day of
have StUUellts
can ask your departManv uni-
slips that gIve L-ounsdurs :ll1d LLulty peilltis~i()n
to shart acadeluic in[onnJ.tiOl1 ;lbour theIn [01 eJuc.1tiOll::l1 purpuscs, which
Answer questions before the eLl:)::' IS disf1l1ssul. Then wait
protects coumclors dlld facull) from violating ,rny regulations of the Family
until the next ehss to see if there are enough students to hold the class, You
Educational Rights and Privacr Act of '974, For older studcllts, SIS will also
will be duing at-ti,k students no favots if YOll have already started your class
hd\'C
Statting off on the righr foot dttring the first week of class is critical, Mosl expelienced teachers
will
thz:it tuLtlsfcr college grades 3nd grades frurn their current institution.
If you cannut or do !lot wish to look at sludcnb' high SdlOul recOlcb,
and then use theI11 to Inake up your llUl11bcts.
testify that trying to redirect slt1clcnts latet in
the semestet or undo a climate rhey are not happy with is very difficult.
you can
your
sludClE;,
a paragtaph on why they
two -.;:irnpk J.ssigllmen(s. First, ask them to \vrite taking yout class, on what they hope to learn,
and/or on theit baLkground knowledge of the topic \>:/hen we do this on
Professors cannot create a posilice class alone, In addition, students need to
the first day, it not onl)
be involved anel to share the responsibility for the class climate, and in order
but it also serves as a way to get to know a little bit ahout them, A poorly
for this to happen tbey must be present, I have always told m)' students,
wtiUen sample lUay be an indildtot o[
"This is our class-not my class," All students who are raking rhe class need to be ple~ellt [rurn the bc'gil1ning to nuke cOHnections \vith thelt dassm::llCS
us insight illto OU1 students' "'titing abilities,
A second assignmem that can be insightful
[01
identifying at-tisk
and with the teacher (see chapter 4 fot further discussion),
Jents is to luvc thern LUlllpktc a short rcading cllld then give theln qucMiu!]'-;
Identifying At-Risk Students
dlllOllg the class InClnoe-ls.
about the reading. \\/hllc the Willing and reading assignlllCl1b are not fool-
proof, at~rjsk StUJCl~t5 will prubabJy
dU110llStLllC
the lowest pel[0l111anu:
To reach out to ullplepdrcc! or at-risk students, it may be helpful to identify these be JiHlcult j
5llldellts can hO\VeVeT,
unprcpted wl!cge
leLOlds
and infotlual
can reveal
fOI prnfcssOls who have access to the cdmpus
Preplanning: Course Goals and Teaching Philosophy \Xihethet your cla" is a new course or one that has been taught for a long time, and whethel you
teaching the course for the first time or have
30
TEACf-trl'
taught it [or Jllan)
As professors, many of us do not lealize the powcr[ul impact we can
I highly recommend completing the Teaching
Goals Iment(}[y created by Angelo and Cross (1993) as part of your course
on s\udents. Light (2001) found that professors often "dIanntiea]')
pt"p:llation and planning.! If you are teaching more than one course, you
underestimate theil influence on stndents' o\'cr:lll development. According
should take the goals inventory for
to
course. This inventory helps us as
unJelgradu;lles, certain prufess·ols exert a profound impact" and Inade a
clarify the focus of the d,lSS we ate tcaching and detetmine a.ssessa~
in their lives (pp. 104--105). In fact, during their senior year
blc goals. Once specific learniug goaL are clarified for a panicub, course,
when students were asked if they coulJ think of a particubr f,~nrlty membel
intended leallling ouLLDl11C.:. can be \vritten. Goals and learning outcomes
who had an imponal1l impact on them, "89 percent quickly idelllified a
gi\e professc", and students a specific focus and
particular profesoOf _ .. anJ got so involved with their expbnatiorrs thar it
for a particular
hard to shut them off" (p. 104). We. as college profes,""",, can have a \'V'hen ill:lOducing our goals and intendeJ learning oulcomes to our students, it is also a good time to ask them to clarify their own goals for taking the course (Grunert, I997, p. 3). I pass out 3'x~5~inch cards and ask the stc_dcnts to
WJ
itc do\'vu their
cunLlLt
infonnatlon, tell me why they signed up
for the class,
IIris in-class aeti'it) also helps identify possible at~risk students. Some
up,
stud elliS, and as they struggle to
give them confidence and help them become young schol-
By reaching out to connect wirh at· risk students, we can make a difference_ One way to reach out is to hdVC individual "office" rrH.:eting~ several during the
share their teaching mission and philosophy with their
(see chapter 2 for further discussion). We should ne,el openly iden~ tify the
positive and lasting infilreuce on
ings to go
Sell1CSlCI.
Using office hours for required lHdividual meet-
assignrncnb or test results, in 111)' experience, is p:lllicuLlI 1)
constructive fat unplcp~rc:d studems. Most at~risk sLUdeIlls respond in a
"udents in our cla.sses, but thete are general actions we can
positive way. Kuh, Kinzie, Cruce, Shoup, and Gonyea (200;) recommend
and especially adV8.nr,'geous for at~
"eady imervcntiun.s ~Ild sustained ~trcntion" for at~risk students (p. 37), and
lake ,hat :lIe bCIlcfiLiai to the
tisk students. Giving guidance about our expectations and pointels about
having the illciiviciuai nleetillg~ IS one
to support their recornnH:nJatioll.
how to learn and excel in academics is particularly helpful for at~risk or students_ They aLo need to hear that help and support is avail~ able. SimdLllleousl), students can be reminded that theit success also
Preplanning: Write Intended Le,uuing Outcomes
"'lIking hard, using support resources, and pUlling in a lot of
When deciding on learning outcomes for a course, we need to begin by
time and effort on their schoolwork. Pascarella and TercHzi"i (2005) note
considering Ollr goals for the end of the semestn. As professurs, we need to
Jepends
OIl
that "the impact of college is laigely determined by individu:ll efforts in,,'ulvLlnenl tn the campus. _ . [clnJj
Jer;ve from dlOse at
intcrpcrson;:.u, and extracunicuLu offcri!lgs on , .. bear 111ajor It:sponsibilit)' fO!
post sewndar y experience'-
Cp.
gait:.
602). All studems, especially
tllust undclstJ.nd the iHtportance of lheir o\vn UJt1l111iUl1CIlt
follcming questioll: What do I want my students to know, understand, anJ be able to do with thell new lulU\\'IcJge as a result of taking class? (Huba & Freed, 2000)_ Huba and Freed also suggest examining dc')criptiulls and syllabi in orde[ to tcview wllJ.t
is
CUIIc!Hl}
taught" (p. 93) in your Jepartment, program, at college for guidance. should not only tell swdents what we intend for them to
bU!.. als0 . . vhy the
OULl-urnCS
are
IIHpOrClllt
and ho\-\ they connect to
the college'; mission anJ dep:m11lCllI goals. Tlti, "ddcJ bit of infoIllution is helpful for unprepared
Their prior lmowlcdge will be less
32
TEACI1ING U:-JPREPARED ::n
t'DE~TS
wmptchensil ethan lhat of tltei, betler-prepared classmates, and when this
How do
kind of addiliollJl infoflllation is given, it can help dose
will we
gap dnd
1110li \'dlC
33
n-lF FIRST 'X'EFK OF CLASS
info!lllalion
\VanL our students to demonstrate what they have learned, how (or assess) their performances, and how will we assign
grades? On the syllabus we ne.ed to tell srudellls " ... whar they
student;:"
\X'hen wriLing inten,lcd leaming outcomes for tbe end of the semester, we ,hould keep t\,O things in mind_ First, le;l1ning outcomes should describe
whal conditions they will be assessed" (Stanley & Porrer,
what tbe student will be.able to do, not the learning activity tbat we plan or
ning learning expel iences and instruction
rhe teaching acti'!it}' we ate using. Leaming outcome, should address the abilities or knowledge our studeL!ts should be able to demonstrate. Begin learning outcome sentences with the phrase, "[You) should be able to .
will be held
accoul1l:lblc for. what oppollunities they will have for practice, and undef 2002,
p.
12).
Plan-
hand in hand when making
dccisiollS. In jddition, paft of implO\ing the possibility that at-risk student.\
in OUJ course~ Cdn
achieve lhe learning
OUlCOl1H;::-,
includes how
\ve
up Dur aSSCS:-l1l1cnt ,lnd grading systcrns.
(Huba & Freed, :~ooo, p. 99). Second, identifY only fout to six overall learn-
Many at-risk swdellls begin the semester with ullIealistic goals about
ing outcomes on t!te course s11!dbus. They should be genetal enough to
the grades they will be able to earn. Then, once the lirst set of grades is
~fort:
cover the entilc hamled out at
specific and detailed learning outLornc~ can be
beginning of each indilidml unit andlor
returned (from either Ii"t midrcrn" or papers), those at-risk sLUdents who
the beginning
earned poor grades will start disengaging as a feeling of despair replaces the
Huba and Freed (woo) pruvide several examples of intUldcd leaming
college life .... \'(!e need to reduce the stress, but not eliminate ir" (Weimer.
previous naive goals. «StuJcllLS nnJ evaluation the rnost stressful aspect of
of a class meeling (see chapler 6 for further discussion). outcomes from. \',uiou.s (1i;;cip~lnL':;'. The followIng ale three ex,unplc:;, '\vritten for indi .. idual courses
[rUIll
thlee different
",n'''''''''C'Hd Issues: 'Yuu slwulJ be able
of the inJi \ id!Lll pbnts" (p I09J.
2002.
p.
126).
To accol1lplish this, there are several things we can do.
First, we need to have a variety of aClivilies or projects that allow stuto
"artie-uLae
rc~pollsibilit)
managemclll of energy, soil, ,vater, and
dents ,vith different types of learning styles and strengths to delllollsu:nc what they are lealIling (see duple" 5 and 8 for fLmhcr discmsioll). In addition to tests, you can assign, for ex::unplc. presentations, journaL:." and
research or po;;ilion papers that can be part of the grading system. Cour~es
Current Issues in U.S. Foreign Policy: You should be able to "make an
that have only Une or t\\O midlcrms and a final only taise the anxiety levels
one current issue in
of all students, and "afidid, dnxiou" and olre"ed students do not easily focus
013.1
Arw:ricall foreign policy" (p. no).
rs>,,-,hulogical auJ
on learning objeniv'cs IOl outcomes]" (Weimer.
;"1ca~,ulcfllCllt:
You ::;hvuld bc able to C
sllm~
2002,
p.
126).
A second straregy we can employ is to use rubrics for papers, projects. oral PICSCllldtioll'), cbs::; participation, ponfoIio~, and so on (praLtfcLllly any-
thing to be graded). Rubrics sal e grading time [or prufc"OIS. provide eflcc-
All the cx:unpb describe what tbe student will do with the course inforlll.;:uiun) and all of these
and can be graded.
feedback, and prontOLC student learning (Stevens & Levi,
2005).
Rubrics
especial!), helpful for at-risk and unprep;ued students since the rubric is handed out and Ji.scusscJ in class before stuJcnts stJ.rt on the a:>sigllll1C!H chapter 8 for furthet discu"ion).
an,l Grades
Planning f(JI
between formal (or summatile) grades is also
Once intended learnil1g outc0J11eS have been idclllilied, ,Ne have to deter-
111lp0rlant ft)r at-li~k studenl':" success (see chapter 7 for funhu dislussloE).
mine what kiud of acceptable cl'iltence we
~fanJ unplcpilrcc! ilnd
to cuJkcl [10m
[11C
risk studctlb are insecure :tbout lheir ulln audcI:ric
THE FIRST \'('EEK
34
or
abilities and need ro knmy that it is okay to ask for help and admit that they
listing these resources on the sylbbus is not enough. 1'1 u[cssoJ!, need to push
JOll't kllVvV ho .." to con:FlcLc an
and use a proactive appro.1ch v'.'hen it Lurnes to unprepared ':;Ludcllts, be(Ju.~(·
As
\ve can let stu-
dents know that we want them to seck help and talk to us. Finally, when
most of tbem do not realize how far behind they ate dnd what it will take to
will be gL.Hll:d, it is illlportant
catch up. LspeciJJly fOl freshmcn, thete is an lllllC,llistic perception of what
setting up to lisl
,lEd
dcsnibing to sLw.1clltS
h0W lhe}
the number l,f points that each project is wortll as wel! as its percentage
of the lotal grade. Clear grading poims and
are important to
they are ready to do. \1(i'hen I asked over of 7 years to write
d0\Vll
2.00
at-tisk students over a period
their suncstcr goals, more than
700/0
\\'rote that one
allllVv .)ttH. icnlf' to figure out their current glaJe as the SelIlCSler progresses
of their goals was to make straight As. This
(see cl "'p"cr 8 for further
special admits andiol had SAT and ACT scores fal below the fle.;]lIn:Hl class
fiolll ,tudmts who were
average scure: "'\\'h(;l1 I \\'oulJ qucsr.ll.Hl students [uulier about sllch a goal, a
typical response was like the one that I got [10m Dominic, who told me,
111lroduce Learner-Centered Education tl1dt a
will communicate much about tbe pro-
5) Habus
fessor's attitude toward students and learning. She wtites, "The way in which you
C01l1tllunicale
your views fin your -syllabus: helps students to
UIH.lclSL1UJ VvhclhcI your cla~~ '>vill be conducted in a formal or infolHlJ.l lnannCl. COtllll1Ul1lL,
and dialogue
begins widl the syllabus" (p. '5)' Studems need to know whun a professur \,vill be using a lcaIllU-CetlLered .lpprodi..-h, because
1l1J.ny
of their
also need to
kilO\-\!
do they llcc,d a desCl iptiull of what that means, but they
\vhy
VIle
are using active leatning tncthoJs: (\~Tankat,
p. 48). \\(re can ust our ~yIL1LLl~ to cxpLdn p,He [Ot
J.lld
going to try hard." J asked, "So can you give me some specifics)" He, like most olher at-risk studcllb, could nor give me an); concrete
2002,
education, pre-
even illU,;,lLltC the iIuputtanLc of student ellgagernenl
through disLussion and ,-,pening-day l..LlSS actlviLics. Since Iearllct~((:ntcleJ eJuclt1nn is IllOIC conducive to various learning styk:~, 111;111)' student::. ,vill
recognize the benefits for theit own learning right away (see chapters) and
Almost alllLe J.t~rid, slUdellts I worked "itll had rhe desire to succeed
for tbcmsehcs. They arrived at college
in college and had high
eyclllually achieve academic success. However, as unpleparcd flcsllmen. about what exactly they were going to have to do to star
nlost were
,1I1oat ,md rem,1in off academic pLObalion during their first year of college. To help at-risk studClll., realize what they need to do, I have stullcm, take a revised version of the Semester Pcr[olllwlCe Prognosis Im·entol). created by Saundta Y. McGui'e (per60llal communication, August
BUY be a tutoling center, '''Titing lab, and oth~r ,:,uppon
on campm, ing pll\,
2007),
director of the Center for Academic Success. and adjunct prufcs,or in the of Chcmi.llry at Louisiana State UnivCIsity. McGuire put consider performing tluoughom lhe
University Resou.w:s, Support Centers, and Tips for Success though
and could
together a list of v3.riuu.;-;, beha\ iOlS or study auivitlcs that :.Ludults should
6 for ('llalieI disc""siun).
EH~n
S[CPS
llot articulate exactly what sludying hard meant.
with aLlmitable goals. With dellicatlon and the prof'll suppa". lllool would
At first. SOlHe sluJellb may resist learner-centered teaching methods. GIlh-
asked him what exactly did that mean. He said, "You know·~-I am really
pturCS::;Ol5
do not use this style. ThClcfuru, nut
"Yeah. I can do rhis. I alll going to work really hard." At the same time, I
need to be infmmed ,md reminded durthruughoul
Lo
these resources. Just
inventory). I
the
(see Appendix
to
IU:lll·h
Lhe
B for the comsu<:uegie::-.
that related to the courses I teach. Students are asked to wrire true or t~j,e beside each statclllellt that describes lire way they will study for the upcoming semester [or a pal tiCulal eLlss. A fcw example" from my rn iscd ilFellloIl, adapted from McGuire, atc as follows:
36
TF!\CHINC U"'KI,t'AK~f) S'IUDENIS
True or False
I \Yill go
rHE FlRST WEEK OF CLASS
office hums or tUlOrillg regularly to discuss
the readings, other paper.
andlor the research
"salvage" these students. For his 11ltruJuLlory psydlOlugy course, he asked
students who earned a test score below 75% to come to his office (within the 7 d:1Ys after recel\ lug their test scores) for a private tutoriaL They were
or False
I will
diag12ms alll! draw pictmes of the concepts
or False
and ,oubulary introduced in class and in the readings. I will redo all of the quiz and test items I have missed
asked to bring their test, textbook, and class
HoteS
for the tutoring session.
l\1c13ra),cr that scssioll.l are well ;\orth the time because he gets to knovv his students, plovidc each one WI[h onc"Ol1-unc instruction, and
before the next class session and come to office hours
teach them some study skills. During the session. he not onlv asks the Stu-
to see if n1Y "corrections'1 are no\v correct.
dents to tell him how they prepared for the exam, but also which reading. studying, ,,"d test-taking sllategies tltey used. He gives the stuclems feedback
After studerE' mark true or false for each statement. they are asked to ,dd up the number of true marks and then turn the paper over for scoting. :In the reverse side, student, lead lhe [ollm\ ing:
on their textbook and lecture notes. At the end of each session, he has smdems make re\'ised stud\' plan and goals for rhe next Finally, the students write down five things they will do dilTerelllly to help them do better on the next test.
P1{:diucd guJcs for yow
ate ptuviJeJ below:
I2-I3
!'.!cBLlyer (2001) reports tint the students who attend the private tutor·
Frcdldct/ Grade
session increase their test scores by an average of IO points, bnt those vvho don't attend «shovvcd no Lunsistent signs of imprO\TlllCllt on the next
A
eX'llTl" (p. 3). l\k13raycr Itas used this tutoring system for over 8 years and
9-II 6-8
collected data on 547 ,meier"" and \\ Itilc he does not indicate ,f the students who perforllled poorly
3-\
D
NOLI:.' lhal
}VU
b<:h;1~'.i()l
identified as unprepared or at risk. these Stu-
dents ate idetltificd as the ones in his class who initially had the poorest
2 or leS5
pcrfoflllancc. ch:-lllge tlLlt
pu:dit.:ted grade at any point by changing are true. (!v1cGuire, 2007)
of d:c
The inventory 8.nJ the
plivJ.tc
tutoring
SCSSiOll's ale
just
[\\0
examples of
actions that we as profc:':>surs can take in :lJditio!l to informing sluderll~
about support centers on campus. J[[,:lnh.SLU.uerll, may already have most of these behaviors as part of their tudy h:lbits or stuJy loutlnes, but
IllUSt
at-·risk students do not and cannot
ven come up with such a list. '.L,)'ing this invelllury will give them peeifie audcmic ,bo do
Ilot
list of
they can choose from. For the at-risk students
knO\\ bow to perForm some of the tasks listed, I invite them to
Expectations of Behaviot Somewhere on the ,\ylbLus, we can reach out to at-risk studellts by telling that
anyone with a disability (leaming or otherwise) to bring
his ur hel letter of identification froln the univelsity's disdbleJ \tUdc:nl
vices office. At the same rime, professors strongly encourto attend j" gI:1JCJ,
it is llwst likely that S0111C stuJcnts
Jill have performed poorh-. McBrayer (2001) suggests a strategy to help
college pteparation
01
can ask studellts who are rlflSllte of their
readiness for c.ollege to come to our office to discuss
swdr for being successful in class. \'{'c "Iso need to make it clear that in no way does [his mean that any standards or expectdtions will be lowered, but that
afe lalking about sharing swltegic, with studcIllS for
38
u
THE FIRST \X'EEK OF CLASS
STUDENTS
l'l"Kl"'AKt,U
being successful in class, On the first day, I also tell them that I expect ro ~ltcnd eve Iy class (sec chapter 4 for further discussion), For this part of the sylhbus, a statement about academic integtity is
exam"; "Ann
39
you ro explain the purpose of the research particip~tion
points" (p. 287), Raymark and Connor· Green f"uned the questions in this to gel the students to consider not just what the course policies are
but
usually included along with any test-taking procedures, due dates, makeup policies, and so UIL Chapter 8 is deYOted to this subjed and includes several
also the reasons fOl course policies. They also suggest that the syllabus quiz
suggcstiollS syllabus and! 01 the prufe"sor's policies.
I hose used the syllabus with much success. First, I have srudellls take the quiz alone. Next, I have them separate into small groups (no more
depending on the college, department.
be required and not offeted as an extta-credit option.
regarding classroom decorum, etiquette, and
than three people to a gJOup) to compare answers. Finally, we have a total
ground rules are also included on a thorough syllabus (see chapter 4 for fUIther ,[;ocmsiud). It is import~nt to create a climate where students are
dass discussion on any remaining questions students lilay have about their
rcspectful to each other and to you.
low scote on theit individual test, because they learn the information in a
In "ddition,
we have for OUI students, and whether an indion a syllabus before the first
answers, This approach is beneficial for at-risk students even if they have a small-group setting. If we want students to read and
the syllabus, then as profe"or5 we
likes to have his or her students participate
lllust tum to our syllabus often and "encourage students to develop the habit
in dCkrlnining thOSL expectations, they do need to be written duwn on the
of using it as a common reference duonghout the course" (Grunert, t997·
syllabm. "A lhoi'Jugh sylhbus ledil~es the number of student questions and
p. 20). ""'hen introducing new units of study
challenges to course policies during the term" (Wankat, 2002, p. 48).
tefer students to your syllabus. After the initial introduction, if we use the
0t
new assignmellb always
syllabus and refel to it througllOut the semester. it will be the useful communication tool you intended it to be.
Syllabus Use and Follow-Up The leamer-cent,cred syllabus can be used as a guide tor student success. aud Hanis Cwo~) tecull1111end using YOut syllabus as a leaming tool. All students bentot from a detailed syllabus that will "tell [them] where they will elld up
the semeSter is over and how they will get there" (Wan kat,
p. 48). I-Io\\,cver. and use it, 2002,
,\fallY profeswis who go
day of class
stuJents alsv need guidance on hov,r to read
Conclusion As professors we can use OUI syllabi as the first Ene of communic,uion with our studellts. Also we
(and should)
our ullhusiaslll fot teaching
in our syllabi, the goals dnd intended leaming outcomes that we have for the slltdents taking the cl:lSs, as "ell as the teaching mission. Once the syllabus
the cla" s)lhbus in great detail on the first
will ,till have students who" ill miss important management
is ready for the first dav, it can be used to bell' create a posilive classroom
lu[ornullun or other course logistics. To avoid this inevitable situation.
dtmos p hcre. The s)'lhbus will be the contract between
Rayrllark and Connor-Green (2002) reco1ll11lcncl giving a quiz on the sylla-
therefore, throughuut the semester, it will ptmide direction and focus for
bus that is
our course. for
in such a way that students assume the role of the
all
and uur students:
of the course should be spelled out so
RaymaJlz and ConJlor-Green asked qucstiOll~ like "Rebecca a~ks whether it is possible to meet with you outside of
the students
on board with the mission of the class, ground rules, expec-
reguLul} scheduled ufoce hours"; "Veronica has an A avetage going into the
bus can help guide the way for at-risk students as [hey learn hO\v to be
final exam. Now she wants to know why she can't he exempt from the final
J.cadcmidly successful,
tations [ur chssroolll
and so on. Having a clear. well-written sylla-
4 BEGIN WITH CONSISTENT CONTACT Attendance That Matters
Every noble work is at first imrossihlA -Thomas Carly!e
W
hile there may be many factors that influence srude'nt<;' achievement and success in college, <::tuckrt<;' performance in individ-
ual courses may be one of the most dercrmin8tivc. Even if all else goes well, studcn ts who fail too many classes or perform poorly are
academically dismissed. In response to the importance of students' success rates in indivio1l11 courses, some colleges target specific courses with additional suppOrt, such as adding tutoring, preceptors, andlor '1nppl("'mcnt11 instruction to boost performance. Rcgarrllc'is of ".:hether extra <::l1rrOTr exists.
professors can analyze and improve their teaching re,hniqllcs to positively influence student performance--panicuJarly For at-risk students. Specifically, all instructors can use techniques to promote student attendance', which in turn can produce higher student achievement :mrl <';llCCt'<.;s.
