The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief JackM. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 1 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS An Imprint of The Gale Group NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT

Copyright © 2000 Charles Scribner's Sons All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons. Developed for Charles Scribner's Sons by Visual Education Corporation, Princeton, N.J. ForScribners PUBLISHER: Karen Day SENIOR EDITOR: Timothy J. DeWerff COVER DESIGN: Lisa Chovnick, Tracey Rowens For Visual Education Corporation EDITORIAL DIRECTOR: Darryl Kestler PROJECT DIRECTOR: Meera Vaidyanathan WRITERS: Jean Brainard, John Haley, Mac Austin, Charles Roebuck, Rebecca Stefoff EDITORS: Dale Anderson, Carol Ciaston, Linda Perrin, Caryn Radick ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Lauren Weber COPYEDITING MANAGER: Helen Castro COPY EDITOR: Marie Enders PHOTO RESEARCH: Sara Matthews PRODUCTION SUPERVISOR: Marcel Chouteau PRODUCTION ASSISTANT: Brian Suskin INTERIOR DESIGN: Maxson Crandall, Rob Ehlers ELECTRONIC PREPARATION: Cynthia C. Feldner, Christine Osborne, Fiona Torphy ELECTRONIC PRODUCTION: Rob Ehlers, Lisa Evans-Skopas, Laura Millan, Isabelle Ulsh

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Ancient Near East: an encyclopedia for students / Ronald Wallenfels, editor in chief; Jack M. Sasson, consulting editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-684-80597-9 (set: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-80589-8 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-684-80594-4 (vol. 2) — ISBN 0-684-80595-2 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-684-80596-0 (vol. 4) 1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Dictionaries, Juvenile. [1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Encyclopedias.] I. Wallenfels, Ronald. II. Sasson, Jack M. DS57.A6772000 939'.4—dc21

00-056335

TABLE OF CONTENTS MAPS sc CHARTS Volume 1 The Akkadian Empire, ca. 2200 B.C The Empire of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C Ancient Near Eastern Scripts Anatolia, ca. 1500-700 B.C Arabia and Its Neighbors, ca. 1000 B.C The Neo-Assyrian Empire, 744-612 B.C The Neo-Babylonian Empire Under Nabonidus, 555-539 B.C Central Asia, ca. 1000 B.C Time Line of Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations

19 24 29 37 50 88 103 153 167

Volume 2 Development of the Cuneiform Script Principal Road Connections of the Uruk Period, ca. 3500-3000 B.C Ancient Egypt Gems of the Ancient Near East Physical Map of the Ancient Near East, ca. 1500 B.C

20 48 58 115 119

The Hittite Empire, ca. 1300-1200 B.C Principal Symbols of Mesopotamian Deities

169 184-185

Volume 3 The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the mid-800s B.C Language Families of the Ancient Near East Price of Goods During the Old Babylonian Empire Mesopotamia Staff of the Temple at Nippur The Persian Empire Trading Empire of the Phoenicians, First Millennium B.C

14 48 73 94 159 172 185

Volume 4 Sites of Pyramids in Ancient Egypt Ancient Sumer, ca. 3500-2800 B.C Ancient Syria, ca. 2000-1200 B.C Development of Writing

21 101 110 170

COLOR PLATES Volume 1

Volume 3

Color plates for Religion

Color plates for Architecture and Tombs

Volume 2

Volume 4

Color plates for Daily Life

Color plates for Arts and Culture

VOLUME I Preface The Near East in Prehistoric Times A Time Line of the Ancient Near East

A Abu Simbel Abydos

Adad Aegean Sea Afterlife Agriculture Ahab Ahmose Ahriman

Ahura Mazda Akhenaten Akhetaten Akkad and the Akkadians Alalakh Alexander the Great Alphabets V

Table of Contents

Amarna Amorites Amulets and Charms Amun Anat Anatolia Animals Animals, Domestication of Animals in Art Anu Arabia and the Arabs Aramaeans Archaeology and Archaeologists Architecture Ark of the Covenant Armies Art, Artisans, and Artists Artaxerxes I, II, and III Aryans Ashur (city) Ashur (deity) Ashurbanipal Ashurnasirpal II Assyria and the Assyrians Astrology and Astrologers Astronomy and Astronomers

Aten Athaliah

B Baal Baal Cycle Babylon Babylonia and the Babylonians Bactria Bahrain Bas-Reliefs Behistun Inscription Bible, Hebrew Birds in Art Book of the Dead Books and Manuscripts Bricks Building Materials Burial Sites and Tombs Byblos

c

Camels Canaan Canals Capital Punishment Caravans Caria and the Carians Carthage gatal Huyuk Cats Cattle Caucasus Cavalry Central Asia Cereal Grains Chaldea and the Chaldeans Chariots Childbirth Children Chronicles Chronology Cities and City-States Index

Calendars Cambyses II

VOLUME 2 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East C (Continued)

Clay Tablets Cleopatra Climate Clothing Communication Cosmetics Creation Myths Crete Cults Cuneiform Cyprus Cyrus the Great

D Damascus Dance

vi

Darius I and Darius III Date Palms and Dates David Death and Burial Decipherment Demons Disasters, Natural Divorce Djoser Dreams Drought Dynasties

E Ea Earthquakes Ebla Economy and Trade Edicts

Education Egypt and the Egyptians El Elam and the Elamites Enlil Entertainment Environmental Change Epic Literature Eridu Esarhaddon Eshnunna Ethnic and Language Groups Eunuchs Euphrates River

F Faience Family and Social Life Famine

Table of Contents

Feasts and Festivals Fertile Crescent Fishing Flax Flood Legends Floods Food and Drink Fortifications Furnishings and Furniture

G Games Gardens Gates Gems Gender and Sex Geography Gilgamesh Giza Glass and Glassmaking

Goats Gods and Goddesses Government Greece and the Greeks Gudea

H Hair Hamitic Languages Hammurabi Hammurabi, Code of Hanging Gardens of Babylon Harbors Hathor Hatshepsut Health Hebrews and Israelites Hellenistic World Herodotus Hieroglyphics

History and Historiography Hittites Horses Horus Houses Human Form in Art Humor Hunting Hurrians Hyksos Hymns

I Iconography Incense Indo-European Languages Index

VOLUME 3 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East

I (Continued) Inscriptions Iran Irrigation Isaiah Ishtar Isis Israel and Judah Ivory

j

Jeremiah Jericho Jerusalem Jewelry Judaism and Jews

K Kalkhu Karkamish

Karnak Kassites Khatti Khattusha Khattushili I Khattushili III Khepat Khufu King Lists Kings Kish Knossos Kumarbi Kush and Meroe

L Labor and Laborers Lagash Land Use and Ownership Languages Lapis Lazuli Law Libraries and Archives Libyans

Lions Lisht Literature Love Lunar Theory Luwians Luxor Lycia and the Lycians Lydia and the Lydians

M Macedonia Magic Maps Marduk Mari Markets Marriage Mathematics Measurement Medes Medicine Mediterranean Sea, Trade on Megiddo

vii

Table of Contents Melukkha Memphis Merchants Mesopotamia Messengers Metals and Metalworking Migration and Deportation Mining Minoan Civilization Money Monotheism Mosaic Law Moses Mummies Music and Musical Instruments Mycenae and the Mycenaeans Mythology

Names, Personal Naram-Sin Naval Power Nebuchadnezzar II Necho II Nefertiti Neo-Hittites Nile River Nineveh Nippur Nitokris Nomads and Nomadism Nubia and the Nubians Numbers and Numerals Nuzi

N

Obsidian Offerings Olives Oman Peninsula

Nabonidus Nabopolassar

o

Omens Oracles and Prophecy Osiris

p Palaces and Temples Papyrus Parthia Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel Peasants Perfumes Persepolis Persian Empire Persian Wars Pharaohs Philistines Phoenicia and the Phoenicians Index

VOLUME 4 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East P (Continued) Phrygia and the Phrygians Pigs Planets Poetry Polygamy Pottery Prayer Pregnancy Priests and Priestesses Property and Property Rights Proverbs Psalms Ptolemy I Pyramids

Q Queens viii

R

Ramses II Ramses III Record Keeping Red Sea Religion Rhodes Rituals and Sacrifice Rivers Roads Rosetta Stone

s Sahara Desert Samaria Samaritans Samsu-iluna Sardinia Sardis Sargon I Sargon II

Satraps Schools Science and Technology Scribes Sculpture Scythia and the Scythians Seals Sea Peoples Seleucid Empire Semiramis Semites Semitic Languages Sennacherib Servants Seth Setyl Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser V Shamshi-Adad I Sheep Shipping Routes Ships and Boats Shulgi

Table of Contents Shuppiluliuma I Sidon Sinai, Mount Sinai Peninsula Slaves and Slavery Social Institutions Soldiers Solomon Sphinx Stars Stone Sudan Sumer and the Sumerians Sumerian Language Sun Susa and Susiana Syria

T Taharqa Taxation Ten Commandments Teshub Textiles Thebes Theology Thera Thutmose III Tiglath-pileser III

Tigris River Tools Torah Trade Routes Transportation and Travel Troy Tutankhamen Tyre

u Ugarit Umma Ur Urartu Urbanization Ur-Nammu Uruk

V Valley of the Kings Valley of the Queens Volcanoes

w Walled Cities Wall Paintings

Wars and Warfare Water Weapons and Armor Wine Witchcraft Women, Role of Wood and Woodworking Work Writing

x Xerxes

Y Yahweh

z Ziggurats Zimri-Lim Zodiac Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Suggested Readings Photo Credits Index

ix

PREFACE The American public seems to have a keen interest in worlds of long ago and far away. Television and radio programs, newspaper articles, magazines, and now a burgeoning number of Internet sites present the latest dramatic findings, such as newly discovered tombs, shipwrecks, and inscriptions. Also available are the latest interpretations of evidence as well as a constant stream of material on the ancient world, especially ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Bible. The public's interest stems from a fascination with ancient treasures and mysteries, and at a more personal and emotional level, from a desire to search for cultural and religious roots. Despite, or perhaps because of, the scope of the readily available material, the public seems to hold a rather parochial view of the ancient world, especially of the ancient Near East. Stereotyped ideas persist, including the notion that the roots of western culture lie almost exclusively in ancient Greece and Rome, that Greek culture was largely indigenous, that pharaonic Egypt is the oldest civilization, and that the Bible is largely limited to its connections to these cultures. As a result, nearly everyone has heard of Julius Caesar, King Tut (Tutankhamen), Queen Cleopatra, and King Solomon, but beyond name recognition, few have any real knowledge of who they were, when they lived, or their real significance in history. Fewer yet, beyond those who attend Sunday school, will have much awareness of such peoples as the Amorites, Aramaeans, Assyrians, Canaanites, Hittites, Medes, Phoenicians, or Phrygians, let alone individual figures. And virtually none, beyond those with advanced education or deep abiding interests in ancient history, will have even heard of the Carians, Edomites, Elamites, Hurrians, Luwians, Lycians, Lydians, Moabites, Scythians, or Urartians. The publication by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1995 of Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (CANE), edited by Jack M. Sasson, presented for the first time to college and secondary school teachers, their students, and the educated layman a rich and balanced view of the history and cultures of the ancient Near East. The X

work is a diverse collection of nearly 200 essays written by scholars of international repute, including anthropologists, archaeologists, art historians,biblicists, historiographers, and philologists. CANE contains a thorough treatment of the history and culture of the core of the ancient Near East, including Syria, the Levant, Iraq, and western Iran, and links those regions with the Eastern Mediterranean world of Greece and Egypt to the west and Anatolia and Central Asia to the north and east. The essays span the period from the time of the invention of writing toward the end of the fourth millennium B.C. through the invasion of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great near the end of the fourth century B.C. The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students (ANE) is largely an alphabetized abstract of CANE, tailored especially for young readers. It is a companion volume to Ancient Greece and Rome (1998), which likewise was drawn in part from a more academic Scribner work, Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome (1988). ANE is a tribute to the efforts of Scribners' Karen Day and Timothy J. DeWerff for producing a student encyclopedia that is readable and visually appealing, and at the same time, a reasonable reflection of the current state of scholarly understanding. It fell to Visual Education Corporation of Princeton, N.J., to take what began as a shopping list of subjects assembled by Jack Sasson and me and develop an entry list addressing the significant aspects of ancient Near Eastern history and culture. The criteria for selection for the final entry list included coverage in CANE; significance and interest to young readers; tie-ins to the middle school and high school curricula; and importance to, and representation of, the region. The text itself had to be reshaped for a younger audience and updated to include new discoveries and interpretations, while preserving the academic integrity of the parent work. The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students has several important features. The major column contains the text, while the minor column is filled with items that explain and enhance the text: definitions of unfamiliar

Preface terms; time lines that place lengthy articles in historical perspective; and sidebars that expand the main text. Many of the sidebars fall underone of two special categories—AncientTexts, featuring extracts from ancient literary works, and Diggersand Decipherers, describing archaeologicalefforts in the region. Each categoryis marked by a special icon:

No project of such scope is ever possible without the help of many people. I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help and support ofstaff theat Visual Education Corporation, including Darryl Kestler, Meera Vaidyanathan, Dale Anderson, Caryn Radick, and Marcel Chouteau. I also wishto expressmy deepest appreciation to Jack Sasson, who, throughout this project, lent his expertise at so many levels, from his profound knowledge of the ancient Near East to his experience as editorin chief CANE. of I would also like to express my gratitude to those scholars who so willingly obliged me with particulars on topics that, in afield this large, were beyond my Cross-references to related articles appear both own ability to evaluate. They include Prof.Tzvi Abush, within the text and at the end of most entries. The set Prof. Gary Beckman, Prof. Linda Bregstein, Dr. L. Timcontains more than 150 black-and-white photographs othy Doty,Prof.Erica Ehrenberg, Prof. StephenA. and 60full-color plates, providing students with images Geller, Prof. Ogden Goelet,Dr. Peter James,Dr. Oscar of the people, places,artifacts, and events in the ancient White Muscarella,Dr.KarenR. Nemet-Nejat, Rabbi Near East. The work also contains 27 maps and charts Sally Preisand,and Dr.KarenS. Rubinson. to illustrate important topics, a comprehensive time Lastly, although always first in my heart, many line to highlight important events in the history of the thanks to mywife, CatherineM. Herriges, and our ancient NearEast, and a listof suggested readingsand two wonderful sons, Joshua Seanand Jesse Walter,for Internet sites. Finally, the design at the top of the page permitting me to pursue my life's work through their in each volumefeatures an ancient script: cuneiform love and support. I hope these volumes will finally (Volume 1), hieroglyphics (Volume2), Phoenician (Volenable the boys to answer for themselves the quesume 3), and Hebrew (Volume4). tion, "What does Daddy do for a living?" Ronald Wallenfels Fair Haven, NJ.

xi

THE NEAR EAST IN PREHISTORIC TIMES by Ronald Wallenfels

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* domestication adaptation for human use * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

xii

Historians—people who study events of the past—try to put events in chronological order, from the past to the present, and try to explain the causes of those events. Historians learn about the ancient world by reading and studying inscriptions that have survived from those times and by examining other physical remains, such as palaces, temples, houses, burial sites, and tombs, along with the pottery, tools, jewelry, sculpture, and other artifacts* that these sites might contain. A historian's ability to understand the past is limited by the quality and quantity of objects available to study. Few ancient artifacts have survived the wear and tear of thousands of years, and fewer still have been found. This encyclopedia will help you learn about the history of the ancient Near East, a time and place where most of the inventions needed for a civilized life were first developed. As you use this encyclopedia, you might read about the development of agriculture, irrigation, and metalworking, and the domestication* of animals. You might turn to articles about the inventions of pottery, the wheel, and writing. You then might read how these developments and inventions helped create new social institutions that led to the growth of cities and city-states*, which in turn led to developments in government and law, the outbreak of wars, and the need for RECORD KEEPING. These events brought growth in mathematics, science, and technology. You might also read about the people who made this history, from kings, queens, priests, and priestesses to soldiers, peasants, and slaves. Of all the occurrences in the ancient Near East, historians often consider the practice of agriculture the most important development. Beginning about 10,000 years ago, agriculture led our hunter-gatherer ancestors to settle so that they could care for their crops as they grew, protect what they harvested and stored, and prepare the land for the next season of planting. However, the beginning of agriculture was not the beginning of human history. Our history goes much further back than that. Anthropologists—scientists who study human origins—believe that fossils found in east Africa show that there were small bands of hominids—humanlike creatures—walking erect on their hind legs more than 2.5 million years ago. Although the brains of these hominids were less than half the size of the brains of modern humans, they were able to make simple recognizable stone tools. During the next 2 million years, the fossil record shows that as the brain size of the hominids increased, so did their ability to make complex stone tools. The fossil record also indicates

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * gruel thin porridge

that these creatures began to explore new environments, with some leaving Africa by way of the Near East and moving into Asia and Europe. During this long period when the hominids were developing, the earth's climate became unstable. Beginning about 1 million years ago, the earth began to experience the first of several Ice Ages. The reasons for the climate changes are not well understood, but many astronomers believe that they resulted from slight variations in the earth's orbit around the sun that made the earth warmer during some periods and cooler at others. During an Ice Age, which usually lasted about 100,000 years, the earth became much colder, drier, and dustier, causing dramatic environmental changes across the planet. These Ice Ages ended as suddenly as they began, allowing the earth to warm again. The interglacial periods—years between Ice Ages—appear to have lasted between 10,000 and 20,000 years. The first fully modern humans, identical to us in every way, appeared in east Africa between about 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. The arrival of the last Ice Age, about 120,000 years ago, did not stop these humans from expanding out of Africa. They eventually replaced their older Asian and European hominid cousins. They became the first people to enter the Americas by way of a land bridge that connected Siberia and Alaska. From the beginning, these modern humans possessed spoken language. They developed and constantly improved new toolmaking technologies that included instruments made of bone, antler, and probably wood as well as stone. These people became expert hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. They developed art and music and adorned themselves with beads and shells. They buried their dead with grave goods, which suggests that they took part in rituals and believed in an AFTERLIFE. Differences in grave goods may indicate distinctions in social status, with more numerous and elaborate objects being buried with members of society who were considered more important. By about 14,000 years ago, the ice was melting at a steady yet rapid pace, again causing widespread environmental changes. Still living by hunting and gathering, the scattered bands of humans found it necessary either to move and follow the herds they hunted or to adapt themselves, where possible, to the new environments. The number of archaeological* sites for this period are rare and are often quite difficult to date. One group of people from this period stands out. Living in the Levant* and SYRIA between about 10,000 and 8,000 B.C., these people— now known as the Natufians—gathered wild cereal grasses such as the barley and wheat that grew in the region. They cut these grasses with tools that used tiny flint blades called microliths. These peoples took the edible seeds of these grasses and ground them into meal, which they probably mixed with water to make gruel*. The Natufians also gathered nuts, berries, and snails for food. They fished, fowled, and occasionally hunted and ate goat, gazelle, deer, and bear. They also had dogs, which they possibly used for maintaining their herds of wild goats. Living in small circular huts made of plant materials, the Natufians established and maintained permanent villages. Trade routes existed throughout the region where the Natufians lived. One type of goods they exchanged, seashells, was traded across great distances from their sources along the shores of the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Other luxury trade items included carved stone and bone objects and engraved ostrich eggshells. As successful as these Natufian hunter-gatherers

xiii

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

* Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

* vermin small harmful animals that are difficult to control * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C.

* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

xiv

appear to have been, however, they seem to have moved away or died out after about 2,000 years in the region, perhaps as a result of changes in the still-shifting climate. Shortly before about 8000 B.C., the earliest Neolithic period* farmers appeared. Living in places across Syria and the Levant, they planted seeds for cereal grasses that they would harvest later. Most of the harvested seed was stored for consumption throughout the year and for planting the following year's crop. One such group of farmers settled around a spring at JERICHO near the Jordan River in the present-day West Bank. These people built rectangular houses out of mud brick*. They also erected a thick circular stone tower, more than 30 feet tall, behind a massive stone wall. Their success in all these undertakings required new heights of imagination and long-term planning. To accomplish tasks no individual could possibly manage alone, it was necessary for the 2,000 or so members of this town to work together, some giving and others taking direction. Many further developments occurred during the centuries that followed. Around 7600 B.C. the people who lived at the site of Mureybet, Syria, were making baked-clay objects—vases and female figures. By about 7000 B.C. the animal herders at Jericho had begun to mate their goats to bring out desirable traits—long hair and greater milk production. The breeding of cattle and other animals soon followed. Around the same time at £ayonii in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the earliest copper artifacts found to date were being produced. At Bouqras in Syria, archaeologists have uncovered ceramic pottery dating as far back as about 6500 B.C. Used for cooking and serving food, this pottery, the oldest yet found, could also be closed with a clay plug to store and ship grain or other products. Earlier, food products had been stored in stone- and plaster-lined pits and had been transported in leather bags or woven baskets that were susceptible to attack by vermin*. By the end of the seventh millennium B.C.*, craftspeople from northern Mesopotamia were decorating their handmade pottery by attaching small clay pellets or by scratching designs onto the pot's surface. Shortly thereafter, they began to paint the surface of the pottery with simple geometric designs. Over time, the designs became more complex and began to include animal and human figures. The need to prevent others from tampering with the contents of storage containers brought about a new use for stamp SEALS—small pieces of bone, stone, wood, or clay with a flat surface on which a design was engraved— which had until then been used for imprinting designs on plaster, cloth, and bread. By about 6000 B.C. seals were being pressed into the soft clay plugs used to close the mouths of jars. The seal impression on the plugs signified that the contents of the jar were untouched; a broken or missing seal impression meant that the contents had been tampered with. Clay seals and seal impressions found at the Syrian site of Sabi Abyad show that they were applied to baskets, stone bowls, and leather bags as well as to ceramic vessels. Early in the sixth millennium B.C.*, farming communities began to appear farther and farther south on the plains along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although the region had extremely fertile soil, its rainfall was not sufficient to grow cereal crops. As a result, the farmers turned to the rivers

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar material deposited by running water

for water. By digging channels and canals away from the rivers' banks, fanners could divert water to their fields and irrigate them throughout the year. Although irrigation had been used much earlier, these farmers in southern Mesopotamia faced special problems. In the autumn, which was when the newly planted crops required the most water, the rivers were at their lowest levels. In the spring, when the crops needed to be dry while forming their seeds, the rivers flooded, often violently. To better control the flow of water, farmers dug longer, wider canals. The construction of these canals and their constant maintenance—artificial river channels tended to become clogged with silt very quickly—required new levels of decision-making and cooperation within the community. Among other consequences, the lack or excess of water could lead to a famine*, which could destroy a community. As societies grew, new social and religious institutions began to develop, enabling people to lead closer and more interdependent lives. The roles that people played within society changed as responsibilities for different tasks were divided among the people who were now becoming increasingly specialized. Religion became more organized and centralized as is evident at the site of ERIDU, which is situated at the edge of the marshes near the Persian Gulf. Archaeologists have excavated buildings at the site dating to about 5400 B.C. and have identified them as shrines or temples. These are the oldest temple-like structures found to date. Priests probably performed rituals in these locations and directed the members of the community to bring offerings and make sacrifices. During the fifth millennium B.C.*, the people of southern Mesopotamia belonged to what is called the Ubaid culture, named for Tell alUbaid, the site where their pottery was first found. The Ubaid culture spread as no other culture before it had. Ubaid pottery from about 4000 B.C.—made on a slow wheel—has been found throughout ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), as well as in neighboring Syria, IRAN, and the Arabian peninsula. Some scholars believe that the Ubaid people were trying to control the trade routes leading to such raw materials as stone and wood. This was especially necessary for them because the flat alluvial* plains of Mesopotamia lacked natural sources of these materials. Around 4000 B.C. further social and economic developments began to transform the landscape. The once numerous and evenly spread Ubaid villages of southern Mesopotamia were replaced by a few large settlements that would, in less than 1,000 years, become the world's first true cities. This marked the beginning of the Uruk period which was named after the ancient city of URUK, where the changes were first apparent. New developments there include the mass production of simple wheel-made pottery, the use of the wheel for transport, the creation of carved stone vessels and cylinder seals, the use of the ox-drawn plow, and increased production of copper for tools. The need for complex record keeping to coordinate production and consumption of food, clothing, and the wealth of new luxury goods brought about the development of writing, which replaced the clay-token counting system that had been in use since about 8000 B.C. At the center of Uruk, an enormous temple complex developed and its chief priest appears to have governed the city. By the end of the period, around 3200 B.C., history had truly begun for the residents of southern Mesopotamia, whom we can now truly identify as Sumerians after their own name for their land, Sumer. xv

A TIME LINE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Neolithic period ca. 9000-4000b.c

Mesopotamia

Anatolia

Wii!lii^^:l

fllllP

"t^^&s

'^j^i

||p^^ji^j||j|Bi "j^j^^^^tj^ pii|||^^^^^

xvi

X:Kalcolithic Period ca, 4000-3000 B.C.

Neofrthic culture in northern Mesopotamia Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 B.C. Earliest evidence of pottery, ca, 6500 B.C. Ubaid settlements in southern Mesopotamia

m^uNWjperimi/:

Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 &c £atal HCyuk irtiabited Eartiest evidence of pottery ca. 63W) B.C.

P^vefopmeilt ofagricultural and tmrflng ccttniuftfbes

Agricy fture first piadiced, ca;8500B,c* Setttementofjertoho > Domestication of animals, ca, 7300 ex. Eartiest evidence of pottery, ca. 5600 B,C.

De^JopmerStoif ^pricMltiiral #nd trying corrtfpuntties

Earliest permanent farming settlements in northern Egypt, ca,52wB,c Ealflest Science
Rradynastic period invention©f hierdg^plifc^

Earliest evidence of pKstoralism and pottery in western Arabia, ca. 6000 B.C Contact betvveen eastern Arabia and southern Mesopotamia

Permanent s^femepts isJafafeW ~ Contact between western Arabtt acid Syria and toe Levant Continued contact betv^^n e^ftfm Aratta and sontierti Mesopatarrtli

larBatpefmanait farming settlements in southwestern frafvca* 7Qw s»Ci tartiisst evidenteof pottery in southwestern l^ca:6S(Wa.c Susa founded

f rotd-flamlfe^tur*

EarffetRfmianent farming segments on
Developmentrftcjricu tair$tand tf^lngcomflwriites ;

Earfeitl^mtanentfarming settlements on tfte mainland, M^ fvktentt 6f pottay on t(^ mainbn^ ca. 6300 B.C E^rfet evl^nce of pottery on Grfete, ca; 5900 «.c

Uwk andjarm^-f^sfpeitodl D^Jc^nftentof c%*stato tavwtfoho

Early Bronze Age ca. 3000-2200 B.C. Sumerian Early Dynastic period Akkadian empire Sargon l (ruled ca.2337-2278 B.c.) Unification of Sumer and Akkad

Middle Bronze Age ca. 2200-1600 B.C. Gutian and Amorite invasions Second Dynasty of Lagash Gudea of Lagash (ruled ca. 214-2124 B.C.) Thrid Dynasty of Ur Ziggurat of Ur Dynasties of Isin and Larsa Old Assyrian period Old Babylonian period Hammurabi (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C) Hurrian immigrations

Development of city-states Troy Alaca Huyuk

Old Assyrian trading colonies Old Hittite period Khattushili I (ruled ca.1650-1620 B.C.) Hittites invade Babylon

Development of city-states Sumerian-style urban culture Kingdom of Ebla Akkadians conqure Ebla

Early Dynastic period Old kingdom period Djoser (ruled ca.2630-2611 b.c) First pyramids Great Pyramids of Giza

Rise of Amorite city-states

First Interriediate period Civil war between dynasties at Thebes and Heraclepolis Middle Kingdoms period Second intermediate period Hyksos conquest

Levantine,Mesopotamian, and Iranian influence in the northwest Magan and Dilmun trade with Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian and Iranian influences along

Old Elamita period Wars with Mesopotamia Susiana under Akkadian and Sumerian domination

Sukkalmakh dynastry Susian allies with Elam Babylonians control Elam

Early Cycladic culture

Minoan culture on Crete Mycenaeans invade Peloponnese Volcanic eruption at Thera

coast of Arabian Gulf

xvii

A TIME LINE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Late Bronze Age ca. 1600^1200 B.C. IVIesc^otaiiiia

Hittites invade Babylon Dark Age Middle Babylonian (Kassite) peroid Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni Middle Assyrian period

Iron Age ca. 1200-500 B.C Second Dynasty of Isin Neo-Babylonian period Neo-Assyrian empire Sargon II (ruled 721-705 B.C.) Late Babylonian period (Chaldean dynasty) Nebuchadnezzar II (ruled 605-562 B.C) Persians conquer Babylonia

Anatolia

Hittite empire Shuppilurliuma I (ruled ca. 1371-1330 B.C.) Hittite wars with Egypt Destruction of Khattusha

Dark Age Rise of Neo-Hittite states

Κινγδοµσ οφ υραρτυ ανδ Πηρψγια Χιµµεριαν ινϖασιον Κινγδοµσ οφ Λψδια ανδ Λψχια Μεδιαν εξπανσιον Greek city-states in Western Anatolia Persians conquer Lydia

•jj^0^:^l^

thel^vaiit

:igyj»t

Arabia

Iran

Aegena and ^^j^^^^^^:( t^

MeiliteiTaiieaii

Canaanites develop aleph-beth Egyptian domination Hittite invasions Hurrian domination Sea Peoples

Expulsion of Hyksos New Kingdom period

Aramaean migrations Ισραελιτεσ σεττλε ιν Χανααν

Philistine and Phoenician city-states Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

Assyrian conquests Babylonian conquests Third intermediate period Libyan dynasty

Expansion into Syria,the Levant,and Nubia Invasion of the Sea Peoples

Nubian dynasties Taharqa (ruled 690-664 B.C.) Assyrian conquest Last period Saite dynasty

Decline of Dilmun Qurayya flourishes Arabia dominates aromatics trade

Qedar tribe dominates northern Arabia Syria dominates in the east Neo-Babylonians control trade routes Sabaean rulers

Middle Elamite period Aryans (Medes and Persians) enter Iran

Neo-Elmite period Median kingdom Zoroaster (lived ca.600s B.C.) Persians overthrow Medes Cyrus the Great (ruled 559-529 B.C.) Conquest of Babylonia Persian empire established Darius I (ruled 521-486 B.C.)

Decline of Minoan civilization Rise of Mycenaeans Mycenaeans colonize Aegean

Trojan War Dorian invasions Fall of Mycenae Dark Age Greek colonization

Competition with Phoenician trade XV111

Persian Period ca. 500-324 n.c.

Hellenistic Period 323 B.C:.-A.I>. 1

Persian domination Alexander the Great (lived 356-323 B.C.) enters Babylon

Selecld empire Parthian empire

Persian domination Macedonian conquest

Roman rule

Persian domiantion Jews return from Babylon Second temple of Jerusalem Macedonian conquest

Ptolemaic kingdom and Sefeucid empire Maccabean Revolt

Hasmonean dybasty Roman rule

Persian domination Local dynasties of native Egypt Macedonian conquest

Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic dynasty Roman rule

Nabatean Kingdom in Jordan Persian domination

Trade with Hellenistic world Roman conquest

Persian empire domiantes the ancient Near East Greek invasions Macedonian conquest Alexander the Great

Seleucid empire Parthian empire

Persian wars Classical period Peloponnesian War Macedonian conquest

Hellenistic dynasties Roman conquest

xix

Abydos Abraham

See PatriarchsandMatriarchs ofIsrael.

A

ABU SlMBEL

* pharaoh

king of

ancient

Egypt

L

ABYDOS * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

bu Simbel(A»boo sim«BEL)is the siteof two magnificent temples cut into high sandstone cliffs during the rule of the Egyptian pharaoh* RAMSES II. Today these temples are consideredto be the bestpreserved examplesof the grandart and architecture Ramses of II. The site is located on the west bank of the Nile River in southern Egypt. Construction was completed and the temples were in use in the 1250sB.C. The larger of the two templeswas builtfor Ramses. Four huge statues of the king seated on a throneflanked the entrance, two on each side. Each statuewas about67 feet high—aboutas tallas a six-story building. Inside the temple, three great halls extended into cliff. the The halls helV eight more giant statuesof theBAS-RELIEFS pharaoh,representing with his life and achievements coveringthe walls. The smallerof the two templeswas builtfor Queen Nefertari, wifethe of Ramses. Infront of this temple weresix statues Nefertari of and Ramses, each about 33feet tall. Inside the temple was a large hall adorned with decorations related tofertility. An earthquake severely damagedthe templesin B.C., the and1230s both temples eventually were buried under sand. They were not rediscovered until A.D. 1813, whenSwiss a traveler found them. They werefirst entered and exploredfour years later. In the mid-1960s, the Egyptian government was building a dam that would have flooded the temple site. The temples were cut into blocks, moved, and rebuilt on higher ground. The tremendous project, which took four years, savedtwo magnificent examples of Egyptian architecture.

from

* stela stone slab or pillar that carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

ocated in the desert to the west of the southern Nile River, Abydos (uh«BY«dus) was one of the mostsacred sitesin ancient Egypt. It was believed to be the entrance to the underworld, that is, the place of departed souls. It was also believedto be theOSIRIS, burial the Egyptplaceof ian god of the dead. As a result, Abydos becamean important cemetery site and the centerof the cult*ofOsiris. During thefirst two dynasties*, between about 3000 B.C.,and 2650 Abydos was primarily a burial place for royalty, and manyof the early thekings of Egypt probablywere buried there. During Fifth the Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.), kings built a templetoOsirisat Abydos. This structure was enlarged and decorated by later rulers. During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), Abydos grewin importance. People came to the city from throughout Egypt to take part in an annual ceremony that brought the god Osiris from the river to his tomb. has beenBy this time, common people were being buried near Abydos, which had a growing number of cemeteries. Those who could affordnot to be buried there set upstelae*, which were carved with their names and

1

Achaeiiieiiid Dynasty

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Achaemenid Dynasty

ADAD

* deity god or goddess

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

2

titles and prayers to Osiris. The cemeteries of Abydos eventually became filled with thousands of these stelae. While increasingly popular with the common people, Abydos continued to be favored by the rulers of Egypt. Many kings, though they did not intend to be buried at Abydos, nevertheless built monuments and temples there. The temple of SETY I, from the early 1200s B.C., was one of the grandest and most beautiful. It is famous for a bas-relief*, called the Abydos list of kings, that depicts 76 of the Egyptian kings who preceded Sety. Eventually, even animals were buried at Abydos. Animal cemeteries dating from the Late Period of Egyptian history (664-332 B.C.) have been found there. Abydos continued to be used for burials into the period of the Roman occupation of Egypt, which began in 30 B.C. Abydos was first excavated in the late A.D. 1850s by Auguste Mariette, who was searching for the tomb of Osiris. Many excavations have been undertaken at the site since then, and new discoveries are still being made. Recent archaeological* digs have found evidence of burials that took place before the First Dynasty. Abydos is considered one of the most important archaeological sites of ancient Egypt. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians.)

See Persian Empire.

M

any cultures throughout the ancient Near East honored the weather god Adad (A»dad). Like the natural force he represented, Adad had a dark side and a bright side. He was thought to be responsible for deadly, destructive storms but also for the rains that nourished crops and supported life. Adad was just one of many names that people used for this god of weather and storms. To the Sumerians of MESOPOTAMIA, he was Ishkur. The Akkadians called him Adad. The same name was used in EBLA; a list of gods from that city dating from between 2450 and 2250 B.C. includes Adad as the second most important god. The people of northern Syria called the weather god, who was their main deity*, Addu or Hadad. He also appeared in various local forms, such as Addu of Aleppo and Hadad of Damascus. Other Near Eastern cultures called him Addu and Ramman. He appears in the Hebrew Bible as Rimmon, "the Thunderer/' Adad was also closely identified with the god BAAL. Indeed, at one time they were the same god, and in UGARIT between about 1350 and 1200 B.C., BaalHaddu was the principal god. Inscriptions and SEALS often depict Adad as a warrior holding forked lightning. Sometimes he is shown standing on the back of a winged bull or a creature that is part lion and part dragon. In one early myth, Adad created the blinding storms that led to a great flood. In another, he punished the world with drought*. People hoped to ensure good rains by worshiping him and building temples in his honor. As this positive force,

Afterlife he was called Lord of Abundance. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Flood Legends; Gods and Goddesses.)

Administrative Systems and Organization

AEGEAN SEA

* strait narrow channel that connects two bodies of water

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

AFTERLIFE

See Government.

T

he Aegean (ee«JEE»un) Sea separates Europe and the Near East, yet it also connects them by providing sea-lanes dotted with islands and harbors. To early civilizations on the shores and islands of the Aegean, the sea provided opportunities for trade and contact with other cultures in the region. The Aegean is the northeastern arm of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Greece on the north and west, by ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) on the east, and by the island of CRETE on the south. In the northeastern corner is a narrow waterway that links the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea. This waterway includes two straits*: the Dardanelles, also called the Hellespont, on the west and the Bosporus on the east. Separating the two straits is the Sea of Marmara. Most of the Aegean islands had been settled for many centuries by the beginning of the early Bronze Age (around 3000 B.C.). At about that time, trade between the islands and the surrounding mainlands began to increase. Thanks to their location in the southern Aegean, the Cyclades islands provided useful stopping-off points between Greece, Crete, and Anatolia. Around 1800 B.C., the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of Crete became the dominant culture in the region. Minoan power declined around 1400 B.C., when the Mycenaeans of mainland Greece became more influential. Within about 200 years, the Mycenaeans also fell. For the next three centuries or so, the region experienced a period that historians call the Dark Age. During this time, the ancestors of the Greeks entered Greece and many of the islands in the Aegean. The period was unsettled, however, and trade declined. In the 700s B.C., Greek culture entered the Archaic Age, the period in which Homer wrote the epics* the Iliad and the Odyssey. During this age, the Greek city-states* were formed and trade flourished. The classical civilization of ancient Greece followed as the main influence on the Aegean islands, which continued to play an important role in trade and cultural exchange. (See also Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Rhodes; Thera.)

T

he major cultures of the ancient Near East shared the idea that some part of a human being continues to exist after death. They viewed death as the end of earthly life and the beginning of an afterlife. Some cultures believed the afterlife to be a place of judgment, where people were rewarded for good deeds and punished for evil ones. For others, the 3

Afterlife

Letters to the Dead The strong Egyptian belief in a life after death is reflected through letters that the living wrote to the dead. One, which appears to be addressed to a dead spouse, shows the emotion that is sometimes present in these letters and reveals the belief that the dead could affect the life of the living: How are you? Is the West taking care of you according to your desire? Now since I am your beloved upon earth, fight on my behalf and intercede on behalf of my name. I did not garble a spell in your presence when I perpetuated your name upon earth. Remove the infirmity of my body!

* deity god or goddess * incense fragrant spice or resin burned as an offering

In ancient times, Egyptians portrayed the soul, which they called the ba, as a bird with a human head. The Egyptians believed that at death, the ba withdrew from the body. The ba then protected the mummy before eventually reuniting with the body, as shown here.

4

afterlife was merely a pale, sad reflection of earthly life, where all of the dead received equally unpleasant treatment. The peoples of the ancient Near East believed that the worlds of the living and of the dead were in constant interaction. Individuals honored their dead relatives and ancestors in the hope that the dead would perform favors for them, and they dreaded ghosts, the spirits of the unhappy dead. Some priests and magicians were thought to be able to communicate with the spirits of the dead. Egyptian Beliefs. The Egyptians made elaborate preparations for death, believing that such preparations would allow them to go on living after they died. They considered a person to be made of both physical and spiritual parts, and they thought that both would continue to exist after death. For this reason, they developed funeral practices aimed at preserving the bodies of the dead and providing them with supplies for the afterlife. In many ways, the Egyptian afterlife was believed to be an improved version of earthly life. The dead needed food, clothing, and household goods just as the living did. The Egyptians recorded their ideas about the afterlife in texts buried with the dead or inscribed on coffins and on tomb walls. These texts were supposed to give the dead all the knowledge they needed for the afterlife, including the names of deities* and demons and of all the places and obstacles that might be encountered on the way to the proper realm of the afterlife. Some texts suggested ways of rising to that realm, which included soaring on the wings of a bird or rising with incense* as it burned. Other texts told how the dead would be judged. Those who behaved generously and correctly in life might go to the Field of Offerings, a place

Afterlife

See color plate 6, vol. 1.

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

Getting Rid of a Ghost To the ancient Mesopotamians, a person who was not properly buried could become an angry ghost, one that might take possession of a living person's body. That person then needed an exorcism, a ritual aimed at driving out the ghost. The exorcist made a figurine of dirt mixed with ox blood. For three days, the exorcist set out a barley mash, burned incense, and scattered flour before the figurine. While doing this, the exorcist recited an incantation that declared the ghost to be gone. After the three days, the possessed person spoke a prayer to the sun god Shamash, and the exorcist sealed the figurine in a clay pot and buried it.

in the western sky where they would work in fertile fields and orchards to produce food for the gods. Or, if they knew the right magical spells and possessed the right guidebooks to the afterlife, they might sail through day and night with the god Amun in his boat. Those who performed evil or dishonest deeds, on the other hand, would be punished even if they tried to hide their sins. They might even be destroyed by Amamet, "the Devourer," a beast that was part lion, part crocodile, and part hippopotamus. Mesopotamia!! Beliefs. For the people of ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the dead body had no continued existence and the dead soul underwent no judgment. They did believe that spirits continued to exist after death, but those spirits would be peaceful only if their relatives performed the proper burial and mourning rituals. The spirits had to make a difficult journey to the netherworld, the underground setting of the afterlife. They traveled through lands infested with demons, crossed a river, and then entered the seven gates of the netherworld city with the permission of the gatekeeper Bidu, whose name meant "Open up!" The netherworld was the realm of Ereshkigal, queen of the dead. It was thought to lie beneath the world of the living, and every earthly grave or hole was an entrance to it. Many myths and legends, including the Epic* ofGilgamesh, told of contacts between earthly heroes and spirits in the netherworld. The spirits of the dead presumably stayed forever in the netherworld, although some thought that the spirits could be reborn. Because the netherworld was underground, it was sometimes described as dim and gloomy, but in other accounts, the sun god Shamash visited every day. Its inhabitants drank water and ate mud or, in some accounts, bread. They lived in a state organized much like the human society above, headed by a royal court. The comfort of the dead in the netherworld depended on the amount and quality of the offerings their living relatives made to them. If those offerings were inadequate, the ghosts became pitiful beggars who might trouble or attack the living. The dead who were not properly buried also made restless ghosts. Hittite Beliefs. The HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA shared some ideas about the afterlife with Mesopotamian people. Like the Mesopotamians, they believed that the afterlife was set in a netherworld ruled by a queen. The Hittite term for this netherworld was Dark or Gloomy Earth. Springs, wells, ponds, and caves were all entrances to this world, as were graves. Animals sacrificed to the netherworld were killed in pits, and priests dug pits to communicate with the powers of the netherworld. They placed bronze ladders in the pits so that the deities of the underworld could rise and take part in the rituals. Although the journey to the netherworld was the unavoidable end of human existence, the dead remained in constant contact with the living. The link between dead grandparents and living grandchildren was thought to be especially strong, with grandfathers passing their strength to their grandsons. The belief in communication with the dead led to 5

Agriculture various forms of ancestor worship, particularly among the Hittite royalty. This belief also led to the practice of necromancy, which to the Hittites meant calling the spirits of the dead by name either to ask them questions or to drive them away.

* venerate to give deep respect and reverence to someone

* dualism philosophy that life is divided into two major forces

AGRICULTURE

6

Canaanite and Israelite Beliefs. Ideas about the afterlife underwent profound changes over time in CANAAN. The early Canaanites, like other peoples of the Near East, worshiped multiple deities and venerated* deceased kings. They lived alongside or over the tombs of ancestors and believed that every person's fate was to meet Mot, the god of death, and to follow him into a dusty netherworld. The Israelite culture that later emerged in the region kept many aspects of the Canaanite religion. Israelites continued to maintain family tombs and to keep alive the memory of the dead. They believed that the dead lived a dim and ghostly existence in a netherworld called Sheol. They also shared the widespread belief that the dead possessed powers and could respond to prayers and requests from the living. As Yahwism—the ancestor of the Jewish faith—developed, it rejected the idea of ancestor worship and communication with the dead. It focused on the living and declared that the dead were forever separated from their god, YAHWEH. However, there is evidence in the Hebrew scriptures that some people rebelled against this abandonment of the dead, and gradually Yahwism recognized the idea of a resurrection from death. By the 100s B.C., resurrection was recognized as an element of Yahwist faith. Iranian Beliefs. Around 1000 B.C., the new religion of Zoroastrianism arose in Iran. This religion was marked by profound dualism* and saw life as a struggle between the good god AHURA MAZDA and the evil god AHRIMAN. Beliefs in the afterlife reflected this split in the world. Upon death, the soul was believed to be judged by the gods. Those who had lived a just life were allowed to cross the "bridge of separation" and enter heaven. Those judged to have lived evil lives also had to cross the bridge, but as they did so, it narrowed, forcing them to fall off. They then entered a hell full of burning torment. Zoroastrian beliefs recognized a third possibility. People whose good and evil deeds were perfectly balanced were sent to "the region of the mixed/' where they experienced neither the joys of heaven nor the suffering of hell. (See also Book of the Dead; Death and Burial; Demons; Mummies; Pyramids; Religion; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

A

griculture is the deliberate and purposeful planting of seeds to proiuce plants for human consumption. In the ancient Near East, farming and livestock raising played a major role in the regional economies. The vast majority of the people in the ancient civilizations of this region were farmers. The agricultural systems that developed in the various areas of the Near East differed, however, depending on climate, especially rainfall. Different climates called for the creation of different methods to produce crops.

Agriculture

ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT AGRICULTURE OF * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture first was practicedin the Levant*as earlyB.C. as 9000 Around that time, peoplein the region began to domesticate* certain wild plants. Once established, the practice of cultivating crops spread throughout MESOPOTAMIA the Near East, from to theNILE RIVER valley.It also spread westward to Greece and eastward to CENTRAL ASIAand India.By about B.C., agriculture 4000 was firmly established in all these regions. From Gathering to Farming. Before people in the Near East began to farm, they survived by hunting and gathering. They lived in small groups that movedfrom placeto placein searchof food.The transition to farming occurredin several steps, first theofwhichwasmarked bysettling in one place that had abundant wild food supplies and exploiting those resources. People built permanent villages and began to harvest wild crops, especially cereals. They stored part of the harvest forlater use, in the dry summeror in timesof drought*.Aspopulations grew, these wild resources began to dwindle. However, people soon discovered that they could plant some portion of the seeds they had stored and grow their food supply—they did not need to rely on what grew in the wild. This was the beginning of farming. At about the same time that crops were first being cultivatedin the Near East, people in the area began to domesticate animals.Thetransition to reliance on domesticated plants and animals took place over a long period of time. Eventually, though, these food products becamethe major portion of people's diets. Main Crops. Remainsof barleyand wheat dating B.C.from about 9000 have been found in the Levant. These grains eventually became the 7

Agriculture

* legumes vegetables, such as peas and beans, that are rich in protein

* brine salty water used for preserving food

See f color plate 12, vol. 2.

principal crops throughout the Near East. Barley was more important in the Levant and Mesopotamia because it can survive in drier climates than can wheat. Emmer, a type of wheat, was the main cereal grain in Egypt. Other early crops included various types of legumes*, such as lentils, peas, and chickpeas. People also grew FLAX, using its fibers to produce linen and its seeds as a source of oil. Sesame seeds were also grown to be used for oil. Between 5000 and 3500 B.C., the peoples of the ancient Near East began growing tree fruits, such as olives, dates, figs, pomegranates, and grapes and, later, apples and pears. The fruits that were chosen for cultivation had certain traits in common. First, all could be grown by planting cuttings from wild trees rather than seeds. Second, the first fruit crops tended to be those that could be preserved after harvesting. Many could be dried and stored. Among these were dates; grapes, which become raisins when dried; and olives, which can be stored in brine*. Other early fruit crops could be processed and turned into valuable commodities that kept for long periods, such as olive oil or wine. Over time, different areas specialized in different crops. By the period from 1000 to 500 B.C., grapes for wines, olives for oil, and figs were grown in the Levant for export. Dates were abundant in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Date palms were valued not only for their fruit but also for their wood, fiber, and leaves. Little is known about the cultivation of the earliest vegetables. However, most experts believe that garlic, lettuce, melons, cucumbers, beets, and radishes were probably first domesticated betwen 2000 and 1000 B.C. Many of these plants may originally have been weeds that grew among grain crops, and they were later domesticated in their own right. Vegetables tended to be grown in small gardens rather than in large fields, as grain crops were. Sumerians were the first to use shade gardening. They planted vegetables below tall stands of date palms, which sheltered the vegetables from the hot sun and strong winds. Gardens also included plants grown as food flavorings. Onions and garlic were grown throughout the region. Egyptian gardens included parsley, celery leaves, coriander, cumin, mustard, and poppy seeds, and Mesopotamian gardens included mustard, rosemary, marjoram, and mint.

FARMING METHODS * dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall

Three main farming methods were used in the ancient Near East. Because rainfall in most years was adequate in the Levant, people there could practice dry farming*. This system was also used in northern Mesopotamia, the area later occupied by the Assyrians. In southern Mesopotamia, which has a much drier climate, people needed to develop systems of IRRIGATION, diverting water from rivers and streams to areas of cultivation. In Egypt, where the Nile River flooded annually because of heavy rainfall in the upper Nile region, or Nubia, natural irrigation was used. The Levant. The agricultural cycle in the Levant began with the arrival of early autumn rains. The rains softened the ground for plowing and the planting of seeds. Planting was typically done in November or

8

Agriculture

* fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

* sickle short-handled tool with curved blade * thresh to crush grain plants so that the seeds or grains are separated from the stalks and husks

See map in Geography (vol. 2).

* levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

December, depending on when the rain fell that year. Grains were planted first, followed by vegetables. The success of harvests depended entirely on the amount and timing of the winter rains, which usually ended in April. The grain harvest occurred in April or May, followed by the vegetable harvest. Fruit was harvested during the summer. To help ensure that agricultural land remained productive, farmers practiced field rotation. They used the land differently each year so that the soil could retain a balance of nutrients. They also left some fields fallow* each year for the same reason. By around 1000 B.C., people used new approaches to expand the amount of land that could be used for crops. In some hilly areas, they cut terraces into hillsides to prevent rainwater from running off. Extensive farming, along with staggered field preparation and planting, enabled farmers to survive poor crop yields or failures because at least some crops could usually be harvested. Most farmwork was done by hand. Farmers plowed their fields with a simple plow, called an ard, that was pushed by hand or pulled by oxen. They used a hand sickle* for harvesting crops and their bare hands for picking fruits and vegetables. Harvested stalks of grain were threshed* by hand as well. Southern Mesopotamia. Farming in ancient Mesopotamia was based on large-scale artificial irrigation because the region received very little rainfall. The two great rivers of the region—the Tigris and the Euphrates—flooded each spring. Fed by storms and melting snow from distant mountains, the floods could destroy the crops growing in the fields. The Mesopotamians devised ways to control the floods and harness the water so that they could use it during the summer and fall, when rainfall was scarce. Spring floodwaters generally came in March, when half the fields were full of standing crops and half were lying fallow. The water was directed onto the fallow fields to help prepare them for plowing in the fall. The harvest season lasted from about mid-April to the early fall, when autumn rains provided additional moisture to work the land. Fall plowing was carried out by teams of men with oxen or donkeys pulling simple plows. Planting usually took place in October, but it might be delayed to take advantage of late autumn rains. After planting, the fields were flooded to provide maximum moisture to the seeds. Additional watering was done at intervals during the winter months. Mesopotamians built an extensive network of canals and levees* throughout their agricultural lands. The levees prevented the rivers from overflowing their banks and damaging the young crops. The canals carried water from the rivers to the fields. Access to water was often an excuse for war in the ancient Near East. For instance, early in the third millennium B.C.*, the legendary Gilgamesh of Uruk went to war with his northern neighbor Agga of Kish because Agga had diverted water from the Euphrates in an effort to bring Uruk under his control. Egypt. The earliest agricultural settlements in Egypt were in the Nile Delta region. Farming spread gradually throughout the delta, and by

9

Agriculture

A Farmer's Almanac information about agriculture in the ancient Near East comes from various sources. Clay tablets record such details as labor assignments, seed distribution, and laws related to agricultural disputes. Art and artifacts depict scenes of farming and provide evidence of the tools used. One of the most 1 valuable sources of information is a Sumerian document known as the Farmer's Almanac About 3,500 year old, this ancient clay tablet consists of farming instructions from a farmer to his son. It gives directions for irrigating the land, preparing the soil, and sowing the seed. The farmer even explains the need to protect the growing crop from mice and birds. The document provides a detailed and very personal look at farming practices from long ago.

about 3000 B.C., the economy of the area was dominated by a mix of agriculture and livestock raising. From the delta region, agriculture spread upstream into the Nile River valley, with farming lands eventually occupying a narrow strip on each side of the river. Agriculture in Egypt relied primarily on natural irrigation from the annual flooding of the Nile River. Each year from about mid-July to midOctober, the river floods its banks. After reaching a peak in August to September, the water quickly recedes. Two factors made this flooding less damaging to crops than the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. First, flooding in Egypt was more gradual. Second, the contours of the land on either side of the Nile made it easier to divert the floodwaters onto fields. The regularity of this seasonal flooding became the basis of the agricultural cycle. As the waters of the Nile rose, they slowly spread out onto floodplains on either side of the river. Towns and villages sat on higher ground safely above the flooded areas. Water control consisted of diverting the floodwater from the river along canals into natural flood basins. Dikes and channels were built to direct the flow of the water and to ensure that it stayed long enough to soak the land. These channels were far less elaborate than the system of canals in southern Mesopotamia, however. They could be built by individual farmers and did not require the large resources needed in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. Farmland in Egypt was categorized by its relation to the Nile River. Some land received ample water and had adequate drainage. Other land flooded erratically, and its value for cultivation was thus more limited. Low-lying land tended not to drain properly and was unsuited for certain crops. Fields were small and uneven in shape because their boundaries were determined by natural flood and drainage patterns. The Egyptian agricultural year began in late June as the Nile began to rise. The growing season lasted through winter, and spring and early summer were the time of harvest. Once floodwaters had drained from the land, the plowing season was short because the land was in ideal condition for a very limited period. As the land dried, it quickly formed a hard crust that was very difficult to plow. Sometimes desert sand was added to the soil to improve its structure. Plowing was usually done with a two-ox team pulling a simple plow. After plowing, large pieces of soil often had to be broken apart by hand with a type of hammer or ax. Seeds were planted by hand. Grain was harvested by hand with a sickle. It was then transported in baskets, usually on the back of a donkey, to a place where it was threshed. The threshing was done by cattle or donkeys that crushed the grain under foot. The grain was then cleaned and stored. Grain yields in Egypt were somewhat lower than those in southern Mesopotamia, typically at ten bushels harvested for each bushel of seeds planted. Farmworkers. Fully 80 to 90 percent of the population worked the land. Farmworkers were generally not independent farmers working their own land and growing enough food to feed themselves and their families. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, they were peasants who worked the land on behalf of landowners—typically the temple or the palace—and

10

Ahab

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

were paid in grain. They used the grain to make bread and to exchange it for meat, vegetables, and other foods. A much smaller percentage—perhaps 5 to 10 percent of the population— tended animals. These herders might be nomads*, who did not live in the growing agricultural villages and cities. Some herders, though, lived in the villages along with the peasants. They grazed their animals on lands that were not being cultivated. When needed by farmers, herders managed the animals that pulled plows or helped in the harvest.

THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE Learning About Ancient Farming Archaeologists can learn about ancient farming from many sources. They look for ancient canals and field systems in land that is now too dry to farm. They study ancient settlements to learn about housing and storage facilities. A branch of archaeology called archaeobotany tries to discover what crops were planted and how ancient people domesticated them. Some sites yield tools and other equipment, and wall paintings or other artworks reveal farming techniques. Texts such as letters, law codes, and lists of work assignments or worker rations shed light on other aspects of farming. Despite all these sources of information, however, great gaps in the record still remain.

AHAB ruled ca. 875-854 B.C. King of Israel

In the past, historians believed that the extensive irrigation systems used in southern Mesopotamia led to the formation of the first urban civilizations. They argued that the amount of planning and organizing necessary to create and tend the complex network of canals generated a complex political structure in which leaders dominated the great masses of people. Few scholars now agree with such a straightforward link of cause and effect. Nevertheless, the adoption of agriculture did have a significant impact on human society. Agriculture produced a more secure supply of food, and that promoted population growth. People formed settlements, and those settlements became larger, growing in some cases from villages to towns and even to cities. In addition, people spread to new areas as they sought new sources of good farmland. As farm output grew, some people were freed from the need to find or produce food. They could take on other tasks, from making pottery and jewelry to building structures and trading goods. Over time, cities and villages were marked by specialization of labor. At the same time, women's position changed. Their concerns were limited to those of family life, and their status came increasingly to be determined by their families. The possession of land and goods became an important value, and people who owned more enjoyed higher status. Among the people with higher status were priests, rulers, and soldiers. They directed the communal efforts of society and became the guardians of the community's resources and its important rituals. The adoption of agriculture, then, contributed in many ways to the growing complexity of human society. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Cereal Grains; Climate; Date Palms and Dates; Euphrates River; Famine; Food and Drink; Land Use and Ownership; Nomads and Nomadism; Tigris River; Water.)

I

n 932 B.C., the unified kingdom of Israel split into two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Ahab (AY«hab) tried to expand the power of the northern kingdom. Under his rule, some significant religious changes took place. Ahab's father, Omri, an army commander, seized power to become ruler of the northern kingdom in 886 B.C. During Omri's rule, the Israelite kingdoms first appeared in securely dated historical documents outside the Hebrew Bible. Biblical sources were antagonistic to his 11

Ahmose

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

AHMOSE ruled ca. 1539-1514 B.C. Egyptian king * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

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dynasty and must be read cautiously. Omri allied his kingdom to the powerful and wealthy Phoenicians to the north. He used Phoenician workers and designs in building a new capital at SAMARIA, which was close to Phoenicia. The connection became even stronger when Ahab married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, ruler of the Phoenician cities of TYRE and SIDON. When Omri died in 875 B.C., Ahab became king of Israel. His kingdom was larger and wealthier than Judah to the south. Ahab's ambitions as king, the growing wealth of the kingdom, and a rising population led to a great deal of building activity that contributed to the growth of cities. Conflict—both external and internal—marked Ahab's reign. Because he tried to build Israel into a regional power, he was almost constantly at war with the neighboring city-state* of DAMASCUS. Ahab and Damascus abandoned their quarrels and joined together to face a common threat when Assyrians under SHALMANESER III invaded from the east. In about 853 B.C., Ahab sent a large force to the battle of Qarqar, which stopped the Assyrian advance. Once that threat was removed, however, the alliance broke up, and Israel and Damascus began fighting again. Ahab eventually met his death in this fighting. Ahab's marriage to Jezebel caused the internal conflict. Jezebel brought the worship of the Phoenician god BAAL to Israel, and Ahab built a temple to Baal in Samaria. Resentment against this worship simmered among the followers of YAHWEH, the Hebrew god. Twelve years after Ahab's death, this anger produced a bloody revolt against the Baalists that included the murder of Ahab;s son—who was then king—and of Jezebel herself. (See also Athaliah; Bible, Hebrew; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

A

hmose (ah«MOH«se) was an Egyptian king who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty. His rule launched the period called the New Kingdom, a stable and prosperous time in Egypt's history that lasted almost 500 years. Ahmose freed Egypt from the HYKSOS, a group of nomads* from Asia who had conquered northern Egypt. He also brought much of the Levant* and the eastern Mediterranean coast under his rule and regained control of Nubia in southern Egypt. The Hyksos had taken control of northern Egypt in about 1630 B.C. Earlier Egyptian kings had tried without success to expel them from Egypt. King Kamose, who preceded Ahmose, had battled the Hyksos repeatedly. Kamose and his army had nearly reached the city of Avaris, the Hyksos capital in northern Egypt, but had failed to conquer it. Soon after Ahmose came to power around 1539 B.C., he resumed the fight against the Hyksos. While his mother, Queen Ahhotep, ran the government from THEBES in central Egypt, Ahmose launched a sea attack and then a siege* against Avaris. He finally captured the city around 1530 B.C. and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt shortly thereafter. After his victory at Avaris, Ahmose followed the retreating Hyksos into the Levant, where they had a stronghold. Ahmose and his army

Ahriiiian surrounded the Hyksos forces. After several years of siege, the Hyksos finally surrendered. Ahmose went on to conquer most of the Levant and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. He also led his army on three campaigns into Nubia and eventually conquered the Nubians, who had been allies of the Hyksos. In addition to regaining control of a great deal of Egyptian territory and conquering new lands, Ahmose brought Egypt great wealth. He put the rich gold mines of Nubia under Egyptian control and reopened copper mines on the SINAI PENINSULA northeast of Egypt. Ahmose also resumed trade with Phoenician cities along the coast of SYRIA. Moreover, he restored many neglected temples and built new chapels for his family. When Ahmose died around 1514 B.C., he was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I. Ahmose left behind a unified and economically strong kingdom. He had turned Egypt into a dominant power in the ancient Near East. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians.)

AHRIMAN * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * deity god or goddess

* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

I

n the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, Ahriman (AH«ri«muhn) was the spirit of evil and destruction and the enemy of his twin brother, AHURA MAZDA, who represented goodness, wisdom, and creation. Images connected with Ahriman later appeared in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic descriptions of devils. Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet* Zoroaster around 600 B.C. In Zoroaster's early writings, Ahura Mazda was the one and only god and the creator of the world. He gave birth to twins who were identified with good and evil. Over time, Zoroastrianism changed. An ancient Persian deity* named Zurvan (god of time and space) came to be seen as the father of these twin gods. Ahura Mazda became the good deity and Ahriman the evil one. According to one myth about these brothers, Ahriman tried to usurp* a kingship that belonged to his brother. Another myth is similar to the story of Cain and Abel in the Hebrew Bible. In this account, Ahriman and Ahura Mazda became rivals because their father accepted the sacrifice offered by one of them but rejected the other's. Whatever the source of their conflict, Ahriman lived in darkness and Ahura Mazda in light. The earth between them was their battleground. Ahriman's fight against Ahura Mazda and his fall to the underworld may have been one source of the Christian story of the fall of Satan from heaven. Ahriman was considered the creator of snakes and all evil things. Some ancient depictions of the Garden of Eden show Eve and Adam being tempted not by a serpent but by Ahriman as an old man. Though the two were twins and struggled for thousands of years, Ahura Mazda was the more powerful god. In the end, Zoroastrianism promised, Ahura Mazda would defeat Ahriman and drive evil out of the world. Yet Ahriman also had worshipers and shrines. Some cults* honored him as the source of magical powers. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.) 13

Ahura Mazda

AHURA MAZDA * deity god or goddess * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

AKHENATEN ruled ca. 1353-1336 B.C. King of Egypt * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

deity god or goddess

14

A

hura Mazda (uh»HOO«ruh MAZ»duh) was one of the great gods of Zoroastrianism, a religion of ancient Persia. Ahura Mazda's role changed over time, however. At first, he was the only deity* and was worshiped as a sun god, the creator of all things. He was called Wise Lord. Later he was seen as the chief god among others. His worship became the official religion of the rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE in the 500s B.C. According to the prophet* Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was the only god. He created twin brothers, one of whom followed the path of goodness and truth, while the other pursued evil and lies. Over time, however, Zoroastrian beliefs changed. Ahura Mazda himself came to be identified as the good twin and became the rival of the evil twin, AHRIMAN. In this later version of Zoroastrianism, their father was the ancient Persian god of time and space, Zurvan. Ahura Mazda represented goodness, truth, and creation, while Ahriman represented evil, lies, and chaos. Ahura Mazda dwelled in light and Ahriman in darkness. Between the two lay the human world, over which they were locked in battle. Zoroastrianism held that in the end, Ahura Mazda would win this cosmic conflict, that good would triumph over evil. Persian kings adopted Zoroastrianism as the state religion and maintained a system of sacrifices to Ahura Mazda. They saw themselves as earthly representatives of his spirit. Images of the kings and the fronts of royal tombs were often decorated with a winged circle, a symbol representing Ahura Mazda. Some Persian kings adopted versions of his name, such as Ormizd or Ormazd. (See also Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

A

khenaten's (AH«ken«AH»tuhn) reign as pharaoh* of Egypt shook the kingdom to its foundations. Akhenaten launched sweeping religious reforms, replacing Egypt's most powerful cult* with a new one of his own. Some scholars have seen this as an early form of monotheism, or belief in a single god. Instead of unifying Egypt, however, Akhenaten's revolutionary actions plunged it into turmoil. Amenhotep IV Turns to Aten. During the reign of the pharaoh Amenhotep III, which began around 1390 B.C., Egypt reached a high point of prosperity and power. When he died, one of his sons took the throne and adopted the name Amenhotep. Modern historians call him Amenhotep IV to distinguish him from other kings of the same name. The name Amenhotep refers to the god AMUN, reflecting the belief that the royal family had a special relationship with this deity*. Egyptian religion had many deities, but Amun was the chief god. Amun's high priest was the official overseer of all the priests of the land. For unknown reasons, Amenhotep turned against Amun and Egypt's traditional religion. He devoted himself to the worship of Aten, the sun god. Aten was not a new god, but his worship had been overshadowed by the worship of Amun. However, the king created a new Aten cult, built new temples, and appointed himself high priest. He displeased

Akhenaten the priests of other cults by taxing their templesto pay thecostsof the Aten cult. Pharaoh Akhenaten. Infifth theyearof hisreign,AmenhotepIV changed his name to Akhenaten, "hewho effective is for Aten/'and began buildinga new capitalin the middle AKHETATEN, ofEgypt. Hecalled it and today it is known AMARNA. as Itbecamethe royal residence for the king; his chiefwife, NEFERTITI;and the royal family. Akhenaten continued to promote theworshipofAtenandeventually outlawed the worship of other gods. Heclosed their temples, ordered their names chiseled out ofcarvings,and hadtheir statues destroyed. All worship was supposed to focus on the king, thequeen, andAten, who was depicted as a solar disk with rays thatendedinhuman hands giving life and other powers.The Hymnto Aten,written during Akhenaten's reign, depicts Aten as the "one god/'aloving, creative force. Historians are divided on the question ofAkhenaten's motives. Some claim that he was the first person in history toexpress beliefin asingle god. Others suggest that Akhenaten's religious revolution mayhave been an attempt to strengthen the ideaof theking's divine nature.He mayalso have been seeking to limit the power ofAmun's prieststoprevent them from becoming a threat to the throne. The End of the Aten Cult. While facingthese changes athome, Egypt suffered problems abroad during Akhenaten's reign. Conflict between powerful states in theNear East spilled over intoEgyptian-controlled parts of SYRIA.As a result, Egypt lost someof the lands it had conquered. The empire did not collapse, but its size andmight were reduced. The Egyptian military blamed the king's religious policiesforweakening the core of the empire. Some said thatEgypt's godshadturned against the country. King Akhenaten died in about B.C. Two 1336 rulers held the throne brieflyafter his death. One ofthem, called Nefernefruaten,may inreality have been Queen Nefertiti. Theother, Smenkhkare,wasmarried to one of Akhenaten's daughters. He may also beenabrotheror son of Akhenaten, as intermarriagewascommon within Egyptian royal families. Smenkhkare began restoring theworship ofEgypt's traditional gods. In 1332 B.C., another of Akhenaten's sons-in-law, probably abrother of Smenkhkare, cameto the throne. TUTANKHAMEN, Hisnamewas and he became pharaoh at the age ofnine. Orders issuedin hisname completed the restoration of the cultsofAmunand other traditional deities. Tutankhamen also ordered the people wholived inAkhetaten to abandon the new city. The next few pharaohs took pains towipe out all ofAkhenaten's works. They tore down the temples ofAtenanddestroyed paintingsand statues created to honor Akhenaten and hisgod. Priest-scribes even tried to wipe Akhenaten out ofhistory byleaving hisname out ofchronicles and lists of Egypt's kings. The religion Akhenatenhad forcedon his people did not long outlive (See also him. Egypt and the Egyptians; Monotheism; Religion.)

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Akhetaten

AKHETATEN * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol.2).

* bust statue of a subject's head, neck, and shoulders

AKKAD AND THE AKKADIANS * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

P

3r about ten years in the mid-1300s B.C., Egypt's capital was a city :alled Akhetaten (AH«ket»AH»tuhn). The city was built during a religious revolution led by the pharaoh* AKHENATEN and was dedicated to the worship of the sun god Aten. After Akhenaten's death around 1336 B.C., Akhetaten was abandoned and largely destroyed by new rulers who wanted to erase the king's religious changes. Akhetaten, known today as AMARNA, stood on the NILE RIVER midway between the northern Egyptian city of MEMPHIS and the southern city of THEBES. Archaeologists* and scholars have been studying the remains of Akhetaten for more than 150 years. They have established that the city's central portion contained the royal residence, called the Great Palace, and the Great Temple of Aten. The temple had inner courts open to the sky so that the sun god's rays could fall on processions and worshipers. In these courts stood hundreds of altars at which worshipers could leave offerings. A smaller royal structure called the North Palace stood some distance away in a section of Akhetaten known as the North City. Akhetaten held hundreds of works of art, many in a new and unusual style that historians have labeled the "Amarna style." Some scholars suggest that Akhenaten encouraged the new style as a way of breaking cultural ties with the old religion. The Amarna style featured brilliant multicolored effects created with glass and paint. Many images show the king, his wife— NEFERTITI—and their daughters interacting with one another. Portrait busts* of the royal family were uncovered in the ruins of a studio that belonged to a sculptor named Thutmose. The most famous of these is a magnificent bust of Nefertiti found in A.D. 1912.

D

uring the second half of the third millennium B.C.*, the fertile plain of MESOPOTAMIA was dotted with many independent but warring city-states*—until a powerful king named SARGON I unified the entire region under a single rule. He created Mesopotamia's first large, organized state: the Akkadian (uh»KAY»dee«uhn) empire. Although the empire lasted for less than 200 years, it was a turning point in the history of the Near East. Rulers and dynasties* of later generations tried to equal the political and military achievements of the Akkadian empire.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

WHO WERE THE AKKADIANS?

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

The terms Akkad (AK«kad) and Akkadian can be confusing even to experts in Near Eastern studies. Each has several meanings. Akkad was a region along the EUPHRATES RIVER in central Mesopotamia, around the ancient city-states of KISH and NIPPUR, in the vicinity of present-day Baghdad. Just to the south of Akkad was the region called Sumer. This is why historians sometimes use the term Sumer and Akkad, just as the ancients themselves did, to refer to the southern half of Mesopotamia. Akkad was also the name of a city in this region. Some scholars spell the city's name Agade or Akkade to avoid confusion with the region. The Akkadians were the people of Akkad. Their language, Akkadian, is the oldest known of the SEMITIC LANGUAGES, a language family that

16

Akkad and the Akkadians today includes HebrewandArabic.TheAkkadians borrowedthesystem of CUNEIFORM writing thatthe Sumerianshad developed fortheir own language. The rise to power of the Akkadians made theirs official the language of government and business throughout Mesopotamia.after Even the Akkadian empire disappeared, the Akkadian language remainedin use and Sumerian died out. Gradually two versions, ordialects, ofAkkadian emerged:Assyrian in northern Mesopotamia andBabylonian insouthern Mesopotamia. Forthis reason,the term Akkadian refer can tolanguageor literaturefrom a large region overaperiodofseveral thousand years. The term OldAkkadianis more specific. refers It to the language andliterature of the period between about 2500 B.C.,and including 2000 the era of the Akkadian empireitself.

KINGSAND CONQUESTS We know little about the originsof theAkkadians,butthey were probably related to Semitic-speaking peoples who lived throughout northern Mesopotamia and inSyriain the thirdB.C. millennium Forcenturies,it seems, they lived sideby side withthe Sumerians. B.C., Byaround 2500 the city-state ofKishhad achieved some degreeofpower overthe 30 or so Sumerian city-states. When conflicts brokeoutbetween these independent cities, theensis,or rulers, sometimes turned lugal, to the thekingof Kish, to settle their disputes.Intime,aremarkable leader would turn this patchwork of independent kingdoms intoasingle, well-regulated state. Sargon I. AroundB.C., 2350 Lugalzagesi,the kingof the city-state of UMMA, seized control LAGASH URUK and of declared himself lugalover all the other rulersof Sumer. Around B.C., Lugalzagesi 2334 wasoverthrown by SargonI. Sargon's early life is a mystery. Almostno documents written during his lifetime survive.Our knowledgeof hiscareer comes fromtexts written after his death—sometimeslong after. Some versions say thatSargon was an official in the palaceof the kingKish. of He mayhave seized power from his master and then, after survivinganassassination attempt, made himself king ofAkkad. Whateverhis exact routetopower, defeat his of Lugalzagesi gave Sargon power over Sumer. Sargon tookthe title "kingof Kish," identifying himself with lugals the who hadpossessedthepowerto settle conflicts among the Sumerian city-states.For firstthe time, Sumer and Akkad were united politically. Not content with control ofSumerand Akkad,Sargon launchedan ambitious campaign ofconquest to the north andwest. Hemarched up the EuphratesRiver, winning controlofMARI the city-state alongtheof way, and made himself king SYRIA, of eastern includingthe city-state of EBLA. The Akkadian capital under Sargonwas the city Akkad. of Likethe king's origins, it is surrounded bymystery. Accordingtosome accounts, Sargon foundedAkkad as a new city somewhere nearthesiteofpresentday Baghdad. However, the earliest mentionof thecity occursin atext from before Sargon's time.If thatsource isaccurate, Sargon may nothave 17

Akkad and the Akkadians

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * tell mound, especially in the ancient Near East, that consists of the remains of successive settlements

The Curse of Akkad One of many literary accounts of the Akkadian empire is an epic poem called The Curse of Akkad, written in the Sumerian language several centuries after the fall of the empire. It praises Sargon as a bringer of prosperity and peace, beloved of the gods, but it portrays his grandson Naram-Sin as a "misfortune-prone ruler." As Naram-Sin's empire fades, the king recklessly angers the gods. They punish him by sending barbar ian hordes to tear the city of Akkad apart. Although the poem dramatically describes the dangers of defying the gods, evidence shows that the city did, in fact, survive for some time after Naram-Sin's death.

created the city but may have enlarged and improved it instead. The exact location of the city of Akkad is unknown. Although it was inhabited for hundreds of years after the fall of the Akkadian empire, the city eventually disappeared. Modern archaeologists* have yet to find what may remain of it buried within tells*. Though information about the city of Akkad is cloudy, it is clear that the city was prosperous and impressive. It had temples, palaces, and broad avenues. Ships bearing trade goods from the Persian Gulf moored at its docks along the river. Sargon's reign ended with his death in about 2279 B.C., but Mesopotamians long remembered him as a dazzlingly successful monarch. One inscription from the period of his reign states: ''Sargon, the king of Kish, was victorious in thirty-four battles and destroyed walls as far as the edges of the sea. . . . Sargon, the king of Kish: Enlil has given him no equal. 5,400 men daily eat in his presence." The reference to destroying walls has to do with Sargon's conquest of walled cities. ENLIL was the patron god of Nippur and the supreme god of Mespotamian religion. The "5,400 men" probably refers to Sargon's army. He was the first Mesopotamian ruler to maintain a large permanent fighting force. Because this army depended directly on the king for food and rewards, it was extremely loyal to him. The Sons of Sargon. Rimush, one of Sargon's sons, inherited the Akkadian throne after his father's death. The Sumerian city-states rebelled against him, however, and most of his nine-year rule was spent bringing the rebellious cities under control. The process was violent. INSCRIPTIONS made during Rimush's reign mention the slaughter or enslavement of thousands of people. A plot within the palace led to Rimush's murder, and his brother Manishtushu took the throne. The new king strengthened Akkadian control over a region of southwestern IRAN and also sent his navy into the Persian Gulf. Manishtushu lasted longer on the throne than Rimush—15 years—but like his brother, he died in a palace conspiracy. He was followed on the throne by his son and Sargon's grandson NARAM-SIN, a key figure in the Sargonic dynasty. Naram-Sin. During a reign that lasted from about 2254 B.C. until 2218 B.C., Naram-Sin turned the realm he had inherited into a true empire. He claimed the right to conquer and rule without limits and took the title "king of the four quarters" to show that his power extended to the ends of the earth. Naram-Sin also took another step. Instead of declaring that his power came from the gods, he claimed that he was a god. He was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make such a claim. Naram-Sin tried to enlarge his empire in all directions. He invaded and conquered parts of Syria in the west, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the north, and the region called Elam, in present-day Iran, in the east. His success may have inspired his enemies at home to plot against him. The Sumerian city-states, desperate to regain independence, won support from foreign allies and rebelled against him several times. After NaramSin put down these rebellions, he had himself named the patron god of the city of Akkad.

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Akkad and the Akkadians

* nomad personwhotravelsfrom place to place to find food andpasture

The Fall of Akkad. Thereign ofNaram-Sin was thehigh point of the Akkadian empire.Hisson, Shar-kali-sharri,wasunableorunwillingto act as ruler over such a vast area.Hegaveup thetitle "kingoffour thequarters" and called himself "kingof Akkad."Shar-kali-sharri reigned for about 25 years, during whichhelost series a ofwars. These defeatsnibbled away at the territories that Naram-Sin hadconquered. Eventually, the mighty empire shrank to include only theregion around thecapital city. Among the enemies who were moving into formerAkkadian territories werethe AMORITES, Semitic-speaking nomads* whowere migrating into Mesopotamiafrom the northwest. Shar-kali-sharri fought them in Syria. The Gutians, another nomadic people, entered Mesopotamia from the Zagros Mountains to the east. TheMesopotamians regarded the Gutians as crude barbarians. Although some ancient accountsandmodern historians saythat the Gutian attacks caused final the collapseof the Akkadian empire, it ismore likely that theempire dwindled bit bybit. The Gutians may simply have taken advantageofAkkad's increasing weakness. Drought, famine, andother conditions mayhave contributed to that weakness. The Sargonic dynasty survivedforsome40years afterthedeath of Shar-kali-sharriin about B.C.2193 Bythen, however, Akkad was just a minor city-state. Mesopotamia's first empirewasonlyamemory,but it was one that would notfade.

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Akkad and the Akkadians

LIFEIN THE AKKADIAN EMPIRE Life in the Akkadian empirewas a blendof traditional elements and new forms of organization introducedby Sargonand his successors, especially Naram-Sin. Onefeature ofAkkadian culturewas its interestin the new and unusual. That quality appears in the many inscriptions Naram-Sin ordered made during his reign. They stress accomplishments suchas hunting indifficult terrain and discoveringnewroutes.

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

Political Organization. Sargon began the political reorganization of Sumer andAkkad, and Naram-Sin carriedit out.Thekingslet vassal* the city-states continue to have their own ensis,or rulers,but they oftenappointed menfromAkkad filltothose offices.In this way, the kings tried to maintain tradition while at the same time strengthening their own hold on conquered territory. They maintained ties with ensisthe bymaking frequent visits to their cities.In turn ensis thewere requiredtorepresent their cities before the king, which meant that they had tomak frequent trips to the capital. The kings built templesand fortressesfor the use ofAkkadian priests and officials in conquered states. They also based loyal soldiers in the southern citiesso that they could head off rebellions. A carved pillar calledthe Obeliskof Manishtushtu records that that king seized huge expansesof landin Sumer.Heprobablydid thisin order to parcel it out to his nobles and other supporters, and it islikely that the other kings did the same. Rewarding officials and soldiers with land gave monarchs a way of paying for loyalty.It also beganthe processof turning what was once enemy territory into land occupied by theruler's own people. Agriculture and Trade. One of the most significant achievements of the Akkadian empirewas turning AGRICULTURE Mesopotamian into a centralized, state-run operation. Agricultural productionwas the source of Akkad's wealth, and the Akkadian kings ordered large numbers of people to move to new areasso they could createa more efficient farming enterprise. The Akkadian rulers and the officials who carriedout their orders moved the people of many smaller citiesand towns intothe larger cities. Urban residents providedthe labor forcefor the large estatesnow claimed by the empire. Imperial* administrators determined what crops wouldbe grown and collected part of the harvestas taxes. Taxes sometimes amounted to as much as 70 percent of the food harvestedand were shipped by riverboat to the capital. The Sargonic agricultural system increased grain production in northern Mesopotamia. The Akkadians also introduceda new unitofmeasurement calledthe Akkad gur, equal to about one bushel or 30 liters.It replacedall other units of measurement in the empire.The gurenabled officialsto accurately measure, record, and control the production offarms the and the traffic of the markets. Goods from all over western Asia flowed into Akkad duringthe Sargonic period. Some entered by trade; some were seizedas lootby

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Akkad and the Akkadians * imperial pertaining an empire

* deity god or goddess

to an

emperor

conquering armies. Both Sargon andNaram-Sin looked to theedges of or their empire for goods not available in itsheartland. Sargon claimedto have received a cedar forest and asilver mountain fromthe godDagan, who granted him authority over eastern Syria.These items were valuable resources of northern Mesopotamia, Syria,and Anatolia. Naram-Sin made a similar claim. A number of inscriptionsfromthe reignsof the Sargonic kings mention places along importantoverland trade routes, such as those linking Mesopotamia to Iran in the east and to themetal-rich Taurus Mountains in the north. TheAkkadians also traded by seawith Dilmun and Makkan, ports on the western coastof thePersian Gulf,andwith Melukkha, which was located acrossthe ArabianSea on thecoastof present-day Pakistan. Manishtushu seemstohave launchedanavalattack on Makkan, whichwas asourceofcopperfor theancient world. He returned not with copper, however,butwith blocksofdiorite. This hard, dark stone quarriedfrom the mountains near Makkanwasprizedby Akkadian sculptors. Religion. Traditional Akkadian religious belief was undoubtedlyvery similar to that of the Semitic peoplesofnorthern Mesopotamia. Among the most important deities* were Shamash (godof thesun),Sin(godof the moon),ISHTAR and (goddessof the planet Venus). AfterSumer and Akkad were joined, the Sumerian godsand goddesses gained importance, especiallyEnlil, the principal god,andInanna, fertility a goddess. Over time Inanna and Ishtar merged intoasingle figure. The Akkadians and those who came after themsometimes interpreted historic events as caused by the actionsofdeitieswhoeither favored or disapproved ofparticular kings. Some chroniclesandinscriptions, for example,say thatSargonhad special favorin theeyes ofIshtar. One of Naram-Sin's deedswasregarded lesskindly, however. Naram-Sin decided to rebuild the old templeof EnlilinNippur. Lavishdecorations of silver and gold were planned for this ambitious building project, which Naram-Sin left to one of the later kings Akkad of to complete. Later accountsof the fallof Akkad claim that Enlildestroyed theempire because he was angry atNaram-Sin'schangesin histemple. The Arts. One of the most striking figuresof theSargonicera was Enkheduanna, a daughter of Sargon.Theking madeherhigh priestessof the moon god Sin atURin order to strengthen thelink between Sumer and Akkad. She held this position intothe reignofNaram-Sin.Enkheduanna is said to have written a number ofliterary works in theSumerian language. One is a hymn ofpraiseto the goddess Inanna/Ishtar. Another tells how the priestess, drivenout of Ur in arevolt, begs Inanna/Ishtartohelp her. The goddess doesso, and Enkheduannaisrestoredto herposition. Artworks created in the Akkadian empire havealively, individual quality new to the era.Perfectly shaped andprecisely carved cylinder SEALS, when rolledon damp clay, create scenes ofbattles between animals and heroes and demons or ofbanquets attended by thegods. These scenesreflect a timeof uncertaintyaswell as asense ofchange and new possibilities. 21

Alaca Hiiyiik * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

One of the most important surviving artworks from the Akkadian empire is a carved limestone stela* called the Victory Stela of Naram-Sin. Discovered in A.D. 1898 at Susa, it was ordered by Naram-Sin around 2240 B.C. to honor his victory over eastern hill tribes. Centuries later an Elamite king carried it off to Susa as a trophy. It depicts the boldly striding figure of the king standing with one foot atop two fallen victims and gazing triumphantly at a mountain crowned by suns or stars. No other image better captures the aggressiveness, energy, and confidence of the Akkadian empire at its height.

THE LEGACY OF AKKAD The Akkadian empire was short lived, but its contributions to Near Eastern culture and history were long lasting. The Akkadian empire gave Mesopotamia the Akkadian language, which became the principal spoken language of the region after about 1800 B.C. The chief legacy of the original Akkadians, though, was the idea of empire. Sargon and his dynasty showed that a unified state, larger than the city-states, could be forged and could be used to amass wealth. It would not be long before other kings would attempt to do the same. One of them in Assyria would even take the name of Sargon, a ruler always remembered by Mesopotamians as the hero of a glorious era. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Elam and the Elamites; Sargon II; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

Alaca Hiiyiik

ALALAKH * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

22

See Anatolia.

T

he ancient Syrian city of Alalakh (A»la«lak) flourished as a trading center in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (about 2200 to 1200 B.C.). This important archaeological site has yielded significant information about the Bronze Age cultures of SYRIA and neighboring areas. The site—now called Tell Atchana—is located near the mouth of the Orontes River in southern Turkey, just north of the Syrian border. From the 1700s to the 1300s B.C., the city was the capital of a vassal* state of the kingdoms of Yamkhad, centered in the modern Syrian city of Aleppo, and then of Mitanni. During this period, the population of Alalakh had a mix of ethnic groups, including West Semites and HURRIANS. With a strategic location, the city was raided by several peoples, including the Egyptians and the Hurrians. It was destroyed sometime after 1200 B.C., perhaps by the SEA PEOPLES. Excavations at the site have revealed 17 settlement levels that may reach as far back as 2400 B.C. The city was an administrative center and also a religious one. Included in the ruins are a large two- or three-story

Alexander the Great

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

ALEXANDER THE GREAT lived 356-323 B.C.

King of Macedonia and world conqueror

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory

palace and a three-room temple. In addition to showing changes in styles of ARCHITECTURE, the excavations provide clues to the city's history and its political and social development. Wall frescoes* found at two levels show the influence of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of ancient Crete. Artifacts* include seals that reveal the influence of many different cultures, colorful glass beads that reflect a thriving local industry, and many elephant tusks. Alalakh, it seems, was the center of a thriving ivory trade. Perhaps the most significant artifacts discovered at Alalakh are more than 500 texts and text fragments on CLAY TABLETS from two distinct periods of Alalakh's history, most written in Akkadian CUNEIFORM. These written texts, which include deeds, contracts, lists of people and their occupations, and inventories of possessions, have provided detailed information about the social and economic life of the city. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Palaces and Temples; Wall Paintings.)

A

lexander III of Macedonia, known to history as Alexander the Great, was the most successful military leader of the ancient world. His influence on the Near East was immense. By conquering the Persian empire, Alexander became ruler of the entire region. He then extended his rule over lands in Central Asia and India. The Greek culture that he brought to the Near East remained a strong force in the region for three centuries after his death.

ALEXANDER'S MILITARY CAREER Alexander III came to the throne of Macedonia at the age of 20, after the assassination of his father, King Philip II. Macedonia had gained control over Greece after the Peloponessian Wars, when Philip successfully conquered the disunited and warring Greek city-states*. In fact, Alexander was instrumental in the final and decisive battle of the war. He inherited a well-trained army and his father's plan to invade Persia. The Greeks and Persians had fought a series of wars from 492 to 479 B.C., and the Greeks were angry that their colonies in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) had remained under Persian control. Before Alexander could pursue this goal, he first had to spend two years crushing revolts in Macedonia and Greece. Only when his control was secure did he prepare to lead his army of about 40,000 Macedonian and Greek soldiers into Persian territory. First Conquests. In 334 B.C., Alexander began a remarkable period of conquest by crossing the narrow waterway known as the Hellespont, which separated Europe from Anatolia. One by one Alexander defeated the satraps*, freeing coastal Greek colonies from Persian rule. His fame grew after he defeated the much larger army of the Persian emperor DARIUS III in the battle of Issus. When Darius fled, Alexander tightened his grip on the western parts of the empire.

23

Alexander the Great He next captured the port TYRE,city the of Persian naval baseon the after an eight-month siege*. Duringthesiege,he * siege long and persistent effort toforce Mediterranean Sea, a surrender by surroundingafortressor received anoffer of alliance from Darius. Alexander refused it,declaring city with armed troops, cutting it off that in thefuture Darius must addresshim askingof Asia. all from supplies and aid Alexander then marched to Egypt. TheEgyptians, who hadbeen conquered years beforeby the Persiansandresented Persian rule,offered no resistance. Alexander paid hisrespectsto thegodsof theEygptians and visited the oracle*of the Egyptian AMUN.There godhe was * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the declared to be the son ofAmunand thus therightful kingofEgypt.At location (such as a shrine) where such the mouth of the NileRiver, Alexander founded a newcity called utterances are made Alexandria. During his conquests, hefounded many other cities with this name, but the one in Egypt became thegrandest andmost important. For many centuries, the city servedas acenteroflearning and trade for a diversemix of peoples from acrossthe Mediterranean world and the NearEast. Pursuit of Darius. Alexander next turned MESOPOTAMIA east toward and Persia, the heart of the Persian empire. B.C., hecrossed In 331 the Euphrates and TigrisRivers. AtGaugamelainMesopotamia,heonce again achieved a brilliant victory overalarger Persian forcecommandedby Darius. Once again, Darius escaped. Alexander'sarmy proceeded to occupy the PersianBABYLON, cities ofPERSEPOLIS. SUSA, and Before burning Persepolis to the ground, the army looted it. TheRoman historian Plutarch later wrote that it took 10,000mules and5,000 camels tocarry away the gold and silver from the royal treasury.

24

Alexander the Great Alexander the Great, depicted in this mosaic from the first century A.D., was a lively and fearless youth who was encouraged from a very early age to pursue both his intellectual and military goals. This detail depicts him at the battle of Issus in 333 B.C., where he defeated the army of Persian king Darius III. Alexander was also a great admirer of Greek culture and aspired to be like the Greek heroes he read about in the works of such writers as Euripedes and Homer.

The Voyage of Nearchus When Alexander returned to Persia from India, he arranged for some troops to make the journey by sea. He ordered a general named Nearchus to use riverboats to scout I the route between the mouth of the Indus River and the Persian Gulf, Alexander hoped to establish sea traffic between India and the Near East, and he needed more information about currents, winds, and harbors. It was a perilous voyage, and the fleet had great difficulty finding food and freshwater along the way, When Nearchus eventually arrived at Alexander's camp, he was ragged, thin, and barely recognizable. Still, he was able to announce that the ships and crew had arrived safely. Alexan- J der declared that the news of the fleet's survival gave him more joy than the conquest of all Asia.

In 330 B.C., Alexander pursued Darius into a region near the Caspian Sea on the northern border of Persian territory. Before he could capture his enemy, however, the satrap Bessus and other nobles murdered Darius. When Alexander learned of this event, he took the title "great king of Persia" for himself and ordered that Darius be buried with military honors. Bessus named himself king and led the remaining Persian forces east into CENTRAL ASIA. Central Asia and India. Alexander pursued Bessus, and in 328 B.C., he reached BACTRIA, where he met with fierce resistance from the local people. It took almost three years for Alexander to gain control of this area. He managed to do so partly by conquest and partly by making alliances with local leaders. One such alliance included his marriage to Roxane, a noblewoman from Sogdiana (in present-day Uzbekistan). Alexander's area of operations had now moved well beyond the Near East. He had crossed the rugged and forbidding Hindu Kush mountains and captured the town of Maracanda (also called Samarkand), an ancient stopping point for the CARAVANS that carried goods between China, India, Persia, and the Near East. Along the way, he had captured Bessus and had him executed for killing Darius. He had also been forced to put down several rebellions among his own nobles. Alexander was determined to push his conquest eastward into new and unknown lands. In 327 B.C., he marched his army across the Indus River into India. He captured a series of towns in northwestern India but began to have trouble with his own soldiers, who were exhausted by seven years of fighting and wished to return to their homes. When Alexander announced his plan to march still farther east, the army refused. The disappointed conqueror agreed to go home. 25

Alexander the Great

The Gordian Knot Alexander the Great is credited with untying, or perhaps just cutting, the Gordian knot. This complex knottied by Gordius or his son Midas, king of Phrygia—attached a chariot to a pole. Legend held that whoever loosened the knot would rule Asia, Many tried and failed. Some myths say that Alexander figured out how to untie it; others say that he cut through it with his sword. The phrase cutting the Cordian knot has come to mean finding an easy solution to a difficult problem.

Return and Death. The route back to familiar territory lay through southern Persia, a region of inhospitable desert. The army suffered from this march more than from any of its earlier campaigns. More than half the troops died from thirst, starvation, and exhaustion. Alexander reached Susa after an absence of five years to find that his vast empire had not been well run in his absence. Some officials he had left to govern the conquered lands had proven greedy and quarrelsome. Alexander dealt harshly with them. He married Darius's eldest daughter and had himself declared a god, steps that were meant to strengthen his hold over his conquests. In the spring of 323 B.C., Alexander was in Babylon, planning future campaigns, including an invasion of Arabia. He began to suffer from a rising fever. A short time later, Alexander the Great was dead at the age of 32. He had never lost a battle, and he had conquered a huge empire. Although his wars were highly destructive, he had also founded many new communities and had encouraged new forms of agriculture and trade in the lands under his control.

ALEXANDER'S LEGACY Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Alexander's one son with Roxane was born after the conqueror's death, but the child did not live long enough to inherit his father's throne. Alexander's legacy to the Near East and the rest of the ancient world lay in the kings who came after him and, even more important, in the Hellenistic* period that resulted from his career. For 300 years after Alexander's death, the Greek influence that he had spread was a major cultural force in the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. There it blended with the indigenous cultures to produce entirely new sets of traditions. The Successor Kingdoms. When Alexander died, the throne was declared to be held jointly by Alexander's sickly half brother, Philip III, and the son, Alexander IV, born to Roxane after Alexander's death. Soon, however, Alexander's generals and nobles began fighting over the empire he had built. Two of the most successful generals were Seleucus I and PTOLEMY I. Seleucus gained control of Syria and Persia, where he established the SELEUCID EMPIRE and a dynasty* that would include more than two dozen kings. Ptolemy became king of Egypt in 304 B.C. He founded a dynasty that would continue through 14 rulers, ending with CLEOPATRA. The Hellenistic World. Alexander's ambition was grand; he wanted to create a single empire that unified the entire known world. The political state he forged did not endure, but indirectly he did create a kind of unity. Wherever his army went, it set up military camps and colonies that included women and children. Many of these colonies eventually grew into towns and cities. Under Alexander, hundreds of thousands of people from Greece and Macedonia settled in the Near East. They spoke Greek, read Greek poems and plays, and built Greek structures such as

26

Alphabets theaters and gymnasiums. Those communities did not disappear after Alexander died. Trade and communication between Greece and the Near Eastern world also grew. Using the gold and silver taken from treasuries such as the one at Persepolis, Alexander increased the production of coins to pay his soldiers. The increased flow of a single coinage system made the exchange of goods easier over a wide range of territory. Economically and culturally, the Greek influence on the Near East was strong. By the end of the Hellenistic period, a form of Greek known as the koine (common) dialect had become the chief language of trade throughout the region and was the universal second language of privileged and educated people. While Greek influence spread, the traditional ways of life and beliefs of the peoples of the Near East endured. These people did not become Greek, and the extent to which they were influenced by Greek culture varied. Cities were more likely to show this influence than rural regions, for instance. Greek culture, then, did not do away with earlier customs, cultures, and languages, but it added to the region's rich cultural mix. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Hellenistic World; Persian Wars.)

ALPHABETS

A

n alphabet is a group of signs that express, in written form, the individual sounds people make when they speak a language. Other communication systems that used written symbols existed before the development of the alphabet, but they were complex and difficult to learn. Use of a simplified alphabet made it much easier for people to read and write because they had fewer signs to learn.

ORIGINS OF ALPHABETIC WRITING Scholars make a distinction between an alphabet and an "aleph-beth." An alphabet has signs to represent consonants (b, c, d, f, and so on) and vowels (a, e, i, o, and u). An aleph-beth is similar to an alphabet but has signs to represent consonants only. The first true alphabet was developed by the ancient Greeks, but they drew on earlier aleph-beths that had been created in the ancient Near East. Forerunners of the Alphabet. An alphabet is a phonetic writing system— one in which individual units of sound, called phonemes, are represented by distinct signs. Examples are the sounds \a\ and \b\. Another type of phonetic writing system uses signs to stand for syllables — speech units made up of more than one phoneme. These usually involve a consonant and a vowel, such as \ab\ and \ba\. A third type of writing system uses signs that stand for complete words, regardless of how many syllables each word contains. The earliest writing systems, which first came into use around 3200 B.C. in ancient Sumer and about 3000 B.C. in Egypt, were of these last two 27

Alphabets Letters as Numbers In some societies, letters were given numerical values, a system known as alphabetic numeration. In Hebrew, for instance, the first letter, aleph, was "one/' beth was "two," and so on. The system was commonly used to show when coins were minted—letters with the correct number value were placed on the coin to indicate the year. Over time, some people used alphabetic numeration as a way to find hidden meaning in a text. Because each letter stood for a number, the letters in a word could be "added up" to give a numerical value for the word. Jewish rabbis used the numerical values of the consonants in given words to search for hidden meanings in the Hebrew Bible, for instance.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artifact ornament, tool, weapon or other object made by humans * archeologkal referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

types. The writing system of the ancient Sumerians is known as CUNEIFORM, while that of the Egyptians is called HIEROGLYPHICS. Other peoples of ancient MESOPOTAMIA adopted the Sumerian form of writing. At first, cuneiform contained only word signs. This required hundreds of different signs, making the writing system difficult to learn and use. The Sumerians eventually developed signs for syllables, which they used in combination with word signs. When the Egyptians created hieroglyphs, probably using the Sumerian system as a model, they added signs representing a single consonant, making them almost like the signs that are part of an alphabet. The Egyptians did not have a true alphabet, however, because their writing system was not made exclusively of signs of this type and because these single sounds did not include vowels. An Early Alcph Beth. During the 2000s B.C., Egyptian and Mesopotamian culture spread to other parts of the Near East. The peoples of these areas adopted the idea of writing, but they created new ways of writing to meet the needs of their own languages. Peoples who spoke SEMITIC LANGUAGES made important contributions to the development of an alphabet. These developments took place in the area called the Levant*. The earliest samples of this new form of writing, dating from between 1850 and 1500 B.C., are found in several short INSCRIPTIONS cut in stone in a temple on the SINAI PENINSULA. Some of the signs in the inscriptions closely resemble Egyptian hieroglyphics and were probably based on them. The inscriptions contain fewer than 30 signs, although the exact number is unknown because the signs are poorly preserved. Other evidence of this form of writing comes from artifacts* found at archaeological* sites in SYRIA. The signs in this writing are linear, meaning they were made of combinations of straight and curved lines. This form of writing had not yet developed into a standardized system. The shapes of letters vary greatly, and there is a wide variation in the direction of the writing—from left to right, right to left, and up and down. Experts believe that these different writing systems changed as people looked for ways to better represent their language in writing. They were probably created by people speaking Canaanite, a group of related Semitic languages from the period. Experts thus refer to these writing systems as the proto-Canaanite, meaning the "earliest form of Canaanite/' aleph-beth. The Cuneiform Aleph-Beth. The cuneiform writing of ancient Mesopotamia consisted of signs made up of wedge-shaped marks. By the 1300s B.C., some Semitic-speaking peoples of northern Syria had begun using cuneiform-type signs for a new kind of writing based on phonemes. Almost all evidence for this cuneiform aleph-beth comes from the ancient Syrian city of UGARIT, though some have been found in Lebanon and Israel as well. Artifacts found in Ugarit include more than 1,400 CLAY TABLETS written in a variety of languages and dating from the 1300s to the 1200s B.C. The cuneiform aleph-beth of Ugarit at first contained about 30 signs. The existence of a written sequence of these letters shows that they were

28

Alphabets arranged in a set order written from left to right. Thisrepresents, then,a standardized systemof writing. Some experts believe thatthe cuneiform aleph-beth of Ugarit was based, at least in part, on the proto-Canaanite aleph-beths then in use throughout the rest of the Levant.

SPREAD OF ALEPH-BETH THE Political and social upheavals troubled the Levant beginning in the 1100s B.C. During this time, the cuneiform writingof Ugarit died out, while the linear aleph-beth used by other Semitic-speaking peoples remained in use, perhaps becauseit was simpler.Our alphabetis basedon this linear writing system. The Phoenician Aleph-Beth. B.C., By theabout linear1000 Semitic writing system had developed into a standardized aleph-beth of consonants used by the Phoenicians. The aleph-beth of the Phoenicians contained 22 consonants, fewer than in earlier Semitic systems. Thiswas due to differences in the sounds between Phoenician and other Semitic languages and to the use of one sign to representdifferent two consonants. Each letter in the aleph-beth had a name, firstthesound of which corresponded to the sound that the sign represented. first The

29

Alphabets letter was aleph, the Phoenician word for "ox," and the second was beth, which meant "house." The direction of writing was standardized from right to left. The Phoenician aleph-beth spread throughout the Levant, where it became modified to fit the needs of other languages. It also spread south to Arabia, east to Mesopotamia, and northwest to Greece. The Aramaeans adopted the aleph-beth to represent the sounds of their own language. This was an important step in the spread of the aleph-beth. In the 800s and 700s B.C., the Assyrian empire adopted the Aramaic language as the official language of government and business. Because Assyria was a major world power, Aramaic became an international language. As a result, the Aramaic version of the aleph-beth spread quickly throughout the ancient Near East and beyond. Inscriptions from the 800s B.C. that use this system of writing have been found in ANATOLIA, on the island of CYPRUS, throughout Syria and the Levant, on the Arabian peninsula, and in Mesopotamia.

Decoding Ugaritic Identifying the letters of an alphabet is like breaking a code. Copies of the first clay tablets written in Ugaritic were published soon after their discovery in A.D. 1929, Language experts immediately began trying to understand the new language, and three used dell tective skills to win success. Charles Virolfeaud identified consonants used in spelled out numbers in lists of inventory based on the words for numbers in other Semitic languages. Hans Bauer used his understanding of Semitic grammar to isolate other letters. A final puzzle was solved in 1933, when Johannes Friedrich explained why there were three different forms of the consonant ctkph; the form depended on the vowel that followed.

30

The South Semitic Aleph Beth. The Phoenician aleph-beth was not the only writing system that grew out of the early proto-Canaanite aleph-beth. By the 800s B.C. another form of writing had appeared on the Arabian peninsula. Most archaeological evidence of this system comes from inscriptions on pottery fragments, clay tablets, and rocks. Known as the South Semitic aleph-beth, this writing system consisted of 29 letters and was usually written from right to left. The forms of the letters in this system were distinctive. Most consisted of simple geometric shapes—straight lines meeting at 45- or 90-degree angles, full circles, and half circles. The South Semitic letters eventually developed into the Arabic alphabet of today. The Greek Alphabet. By at least the early 700s B.C., people in Greece had adopted the Phoenician aleph-beth, probably as a result of commercial contacts between Greeks and Phoenicians. This adoption had a major impact on the later development of European languages. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, the form and position of letters were not yet standardized. Neither was the direction in which words were written. Some inscriptions read from right to left; others read from left to right. In some cases, the lines even run alternately from right to left and then from left to right. The aleph-beth borrowed by the Greeks had 22 consonants. The Greeks adopted the consonants that represented sounds found in their own language, but they also made two important contributions. They transformed consonants not useful to them into vowels (aleph became a and ayin became o), and they added letters, including vowels, to represent sounds found in their own language. The addition of vowel sounds made it easier to be precise in reading and understanding Greek. From Greek colonies in Italy, the alphabet spread to the ancient Etruscans, with whom they traded, and then to the Romans. The Romans modified the alphabet into a form that became the basis for all western European languages, including English. (See also Languages; Record Keeping; Seals; Writing.)

Amarna

AMARNA

sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol. 2).

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

A

mama (uh«MAR«nuh), also known as Tell el-Amarna, is the presentday name for a site in central Egypt that contains the ruins of the ancient city of AKHETATEN and nearby tombs. Amarna is the largest of the few ancient Egyptian cities that have been found and has been carefully excavated. It has yielded important information on the politics of ancient Egypt and striking examples of Egyptian art.