Benefits of Class Attendance Students who go to class regularly not only earn higher grades, but they are also more likely to stay enrolled in school (Brocato, 1989; Fricdm"n, Rodriguez, & McComb, 2001; McCutcheon. 1989; Sleigh, Ritzer, & Casey, 2002), In contrast, when students' attf'nrl:mce becomes inconsisrent, they are 4J
42
less engaged, even when they do come to class. Several studies on class atten-
dance found that "excessive ;lr.<;(,nfccism may lead
43
BEGl:\" \'nTH CONSISTE::--:T COl":TACT
TEACHIKG CNPREPARED STUDENTS
to
the feeling that one's
vou will do better in my class" may get the message across
~lready have a propensity for :-mr'nding cb<:<;, but it won't
to to
students who those who are
academic situation is a lost cause, and ultimately to dropping out [of
mOSt
likelv to miss class. Furthermore, simply including a nehlllnll<: st:He-
school]" (McCutcheon, 1989, p. r). If students with high absenteeism do not
ffient
abo~t a small amount of points
drop out, educators know from personal experience :1n0 research :;-:tt1clics that
final grade often does not make much of a difference for at-risk students.
for "class participation" as part of the
these students have lower grades (Brocato, 1989; McCutcheon, 1989). \\)'hen
So what are we to do? Fortunately, we as faculty can easily implement
surveyed, both student,> ;:mcl faculty agree that the final grade depends greatly
six steps that will increase class Clttcn(bncc of all stll(ient<;, regardless of how
on attendance (Sleigh et aI.,
prepared they may be for college:
2001.,
p. 54). Thus, when seeking
to
improve
retention and student success, imrroying the students' attendance for individual courses is a key ingredient. At college orientations, deans and academic counselors often talk to new
L
Learn the students' nameS.
2.
Help students learn their c1(lSSmCltCS' names.
3. Require a respectful c1(l<:<;room atmo<;phere. 4. Dcmon<:fLltC a pnsirivc Jtritwk f(l'iY;Jrrl the ,-,tlldent<; ;:mct (,llthU';:i1<;m
students about the importance of going to every class session, arriving on time, and staying for the entire period. Although they are advised about the students may still miss class. Th ~nllghnnt the semester, professors with a
for the subject matter. 5. Use interactive lecture methnd<: \vith mC;1ningf11 1 in-class 2nI\'iries.
class that meets two or three times a week know that all their students are
6. Take roll and redefine class participation points.
benefits of class anen(J;mce and viarned about the dangers of absenteeism,
likely to miss at least one or two classes by the end of the semester, and some will even miss three classes. A few absences are usually considered acceprcthl~ and not oafn:1ging
to
A detailed discussion of the steps follows.
a <;tlJ(-1cnt's final gnrle, but several absences (e.g., more
Learn the Studmts' Names
than three or four) are not. Perfect attendance appears
to
be a rare thing, yet students who begin the
ProFessors who learn their students' names not only have better ::nrcnd:lllce
semester with consistent class 3rter'(hnce have a greater chance of becoming
in their classes, but also a better rapport with their srudt.""nts (\Vankat,
engaged in the class and sticking with it, despite its scholarly difficulty. Con-
p.
versely, students who begin the semester with inconsistent attendance are
name and calls on them using their name. 'W'hen rrnfc<;<:nr<; do not know
less likely to connect with the course and persist. Thus, finding ways
to
their stu(knrs' names, students may feel they are :lnnnrm(,!lI<:. \'{!hile most of
increase class attendance from the get-go will not only help "tudf'nts earn
us may agree that learning students' names is a worthwhile- ;:Jnd imrnrt;'1nt
higher grades, but also help StudeDls increase their commitment to persevere
task, doing so, especially with large classes, may seem impo<:sihle". However.
in college.
12 5).
2002,
Students respond positively when an instructor recognizes them by
many professors have found ways to 8ccompli<;h thi<; n<;k. For larger classes. some professors take pictures of the students during the first week of class,
Techniques That Increase Class Attendance for At-Risk Students Methods rrpiol!y used by faculty with academically prepared students may
label the pictures, and place them in 0Iph<1heric::d order (or use a seating chan) so that they can review students' names and/or faces. Wankat
(2002)
suggests thar instructors bring the photos to class and study them while
not be cDmpelling ('nnl~gh (or obyinn<; en0ugh) to rmirivcly 1ffcct at-risk or
srudenrs are t8king a test (p. I26). Another \vay to learn names is
unprepared students. Simply saying. "Don't miss class" or "If you attend.
Any office supply store has blank forms, or you can make "tents" from
to
make n<1me-rtnes for all your students.
44
BEGI;\: \'VTfH CONSISTEl"-r C00:TACT
TEACHING UNPREPARED STUDF:--::T5
regular letter-size paper. Have students "vrite their names on their nameplates with a marker in large letters, or type in the students' names yourself using
45
students questions about where they grew up; why they chose the uniw:r~ity;
and, in particular, why they are taking your class. This simple assignment
a large font size. Then, students can pick up their nameplates as they enter the room and place them on their desks. Not only does this help you to
reinforces one of the "Seven Principles for Good Practicc in Undergraduate
learn their names, but it also hdps students learn each other's names. J have
bcr,yccn studenrs Jnd f..1ndry:
found that most students do not like wearing name tags, but they seem really appreciate having nameplates. Wankat
(2002)
to
also describes informal methods that professors can use 40 students):
when the class size is modest (J!~SS than
Come early and look over the class list as students enter. Ask students who they are and if necessary, hov< to rmn0unce their oJ.mcs. Write dovyn the pronunciation phnnt"fi,:1!1y or: the ('bt:l; list if rhi, will ht"Jr rnll rem(>rnr.(,f. Practice using their names. If a student comes (0 your office hours and you can't remember his/her name. ask. Students appreciate a professor's effort to le2rn their nal11es and do ni)t mind the pr0f(,~<;M'S 3~kiflb' (p. U5)
Education" (Chickering & Gam50n, 1987), which is
to
encourage contact
Frequent studem.. faculty contact in and out of classes is the most important factor in student mntlY:1ri0n :lml in\'0h'('m~>nt. Faculty concern helps students get rhrnugh rough times and keep on w0rking. Knowing ;1 few faculty me-rnh('[s well enh;m('(''' students' intellectual ,nmrnirm('nr and encourages them to think about their own values and future plans. (p. 3)
The initial requirement of having to come to a professor's office for an introductory chat will help ease the \'lay in the future for those <;mc1cnt<; \,Thro
are hesitant or nervous about talking to professors. If you adopt this tech· nique, it is important to remind the <;tw:1c:nt<; during class hours if they still need to make an appointment. This kind of follow-through drmof1srrares
students), I also have used a name ga~e
your commirmenr to meeting your srudenrs. In
'V\rhere students stand or sit in a circle. To begin, the first student says his or her name and his or her favorite toy or candy as a child. Then, the next
back moriv;1tcs <;tuclcnrs to do v;h:1t has been asked of them. An ()ut<;t
For smaller classes (less than
20
person does the same and repeats what the first person said. This process
an innovative way
continues, and as we go around the room, each student first introduces
classes of more than
himself or herself and then repea.ts the Dame and favorite roy (or candy) for
virlC'\It:'We' recorder, and as students are filling out information sheets and
each person who has gone behne. It has ahvays been a fun activity, and students always seem
to
have a good time with it. (For those students who
to
learn the names of his "mncnt", even with his large 100
"tuctcnt<;. On the first day of class, he brings a
readin~ through the syllabus, he calls them up one at a time for a brief 1- to 2.-minute interview that he records. He told me, "The first thing I have the
often laugh and enjoy themselves rhWllghollt the exercise. 'rou can develop
students do is to say their names, because they rarely mi"prnnounce their own names!" All the students have a chance to say a few things about them-
your Own variations that will fit vour course <;inwrinn.
selves. Then this professor takes the tape home and memorizes all tbe stu-
think they have a bad memory, we give hints
to
heIp them out.) Students
There are twO additional t,~chniques that I recnmmf"ra for learning
dents' names. At the next class meeting, he stands at the door and greets
names, which take more time but can have a very positive impact on student
students by name as they enter the clas"foom. Needless to say, his students
attendance. One is to offer some number of points for all students who come
are quite impressed and rarely miss class meetings.
to office hours for an interview at the beginning of the semester (or you can require students
to
come). Extra office hours arc added during the first sev-
Help Student, Leilrn Their Classmates' Names
eral weeks of the semester so there are plenty of :1pfrolntmcnr times anibhk
A second principle of good practice in lInclerSf:1c1u;ltC: eclllC:1tion (Chicker-
for the students. During the short
ing & Gamson, 1987) is
(10-
ro 15-minute) interview, ask the
to
develop "reciprocity and cooperation among
TEACHING UNPREPARED STUDENTS
BEGIN WITH
students" (p. I). When students are introduced
to
each other and know
their d;l<;sm8res' names, it car: be the beginning of hllilding a das<;f()om community. With a classroom communiry 8rmo<;phcre, arrend:tflce rises. It is co mf0rting and inviting for students to go to a class where they know
Find Someone Who ...
other people, and they are able to talk to each other about the COllrse material or just casually.
INSTRUCTIONS, BELOW ARE SOME STArEMENTS. AKD YOUR TASK IS TO FIND A PERSON I~n!JS CLASS WHO AGREES WITH THE STATEMENT AND OBTAlN HIS OR HER CLASSMATE CAl'\) ONLY
By setting aside a little d
CONTACT
47
FIGURE 4.1 Sample Handout for Activity for Students to Meet Each Other
MANY SIGNATURES
to
in-class activities, whether a clas3 di"'-11"<;ion or a group project, students who know each other by name will find it easier
to
work together. Additionally,
Find someone who
students will find it easier to create study groups or find a study partner benveen class meetings. Light (20m) found that "almost all students who are struggling academically ... always study alone" (p. 40). Suggesting
1) Likes to
golf
2) Is from your hflfTletmV'l (or ~r:ltcJ
to
these students that they should study with othets is a fairly simple thing for
3) Is m:1j0ring (or thinking 1hot1f it) in gc('gr~ph)'
faculty members or advisers to do. However. finding someone to study with
4) Has traveled to Europe, etc.
is not al\vays easy for at-risk students. Rather than juSt tell students to do this, professors can assist in this process by setting up a way for students to meet each other in class and learn each other's names, \Xlhen this happc"ns in class, it is easier for all students to find a study group or panner, but especially for at-risk students. Light
(200I)
also suggests that prnff'''<:nr<;
COI1-
sider crearing study groups if their students do not do so on their own, as
2.
A second ice-breaker activity involves students in making a "Coat of Arms" with a partner's help (P. Sopper, person~l commllnic:-ninn July 31, 2001). This activity is appropriate for smaller classes. Each
"many students report that working in small groups enhances their engagement witb course material" (p. 53).
student is given a large piece of poster paper and a few color markers.
There are many types of ice-breaker activities that stimulate interaction among students and present an opportunity, for students to meet each other. The F011cl'l"'}!ng are three of my favorites:
(see Figures 4.2 and +3). All the students work with a partner, even though everyone makes his or her own coat of arms. Once finished, students tape their posters up on the walL Then students take turns inrrnnllling their partner and exphining their partner's coat of arms. Even the shyest smoenrs seem to be at ease when intrnrlllcing someone else. The structure of the coat of arms icebreaker keeps the introductions short
1.
"Find Someone \Vho .. ') is one activity that is easy and ralzes only about 5 to
10
to
prepare for
minutes of class time. To prepare, create
a handout (see Figure 4-1:1 with instructions and a list of statements (at least 8 to
10)
that have to do with the class andlor outside activi-
ties. Students then move around the room talking
to
each other and
asktng which of the statements they agree with and asking students to sign their name under t he statement that is true for them.
In the front of the room, an illustr::nion of a coat of arms is displayed
and interesting.
3. My third iccbrcJkcr is called "Thirty-Second Imroducrions" (modified from an activity described by Mllrphr [2005]), which can be used with very large classes (more than 100). To begin, directions
BEGIK WITH
FIGURE 4.2 Coat of Arms Directions Example
CO~5ISTENT
CO:--':Ti\CI
49
with topics listed (see Figure 4-4) are shown on a PowerPoinr slide so everyone can easily see them (Ledlow, 2005). Explain to tbe class that they will have a chance to visit with several classmates to share their responses to the topic statements. Ho\.vever, the visit, or exchange of information. will be for only 30 ,,{'cnnck Once they begin, blow a whistle every 30 s{'cond", :1nd when the students hear the whistle. they are to stop talking to ,\,.. homcvcr they are with and go talk to someone else. After being sure that everyone understands the directions, blow the whistle to begin. As students talk to each other, they introduce themselves to another student, f011mving the clirccrions in Figure 4-4. First, each student states his
or her name and
twO
of the things listed in the first box. Tben. the student
can answer one (and only one) of the choices listed in the second box. Every 30 seconds, at the sound of the whistle, everyone moves and finds a new person to talk to. For the next 3, 4, or even FIGURE 4.3
5"
minutes, people are visiting
FIGURE 4.4
Sample of PowerPoint SHot· for the Coat of Arms Activity
Questions for the Thirty-Second TntroduC"tions Activity
1) Name, plus two of these: " High School Alma Mater " Pets, Kids, Both, Neither .. Home State .. First, Middle, Last. Only Child
2) And one of these (in one sentrnr('):
Major or field you afe intereste(i in
" Possible career for mirldlc. or high
~ch()111
when you are not at
50
BEGI:\i \,\!j'fn CONSISTE~T CONTACT
TEACHING UNPREPARED STl:DENTS
with each other, then moving to a new person to talk
To conclude the exercise) the ir:structor :1nnnl1nCes
to
to
every 30 seconds.
the <;;rudf'nn that it is
time to return to their seats. This activity allows students to meet several other <;flldf'nts in the class, most of vvhom they have never met before. It is
fast, enjnyahlc, and serves the purpose of breaking the ice, which will provide a f()l:ln(b6on for <:tndcnr interaction.
issues or rude behavior between or among <:mdrnt<; should be addressed immedi:1tcly (see ch8pter 6 for further discussion).
Demonstrate a Positi1!e Attitude Toward the Students and Enthusiasm for the Subject Matt"" \XThen professors have a ro~jtiyc attit1ldc t()'w:1rn <;runcnrs, it not only influ-
me
.\1any other types of activities can be used ro have students meet each otheL The purpose of thc<;:c acri,"itics is to encolJr:1gc peers to inrc-racr. Building on the ice-breaker activities. the instructor must commit to conrinl1ing to have students interact with each other "in educari0nally r11rr0<;('fu! ways" (Kuh et aI., 2005, p. 248). Effective faculty members "recognize the value of
ences the students' attendance, but also the students' moti\':1tion in
chss Qaasm a & Koper, 1999; Sleigh et a!., 2002). A positive attitude can be demonstrated in several ways, including arriving early to class, smiling and saying hello to sruc1f'nts as they enter, asking about their "wcckcnn, asking if they
peer interaction and facilitate such contractS by designing group projects
seen, learning students' names makes a good start at demonstr:Hing a po<;irive
that bring students together to work on intellectual tasks" (p. 249). For at-
attitude toward students). Being JY;libh!c hefore' :lnG ;'lfrer class and having
risk students, this kind of interaction is vital.
office hours are excellent ways to build rapport with the
had any questions about the reading, and
(2002)
Require" Respectfilf Classroom At:mosphere
SO
on (of course, as we've already
IttldcJlts.
As Wan kat
points outS, "StuOent.<; imcrprf'r :1,-:tihhility as a <;ign that the profes-
sor cares.... Invite specific students to come and talk to you.
List your
Ground rules on respect must be stated on the 6rst day of class, and a
office hours in the syllabus and post them on your office dOOf. Ivlake it clear
statement describing stIch expectations should be in the course syllabus. Some rrofc<:o;or'l "\Tite a simple st:::ttcmem, such as, "All students are expected
that you are also aV:1il:1hlc by :2rrointmCllr" (p. I3 I ). For many students, f'sreci~Jly at-risk students, visiting a professor at his
to be rCrlson8hle and respectfl11 to felky\y students, guest speakers, and me."
or her office is very !ntirni(1
In classes where topics are contr:)\'Crsial and stir up a lot of emotion, some
ever, if you have been approachable in class, this can help stunf:nts <:llmmon
professors use more explicit desc:-iptions of what is expected. The fo!/m\'ing
up the courage to come to the office. Besides encour:1ging <:i1J(1cnr<: to take
is an exceHent example:
aciY ;1ntJgc of office houfs, you can require stuncnrs to pick up their papers tests at your office. If students have to come for these items, it provides
This class is to be a "jw-igmrnr-free zone" at all times. This means that
Of
even jf you disagree with ~0mch"'clr's npininn .,t.0l1t a <:qt.jcn, you do not
an opportunity for informal interaction and for giving inoi"'l"io11;11 feedback
have the right to sling any son of insult, raise your voice, or criticize, I do enC'Ol1nge di~8:gf("f'm('nt, and rf<:('u<:<:inn<: nf~cn are livelier if people have oi<;<:enr;ng vi('\.Y~ about a subject. However, c1-vi!lrn!irc d;<;:',Gff'Cmf'nr and hnqih"y are two differem things. I will not tolerate hostility in the classroom, and will ask anyone participating in this behavior to leave for the rf''1uinder of the class period, (Auf der Heide, personal C0mm;micarln.n.
and encouragl?mcnt. Some instructors and pmfc')<;nr<: use e-mail as a way to cOlT1mUniGlfe with students. While e-mail maybeconvenient.itis important to rc-memher that e-mails can have nra\vh:1ck<:, as they can be interpreted as impersonaL As stated by Kl1ssm~11I1, Dunn, Bagley, Clnd Watnik, "It is easier to misinterpret e-mail than face-·w-face (ommunic:!ri0n .. _ and some smriem<; do not
20°5)
have easy access to e-mail" (as cited in Wankat,
Once the expectation for respect is dearly stated. you, as the professor
should never be the only way to communicate \,rith <;tnDent<: or be used to
and leader of the class, must not ignore any in1rrmpriatf' beh:l\-ior. Hostile
replace all face-to-face meetings. It is imr(\rt:m:
2002,
to
p.
132).
Thus. e-mail
make time ourside class
53
BEG!1\' WITH CONSISTENT CO:-.JTACT
for students. Kuh et aL (2005) found that at colleges and universities with the stfor"gest performances in promoting student success, "faculty and staff members make a lot of time for students. They recognize that there is no
Use T11trractille Lect"re Methods With Meaningful In-Class Acti1'ities
substitution for human ContacL whether face-to-face or via e-mail" (p. 88).
Fng:::tging q-UdCnT<> in a variety of mf'aningful educational tasks during the class period can dramatically affect student performance and enrhllsi::l<;m for
Reaching out and 'ih(),~;ing an irtncst in students, especially at-risk students, can make a difference in students' attendance habits and in theif success rates. In addition to demonstrating a positive attitude toward students, facultv shou1d also exhibit their emhu:;i::l'im for their subject matter. A prnfcsso;,
Dr. Nona Tollf'Kon, who taught a required statistics course at the University of Kansas offers an exceilent e-x-::nnple (Dr. Non;:) Tollefson. personal communication, August 30 1988). Tollefson knew that most of her students \vere dreading the class, and on the very first day she was determined to dispel the negative attitude. She began with a big smile and lots of energy by :1nnOllncing, "You are going to Jove this class! It is going to be great." She: went on give the dass specific f',(:1mplcs of how useful the knm....-Irdgc they g-1incd would be in other areas of the students' studies and careers. She concluded, "I love teaching statistics because it is one of the most useful tools you will learn to use all through college and indeed all through life. We are going to have such a great time in here! And we will begin right now." Professor Tolle-f-:on then had the students cnmrlctc a ;;;;mpk cxc:rcj-:e relating to statistics. \XTithin 10 minutes everyone in the class was comparing answ-ers and to
the class and the subject matter. Simply sitting and li'ltening to lectures is not only boring, but more notably, research studies reveal that most students do not listen for the entire class time, and "fifty minutes of straight lecturing does not work" (Wankar, 2002, p. 68). Students who feel lost in class and are unable to take notes often seek other ways to get the material \vithollt having to be in class. For example, being able to get notes that are posted on the Web, or better yet, simply dov"nh;'ding the lennfc on an iPorl pf0 ,"irl---:s students with ,HklirionaJ .iu<;rihlarion'i for not coming to class. Furthermore, T
students are more likely
to
be absent from classes where they find the teacher
boring (Van Blerkom, 1992; Wyatt, 1992). The solution lies in changing what goes on during the 50 to 75 minutes of scheduled class time. Instead of the typical lecture for the entire period (where a student's role is to sit, listen, and ta..l.;:.e notes), we need to use me;lningful educational tasks to allow students to wrire, share, report, Of solve problems. These kinds of structured activities will increase class attendance and encourage active learning, which is another principle of good
discussing the results. At the end of the houI, Tollefson \\T1rrcd up by saying. "You knO\-v, in most classes, on the first day not much is done: except to cover the syllabus-but here, you have gotten your money's worth. You
practice. As Chickering and Camson (1987) point out, "Learning is not a spectator SpOrt. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes and
are paying for your college education. So every day that \Ve meet, we will
about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives" (p. 4).
make the most of our class time. By the end of the semester, you are going to love statistics as much as I do! I just knmv it."
There are a myriad of activities and tasks to choose from and many c,,\1mr1cs are described and rJiscll'><;ed in this honk. \\'hcn rrnfcs~('r<; crc;=ltC mC'1nir.gfuJ
The entire class walked out of the room with big smiles. Tollefson's e-nrhu<;i;1'lm was c0nt:1giotls, 8n<1 it had rubbed off on th: students.
educational tasks, most students will find class time worthwhile, have fe\ver absences, and learn more.
We don't all have the oomph to do what Tollefson did, and her "rpm"ch may not be in character for some of us, but if we love our subject matter and can find an appropriate way to share our excitement with students, it \vill have a positive effect. Most students will respond by making extra efforts to be in class.
listening to teachers .... They must talk about what they are learning, write
Take Roll and Redefin_ Class Participation Point, Friedman et aL (2001) found that when there was an atte-ncbnce-taking policy, and students' absences affected their final grade, attendance was increased (p. 129). One popular way of keeping track of attendance is for the
54
TEACHING
instructor
to
lY~PREPARED
SrUDE:-xTS
BEGIN
pass around a piece of paper for students
to
sign their names
on. This sign-in-on-a-piece-of-p.3.per method is ineffective and inefficienr. To begin with, it is very impersonal and makes students feel like numbers, especially \vhen the teacher makes no attempt
to
connect a signature
to
the
CONSISTENT CONTACT
Therefore, I re-commend redefining ;md ren:1rning what are often referred to
as "participation points" on the course syllabus. In the course syllabus, "Cla$s Activity Points" should be clearly defined
and explained as part of the way that students will be (''i:;:du:Jtcci. Students
real live person w'ho is actually signing the paper. To make m:1trcrs \Y()rse,
need to know thal simply sitting in class will not get anyone points, and if
often it is a gnr!ll;lfc
stllctPntS are ahsent, they will not have an opportunity to earn class activity
the attendance record. The teacher's concern for attendance appears to many students to be superficial.
given a clear exrbn~lti()n of hoyv their class attcncbnce '\vill affect their course
Another problem v{irh the :;ign-in sheet is that it is often circulated
points. In the fnllmving example of a ('()ur~e sylbhl1<; -:t:ltC'mf'ni, <;t11(lf'nt" are grade:
during most of the class period. Thus, being on time or staying the entire class period becomes irrelevant. On nUfT'Ierou, occ::lsion-: at the end of the class, I have (lh~c:rvcd an instructor announce, "Make sure you have signed the attendance sheet." At this point, students who arrived for the last minutes of class race up
to
Class Activif)! Points are earned during class time. At every class meering, m~flninbfuJ ,(!ll(":1,inn;1] 3criyirtt's rh1r will help you grasp the-
we will have
10
course content; 1hen'fort", it is imp0rr::mr to make everT effort not to he
the teacher's podium to add their names. Some
absent. Please note that Class Activity Points cannot be made up. Thus, if
students sign in and leave soon after the class begins. The message
to
the
you have to be absent more than (V.lice, your hnal grade will be affected.
class prepared with all reading and
student is clear: show up for bs then 10% of rhe class and still get full
FUfTrnmmf", I expect you to come
;nren(bnce (or participation) points as long as the student signs his or her name on the paper.
other :1,,~ignrnf"nr~ cnrnrlE'tf"n. Just heing in class does not guarantee you
Sign-in sheets can also lead tc other rrohlcrn, ~\1ch as chc8ting or plaGia-
to
any Class ActitJity Points. I expect C\T'JTnne to c'mrrihute to
:'lf1n
r1rricir1te
in all class activities.
rism. A student may be tempted to have a cb:ssm:Hc sign in for him or her because it requires no interaction between the professor and the student.
I believe that what ultimately drives the attendance record comes from
Using sign-in sheets for calculating participation points reduces the student
having cl3.-<;s activity points as part of the course grade. The point of all the
to just a body in the seat. By creating such initial low expectations, faculty
class activities is not JUSt to take roll. They give <;tllctcnt~ the nrroffl1nity
will often get what they have asked for-instead of actively engaged o;;tuc1cnts,
do several things that Kuh et aL (2005) srate are essential ingredients for
they get students who are sleeping, reading nc"\v')p:1Pcrs, or text messaging on their cell phone.
student success: "to practice what they are learning in the classroom, develop
There are other efficient ways
to
lcadc"hip ,kills, and work with people from different hackgrollnd<" (p. 69).
take roll that do not include passing
\Xfhen class activity points are included as part of the <;tudcnt<;' grade, it
around a s.lgn-in sheet or reading a roll sheet and having students respond
will make it obvious to the students (some of whom ,vauld otherwise miss
to
verbally. F:1mcpbtcs (di~nl,,<;ed on pr. 43-44) constitute one example for
the point) that their presence and participation in class is an important part
taking roll and learning the students' names. Alternatively, you could
of their college education. Of course, professors will require students to
arrive early and mark students present on the roll sheet as they enter the
study, read, and complete projects outside class. Still. by rroyiding !nC':ming-
room and take their seats. SiDce most students will sit in the same seat
ful educational activities in class, whether it is for several minutes ar the
(even without a seating chart), it might be easier JUSt
to
make a note of any
students not present as class begins. However, this is not always possible.
hcgirming, middle, ;md end of ("la<;<; or for the entire class period, class attendance becomes all the more essential.
56
TEACHING UNPREPARED 3Tt:DENTS
Conclusion
5
The six f'lCthn(l<; descrihed in tr:" ch:1ptcr are p(l<:iriyc Jrrf01ches ,YC rrotC'<:SOtS
to
can lise to increase class :lTt~n(hnce. These techniques als(l demnmrrarc
the Sf1'c1f'nts th:H we value them indh'iclll
ing with and learning from then in class, Of course, when we have classes that have fewer than 50 students, it is easier to implement the methods
LEARNING STYLES AND THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING
in this chapter. Large colleges and universities vvith high levels of student
Tapping Brain Power
engagement and high graduation rates have been able ro provide theil' Students with smaller classes by trying various approaches, "including reducing the size of some classes by increasing the size of others, thus increasing the odds that at least one course a semester would be small enough so that
students could actively participate" (Kuh et at, 2005, p, 303), Still, whether you are ,n a 4-year university or a 2-ycar cnmmllniry college, keeping the
The greatest discovo;y of my g8nH{1t irm is +rg+
if you
a human being can alter his life by altering his attitudes of mind
class size smaller can be helpful in promoting class attC'ndancf. Even
have larger classes, the methods described in this chapter can be modified and used with the help of granllJtc tC:1ching ;1s<:i<:t
by many professors. They can create a climate for
enC011fJg:ng <;tmtcnts to be cnrhl)<:i:1<::ric ~nd llpheat, willing to come to class, and ready to enjoy the learning experience,
W
hen diS.cussing postsecol~(hry students and f~ctors thJ.~ promote their success, learl1lng styles are ll<;\l;,l1y mcllldf'd
10
the
cnnvcrqrion. Specifically, it is often recommended that teach-
ers use instructional approaches that are aligned or complement students'
preferred learning styles (Bourner, [997; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006; McKcachie, 2002). Acc(lmmod<'1fing the different learning styles of students in one's classroom can at first appear to be a d:mnring task, especially if we and our <:mdenr<; do not know everyone's learning style preferences. In addition to our teaching
to
unckrs:t;lnrl :mcl
to
58
TEACHING LEARNING STYLES
TEACH[]\'G CNPREPi\RED S1TDEl'ITS
THE SCiENCE OF LEARl"li"G
59
for advice on how
might take away from the course content is allayed if c::macnt<: complete
improve their grades. Sharing with students study rechniques we used
learning styles inventories as a homr"work assignment. After that, only a
master course content, students nevertheless seek us to
A~D
Out
reinforce the importance of discover-
when in school mayor may not be helpful for struggling students (Lenze &
small amount of class time is needed
Dinharn, 1999, as cited in Wanbu, 2002, p. 172). Since many profE'ssors were
ing and analyzing different learning or study strategies. No mar.ter \vhat
strong students, they.may be at a loss when it comes to assisting an unprepared or at-risk student.
subject is taught, a learning styles inypnmry can be used as <:llrr1cmcnnry material. As Weimer
In college, one major problem for students who are experiencing aca-
2001,
to
1:0
to
way faculty y\'nrk on skill
assigned for \yorking on ollt of class :mrl thcrefNe do
p. 37). College professors expect low-
Pill'
take class time
away from content. I advocate using ')orrkmrnt:lf} m:1tfri:1i"
discover new ways to study and organi7C:,
but alt roo often this expectation is too general and fails strategies
mmr CIlmm0n
and awareness dcv(+-'pment. They are favorites because they can be
same way they did in high school, and the high school methods are usually not sufficient fer college (Light,
points our,
C;urrlc-mcnr:lry m:uC'ri;d, arc the
demic difficulty is that they often try to study and org:lni7C their work the
performing students themselves
(2002)
to
hCClll~C
f;non
<;llrrkmcnt:1ry materials can suppOrt your work on dev~lnring learning
offer specific
skills and awareness by underscoring what is already an in-class priority and
help student<; acn1811y find effective and efficient ways to study.
by helping mak_e students fe-TomiHr. fOf their own dcyc!npmrnt. (p. 58)
For ar-·risk students, the trial-and-error method of finding new ways to study is not beneficial, and if they do figure OUt technique'S that help, it may be
I recommend introducing learning styles
too late. Academic dismissal frequently OCcurs before new study techniques are realized by the unprepared or at-risk student.
earlier in the scmc,sfC'r thi" is done, the better.
To
to
students right away. The
begin, first give students a clear and simple definition of learning
to
styles. For cX:lrnp!c, we can give them this fairly simple definition: "The
help students analyze how they study and to increase their self-8.\v:lfcncss and knmvlcogc of the effectiveness of different types of study tE'chniquC'c::.
gathering, interpreting, org:lni7ing, :md thinking
Introducing students
to
spe.:ihc learning styles is an excellent way
term learning style refers to inaiviou;:!lc;' characteristic and preferred v;ars of
Most importantly, introducing specific learning styles encourages students
1993, p. 185). \Xlhen sharing this definition with students, I highlight the
to be responsible for their own karning. A major step in he-lping academi-
"\vords frrfrrrrtf
cally at-risk students is for them to accept this rC<:fomihility. In fact. all
to
students who enroll in our class can rf0h:lhly improve on their ability to be
about what learning styles are, I assign students to take a learning styles
U'd)'S
;mo point out that students can use less-preferred ways
learn and even develop their ability to use them. After a brief discussion
respomihle for their own learning. The process "im·olvcs dCYr'lnping intellec-
inventory, which will give them feedback on theif learning style preferences.
tual maturity, learning skills, and awareness necessary to function as inde-
Several models of inventories that are J.Y:1ibhlc online are di<:cmc;ed in the
p. 95). \Ve should and need
next section. After taking one (or more) of the learning st)rles inventories.
and be inyoh'Cd in this process, even though we may not
have ,sruelent." write or discuss their results. \,{lben analyzing their own pre-
pendent,
:1tJtODomnm
to contribute
to
learners" (\"xleimer,
pr(yinu
2.002,
:If-.nl1t
it (WTcimef,
ferred learning style, students can also investigate different types of study
2002).
a.<:.-;iC'n
techniques that match their learning style pn:fcrr'Jlcf:s. Thus, learning styles
students to take a formal learning styles inventorv and then have them wri:e
can be used as a platform we can use to lead students to discover and build
about (or discuss) the results and different
a repertoire of study strategies that can help them change the way they study
A quick, yet effective, way
to
become im'olvcd in the rrnccss is
t}rp~s
to
of study technicplts that
complement preferred learning styles. The concern about the time that this
and prepare for class.
TEACHI="G l}NPREP,'\RED :;;Tl:DENTS
00
OF LEAR~!NG
TEACHING LEARNJKG STYLES j\ND THE
Online Learning Styles Inventories
2.
61
Sensing learners prefer infnnn1;ion ;-h:n is connerC'. pr::?nicaL ;mn or'!~
cored toward facts and procedures [while] intllirivc !carners prefer
Of all the different types of learning styles inventories and models I have used with my students, my favorite is the Index of Learnt 1g St}les Q1t('~t7
i!"'fnrm1finn that is conceptuaL in!10Y;1tiYe, ",nd orirntc-d
f()w:1tn
rhe'o-
1
rics and me:-wings;
developed br Richard Felder and Barbara Soinm
3.
charts, time lines, films, and dCn1oll"tt:1tions. Verbal learners get morc
styles/ilsweb.html. The questiornaire includes 44 phrases, or dependent clauses, with tvvo possible independent clauses to complete the sentence. Students must choose the
ODe
Visual learners remember best >"Aut they see-pictures, r-li:lgnm<;. Aow
out of words-written and spoken e"'(rhn;Hi()Il~:
4. Sf'quf'nri:d learners are linear, orderly, and learn in smaJl innf'mt"nf:l! steps [whC'r(';t~] gl"h:111C1rn:::rs a[e hnli<;ric, sysfem~ thinkers and I.:;;un in
that best describes themselves. For example,
large leaps. (http:!hvv'"''''1.n(,811 ('dO/11 n:ry/l(Kl:cr~ 111~;:r~ff/fC'ldcr!rl rbl'r::/ I understand <.:nmE'rhing better after 1 (a)
TLSdiristyles.hun by Felder & Solomon, n.d.).
try it out.
(b) think it thcough.
For each scale, the student's score can range from
I to II,
indicating whether
the student is fairly well balanced on the two dimensions (scores of J to 3). I tend to (a)
m".rlE"r~t;"md
has a m("ldCf
Structure. (b) understan_d the overall structure but may be fuzzy about details. When I am learning ~()m('thing
11("'5",
it helps me to
(a) talk about it. (b) think about it.
strong rrrrrfcnce for one dimt'mion (score of 9
to
II). Once studems have
their results of the iIWf'nmry, they can print out the descriptions for each scale to determine if they agree with their profile results. On the \JV'eb site, Felder also rr(":idr'~ a li-;:r of difF(;rCnf study strategies that complement each dimension. 1 ask students to write an essay about their inve-ntory [(,'ltdr" and the str:1trgie.<; th:l' arr' "uggcsrcd for rhe-ir preferred style. Students mll<;:[ also include in their essay \.,.jwfhcr they agree vi'ith rheir
(Felder & Solom;:ro. 199T)
i~dividual results, and which of the study strategies they have tried or are willing
At the end of the inventory, students submit their answers for aurom
scoring. A profile sheet of the student's learning style preferences is aV;1ibhlc for printing, along wirh a description and explanation of the results. The
to
class time IO
try. To reinforce this outside class Cls"ignmC'nf, we devore some to
discuss their written reports. This activity can take as little as
minutes of class time. Another example of an online inventory for learning styles is The Learn-
Style An:rrf771rnt dc y c10p('d by MencIce and Hartman
Felder and Solomen model has four scales with two learning style dimen-
ing
sions on each scale: (a) active or reRective, (b) sensing or intuitive, (c) visual or verbal, and Cd) sequential or global. Each dimension can be briefly described as follows:
W\V'W. ulc.arizo n
I.
(2000).
See http://
the statements on the ;]sscs"mcnt:
Actiw learners learn by trying things our and working wtth others [but]
If I sat near a "\vir<1t)w in a Cb
reflective learners learn by thinking things through, and working alone;
I remember material better when I
';Qmm:lT·;7 P
it Ollf loud.
TEACHING LEARNING STYLES AND
63
SCIENCE OF LEAR;--':ING
I learn to spell bener by reading a word out loud than by writing it on a paper. I understand and follow directions on maps. (Mench: & Hartman, 2000)
The study strategies that are offered on these three Web sites can cmpmvcr stude-nts. "In order for learners to control their learning, they need
Students have three response choices for each Statement: often, some"
demands. \X1hen those strategies don't work, the students simply try
times, or seldom. Once they respond to all the statements, they submit their anS\vers for immf>ciiate scoring c~nd a results screen is displayed. Students receive a score for three learning modes: v.isual (learn best by seeing), auditory (learn best by hearing), and kinesthetic (learn besr by doing, by moving physlcally, or by participative experiences). Study strategies for each of the
to be aware of aV:1ibhlc alternatives. Too many students come to college Imo"\ying onlr one or rw-o strategies, which they use rcg-:lfdlc<:s of the task's to
do
them harder rather than ch:1nging tactics" (Svinicki, 2004, p. I29). By introducing <:rudcnts to learning styles and various learning strategies, <:tl1c1cnrs will have new strategies to try. With new ways to tadde their learning tasks, at-risk students may have new hope (or conf1(1cnce) in thcm<;clvcs as learners.
t~ree learning modes are suggested for note taking, reading, exam prepara-
\Vhen teaching learning styles to my freshman class for at-risk students. I found many students were able to change the way they studied and, in
non, and test taking. A more in-depth learning styles profile can also be generated at this site.
turn, to change the outcome of their grades. One student in particular had a tre'menclolls turnaround in her psychology class. The psychology course
As with the inventory by Felder and Soloman (1991). it is imperative that students try the various ways to approach mastering course content to get the full benefit of exploring their learning styles. "Many students have
had a reputation for having a low <::l1CCCSS r:1fC,
nev~r been exposed to ... different ways
approach <;rudying or even to the 1dea that there are different ways to study. We can help students learn about different strategies and when to use them" (Svinicki) 2004, p. 124). to
\X1hen professors share strategies mastering specific material in their courses, students can use or adapt those strategies to match their preferred learning sryle. A thitd example of a learning sryles inventory is the VARK Questionnaire (Fleming, 2001-2006, at },ttp://w-ww.vark-Iearn.com/english/index .as p ).. There are several1inks at this site, including a learning styles inventory espec~ally for athletes. The quesrionnJire can also be printed out if a professor wlshes to have the students take the inventory during class hours. Once students respond to all the questions, they can check the submit button, and the Scores are reported on a page tided "The VARK Questionnaire Results." The five categories of different learning styles for this inventory are visual, a.ural, read/write, kinesthetic, and/or multimochl learning preference. The slte also has a .link to a list of strategies that apply to various learning preferences under dIfferent types of conditions.
learning styles inventory results and how she had studied for the test. For the second midterm, she used new study strategies that were <;nggC'<;tcd,
TEACHING t}l'\PREP,\RED 5TLTDESTS
TEACHIJ'.!G LEAR1':I;-.:JG STYLES A~O
SCIENCE OF LEAR~JNG
give that have a negative impact on their learning. Poor lighting and an inability to hear the professors' YDice are (he next highest respOn'ies. During this exercise I ask students, "\X;rhat do you have control of in a
when he received his graded teSt, he had earned a D. Although he was very ni,<;coUf<1gcd. he mer with the professor to go through his incorrect :m~'\\Trs. The professor discovered that Dwayne did know a lot of the material
class? \('hat actions can you take
when dj"cllssing it, but when reading the questions silently, he \vas incorrectly reading several of the questions and pos<;ihle mll!tip!c-choir.e ~n~\"'i;ers,
to
increase your learning focus or to avoid
things that take away from your !earning?" These questions eventually lead to interes6ng and obvious comment" :1nrl sollltiOn'>. For example, some students respond to those who say that being hungry or cold in class keeps them from being able to pay attention with comments such as, "Have a snack before class," "Bring a granola bar to class)" "Bring a s"'Vveater to class." This may seem like an oversimpliFied 3prro::tch, but as we move to the more serious com'11ents, I use this disclls"jon as a basis to set ground rules for the dass. Once we get a consensus about creating a class climate that will be
which led him to mark the wrong answer. His test-taking strategics and study strategies cornpJcmcnte'd his learning style preferences but did not prepare him for the actual test situation. We dlsctlssf'n addirional ways that he should study and constructed sample tests for him to practice on. Many of the test questions we made up included the types that he had missed, such as ones with double negatives: "All of the fol1 rn,ving except what are not part of the _ _ rheory?" In tutoring sC's"ion<;, which had focused on his verbal learning style, he practiced re1ding "i!f'nrly ~md using visual cues
to
(omr 1e -
conducive to learning, students are [eminDen rhn they need to be responsi-
ment his preferred auditory learning style. For the next twO midterms.
ble for their behavior and their learning. Furthermore) I add that using the
Dwayne's test performance improved "ignificlnrly. Dwayne's sitl1;:J:rinn is an excellent reminder th:H learning strategies and
information from their learning s::yles inventories (including the study suggestions) is expected. Another factor that can affect students' learning styles is the discipline, or type of subject matter, that is being taught. Since learning style preferences may change from one subject to another, it is also an excellent idea to encourage students "to value diffcent kinds of learning styles" and to study with students who have different. learning styles than themselves sO that "they can enrich their learning experiences and develop new strengths by working with a variety of learners" (Davis, 1993, p. 190). For example, Dwayne was a student of mine who arrived at college unprepared. He was
styles are "responses and arritudes" that are learned. As Svinicki (2004)
p~ints out, they can be "unlearned or relearned .... They also can be used strategically-that is, truly flexible stlJ(knrs can learn an array of strategies that allow them to cope with all the different kinds of situations they encounter" (p. I93). Having an array of useful learning strategies can be the rliffcrcnce mClkcr for at-risk students.
Learning Styles and Learning Approaches
the first person in his family to go to college and a minority student on a white-majority campus. His experience is an excellent illustration of how
\Xlhen considering learning styles, it is also worthyvhile to consider how
stUdents can benefit from analyzjn t ; learning preferences and using the information to change the way they pte pare for exams. Dwayne had excellent class attenciance, his own dass notes, and backup
Since the concepts of deep and skdlow learning are new to most students, we begin with definitions of sh:lllmv (or surface) and deep learning approaches that arc used when reading academic tC'\th00ks. According to
class notes (an accommod<1rion for his learning disability awarded by the disabled student services counselor). In tutoring sessions, he had taken reading notes and made mote than 80 concept flash cards fot the test. However,
Marton and Saljo, surface learning occurred "when students concentrated on memorizing the facts, focused on the discrete clements of the reading,
learning styles relate to research on deep and d'7a/IMf' learning approaches.
failed to differentiate between evidence and information, were unreflective,
66
TEi\CHING CNPREPARED STUDENTS
TEACHIi'
and saw the task as an external imposition" (as cited in Weimer, II).
2002,
p.
On the other hand, Marton and Saljo described deep learning as, "when students focused on what the author meant, related new information to what they already knew and had experienced, worked
t~e c~ntent)
to
organize and StruCture
LEARNI~G
In anotber study conducted by Biggs. Kember, and Leung
(200I), Stu-
dents who were deep learners ;H1jl1~rf'd their learning style to take a surface approach when enrolled in a class that covered a great deal of material and tested students' knowledge with m1.llriple-choice tests that stressed detailed information. For students who are nor deep learners, and/or are abo at risk
and saw the reading as an irnr0r1"anr source of learning" (as
making adjustments for a specific class may be difficult. However, as their
Clted In Weimer, 2002, p. II). Even though the formal definitions of deep and surface learning are new to most srudems, when I discuss examples of the two styles of processing new information, they say that often the kind of 8<;<;ignrl1rm<: they are given do not require a "deep" approach.
appropriate learning approach for different types of exams and other assign-
In her re.<)earch, Svinicki
processing approach
to
teachers, we can help them make the connections so that they choose the ments. By doing this, we are also helping them improve their chances of success.
found that "students with a surface learning tend to use learning strategies that empha(2004)
size repetition and practice" (p. 198). However, even if surface learnino is a f . b pre erence for many stlldenrs, they can be encouraged to use deep learning approaches by the actions of the teacher (p. 201). Svinicki explains,
Learning Styles and the Science of Learning As a complement
to
the investigation of learning styles and learning
;lrprnaches, it is also helpful to share with students some of the research \Xlhen the big picture focuses on [c-bti011<;hip" >lmong m::lin ideas,
are encouraged
to process infnrm;Hion at a deeper
~he long run. Whatever an instru:::tor can do
<;ft1rlen!~
Ic,Tl, \-vhich is better in
t'l"n,r,,~jng In all the students wiI! payoff with longer rere-r.rin'1 ;1nn hrrier undcrq;1nd~ ing. (p.
to
f"nmuf1ge deep
201)
As teachers, We can promote deep learning by
findings on how people learn. In their article "Applying the Science of Learning," Halpern and Hakel
(2003)
discuss
10
"basic bhor;lrory-tested
principles drawn from what we know about human learning" (p, 38). My favorite five
to
discuss with my students are
L
What and how much is learned in any situation depends heavily on
2.
Learning is generally enhanced when learners are required to take information that is presented in one format and "re-represent" it in
prior knO"\y\r·dge ~mcl f'xperience. 1.
2.
Having students create cO,lCept maps or outlines \vhere parts of a concept relate to another part, Having Students 0rg;:mi7c rew information into mC':1ningful p;:mcrn" that reflect the underlying structure of the concepts that are being taught, or
3· Having students e-l
By ,~""ignm('nts that require surface and deep learning, in class and out of class, we can help students develop and expand their !earninO' styles and strategies. b
an alternative format. 3. Varying conditions under which learning takes place makes learning harder for learners bur resulr,~ in better learning. 4. The single most important variable in promoting long-term retention and transfer is practice at retrieval. 5. Learning is influenced by both students' and our own lthc profes-
sors'] epistemologies. (Pl" 38-39)· When presenred ,yirh these five principles, <;rudents are asked to consider what they can do with this information. For example, I \-vill say, "How
68
TEACHING lJRPREPARED STGDENTS
TEACHI~G
can you assess your prior knnv/kdgc ;mo undersr;mcling at the start of an instructional unit (or unit of study)? Before reading a chapter or going to class, consider vy·hat YOLl already knmv about the subject." We take a few
chapter tides from the text I use in my course and also use texts from other Courses. The exercise helps Stuc.ents practice how to assess their own prior kno,vledgc and experience in several subjects. For the principle of re-representing information, I give the students some information in a text (paragraph) format, and ;;.vith a partner, they have to re-represent the information and share it with the class. Students are usually surprised and amused to see the variety of diagrams, pictures, and/or charts their cb:ssm8tes creare. Fer the next three principles, students discuss and present their ideas on how to use and apply the principles in their study habits and routines. Also, through the semester. I often refer students to their learning styles results and the science-of-learning principles. In particular, for practicing retrieval of int()rmarion, we demonstrare or explain different ways they can accnmr!;~h rhi<:;.
to
students
LEAR;-':ING STYLES AND THE SCIENCE
or
LEARl':lNG
2002)
p.