The Ancient City. The city of Akhetaten was built by King AKHENATEN in the 1350s B.C. as the new capital of Egypt. He built the city to honor the god ATEN, whom he hoped to make the chief god of the Egyptians. The ruins of the city stretch about 15 miles on the east bank of the NILE RIVER. East of the city lay the tomb of Akhenaten and his family and the tombs of royal officials. The largest building of the city was the Great Temple of the Aten. It consisted of a series of walled courts that led to an open-air sanctuary*. Near the Great Temple was a palace, which was probably the main residence of the king. There were also a group of administrative buildings just south of the palace and a smaller palace that housed at least two queens, including one of Akhenaten's daughters. Wealthy families lived in large houses that contained shrines and stelae* depicting scenes of the family life of King Akhenaten. Families of workers lived in simple row houses. Most of the buildings in Amarna were made of mud brick—bricks made from mud and straw and then water mixed together and baked in the sun. Akhetaten remained the capital of Egypt during the 17 years of Akhenaten's reign and for several years after his death. After that, the capital was returned to the city of THEBES, and Akhetaten was largely abandoned. Much of the city was demolished, in part as a reaction against the religious changes that King Akhenaten had tried to put in place. Exploring the City. The site of the ancient city has been investigated extensively by archaeologists*. As early as A.D. 1714, a French missionary published drawings of stelae from Amarna. In the 1820s, Sir John Gardner Wilkinson produced plans of the entire city, as well as drawings of many of the buildings and tombs. The first modern archaeological work at Amarna was an excavation led by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie in the early 1890s. Several other expeditions followed. A major find was discovered inside the administrative buildings. In 1887, local residents found CLAY TABLETS inscribed with the CUNEIFORM writing used in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. More were found later by archaeologists, and now about 380 of these tablets have been recovered. A few of them are scholarly works, including literary texts and vocabulary lists. Most of them, however, are letters sent to the Egyptian king from rulers of other kingdoms in the Near East. For this reason, they are known as the Amarna letters. The letters reveal a great deal about the political and economic history of the Egyptian empire during Akhenaten's reign. The ancient city has also provided many examples of Egyptian art. The walls, floors, and ceilings in many of the houses were covered with paintings. Tombs were decorated with drawings and painted bas-reliefs*. 31

Amorites

* bust statue of a subject's head, neck, and shoulders

AMORITES 32

These works provide a rich source of information aboutthe lifedaily and religion of Egyptin the time of Akhetaten. The art foundat Amarna reflectsa revolutionary style ofEgyptian art that was inspired byKing Akhenaten duringhis reign.TheAmarna style of art was characterizedby more movementand amore realisticand natural depiction of human figures thanwas trueof earlier or later Egyptian art. This styleis revealedin a famous NEFERTITI, bust* Akhenaten's of wife and the queen of Egypt, that wasfoundat the site. In addition, sculptors of the Amarna period invented the composite statue, that is, a statue madeof separate pieces that were thenassembled to form the wholefigure. The statues were painted in brilliant colors and decorated with glass. While the Amarna style of art produced some impressive achievements, it died out soon after the reignofAkhenaten ended. This development may be related to the collapse of the king's plan to build a new religion aroundthe worship ATEN. also (See of Bas-Reliefs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

A

group of peoplewho LANGUAGE, SEMITIC spokea the Amorites (A«muh«ryts) werea significant forcein the ancient Near Eastfor a few centuries. Although much about them isuncertain, it isclear they dominated MESOPOTAMIA, SYRIA,and the Levant* from about 2000 to 1600B.C.

that

Amorites * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

The Amorites did not have a written language, so there are no documents written by the Amorites themselves, although many Amorite words and expressions are embedded in Akkadian texts. There are also no artifacts* known for certain to be of Amorite origin. As a result, it is difficult for historians to piece together an accurate picture of who they were or where they came from. Much of what is known about the Amorites comes from Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and biblical sources. The Amorites lived in Syria, following a nomadic* life based on tending flocks of sheep and goats. They began entering Mesopotamia when the kingdom of UR was collapsing. Records from Mesopotamia put the Amorites in the region at least as early as 2200 B.C. By around 2000 B.C., they were beginning to influence Mesopotamian political history. They may have been looking for economic benefits of an association with the settled cities there, or they may have been putting military pressure on Ur. From about 2050 to 2035 B.C., the rulers of Ur tried to keep the Amorites out by building a wall from the EUPHRATES RIVER to the TIGRIS RIVER just north of present-day Baghdad. As central power broke down, cities began to hire Amorites as mercenaries*. Soon individuals of Amorite descent became rulers in many of the small independent kingdoms that emerged. By about 1900 B.C., Amorites were in full control of a number of Mesopotamian cities, including BABYLON, KISH, Larsa, Sippar, and URUK. Amorite dynasties* arose in these and other cities within a fairly short time. One of the most famous rulers of Amorite descent was HAMMURABI, the king of Babylon. Another prominent Amorite king was SHAMSHI-ADAD I, who carved for himself and his sons a state that eventually included almost all of upper Mesopotamia. Around 1800 B.C., the Amorites also established a kingdom in the city of MARI in Syria. Its records provide historians with vital information on the region during this period. Soon after, the city fell to Hammurabi, and the kingdom of Khana was established along the Euphrates to the city of Terqa, north of Mari. In most areas where the Amorites took power, they adopted local customs, beliefs, and institutions. Some Amorites cemented their power by marrying into ruling families. They began to use local forms of kingship and took ancient Mesopotamian titles. Still, a number of Amorite rulers used titles that reflected their own origins as well. The continued use of such titles suggests that Amorite rulers remained well aware of their heritage generations after their ancestors had assumed power. Because of their shared heritage, Amorite rulers counted on the support of Amorites who ruled other cities. By 1600 B.C., the Amorite tribes of Mesopotamia were being forced westward by invasions of HURRIANS from the north and KASSITES from the east. From this time forward, it becomes increasingly difficult to follow the history of the Amorites. Ancient sources suggest that they established small kingdoms in Syria, the southern Levant, and northern Arabia. The Hebrew Bible refers to the Amorites as one of the groups that the Israelites eventually pushed out of Canaan. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Chronology; Cities and City-States; Ethnic and Language Groups; King Lists; Languages; Nomads and Nomadism.) 33

Amulets and Charms

AMULETS ANDCHARMS See color plate4, vol.4.

* scarab representation of the dung beetle, held assacred to Egyptians

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* ankh cross with a loop at the top; Egyptian symbol of life * deity god orgoddess

A

n amulet is a small object that isthought tohave supernaturalor magical powers. People in allparts of the ancient Near Eastused amulets to protect them from harm,bring good fortune, or both.Amulets intended to bring good luckaresometimes called talismansorcharms.It is not always easyto distinguish JEWELRY amulets from or ordinary theSEALS commonly used throughouttheancient Near East. Many objects undoubtedlyfilled more thanone purpose.Aseal wornas anecklace or ring, for example, might also have been regardedby itsowneras an amulet or charm. Because amulets were socommon andbecause many were made out of hard materials that preserve well, many have been discovered. They have added greatly to our understanding of theculturesof theancient Near East. Types of Amulets. Some amulets were natural objects such asstones, herbs or other plants, shells, or animal bones, teeth, orclaws. These amulets were thought to share themagical properties possessed by the particular stone, plant, oranimal from which they were taken. Some amulets, such asscarabs*, were handcrafted. Other examples of handcrafted amulets include carved stones, metal medallions, small statues, and figurines. Thescarab, which originated inEgypt as asymbol of the sun god, was found throughout theMediterraneanfirst by the millennium B.C.*Lamellae, another type ofamulet, were thinsheets of inscribed metal (tin, lead, bronze, silver,orgold) thatwere rolled intocylinders, placed in small tubes, andworn around theneck. Craftworkers also inscribed words, images, orsigns with magical meaningsonsemiprecious stones, such as agate, quartz, carnelian,orlapis lazuli.

Uses of Amulets. Egyptians wore amulets hung fromtheir necks, attached to their wrists, or tied to their fingerswith thread orgold wire. Some amulets were clasps for necklacesor bracelets. Others were brooches. The Egyptians would place protective amulets in thewrappings of a corpse being mummifiedtohelpthedead personafterin the life. Along with the scarab, another popular symbolforamulets inEgypt was the ankh*. Some ancient Mesopotamian amulets feature imagesofdeities* or demons. Lamashtu, a demon daughter of the sky godbelieved to attack pregnant women andbabies, appeared onmany amulets. Ancient Mesopotamians may have worn herimage out of abelief that doing so would keepher away. The ancient Israelites placed amulets intended towardoffevilinside their tombs. Most Israelites amulets consisted ofsacred texts. Among the oldest known examples are twosmall silver scrolls from the late 600sB.C. that were found near Jerusalem. They contain versions of a biblical blessing. Another form of Israelite amulet was the phylactery, asmall container for a written prayer.TheIsraelites and Arabswore phylacteries and also fastened them to their doorpoststoserveasamuletsfortheir homes. Jewish wall paintings also contained amuletsin theformofmagicaland sacred symbols. Forexample, the image of a handwith down-pointing 34

Anat fingers, an ancient good-luck charm, was found on the wall of a Jewish tomb. (See also Magic.)

AMUN * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* cult formal religious worship

* deity god or goddess

See color plate 6, vol. 3.

ANAT Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan deity god or goddess

A

mun (AH«mun), also spelled Amen or Amon, was an Egyptian god who came to be considered the king of the gods. The name Amun meant "the hidden one," and according to ancient Egyptian hymns, even the other gods could not see Amun and did not know what he really looked like. In statues and other works of art, Amun was represented as a man with a beard and a crown of feathers. Often, he was shown sitting on a throne like a pharaoh*. Originally, Amun was the local god of the city of Hermopolis in central Egypt. Gradually, he became identified with the ancient sun god Ra and was sometimes called Amun-Ra. Around 2000 B.C., the cult* of Amun spread to THEBES, which had become the capital of Egypt, and a temple to Amun was built at nearby KARNAK. Amun's prestige became even greater during the fight against the HYKSOS, a group of invaders who controlled parts of Egypt from the 1630s to the 1520s B.C. The nobles of Thebes who succeeded in expelling the Hyksos fought under the banner of Amun. Before long, Amun became the chief god of the pharaohs and the most important god in all Egypt. The high priest of Amun was considered overseer of all the other priests of all the other deities*, and the wealth controlled by the cult of Amun was great. In the 1300s B.C., the pharaoh AKHENATEN tried to suppress the worship of Amun in favor of another god, ATEN. The new cult dedicated to Aten never took hold, however, and Amun remained a powerful force in Egyptian life. His appeal to the common people was based in part on the belief that Amun would protect the poor and humble in the courts. The cult of Amun remained popular for many centuries but was later displaced by the cults of Isis and OSIRIS.

A

nat (A»nat) was a warrior goddess worshiped by various peoples of ancient SYRIA and the Levant*. She was one of the chief deities* of the Canaanites, who considered her to be sister and wife of the god BAAL. Over time, Anat's popularity also spread to other regions of the ancient world. Although best known as a warrior goddess, Anat was also worshiped as the queen of heaven, as the mother of all gods, and as a fertility goddess. In ancient SCULPTURE, she is usually depicted as a beautiful young girl armed with a shield, spear, and battle club. Anat was a fierce and ruthless goddess. In one myth, she has a young hunter killed because she wants his magnificent bow. In other myths, she wades through the blood and gore of the enemies she has killed. She plays an important role in the Canaanite myths of the BAAL CYCLE. In one part of the story, she kills all of Baal's enemies, and in another, she aids in 35

Anatolia

* pharaoh king of ancient

ANATOLIA

Egypt

Baal's resurrection.Baal has been killedbyMot,theLordofDeath. When Anat avengesBaalby killing Mot, Baalisrestored life.to Anat later appeared in Egypt, probably brought backby theEgyptians when they conqueredSyria and Canaan. Egyptian pharaohs*, particularly RAMSESII and RAMSES III, worshiped Anat because she wassaid toprotect rulers in battle. Later the ancientGreeks transformed Anat intotheir goddess Athena. Jeremiah the prophet came fromatown called Anathoth that once may have been a shrine (See alsotoGods Anat.and Goddesses; Mythology.)

A

natolia (an«uh«TOH»lee«uh)is the westernmost part Asia of that makes up most of the present-day nationTurkey. of It was thesite of some of the earliest known permanent human settlements, forthouand sands of years, it has been the meeting placeofMediterranean, EastNear ern, and Central Asian cultures. Anatoliawas thehome of theHittite empire, apowerfulforce in the ancient world fromabout 1700toabout 1200B.C. Several other kingdoms also aroseinAnatolia. Afterabout500 B.C., the regionfell under Persianand then Macedonian control.In the 100sB.C., it becamea provincein the empireof theRomans.

Geography. Anatolia is apeninsula bounded byBlack the Sea to the north, the AEGEAN SEAto the west,and the Mediterranean Sea to thesouth. It is separated from Europe by a waterway thatlinks Black the and MediterraneanSeas. This waterway includestwonarrow straits*:the Bosporus on the east and the Dardanelles, known to theancients as the Hellespont, on the west. Betweenthe twostraits liesthe Sea ofMarmara. In ancient times, migrants, traders, and invading armies frequently crossed betweenAsia and Europe atthese straits. Most of Anatoliais a high central plateau surroundedbymountains. The plateau, which isbroken by lowmountain ridgesandmany valleys, has very cold winters and hot, drysummers. Theclimate of thewestern coast is milder and the soil more fertile. Ruggedmountains with onlya few easily crossed passes separatethe interior fromthis western coast. As a result, the people living in the west often hadcloser ties with the Aegean islands and with Greece thanthey didwith therestofAnatolia. In the southeast, mountains separate SYRIAand Anatolia from northern MESOPOTAMIA. In the south,the TaurusMountains formabarrier between the interior and the coastal plains. TheMediterranean coasthas fewgood harbors, unlike the Aegean coast. ThePontic Mountains, a highrange along the coast of the BlackSea, isolatethenorthern coastalfrom strip the interior. Rough terrain makes travel difficult almost everywhere inAnatolia, and water is scarce in some parts of the region. Settlementhasalways been concentrated in areas withadependable water supply.Theshapeof the land—many distinct regions separated bygeographical barriers such as mountains andvalleys—influenced Anatolia's history.Itencouraged the growth of small, independent local states. 36

Anatolia * strait narrow channel two bodies of water

that connects

* archaeologist scientist who studies human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 B.C.to 4000 * ninth millennium B.C. years to 8001 B.C.

from

* domesticated adapted or tamed for human use * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan

At the same time, Anatolia's location madeit acrossroads where languages, cultures, religions, and peoples met, clashed, and mingled. In ancient times,the regionsaw the arrivalofafter wavewave ofnewcomers from both the west and the east. These peoples mixed over time, so that Anatolia's languagesand cultures became extremely diverse. Geography shaped the history ofAnatolia in another way. ThePontic Mountains of the north werea rich sourceoflead, silver, copper,and iron. The Taurus Mountains of the south also held lead, silver, and iron. The region, then, was importantfor the availabilityofthese resources.

9000

Prehistoric Anatolia. Archaeologists* have uncovered anumber of settlements datingfrom the Neolithic period* in Anatolia. These settlements appear to have been occupied year-round bypeople who obtained a large portion of theirfoodby farmingand herding instead ofgathering and hunting wildfood as their ancestorshad done. The oldest known of these permanent settlementsisHallanCemi, which datesfrom the ninth millennium B.C.* Research shows thatthe food eaten here was gathered rather than grown. Still, evenin this early period, PIGS were domesticated*.The presence of copper and shells from the Mediterranean seacoast suggest that settlers engaged in trade with people farther away. Another ancient community, HUYUK, £ATALthrived between about 6300 and 5200 B.C. This sitewas neara sourceof obsidian,ablack glass formed by hardened lava from volcanic eruptions, which couldbeusedto make sharp tools. Obsidian from this areahas been foundin sites Syria in and the Levant*, showing that trade existed between the tworegions.

37

Anatolia By about 5000 B.C., Anatoliawas divided intoa large numberofsmall political units.Eachof thesewas centeredon a castlelike fortified settlement, and each controlled a small amount of surrounding territory. People throughout thearea shareda farming culture. Thisway life of lasted for more than 2,000 years. Peoplein the northwestern areaofAnatolia made contact with people living across the Hellespont inEurope. By the third millennium B.C. (3000to B.C.), 2001 however, Anatolia became more deeply connected with the civilizations that had arisen in Mesopotamia.

* city-state independentstate consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

38

The Rise of Independent States. By B.C., about some3000 settlements on the Anatolian plateau had begun to develop intolarger citystates*. Each had its own styles of architecture, pottery making, and metalworking, and its own social customs.The riseofwealthy elitesis indicated by the presenceof goldand silver JEWELRY. objects, Oneincluding of these city-states TROY, was locatedin the northwest, near theAegean coast. Other settlements includethe Early BronzeAge sites Alaca of Hiiyiik and Horostepe in northern Anatolia. The growthof theseMETALWORKING city-states METALS ANDwas tied to that made use of the resources foundinAnatolia's mountains. Populations included skilled metalworkers. Merchants from Assyriain northern Mesopotamia started to come to Anatolia to trade forthese metals. They established trade routes that linked Anatolia with Syria and Mesopotamia. They alsoset up a numberof colonies within Anatolia where Assyrian merchantsand theirfamilies lived.By B.C., about however, 1750 the trade routes and the waylife ofthey supportedhad collapsed, probably because of conflict among rival statesin Anatolia. Trade brought the peoples of Anatolia into contact with theMesopotamians, and they responded in several ways to this contact. They adopted some Mesopotamian practices.Forinstance, they beganto use theSEALS that Mesopotamians had invented. They also used stamps,and they decorated them with local images. The Hittites of 1500 B.C. to adopted CUNEIFORM the writingof the Mesopotamians and developed their own system HIEROGLYPHICS. of New patterns of political and social development emerged inAnatolia during the second millennium B.C. (2000 to B.C.).1001 Unlike the earlier period of mostlypeaceful cooperation,the new era was one of aggression. City-states now struggled to dominate their neighbors and control resources. The central plateau was dominated HITTITES by for the almost500 years, beginning in about B.C. They 1650 conquered manyof the citystates and established powerful a empire.For a while,the Hittites were one of the three great powersof the ancient Near East, along with Assyria and Egypt The empire started to crumble around B.C. At that 1200 time, it is believed, the region was suffering from severe droughtsand fail-crop ures. A large-scale movementof peoples whom historians group together under the name PEOPLES SEA may have advanced into Anatolia from the north and the west. It wasperhaps these people whodestroyed the Hittite capital at Khattusha around B.C. Anatolia 1180 became onceagaina region of many small political units.

Animals

Skilled Metalworkers During the Bronze Age (ca» 3000-1200 B.C), a town named Alaca Huyuk in northern Anatolia became the center of a highly developed metalworking industry* Durin excavations there, archaeologists discovered royal tombs where rulers were buried with swords, daggers, goblets, animal figures, and jewelry made from gold, silver, and bronze. The beauty and detail of these items reveal that the skills of the metalworkers of Alaca Huyuk far surpassed that of workers from nearby towns during the same period.

ANIMALS * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * habitat type of environment to which an animal or plant is well adapted

glacier slow-moving ice sheet

Starting in about 1000 B.C., the Phrygians were the next group to dominate the central plateau. They ruled until the 700s B.C., when new invasions broke their power. In the aftermath, powerful new states arose in the west and south of Anatolia. The largest of these states was the kingdom of Lydia. Also beginning in about 1000 B.C., Greeks planted colonies along the Aegean coast. This region, known as Ionia, was considered part of the Greek world. In the east were the ARAMAEAN kingdoms and URARTU. In 547 B.C., Anatolia became a part of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The Persians held the region for about 200 years, until ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Anatolia and the entire Persian empire. Alexander's own empire did not last long, however, and Anatolia soon split once again into rival states. Rome began its own conquest of the region in 190 B.C. When that conquest was completed, Rome made Anatolia a province called Asia Minor. The peninsula is still sometimes referred to by that name. (See also Caria and the Carians; Greece and the Greeks; Lycia and the Lycians; Lydia and the Lydians; Phrygia and the Phrygians; Scythia and the Scythians.)

W

ith its mountains, forests, plains, deserts, seacoasts, and marshes, the ancient Near East had a great variety of natural environments. These environments in turn supported a great variety of animals, birds, fish, and insects. Artwork, texts, and the animal remains found at archaeological* sites all give us an idea of the importance of animals in ancient Near Eastern life.

Studying Ancient Animal Life. Scientists get most of their information about the animals of the ancient Near East by studying animals of the region today. Over thousands of years, however, climate change and human activities have altered habitats*, changing the animal population. As a result, researchers must also study animal remains from the past. Sometimes no amount of research can explain evidence about an animal—as is the case with the Asian lion. Ancient texts and artworks contain many references to LIONS, which seem to have had great symbolic importance and to have been prized for their skins. Yet archaeologists have found only a handful of lion bones from sites in the Near East, suggesting that humans actually had very little contact with lions. Two of the world's major zones of animal life meet in the Near East. To the north is the Palearctic zone, which consists of Europe, north-central Asia, northern Arabia, and Africa north of the Sahara. To the south lies the Ethiopian region of Africa and Arabia. Research has shown that during the late Pleistocene epoch, which lasted until about 10,000 years ago, climate changes brought about changes in the animal population of the Near East. As the world cooled and glaciers* advanced, many Palearctic animals migrated southward. When the earth warmed again, many tropical Ethiopian animals moved northward. As a result, the region has a mix of animals from these two zones. 39

Animals

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

The War of Cats and Mice The ancient Egyptians were keen observers of the animal world. Like modern folk who laugh at the cartoon antics of Itchy and Scratchy or ] of Sylvester the Cat and Tweety Bird, they found humor in the eternal conflict between cats and mice. Some ancient drawings show that the Egyptians were well aware of this animal war. fn one drawing, a group of mice ask a cat ruler for peace. In others, a cat and a mouse fight a duet and a cat fortress is about to fall to a mouse army Still, other drawings suggest that mice might have won the war; they show cat servants giving mice their meals and looking after their young.

* flyway route taken by migrating birds

40

Large Mammals. More than 130 species of mammals inhabited the ancient Near East, although some lived only in small areas. GOATS and SHEEP were among the first animals that people domesticated. The wild aurochs, now extinct, was the ancestor of domestic CATTLE. Mesopotamia may once have had wild water buffalo, but they seem to have disappeared. The domestic water buffalo later used in the region could have come from southern Asia in the second millennium B.C.* The partnership between humans and canines is very old. Dogs are descended from wild wolves, and people probably started to domesticate them as early as 10,000 B.C. Wild wolves continued to live in the ancient Near East, as did jackals, foxes, and hyenas. Evidence suggests that these animals became smaller over time, as temperatures in the region rose. Wild CATS, the ancestors of domestic felines, lived throughout North Africa and Eurasia (Europe and Asia as one continent). Leopards, tigers, and cheetahs still live in parts of the Near East, although all are now endangered species. Archaeological traces of wild CAMELS are rare, but they may have lived in northeastern IRAN, Arabia, and the Syrian Desert, although no wild populations remain. Brown bears, found in parts of the region in ancient times, are still present today. The region had several members of the horse family: onagers (wild asses native to Iran and CENTRAL ASIA), African asses (ancestors of the domestic donkey), and HORSES. The Near Eastern horse had died out long before 4000 B.C., but after 3000 B.C., domestic horses were reintroduced to the area from grasslands to the north. Hardy and adaptable, wild PIGS lived across the Near East wherever dense thickets of shrubs or brush offered cover. Of all the wild hoofed animals of the region, pigs have been least disturbed by human activities. Other hoofed animals included horned oryx in Arabia and North Africa, hartebeests in Israel and Syria (now only found in Africa), three kinds of deer, and five kinds of gazelles. Peoples of the ancient Near East commonly hunted deer and gazelles for food. The largest animal was the Asian elephant, which once lived in river valleys and open forests from Syria to China. By about 1000 B.C. the Asian elephant had disappeared from the Near East. After that date, ivory for carving was either imported from farther east or from Africa or came from the tusks of hippopotamuses, which once lived along the rivers and coasts of Egypt, Syria, and Israel. Today there are no wild hippopotamuses in those lands. Smaller Species. Smaller mammals in the ancient Near East included 19 kinds of bats, 3 kinds of hedgehogs, and various squirrels, mice, gerbils, and hamsters. Beavers lived in the once extensive forests of southwest Asia. Hyraxes—small, ground-dwelling creatures that look like rodents but are related to elephants—still live in the Near East. BIRDS appear often in ancient art and were surely numerous and varied in most parts of the Near East, which lies along one of the world's major flyways*. Each year millions of birds belonging to hundreds of species pass over the region as they travel between Eurasia and Africa. Many make rest stops in ponds, lakes, fields, marshes, or coastal waters.

Animals, Domestication of Bird skeletons, which are light and fragile, can be easily destroyed. As a result, they are not often found in Near Eastern archaeological sites. Still, bones that have been recovered show that people ate wild chukar (a type of partridge), mallard ducks, and quail. Near Eastern archaeological sites also contain traces of ostriches. Ancient people used the large, tough shells of ostrich eggs as containers. Among the many economically important sea animals were two species of mollusks from which the Phoenicians made a famous purple dye. Also important—but in this case because of its destructive properties— was the desert locust, a species of grasshopper. Locusts sometimes traveled in great swarms and destroyed crops. These ruinous outbreaks could last for several years, like the plague of locusts described in the biblical book of Exodus. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Animals in Art; Environmental Change; Hunting.)

ANIMALS, DOMESTICATION OF * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

f ood, labor, method of transportation, trade good, and sacrificial ofT fering to the gods—domesticated* animals were all of these things * in the ancient Near East. The domestication of animals was part of a great shift in the way people lived, a shift from the wandering life of hunter-gatherers to settled life in villages, towns, and cities. Settled life in permanent communities was possible only when people managed food resources. They did so through AGRICULTURE and through animal husbandry, the practice of maintaining livestock for future use. The domestication of animals changed human societies by introducing new values, such as an expanded sense of property, and by making possible new forms of social organization and trade.

FROM WILD TO TAME When, where, and why did people first domesticate animals? Scientists and scholars still seek definite answers to these questions, but the broad outlines of domestication are known. It began as early as 9000 B.C., during the Stone Age, long before the rise of civilization and history. However, the peoples of the ancient Near East continued to add new species to the list of domesticated animals until about 1000 B.C., well into historical times. The Process of Domestication. People were hunters for tens of thousands of years before they became pastoralists, or keepers of grazing flocks and herds of livestock. The first domesticated animal—the dog— may have been used as early as 10,000 B.C. to help hunters pursue their prey. At some point, the hunters stopped killing game animals for immediate use by the community and began capturing and tending them. The most common reason given by scholars to explain this change is that people wanted to ensure a reliable supply of meat for the future. Some researchers suggest, however, that domestication did not immediately replace hunting for game and that people did not use the first 41

Animals, Domestication of In the ancient Near East, cattle were first domesticated in Anatolia by about 6000 B.C. Thereafter they were used as sources of meat and milk as well as to pull plows in the agricultural fields. This Egyptian wall painting depicts cattle being brought in for inspection before Nebamun, chief physician to Amenhotep II.

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

pastoral relating to shepherds or herdsmen or devoted to raising livestock

42

domesticated animals as meat. SHEEP, GOATS, and then CATTLE, which were domesticated early, all store milk that humans can easily collect. Perhaps the first domestic animals were sources of dairy food rather than of meat. Other researchers suggest that the first animals may have been domesticated for religious reasons. They point out that ritual sacrifice and grave offerings of animals may date from prehistoric times. Our main information about domestication comes from the scientific study of animal remains from archaeological* sites. One method of investigation involves the study of proteins and DNA from preserved bone and tissue. Such research may shed new light on when and where humans first began taming animals. The change from hunting animals to domesticating them did not happen quickly. It took hundreds of years for societies to complete the transition. At first, they may have tended the flocks or herds of domesticated animals and hunted wild creatures. Over time, though, the focus for many peoples of the ancient Near East changed from hunting to managing groups of tame animals. We know, however, that people in ANATOLIA, MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN had domesticated sheep, goats, and PIGS before 7000 B.C. The oldest sites with evidence of more than one domestic species date from about 6000 B.C. By that time, Anatolians had domesticated cattle. They were the first peoples of the Near East to do so. After Egyptians domesticated donkeys in the fourth millennium B.C.*, their use spread throughout the Near East. In the same way, the domestication of HORSES began in the fourth millennium in the grasslands north of the Black Sea and spread to Iran and Mesopotamia, reaching Eygpt around 1600 B.C. Animal Husbandry and Social Organization. Domesticated animals were wealth on the hoof, a sign of status. In pastoral* societies,

Animals, Domestication of

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

divisions of social class appeared between those with many animals and those with few. Animals also served as a medium of exchange between both individuals and groups. People used animals to pay taxes and tribute*. Pastoralists established alliances with one another by exchanging animals, and hunter-gatherers may have been driven to take up animal husbandry in order to join in these exchanges. As people first began to live in villages, almost everyone had a direct connection with food production, including animal husbandry. Over time, as population centers grew and governments emerged, food production became a function of highly organized states. Government and religious officials, craft workers and artists, soldiers, and laborers were no longer directly involved in producing food. Their access to meat, milk, and other animal products was primarily through rations from the temple or palace that they worked for. By the time complex urban societies emerged in the Near East in the fourth millennium B.C., three systems of animal husbandry existed. In the first, wandering herders in lands not suitable for large-scale farming and settlement followed a nomadic* life, perhaps the oldest form of animal husbandry. Sometimes the nomads passed through settled territories as they moved their livestock to new pastures. On those occasions, they could trade some beasts from their herds for food that farmers grew. The second system, a combination of farming and animal husbandry at the village level, appeared in many parts of the Near East in the late Stone Age. As states developed, rural villages produced surplus livestock for the use of people living in cities and for the use of armies. Soon the state began to control the production and distribution of meat, milk, wool, and other animal products, giving rise to the third system—the state-run enterprise. The system came into existence in Mesopotamia, where irrigated fields surrounded large cities and livestock was raised in remote pastures.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND THEIR USES Domestication meant that herds of animals were kept together away from other populations of the same animal. Breeding within domestic herds emphasized certain features of the animals. Over time, for example, many domesticated species became smaller than their wild relatives. Variations also appeared in the color and texture of fur and in body type. Some of these changes were the natural results of haphazard breeding. Others were brought about by herders who mated specific animals in the hope of increasing certain traits, such as silky wool, a docile nature, a high milk yield, or—with animals wanted for sacrifice—white coats or skins. Animals as Food Sources. Evidence suggests that sheep were the first domestic livestock and goats the second. Ancient people often herded them together, although goats, which tolerate water shortages better than sheep, were more numerous in hot, dry regions. Mutton and lamb (the meat of sheep and their young) were generally considered more desirable than the meat of goats and their young. 43

Animals, Domestication of

From Honey Hunters to Beekeepers Prehistoric hunters and gatherers knew that honey was both sweet tasting and high in energy. Cave paintings show them taking honey from wild beehives, At some point, settled societies learned to practice apiculture, or beekeeping, to gather \ honey and wax from controlled beehives. Apiculture was established in Egypt by 2400 B.C.—a stone carv ing from that period shows a beekeeper removing a honeycomb from a set of hives while another worker strains honey into a jar-^and \ after 1 (WO B,C, the Neo-Hittites ha laws against stealing hives. The bee was the Near East's only domesticated insect until the AJX 500s, when the practice of keeping silkworms spread from China.

third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

44

Large cattle were less numerous. Only about 10 to 15 percent of the carcasses found at archaeological sites are those of cattle. However, cattle's larger size means that they contributed more than 10 or 15 percent of the meat supply. Pigs, domesticated before cattle, were important both as a protein source and as scavengers of waste in early cities. By around 1500 B.C., however, people in Egypt and Canaan no longer used pigs as a major food source. The record of the use of pigs in Mesopotamia is not clear. In Syria, archaeological evidence regarding the distribution of pig bones suggests that the elite enjoyed baby pigs, whereas the urban working classes ate pigs of all ages. At least some people in the ancient Near East may have eaten domestic horses, donkeys, and CAMELS, but these animals were mainly used for other purposes. Smaller animals were hunted for food and may occasionally have been domesticated. Ancient artworks suggest, for example, that the early Egyptians tamed gazelles and kept captive geese, and the Mesopotamians may have raised geese for food and sacrifice. Chickens, originally domesticated in China, appeared in the diet of Near East peoples around 500 B.C. However, they were probably more valued for their eggs than their meat. Other Uses of Domestic Animals. In addition to supplying food, domestic animals produced a host of useful products, including leather and skins, sinew for bows, wool, horn, and bone. One of the most important contributions of livestock in ancient times, however, was as a power source. Before people began using animals for work, they were limited by the strength of human muscle: they could travel only as far and as fast as their legs could carry them and carry as much as their arms and backs could bear. Animal power gave rise to greater agricultural production, to faster and farther-ranging trade, to the ability to carry heavier burdens, and to new kinds of warfare. By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had invented the plow, a tool pulled by animals that breaks up the soil for planting. They were using cattle for pulling both plows and carts no later than about 2500 B.C. Some plows required as many as eight animals. The Egyptians, too, used cattle for plowing, but they did not begin using wheeled carts until after 2000 B.C., probably because water transport on the Nile River was so readily available. The Egyptians may have domesticated the donkey as a food source, but they soon discovered its usefulness as a load carrier. The use of donkeys as pack animals in many parts of the Near East was linked to the growth of widespread trade routes. Mesopotamians of the third millennium B.C.* rode donkeys and harnessed them to CHARIOTS, although horses—first used as pack animals—later proved to be better than donkeys for both riding and pulling chariots. In fact, the horse transformed ancient warfare with the chariot corps and the CAVALRY, or troops of soldiers mounted on horseback. Horses had another use as well. When bred with donkeys they produced mules, animals that combined the strength of the horse with the manageability of the donkey. Mules were valued as pack animals. Camels,

Animals in Art however, were the strongest and hardiest pack animals, renowned for their ability to go for long periods between waterings. Researchers do not know for certain when camels were domesticated; it may have been as early as 2000 or as late as 1100 B.C. Certainly the animals were in use in parts of the Near East by 1000 B.C. Camel CARAVANS became a key form of long-distance transport, especially in desert regions. (See also Animals; Animals in Art; Environmental Change; Food and Drink; Rituals and Sacrifice; Transportation and Travel.)

ANIMALS IN ART

A

nimals served many purposes in the ancient world. Land animals, fish, and birds were sources of food, whether eaten as meat or kept for their milk and eggs. Animals supplied transportation and pulled plows. Animals also provided valuable resources, such as wool and leather for clothing and bones and horns for tools, weapons, and musical instruments. Herding animals became an occupation and a livelihood. No less important, animals were worshiped. All these human-animal relationships were portrayed in the art of the ancient Near East. So, too, were imaginary demonic creatures who combined human and animal parts— or monstrous animals combining the parts of different animals—to create powerful symbols.

ANIMALS IN SECULAR ART See [color plate 13, ] vol. 4.

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

The depiction of animals in art dates back to prehistoric times. Examples include rock paintings from mountains in the Sahara dating from a time when the area was more fertile. Another painting shows a group of human hunters attacking a much larger wild bull. This image, from about 6000 B.C., was found in £ATAL HUYUK in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). These early scenes often depicted hunting. It is unclear whether these depictions were painted after the hunt to celebrate its success or beforehand to try, by means of magic, to ensure a good hunt. What is remarkable about them is the realism and liveliness apparent in the animal figures. Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Iran. Because animals were domesticated as early as 7000 B.C. in Mesopotamia—almost 2,000 years earlier than in Egypt—they have appeared in art since early times. The earliest depictions of animals, dating from the latter half of the fifth millennium B.C.*, appear on stamp SEALS from Tepe Gawra in northern Mesopotamia. Depictions dating from around 3300 to 3000 B.C. have also been found in southern Mesopotamia (Uruk) and southern Iran (Susa). The illustrations, found in relief* on vases and bowls, include large and small cattle, goats, ibex, lions, snakes, and birds. Some impressive artistic depictions of individual animals stand alone or are incorporated into other objects. The royal cemetery of UR yielded two notable figures that date from around 2500 B.C. One is a ram that stands on its hind legs leaning against a tree. The other object is the head of a bull that was used to decorate a lyre, a musical instrument. With its golden head, curved horns, glaring 45

Animals in Art * lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

eyes, furrowed brow, and lapis lazuli* beard, the bull is both fierce and beautiful. The hunt, a popular theme of prehistoric art, continued to appear in ancient Mesopotamian art. Images of the royal lion hunt appeared as early as 3000 B.C. A rock stela* from Uruk from that time shows the king killing a lion with a spear in one scene and with a bow and arrow in another. Later versions of the royal lion hunt date from the Neo-Assyrian empire of the 700s and 600s B.C. The palace of ASHURBANIPAL at Nineveh contains a series of dramatic bas-reliefs* that show the king hunting lions. Every element of the carvings conveys strength and movement. The Assyrian palaces contain other animal scenes showing wild asses and herds of gazelles running in flight. The different-sized asses, pursued by hunting dogs, are shown running away, bending down, looking back at their attackers, upside down with legs in the air in the throes of death. The Neo-Assyrians were not the only rulers to decorate their palaces with animal figures; the practice was common. At the Lion Gate and the Sphinx Gate (around 1400 B.C.) in the Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA, stone lions flank the entrance and guard it. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, from about 575 B.C., has thousands of individually glazed bricks in vibrant blue that serve as background for a procession of bulls and dragons in yellowbrown and red. The animals shown were linked to the gods—the bull with the weather god ADAD and the snake-dragon with the chief god MARDUK. Lions, associated with ISHTAR, lined the walls that led to the great gate. In PERSEPOLIS, the capital of the PERSIAN EMPIRE, animal reliefs were used to demonstrate the power of the Persian kings. The walls that lined the walk to the king's audience chamber are studded with reliefs of 20 different peoples who lived in the empire. Many bring animals that represent their homelands as tribute* to the king. A Bactrian leads a camel, a Scythian brings a horse, and two Cilicians lead rams with curving horns and abundant wool. Egypt. Animals appear in Egyptian wall paintings and bas-reliefs and in paintings made on papyrus*. Small carved animals might serve as AMULETS AND CHARMS. The people who carried these objects hoped to become associated with the spirit or power of the particular creature. The paintings often show everyday activities: cows being milked, calves suckling, cows and goats being fed or chewing on bushes, cows calving, goats being herded, animals being counted by their herders, fishermen catching fish by net or with a pole and hook, and even hunters using spears to hunt crocodiles and hippopotamuses. In works from the Old Kingdom—dating from about 2675 to about 2130 B.C.—the animals are frequently drawn in great detail. The cows have different colors and markings. The fish are all varied. (A fisher probably could name several species.) Later images, from around the 1500s B.C., show greater detail in the human figures, but the animals are still very lifelike.

ANIMALS IN RELIGIOUS ART In some regions, particular animals were associated with particular gods, and animals in ancient art represented the god;s presence. In Egypt, some 46

Animals in Art * deity god or goddess * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

The Lighter Side of Animals Animals sometimes appeared in comic scenes, pursuing human pas times or chores, A painting on Egyptian papyrus from about 1200} B.C. shows a lion and an antelope sitting on chairs and playing a game that looks like chess. A fox walking on two legs herds deer, while a cat herds a flock of geese. l other scenes, a monkey plays the flute, a crocodile plays a lute, and a donkey is the harpist. As in Egypt, animal depictions in Mesopotamia art sometimes had more playful purposes. An inlaid sound box for a harp from Ur in 2600 B.C. shows a dog and lion as servants at a feast while a goat plays a lyre for a dancing bear. These images typically illustrated animal fables and satires.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

See color plate 11, vol.4

deities* were human in form, but many were animal in form or had combined aspects of animals and humans. Although Mesopotamian deities, especially from the third millennium B.C.* onward, tended to be anthropomorphic—fully human in form—some deities were associated with animals, both real and monstrous. In Egypt, HORUS (the sky god) appeared as a hawk or falcon, Thoth (the god of wisdom and learning) as a baboon or ibis, HATHOR (the goddess of women) as a cow, AMUN (the god of air and light) as a ram or goose, and Anubis (the god of the dead) as a jackal. In art, these deities were represented as the animal itself or as a human with the head of the animal. Art of a pharaoh* that contained an animal showed that the pharaoh had that god's blessing and also that he manifested that god's qualities. This legitimized the pharaoh's rule and power. Historian and archaeologist Henri Frankfort has tried to explain the Egyptian association of animals and gods. It is not a matter of the carryover from animal worship in prehistoric times, he thought. Nor did Frankfort believe that the animals revealed the essence of the god. He thought that Egyptians saw the animals as being superhuman because they, like the gods, were timeless. "The animals never change/' he writes, "and in this respect especially they would appear to share . . . the fundamental nature of creation." As the discussion of the Ishtar Gate suggests, the ancient Mesopotamians also linked certain gods to certain animals. Some Mesopotamian creatures were fabulous combinations of parts of different animals. A monster, part ram, fish, and goat, was the attribute animal of EA, the god of water, wisdom, magic, and the arts and sciences. The snake-dragon, with horns, snake body and neck, lion forelegs, and bird hind legs, was associated with Marduk, creator of humankind. Imaginary Creatures. One of the most important animal symbols in Mesopotamia was the human-headed bull. It appeared in about 2500 B.C. and was, for many centuries, often shown fighting other creatures or a curly haired hero figure. The human-headed bull remained a powerful symbol through the entire ancient period. During the Kassite dynasty*, which ruled Babylonia from about 1595 to about 1158 B.C., it became a positive symbol that offered protection. It survived in this form to later times. The main doorway at the palace of the Neo-Assyrian king SARGON II (from about 721 B.C.) is guarded by a pair of 14-foot-tall stone statues of winged bulls with human heads. Human-headed lions, called sphinxes, were also popular, especially in Egypt and Anatolia. Another figure is Imdugud, an eagle with a lion's head, which appeared in the third millennium B.C. Although demonic in form, this figure may have been a deity of the fullest rank. It was seen as having such great size that flapping its wings caused windstorms. The ancient Mesopotamians had many more of these figures, some of which were variations on similar themes. Other imaginary creatures include the centaur with a human torso, arms, and head and the lower body and legs of a horse; the lion-centaur, which replaced the horse's body with a lion's; the scorpion-man; the merman and mermaid, which had human upper bodies and fishlike lower 47

Aim

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

ANU * deity god or goddess * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

48

bodies; and the goat-fish, which replaced the human upper body with the head and forelegs of a goat. The human-headed winged lion was similar to Sargon's winged bull, but the lower body was a lion's. The griffindemon, found in Susa dating from the fourth millennium B.C.* and in Uruk and predynastic Egypt from the period shortly thereafter, combined a human body with a bird's head and wings. The Egyptian deity Tawaret, which combined a hippopotamus and a crocodile, protected women during pregnancy and childbirth. All these creatures were DEMONS, beings that had supernatural power but were not of the rank of gods. During the course of Mesopotamian history, the treatment and significance of the demons changed in several ways. They first began to appear around 3500 B.C., when they appeared on seals in Tepe Gawra. During the time of the Akkadian empire (from about 2350 to 2193 B.C.), some were considered evil creatures and were usually shown being captured or killed. Around the 1500s B.C., demons were more likely to be animal-headed than human-headed. By Neo-Assyrian times (from about 911 to 609 B.C.), most had been transformed—like the bull-man—into protective spirits. They were used to decorate walls and gates to ward off evil spirits. Although evil creatures were generally not shown in art during this period, a notable evil demon in Neo-Assyrian art is Lamashtu, who caused miscarriages and crib death. She was countered by the male demon Pazuzu. (See also Birds in Art; Cats; Sphinx.)

A

sky god of ancient MESOPOTAMIA, Anu (A»noo) was the head of a trio of major deities* that also included ENLIL and EA. Although he was creator of the heavens and father of all the gods, Anu played only a secondary role in Mesopotamian myths and is rarely depicted in Mesopotamian art. Anu becomes known to us from around 3000 B.C. The Sumerians called him An, and under the name Anu, he later became a major god in the Babylonian pantheon*. The HITTITES also adopted the god, calling him Anus. He enjoyed popularity as chief god of the city of URUK after 500 B.C. Anu appears in a number of ancient CREATION MYTHS. In the Babylonian epic* Enuma Elish, Anu is the son of Anshar, the "whole heaven/' and Kishar, the "whole earth/' The epic Atrakhasis tells of how Anu, Enlil, and Ea divide control of the universe among themselves. Anu rules the heavens, Ea controls the waters, and Enlil controls the space between the earth and the heavens. Anu also appears in the Babylonian epic of GILGAMESH. In this work, Anu's daughter ISHTAR persuades her father to unleash the Bull of Heaven against the hero Gilgamesh because she is insulted when Gilgamesh refuses her offer of marriage. Gilgamesh slays the bull, however, denying the goddess her revenge. According to a myth of the HURRIANS, Anu loses control of the heavens to the god Kumarbi who, in turn, is overthrown by the storm god Teshub. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)

Arabia and the Arabs

ARABIA AND THE ARABS * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000

A

rabia (uh»RAY«bee»uh) is a large peninsula in southwest Asia covered mostly by desert and inhabited by groups of people collectively known as Arabs (AR«uhbz). In ancient times, it was important for two reasons. Southern Arabia was the source of frankincense and myrrh*—two highly valued substances—and Arabia formed an enormous barrier between two great centers of civilization—Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA. Geography. Most of the Arabian peninsula consists of vast areas of inhospitable desert. Some parts receive small amounts of seasonal rainfall that allow for the growth of short-lived pasture for SHEEP, GOATS, and CAMELS. There are also scattered oases*, which provided a more reliable source of water and which supported small settlements in ancient times. The most fertile region of the peninsula lies in the south and southwest. Cut off from the dry interior by mountains, these coastal areas receive moderate amounts of rainfall each year. Today this area is occupied by the countries of Yemen and Oman. Small parcels of agricultural land were also found in other parts of the Arabian peninsula. Most of them relied on IRRIGATION systems fed by seasonal springs. Archaeological evidence shows that these areas were being used for agriculture at least as early as the first millennium B.C.*

tO 1 B.C.

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* sheikh chief or head of an Arab village or tribe

People. The Arabs were related to a variety of groups from the surrounding areas, including Semitic tribes from northern Mesopotamia. The majority lived as nomads*, a lifestyle that was well suited to survival in the desert. A key to their survival was the camel, which may have been domesticated* sometime in the second millennium B.C.* Camels could go for long periods without water, allowing them to travel great distances in the desert. With their camels and their knowledge of the desert, the Arabs were able to control the trade routes that ran through the peninsula. This gave them commercial and strategic importance to the rulers of the large states around them. The use of camels and a familiarity with desert life also protected the Arabs from conquest by other peoples. Only a small minority of the Arabs became involved in trans-Arabian trade. The majority lived in tents and moved from place to place with their herds of camels, sheep, and goats. They also traded with the inhabitants of oases and with the farmers who lived on the edge of the desert. Many oasis settlements became religious centers for both the nomads and the settled people. Religion played an important role in unifying different Arab groups. The Arab peoples were divided into various tribes led by a ruler called a sheikh*. One of the most powerful tribes during the first millennium B.C. was the Qedar, who controlled a number of oases in northern Arabia and SYRIA and who may have spread as far as the SINAI PENINSULA. Another important tribe, the Nebayot, had close trading links with Babylon and became involved in Babylonian struggles for power in the 600s B.C. Early History. Settlements existed in southern Arabia for thousands of years. By 3000 B.C., many settlements had been established along the coasts of Magan (present-day Oman), and permanent settlements based 49

Arabia and the Arabs * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remainsof human activity

on agriculture also emerged in several oases in the interior of Arabia. Archaeological* evidence shows that many of these early settlementsrelied on irrigation. The early settlements in southern Arabia flourished, in part, because of trade with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley regionof India. Trade goods included copper, shells, pearls,and dates. Frankincenseand myrrh were not yet important itemsof trade. Between 3000 and B.C., 2000 the Dilmun civilization arosein eastern Arabia. Centeredon the BAHRAIN, islandofancient Dilmun became an important trading center. The decline of Dilmun between the 1400s and 1200sB.C. may have been connected with a decreasein tradeor growing pressurefromAMORITES the or other nomadic groupswho beganto enter the region. During the second millennium B.C.,the oasisofQurayyaand some other settlements began to flourish in northwest Arabia. Some scholars suggest that the Egyptians played an important role in the development of this region. Certainly they were involved in trade withthe peopleof Qurayya, including trade in frankincense and myrrh. History of Northern Arabia. There is little archaeological evidence about the people of northern Arabiain the early centuriesof the first millennium B.C.The earliest written reference to Arabs the of the

so

or written

Aramaeans

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

ARAMAEANS

north dates from 853 B.C., when records of the Assyrian king SHALMANESER III mention that an Arab leader joined a group of kings in opposition to the Assyrians. By the 700s B.C., Assyria's westward expansion brought it into more prolonged contact with the Arabs. Assyrian rulers received tribute* from Arab leaders. Occasionally, the Arabs joined groups such as the Babylonians against Assyria, but they always met defeat. The Assyrians, meanwhile, realized that military conquest of the Arab nomads would be expensive. Moreover, it would disrupt trade with southern Arabia, from which the Assyrians hoped to profit. Therefore, despite occasional Arab opposition, the Assyrians tried to gain the cooperation of the Arab tribes and integrate them within the empire. The Babylonians adopted more aggressive policies toward northern Arabia. When the Babylonians launched an invasion of Egypt in 601 B.C., they sent soldiers into the deserts of Syria to take animals and other possessions from the Arabs, perhaps to ensure that they would not rise in opposition. NABONIDUS, the last native king of Babylon, conquered a number of Arab oases and took control of several major trade routes. Under the PERSIAN EMPIRE, Arabs in the north continued to play an important role in trade between southern Arabia and other parts of the Near East. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, the Persians granted Arabs in the Levant* and the Sinai peninsula a great deal of independence. The Arabs were allowed to control and tax the trade of aromatic goods from southern Arabia. In turn, they had to pay the Persian king 30 tons of frankincense each year. In the last centuries B.C., Greek and Roman geographers and historians began to provide a fuller picture of Arabia and its inhabitants. Among the most notable Arab groups at this time were the Nabateans, who dominated the northern end of Arab trade routes and established a remarkable kingdom in present-day Jordan. In A.D. 106, the Romans annexed the kingdom of the Nabateans, which became the Roman province of Arabia. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Caravans; Egypt and the Egyptians; Geography; Oman Peninsula; Trade Routes.)

T

he Aramaeans (ar«uh«MEE«uhnz) were a group of nomadic tribes that spoke the Aramaic language and occupied areas of SYRIA between about 1200 and 700 B.C. While they gained widespread political power, their language—through their system of writing—became an important influence throughout the ancient Near East.

HISTORY Aramaean tribes lived on the fringes of early Syrian kingdoms. The earliest surviving evidence of the Aramaeans dates to about 1300 B.C., but they no doubt were there long before that time. Around 1200 B.C., the Egyptian empire of the New Kingdom was in decline, and the empire of the HITTITES had collapsed. Small Neo-Hittite

51

Aramaeans

r

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

The Importance of Aramaic After the decline of the Aramaean states as a political power, Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans, continued to influence the world. It was the common language of the region from about 600 B.C. to A.D. 700, When the Assyrians attacked Jerusalem in 701 B.C., they announced themselves in Aramaic. It became an official language of the Persian empire. Aramaic played an important role in the spread of two of the world's major religions, Judaism and Christianity. The Jewish Talmud and parts of the Hebrew Bible were originally written in that language. Aramaic was spoken by Jesus and his disciples, and portions of the New Testament are thought to be translations from Aramaic originals. Even today, dialects of Aramaic are spoken in a smattering of villages in Syria, Turkey, and Iraq.

and Aramaean kingdoms took root in Syria, but they were weaker than the empires they had replaced. Aramaean tribes took advantage of the situation. At first, the Aramaeans captured or infiltrated city-states* in Syria along the west bank of the EUPHRATES RIVER. Gradually, they took over more and more city-states throughout the region. The growth of Aramaean power brought conflict with the Assyrians. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I complained, around 1100 B.C., that he had to cross the Euphrates 28 times to punish Aramaean raiders. By 900 B.C., several sizable independent Aramaean kingdoms had formed, including Bit-Adini with its capital at Til Barsip and stretching along both banks of the Euphrates north of the Khabur River; Bit-Agusi to the west, with its capital at Arpad; Hamath to the southwest, with its capital of the same name; and Aram, with its capital at Damascus. The Aramaeans also gradually expanded to the east. Their move east brought renewed conflict with the Assyrians. In the 850s B.C., King Hadadezer of Damascus formed an alliance with the kings of other Aramaean cities and with AHAB, the king of Israel. Called the alliance of the twelve kings, it successfully defeated an Assyrian invasion at the battle of Qarqar. In the 840s B.C., the alliance collapsed when Hazael seized power in Damascus. Hazael and his son and successor, Ben-Hadad, had to fight alone, but they were still able to resist strong new Assyrian attacks. Along with repelling the Assyrian invasions, these kings conquered parts of Israel to the south and areas along the Mediterranean coast. In 732 B.C., the Aramaeans finally were defeated by the Assyrian king TIGLATH-PILESER III. After the defeat, the lands that Hazael and his son had conquered fell under Assyrian rule. However, Aramaic, the Aramaeans' language and writing system, had already spread throughout Syria and Mesopotamia.