172).
In my discussions with many professors, most
have said that recognition of learning styles often becomes a fitst step in emhr;l("ine le~rner-centered tcaching. Acct';rance of different types of learning styles and various completo the realization that not only do
mentary learning strategies also leads
Benefits for Professors
students benefit from a variety of instructional methods and learning activities, but they also benefit when they have the opportunity to df'Tnonstrarc
Having students investigate dift::rent types of learning styles and various
what they are learning in a variety of ways. This has led many instructors to develop flexible grading (or assessment) methods that incrt'ilse aCCllrilCY
complc;-mf'ntary can also benefit faculty mC'lllhcrs in several ways. Specifically, most faculty mEmbers who under<;filod learning styles :md orientation will (a) seek to expand and improve their teaching methods, (b) develop flexible grading (or asses<;mf'nr) methods that increase accuracv of measuring what students are le"nning, and (c) expand their method: inspire their students to learn and master the course content.
to
Professors who have their students take a learning styles inventorY and write about the results usually become aware of the variety of learning 'styles that exist among their students, and they analyze their own teaching s~le. Faced with diverse student Jearning styJes, we must expand and improve OUf teaching style and methods. ChickeJing and Camson (1987) include as one of the seven principJes of good practice "respects diverse talents and ways of learning" (p. I). We can accWllfYlOn;ofC this principle by making sure that we develop a variety of
of measuring what students are learning. When it comes to grades, Wankat (2002)
offers the fnllm-.::ing advice: "Generally speaking, the more scores
you have, the more accurately the final grade will reflect student learning" (p. 89). In addition, the more ways that students have to show what they are learning-not JUSt their performance on tests and quizzes-the better they will perform. Flexible a<;s('s<;Tn('nr benefits both faculty effectiveness and student learning: Alternative c'·:lll1:lrinn techniques-such as project and p0rtFnljn.h:l~ed "s.<;('~~mcnr~ in<;rcad of test-based-permit many students who have been frusrr<'lred in the lf8rlirinn:1 1 rriuc";1rio'1:1J C\1"jronmrnt to d('rn0n~lT:1fC ,vh:1r they know and can do. Mnrrfl';er, these :lrrrn:lC"hcs foster their learning (Kuh et aI., 200,), p. 204).
70
TE:\CHING
U~PREPARED
It makes perfect sense
to
TEACHING LEARNING STYLES A~D THE SCIENCE OF LEAR:.lING
STG'DF.l'-'TS
set up multiple ways that students can demon-
strate what they are learning and to weave in assessment of what students are
7I
diverse methods for learning and teaching is beneficial for all students, but extremely worthwhile for academically at-risk srudents. K nO'l;vkdgc of
sian). In particular, when faculty· allow students to demonstrate their learn-
learning styles and various complementary strategies can not. ~~ly empower students, but it can also increase students' sense of rc:~r0n"Jh!hty
ing by writing papers, completing projects, making presentations, or solving
in the learning process.
learning as the semester goes along (see chapters 7 and 8 for further discus··
problems in addition
to
taking tests, students with diverse learning styles arc
supported and allowed "to build from their strengths" (Kuh et a1.,
2005,
p.
32). Professors should avoid evaluating and grading student learning only
by exams. Furthermore, at-risk students should avoid classes where exams (including quizzes, midterms, and final tests) are the only way they are graded. M-ore than any other rnpuhtion at the university~ unprepared Students can i mproyc and learn "vhen they h::r""c a varicty of "'lays
to
demonstrate
what they are learning.
A third benefit faculty discov,::r from introducing their students to learning styles is that it opens up new 'deas and mf'rhods for in "pi ring "rudents to learn and master the course content. Faculty who understand and appreciate learning styles can increase thelf dfectiveness and their students' productivity (Davis, 1993, p. 185). Kuh and associates (2005) agree and add the following conclusion from their research: "Recognizing srudents' talents and preferred learning styles empmyCTS them and also makes it possible
to
raise s1"ClnrL-!rds
for academic challenge"' (p. 205).
Conclusion \'(Then at-risk students learn about learning styles, learning appro;;tches, and concepts from the science of learning, and use the information
to
select and expand their study strategies, theif learning power can be increased. Faculty can guide stuc~ents to the information, but ultimately it is the srudents' responsibility
to
embrace and use it. Along with this
increased learning power of their students, faculty will also benefit from widening and improving their pedagogical methods. It is important that students are given the "opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that \'\-ork for them" (Chickering & Gamson. I987, p. 6). Having
6 EMBRACING LEARNERCENTERED EDUCATION Engaging Students
The mere ;"lrmt1ng of ;rf;WT1:l~r;m
n07 prj'II:8-
tion. Above all things, the effort must result in
making a man think and do for himself ~Carter
P
G. Woorlson
rofesso[s ofre-n ;:!sk me:. "\Xlhat can I do to make a difference with atrisk students who arc in my class?" My first response is, "Be a
learner-centered teacher." I teB them this because, more than any
other type of instructional model, learner-centered tcaching engages students_ Briefly, learner-centered cnnotinn foruc;('<; on how <;rudf'nt<; arc learn-
ing the material and :1rrlying it, instead of traditional professor-centered education, which focuses on how professors present information to the students, usually in a lecture format. Kuh et a1. (7.006) point out the importance of student cngagc!11rnr for at-risk students. In their research, they c'{;}minc:d the results of students engaged in effective educational practices and fonna that those who started college with lower ACT and SAT scores and lower high school grade point averages showed greater imrr(w('mcnr in their college grades and higher per-
sistence rates than the srudems who started college with higher entry scores. \X1hile the more prepared <:tuck:nr<; ;}1<;(> improved in Jearning-rf'ntered e'nvironments, the ones who showed the largest improYcmC'nr were the at-risk students (Kuh et aI., 2007).
73
I
t~fI.I..-Hl:':G
is a pr>,wTil.d tool with well-f'"t:1:hli~hed results. Those results, ho\ve~'e~,
Some emerging research suggests the engagement may have compensatory inrnmf', first gf'nt.'nrir>n, :md ~\\l effects for at-risk students, iT]("!llcling dC'nts of color attending
pwrr
only ""hen active learning stratcgies inyniye content. W'hatever It IS that students are doing should involve lcgirim;ltC'; hnn;1·n0f': course conWnt.
accrue
[prt'clnmir'1rrly white in<;rimtinm]. These
findi'1gs ~t1gg('~r ~h:l1 seekins cy,y" to ,hnn.:"l "fucic1lt energy rnwJ.'cI t'nllca-
(P·51)
tionally effective activities would be wise, especially for those who start
collcge with two
Of
75
EM13RAcr~
U;-";PREPARED STVDENTS
At this point, some readers may be reflecting on their own college educa-
more "risk" factors. (Kuh et a1., :4006, p. 48)
The potential to have all our students improve is reason enough
to
embrace learner-centered education methods, but when considering the dramatic impact that we can have on at-risk students, even the skeptics and the
naysayers might be convinced to reconsider how students are engaged in their classes. Still, when I suggest shifting to learner-centered teaching, I see the vi-"orried look in many prnfc.':<;ors' eyes. Their biggest concern appears to be rbis: They do nor know exactly what kind of changes they should make to implement this shift. In the field oflearncr-centcred teaching, some take an extreme appro;:)("h, suggesting that the role of the teacher is minim;-tJ and that students should select top-ics and evaluate their I)wn work \vith teachers giving little to no guidance (Wankat, 2002, p. 60). In my view, professors who take such an extreme approach to student- or jearner-cenrered pedagogy go toO far toward giving students total control and usually also end up with "limited effectiveness" (Wankar, 2002, p. 61). In I9.95 Barr and Tagg wrote about a new teaching p:1ndigrn in undergraduate education, describing t'1e shift of the focus from "[prof('<;<;or- or] content-centered to learner-centered" teaching (p. I2). They describe contem-centered professors as those who focus on sharing facts and concepts primarily through lectutes and reading assignments. On the other hand, learner-centered professors focus on "how students think by emphasi7ing active learning strategies" (l\1cKeachie, 2002, p. 285). Learner-centered teachers ask, "How are learners thinking, using, and 1prlring the' conrf'nt?" Weimer (2002) adds,
tion where the lecture method was the most pn"o(1min::rnf f1f1nigm of instruction. Teachers did mOst of the talking, and srndcl1f<; sat passively, listening and taking notes. We know that we did learn ftom that mcthod. However, as Huba and Freed (2000) note, "traditional, teacher-centered methods are 'not ineffective,. . but the evidence is equally dear that rhese conventional methods are not as effective as some other, far less frequently used methods'" (Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994, p. 29, as cited in Huba & Freed, p, 2). By using learner-centered teaching mcth0d<;, we desig~ environmentS that" can optimize learning" (Rran,fnrd, Brown, & Cockmg,
2000,
~~. . The main differences hct'iyccn tr:1oiri0nJl cnntcnr-cC'wcrcd tc'3chmg ann
learner-centered reac.hing can be shown in the pbnning rroc(':ss. For professors who are content centered, their teaching focus is on what the te'J.cher will do (i.e., preparing the lecture, selecting visuals, (k(ie1ing what demonstrations might be performed and hJllnnur<; nf rC':1ding to be 8so;;igflCO). ~ith learner-centered teaching, the focus shifts to the srud{'l1fs and the learnIng Drocess. As teachers, we ask the fnllo\\'ing type's of qll('<;fion<;: \Xinat do my :tudents alreadv know about the subject matter/content? \'7hat wil! (hey be doin a with the' content? How can srodent:; pfClcrice what they arc learning?
-wna~ kind of activities or projects can
students do that will help them grasp the new information and intC'gn1(c it -with their prior knmdC'ogc? It is not that lecture is never used in a learner-centered ('m:irnnrllCnt: rather, the lecture is simply not the only thing that we plan for our classes. "Learner-centered teaching does not prohihir lecturing. Lecturing becomes one of many possible mf'rhoch, all C'-nhl1tcd on the basis of their
engage students,
ability to promote
Active learning is nor a set of tlicks to use with basically bored students. It
Because of this, aSS('"o;;mcnt plays a key role in shifting to a learner-centered
In a learner-centered c-nvirOnmf'lt, ,onfent Bnd le8rning are thought of as mum;11ly rC'infnrcing .... [first we use] active !caIning. that large repertoire of strdtegies and techniques d(signed to involve and
76
TEACHTNG UNPREPARED
EMBRACING
LEJ\R~ER·CENTERED
l DUCXI 10K
77
approach" CHuba & Freed, woo, p, 8), How will we, the teachers, as;ess
Also, ('it is important for faculty to have high aspirations for learning
and evaluate students' learning and success? How can we help them evaluate
outcomes, clear expectations for student performance, and snnd:1rds for
their own learning? \'(Tith tJ"'e learner-centered approach, the "professor's
holding st\ld('nt~ accountahlc" (Hassel & Lourey,
role is to coach and facilitate," intertwining teaching and aSSeSSn1rT1r, and
Kuh et al., 2006, p. 67). Discussing each of these factors in class and writing
p. 5; see
about them in our syllabi can help us cnmmunic;1rc more effectively with
"professors and students learn tOgether" (Huba & Freed, chapters 7 and 8 for further disc\l<;s!nn).
2000,
2005;
Tagg,
2003
cited by
our <;fUckm<; because our syllabus is "one of the very first impressioD.s v.,rc give our smdenrs.
.. it is the one piece of c,'jckncc our <;fUcknr" em hold
in their hands at the end of a day filled with a jumble of cnnfll<;inn" (Baecker,
Defining Student Success
1998, p, 60).
In order to evaluate student Sl~ccess, \ve must first define it. Kuh et a1.
(2006)
Baecker (1998) proposes that we strive to be up front and honest on our
broadly define student success as "academic achievement, e-ngJgcrnrnt in edn-
syllabi by using the pronouns 1, we, and you accurately and in a way that
cHionJ!ly purposeful activiries. sari<JClction, acquisition of desired knm-dcdgc,
clearly describes who will be doing what and who is re<;p,m,<;ihle for what.
skills and competencies, persisteo.nce. :If\;1inment of eo.dllCJtion;"t! ohjrctiYcs, ('Inri
She notes that our syllabi are where all the "issues about power and r:lmho[iry
posHollege performance"
Cp,
7), They also point out that the use of effective
come togcrhcr," Cp, 58) and, therefore, we need to use the pronoun J when
teaching methods is at the core of any agenda promoting students' Success
we describe what we, as the teachers, will be doing. In her examinarioll of T5
(p. 66). Teaching methods that engage students in me~mingfl!J educational activities arc the most effective. Co!!ahor::trive learning, team-based learning,
syllabi, Baecker found that most were "tife with contr~dictions" CP' ,8), because teachers used the pronoun we when in fact it would not be the case.
clas-sroom·-based problem solving, and service learning arc a few eel rn rk<; of
One example that Baecker presents is of a professor who writes, "'\Ve will
learner-centered teaching metbods that actively engage students.
increase our awareness of the intimate connf'ction.<; ('Imong wTiting, rcading,
Since we know that all stlldents, including at-risk and unprepared stu-
"rc,l,ing) and listening: This, of coursc, is an instance of the false we,
dents, learn more in learner-c,enrercd en,/irnnmcnt<;. we must embrace this
because it can be ::t<;sumed that her awareness of the connections bcrween
type of pedagogy and introduce it to our students during the first week of
writing) reading, and listening has already been dcvclnprcl" (p. 61). Baecker
class (see chapter 3 for further discussion). \X'Te can do this verbally in class,
reminds us that ,"vhen we attempt to achieve a sense of ('f')mrnl1niry in our
bur we should also have it in writing in our course syllabus, along wirh dear
classes, we cannot forgo inc1iviciwJ! respor)<;ihiliry'or hlnr 011r lines of ;111thnr-
learning outcomes listed, an up-hont and undfT<;fJmhhle grading system,
iry when it comes
and a list of the expectations \ve have of our students regarding their responsibility for their own learning :o.nd for classroom etiquette.
assignments. The fol1o\ving is an excerpt from a clear, well-written syllabus
to
how we wiII grade our students on their inniyiclll:11
that has an cX;lrnplc of the clarity Baecker proposes when we describe to students who should be doing what:
Encouraging and ClarifYing Student Responsibility Though the type of essay }ou'LI write is pre0f'rnrninf'o, the' topic is
nOL
Learner-centered education prr:mnres c!;1<;<;[(l(Vn ('(lmmuniry :mc1 at the same
10u il have to perform research and properly cite sources. lU score each
time indi,'inll:11 respon<;ihiJif)r for learning (Barr & Tagg, 1995, p. 6; Brans-
essay according to how \vell it addresses the "basic features" of that type,
ford, Brown et at,
2000;
Huba & Freed,
2000;
Nilson, 1998; Weimer~
2002).
as
di<;cll~sed
in the text. (p. 60)
18
TEACHfNG CNPREPAREC SlTDEi'\TS
EMBRACIl\'G L£r\RNER-CENTERED EDUCATION
In addition to being dear about the expectation for grades. we need
to
be
79
meaningful
Even if stlldent" initi:'dly resist, do not assume that this resistance will continue as students become involved in the learning pf0r:ess. \X'hen discussing the importance of <;tuctcnt: p:1fricir:1ting in mc:mingful cdu(1rinn:11 ;'Jeriv-
\':("nen we describe to students our intentions for using in~dass activities and
ities, I explain to the students the "class activity points" (see chapter 4) and how they are part of the gr:1dins/system. At-risk and unprepared students may be worried about their ability, or inability, to work with other clJssm;:)tf:S and how they will be able to participate in class activities. To address this po,,<:ihlc issue, we should first consider
cle~r. ~bour
class ::!tte-nci;mce :1n<1 participation in actIV1tle3·~both in and out of class.
edu~;ltjon·:1.11r
Preparing for Resistance
projects that will engage them, some of our students wiJl protest. Many students afe used to being in college courses where the traditional lecture method is used, so when they first hear that active learning methods will be used during class time, some sudents will resist. They may suggest that it is "the professor's job" to tell them \vhat they need to know and to deliver w~ll-prepared lectures, Some students wiII even suggest that they have paid WIth their tuition dollars for their teachers to teach them. There are several ways to counter such resisr::mce,
On the first day of class, we can give students the research on learnercentered teaching and let them sec how it shows that it helps students learn more and understand better (Felder & Brent, 199 6 ). A major misconception that some sfw1ents hClve is in their definition of tcaching---they believe somehow that teaching is somerhing thaT can be done only by a professor. However, "~~aching is not '\(lmcth ing you can go into the forest and do by yourself (Ralph W. Tyler, educator, 1902-l994). Studenrs have to be involved and participate in the process.
A second step \Ve can take w counter negative attitudes is to point out the connection between the skills that students develop in a learner-centered class an~ the skills that they can use in their future careers. For example, p~~spect1ve e.mplnrcrs \\';J:nt to hire people \vho know how to take responsi~lltt:jl for. thelf learning and not those "who arc wilJing to sit back and pasSlVely \Valt to be taught" (Resistance to Active Learning, 1995-I 997). . A third step is to so1icit the students' cooperation. Many professors reB theIr students that the Success of a course depends on the students' "wiUing~lel'S to adopt an active learning mode." In addition to telling students this, It should be put in our syUabi and discussed several times rhrnughol1t the semester.
Bandura's (1994) WOlk.
Randnra (1994) asserts th;"Jt a person's beliefs in hi~ or her own capabiliproduce designated levels of performance (also known as self-efficacy) will "determine how people feel, think, motivate rhrmsch:es ;"Jnel beh:we" (p. 2). He also states that those with a Strong sense of efficacy "approach difficult ties
to
tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be a\'oided ...
In contrast, people who doubt their c:1r:1hi1irics shy away from difficult tasks. They slacken rheir effortS and give up quickly in the face of difflclIlries" (p. 2). Often, at-risk srudenrs will fOCllS their cncrgir<: and efforts
on tasks they believe they can achieve and avoid tasks they feel offer no hope of success. Students who have been sllccessfill in extracurdcular activities (e,g., sports, drama, band, sorority or fraternity groups) are particularly vulnerable to becoming off balance in college. For example, many at-risk student-athletes who succeeded in sports and struggled in school may have a t('nrlcncy to give up on 8c:dcmic endeavors. Bandura (1994) examines sources of sdf-efficacy. which include mastery experiences: "Successes build a robust belief in one's personal efficacy. Failures undermine it, especi811y if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly estahlished" (p. 2). He warns that people who experience only easy successes do not build resiliency. However, some minor failures may acnwl1r kindle gro"\\'th: "Some serhacks and difficulties in human pllf.'mits serve a useful purpose in teaching that success usually requires sllst:1inc<1 effort" (p. 3). When people endure minor failures bur pcrSCH'rC in order to ulti-
mately attain success, they almost ahvays emerge stronger at the end of the experience. Thus, for many at-risk
Stll<1f'nrS,
once they experience some
150
TE1\CHfNG CNPREP:\RED STCDENTS
EMBRJ\CING LFARKER-CENTERf.O EDCCATlON
success in school, they become more confident in all their courses, even jf there d.re minor failures in the beginr'ing. As mentioned rhroughnn:- this h00k, giving students incli"idu;l! fee-dh:lck
8f
constant coming and going of students. Students arriving mid\vay through the class period (or even when one-fourth of the class time has elapsed) or leaving early disrupt the learning process for everyone else.
discllssion). By using formative as<;essrnents. feedback, and activities where
Duting the first week of class, 'when introducing the students to learnercemered teaching :1nO ~I<:o to inrii,\Tjrlu;111euning styles (see chapter 5), I ask the students to participate in el;f1hli,hing gr01.1nn roles for our class that will prevent disruption and m::rximi7f: our learning cnyironmcnr'), Inc'\'inhly, rht'"
students "practice" what they are learning, at-·risk students have a chance to
students come up with the same set of ground rules that I would want:
improve before being tested on their new knmv1crlgc :md, thus, their confidence will improve (see chapter 7 for further discussion),
attend all classes, arrive on time, stay for the whole period, be respectful to each other. I have found that most of the stlldenrs follow these' expect;H ion<;
Rf'sisr:
since we decided on them together and especially since they are actively engaged during class time rhrnllghom the semester. For the few students
on early a<;<;ignme-flt<; is espf'ciaiJy important for at-risk students_ "Waitina
until midterm f"Clmin:1finn<;: is orren too
well tbey are performing'" (K"b et aI.,
bt~
2006,
to give <:runcnro;: an idf':l
ofhO\~
p, 94; see chapter 8 for furtber
A biology instructor was experimenting with cnll:1h0r:1rivc methods of One day his dean came for a instruction in his l--t'ginnins !-,i,,)0b'Y sire visit, slipping inro the back of the room. The room Was a hubbub of activity. Students \vere di.~ClL<;sjng !Tl:1'f'r;-d f'nrhll~;;'l'::t;;:-:lllr in ~m:J!l srn ll r'" spread .out across the room; the instructor \vOldd observe each group For a fevv mmutes, sometimes making a comment, sometimes just nodding ~)rrf(l'·:ll. After 15 minulcs (If so thc dean approached the instructor and said. "I came today to do your evaluation. I'll come back another time wh(:n you're teaching." (p. IS)
Since lect~ri~g has. been so ir1gnir;;::;d in our insrirntion" this example dlll'~f(!.tes th8t It IS not JUSt students Vlrho define teaching as lecturing. l\1any
.
admln1st r8to r s, deans, derurIT!\:nt ch1irs, 8nrl fcll(lw faculty may also.
Estahlishing a Learning Community In d~<;(Tihjng specific purpose~; of the learner-centered paradigm, Barr and Tagg (1995) explain that another aspect of this model is "to create environ~ ments and experience that bring studen ts to discover and construct knowledge for themselves, to make srudems members of cnmmnnitiC'<; of learners that make discoveries and solve problem," ' (0 -'- . r6)/."Students "cannot d eveIop a sense of C0!'lfDllni'T if they do not talk
to
each other, or if there is a
"\vho do not comply, I talk with them individu111r as needed~·-either before or after class. At the beginning of one semester I had a student, Adam, who arrived at least IO minutes late every class. Because of this, he missed out on most of the group activity when we decined on ground rules, \X7hen I asked him to stay after class to (alk to me, he told me that he was late because he was coming from another class that went over, and it was locared on the other side of campus. I ,)llggested that he drop my class if he could not arrive on time. \X'hen J got back to my office, I looked up his schedule on the SIS and discovered that he did not have a class immediately before the one I waS teaching. Rather than confronting him with this information (after all, he could have added a class that was not in the SIS yet), I began the next class \vith an activity wbere everyone v,ras put into small groups. Wnen Adam arrived late, I told him he could not join a group late-directions were already given, groups had already been formed, and he would have to wait until the activity was over. I also informed him of the class activity points he had already missed out on from the previous classes, and tha[ he had lost the opportunity to earn any poims for the current class. Th8t was the last time I had to talk to him about arriving to class on time--Adam was not late again. This (,>;":lmr1f' of my dealing with Adam is an excellent reminder that we need to talk to our students and never ignore in;1rrrnrri:nc bch:1vior,whether it is <;of1wthing small such as being tardy to class or missing class, or
EMBRACING LEi\R"JF.R .. CE~TERED tnUCATIOr,;
vl'<]'KJ:V/\ICt.') STCDE:'
side chatting or having private conversations
There are many ways we can assess our students' prior knowledge.
when someone else is talking (including me or another smdent). Any type of disruptive or disrespectful behavior must be addressed.
Angelo and Cross (I993) have several classroom assessment techniques (CATs) specifically for assessing prior knnwldge.' Zull (200 2 ) also proposes that we can have our students \.vrite :1hnnr rheir prior knowJc.dgc. He <;llggesrs
something more serious such
;J.S
Because learner-centered environments involve significant interaction among the students, most p'-0fC'~'lnr<; who teach this way find that rude behaviors, such as sleeping in class, reading the newspaper, text messaging, listening to an iPod, or surfing the Internet, do not occur. These kinds of behaviors must not be tolerated. I tell students with such behaviors that they need to choose-either get involved in our class and cease the inapprorriare behavior or drop the class. Follow-up is crucial-when students make the requested changes, I praise them. If not, I administratively drop them. l
The Prior Knowledge Factor: Meet Students Where They Are Learner-centered education has many different aspects that must be integrated. Bransford et al., (2000) note, "We lIse the term 'learner centered' to refer to environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attItudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting" (p. 134). \Xlbat students already know is often referred to as prior knrm,zrdgc.
Zull
(2002)
describes important ideas abour prior knowledge that all
teachers should pay attention to. He writes that "prior knowledge is a fact. ... Learners do not begin with a blank slate, [and] prior knowledge is the be-ginning of new knowledge. It is always where all learners start. Thev have no choice" (p. 93). He po;nts out that one of the major mistakes th:t
that when presenting new material or content, \.ve should begin with concrete specific cX:1rTlplcs :;in('e rn()~r students' prior knmdcdgc is cone.rete (p. 109). At-risk students typicalJy have less prior kno"\vlcogc than thelf mOfe
prepared clas<;m:1rcs. Thus, professors can intervene to help these stude.nts fill in the gaps by having them come during office hours or attend reVIeW sessions rhat begin with where the .sfIldf'nrs cnrrC'!1r!r are in rhr·ir umkrsf:1ncling and kno·wlcdgc. In some cases, students need to take another class to
prepare them for your class. By doing this, we are .sho"lsing Ollr ~ftJ(k·nt<; rh1f we value what they bring to the setting and that we want them to succeed. 'When students know that we value their diverse backgmnnd'i and ethnic heritages, they will feel welcome in our class, and this feeling is important for sharing and working together. "In <1dditif)n, when faculty honor and celebrate student backgrOlmos :'l.nd f'ncflur:1ge <;Tlldents to Tfl'Jke use of their prior knm"dcclge, they empower ~tl1d('nt<; as learners" (Kuh et al., 2~05) ~. 205). Creating an inclusive c1:l<':<;f(lom for ~ru(knt<; "\vith differf'nr f'rhmc herItages and hackgrotlnch, perspectives,
in~firurion~ <;uch as
we as teachers in higher education often make is starting" ... where we are,
police protection and crime control, and oiff(-.rcnt npccr:nion<: "hnl1f
not where our JtutiFnt, are" (p. 103). He notes that our teaching will be hindered if we ignore prior knowledge.
the leadership of a college Of llniyc'r<;lry "lsill treat them. These differences
challenge everyone on campus
to
hrYIN
respond ('on~tr1lctivrly. As long as stu~
dents interact across groups both in classes and in <;irtl(ltiom of living, 1 Oi~""Tri~T or
di<;rt~rFn!11! !,('f,l\·i"r
,:!>,., 110 "'or be ,0·,(i)<;f''l w';r!o
you or other srucierns are threatened, c"U campus police camr'1~
For '"Oorp !p(orrn1ri'''1 ""
your dean of ,tudents office or the -orrrr"['c',,.n
~~r(,1r('ni'lG (.,~S·lY;0r"
If you feel
and contact your :lpp""rri:nt> -1:fTf',,'r,r 'Yf"'" ofhr+;n·iM. n)nr~n
pn) of my r.1.Vonte fY'Nf'
CAr5 in lheir of CAT,)
EMBRACI:..JG LEAR;';f,R-CENTERED EDUCATION
TEACHfNG UNPREP/lRE0 STl.'DENTS
working, ')nlf1ying and socializing, they caD learn something different,
working \vith everyone in the class. Third, the plan ned structure of having
sOlUe-thing more. (p. [52)
different student groups ensures inreraction and cnllYcr<;;1ti0n<; :1m(lng Students with different ethnic heritages, rrligi0l1" he-lief", political opinion<;, :'lna
Kuh et al. (2005) also discuss the importance of having a clrissroom enyirnnnwnr (or dim:uc) " ... that encourages contact among students from
values-as recommended by Kuh er al. (2005)· In How A1h7fJrit)' Strrrif'11f' Experience College, Watson, TerreH, Wright,
different economic, soci;1:/, ;mc1 racial or ethnic h;1:("kgrounels" (p. 219), They
and A<;sociates (2002) point out the importance of inclusion for minority
also recommend that rrofcs<;or<; han' seriou')
conyc~;1rif)!1<;
y'\"ith
<.;rudCnf5
of
students on PWIs:
different ethnicities and with students who have different religious beliefs, politic~l
(lpinions, Clnd values. These conversations are beneficial to the Stu-
dents and the professor by e'(r()':ing cach
to
uniqlle h:lckgr(lunc/s ~mc/ differ-
ing beliefs. In addition, 1 re('nmmcnc1 :hat we look at the types of books that we
At the dose of the day, most students really want to be part of c-;Jmr,-r': Jifi~,
rincllJ~inpthe classroom]. Most JUSt want to know that they can particio and that their p
~ate
(p.106)
have on OUf hookshe1ves, "inee what we read can also cornm~micatc a ro<.'iri,;rc message to our students. When students come to our offices, many will
A<; professors, we can plan for indtlsion <1nd help our students from different
notice the books we have collected. Of course, most assume that ..ve will
backgrollnd., and erhnicities mFet an£1 rJrricip;:lfe in rnc:1ningful educational
have books related
to
our specific discipline's, However, by including books
activities together in a learner-centered Cl1yir0nmcnt.
(and of course reading books) by authors from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, we can let OUI:" students see that we are interested in different ethnic heritages. Although my hackgrounn is \vhite European American, I have read many books by authors \'l1-:.o arc Native American, African American, or Mexican .American. I keep these books in my office so that my students from minority backgmllnd<: can see that I am interested in the rich and wonderful din"r~ity of (lur ("ollnrry.
For at-risk and unprepared 'lrurlrnr", tJking COUf<;es t
In class 1 have several ways of mixing students so that when they work, they can meet new cl;K"rnares (<;~e Arrcnrli"'\ C). By the end of the semester, everyone has had the opportunity to meet and work with all the other Students in the class. I don't allow students to pick their own groups because when they do they usually just turn to \\'homc\"cr they happen
Conclusion
to
be slrting
next to rather than change seats to meet other people in the class. This thoughtful and intentional mixing of students is benc£cial in several ways. First, students have a chance to "vork with people from different
this chapter and throughour this book. Kuh et a1. (2006) summarize the if'lrnrclnc~ of learner-centered teaching best:
This shift pr0rni')es to 111ve prnfollrn imrl;r1tif)r~ F0f s~rring hishf'r n['f'crations for students, for raising academic ~r:ln~;1r(k for asking ~rn(knrs to take more fC''iron<;;hlirr (or their learning, for deln0nQnrins rnmpf'tf'>ncy rhrough assessmenr, and for ernph
backgrounds. Second, instead of talking 'with the same people every class, which can lead
social loafing, students stay on task. At the end of the
In
semester, students always tell me hmv much they enjoyed meeting and
kflmykdg: :mct divcr'lincd ktdzgrOl~n(k Learner-centered rC;1ching <:t1rrorts
to
lr.J\UiING P"!"RCr;,RED STPDEN"TS
Chickering and Gamson's (1987) principles of good practice. "Good practICes hold as much meaning for profes,<;ion~1 fwgmm<: as for the liberal arts. They work for many different kinds of students~whire, black, Hispanic, ASIan:, nch, poor, older, younger, male, female, weI1-prepared, underprepared (p ..2).:S teachers, it is Our respr'D<:ihi!iry to incluoe the principles of good practlce 1fl any type of pedagogy we use.
INTERWEAVING ASSESSMENT AND TEACHING Any Questions?
Aim at a high mark and you'lI hit it No, not the first time, nor the second time. Maybe not the
third. But keep on aiming and keep on '''acting for only rr8:r.tice will make you perfect. ~Annie
L
Oakley
ecturing to students has been an acc<"prr-c\ ;-Inc! \yiclely merl pedagogy at colleges and univ('fsiri('-<; for m::my P'''Z!f<;. Along with lectures, midterms and final exams have been the Cll<;romZ!ry way
to
determine
what students have learned. Usually tests are given at the end of a series of lectures and assigned readings, and the results are used to calculate grades. As new material is being presented, in trctc1irion
"Do you all see the solution?" when referring to the rrohlem he or she just solved on the ch;)lkho;lrd. As professors pause and look around the room, students usually remain silent. From personal obscryatinn and tcsrimoni::tls from many professors, 1 have found that rarely will students (any student) say, "No. I don't understand," or even ask a question. Once in a vi,hile, one or two students will have a question, but most of the time smdcnn \yill just nod their heads and remain quiet.
89
INTERWEA.Vl~G A'\sF<;SMENT AND TE/,CHI;\'G
In flcr, many students may think that they have grasped "\Vh;-tfcvcr the lecture covered when the class ends, but then later they discover they cannot
can then consider adjustments, intervC'nriom. and strategies
to
correct the
situation.
reexplain or apply the information. As Svinidci (2004) points out, when hearing ~m excellent e"(rb'l::1tirn or presentation some students may have "an illusion of comprehension. .. The fluency of the expert [presenting the material] rnay give the listeners the illusion of undersfanding or the belief that the Jnaterial is dear and easy to understand" (p. II7). Student<; lenvc the class thinking that they know the material, when in reality they do not. Conversely, some students do not have an illusion of comprehen<;inn, and they know that they have questions but are reluctant to ask them in front of lheir clRssmCltes. 11any nnrrrrJfcd or at-risk students will sav, "I didn't want to sound stupid in front of everybody." Others have told i~e, "I
didn't know exactly what to ask, I really didn't understand the whole rhing, but! thought I would be able to figure it out later," So, they say nothing,
\XThell midterms are graded, we may be rliqrrnintC'cl when many of nur students perform poorly. Professors and students may also be frustrated,
Summative and Formative Assessment Differences Summ;lrive (ls<;('s<;mC'nt<;, such as midterms and finals, are ways to measure "what students have learned at the end of some set of learning activities" (Bransford et a1.,
2000,
p.
140)'
Tests, term papers, quizzes, and other graded
;1<:,<;jGnments are also traditional types of <;llmm1tivc 8Sses<;ment<; that
;)<;,>cs~m('nrs, which have' been used much less, are given in between <;umm;1dve ass("ssmenr<;. The main purpose of formative assessments is "sources of fecclh:1Ck
to
act as
to
improve teach ing ;mcl !e:uning. Examples of forma-
tive assessments include teachers' commf'nts on work in progress, such as drafts of papers, or pro::;p:1r1tin'l'> for prcscnt:1ri{)r")s" (Rr8 m ford et a1., 2000, p.~
.
barring those instructors who are consoled if a few students perform welL
Summative asse".;;<;rn(>nts, such as tests, also provide feedback but
At-risk students are rarely the ones who pass with flying colors. At-risk Students are vulnerable since many either have suffered "i!Ju"i0n<: of compre-
different sense. They are given at the end of the unit or lesson, and if stu-
hension," or were uflwiljjng- (or unable) to ask questions in or outside of
assignment, which will most likely cover new materiaL Furthermore, most
!11
a
dents perform poorly, they can only hope to do better on the next test or
class. When the first midterms are returned, it is not unusual for at-risk
at-risk students do not know "\vhat to do with a failed test. Nathan, one of
students to be surprised by their poor rest performances and then to become
my unprepared studenrs with a learning di<;:1hi!iry-, hRd a re::JerTon
dismayed and give up. One of my at-risk students, Chancy, came back to
test that was typical of many at-risk <;t11dcnr<;. When he came back
the support center after
failed exam and said to me, "\,\:1hy study? I failed
su pporr center, I asked him
to
to
a failed to
the
go over the test with me so we could fIgure
Universities and colleges hav,~ responclE'cl ro increasing nnmhrrs of StU-
out what he had done wtong, He told me, "I don't have it, I felt so bad and I was so mad, I just threw it in the garbage." Thus, the {)pp0rtll n iry to see if
dents performing poorly in their classes by ex-p8ilcling learning centers and
he had prepared incorrectly, misread qllC'<;fion<;, or just mi<;nnrier<;rood the
tutoring labs. \X!hile these
conceptS or content was missed. On the other hand, when formative ass('<;<;mcnt<; are used, <;rudC'nr<; arc
anyway
dents, they are not enough. \'i7e need to participate in, and indeed actively <:;l!pp!emC'w our institutions' efforts by adding assessment activities to ot:r lectures and to our ch.:;<;ronms, and not wait until the midterm or other exams to find Out how the students are doing. By using assessment techniques with greater frequency. not only wiII '\ve gain feedback on hO\v our students are progressing. but so will the students. Students and professors
tauo-ht
to
use the feedback on their performance so they can make irnrroyc-
me~ts before they have to take the test or turn in the paper. Using formative assessments rhrnllghollf the e-nrire semester can make a powerful and 'ligniflcant difference in student learning. Students ;;trc able to demonstrate what they are learning. This is especially true for at-risk and unprc>p:1 f ed 5tUOCnfS.
yv
1 LALHJf'.iG
U~'PREPARFD
Hqba and Freed
(2000)
INTERWEA\' fr'G ASSESSMENT ANn TEACHIl'G
STCDENTS
believe that all assessments arc "best when used
to imprcve "uhscqllCDr learning" (p. 8). \X1hen <:tunf'nts have an opportunity
to make corrections, re,\vork problems, rewrite drafts, or reanalyze, the learning and the under.q;mrling of vvh
time, by conducting assessm{"nt<;, "We force the questions, 'What have
QliI
students learned and how well have they learned it?' 'How successful have we been at what we are trying to accomr1i<;h?'" (p. 8), Thus, the assessments
Examples of Formative Assessment Techniques In the film Drrlining by Degrees: Higher Education at Risk (Merrow & .1 k ). rofessor Tom Flemino- dcmon<;tr::Hes an Informal Ttuen 0, 2005 ' SCience p b . . .' -hen he posts a multiple-chOIce qllt'sflon on a type a f assessment actlVlty Vi' ' • PrnvCTPoint "lidc. \Vhat the film does not show is when rhls ass(,<;'\mcm takes place, which is about 17 minutes after the class begins_ H~ had been present-
that we develop for our courses (see chapter 4 for further discussion). Fur-
ing material to the students (lecture style with visu~ aides), and then. he . the class with a list of four pOSSIble answers. By usmg posed a questIon to . " indivjchul electronic response dickers, the students register thelf answers.
thermore, we can adjust our teaching as we receive information about our
On the PowerPoint slide, the rC'spnn'
students' learning (Nilson, 1998, p' 176),
vidual feedback in order for t:1e assessment activity to be effective and
age of votes cast for each answer is shown (see Figure 7·r). After seetng :he ·,ng comments "That's interesting, Most of you thInk response to tal s, Flem , , . . b C or D .So to talk to each other and t h at t h e answer IS cit er , I want vou , convince your d<1ssm<1te"s why your 1n'\v,:er is right." Next, the stllrl~nt<; faJ!:::
beneficial for them. All students can benefit from assessm('nt activities, but
to each other, and in a few minutes, Fleming asks them to vote agam. ThIS
thar we lise in
O!U
classes must be tied
to
the intended learning outcomes
The results of the asgs<;menr activity can gi<,Te the teacher "\T31uahlc information on how the students are doing, but students
mUSt
also receive indi-
at-risk students 1n particular benefit because frequent assc'<:<;:mC'nt and feedback helps them monitor their own progress more closely. Two major obsta-
time, Oyer 80% of the ."fllciem<; have the right anS"\Ver. . The engagement of the smr1cnr<; is nhvious to
cles fot unptepated, at-risk stud"nts ate (a) lack of study strategies and (b)
It is also important to note that most of the students got to the right answer
not being able to differentiate between essential and nonessential informa-
without Dr. Fleming lecturing again or rcpc:ning him<;df. Funhermot.e, by
tion. When these students are :.n classes where formative assessments are
being Jllmycd
used in addition to "ummJtivC' assessments, their academic performance is
to
pClrriciratf", <;wrlenrs demOnqrCltcd energy :lnd cnthll"lClSm
They wefe involved in the learning pfocess.
enhanced and improved.
Another message that we tcachers pass on to our students when
We
interweave formarive and "ummJtiyc as<;(,<;<;1Ylellt<; thmllghpllt the semester is
FIGURE 7.1
that we are demon'
Example of Electronic Clicker Re<;ponses From Student.,
happens, most students are motivated to do better. l\1onitoring students' progress in turn pro,riocs feeoh;t<-k on teaching methods and formats and
orrntrunirie<; to adjust rhem. "Dc<;igning :md a,<"C'<;<;ing "tude-nr learning O\ltcomes can lead to more ft'''P0!l''TC recbgogy" (Kuh et a1., 2005, p_ 205). That is, we as faculty can also adjust OUf lcaching methods Of formats jf students do not comprehcnd the material. Note that this is not the same as lowering stamLnds, Formative assessments help students meet high expectations,
D C B A 10lJ-o 20<:;:& 35% 35%
INTERW'F.AV!;..JG !\<;<;F<;S\..fF,\,T AND TEACHI;..JC
"While it might be nice
to have the electronic re"ronders, those of us
who do not have the technology available can still use the voting method to assess and engage OUf students. It is not as efficient at producing exact percentage results, bur it still works and I have llsed it many times with great Success. It is also very inexpensive, since it only requires the use of
. Next she [;lndomly c:llkrt (1D <;tuclC'nrs to (",(plain. thf'ir final t h em vote ao-aIn." <>h d 0 f the class. the professor tcported the h)!I0W1ng: answer. At teen , \\':1:~ invoh·d. The critif I ("yidEm hy the rh00ghr 11.
. ,.Igor ,~~d My lackluster class b ecamc 1m '\ . Fw'rY0nc •• cal thmkmg
~lnllJ
. of the material ::Jrr J'K;ltl0n
fluorescent-colored 3-x-5-inch cards. For true/false questions (or questions with two possible answers or o['inions such as A or B), I use pink and green
answers and responses the students gave. At the end of the ~la~s, one ~tu "I wish all my classes were th1s Interesnng. " h ' dent came up to me an d sal·d'
cards. Every student gers a green card and a pink card: green is for true (or choice A), and pink is for false (or choice B). When using these cards, Stu-
· so muc h. This I am Iearmng ,j" my favorite class and the . best h' I"~.ooe (J IB a\ e ever had at this college. If only all of co!lege could be Irke tIS. . orovay, personal tf)mmllnic:1fiof1, April 26, 2007).
dents are instructed to show their votes ~iml1li;1nCOtl'>!r on the count of three after the question is read. Then the students raise their hands high with the card of their choice. All questio.ns are on PowerPoint slides (or on an Overhead rnn~parency). After I pose the question, <;'tUC1e"nts YOte. Looking around the room it is fairly easy for me to call Out to the students who have not
voted, or to those who try to h~ld up two cards, and ask them to decide. Then I estimate what the results are and say something like, "It looks like most of you voted false," or "About 70% arc voting true, and 30 % are voting false." We can then have theqrne kind ofinlefKtivc discmsion that Fleming had with his class. With a smaller dass, stude!l(s can tell the whole class why they voted a certain way. Of course, 1 ask for volunteers to explain their Votes, and it is surprising how m~my students respond. For multiple-choice questions, more colors can be added, such as fluorescent oraf1ge and yellow. A large answer code is placed in front of the room so thar all the students can clearly see which color represents A, B, C, or D answers. This formative assessmen t activity is very informal, but it also gives students and the teacher immediate feedback. A professor who tried our this assessment activity with her class of 92 students called me to report the r.esults. She added an extra rw-ist to the voting to get students talking to Someone other than the people they had been sitting next to all semester. Once they voted, each student had to talk to someone who voted differently and try to convince that person why his or her VOte was wrong. Students moved around the room to find a fellow classmate w.ith a different vote. After a btief exchange, the professor had
93
. that many rea , d crs ill ay be familiar with is Another assessment activity "W' p' Shal'e" or "Think-Pair-Share." It is very easy to adapt and to nte- alfB . fl J ne y, . . . th e middle use at the h egmnmg, In , Ot at the end of a class. . bI ne activin.r involves three steps: (a) The instructot poses a questIon . or pro hem, . ~l t elr (b) students are given a specl. fi C amount. 0 f time to WTlte down . . responses, an d (c) students are then paired with a drtssm;.nc to cllsclls,~ h f,theIr ,,'- stu d ents h ave a chance to talk with each other,. t e 1pro essor I k answers . .rULer II fi rl nts to "h:1re their ~n<;wcrs "\-\'ith the entIre c ass. as can ca on a ew <;f11 (" .. d ass them in. d t their names on theu wntten [cspon:::r.s an p . . h ds to write on, but other times stustu cnts to pu Usually sf1ldenrs are gIven 3-x-5·· mc car h b h dents 'ust write answers on their own binder paper they ave r~~g T. to ' cIass JB v h avmg students pur their names on their answers, partlclP.a d h non . ,. can , b e awarded', it is also pomts , important for the teacher .to reah t c students' responses. If the professor does not have tim~ to wnte a s ort. c~l:~ h .. d he or she should at least use a sIgn (+ +, +, - ) t ment on eac c a r , . IT k Even a "Please see me (or indicates that the student IS on track or 0 trac. . h GA) for hel "if the student teally misses the pomt would be helpful. . J h orate on the Wnte-Palrt e Desrochers p(1999) offers :1rlrlitional ways to (':1 Share. She ,>uggcsrs rh:1t professors ask sturltnts for real-life c"X:1mplcs, sllm~ marize key concepts from the lecture, "list cost and. benefits or pros a~ . " (p I) Also if the class 15 large and the nOIse cons, or dIagram a process '. . . ' . " a whistle or bell so they can level rises, professots should ronwlcr bnngtn o signal the. class WIlen th· e ome ·s I up . Another techniqne that can be used to
1
Ct\\.,1"11NG
UNPREPARED STUDENTS INTERWEAVING ASSESSMENT Al\'D TEACHING
95
get the students' attention is to tell them that when the time is UPI the professor will raise his or her hand. As soon as the students see a hand up, they raise their hand. All hands are to remain raised until the entire room is
Write-Pair··Share activity again. During the second half of the class, several <;tlldcnt<; on their own accord raised their hands to make commr-nt<; or ask
quiet. When using this technique, I have the class practice it before the sharing begins.
and read their answers, made a short one- or two-word comment on each
Write-Pair-Share can have a F:1irlr quick impact on student engagement in one's COurse. For example, a professor contacted me for help with a general education course that "\vas a lower-division requirement for majors in the fidd but also met a general education requirement. The professor Was concerned about her Students' passive, unresponsive, and lackad:1isical behavior in general. She said that even when she asked for questions or comments, she got none. The class met every Tuesday and Thursday from noon to 1:15 P.M. The first time I observed her class, students came in on
quC'stion,;. \YIhat a difference! After each class, she went through the cards
card, and returned them
to
the <;rndf'nt'i.
.
For the rest of the semester, the professot continued to use th1s a,%essment tC"chnique and tried out a few others. She reported that her students continned to show their interest during class meetings, and on the next midtetm, scores improved. The fourth time 1 visited the class, a few stude~ts in the back of the room "ppro"chect me to ask if! had anything to do WI~~ the change that the professor had "hmyn in her tC:1chmg mf'thoch. I Jokme- y rep I,Ie d , "Well , that depends. Do you like it'" With big smiles. they told tme how much bettet the class was and said they had some other professors t tey
time and most of the seats were iilled. The prcfc.<>or used slides to enhance and illustrate her lecture, and she dimmed the lights so the Students could see the slides but have enough light to write notes. \Xlhile not a dynamic or
wanted me to advise. The students who
animated speaker, she was certainly not muncbne or boring. It was obvious
niques will break up the lecture and benefit all students, , . The "Meta-Cognitive Moment" (Hester, 1998, p. 2) is anoth.er assess-
that she was enthnsi
The as,'ie'ssmenr activity took only about 5 to minutes, but the class was energized. In addition, several Ewdents asked a few more questions. She then cnntin1)cd with the rest of her lecture. For the next class, she used the
from their comments, one can see how using formative assessment tech-
ment technique that 1 have used with much <;tlccess. Hester ~~.slgned ~he Meta-Cognitive Moment to assess ,>ttJrlent<;' present kn0\vlcdge to ord~I .to connect new informadon to what they already know" (p. 2). The aCtlVIty works as follows: After presenting information on a unit or topic, ,~he puts "five simple analytical and synthcsi7ing questions on the board
(p .. 2).