ECONOMY AND SETTLEMENTS Despite their nomadic roots, Aramaeans usually settled down on the land they conquered. Once they did so, their economy was based on agriculture and trade.

dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall

52

Economy. The majority of Aramaeans lived by farming. They did not need to build irrigation canals because rainfall in Syria was sufficient to allow dry farming* to raise their crops. The most important crops were barley and wheat, which is typical of the region. The most important domestic animals were sheep and oxen. Horses also were bred in some areas, but they were used only for warfare. The Aramaeans wove wool and linen cloth, which were also typical activities in the ancient Near East. Wine and beer, too, were made in large quantities. All of these goods were used in trade, which was an important part of the Aramaean economy. In fact, Aramaeans became the chief traders over a *rery large area extending from the Persian Gulf in the southeast to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Through this extensive trading, Aramaean kings accumulated gold, silver, bronze, fine furniture, and other luxury goods.

Aramaeans

* griffin imaginary creature with a lion's body and an eagle's head and wings

Settlements. While most Aramaean people settled in small, unfortified villages, Aramaean kings and their followers lived in large, fortified cities. In the center of these fortified settlements and taking up most of the walled-in area, was the royal compound. Crowded around the edge of the royal compound were the living quarters and shops of merchants and craftspeople. The royal compound was where the king and his family and servants lived and where the wealth of the state was stored. The compound included a palace and one or more temples. These buildings usually were very large and impressive. At their bases, they had large stones carved with military and ceremonial scenes, and they were decorated with huge statues of lions and fantastic animals such as the griffin*.

CULTURE, LANGUAGE, AND RELIGION In most areas where the Aramaeans gained a military or economic foothold, they merged with local populations. Their own traditions became blended with those of the local people. Their language—Aramaic— became an important influence in the ancient world. Culture. Like most western Asian cultures, Aramaean culture was dominated by a strong sense of authority at all levels of society. The king had complete authority over the people, fathers had complete authority over their children, and masters had complete authority over their servants. The Aramaean culture also was dominated by men. Although women could own property, their position in society generally was inferior to that of men.

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

Language. Originally, the Aramaic language was just one of several SEMITIC LANGUAGES spoken in western Asia. The Aramaeans had developed a system of writing for their language based on the Phoenician alephbeth (a forerunner of the alphabet), which was simpler than the ancient CUNEIFORM system of writing because there were fewer symbols to learn. When the Assyrians conquered the Aramaeans, they adopted this system of writing for government and commerce. As a result, the Aramaic language became important in diplomacy* and trade. Peoples in northern Arabia even adopted Aramaic as their written language, although they continued to speak their own languages. When ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Macedonia conquered Syria around 330 B.C., Greek replaced Aramaic as the official language, but Aramaic continued to be used by many people throughout the region for centuries. Because of Aramaic's role as a common language, many literary works originally written in other languages were translated into Aramaic. There is, however, little surviving original Aramaic literature. The best known surviving work is the Proverbs ofAhiqar. The author is believed to have been a high-ranking Assyrian scholar named Aba-Enlil-dari who lived during the late 700s and early 600s B.C. In the work, the author uses riddles, proverbs and wise sayings, and even a few animal fables to convey values important to the Aramaeans — and, in fact, to all peoples of the ancient Near East. These values include submission to the gods, the use of 53

Aramaic Language harsh discipline, the superhuman quality of the king, and respect for superiors, especially of children for their parents. * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

* deity god or goddess

* divination art or practice of foretelling the future

Aramaic Language

Ararat

ARCHAEOLOGY AND

ARCHAEOLOGISTS

Religion. At first, each Aramaean city had its own pantheon*. Eventually, however, the same gods were shared throughout the region. Many of these gods were probably borrowed by Aramaeans from the people they conquered. Several other features of the Aramaean religion, including ORACLES AND PROPHECY, were also common to other religions in western Asia. The most important god in the Aramaean religion was Hadad, which was their version of the Sumerian storm god ADAD. Hadad usually was depicted standing astride a bull and armed with thunderbolts. Other important deities* in Aramaean religion included the agricultural god Dagan and the moon god Sahr, both of whom had been worshiped by other people in the region before the coming of the Aramaeans. There were goddesses as well, including most prominently Astarte, the west Asian goddess of fertility. Kings built temples to honor the gods, and priests tended the temples and carried out rituals. Most rituals involved offerings of bread, wine, or sacrificial sheep to gain a god's favor. Another important ritual was the funeral banquet, which was meant to nourish the dead person's soul in the afterlife. In addition to priests, there were people skilled in divination*. They advised Aramaean kings by relaying the wishes of the gods or predicting the future. (See also Alphabets; Assyria and the Assyrians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites.)

See Languages.

See Urartu.

A

rchaeology is the study of human cultures of the past. The people who work in this field—archaeologists—study the writings, artworks, tools, tombs, remains of buildings, and other objects and structures left by past civilizations. By examining this evidence, they try to piece together the history and culture of ancient societies and determine how people lived.

THE SCIENCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY Archaeology is a broad subject that covers the whole of human history, from the first humans to the recent past. Consequently, the subject is divided into many specialties. Some archaeologists focus on one region or people, such as ancient Egypt or the Sumerians. Others concentrate on a certain time period or problem, such as when and how people began to 54

Archaeology and Archaeologists

farm. No matter what their specialty,all archaeologistsusescientific methods developed over the last 200 years. This involves specific techniques and proceduresfor studying archaeological evidenceand sitesand for interpretingthe findings. Archaeological Evidence and Sites. Even the smallest object might provide clues about a past people or culture. Archaeologists thus study almost everything they find, from small plant seedsto the ruinsof an ancient city. This archaeological evidence can be divided intothree basic categories:artifacts,features,and ecofacts. Artifactsare any movable object made by people, suchas pottery, tools, jewelry,and written records. Features are large immovable objects that people build, including roads and bridges, gates TEMPLES, and PALACES AND walls, and houses. Ecofacts are natural objects, such asplant seeds, shells, and animal bones, which may be found alongside other types of archaeological evidence. Studied together, these materials can tell archaeologists a great deal about an ancient culture. Archaeological sites—the places where such evidence is found—can range in sizefrom a small patch of groundto the ruinsof an entire city. Sites may be aboveground, buried underground, or lying underwater. Sunken ships and buildings that became submerged due to changes in water levelsare examplesof underwater sites. To gain an understandingof how past cultures functioned, archaeologists must study the evidence in relation to the site atwhich it isfound. This provides a cultural context that helps them understand and explain that evidence. Suppose an archaeologist findsa tool made from stoneor metal of a type that is not usually foundat or nearthe site. This suggests that the tool was brought there by a visitoror cameas aresultoftrade. Similarly, the position of an object at a site and its relationship tosurrounding objects are important clues to the meaning and function of the

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Archaeology and Archaeologists object. For example, broken bits of pottery lying near the remains of a clay oven suggest that the site had a pottery workshop.

tell mound, especially in the ancient Near East, that consists of the remains of successive settlements

Serendipity and Science Serendipity—a discovery made by accident—-often plays a role in archaeology. While investigating a hole left by an uprooted tree in 1940; a group of French schoolboys discovered a cave with paintings made by humans about 20,000 years ago. In 1947, an Arab boy looking for a stray goat stumbled on a cave containing the ancient texts that became known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. These accidental discoveries, which add a sense of adventure and romance to archaeology, are as important to the science as the methodical and systematic searches.

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Locating Archaeological Sites. One of the first tasks of an archaeologist is to locate a site. Some sites are easy to find, especially if ruins are visible above ground. Sometimes sites are discovered by accident, such as when a farmer uncovers buried remains of a structure or artifacts while plowing a field. Often, however, finding an archaeological site requires a long, painstaking search. Modern archaeologists use various methods to find sites. One traditional method is to walk systematically over an area looking for any evidence that may be visible on the surface. This method is most useful in areas where archaeologists are fairly certain that a site exists, such as near a tell*. Archaeologists rely on several methods to discover sites hidden underground. One method is to examine the vegetation of an area. Differences in plant growth may indicate that something is buried beneath the surface. For example, plants growing taller than others in a field may reveal the presence of an ancient irrigation ditch or canal. Similarly, an area of shorter plants may indicate a buried wall, road, or other structure that drains away water from the soil beneath the plants. Archaeologists often use aerial photography to locate sites. Aerial photographs reveal many details that are difficult to see from the ground, such as differences in soil color and plant density or the paths of ancient riverbeds. Since the early A.D. 1900s, aerial photography has led to the discovery of thousands of previously unknown sites. Another modern tool used to find sites is a magnetometer, a device that measures the intensity of the earth's magnetic field. Using a magnetometer, archaeologists can detect changes in magnetism under the ground. These changes may indicate the presence of buried stone structures. Archaeologists also use metal detectors to locate metal artifacts buried underground. Working a Site. After finding a suitable site, archaeologists begin the long and laborious task of uncovering evidence. Some sites are vast and cover many acres. Moreover, people often build their towns or villages on top of the ruins of earlier towns. As a result, sites often have many levels of human habitation stretching over thousands of years. Excavations at such sites may take several years of careful work during which archaeologists separate and catalog the findings according to the different periods in which the site was inhabited. Archaeologists first survey the site on foot, collect objects from the surface, and take detailed notes. They also carefully measure and photograph the site and use that information to make detailed maps. These maps are then used to note the exact locations where buildings, walls, or objects are found. After completing the survey, archaeologists begin to excavate the site. This is sometimes referred to as the "dig." The purpose of an archaeological dig is to uncover the various levels of human habitation and to discover and record the architecture, objects, and any other evidence found

Archaeology and Archaeologists

Salvaging the Past Archaeology is generally a slow, time-consuming process. But since the mid-1900s archaeologists have often had to speed up their work due to the increasing threat to ancient sites caused by growing populations, pollution, and other changes brought about by modern \ civilization. For example, the construction of the Aswan High Dam in Egypt in the 1960s threatened to destroy thousands of ancient sites. Archaeologists raced to explore anc record as many sites as possible before these locations disappeared beneath the rising waters behind the dam. Known as salvage archaeology, this type of quick work is becoming increasingly important, especially in rapidly developing regions, such as Syria,

at each level. However, archaeologists do not just dig haphazardly to see what they can discover. The excavation is carefully planned and carried out in order to understand the items and structures discovered and to determine their age and relationship to one another. Today, sites often are not completely excavated. Portions are left untouched so that future archaeologists—who may have improved techniques and equipment—can return to the undisturbed area. Archaeologists first try to determine the general layout of the site by digging small test holes or trenches. They may also dig a deep trench to see how many layers of human habitation can be found. Then, they divide the site into small sections, called grids, each of which is worked separately. Archaeologists dig very slowly and carefully using shovels, picks, brushes, even dental tools. Using wire screens, they strain the soil to separate very small objects or pieces of broken artifacts. Large digging machines cannot be used because they would damage architectural features. As the walls, wells, buildings, and artifacts are uncovered, they are photographed and drawn to scale. The archaeologists map each object's location on a grid and write detailed descriptions of them. After artifacts are removed from the site, they are cleaned, labeled, and stored. Archaeologists also take photographs and make drawings of the building plans and other features they uncover. Keeping these precise records is a crucial role of archaeology. Once an item has been removed from a site, its original relationship to the site and surrounding objects no longer exists except for these records. Special care is taken to preserve this information so that future archaeologists can continue to study it. Digs performed in the early years of archaeology were not always this careful, and modern scholars have lost evidence as a result. Analyzing and Interpreting Discoveries. After gathering evidence, archaeologists analyze and interpret their discoveries. This involves three basic steps: classifying, dating, and evaluating. Archaeologists classify evidence to discover similarities and patterns that may help in interpreting what they have found. One way they classify their findings is to group them according to how they were apparently used, how they were made, and what materials were used to make them. Archaeologists also arrange their findings in groups according to changes in style or appearance. Dating the evidence is a crucial part of archaeology. Archaeologists sometimes find written documents that help to date materials. Some objects, such as coins, may have dates or datable names marked on them. Most archaeological evidence, however, must be dated using other methods. All methods of archaeological dating are grouped into one of two categories: relative dating or absolute dating. Relative dating allows archaeologists to arrange evidence in a chronological order, but it cannot be used to determine precise dates. In this approach, archaeologists date their findings in relation to other evidence or phenomena. They can do this in three ways. In the first method, archaeologists apply their understanding of stratigraphy—the study 57

Archaeology and

Archaeologists of the sequence of habitation levels, orstrata—to the excavated material Unless there is evidence to suggestotherwise, they assume that thelower the level where an object or structure isfound, the older the object or structure. The second method involves the examination of the characteristics of the objectsor structures.Bynoting different stylesor manufacturing techniques of similar classesofobjectsor structures excavated different at levels at a site, one can develop a picture of changes over time. Consequently, the findings can be dated relative to one another. Forexample, in comparing techniques of pottery making, an archaeologist might determine that one is more advanced, or newer, than the other. The third technique is called cross-dating and involves dating the excavations based on evidence that has already been dated. Forexample, if an archaeologistfinds an undated object at a site whose date is known, it may be possible to assume that the object wasmade during the same period. Absolute dating enables archaeologiststofairly get accurate approximations of the age—in actualyears—of sites, levels,or artifacts. Thereare various methods of absolute dating. One of the most commonisradiocarbon dating. This method isbased on fact the that allliving things absorb aform of radioactive carbon fromthe atmosphere. Whenaplantor animal dies, the amount of this carbon in itsbody begins to decrease at a set rate. By measuring the amount of radioactive carbon thatremainsin an artifact, scientists can determineits approximate age. This methodof dating can only be used on objects madeoforganic material. A similar method, known as potassium-argon dating,can beusedto determine the age of certain typesof rockin which archaeological evidence is found. Other absolute dating methods involve counting tree growth rings in wood samples or studying magnetic particles in clay.

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Archaeology and Archaeologists

Understanding the Past by Examining the Present Despite many advances in archaeo-1 logical methods and techniques, the material found at sites provides only a sketchy picture of life in the past. Examining pottery and tools can only tell so much about people who lived thousands of years ago. Archaeologists began to realize that the traditional cultures of the mod ern Near East resembled somewhat the societies described in the Bible and other ancient documents. This led to the development of a specialized field called ethnoarchaeology, which attempts to look at traditional cultures today and draw con elusions about life in the past Ethnoarchaeology uses the expertise of anthropologists, who study and compare cultures. This work has helped provide new understanding about ancient societies.

See map in Pyramids (vol. 4).

These methods of dating are based on comparisons with known facts, such as long-term changes in climate and weather and the earth's magnetic field. The last step in interpreting archaeological evidence is evaluating the materials and drawing conclusions. This often requires help from experts in other sciences. Botanists study plant remains to determine what kind of plants people grew and what they ate. Zoologists examine animal bones to find out what animals lived in an area. Geologists identify the kinds of stones and metals the people used to make buildings, tools, and ornaments, and they determine whether those materials came from the local area or were brought from somewhere else. In evaluating the evidence and the findings of various experts, archaeologists get a clearer picture of a past culture and the lives of the people in it.

HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE NEAR EAST Scientific archaeology began in the middle A.D. 1700s and was focused primarily on the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome. Soon, however, archaeologists set their sights on the cultures of the ancient Near East. Early archaeology in the Near East emphasized learning about the history of the great civilizations and rulers there. By the mid-1900s, however, some archaeologists became increasingly interested in the prehistoric period of the region. They hoped to uncover evidence for such things as the origins of agriculture and the emergence of settled communities. Others began to look at findings for what they revealed about everyday life. Egypt. As early as the late 1700s, Europeans came to Egypt to study the ruins and artifacts of the ancient Egyptians. Between 1798 and 1802, the French launched the Napoleonic Expedition, which made an extensive record of many of Egypt's ancient monuments. During that expedition, soldiers uncovered the ROSETTA STONE, a tablet that contained a single inscription written twice in the Egyptian language—in hieroglyphics and another cursive script called demotic—and once in the script of the Greek language. Using their knowledge of the Greek language, which they could read and understand, scholars deciphered the Egyptian scripts on the Rosetta Stone. Once the hieroglyphics were deciphered, archaeologists were able to read other ancient Egyptian texts and shed light on the history of the Egyptian civilization. Throughout the 1800s, expeditions scoured the Nile Valley in search of ancient INSCRIPTIONS. Unfortunately, scientific techniques of excavation and dating were just developing, and archaeologists and collectors were rarely careful about their digging techniques. As a result, vital links between sites and their artifacts were lost as ancient tombs were hastily cleared and temples dismantled. In the 1830s, the Egyptian government began enacting laws to protect ancient sites and artifacts. In the early 1900s, several spectacular archaeological discoveries were made in Egypt. The best-known find was the tomb of TUTANKHAMEN in the VALLEY OF THE KINGS by British archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922. Other important finds included the treasures at THEBES and ancient cemeteries at Saqqara, GIZA, and Tanis. At this time, Egyptian archaeology focused 59

Archaeology and Archaeologists primarily on discovering royal tombs and temples. Little work was done to learn about the culture of the common people. At the same time, the loss of many ancient sites to development, expansion of agriculture, and plundering was beginning to cause concern among archaeologists. In the mid-1900s, archaeologists began to work in areas that had previously been ignored. They also adopted more scientific methods of excavation and analysis and increasingly turned their attention to such evidence as tools, vegetation, and animal bones, which earlier archaeologists had considered of little value.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

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Mesopotamia. The origins of Mesopotamian archaeology date to 1807, when a scholar named Claudius Rich began studying the ruins of the ancient cities of BABYLON, NINEVEH, and Nimrud. Rich's discoveries aroused the interest of scholars in Europe. At the same time, other scholars began trying to decipher cuneiform* texts that had been found in the region. The first excavations in Mesopotamia began in the mid-1800s. French archaeologist Paul-Emile Botta and British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard uncovered some of the most spectacular finds, including Assyrian palaces containing magnificent bas-reliefs*. Another important find was a massive collection of more than 24,000 inscribed cuneiform clay tablets that had been part of the royal library of the Assyrian ruler ASHURBANIPAL. Decipherment of these texts dramatically increased knowledge of the history of ancient Assyria. The pace and intensity of excavation in Mesopotamia increased after the mid-1800s. However, as in Egypt, this early work was not always careful, and many sites were damaged or improperly documented. This was especially true in southern Mesopotamia, where archaeologists were unfamiliar with the mud-brick architecture there. Archaeology in the region became more scientific in the late 1800s. The first major excavations of Sumerian sites were begun at that time, and urban remains as well as many objects were uncovered, including thousands of tablets. German archaeologists working on Babylonian sites were the first to employ what are now recognized to be proper scientific methods, including a careful study of stratigraphy and investigation of the relationship of artifacts to their sites. Excavations in the early 1900s revealed much of what is now known about the history of Mesopotamia. Among the most important excavations in the 1920s and 1930s were those of British archaeologist C. Leonard Woolley. He excavated and uncovered the outline of the entire city of UR, including several impressive royal tombs and an enormous ziggurat*. Beginning in the 1970s, archaeologists began working to explore sites threatened by dam construction. A number of important discoveries were made at this time, including spectacular Assyrian royal tombs. As a result of political conflict between the United States and Iraq, American scholars cannot participate in or conduct excavations there. Instead, they are devoting time to studying materials discovered earlier in the century. Modern archaeological methods and dating techniques have shed new light on the meaning and importance of earlier finds.

Archaeology and Archaeologists

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* diplomatic relating to the practice of conducting peaceful negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

Anatolia. As early as the mid-1700s, scholars and collectors became interested in the Greek and Roman ruins of western ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Expeditions to eastern Anatolia, begun in the early 1800s, uncovered artifacts from other ancient cultures, including the Phrygians and the HITTITES. Most archaeological work in the 1800s focused on southeastern Anatolia, near the ancient civilizations of Syria and northern Mesopotamia. Yet one of the greatest finds of the period occurred in the northwestern Anatolia. Beginning in 1870, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated the ruins of a city. Schliemann concluded that the site was TROY, the scene of a legendary battle between the ancient Greeks and the Trojans. His discovery of golden objects both at Troy and in Greece, among much else, helped to popularize archaeology in Europe and America. By the late 1800s, archaeologists had begun to explore central Anatolia. Gordium, the Phrygian capital during the first millennium B.C.*, was excavated in the 1890s by the Korte Brothers, and again in the mid-1900s by Rodney S. Young of the University of Pennsylvania. The site is renowned for its large burial mounds called tumuli, including that of King Midas, which contains inlaid wooden furniture. Other excavations in this region over the next few decades led to considerable knowledge about the history and culture of the Hittites, and archaeologists soon assembled the first list of Hittite kings. During the A.D. 1920s, archaeologists uncovered pre-Hittite cultures dating from as early as the ninth millennium B.C. (the years from 9000 to 8001 B.C.). Beginning in the 1930s, archaeologists began to reexamine earlier excavations in Anatolia, this time using more scientific methods. This was followed, in the 1950s, by extensive surveys aimed at locating and dating sites throughout the region. In the decades that followed, archaeologists began to focus more on the prehistoric period of Anatolia. In 1963, for example, excavations at the site £ayonii provided important clues to the beginning of agriculture in the region. The Levant. Interest in the archaeology of the Levant* began in the mid-1800s, when scholars began searching for sites that are mentioned in the Bible. Excavations in that period were made at BYBLOS, TYRE, SIDON, and other coastal Phoenician city-states*. The 1920s and 1930s were a period of intense archaeological activity in Syria. Work at prehistoric sites revealed much about the beginnings of permanent settlements and agriculture in the region. Excavations at the site of ancient UGARIT yielded many texts written in the local dialect using a form of CUNEIFORM that was similar to the aleph-beth, which is similar to an alphabet but has signs to represent consonants only. Texts written in the Akkadian, Hittite, and Human languages were also found, attesting to widespread diplomatic* relations. Excavations of Assyrian-controlled sites yielded provincial* palaces, SCULPTURES dating from the reign of king TIGLATH-PILESER III, and rare Assyrian wall paintings. Excavations at the ancient city of EBLA, begun in 1964, revolutionized knowledge about the history of ancient north Syria. Discoveries showed that a major urban civilization existed in Syria during the third 61

Archaeology and Archaeologists

* sect group of people with a common leadership who share a distinctive set of religious views and opinions

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

Robbing the Past Throughout the 1700s and 1800s, archaeologists and collectors visiting the Near East routinely took any movable objects—even huge statues and parts of buildings—and shipped them to museums and private collections in Europe and the United States. These artifacts enriched museums in the West, but their removal deprived the nations of the Near £ast of much of their ancient heritage* By the early 1900s, most Near Eastern nations had passed laws restricting the removal of ancient artifacts and took steps to ensure that such physical remains would be preserved in national museums in the region. Today, archaeologists are limited in what they can take out of countries and many nations are attempting to regain possession of the artifacts taken in earlier times that now rest in Western museums.

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millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), and that it had many international contacts. Archaeology in present-day Israel intensified in the late A.D. 1800s. Much of the archaeological focus in the region has been on uncovering evidence of biblical sites and the history of the ancient Israelites. Among the most important finds in Israel was the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 1940s. These ancient texts reflect the thinking of a Jewish sect* in the two centuries before Christianity began and are among the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 1900s. Archaeologists working in Israel in the 1950s and 1960s made important finds concerning life in the area as far back as the ninth millennium B.C. Meanwhile, work in JERUSALEM in the late 1960s greatly expanded knowledge of that city's ancient history. Archaeologists began working in parts of present-day Jordan in the 1800s. They explored the region extensively, recording information about ruins and artifacts and mapping sites. Among the most important early discoveries was the city of Petra, the capital of the Nabataeans, an early Arab tribe during the late Hellenistic* and early imperial* Roman periods. During the early 1900s, archaeologists in Jordan conducted many regional surveys in an attempt to locate, map, and photograph all the major sites in the region. Work in recent decades has focused on learning more about the ancient human environment, economy, and lifestyle of the early inhabitants of the region. Arabia. Much of the Arabian peninsula remained quite inaccessible to archaeologists for many years, due to both the harsh desert environment and the hostility of Arabs toward westerners. The first expeditions to southern Arabia occurred in the early 1800s. But little large-scale work was done in the region until the next century. During the 1900s, archaeologists discovered important sites in various regions of Arabia. In eastern Arabia, excavations near the Persian Gulf uncovered evidence linking BAHRAIN by trade with Mesopotamia and India. Other finds showed that people occupied this desert region several thousand years ago. Work on the OMAN PENINSULA has provided extensive information about the culture and settlements of that region during the fourth and third millennia B.C. (years from 4000 to 2001 B.C.). Iran. Archaeologists have led expeditions to IRAN (ancient Persia) since the early 1800s. The earliest efforts focused on describing and illustrating all monuments in the region. As early as 1802, archaeologists began working to decipher ancient texts found in Iran. The greatest advances came after the discovery of the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION in the 1840s and its decipherment by Edward Hincks and Henry Rawlinson. From the 1800s to the 1930s, work concentrated mainly on the sites of the ancient Persian capitals. Excavations at Pasargadae, the capital of CYRUS THE GREAT, began in 1828. Archaeologists began work at PERSEPOLIS in 1931, and uncovered palaces, imposing official buildings, and lavish rock-cut tombs, including that of Darius I. Excavations at the city of Susa, conducted between 1897 and 1979, revealed palaces that exemplified the magnificence of the Persian royal court. Between 1850 and 1852,

Archaeology and Archaeologists

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

archaeologists uncovered evidence of the earlier Elamites. During the 1950s and 1960s, they established the basic outlines of Elamite civilization in southwestern Iran, dating back to the fourth millennium B.C.* Since the A.D. 1930s, archaeologists in Iran have studied many historical periods. Work on prehistoric sites resulted in a chronology covering the period from about 7500 to 3000 B.C. Other work has uncovered evidence of links between Iran and Mesopotamia and Central Asia as early as the fourth millennium B.C.

IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGISTS IN THE NEAR EAST Lost City of the Sands

One of the most fabled cities of ancient Arabia was Ubar, a source of frankincense. Camel caravans came to Ubar from all over the ancient Near East to trade in that valuable resin. I According to legend, God de\ stroyed Ubar because of its wickedness, and the city mysteriously disappeared under the shifting sands of the Arabian Desert, In the 198Qs* while studying ancient man* \ uscripts, amateur American archaeologist Nicholas Clapp discovered a i slip of the pen that had misled gen[ eratbns of explorers searching for the lost city. With the help of special radar sensing images taken by the U.S. space shuttle, which showed faint traces of ancient caravan routes, Clapp and a team of scientists were able to locate the site of • the lost city in Oman, They discov\ ered that Ubar had experienced a great catastrophe, perhaps collapsing into a gigantic underground \ cavern beneath part of the city in around xa 1100,

Many archaeologists have worked in the Near East during the past 200 years. Their remarkable discoveries resulted in the assembly of an extensive body of knowledge about the ancient civilizations of that region. Some of these archaeologists are especially well known for their pioneering methods or the magnitude of their discoveries. The work of a few has already been described. There are many others who made significant contributions. British archaeologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie did pioneering work in Egyptian archaeology in the late A.D. 1800s and early 1900s. He excavated more than 60 sites and wrote hundreds of reports and papers. He is best known, however, for his contributions to archaeological techniques and methods of excavation and dating, including the use of stratigraphy. James Henry Breasted also did important work in Egypt. In addition to his archaeological work, he helped shape the study of Egypt in the United States. Currently, Mannfred Bietak is conducting studies that examine the relationship between Egypt and other ancient lands. Many archaeologists have contributed to the study of ancient Mesopotamia. Three early ones were very significant. Hormuzd Rassam was an Iraqi who began as an assistant to Austen Layard but went on to have a brilliant career of his own. He excavated in both Babylon and Nineveh, where he found the spectacular Assyrian lion hunt bas-reliefs. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey helped revolutionize the science of archaeology. His idea of using different soil colors as clues to the presence of ancient structures was a great step forward. He did major work in the city of Babylon in the early 1900s. Henri Frankfort, of the Netherlands, worked in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. His excavation work was carefully carried out and reported in his publications. His studies of ancient Near Eastern art and of cylinder SEALS defined the study of those subjects. Seton Lloyd and Max Mallowan also did important work in Mesopotamia in the mid-1900s. Mallowan was sometimes accompanied by his wife, the mystery writer Agatha Christie. More recently, the Frenchman Roman Ghirshman unearthed Chogha Zanbil, revealing much of what is known of the Elamite culture during the Late Bronze Age. John Garstang, of Great Britain, published an important work on Hittite culture in the early 1900s. While the British held Palestine, he formulated policy for the digging and preservation of ancient artifacts. British scholar David George Hogarth led the first expedition at the city of

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Architecture Karkamish, in Syria, where he employed a former student named T. E. Lawrence. This student—better known as Lawrence of Arabia—began his interest in the Middle East while working on this dig. In the 1920s and 1930s, American William E Albright uncovered a fortress that may have served as the residence of King Saul of Israel; he also made an extensive study of pottery found in the region. This study produced a chronology of pottery that provides relative dates for sites in the area. The French archaeologist Claude Schaeffer uncovered the city of Ugarit and worked in Syria and Cyprus to establish the existence of trade networks in the ancient world. Before and after World War II, two Germans, Hugo Winckler and Kurt Bittel, worked on the Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA. Kathleen Mary Kenyon of Great Britain worked in JERICHO and Jerusalem. In doing so, she applied a new technique of digging that carefully preserved stratigraphic layers. Israeli Yigael Yadin led studies at the sites of ancient MEGIDDO and Hazor and did important work interpreting the Dead Sea Scrolls. (See also Architecture; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Burial Sites and Tombs; Clay Tablets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the Elamites; Hebrews and Israelites; Houses; Libraries and Archives; Mummies; Persian Empire; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Phrygia and the Phrygians.)

ARCHITECTURE

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rchitecture in the ancient Near East was influenced by the underlying beliefs of a region's culture, the building materials available, and the purpose of the structure. Most information about ancient architecture relates to important royal and religious structures that were built to last, such as palaces, temples, and tombs. Still, archaeologists* have found a great deal of information about ordinary domestic housing.

MESOPOTAMIA * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

e olor plate 8,J ol.3.

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The main feature of Mesopotamian architecture was the reliance on mud brick* as a building material because alternatives such as stone and wood were generally scarce, especially near the southern plains. Mud that was dried in the sun or baked hard in an oven was used for walls, floors, and roofs in homes, palaces, temples, and tombs. Archaeologists have found temples from as early as 5000 B.C. as well as other older structures. However, it is not known if these earlier structures were residential homes or storage facilities. Around 3500 B.C., palaces begin to appear, and by about 3000 B.C., there is evidence of the ZIGGURAT— a stepped platform topped by a temple. Domestic Architecture. Foundations of homes from as long ago as 6000 B.C. have been excavated at such sites as Tell al-Sawwan and Choga Mami. These one-story houses contained square or rectangular rooms. Around 5500 B.C., some Mesopotamians built round houses with rooms on the outer edge of the circle opening onto a central area, such as those excavated at Tepe Gawra. During the Ubaid period (ca. 4500 B.C.), houses

Architecture consisted of a three-part structure with a central room running the width of the house and two sets of rooms on either side. About 3500 B.C., Mesopotamians began constructing the courtyard house. These structures contained a series of rooms surrounding a central courtyard. This style became the standard model for houses during the rest of ancient Mesopotamian history and remains in use. The courtyard house also became the basic plan for temples and palaces. See f color plate 14, vol. 3.

* facade front of a building; also, any side of a building that is given special architectural treatment

vaulted having an arched ceiling or roof

Temples. Mesopotamian temples typically used one of two layouts or plans—direct axis, in which the main entrance was in line with the altar; and bent axis, in which the entrance was at right angles to the altar. The altar was located in a room called the cella, which also contained platforms where offerings were made to the god. Some temples contained smaller cellas for other gods, including the spouse of the temple's main god. The earliest temples followed a style similar to the three-part structure of houses. Beginning around 2600 B.C., the courtyard temple became a common design. In around 2100 B.C., the ziggurat first took the complex form that became used throughout later Mesopotamian history. Temples had several decorative features not found in other buildings. For instance, facades* were heavily decorated. The walls on either side of entrances were scored with lines called rabbets, and many niches were cut into the walls. Pottery cones, with their ends covered in paint or bronze, might be sunk into the walls and columns, creating geometric patterns. The White Temple at URUK earned its name because the outer walls were covered with a white plaster that probably made the building gleam in the sun. Palaces. The Palace of Governors built in the city of ESHNUNNA around 2000 B.C. shows the typical layout of an ancient Near Eastern palace. Palaces had two sections—public rooms for official business and private rooms that formed the ruler's residence. Connecting the two was a throne room. Palaces also held storerooms and workshops for the manufacture and storage of goods. One of the most ambitious palaces was built around 710 B.C. for the Assyrian king SARGON II. This enormous complex, surrounded by thick stone walls, contained the palace and throne room, two temples, and the ziggurat all on a platform. On the ground level were the residences of high officials, another temple, and courtyards for public activities. In Babylon, the Southern Citadel, which NEBUCHADNEZZAR II called "the marvel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining residence, the dwelling of majesty," was built over a period of several decades. It had five courtyards, each with several reception rooms and several other rooms. The throne room was large—about 140 feet long and 55 feet wide—with a main entrance that was 20 feet wide. All the doorways were arched, and the ceilings were probably vaulted*.

EGYPT * pharaonic relating to, or representative of, the kings of ancient Egypt

Egyptian belief in life after death was strong and deep. As a result, tombs were a focal point of Egyptian architecture from the earliest pharaonic* 65

Architecture period—around 3100 B.C. Pharaohs as well as members of nobility built elaborate stone tombs that imitated everyday structures built of perishable materials, such as wood, reeds, or mud brick. After about 1500 B.C., tombs became somewhat less elaborate, and rulers began to put more effort into constructing monumental temples.

* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and flat roof over a burial pit or chamber

See color plate 4, vol. 3.

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Monumental Architecture. For the first 1500 years of Egyptian history, the tombs of pharaohs, high officials, and other wealthy individuals were the most impressive structures made. The first monumental tombs, such as those at Saqqara from the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), were deep shafts dug into the ground that were covered by mastabas* made of mud brick. (The facades of the mastabas at Saqqara greatly resembled the facades of older Sumerian temples, such as the White Temple at Uruk.) Later, the tombs were covered with stone. These mastabas developed into the famous PYRAMIDS. The first pyramids were step pyramids. They consisted of rising levels of stone walls, with each level of stone set farther in from the level below, creating a stepped look. The more familiar pyramid design developed from this early form. First a stepped pyramid was built, then the four faces were covered over with smaller stones and mortar and finally finished with a coating of limestone. After the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), pharaohs stopped constructing pyramids, possibly because robbers looted the contents of the pyramids or because of the high costs of labor. Instead, they cut their tombs in rock faces. However, these rock-cut tombs of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.) and later—including that of Tutankhamen—were robbed as well. Pyramids, palaces, and monumental temples all shared some design characteristics. They were all separated from the outside world by enclosing walls. In a pyramid complex, these walls held a mortuary temple as well as the pyramid itself. In palaces, the walls enclosed the public buildings that contained administrative offices and the private rooms of the royal family. In temple complexes, the walls might contain temples dedicated to several different gods. A characteristic of Egyptian palace architecture was the creation of a series of niches—recessed panels in the wall. These niches were decorated with images and texts that linked the ruler to the Egyptian sky god HORUS. This method symbolized the idea that the palace was where the divine and human realms met. In later periods, these niches appeared in other structures, including tombs, where they symbolized movement from the land of the living to the land of the dead. In the New Kingdom, temple architecture took on new significance. Rulers built huge structures. A typical example, which was 250 by 700 feet, was built around 1500 B.C. by Queen HATSHEPSUT. The largest room was the main entrance hall, reached by a long ramp. The pylon (entrance wall) was decorated on the outside with relief carvings. Another ramp led to the slightly smaller hypostyle, or columned hall. The 100 or so columns were carved in relief, as were the walls and ceiling. A third ramp led to the sanctuary. This was a small room, protected from the outside world, where religious rituals were performed. Reliefs on outside walls depicted the king or queen's victories and military campaigns. The message was that the

Architecture pharaoh, by defeatingEgypt's enemies,waspreserving order.Inside, columns and bottoms ofwalls showed marsh plants, which reflectedthe origin oflife. The topsof the wallsand the ceilings depicted thesky. Homes. A typical homein ancient Egypt consisted fiverooms. of One room was for eatingand entertaining;theother rooms were forsleeping, cooking, working,and storage.Thestorage areawasespecially important because the Egyptian economy wasbased on thebarter system, where workers were paid in grainand other provisionsforservices rendered. There was alsoa courtyard. Becausethe warm climate allowed Egyptians to perform many activities outdoors, houses tended to besmall.A medium-sized housewasabout40 byfeet. 50 Single-storied homes belonging topeasantsandworkers were generally made of mud brick.Thewhitewashed walls reflected theheat of the sun awayfrom the house, and small windows helped circulate the Building techniques varied depending on thelocation. Forinstance, in northern Egypt, wherethe climatewasdamp, walls were generally covered with thick plaster. Houseson thefloodplainof theRiver Nileoften had brick foundations to prevent damage ordestruction when theriver flooded. The Egyptian nobility and upper classeshadlarger, two-orthreestory homes that were often located in thecities. They might also have one or more country estates, orvillas. These larger homes had a reception hall, a courtyard, several bedrooms,servants'quarters, kitchens, offices, workshops, and storage areas. These houses mightbe aslargeas 135 by 200 feet. The grounds could includeagarden withapool, shade trees, and farm buildings. Building Techniques. TheEgyptians were master builders, as denced by their monuments, palaces,andother structures. Skilledarchitects carefully planned and built large structures.

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Architecture The earliest buildings in Egypt—even such important structures as palaces, temples, and tombs—were made of sun-dried mud brick. After the Third Dynasty (ca. 2600 B.C.) of the Old Kingdom, stone was used for the most important structures—those meant to last for long periods. Other buildings were made of brick. Limestone and sandstone were also used by Egyptian builders. Sometimes stone of lesser quality was used to create the core of a wall with better stones placed around this core, where the stone was visible. The foundations of Egyptian buildings were generally simple. They consisted of a trench dug in the shape of a building's outer walls, which was filled with sand and topped by a few layers of rough stone blocks. Stone walls were built with great expertise. Ramps were built of small bits of stone and earth. Laborers rolled large blocks of stone along logs and pulled them into place. Once the blocks were positioned, stonemasons used chisels to smooth the sides so that the neighboring stones could be put in place. When all the stones for one layer were in place, the top was covered with a thin coating of mortar. Then the next layer of stones was placed on top. Stones were fitted so closely that a knife could not be inserted between two layers.

THE LEVANT * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * eighth millennium B.C. years from 8000 to 7001 B.C.

ee color plate 13 M.

The earliest known structure in the Levant* is an enormous stone tower attached to the inside of a stone wall that was built in the eighth millennium B.C.* in the earliest known permanent town, Jericho. The tower is about 33 feet in diameter and about 30 feet high. Stone and wood were available throughout the region, and people there used both materials in their buildings. Many archaeological sites in the region revealed multistoried houses constructed using both materials, which may have been built to accommodate a growing population. Homes. In the Late Bronze Age at UGARIT, streets curved to follow the terrain. Streets and alleys ended at courtyards surrounded by houses. The size of the house and number of rooms varied, but otherwise the houses were the same. The ground floor was used for storage, shops, and workshops. A small central courtyard provided light for the upper-story living area. Almost every home in Ugarit contained a family tomb in the basement. Emar, on the west bank of the Euphrates, was laid out by city planners. They terraced the land and laid out the streets, creating small plots for individual houses. Here, homes had a front room and two back rooms that supported the upper story, which opened onto a terrace on the roof of the lower front room. Palaces and Temples. Royal cities were surrounded by a fortified wall to provide protection and demonstrate power. These came in all shapes and sizes. Some had sloping sides because they were thicker at the bottom than at the top; others were double walls. The gates, often made of stone, were topped by a tower. The palace at Ugarit was reached through a paved court. It contained many rooms in a mazelike configuration, including a throne room, offices,

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Architecture The Brilliance of Rising Stars In the foundations of Mesopotamian royal buildings, the king placed an inscription recording what was done, how, and why, Here is one, by Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (ca» 1114-1076 B.C.). Of course, the king did not do the actual work; he just took all t credit.

The gods Anu and Adad, the great gods my lords who love my priesthood, commanded me to rebuild their shrine... .1 planned and laboriously rebuilt and completed the pure temple, the holy shrinef their joyful abode, their happy dwelling which stands out like the stars of heaven and which represents the choicest skills of the building trade. Its interior I decorated like the interior of heaven. I decorated its walls as splendidly as the brilliance of rising stars.

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See

if color plate 10,' vol. 3.

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

tombs, six courtyards, and a garden. In the southern Levant, palaces showed Egyptian influences, with rooms arrayed around a central courtyard. In northern Syria, during the first millennium (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), a new type of official building appeared called a bit hilani. The building consisted of a roofed, short wide porch supported by one to three columns. Behind this porch, accessed by a short flight of stairs, was the throne room. Behind the throne room and on either side of the porch were other smaller rooms and a staircase leading to the upper story. This colonnaded entrance porch became characteristic of palaces throughout the region and elsewhere for centuries. Temples in the Levant consisted of long, narrow buildings with an entrance porch that led through a main room to the holy of holies (the innermost and most sacred chamber in a temple) at the back. A temple with this basic plan, dating from the Middle Bronze Age, was found at EBLA. A temple with a similar plan, but with a pair of columns supporting the porch roof, was excavated at the Iron Age site of Kunulua in Syria. This temple may have resembled the Temple of Jerusalem, as described in the Hebrew Bible. Persia. Just as other kings in the ancient Near East, the Achaemenid rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE (559-330 B.C.) built monumental architecture—both religious and royal—to impress the world. However, the Persians faced one problem—they were essentially a nomadic* people, and as a result, had no traditions of monumental architecture. Consequently, they adapted and adopted from other great powers, such as the Assyrians, Elamites, Egyptians, as well as Greeks, and developed a new and unique style. Because the Zoroastrian faith is mostly practiced outdoors, the Persians, unlike other ancient Near Eastern cultures, did not construct elaborate temples. Instead, they built square towers enclosing a single room (reached by a stairway) in which they tended to the sacred fire. The Persian kings built huge palaces at Pasargadae, Susa, and PERSEPOLIS. The design and decoration of the palaces were aimed to reveal the power and majesty of the ruler. The audience hall that Darius I built at Susa was 800 feet square, with tall stone columns. However, the rest of the structure used bricks. The hall was decorated with bricks glazed in blue, green, cream, yellow, and black. These bricks were used to create images of archers, lions, mythical beasts, and contests between animals. Also included were images of members of the Persian elite who were no doubt honored to be depicted in such a glorious setting. Darius I also built a vast capital at Persepolis. The main palace, the Apadana, was huge—almost 220 feet on each side. Leading to the Apadana was a staircase decorated with reliefs* representing peoples from 23 lands that were subject to Darius. Each was depicted bringing a gift in a scene that probably illustrated an actual event that occurred. The overall effect is to show the might of the Persian king. A few miles away, Darius and three successors created huge stone tombs cut into the rocky face of a towering cliff. The facade of the tombs is cross shaped and begins 50 feet up the cliff face. The doorlike entrance to the tomb is flanked on either side by reliefs and a pair of columns. The 69

Archives columns support a horizontal section that contains a fire altar, symbols of gods, and a richly decorated couch on which the king stands.

* Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

Archives

ARK OF THE

COVENANT * cherubim winged lions; in later times, angels portrayed as winged human figures

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Anatolia. Archaeological excavations in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) have yielded the remains of the region's largest known settlement— £ATAL HUYUK. This settlement dates from the Neolithic period*, before the rise of advanced civilizations. At its height, £atal Hiiyiik contained about 1,000 houses made of sun-dried and molded mud bricks laid on wooden frameworks. The floors and walls were covered with white plaster, and the roofs were constructed using light wooden beams. A typical house consisted of a square living space with an attached storeroom. The houses were built right next to one another, without streets or doorways, and the inhabitants are believed to have entered their homes through holes in the roofs, using ladders. Later, during the fifth millennium (years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.), military architecture rose to prominence in the region and is evidenced by the remains of carefully planned fortresses, such as those found in Troy. KHATTUSHA (present-day Bogazkoy), the capital city of the Hittite empire, also contained several imperial* monuments. Constructed during the second millennium (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), the monuments included temples, palaces, and fortifications. The temples consisted of large buildings surrounded by storage chambers and a courtyard. The temples also contained a small, freestanding shrine to the main deity— a feature not found in Mesopotamian or Syrian architecture. Archaeologists have also recovered town plans dating from around the Iron Age (ca. 900s B.C.) near the Anatolian plateau. During this period, the region was occupied by the Phrygians, whose capital was at Gordium. Excavations in the region have revealed the remains of several wellplanned public buildings, ornamental city gates, and several rock-cut monuments, including one to King Midas. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Palaces and Temples.)

See Libraries and Archives.

T

he Ark of the Covenant was sacred to the ancient Israelites, because they said it contained the tablets of the covenant, or solemn agreement, between YAHWEH and Israel. The ark was thought to have miraculous powers. About four feet long by two feet wide by two feet deep, the ark was made of acacia wood covered with gold both inside and out. It was topped by a golden seat flanked by golden cherubim*. At the bottom on each side were two golden rings. The ark was carried by slipping goldcoated poles through these rings. The ark symbolized the covenant between God and the Israelites. They agreed to keep God's laws; God, in turn, promised to protect them.

Armies

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

ARMIES * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the ark guided the Israelites across the Jordan River on foot into Canaan, the land that God had promised them. Sometimes the Israelites brought the ark into battle. In one narrative of the Bible, the Philistines captured it and placed it in a temple dedicated to one of their gods. The ark caused the god's statue to topple and break. Biblical accounts say that no one could touch the ark. Even when a man supported the ark to prevent it from falling, he was instantly killed by lightning. King DAVID of Israel brought the ark to JERUSALEM. King SOLOMON, his son, later placed it in the city's temple. The final fate of the Ark of the Covenant is unknown, but it was probably lost or destroyed. Afterward, the prophet JEREMIAH told the Israelites that God commanded them to think about the ark no longer. Some scholars think that this command reflects an attempt to end a cult* that had grown around the ark.

T

he armies of the ancient Near East began as loose groups of foot soldiers who fought with stone weapons. This changed over a period of several thousand years. By the first millennium B.C.*, the armies of empires were large, organized forces that combined several different kinds of fighting units. These latter-day soldiers were armed with a variety of weapons and used animals to strike quickly and powerfully. Throughout the ancient period, however, armies had three primary goals: to defend the homeland, to conquer other lands, and to put down rebellions to preserve empires.

EARLY ARMIES * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

The first armies were relatively small forces formed by the early citystates*. They might protect the people's crops from raids by nomads* or fight with soldiers from another city over control of precious water resources. The impressions made by cylinder SEALS dating from about 3200 B.C. show that soldiers used the same weapons as hunters—clubs, spears, and bows and arrows. Most weapons were made of stone and wood, but after about 3000 B.C., they began to be made of bronze. Mesopotamia. By the middle of the third millennium B.C.*, armies were better organized and equipped. The Royal Standard of Ur, an inlaid panel discovered in southern MESOPOTAMIA and dating from around 2500 B.C., has provided some clues to military advances. It shows an army made of columns of infantry who wore helmets and cloaks and carried spears. The standard also shows that this army included CHARIOTS. Early chariots were four-wheeled vehicles pulled by wild asses. These chariots were heavy and slow because their WHEELS were made of solid wood. The stela of the Vulture, a relief* that dates from about 2450 B.C., shows how these early armies fought. This stela* shows Eannatum I, king 71

Armies

of the city-state of Lagash, leadinghisarmyoffoot soldiers forward. The soldiers, who are helmeted and carry spearsandaxes,areformed intoa phalanx. This formationwasused throughout theancient worldformore than 2,000 years. In a phalanx, soldiers aregrouped into ablock and march forward in a tight formation. Most fighting took place at close range. Armies would formin the open, and the attacking force would march forward with spears held low. Archers, whose weapons had longer range, formed behind theline ofbattle. Theyfired on enemy forcesto provide coverfortheirownadvancing troops. The early armies were recruited when needed. A new developmentin military thinking came SARGON under I, who builttheAkkadian empire around 2350 B.C. Sargonhad a permanent army,asmall, well-trained force that helped him win hisconquests. This armywascompletely dependent on the king—even forfood. Inthis way, Sargon hoped toensure the complete loyaltyof his soldiers.Healso changed military strategy, favoring the use of several groupsofsoldiers spreadoutacross field the of battle rather than large numbers in phalanxes. Egypt. Egypt did not have anational, professional military forceduring the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.) or the Middle Kingdom (ca. 19801630B.C.). The armiesof these periods consisted simply oflocal residents called to service when needed byindividual nobles. These temporary fightingforces did not distinguishmen byrank. During these periods, armies consisted primarilyof infantrymen armed with clubs, swords, daggers, spears, and bows and arrows.

HITTITE POWER Around the 1500s B.C., a new force arosein the ancient Near East. This was theHITTITES ANATOLIA of (present-day Turkey). The Hittites were able to build an empire largely becauseoftheir use of two innovationsintechnology. They began using iron weapons,CHARIOTS and theyturned intoa more important fighting force. 72

Armies The Hittite Army. Like Sargon, the Hittites had a permanent army. A Hittite king would call on this army in situations that did not require large numbers of troops or that needed a quick response. If more troops were needed, he drafted civilians into the army. He could also call on individuals who had been given land in exchange for the pledge to serve when needed. Allies and conquered territories were also encouraged—or required—to supply troops. The Hittite army was highly organized, with officers of various ranks commanding units of different sizes. As commander in chief, the Hittite king took an active role in all military decisions. Discipline was strongly enforced. Officers and soldiers alike were required to inform the king of disloyalty or desertion. In fact, an officer who failed to hand over a deserter had to die with him. The most important and prestigious branch of the Hittite army was the chariotry Designed to provide a moving platform for archers, chariots took an active part in combat. Hittite chariots were superior to those of other peoples. They had light spoked wheels and were pulled by horses— which were stronger and faster than asses. As a result, the Hittite chariotry was faster than other chariot forces of the time.

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

Professional Armies in Egypt. Around the same time as the rise of the Hittites, invaders from the east took control of northern Egypt. The Egyptians called them the HYKSOS, which meant "rulers of foreign countries/' Like the Hittites, Hyksos armies used fast chariots that overpowered Egyptian forces. Egyptian rulers held the middle Nile region and tried to regain the north. They began to form professional armies. This practice continued after the defeat of the Hyksos and during the period of foreign conquest called the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). These armies were made of people from various ethnic groups; some were captured enemies, and others were mercenaries*. Troops were organized according to various ranks and divided into the infantry and the chariotry. There was no separate naval branch, even though much warfare took place on water.