Questions can also be di"pbyed on a rramparen(.y with a.p. oyerh~ad pr())~c tor or on a PowerPoint slide. Next, in small groups, ,>tuclenrs dl<;Cll'iS \\'h:1.t thev think are the answers to the qllc<::rinns. I recommend three '>wdC"nr<; ~er gro~p, and ~lh"nll.lt('ly no more tbm hwf. On an answer sh.eet, stuc1e-nr<; write . Ie ",\7" They do not WrIte out the answer. a SImp res or "No" tor each nllc<;rion. '1 ' (~uestions
could be multiple choice or in essay form. For cx~mple, fo~ an introduction to ;mrhrnpn]ogy class, one question sruoent.'i mlght be gIven about marital residence and kinship is this: In a matrilineal society, 11JtJ10rity in the- kin gr0up is oft-en eX("fcised by
the mother's brother b. the father's sister
a.
STCDEl\.'TS
INTERWEAVI2-JG ;\S5ESS;\fF.NT AND TEACHING
97
c. the oldest daughter
d. the oldest son
types of test questions, and they have the opportunity
to
witness how their
classrn:1tes review their class and reading notes and prepare for exams. From
The students in , 11
h
.
ld
.
cac group wou dIscuss what they rh· k h . d h m t e answer IS ya agree on t e an:;wer, thev would write "}:'1" h . ' sheet, indicating that they aU a.greed th~t they know th es on t elr anSWer not, they would write "No." Al exam Ie f C ~orrect answer. If tional class on d· b·l··. P 0 an essay question for an educaIsa 1 mes IS: How are visual d h ,. . . an g defined, both legally and functionally? The stud:::ts ine : ImpalfI~ents their answers and writ "Y( ". f h -' ' , e a c group dIscuss if the e es I t ey agree they know the answer, and "No" . y cannot agree on the ansvver Or believe thf>1.," are not ·f h . IS COrrecL -J Sure 1 t elf anSwer and jf the
Hester gives her students abOUt 10 minutes to di<;:CDSS th d enco ~ ~ e anSWers an th ura~es anyone in the gr0 up yvho may know rhe answer to explain' ir to OSe w 0 may not. Answer sheets with the na f h are r I . fies 0 regroup members urne( lfl, and she discusses th "N" . .
he~p ~i:h ~~::~:e:Vl~ the whole class,
inviting other class members to
aSSf'SSrYH'nr ...• H '. s a result of thIS . aCtIvIty, ester ts glv,en relevant feedback on I d' prehension of rhe material, and thus she can "ex. ,ler stu ents ComcoqNJ"ion" (p 2) I dd'·} pl
marlon, which reinforces their
of the material
evaluate their Own knowIedae base" (
) H.'
1
reVIew 1~ or' . [and] aCllvely
of the assessme '. b p. 2, ester a so repOftS t..~at as a result . nt aCtlvIty, her students seem more lonfloent d h I an ave ess test anXIety. , .
When using the M
C
"
eta- ogn1tlve 1v1ornent exercise I 1 . Similar results F 1 ' ' lave Wltnessed , un jetmore, I also use It as a way to take ro!! d 1 an to eva uate class participation for that day e' 1. easy '. , . ~lrcu atIng around the room, it is faidv
whic~Oi.~::~:~,'~~nyone '~ n:t participating in the .smalJ-groop di'Cll"io:.
groups ana the e, case., '-'~u enr~ appear to be comfortable in the small " Vast maJonty revtew or add to their notes as the d' ,. therr answers. This activity works 'NeH in the middle f 1,. . Y ISCU~S can also be used at the b . . 0 a c ass penod, bur It egmnmg 0 r toward the end Th· .'. .
lady helpful for at-risk 't d
~ u ents
b.
-
. - IS aCtIVIty IS partICl!'
... caUse they get a chance to see different
working with other students who are more prep~red, at-risk and unprepared students will learn from their da<;<;mates how to improve their own study and rest preparation skills.
To become :lccp.1;1inrcd with
:1~~iti0n:1l
types of formative assessments
that can be used during class time, an C"Xccllcnt <;ource is
r:1f1\fmn117 ~1\·~t5·rnj{'7Jt
Tec/miqrm by Angelo and Cross (1993). Ir is a practical h1ndhook that includes 50 different classroom ilS<;('S'1me-nt techniques (CATs). CATs are designed to involve teachers and students "in the continuous monitoring of smdents' learning" (Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. xiv) in a particular course throughollt the semester. They should be used during class time and can take anywhere from 3 minutes to 20 minlltes (or more), depencling on how we adapt the particular assessment to our class and its context, The
handhnnk is easy to use; for each :1')<;('<;<;mcnt. there is a tiescription along "\vith its purpose, related teaching goals, suggf"srions on how
to
use the asSfS<;J11f>nt,
c"\;'1mples from various di:::cirlines, anrI a srep-by-step procC'c1nre. A~ditionally,
Angelo and Cross (1993) list ideas for ,d'rting and exreno-
ing each assessment technique. In my orin ion, it is by fax the best resource for professors and instructors, whether they are novices or C"xperienced teachers, The CATs are divided into tbree broad categories: (a) Tcchni<]lle'<; for Assc~<;ing
Course-Related Knm,vl\'dge ;lnd Skill<;; (b) Techniques for Assess-
ing Learner Attitudes, Values, and Self-Awareness; and (c) Tcchniqll(,s for
/\<;!;('"sing Learner Reactions to Instruction. In turn, each category has specific suhsers with several different assessments to choose from, Prnh:lh1r the
most widely known and used CATs are the \1inure Paper and Muddiest Point. "\\!hat all of the asse-",sments have in common is that they actively engage students in a learning task and increase student-faculty interaction.
CATs are proven
to
be an effective education practice and by using
them, at-risk students benefit more than any other type of student in our
classes. In the words of George D. Kuh, directot of tho' National Survey of Student Engagement, "When institutions use effective educational practices,
yu
INTERWEAVING ASSESSME!':T A0:D TEACHING
they provide a small boost to students who are lower ach" h h levmg w en t ey start college. [For these students] the more engaged th b h b
h . i elf grades are. and they start ~atching up . h h" e
ey ecomc,
to students wh
_0
L-
Wlr a 19h r level of achievement" (Wasley, 2006, p. A39).
t
99
FIGURE 7.3 Sample Memory Matrix for Operant Conditioning
e etter
d II stane co ege
Three of my favorite CATs, which I have found to be very engaain and helpful to all the students in mv classes are (a) rhe M M b g (b ) " /' ~ emory ~ atnx, ) W11at s the PnnClple? and (c) the Pro and Con Grid.
1~ ~b.sses
that require students to memorize information, the Memorv Matnx IS an assesSment that can be used: d' c, . ( ' In lUerent ways. Angelo and Cross (1993) conClsely describe the Memory Matrix as follows:
Behavior
StimuhlS
1-----+1-----+----+1----1
DETAIl.S
I
[It] is a rwo-oimc-n.;jhn ni;1f;r
(Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. I42). In particular, it can encourage at-risk students to re-represent information in a matrix form and help them recognize how and what they need
to
study before the )ummatiye exam. Students with
stronger academic records may already be creating matrixes on their own,
but unprepared
ctll~ent<
tion of the activity is
to
often haye not used this v,lu,hlc srnregy. A variahave the students draw ("oncf"pt maps or create an
organizational framework using a diagram or matrix. This exercise suppOrts
Figure 7·2 shows a specific e""{:unple of a filled-in matrix for an introd torv psy h J . llC~/ C o~ogy course. FIgure 7.3 shows the Memorv M .-; L 0 C d" . ., ~ atux lOr perant on monmg that would be given to the students to fill in . . , ~o,~ courses with high inforrr:.ational content, this is a practical way ro assess student recall a d b ' h' n as Ie compre eflSlOn of facts and principles"
the basic principle from the science of learning, which states that learning is enhanced when learners are ff'quired to fe-represent the infnrm(1tinn: Learning and recall are thw C'!lhancecl ,,,he'n If:lrne-t<; integrate inform:lri0n from both verbal and vi<;HoT:nial reprt's('nrarinn<: . . . . complex concept)
can be related to one another in numerous ways, and depicting correct ,e-btion<:hip<; among concepts
is central
to
all graphic organizing
FIGURE 7.2
techniques .... Faculry need to use both verhal :md Vi~ll(l<:rafi:lJ rr(lc('<;~ing
Sample Matrix for Operant Conditioning
;fctiyiri('<; in all of the IC:lrnil"'G" t:1<:b rh:1t they mn<;(rHct. (H;Jlpern & HakeL 2003.
Positive
p. 39)
Negative
Thus, having students apply inf0rm;1Tion to a memory m:1rrix, or create their own org::minrinn:11 ch:1rt or cli;1gr:1m) can be used by the teacher as a formative assessment and by the stlloE'nr for learning the materiaL I remind all my students
to
use an empty memory matrix and pr(lcrici" completing it
as they prepare for our unit tests. "If you have to look back at your nOles, you are not ready for this part of the test" is a reminder I give all thi" St1H1('nts, hut
IDa
INTERWEAVING ASSES$MEN rAND TEi\CHI0iG
TEACHING GKPREPARED STCDENTS
for at-risk students who never learn how to self-test in high school, this kind of advice is very helpfuL
A second favorite CAT that I like to use with students is What's the Principle? in which students are ~!sked to connect general principles to specific problems or practices. Angelo and Cross (1993) succinctly describe this CAT as follows:
101
students are prepared to participate in a class debate or write a compare-andcontrast essav. This kind of feedback is very helpful for at-risk <;tudrnt<;. At the same ti~e, we can remind students who are not ready to participate that they will have to put in extra time in order to get ready. Angelo and Cross (1993) point out that CATs are designed as formative ~sscs:o:m('nts with the "purpose to improve the quality of student learning,
often must then decide what principle or rrinc'irlc~ to ";'!rr1y in order to
not to provide evidence for evaluating or grading <;tlH-iC'nr<;"' (p. 5)· I agree; however, I grade the ::Jss("ssments but not in a rrarliri0n;l1 sense. I use the students' aSSf'<;srnenr [t"sponses as part of their class activity (or p::Jrtidp::Jrion)
solve the problem. This CAT focuses on that "en'lnd ~rf'r in prohlem ~ojv
points. Students can have wrong answers -:mrt receive full parricipJrinn point<;
iog. It provides ,rudf"nr, \viih a few rmh!em"
for the day. It is important
After students figure
Out
what type of problem they are dealing with, they
principle that best applies
to
'lna
asks them
to
state the
each problem. (p. 218)
ments
This CAT assesses students' skill in problem solving. We can create a form that is easy to score quickly. If the students have a lot of wrong answers, or if there are no sensible pattern " then they are probably gucs<;ing. However, recognizing prnhlc:rn<; and connecting principles to the problem may
be something that less~prepared students will need to be explicitly taught how to do. This CAT "will help us determine jf we need to do that. If only a small group of students in the class need addirional help, those smdents can go see the professor during office hours or the rrnf(,'Iw)t can hold a review session and require or invite the swdents to attend. Angelo and Cross (1993) suggesr several ways to adapt this CAT. One example is to ask the students to justifY their choices of identified principles in a sentence or two. \X'hat I like best about this CAT is that it "prflmotcs the learning of transferable problem-soh-ing skills that students may remember long after they have forgotten specific exomrlcs" (p. 221).
The third CAT examrle I enjoy using wirh my students is the Pro and Con Grid. Angelo and Cross (1993) point Out, "At one time or another, most people have jotted down quick lists of pros and cons to help them think more dearly about a pressing oec.isinn. This Pro and Con Grid turns that familiar decision-making exercise into a simple Clas'>rnom Asses<;mC"nt Tt'chniqut' with m8.ny po-::sihle 8rr1!c:1.tion>;;·' (p. 168). The Pro 3J."ld Con Grid is also an excellent way for the prnf::-t:<;,of :"Inc! the srudenrs to determine if the
to
to
consider timing ;mct p;1cing in using formative assess-
engage students during the class period, and indeed over the entire
semester as it unfolds. When profC'';''0rs ::mcl instructors are continu
to
students, even if they are excellent and interesting speakers, they
rl~e ones who are doing all the work. As we saw in the earlier example in
this chapter, most students sit passively, listening and taking notes. Some may doze or daydream off and on. At best, the typical attention span for listening is no more than 20 minutes (Wankat, 2002, p. 68). However, when professors use formative ::!sst'ssment techniques through nut the class period, the students arc obliged to interact and they have to make sense of the material and apply what they are learning. Formative ::Jsst'"sments, as well as other types of meaningful eeluGltinn:1J activities, restan the student's attention span clock.
Conclusion Lecturing and summ:ni\'e assessment have long been accepted pcd:lgogic::11 techniques at the college and university level, even though these techniques when used alone are not the most effective for promoting student learning. However, by intervveaving formative ;:ts"cs"mE"nt techniquE'S into the class period, we can engage students and have them apply, analyze, syntht<;i7e, grasp, and transfer course concepts and content. Furthermore, professors and <;tlloents can receive feedback on the learning processes, and what is being
I02
TEACHING UNPREPARED STUDEi'.'TS
taught will be reinforced. If students are not pr0oTc""ing they' h .
b
,
h
8
ave a c ance
t~v get tutorm~ or seek additional help before a <:nmmJt1vc assessment is gl en. For at-nsk students, this opportunity is beneficial hor th . . II U. ' . en success In co ege. smg the technrques dcscrihco in this chapter c a..k dous difference in hel ' . an mea trernenpmg unrrtp8red students become competent college Students.
TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AND DISCOURAGING CHEATING Playing by the Rules
Every problem rontAins the seeds of its own s,olution
-Stanley Arnold
C
heating is not just an at-risk student problem. Across college campuses in the United States, reports of aca~ef!1ic di<;honesty conrin1!e to
cause alarm and concern faculty and Jomini<;narnfS aJikf. These
reports are not isolated incidents. In their cxten<;i,'-e :lnd (0mprchC'n<;ive
research studies, McCabe and Trevino (1996) found that 840/0 of the students surveyed admitted to some form of cheating as lln<1ergr<1dn:lre-<;. Furthermore, McCabe, Trevino, and Butterfield (2001) found that over the last 30 years, not only has the frequency of some forms of cheating incidents
dramatically increased, but also the techniques (or method,) of cheating have expanded and bf"come more ~orhi<;ti(,:lr("d. McCabe and Trevino (1997) report that lower-div+:jnn <;flJdcnf<; :md <;f11dents with lower grade point averages are more likely ~o cheat than students in upper-division classes and students with higher grade point averages.
McCabe et aJ.
(2001)
also report that when deciding \\'herhe-r to cheat, the
"contextual factors (peer cheating behavior, peer di<;:1rpro\'al of cheating behavior, and perceived severity of penalties for cheating) were <;ignific;lnrJ y 103
I04
TEACHING U~PREPARED ~TUDE:--"TS
mo.re
i~fh~f'nrjal tban the indiyidu;d
TECHNIQ"CES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC lKTEGRI ry
factors (age, gender, GPA, and partici-
students as to who these faculty are, and students' c('mment" <;nggest their
patlOTI m extracurricular activities)" (p. 22I). Thus, having a lower GPA is
courses become particular targets for cheating" (p. 223). Ignoring cheating
probably less influential than other contextual factors. Nevertheless, when
or the potential of cheating Sh011ld nnt be an option for any of us.
focusing on at-risk or unprepared students, we must be aware that these "tude-nrs may be more vtllncrJHc or susceptible to cheating than orner dent group.;: if they have lower C:?A.s.
Ov~r
Stu-
the last 5 years, I have conducted more than 30 workshops on
When cx;}mining how cheating <;hollid be handle-rt, there are prcvC'nrinn techniques (di.s(ussed later in this chapter), but we cannot simply consider only these measures. "The best ways to reduce cheating are all about good teaching. In fact, if efforts to deal with chc;ning don't emerge from efforts
preventIon of academic dishonesry. To begin each workshop, I ask partici-
to educate, they won't work, at least not when vigilance is reduced" (Ste.-
pants to Vote trUe or false on statements reg;:m1ing research findings on student cheating, such as
phens, 2004, p, I). Many fC(ltlltes con<;ritme good rC(1ching, hut since cheat-
True or False: Males cheat more then females.
ing is usually associated with stw:Jents trying tn improve their grades, grading systems need to be eX1minf'd fir'lt.
True or False; Business and math majors report the most cheating incidents.
referenced grading system, When using criterion gr:"1(1ing, the points (or per-
True or False: Younger students ([ower division) dents (upper dil'j<;jnn).
chea~ less
than older stu-
.;
In college, professors will use either a criterion-referenced or norm-
centages) that one needs for a certain grade are described. Each student's grade "reflects his or her level of ~("hicv('mf'nt, independent of how other students in the class have performed" (Davis, '993, p. 289).
All pJnicip8nts are given Aunrcsccnr cards (green for true and hot pink
On
for false) so that on my cue they can vote "im1l1r::mcoll<;!Y true or false f()f
the other hand, with norm-referenced grades (also referred to as graJing on the curve), "a student's grade reflects his or her level of achieve-
each statement. \Xlhen I ask whether they think it is true or false that
ment relative
McCabe and Trevino's (1997) reselrch found that 84% of students admitted
kind of grading, students do not know if a score of 88% on a test will be an
to
other students in the class" (Davis, 1993, p, 290). With this
~ind of cbeating as undergrJei u8 rcs, Faculty groups will hold up an
A, a B, a C, or even less. Only a certain proportion of the class can receive
array of pmk and green cards. The vote is never more than 50% true. \X7hen
an A. Grading on the curve cli.,c()llr:1ges students from smdying together
I ask the Same question
and "produces llnd",<;:inhle con "C'<}l1;nces for many srudenrs, .such as reduced
to
Some
to
student groups, they always VOte 100% green
cards! 'W'hen I ask why they voted that way, students say there is no doubt in their mind this statement is true. "We know," the students tell me. The only ones who seem surprised that the statement is true are professors. , \Xlhen it comes to cheating, it is unclear if we rrnfe-,,'>or<; :1re ')imply n1.ivc or If we do not know how to deal "''lith it. According to Mullens (2000), "A SIzable portion of faculty ()2% in Dr. McCabe's Fd'nmy 2001 survey) who were aware of cheating in their courses djd nothing in response" (p. 26), Some faculty decided not to report cheating incidents
to
the dean of students
(or rhe "pprcpri1te department), bur instead handled it them
p. 223)· 'vi/hen this happens, "word seems
to
rravel quickly amon~
motivation to learn, debilitating evalu::ltioT1 anxiety, decreased 3hiliry
to
use
feedback to improve learning, and poor social rcbriomhips" (p. 283). With this type of armosphere, one cannot expect
to
build a trusting class environ-
ment, and it may lead to students taking "academic shortcuts" (McKeachie, 2002,
p.
122).
"Academic integrity involves creating an ethos or culture of trust, re"pon'lihiliry, and honesty" (Herteis,
2003,
p.
I).
Thus) the first step to
discourage c-hectting is to avoid norm-referenced grading and use criterionreferenced grading for all tests, 'Juines, papers, projects, and so on in OUr courses. A criterion grading system works well with learner-centered teaching where "evaluation is used to generate grades and promote learning" (Weimer,
2002,
p. II9). Everyone in the class has a chance to earn an A.
[06
TEACHING L'NPREPARED STUDE:"JTS
TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC lKTEGRITY
107
How grades afC earned to make up the final grade should be clear and
diverse learning styles and strengths of our <:;tuck-nr<;. It will also reduce cheat-
calculale, so they can keep track of their progress
ing and test anxiety. As Stephens (2004) notes, if we want to increase aca-
easy for students
to
throughout the semester. Thus~ I recommend that the overall grading systems list point values along with percentages for the final. grade (or grand total), as well as for the differen ~ projects, papers, or
demic integrity then "learning should be integrally connected with each assessment so that students understanD ho\y it mC':1ningflllly represents \vh:n
they should be learning" (p. 3). To help students understand the connC'('tion of every a.<;<;if,nmr.nt to the
make up the final grade. In the example in Figure 8.1, the point value fot each category of graded ;1ssignm'''nrs is listed along with each assignment's percentage value for the total grade. Students can add up the points they earn as the semester progresses, and they can check suhtflfJh agJinst the fin:"!! grade breakrlown, which is also listed with the percentage and point spread. Unless you and your students arc well versed in math, giving only proportions~ ratios, or weighted values will leave many students confused on exactly how rheir final gtade will be determined.
especially helpful for at-risk and unprepared students because "rubrics divide
Rubrics for Promoting Integrity
of what constitutes acceptable or un
learning outcomes (or learning objectives) of the course, a description of each outcome should be included in the sylbhm (or in a <;llrrkmcnnJ han<1out) along with explicit directions and a rubric for the
to
smdenrs the criteria against which their work will be judged.
[and] makes public key criteria that srll<1cnrS em me'" in deve\"ring, revi,sing, and judging their own work" (Huba & Freed, 2000, p. 155). Rubrics are
an
As previomly mentioned in this book, having a variety of ways students can demonstrate what they are learning and having each activity directly related to the course's learning Outcomes will promote learning and suppOrt the
of those parts" (Stevens & Levi., 2005, p. 3). Rubrics also help prevent cheating (especially plagiarism and fabrication) from any student in your class. A "\vell-rlc<;ign('(j rubric which should be given to students before they begin the :ls<;ignmcnt (e.g., research paper, project, portfolio, oral rrcsent;!rinn), can providE' direcrion and ;1<;si<;rance in
FIGURE 8.1 Sample Grading Sy~:tem for the Entire Semester _______Wi_I_th_P_e_Ic_·e_ntage and Point Values Component9 of the Semc"ter Grane: 1) In-Class Activiries (\yrirtC'n
n"~r(lmcs,
Percentage (}lJi7ZC.".
preparing and C"f1rnplcting the assignment_ With this kind of suppOrt, students are less likely Point Value
etc.) ... 25% ................. 100
2) Research Paper.. . .......................... 20% ................... 80 3) V;rritten Reflections of Reading:; (8) ······· ................... 20% .................. 80 4) Portfolio .... . .. ........................... 5% ................... 20 5) Midterm .. . .. ..................... 12.5% ................... 50 TOTAL .................................................................. 100% ................400
suddenly come up with a product that is plagiarized srw1('nt<;
will resort to
ordering an online term paper the day before it is due, especially if the assignment is very general and "\virhnm <;uhr0rics direcrly rehtecl to a specific course.
Individual Feedback Rubrics can save grading time for professors, but they also can be used to convey effective ff'cclhack and promote student learning (Stevens & Levi,
Points and Grading Scale for Final Grade
100%: (Criterion Grading)
to
or fabricated. Without this kind of support, some
2005).1
90~!OO% A
360-400
80-89% B
320-359
70 .. 79% C 60~69% D
280-319 240-279
Using a rubric
, For step-by-step
to
give students specific indiyidtl:ll feedh(!ck is
+'1C'11"']';
Rubrin by Stevens and Levi (2005) and; " ........ ,r.,,, ...•. ./
Freed (2000).