ARMIES OF EMPIRES In the first millennium B.C., several large empires were formed in the ancient Near East. Well-armed and well-organized armies made the creation of these empires possible. The Assyrian Empire. The first of these mighty empires was that of Assyria. By the 600s B.C., this empire of warriors held the area from the Nile River in the west to Iran in the east and from Arabia in the south to the Caucasus Mountains in the north. Like the Hittites, the Assyrians had a highly organized military structure. The king was commander in chief of the army, and below him were various ranks of officers. Every Assyrian male had an obligation to perform military service when called upon. Assyrian queens may have played a part in military affairs as well. 73

Armies

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states,or nations

imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

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The size of the Assyrian army steadily grew over the centuries. By the 600s B.C., the army numbered in the hundreds of thousands, making it perhaps the largest standing army of the ancient Near East. As Assyria conquered new territories, it pulled males from these new lands into its army. The Assyrians also employed large numbers of mercenaries. The Assyrian army consisted of infantry, chariotry, and CAVALRY. The foot soldiers were divided into heavy and light infantry. The heavy infantrymen, who wore shields and chest armor, carried double-bladed pikes and swords. The light infantry had no armor and only wicker shields. Because these soldiers carried lighter equipment, they could move more quickly. Because they were armed with bows, they could strike from a distance. Under the Assyrians, the cavalry replaced the chariotry in importance. The cavalry, composed of soldiers on horseback, was cheaper to maintain than a chariot force and provided a greater proportion of quick, mobile fighters per horse. Horses could also be used in more uneven terrain than could chariots. Changes in the design of bridles made it possible for cavalry troops to use weapons more effectively while riding. The number of cavalrymen steadily increased until they largely replaced the chariot force. Another important part of the Assyrian army was its engineers. These soldiers specialized in such tasks as building bridges and roads to ease the army's advance into new territory. They also worked on the battering rams and other machines used to break down the walls and gates of enemies' cities. Although they had strong armies and skilled engineers, Assyrian rulers knew that sieges* and pitched battles required time, energy, and manpower. Whenever possible, they preferred trying to persuade the inhabitants of an area to surrender without a fight. First they tried diplomacy*. If that failed, the Assyrians surrounded a city and shouted to the people inside, encouraging them to surrender. Refusals were followed by attacks, often against a few small cities at first. Once a city was captured, the Assyrians committed extreme acts of cruelty and brutality. They looted and burned buildings and raped, mutilated, and murdered their victims. Ancient artworks show the severed heads of defeated soldiers hanging from trees as a warning to others. News of this brutality was often effective in persuading other areas to surrender rather than suffer the same fate. The Persian Empire. The Assyrian empire fell in 612 B.C. to a combined force of Babylonians and MEDES. Soon after that, a new power arose in the region—the Persians. Under CYRUS THE GREAT and his successors, the Persians rose from their homeland in IRAN. The Persian army included tens of thousands of soldiers. Like other imperial* armies of ancient times, the Persian army included men from many different regions. For instance, Scythians, who were skilled horsemen, were a vital part of the Persian cavalry. As the Assyrians had done, the Persians relied on the skilled seamen from Phoenicia as the backbone of their navy. The core of the army was the force called the Immortals, which numbered 10,000. These crack troops won their name from the practice of

Art, Artisans, and Artists

Historical Propaganda Historians often have difficulty determining the size of ancient armies. Written records are questionable because they may reflect the views of either the victors or the vanquished, and both sides had reason to exaggerate. Victors migh overstate the size of their enemy to make their victory appear even greater. The defeated would do the same, making a defeat seem more justified because of the overwhelm* ing odds. Thus, sources claiming that Hittite armies contained 25,000 chariots are almost certainly untrue. Feeding and maintaining s many horses during a military campaign would have been next to impossible. What was the real size of these and other military forces? Historians can only guess.

Armor

ART, ARTISANS, AND ARTISTS

keeping them always 10,000 strong; whenever a member of the Immortals died in battle, he was replaced. The Persian army was also known for the skill of its archers. Persian archers were so renowned that King DARIUS I placed the image of an archer on the coins he issued. The Persians also had mounted troops. Sharp, cutting edges were attached to the hubs of the wheels of some chariots. The wheels became a danger to enemy infantry, which the chariots charged aggressively. In their wars, the Persians encountered other peoples who used animals other than horses in their armies. They were quick to adopt these ideas. Thus, some Persian cavalrymen were mounted on camels, and the Persian army also included war elephants. They were used to rout enemy soldiers or as a way of reaching the tops of city walls. Alexander's Empire. In the 300s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Macedonia, an area north of Greece, defeated the Persians and conquered a large empire of his own. Like that of the Persians, some of his success was due to his ability to quickly adopt ideas from other peoples. He relied on the Greek phalanx as the core of his army. When he reached India and saw elephants in action, he, too, brought these beasts into his army. Alexander also had a strong intelligence-gathering unit, which he relied on to provide information about the location and strength of enemy forces. His engineers were very skilled as well. They devised large towers and catapults (devices for hurling missiles) that were helpful in overcoming the defenses of cities. Alexander's greatest innovation, though, was to make his army mobile and able to travel great distances. He did not want the army's advance to be hampered by long, slow supply trains consisting of heavy wagons. He had his soldiers carry as many of their supplies and as much as their equipment as possible. The rest he put on the backs of pack animals, which could move more quickly than heavy wagons. The ability to strike quickly and hard helped Alexander build his very large empire in a very few years. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Caria and the Carians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Fortifications; Naval Power; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Soldiers; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Armor.)

See Weapons and Armor.

A

rt encompasses painting, sculpture, and architecture—the major arts—as well as metalwork, jewelry, ceramics, glass, and textiles— the minor arts. When we speak about artists today, we refer to people who sign their work and are known by name. In ancient times, the term generally referred to people who worked together, occasionally in large numbers, on artistic projects. They remained anonymous, and were called artisans—people who practice a craft—rather than artists. The artisans

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Art, Artisans, and Artists

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* deity god or goddess

third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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usually worked under the direction of important organizations, such as temples, royal palaces, or wealthy nobles. In the ancient world, art served purposes beyond the decorative. Art expressed wealth, might, and power. Large-scale artworks first appeared toward the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, such as a 30inch-tall stone relief* of an unknown king of URUK attacking lions. In one section of the relief, the king is shown wielding a lance and in another, a bow and arrow. During the second millennium B.C.*, Egyptian king RAMSES II commissioned four large statues of himself—each measuring more than 65 feet high—seated in front of the temple at ABU SIMBEL. The BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, ordered by Persian king Darius I, shows the king standing with one foot on the body of the defeated rebel leader, while his guards bring in other shackled captives. During the first millennium B.C.*, 15-feet-tall statues of winged bulls with human heads guarded the gateways of Assyrian palaces. Inside, the palace walls were lined with several reliefs showing battles, lion hunts, and royal processions. Art also served religious purposes. Statues of deities*, made nearly everywhere in the ancient Near East, were placed in temples and worshiped. Made of stone or wood, these statues were often painted and dressed to appear lifelike. During the third millennium B.C.*, Mesopotamians placed small statues of themselves before the statue of the deity in the temple. Called votive statues, they show the worshipers standing or sitting reverently with their hands clasped at their chests. Egyptians left votive statues in their temples as well. Called block statues, the worshipers are usually seated with their hands crossed on their knees, which are drawn up to their chests. Art also served to demonstrate the close relationship between the king and the gods. Therefore, images of the god and king were often placed near each other to emphasize this connection. For instance, Egyptian and Hittite kings showed themselves in an embrace with their gods. In Mesopotamia, the king was considered the high priest of the gods, chosen by them to rule. There, the kings were shown performing rituals before the gods or before the animals or other symbols that represented the gods. In Egypt, the king—while he was alive—was considered the falcon god HORUS. The winged disc symbolized the king's protective god nearly everywhere in ancient Near Eastern art. Artifacts* also served as gifts and items of trade in the ancient Near East. Gifts included such items as the highly valued ivory carvings that were used as furniture inlays. These carvings were made by the Syrians in the 800s and 700s B.C. and by the Phoenicians in the 700s and 600s B.C. and served as items of tribute*. Examples of these items have been found all over the ancient Near East, especially in the ruins of Assyrian palaces. There are few texts in which ancient artists and artisans reveal their ideas about art or descriptions of their crafts. Still, archaeologists * have been able to draw some conclusions about artisans' lives and social position. By looking at tools and hoards of raw materials, they can examine the technology used to create objects. Texts and images reveal how work was organized and the value placed on artisans and their work.

Art, Artisans, and Artists Egypt. In Egypt, artists and artisans different of specialties worked together in workshops.A relief in the tombof Ti, at Saqqara, shows metalworkers, jewelers, stonemasons, woodworkers, cabinetmakers, leather workers, and others. These workshops belonged to a temple, king, or official. In some cases, Egyptian kings assigned royal artisansofficial to an for a specified duration. The large workshops were supportedby the income the temple or official gained from landholdings. The objects they made were used in the temple or in the official's estate. Some were placed in the official's tomb. Workshops were organized by the type of material being worked. Stone carvers were near those who made stone containers and those who drilled holes in stone for use in jewelry. Most Egyptian artisans worked closely together and many were highly specialized. They worked together especially on large projects, such as carving and painting wall reliefs in tombs or temples. Egyptian artisans were not like modern artists or artisans. They did not operate as independent workers who created pieces and hoped to find a buyer. They depended on others, and the objects they created belonged to the owner of the workshop. However, there were some exceptions to this general rule. Records show that royal workers could use some of theirfree time to produce objects on their own and sell them to people who did not belong to the royal families. Sculptors and painters tended to be hired out for particular projects rather than to belong to the workshops. Sculptors enjoyed a somewhat higher status than other artisans did. One reason was that sculptors had an especially important task. The statue they made of their patron—which was placed in that person's tomb—was believed to be a vital part of the individual's chancesfor a

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Art, Artisans, and Artists

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

Complaint Department Wealth and status were no protection against unscrupulous or inefficient workers. A priestess from Mari in Mesopotamia was \ at her wit's end over work she paid for and had not received;

/ had given to you grain with which to buy stones for a necklace, but you have not done so. / had paid you four years ago Now if you are truly my brother, for the love of heaven, send me promptly that object and don't keep it from me. 'i No record exists of the artisan's f response.

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satisfactory life after death. Painters, too, enjoyed special status, in part because they painted the statues that sculptors created. Both sculptors and painters were said to be ''provided with gifts/' meaning they had received special favor from their patron*. Even these more highly valued artisans worked cooperatively, though. Teams of sculptors created statues or complex reliefs that decorated temples and palaces. Groups of painters worked together on wall paintings. They coordinated their efforts by following established rules or conventions on how to present the images they were creating. What made individuals stand out as being especially talented was not their creativity but their ability to master the rules of their craft. Mesopotamia. Artists and artisans in Mesopotamia maintained separate workshops for different types of work. Some industries, such as pottery or weaving, relied on materials available locally and in large quantities. Artisans in these industries might work in their homes. For others, larger scale workshops were required. Unlike in Egypt, however, these workshops were divided, with metalworkers toiling in one location and woodworkers in another. The most ambitious and sophisticated work was typically produced in cities, especially the capitals of ancient kingdoms. The temples and royal palaces in these cities were the main market for the artisans' work. Certain locations became well known for skilled work in certain fields. The southern Mesopotamian city of Isin, for instance, was a center for leather work. Less evidence of workshops has been found in Mesopotamia than in Egypt. Cities sometimes contained craft quarters—areas where workers of a particular type carried out their work. Texts mention sections of cities devoted to goldsmiths and potters. Archaeologists have also found evidence of concentrations of craft workers in villages outside city walls. These craft centers outside the cities were often used for work in raw materials that were harder to transport, such as metals and the materials used to make glass. For instance, outside the city of UR during the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) there was a cluster of workers who made clay plaques and cylinder SEALS. The seal cutters often occupied respectable positions in ancient Near Eastern societies because they were employed to make seals for special contracts and were required to witness the transactions that followed. State workshops fell under control of the central government. Some could be extremely large. During the Third Dynasty of Ur—from about 2110 to 2000 B.C.—the Wool Office put thousands of women slaves to work making woolen cloth. Sometimes, these state workshops contracted the work out to individuals who worked in their homes. One text from the city of Uruk documents the release of a quantity of gold to a goldsmith, who took the material home to work. The text specifies that the finished product had to be returned in five days. Young workers served a period as apprentices, during which they learned their craft. Typically, they learned the profession from older members of their own family. By the 400s B.C., there is evidence of some groups of craft workers forming professional associations with their own rules and officials.

Artaxerxes I, II, and III

* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

ARTAXERXES I, II, AND 111 Artaxerxes I

ruled 464-424 B.C.

Persian king Artaxerxes II

ruled 404-359 B.C.

Persian king Artaxerxes III

ruled 358-338 B.C.

Persian king

Skilled workers were in demand—in part because there was often a shortage of them. Texts detail the efforts of different royal courts to secure the best workers, which sometimes required going far from the local area. Specialists were loaned from one ruler to another. During the New Kingdom of Egypt (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), Egyptian artisans were in great demand. Rulers might send letters requesting that another king send workers with a particular skill. To buttress their request, they often mentioned that they had allowed previously borrowed workers to return to their homes. Artisans from Crete, especially those expert in painting reliefs, traveled to Avaris in the Nile Delta* and worked in palaces in northern Syria. During the 400s B.C., Greek stonemasons traveled to work in Persepolis. In the first millennium B.C., this authorized borrowing was often replaced by seizure of artisans after conquest. The Babylonian king NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, when he captured the city of Jerusalem, took away all the princes and "all the craftsmen and smiths/' Among the ancient Mesopotamians, artistic ability was considered a gift from the gods. From the earliest historical times in the fourth millennium B.C., texts credit the god EA as the source of the artisan's skill. This view continued until the first millennium B.C. King ESARHADDON of Assyria, who ruled from 680 to 669 B.C., called Ea the god who "creates/shapes appearance, who fashions all things." (See also Architecture; Glass and Glassmaking; Jewelry; Metals and Metalworking; Palaces and Temples; Pottery; Sculpture; Wall Paintings.)

T

hree powerful kings named Artaxerxes (ar»tuh«ZERK»seez) ruled the PERSIAN EMPIRE between 465 and 338 B.C. They were members of the Achaemenid dynasty*, a line of monarchs founded by CYRUS THE GREAT in 538 B.C. Artaxerxes I, the younger son of XERXES I, took the throne after his father was assassinated. He was made king by the commander of the guard who had killed his father. His reign was relatively peaceful, although he did face a number of revolts in the provinces. One uprising was led by a brother who was satrap* of BACTRIA. Another rebellion erupted among the Egyptians, who had support from the Greeks. Fighting continued for some time before Persian rule was fully restored in Egypt. During his reign, Artaxerxes I ordered the construction of magnificent new buildings in the cities of SUSA, BABYLON, and PERSEPOLIS. He also established important cultural ties with Greece and adopted a policy of tolerance toward Jews. Artaxerxes I died in 424 B.C. and was succeeded by his son Xerxes II. His rule was brief, and his half brother Darius II became king after him. Artaxerxes II became the Persian king in 404 B.C. upon the death of his father, Darius II. Early in his reign, Artaxerxes II overcame two challenges by a brother: an assassination attempt and a rebellion. His brother's revolt had significant consequences, however. Some of the rebels had been Greek soldiers. Their skilled fighting encouraged the 79

Aryans * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

ARYANS * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

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Greek city-state* of Sparta to challenge Persia. After defeating the Spartan navy, the Persians made peace with Sparta by offering to side with the Spartans in their struggle against a rival city-state, Athens. In 386 B.C., the Persians forced Athens to accept a peace settlement that gave Persia control over Greek city-states in ANATOLIA. Trouble continued during the rule of Artaxerxes II, however. Between 385 B.C. and the end of his reign, he tried to regain control of Egypt, which had declared its independence in 405 B.C. Satraps throughout Anatolia also revolted. Eventually, these uprisings were put down, but the Persian state was now weaker. Artaxerxes II died in 359 B.C. Artaxerxes III, a cruel and ruthless ruler, secured his father's throne by killing many of his relatives. To lessen the threat of rebellion in the provinces, he ordered all the satraps in the empire to dismiss their mercenaries*. This action helped strengthen the empire. The new king was a skilled general. Artaxerxes III launched major military expeditions against Egypt, which he hoped to reconquer. He succeeded in defeating the Egyptians in 343 B.C. After plundering and destroying many Egyptian cities and temples, he placed a Persian satrap in control of the region. A few years later Artaxerxes' reign came to an abrupt end. Bagoas, a royal official, poisoned the king and his elder sons. Soon after, the much-weakened Persian empire fell to ALEXANDER THE GREAT. (See also Iran; Persian Wars.)

T

he Aryans were a group of Indo-European peoples from CENTRAL ASIA who migrated to IRAN and northern India during the second millennium B.C.* Originally a nomadic* group, they eventually established economies based on grazing and agriculture and laid the foundation for both India's Hindu culture and the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The name Aryan comes from the word arya, which means "man of clay" or "man of the land" in an ancient Aryan language. According to Hindu mythology, the original ancestor of the Aryans was the god Aryaman, one of the sons of the goddess Aditi. In Iran, this original god was preserved in the name AHRIMAN, who was the evil god in the two-god system that formed the heart of the Persian religion. Almost nothing is known about the Aryans before their arrival in Iran and India. Most scholars believe, however, that they originated in the grasslands north and east of the Caspian Sea. Sometime after 2000 B.C., the Aryans began moving out of this region. Some went as far as Europe, while others moved southward in successive waves of migration. The reasons for their movement are unknown. The Aryans migrated first into the southern parts of Central Asia. From there, they moved into Iran and into the Indus Valley region of India, where they may have contributed to the destruction of the early civilization that was centered in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By about 1700 B.C., the Aryans dominated the area. New waves of Aryans continued to enter the area until about 1100 B.C.

Ashur (city) indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

ASHUR (CITY)

See map in Assyria and the Assyrians (vol.1).

In India, the Aryans absorbed most of the indigenous* cultures and introduced their own language, customs, and beliefs. The result was the formation of a new culture that contributed to the later development of Hinduism in India. The oldest writings of the Hindu religion, known as the Vedas, were written in the language of the Aryans and reflect their beliefs. The Aryans also migrated westward through Iran into MESOPOTAMIA. Ancient documents suggest that Aryan groups probably began entering the region after the collapse of the empire of SHAMSHI-ADAD I in the 1700s B.C. From the 1400s to the 1200s B.C., the rulers of Mitanni, a kingdom in upper Mesopotamia, had names reflecting an ancient Aryan language. In addition, the names of some of the gods worshiped at the Mitannian royal court were the same as those found in ancient Indian religious texts. These names and beliefs suggest that Aryans played an important role in founding the Mitanni empire. Several centuries later, in 843 B.C., Assyrian records first mentioned a new Aryan tribe in the area—the Persians. The Persians and another Aryan group, the MEDES, settled in Iran. In this early period, both groups were fragmented into several small kingdoms that had little power. Eventually, though, they amassed great power and laid the foundations for the mighty Persian empire. The land came to be called Aryanam, or the ''land of the Aryans/' It is from this name that the region has come to be called Iran. (See also Ethnic and Language Groups; Hurrians; Indo-European Languages; Nomads and Nomadism.)

T

he city of Ashur was the capital of ancient Assyria during its first great period of expansion from the 1300s to the 1000s B.C. It was named for ASHUR, the supreme deity of the Assyrians. The most prominent building in the city was a temple to that god. It was from this city that a succession of Assyrian kings set out to conquer new lands and build their mighty empire. Founded at least by 2450 B.C., Ashur was located on the west bank of the TIGRIS RIVER on a triangular plot of ground jutting into the river. The river water and high cliffs leading down to it provided a natural defense for two sides of the city. Still, the city was conquered by the Akkadians, the Babylonians, and the HURRIANS. The Babylonians built a massive wall to protect the city from its third, landward, side. Later the Assyrians strengthened this wall and added a wide moat. The city had two sections. The Old City had palaces and temples, while the New City held the homes of most people. The people of Ashur were actively involved in trade. They imported tin from the east and textiles from the south, which they traded in ANATOLIA for gold and silver. Ashur ceased to be the capital of Assyria after the early 800s B.C., when the administrative center was moved to KALKHU and then later to NINEVEH. It continued to flourish as a center for trade and religious activity, however. The city was destroyed by the MEDES in 614 B.C. Although people continued to inhabit the city for several more centuries, it never regained

81

Ashur (deity) its former glory and was abandoned in A.D. 200s. (See also Ashurbanipal; Ashurnasirpal II; Assyria and the Assyrians.)

ASHUR (DEITY) * deity god or goddess * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* homage anything done to show honor or respect * province region that forms part of a larger state or empire

ASHURBANIPAL ruled 668-627 B.C. Assyrian king

See color plate 5, vol. 4.

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A

shur was the supreme deity* of the Assyrians. He had been the god t the city of ASHUR since its founding in the third millennium B.C.* Later he became the god who was credited with the growth of the NeoAssyrian empire. It was in Ashur's temple and at the hands of Ashur's chief priest that the kings of Assyria received their crowns. While Ashur was the god of the city, the king was his highest deputy. Assyrians believed that the king's actions represented the god's will. Because Ashur had power over all other gods, it was natural that their territories came under the control of his agent, the king of Assyria. Assyrian kings were careful to explain the enlargement of their power as a response to those who refused to submit to Ashur's will or those who provoked Ashur's anger. As the Assyrian empire expanded, all the conquered peoples were to pay homage* to Ashur, although they could continue to worship their own gods. Each province* was required to send such items as barley, sesame, fruit, and honey to the temple of Ashur according to a carefully worked out schedule hat ensured that the god had food every day. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians.)

T

he last powerful king of Assyria, Ashurbanipal (A«shur»BA«ni»pal) was an intelligent leader who took the throne in 668 B.C. at the death of his father, ESARHADDON. During his 40-year reign, the longest in Assyrian history, Ashurbanipal tried to maintain order while leading Assyria to great achievements in the arts and literature. Frequent warfare weakened the empire, however, contributing to its collapse under his successors. Ashurbanipal was named his father's heir in 672 B.C. even though he was not the eldest son. He seems, though, to have been his father's favorite. The prince took an active role in the administration of the Assyrian empire even before Esarhaddon died. Soon after Ashurbanipal became king, a revolt arose in Egypt, which Esarhaddon had conquered. The Assyrian forces won some early victories, although it is not clear that the king himself led the army. He appointed local princes to rule and gave them Assyrian soldiers for support. Soon his attention shifted to the east, where he fought a brutal war against the Elamites in southern MESOPOTAMIA. While the Assyrians were tied up in the east, a new revolt arose in Egypt. Finding the cost of maintaining his grip on Egypt too great, the

Ashurnasirpal II

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

ASHURNASIRPAL II ruled 883-859 B.C. Assyrian king * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

king abandoned Egypt in 653 B.C. and signed a treaty with the new ruler to maintain trade. This loss was followed by renewed fighting in Mesopotamia. Babylonia was ruled by Ashurbanipal's brother Shamashshum-ukin. This brother organized a revolt by many peoples who disliked Assyrian rule. After a number of years of war, the Assyrians won, and Shamash-shum-ukin killed himself. Ashurbanipal punished the other rebels harshly, although he did not order any destruction of the city of BABYLON. Little is known about the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign. After his death, two of his sons fought each other for five years in a struggle for power. In 612 B.C., a weakened Assyria was conquered by an alliance of the MEDES and the Babylonians. A patron of the arts, Ashurbanipal built and restored many PALACES AND TEMPLES and commissioned magnificent works of art. His most important contribution, however, was the creation of a library in the city of NINEVEH. Ashurbanipal had received the training of a scribe*, and he personally chose the works to be collected in this library. Many ancient works survived to later ages because they had been preserved there. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Libraries and Archives.)

A

ruthless conqueror and skilled administrator, Ashurnasirpal II (A«shur«NAT*sir»pal) helped expand the Assyrian empire. Known for his brutality against enemies, he maintained control over Assyrian provinces through force, fear, and new approaches to governing. Assyria experienced a long decline that started in about 1050 B.C. In the 930s B.C., Ashurnasirpal's grandfather and later his father, both kings, began to reassert Assyrian power. Ashurnasirpal continued their efforts. During the early years of his reign, he put down several rebellions. Then he led his armies westward, where he conquered a kingdom of the ARAMAEANS and collected tribute* from Phoenician city-states*. To win these lands, Ashurnasirpal used a combination of strong armies and terror tactics. INSCRIPTIONS from his rule speak frankly of his willingness to punish enemies. One inscription describes what happened when the Assyrians finally conquered a city that had refused to surrender. Ashurnasirpal ordered thousands of people killed and thousands more punished by having their arms, hands, noses, or ears cut off. He also flayed his victims and draped their skins over the city's wall in full public view. When news of this cruelty spread, other cities became more willing to yield when the Assyrians arrived. Once he gained new lands, Ashurnasirpal created a new system of centralized government to control them. He appointed Assyrian governors to rule the conquered territories. The governors collected yearly tribute, which flowed back to Assyria and brought the empire great wealth. The king used some of this wealth to build a new capital at KALKHU (presentday Nimrud). Among the city's notable features were a massive defensive wall and a number of grand temples.

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Asia Minor As a result of his conquests and achievements, Ashurnasirpal is considered the first great king of the Neo-Assyrian empire. He was succeeded on the throne by his son SHALMANESER III, who continued to rebuild the Assyrian state. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians.)

Asia Minor

ASSYRIA AND ASSYRIANS * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

See Anatolia.

O

ne of the greatest empires of the ancient Near East, Assyria (uh«SIR«ee«uh) was at the peak of its power from the mid-700s through the mid600s B.C. Known for their cruelty in war, the Assyrians (uh»SIR»ee«uhnz) assembled mighty armies to conquer surrounding territories. Despite its size and power, however, the Assyrian empire declined very quickly after reaching its peak. Nevertheless, by establishing a system of imperial* government, it became a model for other great empires in the region, including the PERSIAN EMPIRE and the empire of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Culturally, the Assyrians are best known for the magnificent sculptures they created.

GEOGRAPHY AND PEOPLE delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

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At its height, the Assyrian empire stretched from the Persian Gulf in the south and the Zagros Mountains of IRAN in the east to southeastern ANATOLIA in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the west. For a brief period, the Assyrians also controlled the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta* of Egypt. The core of ancient Assyria—the homeland of the Assyrians—was in northern MESOPOTAMIA along the upper reaches of the TIGRIS RIVER, an area that is part of present-day Iraq. Assyria consisted of rolling hills, mountain-fed streams, and fertile valleys. The region received more rain than other parts of Mesopotamia, and the climate was well suited to agriculture and livestock grazing. Still, the need for more farmland was a factor in Assyria's expansion. The earliest settlements were small rural villages based on tribal organization. Perhaps as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, Akkadianspeaking peoples migrated there. In about 2000 B.C., people known as AMORITES moved into Assyria as well. ARAMAEANS began arriving in about 1200 B.C. These groups intermarried with the original population, producing a people of mixed ancestry. During the later history of Assyria, the population became even more mixed, largely because of the policy of resettling conquered peoples throughout the empire. In Assyria itself, most of the people lived in small villages and were engaged in agriculture. There were a few large cities, including ASHUR, NINEVEH, and KALKHU. Ashur, associated with the Assyrian national god of the same name, was for many centuries the capital of Assyria.

Assyria and the Assyrians

dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

The early Assyrians spoke aLANGUAGE, dialect* SEMITIC ofAkkadian, a and their writingwas based CUNEIFORM, on a systemof wedge-shaped symbols developed by the ancient Sumerians.By the B.C., Assyria 800s also adopted Aramaic and used it as the common language of government and business, perhaps because its system of writing was easier to use than cuneiform. Soon Assyrians used both cuneiform and the Aramaic alephbeth—a system of writing that had symbols to represent consonants only—often sideby side.The Assyrianuse of Aramaicled to the spreadof that system of writing to other peoples in the ancient Near East; the Aramaeans themselves were never widely enough dispersed to achieve this on their own.

HISTORY city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

The history ofAssyria extends from about 2000to the B.C. late Al-600s though the region did not take the name Assyria until about B.C., it1400 is convenient to use that namerefer to to the region during its entire history. Scholars roughly divide Assyrian history into three main periods: Old Assyria (ca. 2000-1750 B.C.), Middle Assyria (ca. B.C.), 1356-1076 and Neo-Assyria (911-609 B.C.). These periods reflect the three greatest phases in the development of Assyria from a small kingdom to a mighty empire. Old Assyria. At the beginning of the Old Assyrian period, the region of Assyria consisted of various small, independent city-states* that shared a common language and culture. One of these city-stateswas Ashur,located on the upper reachesof the Tigris River. In the late 1800s B.C.,an Amorite ruler SHAMSHI-ADAD named I conquered Ashur and the surrounding area and founded a kingdom. Shamshi-Adad unified much of the region, but his achievement was short lived. Soonafter his death, the kingdom collapsed and the region entered a "dark age" during whichAshur came under the influenceof the Babylonians to the south. Middle Assyria: First Expansion. During B.C., the Ashur 1400swas dominated by Mitanni, apowerful kingdom HURRIANS formedin by the northwestern Mesopotamia. Mitanni HITTITES felltointhe theB.C., 1300s and Ashur regained its independence under Ashur-uballit I (ca.13661330B.C.), who called himself Great King and claimed equal status with the rulers ofEgypt, Babylon,and of the Hittites.The city becamethe capital of a kingdom. It was at this time that the name Assyria, "land of Ashur/; wasfirst used.(Ashurwas the cheifAssyrian god.) Ashur-uballit and his successors struggled to maintain Assyria's independence from theKassite rulers of Babylonia to the south. They began to expand their territory to the west and to organize the region provinces. This period marks the beginning ofAssyria's rise to power. Under a series ofpowerful kings during the 1200s and 1100s, Assyria conquered a number of foreign neighbors and began to createa true 85

Assyria and the Assyrians

empire. It soon became the dominant power in northern Mesopotamia, and Assyrian kings ruled over a strongly unified state. Among the earliest conquests of this period were those during the reign of Adad-nirariI (ca. 1300-1270 B.C.). After defeating Mitanni and theKASSITES, Adad-nirari fortifiedAshur, enlargedits temples and palaces, and began construction projects in the provinces. Although he later lost large parts of northernSyria to the Hittites, Adad-nirari had set an example of conquest that inspired his successors. Assyrian expansion continued under Shalmaneser I (ruled ca. 12691241B.C.). Hedefeated the Urartians in the north, incorporated remnants of the kingdom of Mitanni, and reconquered all of northern Mesopotamia. During Shalmaneser's reign, Assyria gained controlof maSYRIA and Anatolia. with sacrilege violation of anything held jorTRADE ROUTES linking southern Mesopotamia sacred This control alarmed the Hittites, whoforged a new alliance with the Egyptians to counterAssyria's growing power. The expansion ofAssyria in the Middle Assyrian period reached its peak during the reign ofTukulti-NinurtaI (ca. B.C.), 1240-1205 who won BloodthirstyAssyrians impressive victories over the Hittites in Anatolia. When Assyria was atThe ancient Assyrians had a well* tacked by rebelliousKassites of Babylonia, Tukulti-Ninurta retaliated earned reputation for being blood\ against Babylon and took its king captive. Within a few years,Babythe thirsty and cruel. Shalmaneser I, lonians rebelled again. Tukulti-Ninurta led his army to Babylon and for example, claimed that he had plundered and destroyed many of its temples. This action angered many blinded more than 14,000 enemies in one eye, and Ashurnasirpaf II \ left Assyrians.Assyria and Babylonia shared the same gods, and many peodetailed accounts of beheadings, ple considered the destruction of the temples to be a sacrilege*. Eventumutilations, and other atrocities. ally, his sons rebelled against him, and the king was murdered by his In reality, these actions may have enemies. Following the death of Tukulti-Ninurta, the Assyrian empire been no worse ^ than thoseof other began to break up, and its power declined. The decline did not last long, Near Eastern groups.TheAssyrians may ako have exaggerated achowever. counts of their actions date enemies and to keep conquered peoples in

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to

intimi-

line.

Middle Assyria: Renewal and Decline. King Ashur-dan I (ruled c 1177-1133 B.C.)andKingAshur-resha-ishiI (ruled ca. B.C.)1132-1115 stabilized Assyria and began rebuilding its strength. During the reign of Tiglath-pileserI (ca. 1114-1076 B.C.), Assyria regained its former greatness. The king defeated the invading Mushki (Phrygians) who had replaced the now-collapsed Hittite kingdom as the dominant power in central Anatolia. He launched attacks far to the north and east; in the

Assyria and the Assyrians nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

west, he attacked Aramaean nomads* who were harassing Assyrian settlements. However, hefailed to contain them. The Aramaeans continued to raid Assyrian communities. Tiglath-pileser also pushed westward, crossed Syria, and reached the Mediterranean coast, but he held this region only briefly.After aboutB.C.,1100 conflicts with Babylon increasedand led to another Assyrian attack on Babylon. When Tiglath-pileser was not engaged in military conquests, he devoted attention to government and economics. He reorganized the administration of the empire, developed better SCRIBES, methodsof training and encouraged efforts to improve agriculture. The successors of Tiglath-pileser did not have his talent or ability. During the reign of AshurnasirpalI (ca. B.C.), 1050-1032 Assyriawas barely able to defend itself against continued Aramaean attacks, and the nation began about 100 years of decline.

Neo-Assyria: Assyria Rises Again. B.C., Assyrian By the late 900s power was once again on the rise. Over the next 300 years, the Assyrian empire reached its height, and theAssyrians became the masters of the ancient NearEast.Assyria gained great wealth at this time from the tribute* and taxes it demanded of its many provinces and territories. During the B.C., 900sthe Assyrians faced continuing threats fromthe Aramaeans, who launched attacks against both Assyria and Babylonia. King Ashur-danII (ruledca.B.C.)and 934-912 King Adad-nirari II (ruled 911-891 B.C.) staged numerous campaigns against the Aramaeans and managed to push them back and stabilize Assyria's borders. Adad-nirari II also attacked the Babylonians, forcing them to surrender a number of territories. Adad-nirari's grandson, ASHURNASIRPALII (ruled B.C.)was one 883-859 of the most outstanding leaders in Assyrian history. A brilliant military commander, he played major a role in expanding and consolidating the Assyrian empire. Ashurnasirpal II conquered many territories and relocated large numbers of conquered peoples from their homelands, scattering them throughout the empire. Dividing them in this way made it les likely that they would rebel against Assyrian rule. At the time, the practice of mass relocation had been in use for nearly 1,000 years; kingsof the empire of Old Babylonia had also used it to control conquered peoples. Ashurnasirpal II created a highly centralized stateby reorganizing the provinces and appointing provincial governors loyal to the monarchy. He also reorganized and improved the Assyrian army, introducing mounted cavalry troops, new weapons, and new methods warfare. of His military campaigns led to conquests of southern Armenia, western Mesopotamia, and Syria. Ashurnasirpal did not conduct any campaigns against Babylonia, perhaps because of their common cultural heritage. Babylonia remained a rival, butAssyria did establish trade links with that land. Ashurnasirpal built the first of three new Assyrian capitals, Kalkhu (near present-day Nimrud, in Iraq). It was a monumental work that included a huge palace and several temples. Ashurnasirpal's SHALMANESER son III (ruled B.C.) continued 858-824 his father's policies. He expanded the empire in all directions, conquering 87

Assyria and the Assyrians URARTU in the north and Cilicia in southeastern Anatolia. In 853, Shalmaneser attackedSyria. In the ensuing indecisive battle, he fought a coalition of 12 local princesled by theAramaeansand AHABtroops sent King by of Israel. Shalmaneser continued his attacks on northern and southern Syria for another 20 years, forcing many, including Israel,to pay tribute.

Neo-Assyria: Turmoil. The long reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III were followedby a periodof turmoil.At the end of his reign, Shalmaneserfaced a rebellion led by one of his sons that lasted several years and weakened the empire. The situation did not stabilize until another son, Shamshi-AdadV (ruled B.C.), 823-811 became king. ShamshiAdad gained the throne with the help of Babylonia. In return for t help, Assyria was obliged to signed a treaty with Babylon that favored Babylonia. Shamshi-Adad V later took his revengeby conducting several military campaigns against Babylonia. When Shamshi-AdadV died,he was succeededby his son Adad-nirari III (ruled 810-783 B.C.). During his rule, Assyria sank into obscurity. Adadnirari wasjust a boy when he took the throne. According to later legend, his mother, SEMIRAMIS, ruledas queen duringthe early yearsof his reign and wielded considerable power. Between about 782 andB.C., 744three kings withno real authority occupied the throne ofAssyria. Among their most pressing concerns was

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Assyria and the Assyrians * epidemic spread of a particular disease within a population * plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

Hie Babylonia Dilemma Assyria could not treat Babylonia like other kingdoms that it conquered. The historical, ethnic, religious, and cultural ties between 1 two societies were much too strong* Babylonia was an older civilization than Assyria, and the Babylonians would not accept an inferiori status. For their part, the Assyrians respected Babylonian culture and traditions and felt uneasy about ex ploitSng their southern neighbors. Throughout most of Assyrian history, the Assyrians were content to tet Babylonia go its own way as long as it did not threaten Assyria In one of the strange quirks of history, however, after almost 1,000 years of trying to resolve this dilemma, the Assyrian empire ended by falling into the hands of Babylonia.

the defense of Assyria against Urartu, which was threatening its northern borders. Assyria also faced occasional rebellions and two terrible epidemics* of plague* during their reigns. Neo-Assyria: Renewal. Beginning in about 745 B.C., Assyria experienced a rebirth, and before long the empire reached its greatest extent yet. The first great king of the period was TIGLATH-PILESER III (ruled 745-727 B.C.), whose brilliant military plans resulted in a rapid expansion of the empire. Among his achievements were a victory over Urartu and the conquest of Syrian kingdoms, including Damascus, and Phoenician city-states. Tiglath-pileser III turned all conquered regions into provinces. In the past, the Assyrians had simply made raids to conquered territories from time to time to collect tribute. By turning these lands into provinces, Tiglath-pileser created a more formal administration of the lands. He made sure that the provinces were small so that they would be easier to govern, and he revived Ashurnasirpal II's policy of moving conquered peoples from one area to another. To weaken a rival power, he cut off trade between the Phoenician cities and Egypt. In 744 B.C., Tiglath-pileser III helped Babylonia defeat Aramaeans who were threatening its borders. As had happened before, Babylonia remained independent because of its close cultural and religious ties to Assyria. This situation soon changed, however. When King Nabu-nasir of Babylon died in 734 B.C., an Aramaean leader seized the throne. Tiglathpileser went to war against Babylonia. The Assyrians emerged victorious in 729 B.C., and Tiglath-pileser named himself king of Babylonia, thus breaking the established pattern and linking the two kingdoms under a dual monarchy. In 726 B.C., on the death of Tiglath-pileser III, his son SHALMANESER V took the throne. Shalmaneser V ruled for only five years. Although little is known of his reign, he began the siege of Samaria, which was successfully completed in 722 B.C. by his successor, SARGON II (ruled 721-705 B.C.). Sargon broke apart the state of Israel and deported its population to north Syria, replacing it with peoples from other parts of the empire. He also launched a number of military campaigns to put down rebellions and conquer new territory. He defeated a rebellion in Syria in 720 B.C., defended territory in Anatolia against King Midas, of Phrygia, conquered new territories in Iran, and defeated the kingdom of Urartu in one of the most crucial wars of his reign. Sargon II also faced problems in Babylonia. After the death of Tiglath-pileser III, a Chaldean prince had seized the Babylonian kingship from the Assyrians. For the next 30 years, the Assyrians vied with the Chaldeans and their Elamite allies for control of the Babylonian throne. Sargon II regained control of Babylonia in 707 B.C., but the matter was settled only temporarily. In the midst of these conflicts, Sargon began to build a new capital, Dur-Sharrukin, at a site near present-day Khorsabad in Iraq. Despite ten years of labor by thousands of workers and artisans, the capital was never finished. Killed in battle while campaigning in Anatolia, Sargon II was succeeded by his son SENNACHERIB (ruled 704-681 B.C.). A clever and talented

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Assyria and the Assyrians ruler, Sennacherib continued the traditional Assyrian policies of conquest and putting down rebellions. Sennacherib's main concern was Babylonia, which rebelled against Assyria in 703 B.C. He defeated the Babylonians and put his oldest son on the Babylonian throne in 699 B.C. Five years later, the Babylonians handed their Assyrian king over to the Elamites, their allies and neighbors to the east. Sennacherib launched a merciless war against the Elamites, and he punished Babylonia by conquering and destroying the city of Babylon in 689 B.C. Like his father, Sennacherib celebrated his conquests by building a new capital. He chose to expand the ancient city of Nineveh. His building projects were immense. To bring water to the city, he had his engineers dig 16 new canals and build an aqueduct using 2 million stone blocks.

Kingly Trickery Esarhaddon had a problem when he decided to rebuild Babylon. When Sennacherib destroyed the city, he based his act on the wishes of the gods. He said that Marduk, chief god of Babylon, had become angry with the Babylonians and planned to desert the city for 70 years. Esarhaddon could hardly rebuild the city before the time was up because Marduk% vow was writ* ten on a clay tablet However, by turning that tablet upside down, the symbol for the number 70 resembled the symbol for the number 11. In this way, the god's curse was fulfilled and Esarhaddon was $•• able to rebuild the city.

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Neo-Assyria: Peak of Power and Swift Decline. The Assyrian empire reached its height in the mid-600s B.C. under King ESARHADDON and King ASHURBANIPAL. This period of greatness was brief, however, and the decline that followed was swift. By the late 600s B.C. Assyria had ceased to exist. Esarhaddon, the son of Sennacherib, ruled Assyria from 680 to 669 B.C. For his first act as king, he reversed his father's policy toward the Babylonians and established friendly relations with them. Then he rebuilt the city of Babylon. Peace with Babylonia allowed Esarhaddon to concentrate Assyrian military efforts elsewhere. In the northwest, he defended Assyrian territory against the Cimmerians and Scythians, invaders from regions beyond the Black Sea. He put down rebellions in Syria, but Elamite attacks continued in the east. The greatest event of his reign was the conquest of Egypt, which began in 679 B.C. and ended with the capture of Memphis, the Egyptian capital, in 671 B.C. In 669 B.C., Esarhaddon became ill and died. Several years earlier, he had arranged that his older son, Shamash-shum-ukin, would take the throne of Babylonia, while his younger son, Ashurbanipal, would inherit Assyria. This decision led to problems between the two kingdoms. During the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-627 B.C.), Assyria faced serious challenges in both Egypt and Babylonia. After putting down two rebellions in Egypt in the 660s B.C., Ashurbanipal appointed a local prince, Psamtik I, as its provincial ruler. Psamtik launched his own rebellion in 653 B.C. and forced the Assyrians out of Egypt, ending their control of that land. An even more serious rebellion occurred in Babylonia in 652 B.C. Led by Ashurbanipal's half brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, the uprising included Elamites, Arabs, Aramaeans, and other groups that had grown weary of Assyrian rule. Assyria defeated Babylonia after several years of warfare, and Ashurbanipal punished the groups that had sided with his brother. In the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign, civil war broke out as his two sons struggled for power. This conflict seriously weakened Assyria and left it vulnerable to its enemies. In 626 B.C., the Babylonians revolted and under their new leader, Nabopolassar, forced out the Assyrians. The most

Assyria and the Assyrians serious threat to Assyria, however, came from the east. In 615 B.C., the MEDES suddenly attacked Assyrian provinces in the east; the following year, they captured the old capital of Ashur. There the Medes joined forces with the Babylonians, and in 612 B.C., Nineveh fell to their combined forces. With the help of his Egyptian allies, Ashur-uballit II, a military commander in north Syria who became king there in 611 B.C., tried to defend the Assyrian stronghold at Harran. In 610 B.C., armies of the Medes and Babylonians crushed the Assyrians and captured the last Assyrian strongholds. Some army units continued to fight, but their defeat in 609 B.C. marked the end of Assyria. Its lands were divided among the victors.

GOVERNMENT Assyrian Roads Roads played an important role in the administration of the Assyrian empire. In general, most roads were little more than dirt trails. There was, however, a system of royal roads that were kept in good repair for use by royal messengers. These roads had series of relay stations where messengers could get fresh horses. Travel along the royal roads could be difficult and dangerous since certain people had an interest in intercepting royal com* munications. Nevertheless, the roads enabled Assyrian kings to maintain steady and reliable contact with the far reaches of their realm. The royal roads also provided relatively fast routes for Assyrian armies.

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

Assyria had an absolute monarchy; that is, the king held supreme power. In addition to their role as head of government, Assyrian kings served as commander in chief of the army, chief lawmaker, and head priest of the Assyrian religion. A unique feature of Assyria was its militarism. The army played a major role in the empire. By linking government so closely with the military, the Assyrians ensured that government decisions were backed by irresistible might. Assyria did not have any type of representative assembly. The only check on the king's authority was the Assyrian nobility, and Assyrian kings kept nobles content by granting them certain privileges and appointing them to high administrative offices. To help run the empire, the king relied on these appointed officials as well as on a large number of scribes, tax collectors, and others. Because few Assyrian kings or nobles could read or write, scribes had a great deal of influence in the running of state affairs. The Assyrian homeland was divided into various cities and rural districts. The residents of some of the older cities, such as Ashur and Nineveh, often had special privileges, including lower taxes, freedom from military service, and a significant amount of self-government. The rural areas were controlled by local lords, who had to pay taxes to the central government and supply soldiers for the Assyrian armies. Beyond the Assyrian homeland were the provinces and territories. Ruled by governors and local rulers, these areas had to pay either tribute or taxes to the government. Often the men of conquered territories were incorporated into the Assyrian army and stationed in provinces far from their homes. The increasing number of foreigners and mercenaries* in the Assyrian army eventually contributed to the weakening and downfall of the empire, because these individuals were not as loyal as native Assyrians. Assyria preferred to control foreign territory through diplomatic means, such as treaties and loyalty oaths. The policy of scattering conquered peoples throughout the empire helped maintain order as well. When necessary, Assyrian kings used threats and force to keep provinces and territories in line. In general, though, provincial governors were 91

Assyria and the Assyrians given a great deal of freedom—another factor that contributed to the empire's eventual collapse.

ECONOMY AND TRADE The economy of the Assyrian empire was based on agriculture, livestock raising, and trade. Assyrian agriculture, like that of other civilizations in the ancient Near East, centered on the growing of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Livestock provided meat, cheese, milk, and butter. As the empire grew, laborers from conquered populations were often brought to the Assyrian homeland and provinces to work on farming estates, helping to expand agricultural production. In the early years of the kingdom, the Assyrians made treaties with other peoples to ensure a steady flow of trade goods. They developed an extensive trading network, exporting agricultural products and textiles. In exchange, they imported lumber, stone, precious metals such as gold and silver, other metals such as tin and copper (both used to make bronze), and luxury items. One factor in the expansion of the Assyrian empire was the desire to protect existing trade routes and gain control of others.

SOCIETY AND RELIGION Appealing to the Cod Archaeologists have discovered many clay tablets recording statements made by Assyrian kings. One reveals Sargon II explaining the connection between conquest and the god Ashur; I, Sargon, king of the four quartersf shepherd of Assyria,.. the true king, who speaks only good things.,. [prayed to Ashur] to bring about his [Ursa of Urartu] overthrow in battle.... Ashur my lord heard my words of righteousness. They pleased him. He inclined to my just prayer. He agreed to my request.

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Most city residents were merchants, craft workers, scribes, members of the bureaucracy, or servants. Rural areas were inhabited by peasant farmers and farm laborers. Assyrian society was organized into different social classes. Because of the importance of the military, social status was often linked to military rank. The chief officers of the army generally came from noble Assyrian families, while the lower ranks were usually filled by peasants. Slaves occupied the lowest position in Assyrian society. Assyria had a male-dominated society. Assyrian men made all important decisions for their families, including arranging the marriages of their children. Most women were married off as teenagers, usually to older men. The basic role of married women was to care for their husbands, children, and homes. They had little power and few responsibilities outside the home. Widows with young children sometimes had the freedom to continue their husbands' businesses and rule the households. They lost all such rights when they remarried or when their children reached adulthood. The Assyrians worshiped many gods, though the chief god was Ashur. In addition to worshiping some gods publicly, Assyrian families usually adopted one god as a ''family god" whom they worshiped privately at home. The religious beliefs of both the Assyrians and the Babylonians had their origins in the religion of the earlier Sumerians. The differences that developed reflected efforts by the Assyrians and Babylonians to reshape religious ideas to their own heritage and needs. In Assyria, the king served as the chief priest, and people believed that he was the god Ashur's

Astrology and Astrologers

* divination art or practice of foretelling the future

representative on earth. Conquests were made in Ashur's name, and their success demonstrated the god's approval. All Assyrian cities had temples to various gods, and each temple had priests to carry out religious ceremonies. Many religious festivals were tied to changes in seasons and to agricultural cycles of planting and harvesting. The Assyrians also believed in MAGIC, prophecies, divination*, and OMENS based on such things as the movements of the stars.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

ASTROLOGY AND ASTROLOGERS

The most important buildings in ancient Assyria were PALACES AND TEMPLES. Assyrian palaces were large and complex buildings with thick exterior walls and a maze of interior rooms, corridors, and courtyards. Like most buildings in Assyria, palaces were generally only one story high. Official chambers of state, such as the throne room, occupied a central position. Though much smaller than palaces, Assyrian temples also were impressive. Many had interior courtyards surrounded by rooms and corridors, and some were built on several levels. Altars and shrines were placed in both courtyards and rooms within the temple. Most Assyrian cities had a temple that stood on a multistory tower called a ZIGGURAT. Temples and palaces, as well as private buildings throughout Assyria, were made of baked or sun-dried bricks. Most art in Assyria was sponsored by the state, and its subject matter usually concerned the activities of kings. Lining the interior and exterior walls of palaces were painted frescoes*, scenes in colorful ceramic tiles, and painted stone BAS-RELIEFS depicting religious ceremonies and kings taking part in wars, hunting, feasting, and other activities. The bas-reliefs created by the Assyrians were the most magnificent of the ancient world. Lions, bulls, horses, winged beasts, and other animals appeared in striking detail. People were depicted as powerful figures in realistically rendered scenes. The Assyrians also created magnificent JEWELRY of gold, silver, IVORY, and precious stones. Stone stamp and cylinder SEALS also show a high degree of artistic skill and craftsmanship. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the Elamites; Ethnic and Language Groups; Family and Social Life; King Lists; Phrygia and the Phrygians; Social Institutions; Wall Paintings; Women, Role of.)

A

strology is the interpretation of the movement and relationships of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars in order to predict human affairs and events. Astrology originated in MESOPOTAMIA. The first clear records of the careful study of the heavens date from about 1700 B.C., but the science probably began sometime in the third millennium B.C.* From Mesopotamia, astrology spread to Egypt and throughout the Near East. The Egyptians were probably responsible for the transmission of

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Astrology and Astrologers * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

The Solar System The Babylonians identified the five planets that can be seen with the eye alone—Mars, Venus, Mercury, Saturn, and Jupiter. For many centuries, these people did not believe that Earth was also a planet. Moreover, they thought that the sun, moon, stars, and planets all revolved around Earth. In about the 200s B.C, some Babylonian thinkers • wrote that the sun was the center of the solar system and that Earth was also a planet. This idea was rejected by the Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle as well as other Greek thinkers. The idea of an Earth-centered solar system favored by the Greeks was adopted by other European thinkers. One reason was that this view was approved by the Roman Catholic Church, which dominated Western thinking for many centuries. Not until the A.D. 1500s did Copernicus propose that Earth, like the other planets, revolves around the sun.

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astrology to the Greeks, who in turn transmitted it to the West. However, the Babylonians were considered the masters of this science. Indeed, Babylonian priests continued their study of the skies until about A.D. 100. Omens From the Heavens. The earliest Babylonian astrologers were concerned almost exclusively with solar and lunar eclipses. They saw these as OMENS, or signs of significant events—a great flood, the death or birth of a king, the destruction of an enemy. These beliefs were based on experience. If a king had once died soon after an eclipse, other eclipses were thought to foretell (or cause) the reigning king's death too. Underlying these findings were Babylonians' religious beliefs. The gods, they thought, controlled the objects in the skies and thus controlled the lives of the kings. Eventually astrologers studied other patterns they saw in the sky. They recorded the movements of the sun and moon, the planets, and the stars. They also charted the phases of the moon. After carefully writing down this data, they used mathematics to calculate relative distances, including when certain bodies were in conjunction with, or looked to be near, other bodies. All of this information was stored on CLAY TABLETS. Among them is a series of 70 tablets called Enuma Ann EnliL They explain omens in terms of ''cosmic designs" or "plans of heaven and earth." The tablets are divided into four sections, each devoted to one of the chief gods— Sin, the moon; Shamash, the sun; ADAD, the weather god; and ISHTAR, linked to the planet Venus, who was in charge of the planets and the stars. A solar eclipse was a sign of Shamash;s anger. Thunder, lightning, and earthquakes were likewise signs of the appearance of Adad. Atrologers referred to their tables to inform the king of impending events and favorable times for such things as military activities—going to war, for example—and spiritual ones, such as sacrificing animals to the gods. Omens were phrased in "if... then" form. For example: if a partial eclipse covers the right side of the sun or moon, then there will be a flood. Eclipses in the lower part of the sun or moon predicted trouble for the people who lived to the south. Eclipses in the upper part meant problems for those living to the north. Astrologers also prepared for omens that they had never seen. The fact that something had not yet happened, they reasoned, did not mean that it may not happen sometime in the future. One omen begins, "If the sun shines at midnight " Though omens predicted dire events, determined rulers could find ways around them. In the seventh year of the reign of King ESARHADDON of Assyria, there was a total eclipse of the moon. The message was clear— the king would die. Esarhaddon used a trick to allow the predicted event to come true and save his own life at the same time. He made use of the substitute-king ritual, in which he took the place of a farmer while a substitute took his place as king. After ruling for a brief period, the substitute king was killed, fulfilling the omen, and Esarhaddon resumed his throne. During Esarhaddon's reign, there were more than a dozen lunar and solar eclipses. He may have used the substitute-king ritual as many

Astronomy and Astronomers as four times. All rulers were not as fortunate as Esarhaddon, however. King Enlil-bani had tried it about 1,200 years before Esarhaddon, but he actually died while living as a commoner, leaving the substitute to rule in his place. Horoscopes. Babylonian astrology changed with the advent of horoscopes and the ZODIAC after 600 B.C. The zodiac is an imaginary band across the sky that shows the annual movements and locations of the sun, moon, stars, and the five visible planets—Mars, Venus, Mercury, Saturn, and Jupiter. This band is divided into 12 equal parts. Referring to the zodiac, astrologers could determine exactly where each planet and star was when a person was born. They used MATHEMATICS to find the location of planets when they could not be seen, such as when they were below the horizon. Astrologers constructed a horoscope, a map of the heavens at the moment of the individual's birth. Then they interpreted what the map meant. The planets—and the gods associated with them—that were in influential positions at that person's birth would influence his or her life. The development of horoscopes and the zodiac signaled a shift in astrology. Unlike earlier times, when omens were interpreted only for the king, astrologers began to draw horoscopes for individuals. The signs associated with each of the 12 parts of the zodiac were developed in the city of Uruk in the 100s B.C. These signs became popular symbols on rings. It is not known how often astrologers' predictions were correct. Quite possibly, when something astrologers had prophesied did not occur, they took another look at a horoscope and reinterpreted the information to match what had actually taken place. Nevertheless, in a time when life was difficult and full of the unexpected, astrology and horoscopes provided a kind of road map to the future. The use of horoscopes developed in Babylon during the time of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. That empire spread throughout the ancient Near East and brought knowledge of astronomy to Egypt, Greece, and India. Greeks living in Egypt and Anatolia (present-day Turkey) refined the understanding of the zodiac even further. It is this tradition that people in the Western world now follow—but that tradition is based on a foundation built in Mesopotamia more than 4,000 years ago. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ASTRONOMY AND ASTRONOMERS

A

stronomy is the branch of science that studies the motion and nature of the sun, moon, stars, and planets. It is the oldest science, begun by the Babylonians sometime before 3000 B.C. Year after year, century after century, they studied the night sky. They carefully recorded their observations of the locations of the sun, moon, stars, and planets and their relationships to one another. Working with no scientific instruments, only their eyes, brains, and imaginations, the Babylonians created a large body of information. 95

Astronomy and Astronomers Today people make a distinction between astronomy and astrology. Astronomy is the science that studies objects in the sky. Astrology is a popular but unscientific pursuit that tries to link people's characters and lives to the influence of the stars and planets. In ancient times, though, this distinction did not exist. Ancient astronomers studied the heavens to learn how the objects there shaped people's lives.

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Mesopotamia. The Babylonians, who lived in southern Mesopotamia, studied the heavens at first to record unusual events that took place. They were particularly concerned with eclipses, when the sun or the moon is partly or fully covered by shadow. These events were considered OMENS, or signs, of bad fortune that would strike the land. A full eclipse, for instance, meant that the king would die. Over time, the Babylonians compiled records of the moon's and sun's behavior. They tracked the changing shape, or phases, of the moon and its changing position in the night sky. They recorded the different lengths of daylight during the course of the year. These two sets of data are combined in the text Enuma Ann Enlil, which is named for the opening words of the first tablet: "When Anu and Enlil." (ANU and ENLIL were important gods in ancient Mesopotamia.) One of the 70 clay tablets that form this record book allows users to compute how much of the moon will be seen at night on any day of any month. All this astronomical research was performed and controlled by priests of Babylonian temples. These priests are thought to have named a number of constellations as early as 3000 B.C. Over the next 2,500 years, they systematically recorded this—and other—information. Another tablet, called Three Stars Each, lists three stars that rise above the horizon each month of the year. The stars were thought to follow paths that were controlled by the gods Anu, Enlil, and EA. Other similar tablets have also been found. Some include charts showing three circles, one inside the other, each of which are divided. The circles have number values that can be used to calculate the length of daylight and darkness on any day. Another ancient text dates from the 600s B.C. Titled Plow Star, it summarizes Babylonian astronomical knowledge of the time. Tablet I lists when and where to find about 100 stars, along with their risings and settings. Tablet II describes the path of the sun, moon, and known planets. The Babylonians had identified five planets—Mars, Venus, Mercury, Saturn, and Jupiter—all of which can be seen with the naked eye. The second tablet also gives the times of the moon's risings and settings and miscellaneous information on winds and shadows. This tablet further includes listings of omens, the unusual events that had, perhaps, first led the Babylonians to study the heavens. The Babylonians had other kinds of astronomical records. Some, called ephemerides, contain detailed information on the positions of planets and stars. The information is presented in tables, and calculations reveal Babylonian MATHEMATICS. Almanacs track the location of planets in the ZODIAC, an imaginary 12-part division of the sky that came into use after 600 B.C. Astronomical diaries record observations made of the sun, moon, stars, and planets over six- or seven-month periods. These may have been the raw data for other records.

Aten Egypt. The Egyptians also studied the heavens, although far fewer sources have survived from their work. As a result, it is difficult for scholars to say exactly how much they knew. Star maps have been found decorating coffins from the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.) and the ceilings of some royal tombs from the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). However, these charts do not seem to match the appearance of any actual stars. Some scholars, as a result, dismiss them as fanciful. The fact that these maps do not reflect reality, oth ers say, may not mean that Egyptians had no knowledge of the stars and planets. These scholars point out that Egyptian art was often symbolic. Ancient Greek writers commented on how much they learned of astronomy by studying with Egyptians. Much of this knowledge, however, was not Egyptian in origin but was adopted by the Egyptians from the Babylonians. The full picture of Egyptian astronomy is not yet understood. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Calendars.)

ATEN * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * monotheism belief in only one god * cult formal religious worship

Hymn to Aten The Hymn to Aten begins with these stirring words of praise for the god: Let your holy Light shine from the height of heaven, 0 living Aten, source of all life! From eastern horizon risen and streaming, you have flooded the world with your beauty. You are majestic, awesome, bedazzling, exalted, overlord over all earth.

A

ten (AH»tuhn) was an ancient Egyptian god who was elevated briefly to the status of supreme god by the pharaoh AKHENATEN, who ruled from about 1353 to 1336 B.C. In his role as supreme god, Aten w depicted as a disk that represented the sun. Rays ending in hands le downward from the bottom half of the disk. Aten had probably existed for centuries as one of many lesser Egyptian gods. By about 1400 B.C., however, Aten had become one of the more important Egyptian gods. At about that time, the pharaoh* Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father, established a priesthood and temple for Aten. Soon after Akhenaten became pharaoh, he promoted Aten to the status of supreme god of Egypt. In fact, he attempted to make Aten the only god, and some scholars argue that his worship was the earliest example of monotheism* in the ancient Near East. It is still not clear why Akhenaten took these steps. He may have wanted to break the power of the priests of AMUN, another important god, or he may have tried to reduce the importance of the priests who worshiped OSIRIS. Whatever the cause, Akhenaten moved aggressively to discredit all the other gods, to erase all traces of Egyptian mythology, and to exalt Aten. He tried to destroy all images and writings of the name Amun. He built several temples to Aten, including one at the new city of AKHETATEN, present-day Amarna, which Akhenaten made the new religious and political capital of Egypt. He required anyone who held high political office to follow the cult* of Aten, and many followers chose names associated with Aten. Much of what is known about the Aten cult comes from the Hymn to Aten, which was inscribed in tombs at Amarna. The hymn describes Aten as the creator of all life and Akhenaten and his wife, NEFERTITI, as the only people who could understand and communicate with the god. Apparently, direct access to the god was prohibited to all except the two rulers. 97

Athaliah

* pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

ATHALIAH ruled ca. 841-835 B.C. Queen of Judah

BAAL * deity god or goddess

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In addition, Aten's wishes for the Egyptian people supposedly were expressed only through the orders of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Despite Akhenaten's efforts, the worship of Aten never took hold. Priests were appalled by the attacks against their gods and resented their loss of power and prestige. The common people were unwilling to shake their centuries-old beliefs in Amun, Osiris, and other gods. Once Akhenaten died, the cult of Aten was rejected, the temples to Aten were destroyed, and Aten once again became just a minor god in the Egyptian pantheon*. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians.)

T

he only woman ever to rule the kingdom of Judah, Athaliah (a«thuh«LY«uh) was the sister of King AHAB of Israel. Most of what is known about her comes from the Hebrew Bible. An ambitious woman, she murdered her own grandchildren to gain control of the throne. Athaliah was married to King Jehoram of Judah, probably to secure a political alliance between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. When Jehoram became ill and died at age 38, their son Ahaziah took the throne. During the first year of his reign, Ahaziah was murdered while visiting Israel. When Athaliah learned of her son's death, she acted quickly to seize the throne for herself. She killed all the heirs to the throne—her own grandchildren—except for one infant grandson, Joash, who was hidden from her in the great Temple of JERUSALEM. Athaliah ruled Judah for seven years, during which she encouraged the worship of BAAL and other gods. Throughout that time, Joash remained protected from her in the temple. In the seventh year of Athaliah's reign, the high priest of Jerusalem, with the help of the military, proclaimed Joash king and had him crowned. A celebration was held at the temple, and when Athaliah came to see what was happening, soldiers seized and killed her. The people of Jerusalem rejoiced at Athaliah's death. They destroyed altars to Baal and returned to the worship of YAHWEH. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Israel and Judah.)

any gods named Baal (BAH»uhl) were worshiped in the ancient M Sfear East. Baal, which means "lord" or "owner/' was the storm

god and was also associated with agriculture and fertility. Other names, such as Adad, Hadad, or Addu, were used for this god. The ancient Canaanites considered Baal to be one of their chief deities* because of his role in bringing rains to nourish the land and allow crops to grow. Baal appears as a major character in the mythology of the Canaanites and their neighbors. The BAAL CYCLE is a series of myths that tell the story of Baal and other Canaanite gods. In this story, Baal is killed by Mot, the god of death, and then resurrected by ANAT, his sister and wife. The story reflects Canaanite beliefs about the cycle of death and life.

Baal Cycle

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

BAAL CYCLE * deity god or goddess

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops * drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

The cult of Baal played an important role in the history of the Israelites during the kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH. Temples to the god were built in both kingdoms, and many localities added the word Baal to their names to indicate their devotion to the god. At one time, Baal and the Israelite god YAHWEH were worshiped in the same region. However, efforts to introduce a stronger cult of Baal into Israel in the 800s B.C. led to increasing opposition. Eventually, Baal worship was eliminated in the two kingdoms. During the time of the HYKSOS, worship of Baal was introduced into Egypt. The god became very popular there and was often associated with the Egyptian god SETH. Baal was also an important god to the Phoenicians. The ARAMAEANS introduced Baal to the Greeks, who called him Belos. Most ancient art that depicts Baal shows him with a pointed beard and horned helmet. Images of a golden calf were often associated with Baal cults*. (See also Adad; Ahab; Athaliah; Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)

T

he story of the Canaanite god BAAL and of other deities* is told in a series of myths called the Baal Cycle. The main source of these myths is a collection of six CLAY TABLETS, dating from the 1300s B.C. They were uncovered just to the north of Canaan in the ancient city of UGARIT (present-day Ras Shamra in northern Syria). The central story of the myths tells of Baal's struggle with other gods, his death, and his resurrection. Baal was a storm god and a fertility god, and his death and resurrection represented the cycle of agricultural life. In these myths, Baal is the son of EL. His sister, who is also his wife, is ANAT. The story begins with El proclaiming that the sea god Yamm is king of the gods. Baal battles Yamm for the kingship and defeats him. To show his power, Baal rides the clouds and sends lightning, thunder, and rains to the earth. He then builds a palace greater than those of the other gods. Soon after Baal builds his palace, his kingship is threatened by Mot, the god of death. When the two gods struggle, Baal is killed and sent to the underworld. While he is there, the earth suffers from famine* and drought*. Anat begs Mot for Baal's release, and when Mot refuses, Anat subdues him. El dreams that the heavens rain oil and the land flows with honey, signs that Baal has returned to life. Baal reappears and rules again. Seven years later, Mot himself returns to life, and he and Baal fight once again. This time Mot fails to defeat Baal, and he is forced to acknowledge Baal's kingship. Baal, however, cannot defeat Mot either because death, says the myth, cannot be overcome. Baal's rule is established, but the myth clearly puts limits on the power of kingship. The Baal Cycle presents a complex picture of the gods and reflects ancient ideas about kingship, power, life and death, human beings as well as nature, and the struggles for power among the gods. A number of the themes and images in the myths are similar to those found in other ancient works, including the Hebrew Bible. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Epic Literature; Mythology.)

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Babylon

BABYLON

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * deity god or goddess

Piecing Together the Puzzle Archaeologists have been unable to reach precise conclusions about many features of ancient Babylon. Their work : has been hampered by four problems. First, ancient written records are not always reliable. The legendary Hanging Gardens, for instance, may not have been from Babylon at all but may have been built in Nineveh. All references to this structure date from after the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian empire. Second, Nebuchadnezzar ll's rebuilding destroyed much evidence of the older city. High levels of groundwater were a third problem; they prevented archaeologists from digging too deeply in some areas. Finally, there is the problem of looting. In the A.D. 1800$ and early 1900s, when excavations began, digging yielded bricks and clay tablets that local peoples—and Western collectors—took for themselves.

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B

abylon (BA»bi»luhn) was a city in MESOPOTAMIA, located south of the present-day city of Baghdad, Iraq. One of the most important cities of the ancient world, Babylon gave its name to an entire region— Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia—and to the great empires that flourished there. Scholars have pieced together the city's history from Near Eastern tablets and inscriptions, the Hebrew Bible, and the writings of Greek historians. The remnants of impressive structures and magnificent artworks found in the ruins of Babylon have also provided valuable insights.

Role in History. Babylon first became significant in the historical record of Mesopotamia in the 2300s and 2200s B.C., long after other cities had developed in the region. Its earliest residents were Akkadians, whose civilization had flourished in Mesopotamian city-states* for hundreds of years. The Akkadians referred to the city as Bab-ilim, "gate of god." The name Babylon comes from the Greek pronunciation of Babel, as the city is called in the Hebrew Bible. In about 1894 B.C., King Sumu-abum came to power in Babylon. He may have been a tribal leader among the AMORITES, a nomadic* people who had risen to power in many parts of Mesopotamia. Sumu-abum founded a dynasty* that ruled Babylon as it rose to greatness. From his reign onward, Babylon was recognized as a joining of two groups—the Akkadians and the Amorites. The first major expansion of Babylon came under King HAMMURABI. In a series of conquests, he brought more cities and kingdoms under his rule, until Babylon became the capital of a powerful empire (the Old Babylonian empire) that extended from IRAN in the east to SYRIA in the west. Babylon was this empire's cultural and political center. The Old Babylonian empire lost territory and power in the years after Hammurabi. In about 1595 B.C., HITTITES from central ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey) raided Babylon, and soon afterward another group, the KASSITES, conquered the land. The Kassites ruled for more than 400 years, during which Babylon was the most important city. The city's god, MARDUK, became Mesopotamia's supreme deity*. The Kassite dynasty ended in about 1158 B.C., when invaders from Elam in the east raided the city and carried off many of its monuments to their capital, Susa, in presentday Iran. For the next several centuries, Babylonians struggled with Assyrians, who ruled northern Mesopotamia, for control of the city and region. The Assyrians conquered the city in 729 B.C., and 30 years later, the Assyrian king SENNACHERIB burned the city. Another Assyrian king later rebuilt it. A new line of kings wrested control of Babylonia from the Assyrians in 626 B.C., and soon Babylon became the dazzling capital of the NeoBabylonian empire. Later, during his 42-year reign, King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II built fortifications, palaces, temples, and monuments in the city. Despite its splendors, though, Babylon fell quickly to the Persian army of CYRUS THE GREAT, in 539 B.C. It remained in Persian hands until 331 B.C., when it surrendered to the Macedonian ruler ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who died in Babylon. The city gradually declined in importance and was finally abandoned after the A.D. 600s.

Babylon

See map in Babylonia and the Babylonians (vol. 1).

* cult formal religious worship

See color plate 3, vol.3.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Physical Features. For many centuries, Babylon stood on the fertile banks of the EUPHRATES RIVER. When the great river shifted its course away from the city Babylon still sat on a branch of the Euphrates. There is little evidence of what the city looked like in the time of the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), when it was Hammurabi's capital. Researchers know quite a bit more about the Babylon of the NeoBabylonian empire (612-539 B.C.). At that time, the city was very large, and about 11 miles of outer walls enclosed the city and outlying areas. At the extreme north of the area included in these walls was a large summer palace that Nebuchadnezzar II built. A set of inner walls contained the center of the city, which sat on both sides of the Euphrates. The eastern section was larger than the western section, and a bridge connected the two parts. The inner walls were broken by eight gates. Most impressive was the huge gate dedicated to the goddess ISHTAR. The Gate of Ishtar was built of brick and ornamented with blue tiles and colored figures of bulls and dragons. The Gate of Ishtar opened to a wide avenue called the Processional Way, which was also decorated with colored figures of lions. This road led south from the gate to the temple of the cult* of Marduk. This temple, which may have stood on a stepped pyramid tower called a ZIGGURAT, was 300 feet long on each side and rose to about 300 feet in height. Hammurabi built the original structure, and Nebuchadnezzar II restored it more than 1,000 years later. This temple may have been the Tower of Babel described in the Hebrew Bible. Each spring, during the 12-day celebration of the Mesopotamian New Year, a statue of Marduk was taken from the temple along the Processional Way to another temple north of the Gate of Ishtar. During the festival, the king dedicated himself to Marduk to ensure the continuing success of the city and its people. Another impressive structure was built west and south of the Processional Way, nearer to the Gate of Ishtar than Marduk's temple. This was the palace that archaeologists* call the Southern Citadel or the Southern Palace. It had five courtyards, a central throne room, and dozens of smaller rooms. King Nebuchadnezzar II called it "the marvel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining residence, the dwelling of majesty/'

The Processional Way was a stone- and brick-paved thoroughfare between Babylon's Gate of Ishtar and the temple of Marduk. It has been estimated that 120 enameled brick lions, such as the one shown here, lined the walls of the avenue. The walls were also lined with reliefs of bulls and horned dragons in low relief.

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Babylonia and the Babylonians The ancient city was also famous for another structure—the beautiful HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON. This series of tree-covered terraces is said to have been built by a Babylonian king for a wife who missed the green hills of her homeland. No ruins found in Babylon have been definitely identified as the remains of these famed gardens, however. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Bible, Hebrew.)

BABYLONIA AND THE BABYLONIANS

B

abylonia (ba»buh«LOH«nee«uh) was one of the leading powers of MESOPOTAMIA, and the Babylonian civilization produced some of the ancient world's greatest achievements in LAW, LITERATURE, and MATHEMATICS. Like other kingdoms of the ancient world, Babylonia was not a clearly defined state with fixed borders. Moreover, the Babylonians were not a single people but rather a mixture of several different ethnic groups. Babylonia was the kingdom that surrounded the city of BABYLON. At times, it was a small realm, one among many competing states. Outside powers sometimes dominated Babylonia for long periods. During other periods, Babylonia extended its power and became a great empire. Whatever its political fortunes, Babylonia played a key role in the cultural life of the ancient Near East for several thousand years.

GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Mesopotamia is a general term for the land between and around the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER, which flow from northwest to southeast through present-day Iraq. Babylonia arose in the southern part of Mesopotamia. Its northern border lay at about the point where the two rivers approach each other most closely, around the city of Sippar. In the south, it extended to the point near the Persian Gulf where the two rivers meet to form one. Through this flat landscape, the great rivers flowed slowly. Rainfall was scarce and uncertain. The hard, dry ground was unsuitable for farming during most of the year. Yet the soil was very fertile when wet. Once people had mastered the use of IRRIGATION to carry river water into their fields, they could practice large-scale AGRICULTURE. Crop surpluses supported a growing population and led to the organization of society into city-states* and eventually kingdoms. The region did lack certain useful resources, especially metals, stone, gems, and timber. The people of Babylonia could obtain such items only through trade with other regions or through conquest. Southern Mesopotamia did possess plenty of clay, which became the basic material for building in Babylonia. People built cities, temples, ZIGGURATS, and palaces from sundried bricks.

HISTORY Between 2900 and 2000 B.C., two civilizations flourished in the region that would later be known as Babylonia: Sumer in the south and Akkad in the north. The Akkadian king SARGON I unified them into a single empire 102

Babylonia and the Babylonians * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

around 2334 B.C. Beginningin about B.C.,2112 a Sumerian dynasty* based in the city-stateUR of governedthe empire for about a century. Although Babylon existedas a city-stateat leastas early as the Akkadian era, it was not a particularly important one. Around 2000 B.C., whenUr was suffering internal troubles, a nomadic* people called AMORITES the moved SYRIA eastward intofrom Mesopotamia. These hardy newcomers rose to power in the crumbling empire and adopted much of the Sumerian andAkkadian cultural heritage. Soon Amorite leaders took the thrones of many city-states.Babylonia's long history of triumphs anddefeats began with the riseof one Amorite dynasty. Historians generally divide that long history into three main periods: the Old Babylonian empire (ca. B.C.), 1900-1600 the Middle Babylonian empire (ca. 1600-1150 B.C.), and the Neo-Babylonian empire (612-539 B.C.). The Old Babylonian Empire. In about B.C., a1894 new leader named Sumu-abum became king of Babylon.He set about rebuilding the city's fortifications*—a task that would also keep his successors busy— and ruled for about a dozen years.His successors Sumula-El, Sabium,and Apil-Sin defeated some nearby towns, KISH, including and occasionally raided Larsa, one of the more powerful nearby city-states in southern Mesopotamia.

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and the

Babylonians

stela stone slab or pillar that hasbeen carved or engravedand servesas a monument; pi. stelae

Sin-muballit, the fifth king of the dynasty, came to thethrone in about 1812 B.C. He workedto strengthen Babylon against itsneighbors: Elam to the east, on the border ofpresent-day Iran; Larsa to the south; and Ekallatumto the north. Sin-muballit's HAMMURABIbecame son king of Babylon in about B.C.Like 1792 his ancestors, Hammurabi built or restored temples throughout the kingdomas a way of reinforcinghisclaim to the throne. Hammurabi carriedout atwo-stage programofconquest andexpansion. First, he raided a number oftowns andcities. Then—afteryears spent building and repairing temples, fortifications, and irrigation canals—he defeatedthe major powersto thenorth, east,andsouthof Babylon. Now Hammurabi could rightly taketheancient title "kingof Sumer andAkkad."By the timehisreign B.C.,he ended hadinalso 1750 conquered MARI,a rival city-stateon the northern Euphrates. The Old Babylonian empire reachedits height,intermsofterritory and power, under Hammurabi. Heturned Babylonia into the dominant force in the region between Iranand Assyria.Themost important monument that survives from Hammurabi's reignis acarved stone stela* erected to mark one of his most impressive achievements: theCodeof Hammurabi. This proclamation of the king'scommitment tojustice listed the lawsof the kingdom. After Hammurabi's death arebellion swept through Babylonia.The king's son Samsu-iluna succeeded him to thethrone andcrushedthe rebellion. The uprisingwas the first ofmany moretocome, however, asign that the empire Hammurabihad forgedwasbeginning fallapart. to Both internal decay and the pressureofforeign invasions playeda role in the decline of the Old Babylonian empire. FirstBabylon lost control of the southern city-states, URUKand including Larsa.Thenit lost closer cities,NIPPUR suchas and Isin.AsBabylonian territory dwindled, so did the state's income.In the reign King of Samsu-ditana, last of his dynasty, Babylonia fellon hard times.Anindividual named ApilAda wrote a touching appeal to the "god of myfather" inwords that might have summed up the plight of the once great empire: "Whyare you so unconcerned about me? . . .Think also offamily, my of those old and young, then for their sake have mercy on me. Mayyour help reach me." Babylonia receivedno help.InB.C., HITTITES about an army 1595 of from central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)swept down onBabylon and carriedoff its treasures.The OldBabylonian empire wasover. The "Dark Age" and the Middle Babylonian Empire.Some torians describe the 150years after the Hittite invasionas a"dark age" because of the lackof written sources fromthe period. We doknow, however, that a nomadic people KASSITES, called probably the originally from Iran, had begun to move intoBabyloniaasearlyas thereignof Hammurabi. They wereon the scene aftertheHittite raid onBabylon. In the power vacuum left by the collapse of the oldempire,Kassites the made themselvesthe new mastersofBabylonandmuchofformer its territory. The southernmost partofBabylonia, known as theSealand, remained independent for another century or so, butbetween 1490 and

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* bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

1465B.C., it, too, came underKassite rule.The age of the independent city-states was at an end. The Kassites established a dynasty that ruledin Babylonfor almost 450 years,from about 1595 until about B.C., making 1158it the longestruling dynasty in the history of ancient Mesopotamia. They adopted the customs of the Babylonian culture and appear to have been accepted by the native population. The Kassites did, however, introduce a few new cultural elements to Babylonia. Chief among these were large-scale horse breeding and improved technologyfor chariotsand harnesses. Historiansrefer to theKassite periodas the Middle Babylonian empire. This was a centralized, well-organized state in which alarge bureaucracy* developed to collect taxes and keep records. During the Middle Babylon empire's long period of political stability,Babylonia's economyand culture flourished.The empire played an important rolein the international relationsof theNearEast. The Kassite dynasty was linked to the ruling dynastiesofEgyptand the Hittite empire by marriages among the royal families and bytreaties. It enjoyed good trade relations with Egypt. After Assyria roseto power along the Tigris Riverin northern Mesopotamia B.C., inBabylothe 1300s nia entered into diplomatic marriages and treaties with Assyrians the too. There were occasional clashes betweenthe two powers, however. War broke out between Babyloniaand Assyriain B.C.the late 1200s The Assyrians conquered Babylon and held it for a fewyears. In the 1150sB.C., the Elamites from Babylonia's eastern border struck another severe blow, invading the empire and raiding Babylon,itscapital. The Kassite dynasty collapsed, and the Middle Babylonian empire cameto an inglorious end. Just as theKassites had risen to power in the chaos thatfollowed the collapse of the Old Babylonian empire, a new dynasty seized the throne after the Elamite raid.King NebuchadnezzarI of this dynasty from ruled about 1126 to aboutB.C.1105 He won an important victory over Elam and recaptureda statue MARDUK, of god of Babylon, that the Elamites had carried off to their capital,Susa. Perhapsthe Babylonians viewed the return of the statue as a sign that order and power were restored. Less than 100 years later, however, the dynasty to which Nebuchadnezzar I belonged would end, and Babylonia would plunge again into turmoil. Aramaeans and Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar's successors had todeal with invasionsfrom two sources. ARAMAEANS, One was athe nomadic people who—like the Amorites 1,000 yearsearlier—migrated into Syria and Mesopotamia, probably from the hilly lands to the west. Aramaeans raided the cities of the weakand disorganized Babylonians,andAramaean tribes settled in Babylonia. There they mixed with the native population of Sumerians and Akkadians, Amorites,and a people called Chaldeans, who had settled along the southern coast ofBabylonia. Babylonia's other enemy at this time was Assyria.AlthoughAssyrithe ans alsosufferedfrom Aramaean invasions, some of the stronger Assyrian kings won victories against them. Occasionally Assyriaand Babylonia were allies againstthe Aramaeans,but oftenthe two wereat war as Assyria sought to expand southward. King Tiglath-pileser Assyria, I of who

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and the

Babylonians

ruled from about 1114 to 1076 B.C.,conquered northernBabylonia,and looted Babylon. For several centuries, Babyloniawas the sceneof apower struggle between the Assyrians, Aramaeans,and Chaldeans. By theB.C., mid-700s Assyria had built a strong and united empire thatstretched fromIranto Egypt. TheAssyrian TIGLATH-PILESER ruler, III, set his sights onBabylonia. He declared war and emerged victorious B.C. in Tiglath-pileser 729 III named himself king of Babylonia. However, Babylonia proved hardto govern, largely becauseofoppositiontoAssyrian rule. B.C., In the689 Assyrian king SENNACHERIB punished Babylon for itsrebelliousness by destroying the city.

deity god or goddess

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The Neo-Babylonian Empire. NABOPOLASB.C., In a626 leader named SAR—perhaps a Chaldeanfrom southernBabylonia—becameking of Babylon. He not only drove the Assyriansout ofBabylonia, but in 612 B.C., he joined with MEDES thefrom Iran to attack and NINEVEH, overcome the capital ofAssyria. Nabopolassarand hissuccessors thengovernedan independent andpowerful Neo-Babylonian empire that included much of Assyria'sformer territory. Nabopolassar'sson NEBUCHADNEZZAR and heir, II,reigned for 42years, just as Hammurabi had done duringthe OldBabylonian empire. Justas it had under Hammurabi, Babylonia experienced political expansion and culturalflowering under NebuchadnezzarII. Theking conquered smaller states along the Mediterranean coast, including Judah.TheHebrew Bible contains accountsofNebuchadnezzar's JERUSALEM and attacks ofonthe Judeans' removal to Babylon. An intense concern for the pastwas a key featureofBabylonian culture during the time of the Neo-Babylonian empire. Itseems thatpeople hungered for a linkto the greatnessof thepast. Kingsrebuiltoldtemples, renewed old customs,and honored SCRIBES ancient wrote Akkain gods. dian, sometimes even in Sumerian,andthey reworkedfrom textsthe Kassite period. The last native king of Babylonia, NABONIDUS,cameto the thronein 556B.C.after a power struggle among Nebuchadnezzar'sdescendants. He tried to promote the worshipof theMesopotamian deities* Sin, Shamash, andISHTAR, who had beenfavoredby the last Assyrianrulers. Thepriests

Babylonia and the Babylonians and supporters of Marduk, long considered the supreme god of Babylonia, regarded this as a challenge. Their hostility may be one reason Nabonidus spent ten years living in northern Arabia, leaving his son Belshazzar in charge in Babylon. Nabonidus returned to Babylon in 543 B.C., only to spark even more heated religious quarrels.

* exile permanent departure from one's homeland, either by force or voluntarily

The Persian and Macedonian Conquests. While Nabonidus was having these troubles, the Persians were overthrowing the Medes and gathering their strength in Iran. Led by CYRUS THE GREAT, the Persian army swept into Babylonia in 539 B.C. After defeating the Babylonians soundly in a major battle, the Persians took several cities without resistance. Cyrus sent Nabonidus into exile* and made the region part of his realm. The Neo-Babylonian empire, the last independent state to grow out of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, had ended. The Persian conquest did not bring the widespread confusion that had followed the collapses of earlier Babylonian empires. Babylonia remained prosperous and productive, and life there went on much as it had before, but under governors appointed by the Persian ruler. Babylonia became a source of food for the PERSIAN EMPIRE and also a source of archers, chariots, and horses for the Persian army. In the late 330s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Macedonia, a region to the north of Greece, went to war with the Persians. In 331 B.C., he gained control of Babylonia and made Babylon one of the capitals of his Asian lands. Alexander's successors governed Babylonia for several hundred years, but the region would never again play a major role in history.

GOVERNMENT The basic principle of Babylonian government was that the state was responsible for protecting the people from enemies and providing temples for worship. In return, the people were responsible for supporting the state through taxes paid in the form of goods, money, and labor. The Code of Hammurabi reflected the understanding that the king was expected to enforce justice and fairness, not to rule by whim or personal favor. The Babylonian state and government changed over time. At the beginning of the Old Babylonian period, the state was not so much an empire as a kingdom. However, Hammurabi's northern conquests created a true empire that included a number of formerly independent states and peoples. Government grew more complex as a bureaucracy emerged to carry out royal commands and responsibilities. This bureaucracy grew even while the empire was losing territory and running out of money. In these times of trouble, the Old Babylonian government issued misharu. These royal orders were meant to halt economic or social decline by restoring earlier, more stable conditions. Such orders canceled or erased debts between private parties and debts owed to the state. No quantity of misharu, however, could hold the first Babylonian empire together. Under the Kassite kings, the empire was divided into administrative districts. Officials in each district were responsible for collecting taxes and for supervising public works, such as the building or repair of canals 107

Babylonia and the Babylonians

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * regency form of government in which a regent rules in place of the rightful ruler, who is absent, too young, or otherwise unable to rule

and roads. Rural settlements paid taxes on grain, straw, wood, livestock, and more. They also had to provide donkeys, wagons, and workers for the administrators. An efficient administrative system also developed within the NeoBabylonian empire. Taxes and tributes* were very high—they had to be, to support the military campaigns and ambitious building projects of Nebuchadnezzar II. Babylonia became quite wealthy, but violent quarrels over the succession to the throne, the regency* of Belshazzar, and disputes between the priests and the king showed how unstable the government had become during the last years of this dynasty.

ECONOMY, AGRICULTURE, AND TRADE

Kassite Kudurrus Occasionally the Kassite kings of the Middle Babylonian empire bought tracts of land and gave them to favored individuals in exchange for loyalty and service, These grants were marked by inscribed pillars or boundary stones called kudurrus. The inscriptions offer insight into Babylonian thought One calls down a curse on anyone rash enough to move the kudurru or tamper with the land: Marduk, the great lord.., shall place upon him starvation as a severe punishment... Cula [the goddess of medicine]... shall place upon him a large and persistent wound, which will not heal. As long as he lives he shall bathe in pus and blood, as if in water.

Economy and culture were closely linked in ancient Babylonia, where writing originated as a way to keep track of goods and people. A great many surviving Babylonian texts are concerned with trade, commerce, debts, and property records. Most people worked to produce, store, or distribute food. Although agriculture was the region's main economic activity, Babylonia was involved in a trade network even before the region's history began to be set in writing. Initially, people exchanged goods such as seashells and obsidian. This black glass formed by volcanic eruptions could be used to make extremely sharp blades and knives. As city-states, kingdoms, and empires developed, the trade network broadened and grew more complex. Babylonia's first role in this trade network was to provide food, especially wheat and barley, from its fertile, irrigated fields. The organization of land into large estates led to efficient, large-scale production of grain, vegetables, dates, meat, wool, leather, and textiles, which could be exchanged for other necessary goods, such as metals and stones. The earliest merchants traded goods on behalf of priests or kings. By the time of the Old Babylonian empire, however, merchants were also undertaking trade expeditions for their own profit. All such trade activities were supervised by a royal bureau. In fact, large cities, especially those located along major land or water routes, had special organizations similar to modern "port authorities" to regulate commerce and trade. They collected taxes, settled disputes between merchants, and sometimes even maintained offices or stations in foreign cities. By the time of the Middle Babylonian empire certain patterns of trade were well established. Babylonians imported metals, wood, and precious stones. The Kassites' intensive trade with Egypt brought a great deal of gold into Babylonia. Along with food, Babylonia exported horses, chariots, high-quality textiles, and manufactured goods such as jewelry.

SOCIETY AND FAMILY How the ancient Babylonians organized their family and social structures depended on where and how they lived. The people of the Old Babylonian empire, like the people of Sumer and Akkad, lived in towns and cities along rivers and canals. Their political and social ties grew first 108

Babylonia and the Babylonians

* clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest

out of membership in a community and second out of blood and marriage relationships. Settled communities were usually governed by assemblies of leading men. Larger cities might be divided into districts or wards, which were like small communities within cities. Ward officials issued warnings and held hearings on such matters as buildings in danger of collapse. Residents of the ward were expected to be watchful for strangers and to report suspicious activities to ward officials. In contrast to urban dwellers, people who lived outside the cities placed far more importance on clans* and tribal relationships. Nomadic and seminomadic peoples entered Babylonia from time to time and lived in the nonirrigated lands outside the settled cities and their surrounding farms. These groups were governed by individual chiefs. Beginning around 1500 B.C., Babylon and a few other major cities remained quite large, but many midsized Babylonian cities and towns decreased in size. It is possible that soil exhaustion and water shortages made it hard to support so many large concentrations of people. For whatever reason, the main form of settlement outside the major cities became the village, not the city. At the same time, tribal and clan identifications grew more important. As urbanism declined, the nomadic or nonurban parts of the population became increasingly powerful. Babylonian society was patriarchal, which meant that identity and status came from the father's side of the family. A Babylonian was identified by a personal name followed by the father's name.

LANGUAGE * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

* parchment writing material made from the skin of sheep or goats * papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

The Babylonian language underwent many changes between the time of the kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad in the middle of the third millennium B.C.* and the Neo-Babylonian empire of the 500s B.C. The original language of the region was Sumerian. By the 2500s B.C., however, the Akkadian language began to appear in texts. It was written with the CUNEIFORM symbols that had been invented to write Sumerian. At first Akkadian was the language of royal documents, inscriptions, and literary works, but by the time of the Amorite invasions it had become the standard language of Mesopotamia. After that time Akkadian developed into Assyrian dialects* in northern Mesopotamia and Babylonian ones in the south. Scribes in both Assyria and Babylonia commonly wrote learned texts and literary works in a form of Babylonian that no one actually spoke. This literary language was deliberately oldfashioned and contained remnants of much earlier Akkadian and even Sumerian forms. The Aramaean tribes that invaded Mesopotamia around 1000 B.C. brought with them their Aramaic language, which they wrote on parchment* or papyrus*. Aramaic spread rapidly in Assyria, but Babylonia was slower to adopt the language. One feature of the Neo-Babylonian empire was its attachment to the Akkadian language and the cuneiform script. Gradually, though, Aramaic replaced Akkadian in Babylonia, and by the time of the Macedonian invasion in the 330s B.C., it had completely replaced Akkadian as the spoken language. 109

Babylonia and the Babylonians

RELIGION See

color plate 11 vol.1.

What's in a Name? The people of the Middle Babylonian empire lived in a world in which j the king seemed remote and unapproachable. Babylon no longer offered security against political upheaval, poverty, or oppressive forces. The literature of this period reflects doubt, uncertainty, and a longing for stability. So do persona names. In the Kassite period, Babylonians began to have names that carried a plea, such as "How have I sinned against God?" or "My burden is crushing," One of the most common names simply asked for help: "Save me, O Marduk!"

Like the ancient Sumerians before them, the Babylonians believed that the world was affected by the actions of the gods. Worshiping the gods was an important public act. Kings regarded it as their duty to build temples. These structures, and the priests who guided religious observance, were supported by public funds as well as private donations. The Babylonian deities were a blend of Sumerian and Akkadian figures that had originally represented different elements of nature. They became personified as male and female deities, involved in relationships among themselves. For example, Sin (also called Nanna), the moon god, was the father of Shamash the sun god and Ishtar, or Inanna, the morning and evening star. Each of the dozen or so major gods and goddesses was associated with a particular city. Together they all formed the national pantheon, or assembly of gods, of Babylonia. Among the key figures of the pantheon were ANU or Anum, the god of heaven; ENLIL, who separated heaven and earth and was the god of the city of Nippur; Enki, or EA, the god of freshwaters and patron of the arts, crafts, and sciences; ADAD, the storm god; and Ninkhursag, the sister or wife of Enlil who, with Enki, produced human beings. Marduk, the city god of Babylon, gained great importance in the national pantheon after Babylon became an imperial capital. Cyrus the Great gained acceptance in Babylon because he paid honor to Marduk, whom Nabonidus had rejected. Each Babylonian family honored one particular god. This "family god" was supposed to provide for the family's daily needs and to protect its interests with the other gods. Men and women identified themselves as the servants of their chosen deities. The spirits of ancestors had a semigodlike status and could become family gods. People honored these ancestral spirits with special meals.

MYTHOLOGY AND LITERATURE Babylonian literature drew on the ancient mythology of the Sumerians. Literature flourished in the Old Babylonian empire between 1900 and 1600 B.C., with works that were fresh, lively, and original. After 1600 B.C., there was less originality, and many literary works were revisions or studies of past writings. The foremost work of the later Babylonian period is Enuma Elish, or the Epic of Creation, first written down around 900 B.C. It used the same basic story elements as earlier Mesopotamian CREATION MYTHS but altered them to make Marduk the supreme god. Enuma Elish tells how the gods created the world and then made human beings from a mixture of clay—the universal Mesopotamian building material—and divine blood. An early Sumerian myth called Enki and Ninmakh and a Babylonian poem called the Atrakhasis Myth epic give similar accounts of human origins. The Erra Myth dates from around 1000 B.C., when Aramaean invaders were disrupting Mesopotamia. Its subject is Erra, or Nergal, the god of the underworld. He unleashes destruction upon the earth because the noise of humans has been keeping the gods awake. The myth ends with 110

Bactria Erra agreeing to end the chaos and with a promise that Babylon will soon rise again. Closely related to myth is another type of literature that flourished in Sumer and early Babylonia, the epic, which took the form of a long poem. Epic heroes were generally human, although they interacted with gods and sometimes became gods. Often they used cleverness or wisdom rather than force to succeed in their tasks. The best known of these heroes was GILGAMESH, the subject of many poems, tales, and a long epic.

ARTS AND SCIENCES * stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

BACTRIA * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

The Old Babylonian empire inherited a rich artistic tradition from Sumer and Akkad that included small, carved figures of people and animals that represented these subjects realistically. Over time, Babylonian artists developed more stylized* ways of portraying figures. Among their art forms were religious statues of deities and praying figures, carved seals, and stone slabs decorated with images of victories in war and celebrations. Babylonian architects and builders were masters at using mud brick* to construct massive city walls, temples, ziggurats, and palaces. Key qualities of Babylonian architecture were bulkiness and solidity. The Babylonians also made use of color to enliven their public spaces. They plastered walls and decorated them with patterns of colored pegs, and they covered large structures, such as the Gate of Ishtar in Babylon, with enameled bricks or tiles. The Babylonians were skilled in both mathematics (including measuring and surveying land) and astronomy. Babylonian astronomers were renowned throughout the ancient Near East. Their observations of the sun, moon, stars, and planets became the basis of a sophisticated CALENDAR. They developed the method of dividing circles into 360 equal degrees, a method that remains the basis for the measuring of time and of angles today. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Assyria and the Assyrians; Astronomy and Astronomers; Bible, Hebrew; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Elam and the Elamites; Hammurabi, Code of; Sumer and the Sumerians; Susa and Susiana.)

B

actria (BAK«tree«uh) was an ancient kingdom of CENTRAL ASIA, situated between the Amu Darya, a river to the north, and the Hindu Kush, a mountain range to the south. This area is part of present-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Bactria was a fertile region and a successful agricultural area. Its major importance, however, was as an entrepot, a meeting place for travelers and traders from China, India, and the West. Bactria was settled around 1500 B.C. by nomadic* ARYANS. The later MEDES and the Persians were also Aryan peoples. Legend says that Zoroaster, the founder of the Persian religion called Zoroastrianism, was born in Bactria in the 600s B.C. Ill

Bahrain

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

See map in Central Asia (vol. 1).

BAHRAIN archipelago area of water with a group of scattered islands

See map in Arabia and the Arabs (vol.1).

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

112

Bactria's chief city, Bactra, lay on the main caravan route across Asia, making the kingdom a crossroads for trade and the exchange of ideas. This also made Bactria an attractive target for other groups. CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Bactria in the 500s B.C., and it became part of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. It furnished rich revenue in gold to Persia. Then, in 329 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire, including Bactria. As a result, Bactria incorporated Hellenistic* culture into its own culture. On Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Bactria came under the rule of the SELEUCID EMPIRE. Next, in about 250 B.C., the Seleucid governor declared Bactria an independent kingdom. Bactria's power increased, and it flourished for about 120 years, advancing Hellenistic culture into Central Asia and northern India. This influence is evident in art, architecture, coinage, and writing. Bactria's independence ended about 130 B.C., when it was overrun by tribes invading from the north. It became part of the Kushan empire and a center of Buddhism. In the A.D. 600s, Arab armies conquered the area. Its capital city, renamed Balkh, became a major city of the Muslim world. (See also Hellenistic World; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

(bah«RAYN), an independent nation in the Persian Gulf, is B ahrain an archipelago* of 33 islands north of Saudi Arabia and west of

Qatar. In ancient times, Bahrain was an important center of agriculture and trade. Evidence exists that Bahrain was inhabited as long ago as 4000 B.C., when prehistoric peoples crossed a land bridge connecting Arabia to Bahrain. This land bridge existed until rising sea levels in the Persian Gulf caused Bahrain to become separated from the Arabian mainland. The early settlers of Bahrain used stone tools, fished, raised sheep and goats, and hunted land and sea animals such as rabbits and dugongs (sea cows). Their oldest remains have been found in several hundred thousand aboveground burial mounds dating from around 3000 B.C. The mounds contain stone crypts, skeletons, and pottery. A narrow coastal area in the north of the largest island contains many underground springs. These springs have supplied freshwater to the area throughout its history. This water has been used to grow fruit and vegetable crops and has helped make Bahrain better able to produce food than most of Arabia. By late in the third millennium B.C.*, Bahrain had become a vital part of the network of trade routes between MESOPOTAMIA, the Persian Gulf, IRAN, BACTRIA, and the Indus Valley (present-day Pakistan and northwest India). By the early second millennium B.C.*, Bahrain was trading such goods as copper, wood, ivory, silver, textiles, precious stones, stone beads, and pearls. Foods such as sesame oil, dates, onions, other agricultural products, and dairy products were all traded through Bahrain. The people thrived, and the population increased dramatically. Through this trade, objects and ideas from all over the world became incorporated into Bahrain! culture. Excavations of a large residential

Bas-Reliefs

* scarab representation of the dung beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians

See (colorplate 14,' vol. 2.

complex uncovered CUNEIFORM tablets revealing a Sumerian influence. Numerous stamp SEALS, quite different from Mesopotamian cylinder seals, were also found there, as well as Kassite pottery and silver. The plan of the complex contains architectural elements from the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, and a scarab* seal ring shows that Egyptian ideas also found their way to Bahrain. The largest collection of cuneiform inscriptions found in the region were located on Failaka Island in the northern part of the Persian Gulf. Many of these inscriptions mention Mesopotamian deities. Bahrain was independent for thousands of years. It became part of the Persian Sasanian empire in the A.D. 300s. In the 600s, the island came under Arab control.

Barley

See Cereal Grains.

Barter

See Economy and Trade.

BAS-RELIEFS

B

' as-relief (BAH«rMeef) is a form of sculpture in which material is cut > away to leave figures projecting from the background. Most bas-reliefs are carved on stone walls, pillars, or plaques, though they can also be sculpted on metal and wood. Art historians distinguish between bas-relief — or low relief — and high relief. (The word bus comes from French, meaning "low.") In bas-relief, the design is raised only slightly above the surface. In high relief, the figure stands out much more, and parts may even be completely cut away from the background, just as in sculpture in the round. The sculpture and inscription carved on the side of a mountain in Behistun depicting Persian king Darius I's victory over rebels who tried to take control of the throne of the PERSIAN EMPIRE is an example of high relief. Bas-reliefs were a common form of artwork in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and other Near Eastern cultures. Many of the reliefs celebrate the life of a monarch. Some depict victories in battle. Others pay homage to a deity. Still others provide glimpses into daily rituals. Because they were made of durable materials, many bas-reliefs have survived to the present day. They provide us with invaluable insights into life and ideas in the ancient Near East. Images From Egypt. Ancient Egyptian bas-reliefs were typically a combination of images and HIEROGLYPHICS, the Egyptian system of writing that used signs to stand for words. An early example of this combination of word and image is the two-sided Narmer Palette, which dates from

113

Bas-Reliefs

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

about 3000 B.C.(It is calledapalette because it wasoriginally used toprepare eye makeup.) Carvedon slate, this palettemaycelebratetheunification of EgyptafterKing Narmer's defeat Lower of Egypt. Oneside shows the king, by far the largest figure on relief, the holdinganenemyby the hair, ready to kill him, while two other fallen enemieslie atfeet. his Above is a falcon, representingthe HORUS, sky standing god on top of an image of papyrus plants, whichare asymbolofLower Egypt. On the other side of the palette,the kingisshown wearingthecrownofLower Egypt and looking at the bodiesofslain enemies. As was customaryin Egyptian art,the figuresin theNarmer Palette are shown with their heads in profile, their torsos facingtheviewer,and their legs andfeet inprofile.The relative importanceofpeople wasindicated by the size in which they were depicted. This distinctive style was to remain standardfor Egyptian art forthousands ofyears. Many Egyptianreliefs were madefortombs. They commemoratethe person who has diedby showing scenes fromlife. daily Onewoodenrelief datingfrom aboutB.C. 2660 and preparedfor a king'stomb shows one of the king'sofficial scribes* holding writing materials. Alimestone relief from about a century later shows Akhethotepin aninteresting combination of image and hieroglyphics. Inhieroglyphic writing,asymbolis often placed before aword orname totellthereader more aboutthename. These symbols are called determinatives.In theAkhethotep relief,the sculpted imageof the official himself takestheplaceof the determinative. These earlyreliefs are rather simple.The men arebarefootandbare chested, wearing loincloths. Only their hairiscarvedindetail. Over time, Egyptianbas-reliefs became more detailedandsophisticated. Kingsand other high-ranking individuals were shown wearing clothes suited to their rank. Their hairstyles, jewels,and gesturesarecarvedingreater detail. Servants and attendants aredepicted inless detail toemphasize the differences in rankand importance. Other common themesforEgyptian bas-reliefswere agricultureand hunting. The tomb of an official calledTi,which dates fromabout 2400 B.C., contains a paintedreliefof Tiwatchingahippopotamus hunt. Ti, the largestfigure in the picture, watches as menwith spears try tokill a group of hippopotamuses. The entire backgroundiscarvedinvertical stripes to represent a stand ofpapyrus. Inanother relief in thesame tomb, a cattle herder ridesone cowacrossariver (shownas apattern of zigzags) as he herds two other animals aheadofhim.Infront, another herder carries acalf on his back to savefrom it drowning. The calfs mother looks on anxiously. A later tomb, datingfrom about B.C.,has 1325areliefofseven workmen carrying a wooden beam. Thisis alarge scene,and its contentis more modern than that of the hippopotamus hunt.Itshowstwoworkers standing next to large wheels, probablyfor achariotorcarriage. Another is riding a horse.Facial expressions reveal thatthesevenmencarryingthe beam are obviously struggling under theburden. This levelofattention to human expressionis adeparture from earlier art. Images From Mesopotamia. Bas-reliefs fromMesopotamia were less concerned with daily life and more focusedonkingsandvictories.One

114

Behistun Inscription * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

Beards

Beer

BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION

of the oldest reliefs from this region dates from about 3300 B.C. and was found at URUK. It is a stone stela* showing a priest-king in two scenes. In one scene, he uses a long spear to kill a lion, and in the other, he uses a bow and arrow to kill a lion. A victory stela of the Akkadian king NARAM-SIN was sculpted around 2200 B.C. It shows soldiers climbing a hill. Above them is the largest figure, Naram-Sin, standing victorious over the enemy. At the top of the stela are three stars. This stela is important for two reasons. First, it shows Naram-Sin wearing a helmet with two horns. This kind of helmet was normally reserved for a god, so Naram-Sin is saying that he is a god as well as a king. Second, the stela is different in style from earlier, simpler, bas-reliefs from the region. This one shows the movement of the soldiers, and it includes background details that were generally absent from earlier reliefs. The most magnificent bas-reliefs of the ancient Near East were made by the Assyrians, who built a great empire during the first half of the first millennium B.C.* To celebrate and commemorate their military victories, the kings of Assyria had themselves depicted on stone stelae. They also recorded their exploits in reliefs that decorated the walls of their palaces. The palace built at Khorsabad (in present-day Iraq) in the 700s B.C. by King SARGON II provides one example. It contains a long series of reliefs portraying all of the king's successful military campaigns. These reliefs show the grand sweep of history, one victory after another. The pictures were inscribed with text to give further details of the events. Another set of famous reliefs, from the palace of ASHURBANIPAL in NINEVEH, is famous for the vivid scenes of lion hunts. These examples typify the magnificent detail and beauty found in Assyrian reliefs. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Assyria and the Assyrians; Behistun Inscription; Egypt and the Egyptians; Human Form in Art; Palaces and Temples.)