Io8
TEACHING UKPREPARED STUDEl','TS
TECHNIQUES FOR PRO)"fOTING ACADEMIC I:\TEGR!TY
[09
extremely \';Jlu(lhlc for at-risk srudents, c<::reci::dly when used for first or sec-
The Plagiarism Court: You Be the Judge (Islam, 2007) is an excellent
ond dra.f1:s of a project or paper. For example, hand Ollt a rubric before
tutorial that has lessons about plagiarism, consequences of plagiarism, other
students wTite and turn in their first drafts_ Then, when students turn in
information on .-l0cumcnrarinn: nore-taking tips for avoitiing cnrring errors,
their first draft, use the rubric to give students detailed feedback on how
f:1nphr:1<:;ing poinr<;,
they can improve their paper fOf the final draft. I require ,<;mrie'nr<; to turn in
video about plagiarism and inrlrrrorri;:ne col1:1h0r1rinn c~lled The Dr. Dhi!
the first draft and the rubric that was scored with the revised final version.
Show, directed by Jared !\1CZ7IlCchi, which is hmnnron<; and informative.
Students are told that revisions will not be graded Vi'ithout these items. If
Students can complete this tutorial on [heir o"vn, or it can be adapted to be
improvements arc not made, the first draft score remains the same. For at-
used as a class activity.
risk .~ttlde-nts, this process rescues them from a poor grade, which many would otherwise receive without the revision process. For an llndeTgf:1dU:1t~
Stanford University also provides an excellent tutorial module, Plagiarism? It's Your Call (2008). Original passages are posted along with c-xampk·<;
course, I allow at least one more revision after the final paper is due. Thus,
of how the passages are r:lr:1rhf:1<;ed ;mti cited_ Stuacnrs are asked to decide
students have the option of using the feedback on the rubric to correct andl
'ivhcthf'f the p:1f1phr:l<;ed 5:1mr1,,:s are correct. \X/hen using this Web page, I
or revise their paper one more time. (Again, revised papers will not be
have students discuss their answers in srnall groups. Then together we look
accepted wirhour the first and second paper and scored rubtics.)
at the feedback on the Web page. This site also includes a definition and
The process of giving incliyidl!8:1 fccd,",Jck :mcl rhen all1w.>ing <;:rudcnt<; make irnrroye-mem<;: ''>;ill pr(1'1'iclc the opportunity for ongoing
to
ass('~~ment
examples of plagiarism, the university's honor code, tips for aV0irling plagiarism, citation rules, and so on.
directly connected to the courses' learning outcomes. This process promotes academic integrity and learning.
faci!ilate~. STudents' under<;f;1nding of what they are
Universal Design for Instruction In addition to proYirling srudenrs with activities for learning about plagia-
Plagiarism Tutorials In addition
to
using rubrics to reduce chances of plagiarism, I recommencl
~o additional class activities. First, take some class time to discuss plagiarIsm. Go over plagiarism definirions, why it is irnportmt to know what
pl~iarism
is, and how to avoid plagiarism. Some students wiII plagiarize by
rism, we need to provide unprepared college students ''lith additional resources. We can help prevent students from taking academic shortcuts by giving them resources on how
to
help themselves. For ideas on how to do
this effectively, consider some of the specific principles develnped by Scott, NIcGuire, and Embry (2002,) for implementing the Universal Design Instruction (VOl) mode!:
aCCldent, carelessnf'ss, or not under<;:f::lnding the rules of proper citation or
[UDI) is an approach to (eaching rh;n COf!<;!<;t<; of the rr08crivr. nc<;ign :md
acceptable paf:1phr:l<;ing. By going over these things in class, we can let students knov;, that such excuses afe not acceptable.
usc ofindusive imtrucri0n:ll
A second class activity for reducing chances of plagiarism is to have student<; complete plagiarism mrnri8k M8:ny college libraries have de'.Tlnred a resource Web page specifically 8.bout plagiarism.2. Some of them also have tutorials that let students pr8cticc recognizing and
~rr:lt{'gi("~
th:lt hf'n{'nT a hr08r1 f:lngc of1carners
including <;tuclC'nrs with rliqh;Jirie<; .... VOl operates on the premise that the pbn'ling :mrl de1jyery of in~trllCri{)n as well as the C\-J.lu;1ri0!1 of k8fning can incorporate indl1<:iyc :1rrrihm('<; rh:lr emhr1ce divet~ir;T in learners \virhll11r c('mrr0mi<;inG aCl(~("m1c ~t:1!1(bf(k (p. I)
UDl can be very beneficial in h1.lilding <::t1lclent rapport, providing fair access to all material for all students, pr(widing re')Ol1fces for ;HHirinn;Jl hC"lr, and <;hnwing students that we care about their progress. UDI principles
IIO
TEiKHf]'.;G UNPREPARED STUDF.~TS
provide a frarne\vork for inclusive and effective college instruction 50 that students with learning or other disabilities and unprepared students have a greater chaI1Cc of success.
?nc. of the ~rinciples, referred to as f'quitflh/r 1W" "uggests that faculty provide l.nstr~ctlOns that are "designed to be useful fO and accessible by ~eople WIth dl"\'CfSC :1hilitics" (Scott, Shaw, & McGuire, in press, p. 2). To 1mplement this principle, Scott et a1. suggest that professors lise "web-based courseware products with links
to
on-line supports and resources so all Stu-
~ents can access ma~erials as ne.::ded regardless of varying academic preparatlO~, or Ileed for revIew of content" (p. 2). Earlier in this book, I recommend havIng review sessions during o:nce hours or inviting students who perform poo.rI:, to come to your office for extra help. Using online supports and addrnon:d reSOUfCf'.-S can also help nnpreparcd <;tll(-lcnrs fill in the g1p".
Another principle ofUDr i<,; tolrmnrrfr77' cn'{i1', which is defined as havino instruction that "anticipates ·variation in innivi<'iu:1J student learning pac: .and prercqui,ite skill," (Scott e;". al . , in press , P" 3) An exa..'11p Ie 0 f how to
~:nplernent
this principle is to struCture long-term course projects so that
student" have the option of turning in individu;,d rrnjcct component<: "epa-
rately for
~onstr~ctive feedback and for integration into the final product"
TECHNIQUES FOR PRO:vlOTING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
III
relevant, useful, and fair" (p. I). HO\vevcr) if the academic work is too chaJlenging and beyond what a person can do, then the <:mnf'nt might miss the point of its relevancy and usefulness. Often reading assignments are too difficult for at-risk and unprepared students to comrrt'hencl. Bean (200r) notes that an "in:1ckq!lJrc YOCJhtlbry hampns the reading com pre-hension of many student <';" (p. I36) and he recommends that professors assist them with unf':1mili;-tr vocabulary, especially technical terms or words used in unusual ways, to help students become better readers (p. 148). Students with poor vocabularies are often frustrated in reading and ("omprclwnding college tcxrho(1k" bec1l!<;c ". . the meaning of every tenth word is unknown" (Gabriel, 1999b, p. 3). Students with Jearning disabilities who have access to books on tape or \ompufn pr(1gr:1m<:: that "read" the material to them will still have poor c0mprchcn<:jon if their word knm-yJcclgc is in:1dcquarc. Vocabulary deficiencies can also impede a student's ability to take in information in a class setting. \X'hile many college professors are d0QllCnt in their use of academically <:nphi<:tic:1tf'd terminology, many unprepared students listen to their lectures -with an ;nJdcquJtc and limited vocabulary. More than one at-risk freshman has told mc, "I can't even understand what
(p" 3)" Th,s parncular example can be enhanced with the use of rubrics"
the professor is saying. He uses words I have never heard of."
Stephens (2004) re-commends that we provide formative feedback for aU
If students cannot understand the readings or lectnre's, they may feel a sense of desperation and lack of hope as eX:1m<: arrro
asses~~enrs that we use in Our class as a part of good teaching. Furthermore, by glVI.ng Students feedback on the ('omponrnts of a long-term project, we can. gUIde them as they progress. Students will also become invested in their project, alld when that happens, the likelihood of them cheating is verY smalL ~
listening comprchcnc;ion by cxr:mding their voclhubry level. To address voc
A Vocabulary Strategy for Improving Comprehension In McCabe and Pavela's (2003) Ten Prinrip!r,~ of Amtif'mir [nteflTity 0
"f( 6 ) ne to OSter a love of learning" (p. I). This principle means that ~cademlc integrity is reinforced by high academic ;;;tanc1
.. I'
~nnC1p~e.
IS
vocabulaty" For over 20 years, 1 have taught at-risk students a Yo,ahulary strategy that has proven to be effective. This strategy (complete \vith lessons and practice tests) is described in the teacher's m
Il2
T~ACHr~G G)'..'PREPARED STGDE:-.JTS
TECH-:-TIQt:ES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
sessions, or in class. The five steps are described in greater detail in Appendix D. Briefly, students begin by writing the new word or phrase on the front of a 3-x-5- inch card. All other information goes on the reverse side of me card:
113
FIGURE 8,2 Vocabulary Card Samples
o
o
(a) the chapter and page number where the word appears in rhe text, (b) its part of speech, (c) the word's pronunciation guide, (d) the definition, and (e) an illustration. The illustration is the most important step of this strategy. Students are told to think of an image that connects or links the definition to the word for them, and then draw a picture representing that image on the back of the card. I remind students to think about what they alteady
know (their prior experience or knmvlcdge)
~md
C0nncc(
the new informa-
I ks
tion with it. (Some texts have helpful illl1stnrion<;.) Cutting and pasting pictures from another Source does not have the same kind of impact. The dLl'ving must be personal and hand drawn by the student, regardless of drawing skills.
was one of the most helpful and useful methods they used thr0ughollt college (Gabriel, 2005, p. 1lI).
·iiJJ
I 10 ,0 fi"",,,cJ~"':X~5 O"tlCIo
Figure 8.2 il1ustrates two vocabulary cards made by t\vo at-risk students. Making the cards takes time, bur the process can have a tremendous impact on imptm·ing the students' vo(:;:!hulary skills and gives them an effective method for learning and remC'mhcring words they encnuntf'T rhwughnlH their college careers. Former at-risk students often teU me that this strategy
.;,>r
o
These e":1mrle~ ,hr"'-W horh ~irle~ of the 3-x-5-inch card that stud~nts made: Their with the new yo(';)ht!:1r;" wnn1. The students' reAect their own pnor experience, which also reNlmli7f's ,he
There are other learning strategies for reading, writing, note taking, and preparing for tests that most professors do not have time. to te~ch students. I like sharing the voc<1bu\ary strategy since it takes very lutle time to teach;
\X'hen teaching this strategy, you should remind students that even though they will pmf.ah1r not be asked to define vocahularywords on course exams, making the cards will improye their rf'ading of cdlcgc texts ;-md their
students have immcdiJ[c succesS using it; and learning this strategy helps
listening cnmrrf'hcn<;inn of lectures. Once the cards are made, students can self-test using the cards. As students master the words) the cards can easily
many realize that if this one thing helps them with their reading, there are :lddition;11 methods for impro'\Ying other academic skills they can also
be separated into two stacks: one for words mastered and a second stack for words not yet learned.
acquire. I then refer studenrs to the campus tutoring centers, writing centers, online resources, and so on.
This strategy incorporates Se\\~Tal types oflearning styles and uses principles from the science of learning. Students re-represent the information in an alr-ernarive format (visual and pictorial) a."; they make the cards, they connect new information to their prior knowledge, and they practice retrieval using their cards. All of these actions promote long-term retention and transfer of the new' information (see chapter 5 for further discn<;<;ion),
B teaching the vocabulary strategy with
to
at-risk students who need help
~leir reading ("omprch('n~inn, we can demonstrate to students that
we care about their learning. "Students cheat more when they see t~e teacher as less fair and caring and when their motivation in the course IS more focused on grades and less on learning and 11Onu<::t:mc-iing" (Stephens, 2004, p. 2).
TECHNIQUES FOR PR01'vjOTING ACADEl\1TC INTEGRITY j
.t.ACH!?'lG \JNf'REPARFD
!I5
STL'DE~TS
As the at-risk students learn how to learn, they will experience growth in their vocabulary skills, reading cnmrrehcn<:;jon "kilh, writing skills, notetaldng skills, and test preparation skills. As students "master cognitive skills, they develop a growing sense of their intellectual efficacy" (Bandura, 1994, p. II). As caring teachers, the a~sisnnce we give
to
e;tudenrs can provide a
framewDrk for cultivating a strong sense of cogniri,'c self-efficacy. By teach-
ing (or advising) stUdents h0\Y to prepare for tests, incidents of cheating will be reduced.
We can also go over our university rrocTr1nreS 1.ncl nne rroces<; step" for anvone accused of cheating. Students should know that the procedures are in -place to protect students from false or unfair accusation,~~ M~Ca.be and. Pavela (20 0 3) suggest that we remind our students that InstltutlonS of higher education are dedicated to the pursuit of truth. Fac.ulry mf'mher<; need to affirm that the pursuit of truth is grounded in certain core values, including diligence, civility, and honesty" (p. I). .. A second step in preventing cheating is to reduce 0rr ornm lt!es for Students to engage in academic ..-ii<;honesry by cst-:Jhli<;hing ground rules for taking tests. Inform <;tTldC'nt<; what they can bring to class (crlkllb:tor, pen, or pencil) and what they cannot bring to class (hackpack, eatrh0nes,. o~ cell phone). Consider implementing the -F-d10\-ying <:;uggestion<; ,yhell ~H~rn1n!<;fer-
Prevenition Te("hniqnes for Tests When "Jdmini<:;tering tests, there are several steps that we must take to reduce the chances of academic cli<;ho'lC'~ry :mcl
to
create an atmosphere of fairness
to all. 'ill/hen students think that other students are getting away with cheating or that a teacher will not lake measures not cheat, many will feel that they have
to
to
ingt.xams: Know vour students' names and faces; if that is not po,,<;jh1c (i.e.,
1.
large d~ss) require <;rude-mc;
make sure that students do
cheat to level the playing field
(McCabe & Trevino, t996). By implementing the following three steps, which are included in McCabe and Pavela's (200j) Princit!rc ofAcademic Integrif)', we can cnmmnnic51tc to all our students that Vire will not tolerate academic dishonesty:
2.
to
<;hrm/ their idenrification cards (Davis,
t993, p. j07; Wankat, 2002, p. 12 9). Do not allow students to wear h:1<;c~;111
h;1t':;
or hate; th:n hide wander-
ing eyes. . 3. Have students spread out; if the ci8,
<;ihlc, use random seat assignments so that friends cannot sit together (Davis,
1.
Affirm the importance of academic integrity;
2.
Reduce opportunities
to
engage in academic oishonC'<:;tT;
j. Develop lair and relevan t tests (and/or forms of assessment). (p. t) To implement the first step, profC's<:;0rs must affirm, with our students, the importance of academic ill1:egrity and honesty. To do this, we should have a statement on our syllabi along with a reference to the college's academic integrity policy (or at least list the Web site where the policy can be found). In adrlirion, we need to talk to our students about academic integrity and what it means. Wt; need to give examples of what we consider to be cheating and what types of collahontinn will be "!lowed (or nor allowed) on different assignments. It is also helpful to study
f.Jf
exams and
to
to
give students suggestions on how
post information on tutoring on campus.
19% p. 307; McKeachie, 1994, p. 99)· . 4. Have at least twO versions of the exam for larger classes (DaVIS, 1993, p. 306; McKeachie, 2002, p. 99)· 5. Be present on test day (Davis, 1993, p. 306; Wankar, 2002, p. [29)· . 6. Warn students ahead of time if you will not permit hath room pnVlleges so they can be prepared. 7. E~sure that chs<;room management is in place so that the room is quiet (McKeachie, 1994, p. 84)· 8. Explain or remind students of alI the tf'.5ting procedures and rules (Wankat, 2002, p. 86).
By implementing the above testing procedl1res. the opportunities to engage in academic dishonesry are dnmaric:1l1r rcanced.
j
l:./\CHI:\'G
T'~!f>RCrAr;.LD
STUDENTS TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING ACADEMIC
A third step we can take
to
prevent cheating is
to
develop fair and
relevant teSts. In classes where exams are part of the grade, we should write new tests every semester. Wankat
(2002)
suggests that we keep an "idea" file
for test questions (p. 84) and after writing a test, solve it (even the essay questions) before nn;:)li7ing it. "By solving the test first, you will find questions that are ;lmhigll o \l<;, cannnr be solved, are too long or too hard, or are trivial" (p. 84). W-ankar also reminds us to time ourselves when we take the test:
l~TEGRITY
''7
That was many years ago, but even in this day and age, most freshme,n are not aware of or do not clearly undc:rst:md their university's academlC <:.f;-md:lfCh. Policies regarding academic probation and rlismi"~rtJ are i.n. t~e co.llege catalog but may not be mentioneD at college orientatl~~s or 111ltlal . . sc.'i,'i!ol1<:; . Frat l'npr"-o p;1red <:mrI('nts \vho tr:H1mof1;llly have :ld Yl<;mg 0 - risk and_~. not had much success making it
to
gr;lciuarion, they should have a clear to do if they are placed on aca-
l1ndnst3noing: of these policies and what demic probation, or dismis<;ed.
The time it takes you
will take srudems
to
solve' the rcst can be used to estimate the time it
solve the' test. As a rule of thumb, try flllllrir!ring your <;o!miof! time by five fo, first year students, four for juniors, and to
three for graduate students. Adjust these factors until you obtain good predinion'. (p. 84)
Every academic year, despite our efforts to assist at-risk smdcms, someone
\'\--ill earn an F and come
to
our office in tears and with a sad Story that the F
in our class means that tbe student will be aCJdcmicalJ}" dismi,,;<:ed from the cotlege. Just as we want students
to
nndcf<;tJnd h,}'w they are grJnf'rl Jn~ eV:1I11-
ated in our course, it is important for them to 11ndl"'[<;(;1.n0 the academIC stan-
dards of the nnh-cr<;ity. Before rC'Tnnrling to the "mde-nt) we can refer them to help us dc\"(+~r f:1ir tests for Ollr <;Tl1(h'nt<:. "Professors who develop good rapport with students and give tests that the students think are fair will haVE only a small amount of cheating in their classes" (Il7ankat, 2002, p. 87).
their academic adviser, who will help them undef<;t<1nd the college's proh(lrion and academic c1i,<;missal rules, or if we have the information, we can explain to the student that no one is dismissed in one 5cmcvcr by one grade. We should also redirect the student's ?!ttcnrinn to the course syllabus, the resources that have been pfm-idf'd, and the resources that we listed. By having a fair and dear gtading ?ysrern, no student should be surprised by his or her final grade at the
Know University Standards
end of the s('mester, or the comcqllC'nces of recr!\'mg <;nch a gr1de-. Aftet high school gf:1du:lrion, I was able to start college but only as a speciaIadmit fre."hman. I received a notice to see the dean in the administration
huilrling.
r do
not remember the man's exact title, but I do remember his
Conclusion
cumulative grade
To guard against academic di"honrsry, learner-centered tcaching is our best
point average by the end of the year, you will not be ;1Il0',vcd to conrinnc at
defense. "Students cnno;;j"fcntlr ifldicate rh:1t 'ivhc-n they feel rJfr of a c:1mpns
warning: "If you do not pass yOUl" classes with at least a
2.0
the coUege." He also told me to take only 12 unit hours each semester for the first year, and keep all extrac~rricular activiries to a minimum. Special-
community, when they believe faculty are committed
to
their. courses, an.d
join a sorority or fraternity or participate
when they are aVii"are of the policies of their institution concerning academtc integrity, they are less likely to cheat" (McCabe & Trevino, 1996, p. 34).\'70
in student government. His speech scared me but also heightened my aware-
can prnmore honesty and integrity with our smctf'nts by usmg a cntenon-
ness of the importance of grades at the college level. Even though I do not
referenced grnding system, providing a ynriety of ways for q~!f~enr~.to demonstrate what they are learning, using rubrics to provide inci!'i'Ir1U:-d17C'.c1 COf-
admit students were not allowed
1.0
think I knew exactly what a "cumulative" GPA \vas, or the exact policies concerning academic probation and dismissal, I knew that I needed to be serious,
rective and positive feedback, Jrrlying principles based on UnIversal Instruction Design, introducing learning Srf;)fcgif's to those who are unprepared, and irnrkmcnring prevention techniquC'"s.
EPILOGUE
FINAL THOUGHTS Promoting a Richer Campus Environment
i always fPrrprnher an epitaph, which is in the cemetery at Tcrnhstnne, Arizona. !t says: "Here lies Jack V/,l!':lrns. He done his ri""lrrnr;riRst," I
think that is the greatest epitaph a man can have-when he gives
everyt~jng ~~(1t
is in hi'Yl to
do the job he has beiore him. That ;s all you can ask of him and that is what I have tried to do --Harry S Truman
T
hroughollt this book,
r have atrC'mptea
to convey the idea that as
educators, it is imperative that we involve at-risk and unprepared
students in the ('dncnion81 process jnd f'ngoge thf'm in mC'8ningful
educational activities to enable them to mctximi7e their abilities. In addition to increased engagement in classes, pro\'iding: these students with various types of support and follow-up, high expectetions, and corrective feedback will help them to make major improycmrnt<; that "yill <1I1O\v them to <;tlcceed in college.
As professors we are nOt alone in our efforts to support at-risk and unprepared students. Support for our students is also available from academic advisers, librarians, and retention <;pC'riali<:t<:. In :1dditinn, c01lnselors and tutors are available at Speci:1JJ7C'0 <;llrrort centers on
campus~tulOring
centers, math and writing labs, multicultural centers, student-athlete academic centers, and the disabled student services center. We need
to
create
two··way streets and communicate 'iyith the centers we wish our students to
I20
EPILOGUE
use. In so doing, these centers' effectiveness will also improve. C()mlT1unic~ tion, ncr-working, and tearrtv."0rk across college clmpn<;f'S will only benefiT the students and the faculty, Many colleges and universities also have reaching centers, often called the Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence or something similar. The staff at these teaching cemers can provide further help implementing the teaching methods presented in this book along with ac1dir-if)n~d Jearnercentered teaching Tf'chniqnes :lnct supporting materials. Most teaching centers also have Web sites, workshnp.<;, and other types of services for their teaching faculty and graduate assist;:Jnfs. I urge readers to seek out their ;:Jssj,<;rJ nee and suppnrt. Many rroF{'s"()r~ ~nd ~l1rr'()rt rcr~()fl'lcI have told me that while they afC willing to reach Out to at-risk and llnprcrared ,wacnrs, these students rarely seek help from liiem. However, by using many of the methods descrircd in this book, I have found that at-risk and unprepared students wilt respond in a positive way and \vill use the help that is offered and benefit from it. Astin (1999) points out that " un derprcp:1fcd students have historically been the ones mos!: likely to drop out at any level of education" (p. 13). Bur, as professors, we can make a difference in helping at-risk and unprepared students stay in college; become successful; graduate; and, at the same time, become prepared for lifelong learning.
APPENDIX A
CHECKLIST FOR POSSIBLE COURSE SYLLABI ITEMS A well-designed s)'lbhm benefits both teacher and ,mdcnrs by explicitly describino the criteria for sUCCess in the class. Items that are appropnare to include i~ a syllabus are listed below; however, not all irems will apply to every class. This checklist can be used as a guide as you write a syllabus a particular class.
Finally, on a personal note, I have worked with numerous pr0F(,<;:'lOr:: who expanded their pedagogy to include learner-centered teaching tech-
niques. These faculty members have told me that in using these techniques, they also developed a new and revived exuberance for teaching. At the end of the day, effective teachers need to have a genuine emhu<.:j;)srn for teaching and a sincere interest in all of oJ.r students' learning. The techniqllCS ;:Jnr! strategies set forth in this book can assist all of us in advancing our passion for teaching and learning.