See Hair.

See Food and Drink.

T

he Behistun (be«HIS«tun) inscription is a large panel that contains a sculpture and an INSCRIPTION. It was carved into a mountainside near the village of Behistun in western IRAN between 520 and 519 B.C. by order of the Persian king DARIUS I. Because the text is in three languages, this panel became important to the modern understanding of ancient languages. Sitting about 300 feet above the plain at the foot of the mountain, the panel measures 27 feet high by 69 feet wide. It commemorates Darius I's victory over rebels who tried to take control of the throne of the PERSIAN

115

Behistun

Inscription

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

116

EMPIREafterthe deathof his predecessor, CAMBYSES. The inscription, describing the battle and itsaftermath, iswrittenin thelanguagesof Elamite, Akkadian,and OldPersian.Theuprisingand Darius'svictory took place between522 After B.C.andDarius 520hadsolidified hishold on the throne, he ordered thememorial to becreated as written a and visual recordof his triumphfirst andyear ofrule. Later he had thestory extended to include military successesin thesecondandthird years of his reign. This added materialisinscribedin OldPersian only. The sculptureisrelief* a that showsthevictorious Darius, taller than the otherfigures, standing withhisfooton thebodyof therebel Gaumata. Nine other rebels, with their arms bound behind their backsand chained together at theneck, arelined upbehind Gaumata. The ninth was added when Darius expandedtheinscription. Behind Darius are two royal attendants. Centered above themis awinged figurethat is thesymbol of the Persian AHURA MAZDA. god This figure iswearing acrown and holds out the ringofkingship toward Darius. The inscription detailshowDarius tookandkeptthethrone.Itlists all the rebel leadersbyname. Darius links himselfto thePersian ruling family, the Achaemenids, thereby strengthening hisclaim to the throne. The writing also tells thathis successwasfacilitated by thedivine favor of Ahura Mazda.In asimilar vein,hisdefeated opponents lacked the"divine blessing" of Ahura Mazda. Their"faithlessness"led totheir weaknessand downfall. Dariusfurther makesitclear thathis ownpersonal qualities and abilities wereat the rootof hissuccess. Darius situated the monumentatBehistun because springs of water at the base of the mountain made Behistunafrequent stopping pointfor caravans. The panel thus couldbeseenbymany travelers. Toensure that this story reached throughout thePersian empire,heordered smaller copies of the inscription to becirculated inseveral languages. Fragments have been foundin Babylonia and as faraway asEgypt. InA.D. 1835, SirHenry Rawlinson scaled clifftothe copy and try to decipher the OldPersian inscription. In1849, hepublished his translation. Other scholars helped himdecipher theAkkadian version, which was writteninCUNEIFORM the writing MESOPOTAMIA. system ofancient

Bible, Hebrew Their DECIPHERMENT of the Behistun inscription led to our current understanding of cuneiform. In the 1900s, scholars finally translated the Elamite. (See also Elam and the Elamites; Inscriptions.)

BlBL!;, Hl-BRHW

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

T

he Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament by Christians) contains the sacred writings of the Jewish people. Believed to be writings inspired by God, the Bible is a collection of human testimonies to God's revelations. It has served as the basis for both Judaism and Christianity for more than 2,000 years. Although it is a religious text, the Bible is also an important historical document that reveals much about life and times in the ancient Near East. The 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, derived from the oral and written traditions of the Israelites, trace their history from the early second millennium B.C.* to about 100 B.C. Traditionally, the Hebrew Bible is divided into three sections—the TORAH (the Law) or Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Writings. The five books of the Torah are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These books recount how the god YAHWEH created the world and established a covenant (agreement) with the patriarch Abraham and his descendants. In return for their obedience to his law, Yahweh would settle them in a "promised land/' The Torah relates their early history from Abraham's arrival in CANAAN, his descendants' exile in Egypt, and their return to Canaan under the leadership of MOSES and later Joshua. The Torah also establishes the foundation for the Israelite religion; outlines religious, criminal, and civil laws; and defines the relationship between the Israelites and Yahweh. Included are the basic ethical principles called the TEN COMMANDMENTS, believed to have been given by Yahweh to Moses before the Israelites reached Canaan for the second time. The second part of the Hebrew Bible contains the teachings of a group of thinkers—the Prophets—who played an important role in the religious and political life of the Israelites. The 8 books of the Prophets are organized in two parts—the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as well as the 12 short books called the Minor Prophets). These books continue the history of the Israelites, including the establishment of a monarchy under such kings as DAVID and SOLOMON and the events following the breakup of Solomon's kingdom shortly after his death. They also present the religious teachings of the Prophets, which are said to be messages from Yahweh. The themes of these books, similar to others in the Bible, include the blessings and punishments visited on the people when they follow and stray from following Yahweh's law and the comfort they receive when they return to the fold. The last part of the Hebrew Bible, the Writings, contains 11 books that include assorted PRAYERS, HYMNS, poems, wisdom, literature, and historical writings. Books in this part include Job, PSALMS, the Song of Solomon (also known as Canticles), Lamentations, Proverbs, Ruth, Esther, Daniel, Ecclesiastes, and Ezra. 117

Birds in Art

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

BIRDS IN ART * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C.

118

Scholars believe that most of the books in the Hebrew Bible come from a variety of sources. Many were probably compiled from oral literature passed down through generations. According to some traditions, Moses wrote the five books of the Torah and King David wrote the five books of Psalms. Comparisons with creation myths from other cultures of the ancient Near East suggest that some characters and stories of the Hebrew Bible may parallel the religious traditions of other ancient peoples, such as the Canaanites and Babylonians. The biblical story of the great flood that once destroyed humankind resembles a story found in Mesopotamian literature. The story of the birth of Moses and his rescue from death echoes an Assyrian tale about King SARGON I of Akkad. Imagery similar to that found in the BAAL CYCLE of Syria and the Levant* appears in the Hebrew Bible as well. However, what separates the Bible from other ancient religious literature is that it is more than just a collection of sacred writings. Thoughout the Bible, the Israelites acknowledge their faith in Yahweh as a single living god. As described in the Bible, they also witness how Yahweh controlled the history of Israel according to his righteous plan. Therefore, the study of the Bible itself is considered among the highest of religious acts. (See also Flood Legends; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

A

rt of the ancient Near East abounds with depictions of birds. Many images of birds were associated with gods or with spirits. As with other ANIMALS IN ART, many other bird images reflect everyday life.

Religious Images. One of the oldest images of a bird appears in wall paintings found in QATAL HUYUK in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The remains found in this ancient city—which date from the seventh millennium B.C.*—include images of vultures. The birds have legs that look almost like human legs. Some scholars suggest that they may represent priests dressed as vultures as part of a religious ceremony. Because birds travel between the earth and the sky, they were thought by ancient Egyptians to carry the soul, called the ba. In pit graves as well as pyramids, a shaft was left open to allow the person's ba to fly out and ascend to heaven. In art, the ba was often shown as a bird with a human head. If the figure being shown had to perform a task, human arms might be included as well. The symbolism associated with birds also appeared when a king died and a falcon was released. The falcon was the symbol of HORUS, god of the sky and of kingship. Art often showed Horus helping a king or at least offering his approval of the king's actions. A six-foot-tall stone statue of the ruler Chephren (who ruled around 2550 B.C.) on his throne includes Horus perched atop the throne, his falcon wings encircling the king's head in protection. In some depictions, Horus was not a bird but a large eye with wings.

Birds in Art

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* kudurru in Mesopotamia, stone with inscriptions used to mark the boundary of grants of land

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

Other Egyptian gods and goddesses were associated with other birds. Thoth (god of wisdom and learning) was represented by the ibis, Geb (god of the earth's surface) by the goose, and Isis (nature goddess and mother of Horus) by the swallow. The art of MESOPOTAMIA also included birds that had religious significance. In ancient Sumeria, Imdugud (called Anzu in Akkad) was a huge bird monster that had giant wings and the head of a lion. The flapping of its wings was thought to cause windstorms and sandstorms. Imdugud is sometimes shown grasping stags or lions with its talons. Another popular image was that of an eagle carrying a bearded man. This picture represents an episode in the myth of Etana, the legendary first king of the city-state* of KISH. According to the myth, Etana and his wife were childless. The king had a dream about a "plant of giving birth" and went off to seek it. On his journey, he met an injured eagle, who had been punished by a serpent for eating the serpent's young. Etana made wings of copper for the eagle, which in gratitude agreed to carry the king to heaven to find the plant he sought. Pictures of this story were especially popular from about 2300 to 2000 B.C., when they occasionally appeared on cylinder SEALS. A pottery vase from the city-state of Larsa and dating from about 2000 to 1700 B.C. shows the figures of several animals linked to the gods. The birds on this vase are thought to represent Papsukkal, the messenger god. Beginning in about 1600 B.C., birds appeared on stones called kudurrus*. The figure of a walking bird is linked to a goddess who served the more powerful goddess Inanna, or ISHTAR. The figure of a bird on a perch represents two gods of the KASSITES, during whose reign kudurrus appeared. Secular Images. Birds also appeared in art that was secular, or without religious meaning. One of the oldest of these depictions is the stela of the Vultures, a relief* that dates from about 2450 B.C. This stela* shows Eannatum, the king of one Mesopotamian city-state, leading his victorious army in battle. The uppermost portion of the stela shows some enemy soldiers gripped in the beaks of vultures. Many nonreligious images of birds relate to domesticated* birds or to hunting. An Egyptian relief from around 2400 B.C. shows workers feeding tamed geese. A wall painting from about 1400 B.C. shows two workers plucking the feathers of dead geese before cooking them. Another wall painting from about the same period shows a hunting scene. In it, a nobleman uses a stick and a wild cat to flush birds from the reeds of a marsh. The man is holding several birds he has already captured. The cat has the body of one bird in its claws and the wing of another in its mouth. Images of birds from daily life were familiar in Mesopotamia as well. Cylinder seals from the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, late 700s B.C., include scenes of people hunting ostriches. A more pleasant Assyrian scene is a relief from the palace at NINEVEH. It shows king ASHURBANIPAL and his queen having a relaxing meal in a garden where birds fly from tree to tree. Objects made of metal, pottery, or carved ivory were also made in the shape of animals, sometimes birds, throughout the ancient Near East. In 119

Boats The positioning of autonomous sequences throughout the work is characteristic of Egyptian painting. These sequences allow one to view individual fragments as separate works of art. Although this painting of geese appears to be its own piece, it is actually a detail from a much larger composition.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

Boats

Bogazkoy

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the third millennium B.C.*, Mesopotamian peoples created a series of weights that were used in scales to weigh objects. These were often made in the shape of ducks. A pottery vase from Anatolia from the 1400s B.C. is in the form of a two-headed duck. An ivory cosmetics box found in UGARIT and dating from the 1200s B.C. is in the shape of a duck with its head turned back. A pottery piece from Canaan dating from between 1100 and 1000 B.C. is in the form of a building. Standing on one part is a man holding birds in each hand. This object may have been used to hold a bowl in which INCENSE was burned.

See Ships and Boats.

See Khattusha.

T

he Book of the Dead is the popular name of a collection of ancient Egyptian writings composed for and buried with the dead. The writings include incantations*, hymns, and prayers that were meant to guide and protect the deceased during their journey to the safety of the region of OSIRIS, the Egyptian god of the dead. Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead had to pass through gates guarded by dangerous beings, including winged snakes and evil spirits.

Books and Manuscripts incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS

* manuscript document written by hand, before the introduction of printing * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

See color plate 5, 1 vol. 2.

The incantations, hymns, and prayers in the texts served to safeguard the dead and to teach them how to avoid these dangers. The writings provided, among other things, the correct procedures to follow and speeches to recite at designated stops along the way. The writings also described a rich and beautiful region where the blessed dead were given fields to sow, tend, and harvest. Those who were judged unworthy of this lovely land were condemned to torture by the evil spirits. Writings from the Book of the Dead were often painted on or cut into the walls of PYRAMIDS and tombs. They were also written on papyrus* rolls, although no single copy found to date contains all of the 200 or so known chapters. Portions of the writings have been found in several Egyptian tombs. The writings, which have numerous authors and sources, come from different periods in the history of ancient Egypt. Some date from as far back as 2400 B.C. Scribes* copied the writings on rolls of papyrus and often illustrated them in color. The copies were then sold to individuals for use in burials. The Book of the Dead got its popular name in the early A.D. 1800s. Robbers who looted the ancient tombs referred to the papyrus rolls in Arabic as Kitdb al-Mayyitun or al-Mayyit, meaning "book of the dead/' because so many of the rolls were found in coffins alongside the bodies of the dead. The Book of the Dead was first published in A.D. 1842 by the German Egyptologist* Carl Richard Lepsius. Today a number of different translations are available. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Religion.)

W

hat is a book? Is it the novel, history or collection of poems that is created by a writer? Or is it the physical thing we hold in our hands, stuff in our book bags, or take off the library shelf? In the first sense, there have been books of one kind or another for thousands of years. In the second sense, there were no books as we know them in the ancient world. Printing with movable type on paper that would be sewn or glued together to form a compact book is a fairly recent development in the history of writing and communication. Although there have been books in this sense for only 600 years, the processes that would lead to it were underway in MESOPOTAMIA 5,000 years ago. Clay Tablets. The earliest manuscripts* were CLAY TABLETS. Clay was patted or rolled into a kind of tile that was usually rectangular but took other forms as well. When the clay was still soft, a scribe* used a reed with a wedge-shaped point, called a stylus, to make marks in it. These wedge-shaped marks were the system of writing called CUNEIFORM. Once the text was written, the tablet would be dried either in the sun or in a kiln, an oven used for hardening pottery. Kilns were used for the most important clay tablets, such as those that contained the records of kings. The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia invented the process of writing on clay tablets. Babylonians, Assyrians, HITTITES, and others adopted it for their own languages.

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Books and Manuscripts * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The first manuscripts from the late fourth millennium B.C.* were written only for keeping accounts. Shortly thereafter, cuneiform tablets were used to record lists of words to train new scribes, accomplishments of kings, mythological stories of the gods, and epic stories of heroes. Some of these manuscripts, such as the first millennium B.C.* version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, were quite long and had to be written on many tablets. This version, which told the story of the adventurous Sumerian king of URUK, was written on 12 tablets. Most cuneiform tablets, however, were archival documents—records of business transactions such as sales and loans, made by the temple, palace, and private businessmen. Papyrus Rolls. The ancient Egyptians developed a different method for recording their writing—they used PAPYRUS rolls. Papyrus was a reedy plant that grew freely in the Nile Valley. Fibers from the stalks of this plant were pounded together into sheets to make paperlike material that is also called papyrus. Each sheet was about 6 to 18 inches in height and between 6 and 18 inches in width. By pasting up to 20 sheets together, scribes could make long rolls, which they wrote on using brushes dipped in black or red ink. The papyrus rolls could then be rolled up, tied with a string, and sealed. These rolls were far more fragile than clay tablets. Consequently, in most places in the world, such as Greece or the Levant*, imported papyrus rotted and crumbled away long ago. However, in regions with an extremely dry climate, such as Egypt, many rolls have survived. In fact, the oldest rolls found to date from about 2500 B.C. were created in Egypt. Many Egyptian manuscripts written on papyrus were mortuary texts—writings placed in tombs to guide the dead in the afterlife, where they believed they would live on to eternity. These writings, taken altogether, are now called the BOOK OF THE DEAD. Egyptians also recorded their myths and stories, many of which have been preserved and have become part of world literature, on papyrus rolls. Like cuneiform tablets, papyrus manuscripts were also used to record everyday business transactions. The Replacement of Cuneiform. The cuneiform system of writing on clay tablets remained in use in Mesopotamia and neighboring regions for about 3,000 years. It had some disadvantages, however, including the bulk and weight of the clay tablets and the difficulty of making changes to the text once the clay had dried. In the first millennium B.C., the Assyrians began to write on wax-covered writing boards that could be easily erased and written on again. But the scribes were still using the difficult cuneiform writing system. However, a new method of writing— introduced by the ARAMAEANS—that overcame the difficulties of both writing on clay and the use of cuneiform became more widespread. The Aramaeans, who lived in Syria, adapted the aleph-beth to record their language. This system of writing was better suited to writing on prepared animal skins, such as parchment, rather than on clay tablets. The Assyrians conquered the Aramaeans in the 730s B.C., and they began to use both the Aramaic language and its system of writing to communicate with the many peoples who lived in their empire. Eventually, Aramaic writing on parchment replaced cuneiform in Mesopotamia and nearby lands.

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Bricks Writing on parchment also had advantages over using papyrus. The material preserves better than papyrus outside of a dry climate, so it was more versatile than papyrus. Also, scribes could write on both sides of the sheet. Eventually, people cut parchment sheets into rectangles and bound them together between boards. The product that resulted, called a codex, was flat and could be stored more easily than papyrus rolls. The codex represented another step toward the book. (See also Chronicles.)

Bread

BRICKS * delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

See Food and Drink.

T

hroughout history, people have relied on materials that were close at hand for building. The most readily available and commonly used substance for building in the ancient Near East was mud. Except in regions where there was suitable vegetation, such as trees (Lebanon) or reeds (Nile and Tigris-Euphrates Deltas*), people used mud to make bricks. They then used bricks to build houses, temples, defensive walls, and even drains. Mud was also the principal building material in regions where stone was available, such as Egypt, the Levant*, Anatolia, northern Syria, and northern Mesopotamia. This was largely because of the high cost of labor involved in quarrying*, transporting, and working the stone.

Making and Using Bricks. Bricks are known to have been used in the Near East as long ago as 6000 B.C. The earliest bricks were shaped by hand and placed in the sun to dry. To prevent the bricks from cracking and crumbling when they dried, people mixed other substances with the mud. The most common of these substances was cut straw; other materials included plants, animal dung, animal hair, and sand. By about 4000 B.C., people had learned to pour mud into wooden molds to make bricks uniform in size and shape. With molded bricks, they could build houses more easily and quickly. It also became possible to build large, complex structures such as temples. Molds could also be used to make larger bricks for building defensive fortifications*. In MESOPOTAMIA, some mud bricks were fired in kilns to make them harder and less likely to crumble when exposed to water. These baked bricks were used for drains, paths, and other places where ordinary bricks might turn back into mud if they came in contact with running water. Baked bricks were costly to produce, however, because wood and other sources of fuel were scarce. They were not commonly used in the ancient Near East until the Hellenistic period (after 330 B.C.). To prevent sun-dried brick walls from being destroyed by water, builders made the foundations of stone and then used bricks for the walls. These walls were then plastered inside and out with mud mixed with limestone to further prevent destruction by water.

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Bronze The shapes and sizes of mud bricks varied over the centuries. Before the widespread use of molds, they were long and thin. In the fourth and third millennia B.C. (years from 4000 to 2001 B.C.), they were generally rectangular—often twice as long as they were wide. From the Akkadian period (beginning in 2350 B.C.) onward, bricks in Mesopotamia tended to be square. Bricks used in royal buildings were often stamped with the titles of the royal builder and sometimes with the name of the building. See color plate 7, vol. 4. * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Bronze

Bronze Age

BUILDING MATERIALS

* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

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Bricks and Art. Brick walls provided a kind of "canvas" on which artists could create works of art. Some of these works survive today because features were actually molded onto the bricks before the bricks were dried. Also, during the second millennium B.C.*, people learned to glaze bricks with an enamel coating, giving them a much harder surface. Glazing provided color, and artists used colored glazed bricks to represent animals and deities and to depict major historical events. (See also Architecture; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Building Materials; Wood and Woodworking.)

See Metals and Metalworking.

See Chronology.

P

eople usually constructed buildings in the ancient Near East from materials that they could easily obtain. Climate and geography determined the substances that were available for building. Mud and STONE were by far the most common building materials, but timber and reeds were also used. Building materials were also affected by the size of communities and the level of political organization. As civilizations developed, people used new materials and techniques to build more ambitious structures. Neighboring cultures often borrowed ideas and techniques from each other. Mesopotamia. The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided a rich soil for growing food. They also contributed to people's shelter. The main building material in most of MESOPOTAMIA from the earliest times and for thousands of years was mud because there were no trees (as there were in Lebanon), reeds (as in the Nile River delta*), or stone (as in Egypt, the Levant*, Anatolia, and North Syria). In the southernmost part of Mesopotamia, however, reeds grew in the Tigris-Euphrates Delta and were used to make huts and other structures. Although stone was available in some regions, such as northern Mesopotamia, it was rarely used because of the high cost of labor involved in quarrying*, transporting, and working the stone.

Building Materials

* mortar moist mixture placed between bricks or stones when building a structure; when the mixture dries, the bricks or stones are held in place * plaster moist mixture applied to walls to provide a smooth surface and to protect walls from weather damage

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber

Perhaps the simplest way of using mud to make structures is to build up walls in lumps, a technique called taufin Arabic. Sun-dried BRICKS were used in Mesopotamia as early as 6000 B.C. and became the main construction material in the region. The people of ancient Mesopotamia also used mud for mortar* to set the bricks and for plaster* to cover the walls. At first, bricks were formed by hand, but by 4000 B.C., standard-size bricks were produced by placing the mud in wooden molds to dry. These uniform bricks allowed builders to make level walls. Shapes and sizes of mud bricks changed over the centuries. They were rectangular at first, but after about 2300 B.C., they tended to be square. Fired bricks were not used often, because wood to bake them was scarce. They were used where bricks might be exposed to water, in foundations and drain systems. They were also used where extra strength was needed. Stone was also used for foundations, but the scarcity of stone in Mesopotamia made it a rarely used material. With their mud bricks, Mesopotamians could build huge structures. By the third millennium B.C.*, they were creating huge ZIGGURATS that served as foundations for temples. As cities grew, defensive fortifications* became important. Walls had to be larger, stronger, and constructed quickly. Rubble stone and earth made up most walls. Walls were supported by brick or stone columns at the corners and at key reinforcement points. Such constructions made for defensive walls of massive width. Mud-brick buildings were topped with roofs made of several different materials. Wooden beams supported the roofs, which were sometimes, but only rarely, made entirely of wood. Most often, layers of brushwood or matting covered with earth provided the ceiling. A layer of mud plaster capped the roof. Date palm (whose fronds were sometimes tied together with cords to make huts) and poplar were the most available types of wood in Mesopotamia. Sometimes other woods, such as cedar, were imported at great cost. In southern Mesopotamia, a different building style was used. Marsh dwellers wove the abundant reeds of the region into elaborate structures, which often served as storage facilities, such as present-day barns. In fact, in present-day Iraq, structures called mudhifs are still built by the Marsh Arabs in the same style and with the same techniques employed by the ancient Sumerians, and they are sometimes used as reception halls. Egypt. Building in early Egypt was similar to that in Mesopotamia. The Nile River supplied the mud, and the arid climate dried the brick. The lack of rainfall made mud brick a durable choice, so there was little need to bake the brick further. Fired brick, which appeared elsewhere as early as 3000 B.C., did not arrive in Egypt until the period of Roman occupation, which began in about 30 B.C. Even the early monumental structures, such as royal tombs, used mud brick. These early tombs were structures called mastabas* and covered a burial pit. Almost suddenly, in about 2700 B.C., Egyptians began to use the stone that was plentiful around them. Quarrying and moving stone required huge amounts of labor and large numbers of people because the WHEEL was not yet in use in Egypt. As a result, stone was used mostly for palaces, 125

Building Materials

How Did They Do That? Not until the A,D. 1800s did humans build a structure taller than the Great Pyramid of Gtea, This tomb was built by a people who did not use wheels or pulleys for lifting the massive stones. How, then, could they have built this structure, or the huge temples at Luxor or Karnak? Workers may have built earthen ramps up to each successive layer of stone. Using levers, I stones were pushed and dragged up the ramps by large numbers of people and animals. When the top stones were In place, masons began to apply finishing touches, working down to the bottom as the ramps were removed.

126

temples, and tombs. The pyramid among King DJOSER'S ceremonial buildings at Saqqara, built around 2717 B.C., was the first monumental stone tomb in Egypt. The pyramid was basically several mastabas piled atop each other. Its stones were small enough for one or two workers to handle. Over time, though, new techniques were developed to quarry, transport, and build with larger and larger stone blocks. Egyptian stoneworkers eventually could quarry and move to distant sites stone blocks weighing a few tons. Egyptians used small blocks of poor-quality stone for the foundations of these mighty buildings. In the early 700s B.C., they began to build underground foundations with solid blocks of stone. Timber was not plentiful in Egypt. Only a few royal buildings had wood frames. Wood appeared most often as part of a roof, and even there, it was mainly used for structural support. The plentiful supply of reeds provided added roofing material. Structures for the afterlife were built in stone and were an imitation of everyday structures. For instance, architects reproduced the reed bundles that supported everyday structures as stone columns. The giant granite columns were used to support stone slabs that ran across them to create a roof. Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant. The peoples of Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, had their own building traditions. The availability of a wider range of resources allowed for a mix of building materials, and there was less dependence on mud brick for massive construction. Building techniques that had evolved from prehistory did not change a great deal. Less powerful empires than those in Egypt and Mesopotamia did less monument building. Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant are rocky, unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt. People could easily gather stone of various types. The most common type was limestone. Limestone could also be crushed and powdered to produce mortar and plaster. Fieldstone was also plentiful, and the earliest round stone huts were built by a technique called corbeling. In this technique, each layer of stone was moved slightly more inward from the one below so that the walls eventually met in a dome. These corbeled huts are among the oldest dwellings found around the Mediterranean. As early as 7000 B.C., a rectangular plan had replaced rounded structures. Small rocks, mortar, and mud filled gaps in irregular fieldstone walls. With the availability of iron tools, builders increasingly used "dressed" stones that were chipped or carved on the sides. Straight sides provided greater strength and ease of construction. In some cases, the whole block was dressed; in others, only the sides were done for an even fit. Timber was plentiful in these areas in ancient times. Oak, sycamore, fig, and Aleppo pine supplied frames and beams for buildings. Pine, sycamore, cypress, poplar, and date palm yielded wood for roofs. The majestic cedar trees of Lebanon offered the most valuable wood in the ancient Near East. Although moving them was costly and difficult, rulers throughout the Near East prized the durable, aromatic wood for temples, palaces, and other show buildings.

Burial Sites and Tombs Iran. The PERSIAN EMPIRE founded by CYRUS THE GREAT around 550 B.C. developed its own style of building. Mud brick was common, but other materials were used as well. Wood was often combined with mud brick for structural support. Stone was dressed or cut into thin blocks. Tall columns unlike anything in Mesopotamia formed the basis of temple construction. These columns were comparable to those used by the Greeks, who were involved in the construction of Persepolis during the reign of Persian king Darius I. The Greeks may have learned the technique, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptians. The Persians also used glazed bricks, which were decorated on the exposed side. Individual bricks were combined to create complex and beautiful decorations. The Persians adopted this technique from the Neo-Babylonian empire that ruled Mesopotamia from 612 to 539 B.C. (See also Architecture; Burial Sites and Tombs; Fortifications; Houses; Palaces and Temples; Pyramids; Wood and Woodworking.)

BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS

T

he peoples of the ancient Near East laid their dead to rest in a vast variety of burial sites and tombs. Some corpses ended up in natural caves or in simple holes dug into the ground or carved into rock. Others— usually the bodies of nobles or the elite—were placed inside earthen mounds, towering pyramids of stone, or magnificently decorated tomb structures. Ironically, the graves of the dead have become a rich source of information about how ancient peoples lived.

GRAVES, ROBBERS, AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

Burial methods and structures in the ancient Near East served several purposes. Burial was meant to protect and preserve the bodies, and often the possessions, of those who had died. People believed that such protection ensured the survival and happiness of the dead person's spirit in the AFTERLIFE. Tombs and burial monuments also served as memorials, reminders to the living that the dead person had once existed. In the case of the royal and the rich, burial was the dead person's—or the family's— last chance to display his or her status. The splendor of the tomb, people hoped, would stand as a sign of the deceased's glory. Finally, burial or entombment was part of a mourning process. It allowed the family and community to express their grief and carry out the religious duties associated with death. Many cultures buried their dead with jewelry, clothing, food, utensils, and weapons. The more elaborate royal burials even included furniture, chariots, and boats. Items buried with the dead are called grave goods. Sometimes they were the deceased's cherished possessions. Often relatives gathered grave goods to honor the dead person with a lavish funeral display or to serve his or her needs in the afterlife. Grave goods attracted robbers. Magical protection in the form of amulets* and spells did not protect ancient tombs. Robbers broke into, disturbed, or even destroyed graves and tombs in their search for loot, sometimes shortly after the burial had taken place. Other tomb robberies 127

Burial Sites and Tombs

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

occurred centuries later as people discovered old graves and tombs and plundered them for their riches. In Egypt especially, tomb robbery became almost a profession. "We went to rob the tombs in accordance with our regular habit/' confessed one ancient Egyptian thief. Some tombs and graves, however, escaped looting. In modern times, archaeologists* have opened long-sealed tombs and found them to be windows on the arts, beliefs, and customs of the distant past. Many of the best-known and most spectacular archaeological discoveries involve burial sites. The tomb of King TUTANKHAMEN of Egypt, opened by Howard Carter in 1922, and the royal burials at UR, excavated by Leonard Woolley, are two such examples. In some cases, such as that of the nomadic* Saka people of ancient CENTRAL ASIA, burial sites are all that remains of cultures lost to time.

BURIAL STRUCTURES AND SITES

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

The two principal burial structures used in the ancient Near East were graves and tombs. The term grave usually refers to a fairly simple cavity hollowed out of the earth. Some graves were little more than pits that were filled in with earth after the burial. Others, called cist graves, consisted of rectangular holes lined with stones or mud bricks. Some of the oldest known burials were in pit and cist graves, and throughout the ancient Near East, ordinary people and the poor continued to bury their dead in graves. The word tomb generally refers to a structure built above ground or carved underground to hold a corpse and the objects buried with it. Such burial chambers represented wombs from which the dead would be reborn or houses in which they would dwell after death, or perhaps both. From very early times, people used natural caves as tombs. From there, it was a short step to hollowing out new cave-tombs in rock. Other early tombs were built to resemble houses. Some are barrows, mounds of earth and stone that contain hollow chambers or even entire houses. In some cases, people set up stelae* at burial sites. Like a modern gravestone, a stela both marked the burial site and served as a memorial or monument to the deceased person. A stela erected in a temple or other special place could also serve as a substitute for an actual burial. For example, Egyptians who could not afford burial in the sacred grounds of ABYDOS set up stelae there. Some peoples of the ancient Near East buried their dead under the floors of their houses. In some cases, this practice continued, especially for burials of infants, even after cemeteries, or burial grounds, appeared in many communities. In addition to cemeteries within cities, the ancient Near East had necropolises, "cities of the dead." These areas, away from where people lived, were set aside for tombs, temples, and funerary rituals. Tombs might also be located in catacombs, or underground cemeteries. Egypt. Originally, the Egyptians buried their dead in shallow pits marked by low mounds of sand. In time, it became customary to excavate special burial chambers for the elite classes—the most wealthy and

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Burial Sites and Tombs

* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber

See map in Pyramids (vol.

4).

powerful membersof society.The tombof aprominent person consisted of a deepshaft in which the body wasburied. The entrance toshaft the was covered by a large stone structure called a mastaba*. first The mastabas were solid and massive, but over time, people began carving niches, chapels, and rooms in them. Another form of burial was the cave-tomb, cut intothe sides cliffs. of Mostof these tombs consisted of one large central room with painted wall decorations, but some had as many as 30 chambers. Kings planned their own tombs, including impressive mastabas, as symbols of royal power.The combinationof ahidden burial chamberand a monumental mound above it developed into what may be the most easily recognized tombsof the ancientPYRAMIDS. world: the Egyptian During the Early Dynastic period (ca. B.C.), 3000-2675 kings usually had two tombs—one at Abydos in Upper Egypt and another atSaqqara in Lower Egypt. However,it is not known which tomb,ifeither,was the actual burial site of the king. Consequently, it is not known which tomb is the cenotaph—emptygrave—serving as a memorial structure. The kings of the EgyptianOld Kingdom (from about 2675 B.C.) to about 2130 built huge pyramids madeof limestone blocks. Smaller pyramids were often built beside the large ones, but their purpose isstill not clear. They may have been built for the burialof queens,or theymay have jarsheld containing the organs of the embalmed kings. More likely, however, they held statues or other ritual objects buried to guarantee the kings'survival in the afterlife. The pyramid builders designed clever traps and blocks to keep tomb robbers from reaching the burial chambers,butefforts their failed. Builders during the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.) 1980-1630 knew thatrobbers had already plundered the older pyramids. These builders built their own pyramids less solidly, of stone casings laid over mud-brick interiors, but they used a variety of entrancesin the hopeoffoolingthe thieves.

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Burial Sites and Tombs

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi

lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

Tutankhamen and other royal personages of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.) were buried not in pyramids but in rock-cut tombs in the VALLEY OF THE KINGS and the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS near THEBES. These necropolises were isolated in a guarded valley. The individual tombs were often cut very far into the rock and filled with lavish decorations and grave goods. The Egyptians did not bury only the human dead. After about 380 B.C., they also mummified animals for burial—just as they did humans—and buried them in jars or sarcophagi*. Archaeologists have found the mummified remains of cats, dogs, bulls, baboons, and ibises. Sometimes these mummified animals were buried in long underground catacombs. They were offerings to the various gods and goddesses associated with particular animals. Mesopotamia. The ancient Mesopotamians commonly buried family members beneath the floors of houses, although there were also separate cemeteries for burials. Many graves and underground tombs are well preserved, but archaeologists know little about the structures that might have stood above them. Excavations at some sites suggest that tombs may have been topped with vaulted roofs, benches, or platforms on which offerings were placed. In general, the tombs of royalty were not spectacular architectural monuments. They did contain an extraordinary wealth of grave goods, however. The royal cemetery of the city of Ur, excavated in the A.D. 1920s by Sir Leonard Woolley, contained more than 1,800 graves. Achaeologists believe that 17 of them were royal tombs. Some had been looted, but others contained remarkable treasures and works of art: gold cups, daggers decorated with gems, ornaments made of gold and lapis lazuli*, musical instruments, and golden headdresses and helmets. Some tombs contained evidence of human sacrifice—an extremely rare practice in Mesopotamia. One of them, dubbed by Woolley the "Great Death Pit," contained the bodies of 74 people, mostly women, in neat rows. Evidence suggests that they were servants who had been drugged or poisoned. Assyrian kings and queens were buried in tombs under their palaces. The burial chambers were walled with brick and had stone doors. Although the chambers were small and simple, they contained fabulous wealth in gold vessels and jewelry, like the royal tombs of southern Mesopotamia. Central Asia. Cultures that arose around 2500 B.C. in the region known as the CAUCASUS, north of ANATOLIA and IRAN, buried their dead inside large earth or stone mounds called kurgans. Grave goods generally included gold and silver vessels and jewelry. Some kurgans are as large as 7.5 acres (3 hectares). They consist of burial chambers with stone floors or buried wooden houses. To the east, across the Caspian Sea, the nomadic Saka also built kurgans for their tombs, grouping them in cemeteries. Kurgans in the Aral Sea area date from about 700 to 400 B.C. Beneath the mounds are either square or rectangular pits. A third type of burial took place in an old settlement site, with funerary structures instead of mounds above the

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Burial Sites and Tombs Do Not Disturb Efforts to deter grave robbers and interlopers included written warnings. A small stone block was placed at the entrance to a tomb. On it was written a message, often in theformof a curse. At the grave site of an Assyrian princes for example, was found a marble slab with the following message: If anyone toys hands on my tomb, let the ghost of insomnia take hold of him for ever and ever, It is not known if the archaeologist who discovered the tomb in A.D. 989 lost any sleep.

Se color plate 15 ol.3

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

graves. Grave goods included bronze and iron vessels, ceramic pots and pitchers, jewelry, and mirrors. The Saka also buried their dead with weapons—bronze arrowheads and bronze and iron knives and pickaxes—and with pieces of horse harnesses. Iran. The people of ancient Iran commonly used cist graves for their dead. In the A.D. 1960s and 1970s, Iranian archaeologist Ezat Negahban excavated a ceremonial city built in the 1400s B.C. near Susa in what was once the kingdom of Elam. This site, known as Haft Tepe, contained a walled cluster of temples and tombs. Beneath stone slabs in the ruins of a temple, Negahban found a brick-roofed tomb of three chambers. They were filled with skeletons, possibly those of rulers and the servants sacrificed to go into the afterlife with them. Anatolia. The HITTITES of central ANATOLIA used to cremate their dead and then place the remains in a grave. They viewed the grave as a kind of transit station—a place to stay between this life and the next one. Grave goods consisted of practical items, such as clothes, farming implements, horses, and sheep, that could be used in the next life. The Lycians, who lived in the southwest corner of the Anatolian peninsula, left impressive tombs. They built many freestanding stone tombs throughout their realm, and they also carved honeycombs of hundreds of tombs into cliff faces. The most interesting feature of these tombs is that the stone from which they were made was carved to resemble the Lycians' wooden houses, with windows, ornamental roofs, and sliding doors. Within the house-tombs the dead were placed on stone couches or in niches cut into the walls. Carved images on the walls illustrate activities from the lives of the deceased or scenes from Greek legend and history— Lycia was strongly influenced by Greece, its neighbor across the AEGEAN SEA. Many of Lycia's most impressive tombs were built in and around Xanthus, its capital. The most magnificent and elaborate tomb that survives is called the Nereid monument. Built of marble in the 300s B.C., it was probably the final resting-place of the last king of the Xanthian dynasty*. The Phrygians and Lydians of Anatolia buried their dead in mounds called tumuli. Those of the Phrygians contained wooden chambers in which the dead lay on wooden beds, and those of the Lydians contained chambers and passageways of stone. The Lydian tumuli were topped by knoblike or cylinder-shaped stone markers. One Lydian tumulus, the tomb of King Alyattes, is the largest known burial mound in all of Anatolia. Built around 560 B.C., it is 1,172 feet across and 198 feet high and contains a large tomb chamber. The Levant. The early Canaanites and other peoples who lived in the Levant* buried their dead with grave goods and offerings of food and drink. Even their most elaborate tombs were not as lavishly decorated or richly supplied as the royal tombs of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Infants and children were buried with few offerings. Adult corpses might be accompanied by wine, oil, water, meat, jewelry, weapons, tools,

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Byblos

A Tomb Fit for a King Mausolus, a king of Caria on the southwest coast of Anatolia, died in j 353 B.C His sister-wife, Artemisia, built a tomb for him in Halicarnassus, Caria's capital. Designed by Mausolus himself before his death, the tomb rose in layers like an enormous cake, with statues around each layer. Its roof may have been 140 feet above the ground and was crowned by a statue of four horses pulling a chariot. Known as the Mausoleum, the tomb was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. Sadly, we know it only from old descriptions. An earthquake damaged it, and Christian knights finished the job in the A.D. 1400s, when they took its stones to j build a castle.

See color plate 5, vol. 3.

BYBLOS * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

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utensils for work and grooming, amulets and personal SEALS, and animals, usually donkeys. Between 2000 and 1500 B.C., cist graves were introduced into Canaan from Syria or Mesopotamia as a method of burial for the elite. This type of grave became common, but in the hill country, people often buried their dead in caves, both natural caves and those cut by human effort. The people of this region often practiced secondary burial, gathering the bones from an earlier burial after the flesh had decayed and placing them in a new location. Sometimes they placed the bones in a carved, lidded box, a chest, or a jar called an ossuary. This practice was especially common among the Israelites who lived around JERUSALEM. Most ossuaries were made of stone, but some were of wood or clay. They were kept on shelves within family tombs. Some ossuaries held the remains of more than one person. Most people were buried in family tombs, but in a few cases—in Jerusalem, for example—people made use of catacombs. In these underground complexes, more people could be buried in less space than individual or family graves would require. Although some of the dead were simply wrapped in cloth before being buried, archaeologists have found corpses buried inside sarcophagi in Canaan and Israel. A sarcophagus was usually a single large block of limestone or some other stone hollowed into a box with a lid. Sometimes, however, sarcophagi were made of clay and shaped roughly like human forms. Such sarcophagi were used for burials south of present-day Gaza in the 1300s B.C. The decorations on the outsides of sarcophagi ranged from images of a dead king on a Phoenician sarcophagus from the 900s to geometric and floral designs on later Jewish sarcophagi. The impulse to adorn and honor the body's last earthly house, it seems, was present in all times and places. (See also Death and Burial.)

A

n ancient seaport on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Byblos (BIB«luhs) benefited by its location near the famous cedars of Lebanon, which were valued in the ancient world as a building material. The city became an important center of trade and commerce for thousands of years. Inhabited from at least the sixth millennium B.C.*, it was controlled by a succession of different groups. Byblos is the Greek name for the Phoenician city that was called Gubla in the Amarna letters and Gebal in the Hebrew Bible. Located on the coast of present-day Lebanon, Byblos went through many phases during its long history. By 5000 B.C., it had become a small town with mud-brick houses. Extensive settlement took place in the fourth millennium B.C.*, and by about 2500 B.C., Byblos had become an important coastal city-state*. A major shipbuilding and timber center, it exported large amounts of cedar, primarily to Egypt. Byblos was destroyed by an invasion of AMORITES between 2300 and 2100 B.C. New immigrants soon rebuilt the city, however, and restored its commercial and urban life. Between 1900 and 1600 B.C., Byblos was an ally of Egypt and was once again a center of international trade,

Calendars

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin stripes of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

CALENDARS

with commercial links to Crete and other major centers of the eastern Mediterranean. By about 1200 B.C., Byblos had become an important Phoenician citystate. Under the Phoenicians, its seaport developed into one of the most active in the Mediterranean. In the first millennium B.C.*, Byblos was a major center for papyrus*, much of which it shipped to Greece. (The name Byblos comes from a Greek word meaning "papyrus scroll/' The word bible also comes from this Greek word.) Excavations in Byblos have given researchers most of the existing samples of the early Phoenician written language. Despite conquests by the Assyrians and Persians, Byblos continued as a trade center, although it was surpassed by TYRE. By the time of its conquest by the Romans in 64 B.C., the city had lost most of its commercial importance. (See also Amarna; Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Trade Routes.)

A

calendar is a system of tracking time. The realization that there are cycles in nature was extremely important—especially for the agricultural societies of the ancient Near East. They had three natural cycles that were easy to observe. The regular change from light to dark became the day, the cycle of the moon became the month, and the cycle of the sun became the year.

Mesopotamia. The Babylonians of the ancient Near East did not believe that the earth revolved around the sun. They thought the sun— along with the moon, other planets, and stars—moved around the earth. They observed that the sun rose at the same spot on the horizon every 365 days, and that period of days became the year. The Babylonians noticed, too, that the effects of the sun changed during that year. During part of the year, the sun was directly overhead and the weather was warmer. At other times, the sun's rays were at an angle, and the weather was colder. These became the seasons, and the Babylonians had two, each lasting six months. The year was based on the behavior of the sun, but the month was defined by the moon. The Mesopotamians were not unique in this regard. Most peoples of the ancient world used the phases of the moon to define a month. A month began when the first sliver of moon was visible in the evening sky. The moon's cycle actually lasts 29.5 days. The Babylonians, after careful observation, determined this cycle to have 29-day months and 30-day months, which they alternated during the course of the year. The sun-based year and moon-based month came into conflict, however. Twelve lunar months results in a year of only 354 days (6 x 29 plus 6 x 30 = 354), whereas the actual solar year is closer to 365 days. After only three years, the calendar is more than a month off. The Babylonians solved the problem by periodically adding a thirteenth month as they felt necessary. In this way, months fell in the right season, and the activity associated with the month—planting, harvesting, shearing sheep—

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Calendars

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

What Time is It? The Egyptians had a clock called a shadow clock. Similar to a sundial, it consisted of a base with a crossbar positioned above one end. As the sun moved, the shadow shortened and then lengthened, showing four morning and four afternoon time divisions. However, people wanted more precision in their timekeeping, and they needed a clock that told time at night and on cloudy days. The water clock, called a clepsydra, solved this problem, An earthenware vessel marked with intervals was filled with water. A small hole inl the bottom allowed water to drip out. As the water level dropped, the marks on the jar were exposed, showing how much time had elapsed. The Babylonians employed the water clock, a simple sundial, and the polos, a kind of shadow clock.

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could continue to be followed. The king, acting on the suggestions of his astronomers, decided when he wanted to add a month, and several royal proclamations on this subject survive from ancient times. Around the 700s B.C., when the Babylonians recognized that 235 lunar months had the exact number of days as 19 solar years, the calendar changed. They reconciled the lunar and solar calendars by adding 7 extra lunar months at specific times over the course of every 19-year period. This also helped the calendar maintain the seasons. By the 300s B.C., the process had become standardized. Other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia followed slightly different systems. In Babylonia and most regions, the new year began in the spring, in the month Nisannu, which fell in our March or April, during the spring equinox. In EBLA and Assyria, the new year began in the fall—during the fall equinox. In the first millennium B.C.*, however, the Assyrians adopted the Babylonian calendar. The Babylonian calendar was strictly based on astronomical data. For that reason, the Babylonians had no concept of the week, which has no astronomical basis. The month was simply divided into 29 or 30 days. The 7-day week can be traced to the Hebrew Bible. The Babylonian day began at sunset and consisted of 12 "double-hours," each divided into 60 "double-minutes." Egypt. The Egyptians constructed a different calendar. Their earliest calendar was also a lunar one of 354 days. Like the Babylonians, they added an extra month every two or three years to keep their calendar in step with solar years. This soon became unwieldy for officials in the government. In about 2900 B.C., they decided to adopt a fixed calendar that had 12 months of 30 days each. This gave them 360 days. Then they added 5 days to the end of each year. The actual solar cycle, of course, is 365lk days. Since the time of Julius Caesar, an extra day has been added every four years—in a leap year—to account for that fraction of a day. The Egyptians took no such step. Over time, then, their 365-day calendar became inaccurate. Eventually, it came to be used only by government officials. In about 2500 B.C., the government recognized the lunar calendar and used it alongside the previous civil calendar. The lunar calendar was used to schedule religious events. An Egyptian year had three four-month seasons. The year began with the inundation season, when the Nile flooded (called akhef). It was followed by the season for planting and cultivating crops (pert) and the lowwater or dry season of harvest (shemu). The year itself was not actually based on the sun, but on the appearance of the star the Egyptians called Sothis and we call Sirius, or the Dog Star. This star disappears below the horizon for 70 days each year and reappears on the same day each year. That day comes as the Nile begins to rise. Because the rising Nile was so important to Egyptian agriculture, the reappearance of Sothis was seen as the beginning of the new year. The Egyptian civil calendar was based on fixed values; months had the same number of days. The Egyptians carried that principle to two other concepts of measuring time that are used today. First, they divided each month into weeks—though they had three weeks of ten days each.

Calendars

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Second, the Egyptians divided nights into 12 hours each. Twelve was chosen because they saw 12 groups of stars rise above the horizon during the course of a night. The day was also given 12 hours. However, because days are longer in summer and shorter in winter, hours were of unequal length during the year. In the 1100s, the Egyptians began to see days and nights as having more or fewer than 12 hours, depending on the time of year. Eventually, they settled on a fixed period of time for each hour. During the Hellenistic* period, the day was divided into 24 equal hours of 60 minutes each. The Egyptians did not, however, have any name for a unit of time smaller than an hour. The idea of minutes came from the Mesopotamians. There are 60 minutes in an hour because their system of counting was based on 60. Counting Years. The practices of the ancient Near East differed from the modern approach to the calendar in how years were counted as well. As early as the Akkadian empire of the late 2000s B.C., years were named in terms of important events that occurred in them. Texts speak of "the year when Sargon went to Simurrum" or "the year when Naram-Sin conquered [a missing place-name] and Abullat, and felled cedars in Mt. Lebanon/' Babylonians ordered the years according to KING LISTS, which listed not only rulers but also the span of time of their reigns. Assyrians named a year after a king or a particular official — such as a provincial governor—who ruled in that year. Gaps and inaccuracies make these records of only limited use to historians in identifying specific years in which events took place. At any rate, the peoples of the ancient Near East did not count years in a continuous sequence, as is the case today, until the beginning of the Seleucid era, in which year 1 of that era was set in 311 B.C. The Use of Calendars. The most important function of calendars was to time the agricultural year. With the calendar, the farmers could know when planting should begin, so they could have seeds ready and tools in good repair in time. Most important, people knew the length of the nongrowing season. They could calculate how long their food had to last until the next harvest, which lessened the possibility of running out of food early. The calendar was a very important survival tool. In addition to relying on calendars for planting and harvesting, people used them to schedule religious and civil events. Egyptians and Babylonians planned regular religious festivals and observances, and calendars helped them determine when these events should occur and when they needed to begin preparing for them. The Egyptians may have divided the night into hours so that they could schedule religious rituals that took place at night. The Babylonians used water clocks to time the movement of stars and planets at night. Calendars could also be used to commemorate past accomplishments: the building of a temple, the winning of a war, the birth of a king, and the like. Further, there were yearly civil events to schedule. Crops and other goods were brought to market to be bought and sold, taxes were levied and collected, laws were made and enforced, public buildings were built and repaired. For a society to run smoothly, as many considerations as possible had to be anticipated and planned. Calendars made life more orderly, more

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Cambyses II predictable, and more controllable. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

CAMBYSKS II ruled 530-522 B.C. King of Persia

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* sacrilege violation of anything held sacred

CAMELS * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

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C

ambyses II (kam»BY«seez), a son of CYRUS THE GREAT, became king of the PERSIAN EMPIRE on his father's death in 530 B.C. Cambyses was prepared for leadership. He had accompanied his father on the conquest of Babylonia, been put in charge of Babylonian affairs, and briefly held the title of king of Babylon. Before his death, Cyrus had been planning to conquer Egypt. In carrying on this plan, Cambyses was helped by Phoenicians, who provided a fleet of ships; Arabs, who gave his troops water as they crossed the Sinai desert; and Greeks in Egypt, who gave him military information. In 525, Cambyses took the cities of Heliopolis (just south of Cairo) and Memphis. Egyptian resistance evaporated, and Cambyses was crowned pharaoh*. Cambyses apparently took on the traditional religious duties of the Egyptian king, but there is some controversy over his rule in Egypt. The Greek historian HERODOTUS later accused Cambyses of atrocities and sacrilege* while he was pharaoh. These accusations, however, may be the result of criticisms made by Egyptian priests who opposed the rule of Cambyses, perhaps because he tried to reduce revenue paid to the temples. After the conquest of Egypt, Cambyses planned to invade Ethiopia and then CARTHAGE. His attack on Ethiopia failed, and no attempt to conquer Carthage was ever made. There are conflicting accounts of the death of Cambyses, which took place in 522 B.C. Some reports attribute his death to suicide, and others to an accident. Darius I, who was the next king of Persia, had a different story. He said Cambyses had killed his brother Bardiya. Later an impostor claiming to be Bardiya started a rebellion that Darius was able to defeat. It is probably the case that Bardiya did rebel against Cambyses, who died in the fighting. Darius—whose claim to the Persian throne was not as strong as Bardiya's—then rebelled against Bardiya and, after winning, may have invented the story of the impostor.