I2I
fOf
[22
APPENDIX A
APPENDiX A
I23
ITEM A,)'iignment.~,
A'1'icssme-nt, and Evaluation
Kinds of papers or projects _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Due dates, ~uhmjs,i(ln pr('>,~cluf{""S
Kinds of exams, dates
1------------------
A'1wrir:an
r-~~~~---------- Rewrite and makeup policies
I-----~----------
Policy on Lne :l~~ignmi'"rH~
_Testing procedures or policies Code of academic integrity Statement
1------"-'---------Student Support Senices
Learning rt~Ol!rc:<:s center (or <:Hrr01"r) ('oun~f'"Jing/c()nq!lr:lri0n
_D('"r;urmt"m or college r('~onrccsf\\rf"[-. r:lge Instructional Approach/Fmphrr:<>l'1
_ _ _ __ ~
_ _ _ _ _ _ __
APPENDIX B
PERFORMANCE PROGNOSIS INVENTORY FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY By Dr. Saundra Y. McGuire DirectOr, Center for Academic Success Adj. Professor Department ofChemisrry B-)l Coares Hall Loui<;ian:1 State University
From "Starting the Semester on the Right Foot: 40 Concreto Id Tk Into To morrow, "b y 1NT. Bel1o"\vs, 2003· Teaci?incrand ' easLC1rn17w to a e 'T rhe (Classroom ) 1
vews, 13,I ,
p. 6.
.::>
'6
flote. Original version of this checklist came from !vi Z' M"" CC 1\1 d'fi d aureen 1mmerman .La"sa B '"h 0 t e by_and "roared - by S lisan LedJ ow, George Watson,' ur~ us, and VeronIca Patoja from Arizona State University Further
~oddlfibed by Randi Lydum and Kathleen Gabriel from University of Arizona se
y permrSSIOn.
Baton Rouge, LA 7 080 3 The inventory below lists behaviors that you should exhihit in order to excel in analytical chemistry. Write true or false beside each of the fnl1r}"\\-ing Rt:'lt~ mentS describing the way you will study in this class. The scoring scale is on the reverse side. L
.
2.
I will always read the lecture material before I go to lecture. I will go over my lecture notes as soon as p(\<;dhlc after lecture
to
rework them and mark problem areas. 3. I will learn the relevant concepts from General Chemistry so that I have the background necessary to understand the mar~ria1 in An:llytical Chemistry. 4. I will try to work the homewotk r,ohkrn<; without looking at the example prohkm<:; or my notes from class. 5. I will go to office hours or tutoring regularly to discuss problems on the homework. 6. I will rework all of the homework
Froh'~m<;
beFme the- rest or quiz.
7. I will spend some time studying :1nalyric
per week (outside of class time). 8. I will "teach" the concepts ro friends, myself in the mirror, stuffed animals, imaginary· <;tw:1cnrs, etc. I25
I26
APPENDIX B
9· I will make flashcards and use mnemonics for myself to help me remember facts and equations. 10.
I vvill make diJgram, or drJ"lv mrnr:l:I pictures of the concepts, experimental procedures and instruments disc-o<;sed in class.
II.
I will actively participate in my study group where we will discuss h(lmt\..."ork prnhlems :md quiz ol1l"<;ch-cs on the material.
12.
I wilJ rework all of the quiz and test items I have missed before the next class session.
13· I know that I can make an A in this class, and will put forth the efT-"orr to do so. (scoring on the reverse side)
6-9
less than
Predicted Grade A
B C
4-5 2-3
D 2
"ample Groupings for a Class of33 Students
~MBER .. 1
.....
··-----r TIME
.... \ COLOR..
)
---
F
Note that you can change your Dredicted grade at any point by changing your behavior such that more of the statements are true.
BLUE GREEN
[4" ---.
~
ORANGE
10 A.Ivl
YELLOW
lOA.M
BLACK
l2~
BROWN
12 NOON
3
RED
l2NOON
7
VlOLE1· _ _ .... 12 NOON
I8 ..2..
BLACK
3PM
..
PINK
,--....-
BROWN
--'.-
--
2
:-;:;REE'N
3
PINK
4
YELLOW
'--'--I
3
~ ~ 1
..2. ~
..2. ..2.. .2.
RED
~ ~ YE~LOW
~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ RE'p
--
.
...
~PM
~
. 9
STUDENTS'NAMEI
10 A,,\1
~..•
'4
The predicted grade for your performance thiS semester is provided below:
10-1 3
PREPARING FOR THREE DIFFERENT GROUPINGS
tt=-
Reverse Side
Number of True Respon"es
APPENDIX C
.
__
.-
--'-
--- -
3PM
-----
'~-'-
4PM ---"'--'-
4PM
- -..- - - -
i4PM
-'--'-
4PM
---5AM
..
~-
....
----
5PM 5PM
5PM
~ ~ ..2..N~
.~ ~ ~ I27
..
-
i\PPE:-:DIX
c
SAl\.1PLE CARD
#1
RED
0) SAM
Grouping Strategy: Divide your class into three groups using nllmhf'r<;;, colors, and tiIne of day. To do this. first adjust the list above to fit the size of your class. If you want each group size to be 3 students, Of if you have more or fewer than 33 students, add or subtracr from the list. In the "table" menu, you can use the "sort" tool key to rearrange the chart by categories. (For example, you can sOrt the color column so that all the colors-that is, all reds. all pinks, all yellows, and so on-are togerher') Once you have adjusted the list fOf a specific class, make up a 3-x-5-inch card for each line on your adjusted list (see sample card on next page). Then, before class, shuffie the cards. As students come into class, have rhe students draw one of the cards or after they have taken a seat, go around the room and give each student a card. After the cards afe distributecL each student will write his Of her name on the card and give it back to you. From the random card drawing, you can create:1 m:1<;tcr list for ead1 grruping. Then v,rhen students form a group, you can tell them whether they are to get into their number group, color group, or time of day group. By having three group possiI--iliries, students will have the opportunity to meet and work with lots of other students in the class.
Name______
[29
APPENDIX D
VOCABULARY STRATEGY STEPS Instructions for Students The steps described below are from Gabriel's (I999a) Learn the Lingo: A Str,1tf'gyfor R1fiUing a Better Vnr{11111Imy, Student ROI}k/f't, Volun1r l Teacher's manuals (Vol.
I
and Vol.
2)
with
10
lessons and quizzes for each are available
from [email protected]. (Volume
able. Send requests
2
of the student booklet is also avail·
to [email protected].)
STEP! \'Vrite the vocabularywotd (Ot key word printed in bold from your tnthnok) in the center of a 3 x 5 card that has holes punched at the top. The punched holes should be the same width as binder rings so the card can easily be clipped into your binder (see Fig. t). You should write the word neatly and in a "normal" size print or cursive. (Large block print should not be used.)
FIGURE 1 The front of a Vocabulary Card should have only the yoca:hulary word written on it. No other information should appear on the front.
Vocabulary word written in normal, yet neat, hRndwriting
/,,0 Holes punched same width as binder clips
3 X 5 Card
o
\ Assuaged
I3l
132
APPENDrX D
APPE0:DIX D
Use vour nor-m a I h l-' L ~n< wnrln~ D:"Cause that '·11 . . h . ave and in . .:: ~ ~ ~ WI aSSIst m t e braIn-hand link'=' memory retentIon. l'Yf7ml'k· ~<;~I':1rr-cd (Ii h novel To Ki/l a ?t1orki17gh,:':,;-f). ' " t;> rom t e first page of the .I
x33
•
representing that image. Think abOUt your prior experience (or lmmvJe-dge) and connect the new information to what you already know. Figure OUt what image best fits for you. Some texts will have illustrations that will be
STEP 2 Flip the card ,~,.
over so
t
h
at the holes are now
On
helpfuL The picture should be drawn in the center of the card. At first, the clnnvings may be ;n:vk"\,\.7.:1rcl; however, it is extremely impor-
the bot
vocabulary word wr,'te th . d' tom. For a new h' h , e \vor S part of corner of the card (see Fig ) F d Ii speec In t e upper right.hand number and/or ..-.2. or a wor rom a texrhook, write the chapter page number where the key word or b ld . d d. o prInte wor IS.
STEP3
tant not to have just a visuaJ image connection, but also to be consistent
with this connection, and therefore the picture is needed. You don't have to be an artist·~a simple figure will do. Try working with fello\-v students (or
3
tutor) if you get stuck. Figure 3 gives some examples to illmrrate how pic-
tures from different students can he very different for the same virord because
If needed, write the wo d' . . . r s prnn mC!<1tlnn p"uidc in the upp' ! ft h d . 2). ner of the card. This step is optional (see cr e - an g
F7
their personal experience and prior kmn. .derige are difffTf'nt. COf-
STEP 4
Self- Test Using Your Vocabu[ary Lards After you have made your own vocabulary cnrcl<;, there are different ways to
Write the word's definition on the bottom of th . part empty. Look up unkno -"d d" e card, leavmg the middle wn \1'01 s an break down th ' fi .. . It makes sense. If you are usi . . ~ e de nrtlnD until sar)'. Instead read through th;!a~.~ge:~pb~o~ aV~ld USiDdg. the textbook's glosat t 1e Wor IS embedded in.
STEP5 This is the m . ost ImpOrtant step in making the card. Think ". " rhat connects Or links th d fi .. of an ,mage e e nmon to the word and then draw a "picture" .
to
lay our all the catds with the word on the front, face FIGURE 3
These are examples of different drawings for the same word. In the dra"ing at the top, the student has
o
o
o
o
FIGURE 2
t dI . th o~ ar~ )ottom of the card so that there is room In e lU1ddl e for your drawing.
TnfotmatlOn is ","Titten at the
Zswaj' ed
verb
Draw a picture that represents the word ?r is something that' ts associated with the
word.
o
self-test. One way is
to make milder or less severe' ,
to appease or satisfy
o
up. Then, pick our one card and sav tho deli . . . hi' back A: .' ~. mtlon WIt Out ookmg on the . her you say the answer to yourself: you need to I k h On the b k f h ' 00 at t e answer ac 0 t e card. If your answer is correct, pick up the card 1f' . _ . It IS wrong, the card stays on rh r~bl Th" e ~<1 e. IS process 15 repeated until all tl d ate pick d 0 all h 1e Car s ,e up. nee < t e cards are up, you should Jay the ca~ds 0 . and repeilt the self-test. . ~ ut agam •
-
REFERENCES
.I'
. .
When self-testing, if there is a word that ~ ~=~~~~= . pee ar the picture to see if ir triggers your memory. Since th d -£1 .. IS at the bottom of the card, only turn the card half r •e e Illtion seen If h ' d . . 0\ er, so lt cannot be . t e picture aes not help, then the picture needs to b Ii d changed An d" k e xe or . y car pee cd at" stays on the table until th . . . e prompt IS not d d 5 If nee e. e -testmg should take place 10 old fi: d r sev.... ra ays a er the cards are rna c, and before the actual test is to be given.
Acit'lTT':m, C. (2004). P"inri!,(7/ il1di(,fftr>1"C of tt1lr!rl1t :1wrf{'l-nit !>i,t(J'rif" iT! 1'1,·t ((M1r/'-7Y')' rrfwdtil'>n, I972-2000: U.S, D('rm-tl11f''V't of FdumtirlT!. \'vTn~hingrnn. DC: Institute C
of Education Sciences.
Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K P. (1993).
C!(!CO-()(J711 11"('''1111'111 t(,d'lIifj1f(C
(:'nd ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Asrln, A. (1999). Rnhinl,ing
ac;J~('mic
"excellence." Libera! FrfTlr:rtinn, 85(2),
8·~I9.
Baecker, D. (1998). Uncovering the rhetoric of the syllabus. Collrge TWf(hng, 16(2).
58- 62.
rOn<1,,",. A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. R,m3Chondnn (Ed.), F'7'Ttinprriia of h1fm(/I1
hr/!.17';fJr (VoL 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. Retrieved from
hap:!!"."0-'\"\' 1cs.emnry.C'cillfmfrrR'1'lt1l!t:1T991EHRpdf (15 pages).
Barr, R., & Tagg.]. (I995). From teaching to k::lrning~A new p1f1digm for nnrlergraduate education. Change, 27(6), 11.~16. Bean, ). (20m). E11g,1gjr:g iaM<: The /Wfl/('\wrs guidr to il1trgmting writing, critical
thrd:ing fl11f{ artit,!'
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INDEX
How
fmp/imtinm.fnr r11m1i7fg '717r1 tc1/i,y. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
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An;r\l(k~.
1, 2,
34,
51-52, 57, 6S,
97
academic 1,:vkm'cfuilwe-. academic ~r;1nd::lr(k 85, 10 9, :lr::l(lf'mic ~\lpport centers or 15,26
aC(0n"'r~hiliry, ::In<1 ~r\l(-knts
rr"ST1m~.
3, 4,
b.
C(""'1P!"cmg a
able, It, n., 20, 22, 33, . active learning, 34,53,74,75,7 8,121, r55, 139,
resistance to, 78. See aifo class
tional activities Adelman, c., 1, 2 . :):(!m;,~i0'1 to m!kgc: ~pf.cial admIt. 4, TO, 29, 15, n6 8 Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. p" 30, 97· 9 ,JOO. lOr
c\·:ll~nt;on. 33: 1°5; .:("~t~~~' ;~~), 85, :1~~r-~~m("pr. 6-7, 32 -}). 68-;0, n 7 . See 108 88-'{Q2, 107, no, u4; also accounr:1hiliry;
Bean,
.J-' In
. d1~~rn()n1 c\il1':>ff:,
.
r,rh;>\'lt'lf· :1i'oH-l:mrt>. 18. ,
5; cxpc-nation.<;, Yl' .11.5126. 12,35; pf011 irrn (or Jn1r, If, 50, 51. 8J-82, 94· 103, Sa c1:t,qoorn climate: ground rules Bellows, N., 124
6
]., Kember, D., & Leung, 0" '7
G.,) Baumer, T., . R Br;1mford, J., BrO\xn, A, & Cocking, ·,75-
76,82,89
anxiety:
caring, centers,
rr.ogr:m7~, '16, ·)4, 103-105,107, TI5; prc'Iencleaung. I tion of, T05, 107, Il4- JIb & Gamson. Z., 6, 4), 53, 68,
Astin, A., 4, 31, Il2 athletes, 16, 20, 62, 79 5. 39, 43. 4 , 6 :1rrnoThe-re, of the cl:1~q~()fn. 50, 110, II4· See also chill,He . licics attendance, 6; and grades, 53-56, .64. po . oC 27: rrnJTlnting :-mri inrre:1:~!ng'64I~44' 46, 5l-52: taking roll, 43, 53-55, 9 "ee also Class Participation ] Attention span, of students, lOt, See alSO Interactive Lecrures; Lectures
activities ch~q(1()IT' ;)~~,~,mtnr
100,101.
Cross, K P. dimate, of r]..,<:~~o",p", 25, 26-2/1, 69. See 11&0 1rrn"'Th ,,"P;
56,64'
,11yof
I43
l:;'DEX
("0Ij1rr:tfTH''1t· fmm <;wr!rn;~ 1n2 fa'~lllty, 13, I5-r7, 25, 30, 42, 45 cnrnrrf'hcn<;jnn, 8. 88, 96. 98, HO-H4 concept maps, 66, 69 connections: with nc,'.' material, 7, 67· 7T with the nf1;vrr<;in-. 20; 28, course syllabus, 26, 3~, 39. 50, 55· 76, !21
Hester, E., 95, 9 6 high See cxpenations
facilitate: faculty-srudent contact, 4,
Horn, & Berger. R., I HUDa, M. E., & Freed,]. E., 9, 31-)2, 7)-7 6 , 90 , fairness: access of material. 109; and tests, 2f, U4--I!7: rreatnlent, Ot, U3 fear of failure. See anxiety feedback, 7, 14, 17· 33, )7, 51, 59· 80.88-90. 92,96.98,101,105, I07-Ho, II9, SCI"
educational activities. See mf''l'li'1gtlJi U1110tiona.! activities emrowning qndcn's, 6,63,70-71. 83 encouragement: for f'10tiv··>r:,")fl, 18; for interaction, 50-5I, 84, 96; for class discussian. 50: learning, 53- 58, 6+. 66, 83, 99 engagement. of students, 5, 7-8, 14, 32. 34, 42. 46, 53-54, 56, 73-74, 76,73,81, 9192,94.97-98, WI. II4-TJ5. I!9, See ~dso class p.
Jor. 37. 38, )0, 81 expertise, of te;Khers. )"7,88; experienced teachers, 23, 97 extra: hours (or time), If-I8, 44, 52. 101; urricular, 18, 30, 39, !O3, H6; credit, 20-:~1, 30: suppon, 41. no
Felder. R., & 'lo/0I"f'()'l, E., 60-62
first day of dass, 25--26, 28·-29, ;)::--39, 45, 50, )2,78 first week of class, 5, u), also climate Fleming, N., 62, flexible assessment, 68, 69-70
instructors. integrity and demic integrity intellectual..-lf've1n r m f'm, 4· 50, 58, II4; com-
Felder. R, & Brent, R., 78 developmental ~f1l,-jic" (or cOllr~:,~J. 2,3 diagrams, 36, 61, 68, 93. 99. 126 discussions, in class, 50, 69. See ai50 class partici.pation d;",n!p'g"nu,r: in class. 42, from college, 33 6, 83-84, 109 due dates. 26, 38, !O7, 123
10 7
ice-breaking activity, 28, 4 6 -5 0 iclFnrifyirg 'ir-ri'ik ~rucl('rt'" 28-29
43.81. See
mitmen t , 45, interactions. see groups. interactive lectures !"f1f'thn0<:, ), 43, 53· 9 2 • 13 6 int:"r/('n~inw, e;:!rly. 5, 20. 3J. 89
IsLun, R.. W9
Fnrmriti1'(' ::l'~('''~rlf'rH. 80. 89-92., 95, 97, 99101, uo. See alm assessment;
J-- 4 ,53 Gabriel, K .. W-I12, !2+ goals: course, 5-6, 25, 29. 39: student (per .. sonal), 19, 30-31, 35. 37;
\h""'NC'i!.
j., 21, 22 [)., )6 D., & Trevino, L..
!I4-H 5
McCwcheon, TT)(,;))1;nr,fid 76. 78~79, 85, lOr.. T19 . memory, 44, 98~99, (32, q.3- See aLio matrIX:
S.,61-62 M,ra-,~ogO"'Vl \l,'mf''lt<:.
I12-H3
B .. &
no. 114, Il7
lQ"l,·~104
McC~be, D.L & Pavel a,
]aasma. M. A., & Koper, R. J., 51 jnllrn;>J~: :1qdf"mic 22-23; personal, 33
Kuh,G.,
1O}.
McCabe. D., Trevino, L & Butterfield, K,
Buckley. 1-,
.tvlichadscn, L, Knight. fL. &
LD.,
9-10 , 5°, 52,
80,83-85,9 0 G .. Kinzie,]., Cruce, T" Shoup. R., &
inventory 98,08;
Gonyea, R., 3· 3I , 73 Kuh, G~, Kinzie, J., Schuh, ]., %in, L. & Associates, 1-4,57,73-74,76-77. So, S6
II?: obsession ,vith, 7,
Halawah, L, 4 D., & Hake!, M., 67, 99 75. See "Iso rubrics Hassel, H. Loure~'. ]., 77
m(lps. See concept maps matrix, for resting memory, 9 8-99
Kicwra, K., & and Dubois, N., 98 8 kr~n'\\'ldg-('. prior. 7, 29, 31, 66-68, 75· gl- -3,
'
predicting. 36, 126; assessment ground rules, 38. 50, 64. 81, II), 122 groups, student: work. 69; study, 46, roo, I26; r28 Grunen,J., 26. 30, 3+.'$9
See also
Strategy for Rl'ilrlirg a I!I,I3I
learner-centered f'dllc:lrion. (kfiniri('n, So learner-centerec1 ff":vhing:: hf"ndlt~, 82, II?, 120; f"l\';;onmf''""r, 6, 25, 82. 85;
20. :H. 27,
missing dass or See also Attendance n11~~i()n. 1.':\, 25, 30~3T. 39 lYl"r\v:lrinn, 5, 18, )2.. 4), 51, 79, 90, '106 1\,1\\!lrp~.
8x.
A., rn1
IDS; ~y1J;>h\1<;) 5, 38 ;
lea:n~~:90urcomcs, 6-7, 30-33' 39, 76-77, 90, ra6-I08
iearning sryle ;nYf''lrroriF'i, 6, 59-60, 64 learning styles, 6. 19, 33-34· 57-58 61-7 0 , 8r. T07, H2
names, iC1rning
1t10
'1~ing <;rlldf'nr~'. 43-4 6, !I5
TNPEX
note~mking (dass notes), 26-27,37, 62, 75, 94, 96, roI, 109, U3~ I14; read ng notes, 64, 97
34 ,
tesistance to !earner-centered So; pr{'par1ng for, 6, 78;
9r, See fl1so rr,(';'lf'ingful ("0,)(learning). See learning ou:comes hours, 4, r8-19, 31, 16, 3ft 4+ ;1, 83,
cational activities
tone of course. See dimarc tutoring centers/labs, 2-3, 15· 18-19, 34, 36 37, 4{, 64-65, 88, I02. Ul, II9, J25 Tyler,R.,78 TilliS, \'\'Y0IT'inG' II
too, nO-III, 121, I2S
Sanoff,
J.,
100, H2, t33-134> See aL
values, 9, 45· 84-85, 97, I15 Van Rlerkn'll, M., 53 varier),: of merhods, 6, acrivitiesltasks, 33, verbal and ':i~\1()~r1ti:l1
Ritzer, D., & Casey, M., 41--4 2 ,
visual cueS or aids, 65, 69, 91, 112
112
P., !O9 & Harris, M., 26, 38
SCOtt, S" Shaw, $ .. & McGuire, J,. HO self-efficacy, 79, !I4
51 ~'1!nm:1ri,'c assessrnent, 8,33,89,90,99, ro2, See aLIO a"("'~rnf>nr; f0:-1'116,", assessment
lOI-
<;vnrhr:h: ~o!rling high, 4,5,12. 70, 85, 109no; lowering, 2.3. }7, 90; university, 116-II7 Stanley, CA. & Porrtr, M.E., 33 sUldent-athletes. See athletes Stephens, ]., J07, no
98,100 problem-~oH'1g:, 69, roo procedures: c:ou"'rse, 26,36; tcst·taking, 3")' II)": class "K[iviry, 97; Tl5 professors, ir;A'l~nce on, 4, 14. 3]", 41. 51, 67 programs, for academic support, 3, 4, 15, 26
questions, in class 7
p" & Connor-Green. P., 38-39
See rnrnrit>g center,;lb"'~ M., 14, 62-03, 65, 66, 88 syllabus, 5-6, 20, 15~28, 32-35. 37-39, 45, 55,76-77, I07, 121-122 quiz, 39
raking roll, 43, 53-54, See also ::;"rtt"f!cl1n(C TaJenr is Never tardiness, 63, 81, 122 teaching ;j";~':'lDr~, 6, 56, I21 teaching goals, ), 30, 97
6,
8~9,68
76 tests, See exams
remedial courses, I,2, 4
textbooks, using and reading, 37, 65, Think-Fair-Share, 93
time and cO "l1Jlir"'f'nt, r6-I8, 30 ,
fIJ,
('f1mrr<'h"'n~i"T'
Wankat, P .. 2, 26, 34. 38. 43-44' 51, )3, 58, 63,69,74,101, llS·-rt6 Waslev, r.. 98 \'7ats~n, L, Terrell, 1\1 .. \'7right. D" & Asso-
toG
I, 2
9:;" Parkes,
vlsu;J,llcarners, 61-02 R, 36, IlJ-II4, f31-I33· Set
ciates. R)" ·Weimer, 0.1 .. I, IS, 18, 33, 58-59, 66, 74· 76,
rubrics, 7, 33, mo·-ro8, no, II7 rules. See dimate; ground mIes; policies; procedures Outcomes. See learning OU[C0'i1f:S oyerwhdrr'rd,22_23
[45
\I::tooden, J., 2-2 Write-Pair-Share, 93~95 slcills, 3, 15, 19, U2-T14; ;1,e;Gnmr'nt~ centers, 3, IS, 34, II}, 1I9; feed-
back Oil,
17
'v?yatt, G., 53
Zull,
J.,
7· 82-83