A

symbol of the desert regions of the Near East, camels have served as pack and saddle animals since ancient times. Although domesticated* much later than other animals such as cattle and sheep, camels eventually came to play a significant role in Near Eastern economies. The single-humped dromedary camel is found throughout North Africa and the Near East, from Morocco to western India. The two-humped Bactrian camel is predominant in the arid highland regions of CENTRAL ASIA; its natural range stretches from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to Mongolia. Camels are noted for their adaptation to an arid climate and terrain. They can survive by eating coarse, sparse desert vegetation and can go for long periods without food or water. When camels eat, they store up reserves of fat in their humps. These fat reserves sustain the animals when

Canaan

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

CANAAN

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

* migration movement of individuals or peoples from one place to another

food is scarce. Camels can also manufacture water from these fat reserves. As a result, they can go without drinking for several days. Camels have been known to survive without water for more than two weeks. They can drink as much as 25 gallons of water in just a few minutes. Camels are adapted to desert environments in other ways as well. They have wide, soft feet that enable them to walk easily on sand. They also have double rows of eyelashes and the ability to close their nostrils, adaptations that protect their eyes and noses from windblown sand. Camels may have been domesticated before the third millennium B.C.*, but most evidence comes from later periods. For example, camels appear on Syrian cylinder SEALS dating from about 1800 B.C., and they are mentioned in Mesopotamian texts from the second millennium B.C.* Camels were probably first raised for their milk, wool, hides, and meat. Eventually, however, they gained importance as beasts of burden. After 1000 B.C., these "ships of the desert" were widely used as pack animals in many parts of the ancient Near East. As such, they played a major role in trade, carrying goods along the caravan routes that snaked throughout the region. They were especially important in opening up trade routes to southern Arabia and carrying such luxury items as frankincense and myrrh*. For centuries camels provided the only means of transportation through the forbidding Near Eastern deserts. Because of these animals, traffic and communication between major centers of civilization became possible. (See also Animals; Animals, Domestication of; Caravans; Trade Routes.)

§ o r several thousand years, Canaan (KAY«nuhn) was a meeting place I of cultures and a point of contact between the Near East and the * Mediterranean world. Canaan was home to several ancient Near Eastern peoples, including the Phoenicians, the Philistines, and the Israelites. Perhaps the most significant cultural contribution of Canaanite civilization was the writing system that became the precursor of the ALPHABETS used in most modern Western languages. Geography and Resources. Canaan was part of the Levant, the lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea,including presentday Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and western Jordan. This area was surrounded by four great centers of ancient cultural development and civilization: MESOPOTAMIA to the east, ANATOLIA to the north, CYPRUS and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, and Egypt to the southwest. Through trade, migration*, and invasion, the peoples of Canaan absorbed influences from all sides and made them part of Canaanite culture. Canaan's size and boundaries varied over time. In general, however, the region was centered on a narrow plain with the Mediterranean to the west, mountains to the north and south, and a higher, rugged inland plateau to the east. The flat coastal strip was a highway for the armies of conquest and the trade caravans that constantly passed through the area. Another highway led to and from Canaan—the sea. Some of the peoples who inhabited Canaan were noted seafarers. This was especially true

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Canaan

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Canaanite Literature and the Bible from texts found at Ugarft, it seems j that the literature of the Canaanites was similar to much of what later appeared in the Hebrew Bible. This is not too surprising because both the Israelites and the Canaanite lived in the same area. Two Ugaritic \ tales, EpicofAqhatmd EpicofKeret, are made up of shorter stories that must have been widely told in the region. They involve the childless person's prayer for a son, a divine visitor who leaves a reward for thos who have been generous toward him, and the story of a long and cfif ficult quest for a wife. Similar stories are echoed in the Hebrew Bible, suggesting that such stories were part of a body of traditional tales.

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of the Phoenicians, but even before their time, shipborne trade was carried on with Cyprus and the islands of the AEGEAN SEA. Canaan was not rich in valuable stones or metals. Its main economic activity was agriculture. Normally around 80 percent of its people were farmers. They generally had ample rainfall to water their crops of wheat, barley, olives, and grapes. Another 5 to 10 percent were nomadic* herders who raised sheep, goats, and cattle. The rest of the population lived in walled cities and towns. The cities were centers of craft production and were the homes of merchants, sailors, soldiers, and administrators. The merchants prospered by trading in local goods, especially carved ivory, and by transferring goods between Egypt and Mesopotamia. History. By the third millennium B.C.*, cities had begun to appear in Canaan. This urban culture consisted of small, walled settlements scattered across the countryside. On the coast, BYBLOS and other cities were involved in trade with Egypt. Around the end of the third millennium B.C., Akkadian kings began to expand the borders of their empire into Syria, ushering in a century of political, cultural, and economic decline there. However, Byblos and other coastal cities survived. Later these cities would become centers of the Phoenician civilization. At the beginning of the second millennium B.C.*, the AMORTTES moved into the region and became an important element of the population. They built fortified settlements that, over time, developed into citystates* ruled by kings who also controlled the surrounding countryside. Among these city-states were MEGIDDO and JERICHO. The city-state of UGARIT, although situated to the north of Canaan, shared many cultural connections with the Canaanites. Around 1600 B.C., the HITTITES of Anatolia conquered northern Syria. Their power soon faded, but a new people called the HURRIANS arose in the region. The city-states of southern Canaan came under Egyptian influence. After about 1500 B.C., the terms Canaan and Canaanite began to appear in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, north Syrian, and Phoenician writings, although there is no evidence that the various city-states ever united into a single kingdom or nation. In the late 1600s B.C., the HYKSOS invaded northern Egypt and set up a kingdom that lasted about a century. Some scholars believe that the Hyksos may have been Amorites from Canaan who had moved to the area around the mouth of the Nile River and established settlements there over the course of many years of trade. In the 1500s B.C., the Egyptians succeeded in driving the Hyksos out of Egypt. They went on to invade and conquer Canaan, which they ruled until about 1100 B.C. Although Canaan was a province of the Egyptian empire during this period, Egyptian rule was not always strict. The Canaanites lived in a number of rival city-states where local rulers controlled local affairs. They did recognize Egypt as their overlord and understood that Egypt had the power to settle disagreements among them. Between about 1200 and 1000 B.C. Canaan experienced a series of upheavals that disrupted organized urban life. Some cities, such as Ugarit, disappeared. The Phoenician city-states of Byblos, TYRE, and SIDON, however, remained occupied and under Phoenician control. One of the elements

Canaan that disrupted Canaan was the invasion of the Philistines,who established a group of five coastal city-statesin Philistiain southern Canaan. Another element was the rising influence ARAMAEANS. of the Likethe Amorites 1,000 years earlier, the Aramaeans originated on the outskirtsSyria of but spread acrossa much largerarea. The most dynamicforceto enter Canaan B.C. after was the Is1200 raelites. They moved into the area from Egypt, regarding Canaan as the land that theirYAHWEH, god had promised them in return for obedienceto his laws. During the B.C.,900s they overcame both the Philistines and most native Canaanites except the Phoenicians. The Israelites became the dominant political power in Canaan, establishing a kingdom. That kingdom split in two, however, and beginning for-B.C., a in series theof700s eign powers conquered and held the region. First came the Assyrians, then the Babylonians, then the Persians, and finally the Macedonians under ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

* deity god or goddess

Religion and Language. Throughout its history, Canaan was divided among manydifferent political and ethnic groups. In spite differences of of nationality and language, however, the Canaanite religion had elements of unity over long periods. Muchof what modern scholars know about Canaanitebeliefs and religious practices comes from texts found at nearby Ugarit. The supreme god wasEL,"fatherof humanity"and "creatorof the earth." His consort was Asherah,"creatorofcreatures"and "mother of the gods." BAALwas the princeand "riderof the clouds."He was also known as Hadad, ADAD, or Addu,the storm god,the bringerof rainand fertility. Baal'swifewas ANAT, his sister goddessof war and love. Other important Canaanite deities* included the goddess Astarte, a warrior and upholder ofjustice,and Daganor Dagon,the god of grain,who according to the HebrewBible was worshiped by the Philistines. Many gods were worshiped throughout Canaan, but each community or city-state singled out one or two gods on whom focus. to Worship of these particular godswas partof the identityof a tribe, ethnic group, or city-state. Originally the Canaanites worshiped at open-air shrines, holy places used for seasonal sacrifices and local festivals.In the cities, such shrines gave way to more elaborate temples designed as houses for the gods. Throughout its history, the majority of the people who lived in Canaan spoke SEMITIC LANGUAGES. Beginning in about B.C., a group of 1500 dialects, which linguists call Canaanite, were spoken. Hebrew and Phoenician are two examples of these dialects. The Canaanites used several writing systems, including versions of theCUNEIFORM system developedin Mesopotamia. Duringthe second millennium B.C., the Canaanites createda systemof writingin which symbols represented consonant sounds. Later the Phoenicians developed this system into an aleph-beth, the original alphabet. The seagoing Phoenicians spread their system of writing throughout the Mediterranean. The Greeks adopted theirown versionof it, adding symbolsfor vowel sounds. The Greek alphabet becamethe foundationof the alphabets usedin European languages, including English, (See also today. Bible, Hebrew;

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Canals Egypt and the Egyptians; Israel and the Israelites; Israel andJudah; Philistines; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

CANALS

C

anals—artificial waterways—were vital sources of water for IRRIGATION in the ancient Near East. Farming depends on water, and controlling water to ensure a safe and dependable supply was essential. The peoples of the ancient Near East—especially the Mesopotamians—began building canals 5,000 years ago and eventually created extensive systems of these waterways. Most of their canals were used for irrigation, but some were used for transport and others to bring freshwater to the cities. Building and maintaining canals became important factors in supporting a society based on growing food in an arid climate.

MESOPOTAMIA Because average rainfall in the region is light, the fertility of MESOPOTAMIA depended on rivers. Life along the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers was not easy for farmers, however. Fall was planting time, but water levels were low then, putting young crops at risk of drying out. In the spring, as harvest neared, flooding was severe, unpredictable, and frequently disastrous. People needed some way to draw away high water during the flood season and store water for dry periods. Canals were a logical answer.

* tributary river that flows into another river

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Beginnings of Canals. Few details of the earliest attempts to control rivers are known. It is likely that early people in Mesopotamia dug channels from the river out into the plains, thus drawing water into a dry area. Smaller ditches could then irrigate fields. By about 2500 B.C., a larger network of canals had replaced simple irrigation ditches. Most of the earliest canals used the waters of the EUPHRATES RIVER rather than those of the TIGRIS RIVER. The Euphrates is a slower river and is thus easier to control. Also, silt deposited by the Euphrates is richer in nutrients than that left by the Tigris. Finally, the Euphrates is at a higher elevation than the Tigris where both enter the floodplain. Having a river higher than the surrounding land offers the farmer some advantages. First, the higher ground near the river receives larger clods of soil when the river floods. These bigger pieces allow more water to seep through them and stay in the ground. Second, because the land is sloped, the water drains off better than on flat land. This prevents the buildup of salt, which over a long period makes the soil unable to produce crops. Eventually, a large network of canals were built to make use of the waters of the Tigris River and its tributaries* as well. There is little evidence of any major canal projects before the reign of SARGON I (ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), but the early techniques for building canals continued to be used throughout Mesopotamian history. The continuing importance of canals can be seen in the Code of Hammurabi, a set of laws issued around 1750 B.C. In that code, several laws set penalties for careless handling of irrigation channels.

Canals Political instability posed problems for Mesopotamian farmers because of its impact on the canal system. The breakdown of government authority resulted in lapses in the important work of maintaining the canals. When this occurred, areas could no longer be used to grow food and might be abandoned.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

Control of Canals. To manage water effectively, canals used two means of control. The first was an outlet, to distribute water from the canal for irrigation or to lower the water level at flood time. This outlet could be as simple as a hole in the canal that was blocked when the water was to be kept in the canal. Several farmers might have access to the same canal, each with rights to some of its precious water. The outlets were opened according to a strict schedule that brought water to each farmer's field every ten days or two weeks. This was frequent enough to allow the chief crops—cereal grains and flax—to grow. Laws carefully divided water rights among farmers, and laws of inheritance dealt with these rights as well. The second control device was a regulator, which allowed people to hold the water in the canal for greatest efficiency. Early regulators may have been mere piles of reeds. Over time, they became larger public works. Large regulators made of BRICKS and dating from the middle of the third millennium B.C.* have been found. Building and maintaining the canals required huge amounts of labor. All the people of one or more villages might be needed to dig a canal eight or ten feet wide. Larger projects might be directed by the government, and canal building became an achievement in which rulers took pride. King Rim-Sin I, who ruled LARSA around 1800 B.C., celebrated a canal he built with typical kingly immodesty: ''I made [the people] work by my great power. I fashioned the [canal's] two banks like awe-inspiring mountains. I established abundance at its mouth, and its tail I extended. I made the fresh grass thrive on its banks/' Canals also needed constant maintenance. Silt built up quickly in the slow-moving water in canals, slowing it further and increasing evaporation. More evaporation led to higher levels of salt in the water and irrigated lands. Keeping the canals clear was a never-ending task, and an official called a gugallum was given charge of canals. This canal inspector controlled the release of water to the fields and also organized maintenance work. That work typically was done in the summer, between the harvest and planting seasons. Other Uses for Canals. Some Mesopotamian canals were used for purposes other than irrigation. They could be used for transport, and some were built to provide freshwater to all areas of ancient cities. In the 600s B.C., Assyrian king SENNACHERIB had a canal built to bring water to NINEVEH, newly named his capital. Fifty miles long and 66 feet wide, the canal was built of stone.

EGYPT The NILE RIVER, which watered the fields of Egypt, was less threatening to farmers than were the rivers of Mesopotamia. The Nile reached flood 141

Capital Punishment stage in late summer, long after crops had been harvested and before fall plowing began. Because the Nile rose much more gradually than the Tigris or Euphrates, floods were not as destructive to crops as they were in Mesopotamia. As a result, there was less need to use canals to control floods. Still, in the arid climate of Egypt, a way of storing water for use throughout the growing season was needed. Canals, then, held water to irrigate young crops after the Nile receded. They were also used to bring water to marginal fields. Lower Egypt eventually had an extensive network of canals. In Upper Egypt, the Nile floods the eastern shore of the river. To bring some of the floodwater to the western shore, Egyptians dug a large canal and some smaller ones during the time of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). The large canal, the "Canal of the West,;/ was also used for transportation. During the period of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), Egypt's rulers had canals dug from the Nile to the Faiyum Depression, an area of low land to the west of the river. This extended the area that could be farmed. After the Persians conquered Egypt, DARIUS I finished or redug a canal that connected the Red Sea to the Nile River and stretched just over 50 miles. Construction on this canal had begun more than a century earlier, during the reign of NECHO II (610-595 B.C.). (See also Agriculture; Climate; Water.)

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

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apital punishment is the lawful execution by a government of a person convicted of a crime. All civilizations of the ancient Near East used the death penalty to punish those found guilty of some offenses, although the crimes varied. SHULGI, a king of the city-state* of UR in MESOPOTAMIA in the late third millennium B.C.*, put together the world's oldest known set of written laws, known as the Shulgi Law Code. This code limited capital punishment to a few offenses regarded as very serious: murder, robbery, and the rape of a virgin. The Babylonian king HAMMURABI, in his own law code issued around 1750 B.C., added the death penalty for such crimes as kidnapping, helping a slave escape, and giving false testimony in capital cases. Additionally, the builder of a house that collapsed and killed its occupants or the owner of a tavern who did not arrest known criminals who entered the tavern could also be executed. The ancient Egyptians used capital punishment rarely and only for serious crimes. Those tended to be crimes against the ruler or abuses of power by government officials. Assassination attempts on the king and tomb robbery were punishable by death. Corruption by those who served on judicial tribunals (the citizens and officials who heard legal cases) was a capital crime as well. The decision to execute a criminal was not decided by the tribunal that found the person guilty. It was passed on to a higher authority. A village court, for example, would send the decision of guilty to a high royal official. That official would refer the death-penalty decision to the king. In the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a new approach to punishing high officials was introduced. Although Egyptian society generally

Caravans

* adultery sexual relations between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse

CARAVANS

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

frowned on suicide, high-ranking individuals found guilty of serious crimes were offered the chance to kill themselves instead of being executed. The HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) had a detailed law code in which people found guilty of crimes were usually required to pay fines rather than suffer physical punishment. Although the Hittites used capital punishment in some cases, the government was not involved in the decision to execute the criminal. For example, the relatives of a murder victim could decline payment of a fine and request the death penalty. If a wife committed adultery*, her husband could privately kill both his wife and her lover. In certain cases, most Near Eastern societies punished sorcery or black magic—the use of magic to harm others—with death. Hittite law, for instance, imposed that penalty if the person who carried out the black magic was a slave. A free person had only to pay a fine. Governments also imposed the death penalty on certain religious sins committed by temple personnel, such as stealing goods dedicated to the gods or neglecting the gods. Among the Israelites, lawbreakers or those who violated community standards were driven out of the community. This removal from society was considered harsh punishment. Execution was the final and most extreme way of expelling a violator. It was meant not only to remove the violator from society but also to serve as a public warning to discourage others from committing the same act. Murderers could be executed, usually by the victim's nearest male relative. A woman who willfully terminated a pregnancy or who committed adultery was also subject to capital punishment. The most common method of execution was probably stoning, but the Hebrew Bible also mentions death by the sword and by burning as proper forms of execution for certain kinds of crimes. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Hammurabi, Code of; Law.)

T

he word caravan comes from the Persian word karwan, which means ''company of travelers." Caravans consist of groups of merchants and other individuals who come together for mutual aid and defense while journeying through unsettled or inhospitable territory. Closely linked to the history of the ancient Near East, caravans have provided an important means of trade and communication between urban centers and widely separated peoples. Today caravans still transport goods in some parts of the Middle East and North Africa. Caravans developed in the ancient Near East in response to the need to transport goods safely over long distances across deserts, mountains, and other harsh terrain. Until the growth of large-scale commerce by sea, caravans provided the primary means of conducting trade in the region. Although it is uncertain when the first caravans were organized, it is known that early in the second millennium B.C.*, Assyrian traders used donkey caravans to transport goods to and from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). In Arabia, camel caravans had become an important part of trade by the 700s B.C. and possibly even earlier.

143

Caravans

Remember: Words in small capital letters have separate entries, and the index at the end of this Volume will guide you to more information on many topics.

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Caravan routes connected cities and towns throughout the ancient Near East, helping expand trading networks across the region. By traveling together, merchants gained a degree of protection against thieves who might prey on solitary travelers. This protection was necessary because local governments often could not guarantee the safety of travelers passing through their lands. Sometimes merchants or travelers hired guides and armed escorts to accompany them on a caravan. Most caravans included pack animals to carry goods. Donkey caravans were quite common in Anatolia, and they were useful in rugged mountainous terrain. HORSES were sometimes used as pack animals in forested areas or grasslands. Neither horses nor donkeys, however, could carry as much as CAMELS. Camels could carry between 350 and 1,000 pounds of cargo, depending on the weather and the length of the journey. Camels were also valuable because of their ability to survive in a harsh desert environment. The size of caravans varied greatly, depending on several factors, including the number of pack animals available, the amount of goods to be transported, and the dangers of a particular route. Some caravans consisted of only a few merchants and pack animals. Very large caravans might contain hundreds of merchants and several thousand camels and stretch for miles along a route. A caravan sometimes moved single file, with groups of animals fastened together by ropes. At other times, however, the animals might travel side by side in three or four parallel lines. A typical caravan could travel between 16 and 40 miles a day, depending on the number of hours traveled, the weather conditions, and the terrain. Caravans traveling in summer often moved at night and stopped to rest during the day, when temperatures became extremely hot. Trips were also scheduled to coincide with seasonal changes in water supplies and the availability of pasture where camels or other pack animals could graze. Caravan trips might last weeks, months, or even years. Because they were long, costly, and difficult enterprises, caravans usually carried valuable goods, such as fine cloth (mainly silk), GEMS, IVORY, PERFUMES, dyes, rare metals and woods, and salt. The high value of these products enabled merchants to offset the high costs of the caravan. By about 500 B.C., rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE began to build way stations along main caravan routes to provide shelter and protection for travelers. These caravansaries, as they were called, were usually spaced about a day's journey apart. Some caravansaries were located in isolated, desolate areas. Others were built just outside the walls of towns. All caravansaries were built in a similar style. Rectangular in shape, they had massive stone or brick walls with only a few small windows at the top and a single gateway with a heavy wooden door. This heavy structure offered protection against robbers. Inside the walls was a large open courtyard surrounded by storerooms on the ground level and sleeping areas above. The central courtyard was usually big enough to hold about 400 camels or donkeys. Caravansaries provided the essentials that the people and animals in a caravan needed—well water, a place for animals to rest, sleeping rooms for travelers, kitchen facilities, and sheltered areas for storing goods.

Caria and the Carians

* maritime related to the sea or shipping

CARIA AND THE CARIANS * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * deity god or goddess

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

While the caravansaries supplied water, travelers had to provide food for themselves and their animals. With the expansion of maritime* trade in later centuries, caravans became less important in many regions of the Near East. Yet they remained a vital means of transporting goods across desert areas well into the modern age. (See also Economy and Trade; Fortifications; Roads; Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

D

uring the first millennium B.C.*, Caria (KAR»ee«uh) was the name given to a region in southwestern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS and other ancient writers, the Carians (KAR«ee»uhnz) were a brave, warlike people. They fought gallantly against the troops of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and often hired themselves out as mercenaries* in foreign lands, especially Egypt. The exact origin of the Carians is unknown. Ancient Greek writers believed that the Carians had lived on islands in the AEGEAN SEA but had been driven into Anatolia by invading Greeks. The Carians themselves claimed to be of Anatolian origin and related to such neighboring groups as the Lydians and the Lycians. This claim is supported by the Carian language, which belongs to the Anatolian group of INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. Caria consisted of two regions—the rugged coastal areas, which contained many deep inlets and several islands, and the mountainous interior, which consisted of fertile, but isolated valleys. In this interior, the Carians built several hilltop fortifications* and settlements. Some of these structures served as ritual centers, especially those in Mylasa. The Carians worshiped several deities*, many of whom were adopted by the Greeks when they interacted with the Carians in eastern Anatolia. Hecate, the Greek goddess of crossroads, who later became associated with witchcraft and the supernatural, was probably adopted from the Carians. Much of what is known about Carian culture comes from Greek writers, who portrayed the Carians as a militant people. These writers recorded such details as the Carian customs of slashing their faces with knives at funerals, mixing blood into their wine, and not inviting women to dinner. They also noted that Carian men generally left home to seek their fortunes, often spending their entire lives away from their families. Many fought as hired soldiers in Egypt, Persia, and other lands. During most of the first millennium B.C., Carian soldiers were attracted to Egypt because of its great wealth. Moreover, because Egypt was unstable at the time and faced the threat of invasion, first from the Assyrians and later from the Babylonians and Persians, the Egyptian kings needed soldiers. Consequently, many Carian soldiers fought for pay on behalf of Egypt. Later they settled in Egyptian cities, adopted Egyptian names, took Egyptian wives, and followed Egyptian religion. So many Carians settled in Egypt during that period that archaeologists* have found far more Carian texts and artifacts there than in Anatolia. Some of these texts are bilingual, containing both Carian alphabetic and Egyptian HIEROGLYPHIC writing. These texts have helped scholars decipher the Carian language. 145

Carpets

* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Carpets

CARTHAGE

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 4).

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In the mid-500s B.C., Caria—previously incorporated into the kingdom of Lydia—came under Persian domination. In the early 400s B.C., the Carians joined the lonians in a revolt against Persian rule but failed. By the early 300s B.C., Caria had become a satrapy* of the Persian empire and was placed under the rule of a Carian dynasty* appointed by Persia. The most notable member of that dynasty was Mausolus, who came to power in 377 B.C. An effective ruler, he made Halicarnassus, the Carian capital, into a splendid city. The city is best known for the large tomb that Mausolus designed to hold his remains. It is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The designer of this elaborately decorated structure inspired the term mausoleum, which refers to a large, ornate tomb. In 334 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Caria, which became part of his empire. By the late 100s B.C., the Romans had gained control of Caria, which became a part of the Roman province of Asia Minor. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians; Greece and the Greeks; Lycia and the Lycians; Lydia and the Lydians.)

See Furnishings and Furniture.

f ounded by the Phoenicians in the early 700s B.C., the city of I Carthage (KAHIMhij) became a prosperous trading center in the " western Mediterranean. At the peak of its power, Carthage controlled a commercial empire that stretched along the coast of North Africa and included colonies in Spain, the Balearic Islands, and the islands of Malta, SARDINIA, Corsica, and Sicily. Early History. The traditional date for the founding of Carthage is 814 B.C. In that year, legends say, traders from the Phoenician city-state* of TYRE, led by Dido, the king's daughter, established a settlement near a hill along the coast of present-day Tunisia in North Africa. The settlement was named Qart Hadasht, or "new town." However, archaeological* evidence shows remains of a settlement that dates only from the early 700s B.C. The site had many advantages. Located on a hilly peninsula that juts out into the Mediterranean Sea, it had a safe anchorage for ships, fertile soil, and abundant supplies of fish. Most important, it occupied a strategic position at the midpoint of Mediterranean sailing routes. Carthage remained a Phoenician colony until the 600s, when Tyre became part of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The city gained its independence at that time and began to build its own colonial empire. In addition to taking control of long-established Phoenician colonies throughout the western Mediterranean, the people of Carthage founded new settlements of their own. This expansion of power brought Carthage into conflict with the Greeks. In the 500s B.C., the Carthaginians and Greeks vied for control of

Carthage Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, as well as territory along the coast of Spain. In about 535 B.C., Carthage formed an alliance with the Etruscans of Italy and drove the Greeks out of Corsica. Struggles for control of Sicily continued for centuries and eventually brought the Carthaginians into conflict with a much more formidable rival, the Romans.

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country * deity god or goddess

Society and Culture. By the 300s B.C., Carthage was a major power, with colonies throughout the Mediterranean and extensive trading networks that brought the city enormous wealth. Although the city's connection to its Phoenician heritage remained strong, it developed its own political institutions. While a Phoenician colony, Carthage was probably ruled by administrators appointed by the king of Tyre. The Carthaginians later established a system of government headed by officials chosen by a council of elders that included rich merchants and religious leaders. Although called kings in ancient Greek sources, they were elected officials rather than hereditary monarchs. Carthage demanded tribute* from its colonies and often required them to provide troops for its armies. Carthage itself did not have enough people to create large armies to defend its empire. It thus relied heavily on colonial troops and mercenaries*. The Carthaginians followed traditional Phoenician religious beliefs, including worship of the god BAAL and other deities*. One notable element of their religion was the sacrifice of children. This practice persisted in Carthage down to the 140s B.C., long after it had been stopped in Phoenicia. In their search for wealth, the Carthaginians sailed beyond the confines of the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient sources suggest that they voyaged as far as the Canary Islands and the northwest coast of present-day Spain. In that voyage, they seem to have been searching for direct access to a valuable supply of tin. Later History. Among its Mediterranean rivals, the most dangerous for Carthage proved to be the Romans. Between the 500s and early 200s B.C. Carthage and Rome signed several peace treaties. Eventually, however, rivalry between the two powers increased and erupted into war. Between 264 and 146 B.C., Carthage and Rome fought a series of three wars known as the Punic Wars. During the first two wars, Carthage suffered humiliating defeats and had to give up most of its territory. The third Punic War ended in the Roman conquest of Carthage in 146 B.C. The Romans plundered and then destroyed the city. Resettled by Romans a few decades later, Carthage became the capital of the Roman province of Africa in the first century A.D. The city grew rapidly under the Romans, reaching a population of more than 250,000. It regained its commercial importance and became the center of trade between Africa and Rome. By the A.D. 100s, Carthage rivaled Alexandria in Egypt as the second most important city— after Rome — of the Roman empire. Carthage also became an important center of learning and of Christianity. 147

£atal Hiiyiik Carthage remained a Roman city until 439 B.C., when it was conquered by the Vandals, a Germanic people who had invaded North Africa from Spain. Recaptured by the Byzantine empire in 553 B.C., it fell to the Arabs in 695 B.C. and was completely destroyed shortly thereafter. (See also Cities and City-States; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

CATAL HUYUK * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools

See map on inside covers

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c:

atal Hiiyiik (CHA«tuhl HOOyook) is an archaeological* site in ;outh central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). It is the region's largest 3 known fa settlement dating from the Neolithic period*, before the rise of advanced civilizations. To date, archaeologists have excavated 14 levels of settlement at this site, each built atop another, and believe that even deeper levels may exist. Although £atal Hiiyiik's dates are not known with complete certainty, the excavations suggest that the site was inhabited during the period from around 6300 to 5200 B.C. Scholars believe that at its height, £atal Hiiyiik contained about 1,000 households with a population of about 5,000. The houses at £atal Hiiyiik were made of mud bricks* laid on wooden frameworks. The floors and walls were covered with white plaster, and the roofs were constructed with light wooden beams. A typical house consisted of a square living space with an attached storeroom. The people of £atal Hiiyiik built their homes right next to one another, without streets or doorways. Researchers believe the inhabitants used ladders to enter their homes through holes in the roofs. Benches and platforms, possibly for sleeping, protruded out from the walls. Some of these mudbrick structures were designated as shrines and were decorated with paintings, reliefs*, and bulls' horns. The inhabitants of £atal Hiiyiik cultivated wheat and barley and gathered wild plants. Excavations from some of the levels of settlement suggest that they also kept domesticated* cattle and dogs and hunted such animals as wild sheep, deer, bears, and lions for meat and skins. The people of this region buried the bones of their dead under the floors of their homes and shrines. Those buried under the shrines were generally laid to rest with several precious objects. Among the artifacts* unearthed at £atal Hiiytik, including those at burial sites, are pottery vessels, boxes and vessels made of wood, objects made from animal bones, and tools and jewelry of polished obsidian*. Archaeologists have also found pendants, rings, and beads made from naturally occurring copper and lead. Some of the copper objects appear to have been made from smelted ore, while others were hammered into shape from the ore. The excavations also revealed interesting aspects of the inhabitants' artistic and spiritual lives. Artworks include elaborate wall paintings of geometric patterns or human and animal figures in hunting scenes. The plaster reliefs of humans and animals found in some of the mud-brick structures were generally preoccupied with the themes of hunting and fertility. Several wall sculptures and small clay statues depict women in seated birthing positions and may have represented mother goddesses

Cats and birth goddesses. Other figurines wereofanimals thatthepeople hunted. The decorations,artifacts, and religious artworks show thatthepeople of £atal Hiiyiikhad arich cultural heritage. fact, Insuch advancedart forms have not been found elsewhere in theregion. Thus, theexcavations at £atal Hiiyiik have helped archaeologists andhistorians shed new light on Neolithic civilizations in theancient Near East.

T

CATS * domesticated adapted human use

ortamed

for

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * archaeologist scientist whostudies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

here is little evidence to support the idea that peoplein theareasof the ancient NearEast kept domesticated* cats before firstthe millennium B.C. (1000-1 B.C.).The only exceptionis inEgypt, where there is evidence that cats were domesticatedasmanyas1,000 years earlierand were highly valued. The early history of domesticated catsisunknown. They mayhave become tamedas earlyas B.C., 8000 when people firstbegan living insettled communities.It isimpossible, however,todistinguishtheremains of wild catsfrom those of domesticated cats. Evidence suggests that the domestic cat of the ancient Near Eastevolved fromwild species nativeto Africa and Arabia. Among the ancient Egyptians, wild cats were probably firstkept in captivity but not domesticated. Theearliest evidence ofcats being found in Egyptian human burial sites dates fromthefourth B.C.,millennium yearsfrom 4000 toB.C. 3001 While nothingindicates thatthese cats were domesticated, these burial sites maysuggest that theprocess oftaming cats had begun. Wild cats, especially lions, were representedinEgyptian religiousart as far backas the third millennium B.C. B.C.). (3000-2001 By the timeof the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.), 1980-1630 there isevidence in art and writing that cats were domesticated. They mayhave been tamed originally to help control rats, mice, andother vermin that ate grain supplies.By the timeof the NewKingdom, however, Egypthe tians were worshiping domesticated catsassacred animalsandbreeding them specificallyfor religious purposes. Religious cults* rose around catworship,andcertain Egyptian gods became associated with cats. Thegoddess Sekhmet,forexample,was in early times represented with ahuman body and theheadof afemale lion. The goddessBast (or Bastet)wasalso portrayedas alioness. Later these goddesses were often depicted with the heads oftame cats. Their depiction both as domesticated cats and aslions represented thecontrast between the gentle and dangerous aspectsoftheir personalities. Domesticated cats also servedaspets, first among Egyptian royalty and the elite and later amongallsocial classes. Whena catfuneral died,a procession washeld, and the animalwasplacedin atomb along with food and favorite toys.Becauseoftheir importance, cats were frequently mummified. Large numbersof mummified cats found byarchaeologists* suggest that the animalsmay have been sacrificedaspartofreligious rituals. (See also Animals; Animals in Art; Burial Sites and Tombs;Egypt and the Egyptians; Mummies; Rituals and Sacrifice.) 149

Cattle

CATTLE * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use * archaeological referring to the study of past human culture, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

* thresh to crush grain plants so that the seeds or grains are separated from the stalks and husks

CAUCASUS

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heep and goats were domesticated* before cattle, and there were more of them than cattle in the ancient Near East. Still, cattle were important to the peoples of the region, not only as a source of food but also as work animals. The ancestors of modern cattle—a wild species known as the aurochs— once roamed the forests and grasslands of the ancient Near East. Aurochs were an important food source for prehistoric hunters in the region. It is uncertain when the taming of wild cattle began, but evidence from £ATAL HUYUK and other archaeological* sites in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) suggests that cattle may have been domesticated there during the sixth millennium B.C.* The earliest reliable evidence of dairying activities comes from sites in MESOPOTAMIA and Egypt dating from about 2,000 years later. Because herds lived in widely separated areas of the Near East, they changed as the result of inbreeding. By about 1000 B.C., various types of cattle could be seen in different regions. Although less abundant than either sheep or goats, cattle made an important contribution to the meat supply of ancient populations. In addition to the value of their meat, milk, and hides, cattle served a need that sheep or goats could not—they were used as work animals. The Sumerians and Egyptians were using cattle to pull plows and carts by 2500 B.C. Cattle were also used to sow fields and thresh* grain. The domestication of animals, including cattle, combined with the growth of agriculture to promote the rise of urban societies. Because cattle did work previously done by humans, people were freed to do other work in the community. This helped in the development of more complex social and economic systems. Temples, royal households, and wealthy individuals sometimes owned large herds of cattle, perhaps numbering in the thousands. Such large herds were usually tended by professional herders. Ordinary families, on the other hand, rarely had more than a few cattle because the animals were too expensive to feed and maintain. They ate more than sheep and goats and were often fed part of the barley crop that farmers grew. Cattle were sometimes sacrificed as part of religious rituals. This was very rare with cows, however, because of their value as milk producers. Much of what is known about cattle in the ancient Near East comes from written records and art. Letters from Mesopotamia show writers asking about the health of cattle just as they asked about members of the family. Sculptures and wall paintings show how people cared for the animals, milked them, and used them to plow fields and perform other agricultural tasks. (See also Agriculture; Animals; Animals, Domestication of.)

T

he northern limit of the ancient Near East is the Great Caucasus (KAW-kuh-suhs), a mountain range that runs from northwest to southeast between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The surrounding land is called the Caucasus. Parts of this region were influenced by the cultures of the ancient Near East. The 720-mile-long Great Caucasus mountain range divides the Caucasus in two. North of the mountain range is Ciscaucasia, now part of

Caucasus

steppe large semiarid grassy plain with few trees obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C. fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C. Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* migration movement of individuals or peoples from one place to another * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See map in Geography (vol. 2).

Russia. South of the range is Transcaucasia, which includes the presentday countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. In ancient times, Transcaucasia was the northern neighbor of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Syria and Iraq), and IRAN. This region was linked culturally and historically to the ancient Near East. Ciscaucasia, on the other hand, was more influenced by developments on the Eurasian steppes*. Transcaucasia's geographic features include several smaller mountain ranges, known collectively as the Little Caucasus, and two major rivers, the Kura and the Araxes. The mountains contained sources of obsidian*, which prehistoric inhabitants of the area quarried* and traded. Evidence of such trade has been found as far away as southwestern Iran. With its many copper-rich ores, the Caucasus was a major center in the development of metalworking. The first well-documented farming culture to arise in Transcaucasia was the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the sixth millennium* or fifth millennium* B.C. There were other Neolithic period* cultures in southern Transcaucasia as well. These cultures appear to have had some contact with the Near East, because archaeologists* have found pottery from Mesopotamia and SYRIA in the places where they lived. Around 3500 B.C. the Kura-Araxes culture appeared in valleys along the major rivers. Hundreds of sites have been discovered throughout Transcaucasia. Kura-Araxes people made distinctive pottery and produced tools of copper and bronze. They also built IRRIGATION canals, agricultural terraces, and massive stone constructions. Elements of Kura-Araxes culture spread as far south as Iran and Syria, carried by trade or possibly migration*. Sometime after about 2500 B.C., however, the Kura-Araxes settlements were abandoned. Nomadic* sheep and goat herders then settled in the area. They moved their large flocks from the river valleys to highland summer pastures each year. Almost all of the archaeological record from about 2200 B.C. until about 1500 B.C. comes from the excavation of large stone and earthen burial mounds called kurgans. Although most kurgans had been robbed in ancient times, many important objects have been recovered. Excavated kurgans have contained gold, silver, and bronze jewelry, metal tools and weapons, and wheeled carts. By about 1500 B.C. people had once again begun to build permanent settlements in the region. Heavily fortified sites appeared, which were often perched on hilltops and surrounded by thick stone walls. Kurgans continued to be constructed. Archaeological evidence suggests that the population became a cohesive unit (or units) with state organization in the southern Caucasus where the kingdom of URARTU later took shape. Throughout the rest of the ancient period the Caucasus attracted invaders from two directions. Nomadic tribes and horsemen sometimes came from the north and east and moved into areas to the south. The empires of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Iran sometimes expanded into the region. As a result of the flow of peoples over many years, and the difficult terrain, the northern Caucasus, or Ciscaucasia, became an ethnic patchwork. (See also Metals and Metalworking; Scythia and the Scythians.) 151

Cavalry

CAVALRY

fortification structure built to strenghten or protect against attack relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

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cavalry is a specialized military force consisting of troops who fight while mounted on horseback. Cavalries did not appear until about the 900s B.C. Thereafter,the major powersof the ancient Near Eastall maintained cavalriesasARMIES. partof their Horses werefirst used inwarfare in the ancient Near East to pull CHARIOTS.Later mounted troops accompaniedthe chariotryto serve as scouts and messengers, but they werenot a fighting force.The development of new bridles, although not stirrups, eventually led to the emergence of groupsof mounted soldiers separate fromthechariotry—atrue cavalry. As mounted troops became more skilledin using bowsand arrows, spears, and other weapons from horseback, the cavalry became an effective fighting force and an increasingly important branch of the military. The cavalry had a number of advantages overthe chariotry.Asingle mounted rider could travel faster, farther, and over more varied terrain than a chariot. The costof a single horsewasmuch lessthan thatof achariot and a team of horses.The numberofcombat soldiersin the cavalry was also greater than that in a chariot forceof the same size. Although chariots usually carried two soldiers, one wascompletely occupied with driving the chariot and could not fight. With the cavalry, each soldier could fight from his own horse. As the cavalry developed into a fighting force, its responsibilities broadened. Cavalrymen continued to scout and relay messages. However, they also protected the army while on the march, attacked the enemy's lines of supply and communication, terrorized local populationsbyconductingswift and savage raids,fired on the enemy during battle,andpursued retreating enemy troops. The cavalrywaseffective, not however,in attacking fortifications*. Egyptian texts of theB.C. refer 1300sto the military title "commander of horsemen/' but whether these horsemen actually fought on horseback or merely rode their horses to the battle and then dismounted to fight on foot is not clear. Egyptian reliefs*of the B.C.mid-1200s show mounted Hittite soldiers armed with bows and arrows. Such horsemen mayhave functioned mainly as scouts and messengers,and thereislittle evidence to suggest that they werean important fighting Reliefs force.of the 900s B.C. show armed horsemen SYRIA in Tell northern atHalaf. Passages from the HebrewBible describing Egyptian military campaigns against Judah suggest that Egypt had large cavalry forces at around the same time, but these references may have been added to the original textseveral centuries later and thus may be anachronistic, or out ofplace. By the 700s B.C., however, trained cavalry units were certainly fightingfor boththe Assyrian and Egyptian armies;by the following century, they largelyreplaced chariotryas major a battle force. TheMEDES and Persians also developed large, effective cavalries, and their mounted archers became famous throughout the ancient world. The cavalry becamethe principal attack forcein the armies King of Philip II ofMACEDONIAand ALEXANDER his GREAT. son THEAlexander used his expert horsemen to win victories over every enemy hemet, helping him establish one of the greatest empiresof the also (See ancient Wars world. and Warfare.)

T

CENTRALASIA * steppe large, semiaridgrassy few trees

plain

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * fifth millennium B.C. years between 5000 and 4001 B.C. * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, other object made by humans

Central Asia

he vast expanse of mountains,deserts,steppes*,and valleys between the Caspian Sea and the western border of China is called Central Asia. The part of Central Asia that borderson the ancient Near Eastis divided among the present-day nations of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. Major geographic features of this region includeKara the KumKyzyl and Kum deserts in the withnorth and theriversAmuDarya,Syr Darya,and Murghab. As early as prehistoric times, Central Asia experienced cultural interchange and trade with partsof the ancientNear East, IRAN. Later particularly it became part of thePERSIAN EMPIRE.Likethe rest of the Persian empire, Central fellAsia to ALEXANDER GREAT THEin the B.C. late 300s Prehistoric Central Asia. Archaeologists* have excavated sites of viltowns in Central Asia dating back B.C.* fifth to themillennium In the EarlyBronze Age, about B.C.,3000 central to 2000 Asian farmers lived just below the foothills of the surrounding mountains. Duringthe next 500 years, through about B.C., thethe year population 1500 moved to the low-lying, arid plainsof Central Asia, which became denselyoccupied by agricultural people. They lived in mud-brick houses and built IRRIGATION canals that connectedto the streamsand riversof the region. Two populous areasof prehistoric Central Asia were Margiana, along the MurghabRiver, BACTRIA, and along SEALS, the POTTERY, Amu Darya. pins, weapons, stone columns, and other artifacts* found in these settlements resemble those of ancient southwestern Iranand Pakistan. Some historians believe that people from Central Asia migrated southward into Iran. Others argue that Iranians migrated into Central Asia. Either way, by

orlages and

153

Ceramics about 1000 B.C. amajor part of the Central Asian population probably spoke an Iranian language. The later ethnic and cultural history of the region rests on this Indo-Iranian foundation. nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

Ceramics

CEREALGRAINS

154

Central Asia in Ancient History. AfterB.C., aboutthe 1000 people of CentralAsia,like those elsewherein the Near East, beganto use iron instead of bronze to make tools and weapons.At the same time, organized states began to emerge. Their societies were divided into different social classes based on wealth and specialized technical skills, such as working with metals. The main areasof population were again Margiana and Bactria. The region was becoming more urban, and some settlements grew quite large.Bactra, capital ofBactria, playeda key rolein that country's political, religious, economic, and cultural life. It had an important temple of Zoroastrianism, the principal Iranian religion. Maracanda (now called Samarkand), capital of a state called Sogdiana,was another major city. The regions of Chorasmia, along the lower Amu Darya,and Parthia, south of theKaraKum alsohad large settlements. During the B.C. 500sthe rulers of Persia brought these regions into their empire. The Central Asia provinces provided many soldiers who took part in the Persianwars against ARCHITECTURE Greece. Artofand the region show Persian influence.The Templeof the Oxus Bactria, in for instance, echoes designs of Persian buildings and held carved ivory and jewelry pieces thatreflect Persian images. Not all the people of Central Asia lived in towns and cities at this time. The horse-riding nomads* who occupied the plains were a number of distinct groups who were together called Saka or Scythiansby classical writers. In language and culture they were related to the European Scythians who lived on the steppes of southwestern Russia.The nomads' economy was based primarily on herding sheep, goats, and horses. They traded animal products for grain and luxury goods from their settled neighbors. TheSaka sometimes conducted raids against Near Eastern empires. They were renowned for their skill in riding horses and shooting with the bow. (Seealso Scythia and the Scythians.)

See Pottery.

C

ereal grains were the principal food crops of the peoples of the ancient NearEast. They provided important nutrients, especially carbohydrates and protein, and were the chief ingredients in the most popular food and beverage—bread and beer, respectively. Cereal grains also servedas aformof currency. People traded grains for other goods and used them to pay their taxes and settle their debts. Therefore,it is not surprising that an enormous amount of timeeffort and was devoted to growing and processing cereal grains.

Cereal Grains * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

legumes vegetables, such as peas and beans, that are rich in protein

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall * levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding

' archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Drunk and Disorderly Egyptian beer was strong, and many ancient texts warn against drinking too much of it One such text advises:

Don't indulge in drinking beer, Lest you utter evil speech Anddoniknowwhatyou'resaying, If you fall and hurt your body, None holds out a hand to you; Your companions in the drinking Stand up saying: ''Out with the drunk!"

Cultivation. As early as 9000 B.C., people began to domesticate* certain wild plants. The practice is believed to have started in the southern Levant*. From there, it spread slowly through the Near East, and by about 4000 B.C., AGRICULTURE was firmly established as far away as India. The two main crops cultivated in the ancient Near East were wheat and barley. Wheat, which demands better soil and more water than barley, was the main cereal grain in Egypt. Barley, which can survive in drier climates and poorer soils, was more important in the Levant and Mesopotamia. The people cultivated four known types of wheat: emmer, the most common type; einkorn; hard wheat; and bread wheat. There were two varieties of barley: two-row and six-row barley. Of course, farmers also grew fruits and vegetables, flax to make linen and produce linseed oil, and legumes*, but wheat and barley formed the staple of the people's diet. Farming methods varied between and within regions and were largely determined by rainfall and climate. In the Levant and northern Mesopotamia, where rainfall was generally adequate to support agriculture, the people practiced dry farming*. In southern Mesopotamia, which had a much drier climate, elaborate IRRIGATION systems were needed. The farmers there built CANALS and levees* to control the annual floods of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The levees prevented the floodwaters from rushing into fields full of standing crops, and the canals served as reservoirs. Farmers in Egypt, on the other hand, relied on the natural flood cycle of the Nile River. Each summer the waters of the Nile rose slowly and spread out onto the floodplains on either side of the river. People built canals and dikes to direct the flow of water to the farms. The annual floods left the land in good condition for planting. Throughout the ancient Near East, farmers became expert at getting the best possible yield from their seeds. Early texts indicate that they planted the seeds in tidy rows to make weeding and irrigation easier. They carefully calculated the amount of seed needed for a particular area on the basis of the distance between the rows. Archaeological* evidence reveals that some regions in the ancient Near East were under cultivation for only a short period. It is possible that the people abandoned these areas because rainfall levels became too low to support agriculture, Harvesting and Storage. At harvest time, people used flint-bladed hand sickles to cut the ripened plants just below the head. They then carried the grain heads in large baskets to the threshing floor. There teams of cattle or donkeys were made to walk over the grain heads. This separated the grain—the seeds—from the chaff—the stalks and husks. The threshed grain was then sifted to remove impurities and stored in mudbrick storage chambers or in underground pits lined with stone or plaster. The chaff was used to feed the animals and to make bricks. The occasions when the storage chambers were opened—once in spring and once in autumn—were generally considered ceremonial events. Harvest season was always the busiest time of the farming year because a great deal of work was required and the crops tended to ripen at the same time. Consequently, labor shortages were often a problem. As a

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Cereal Grains

general rule, lands owned by large institutions such as temples and palaces were harvested first. These institutions expected all the people over whom they had power to help with the harvest. Once the palace and temple harvests were completed, the people tended to their own crops. Bread. Bread was the most importantof all cereal products. Most of the bread eaten in the ancientNear Eastwasunleavened,or made without yeast. As a result,the loaves were flat, just likethe pita bread that is consumed in the region today. To make bread, the grain was pounded and ground into flour. At each stage,it was siftedto remove fragmentsof husk. Finally, the flour was mixed with water untilit became soft dough. Loaves were shaped by hand and baked on a flat stone over a fire or in a clay oven. Loaves varied in shape,size, and weight, as wellas in the ingredients they contained. They could be triangular, rectangular, square,or spiral. Some were even moldedin the shapeof humanor animal figures. Some 156

Chaldea and the Chaldeans 'History From Burnt Toast Plants decay—so how can we know what grains people harvested several thousands of years ago? Overcooked food seems to have provided modern archaeologists with some answers. Seeds of grains that were charred but not burned to ash during cooking or in a house fire, or perhaps during a war, have survived. From these seeds, archaeologists have identified their plant source* Moreover, by using dating techniques, they have been able to determine the era during which the seeds were used in cooking.

* ferment to undergo gradual chemical change in which yeast and bacteria convert sugars into alcohol

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

CHALDEA AND THE CHALDEANS * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

were sprinkled with seeds or herbs; others were mixed with fruits. Archaeologists found the remnants of breads made with fruit in King TUTANKHAMEN'S tomb. The ancient Egyptians had more than 30 terms to identify the breads, cakes, and biscuits they baked. Hittite texts also include several names for breads, most of which depended on the shape of the bread and the ingredients used. The people of the ancient Near East established ''bakeries'' to bake large quantities of bread. Archaeologists working near the PYRAMIDS at GIZA found some of these bakeries, which were probably used to bake bread to feed the pyramid builders. Beer. Beer was an important beverage in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and more common than wine. In both regions, the brewing process began with the making of bread from sprouted wheat or barley. The bread was then crumbled and mixed with water and other ingredients. This created a mash, which was fermented* for a time and then filtered to separate out the beer. The people of the ancient Near East brewed several varieties of beer, many with flavorings. In Mesopotamia, flavorings included herbs, spices, honey, or dates. Dates were also a favorite in Egypt, which is evident from ancient Egyptian texts that document the deliveries of large quantities of dates to brewers. Grain as Currency. In the societies of the ancient Near East, wealth was often measured in grain. It was valuable to all and, when kept dry, could be stored for several years. Some ancient Mesopotamian temples accumulated large stores of grain from lands that were under their control. The temples used this grain to pay the people who cultivated the land, the artisans who designed and decorated the temples, and the attendants who waited on the gods and kings. Grain was also used to pay taxes, to settle debts, and to measure the price of commodities. In Elam, landowners "rented" grain; that is, they gave the farmers a certain amount of seed grain that was to be paid back with extra grain as interest after the harvest. Conquered cities paid tribute* to their conquerors in grain. In fact, the desire to accumulate grain wealth was one of the forces that contributed to the movements of peoples and to the continuing pattern of wars and conquests throughout the ancient Near East. (See also Food and Drink; Land Use and Ownership.)

C

haldea (kal»DEE«uh) was the southernmost region of ancient MESOPOTAMIA. It became part of the Babylonian empire, and its inhabitants occasionally joined in the power struggle between the Babylonians of central Mesopotamia and the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia. A few Chaldean (kal«DEE«uhn) leaders won the Babylonian throne during the 700s B.C. Although the dynasty* that ruled Babylonia between 626 and 539 B.C. is often called "Chaldean," modern scholars can find no evidence for this dynasty's origins. 157

Chaldea and the Chaldeans

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

* clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest

Origins of the Chaldeans. The name Chaldeans comes from a Greek word for the people who lived in a region of southern Babylonia known as Kaldu in Akkadian. This region lay along the southern reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers where they flowed into the Persian Gulf in present-day southern Iraq. Part of it was a swamp or marshland that the people of northern Mesopotamia called the Sealand. The Chaldeans settled in this area sometime before the 800s B.C. Their origins are unknown, although some researchers have suggested that they came from eastern Arabia. Their original language is also a mystery. All that remains of it are some names that seem to belong to the family of SEMITIC LANGUAGES. However, most Chaldeans whose names are known to scholars had traditional Babylonian names. The Chaldeans were probably related to the ARAMAEANS, another group that settled in Babylonia at the beginning of the first millennium B.C.* Scholars cannot settle this question for certain, but Mesopotamian sources often mention the Aramaeans and Chaldeans together. Way of Life. Archaeologists* have not found the ruins of any cities or structures definitely built by the Chaldeans. Most of what is known about the Chaldean culture and way of life comes from the texts and artworks of other groups with whom the Chaldeans interacted. Carved Assyrian images, for example, show Chaldeans tending horses and cattle. According to Assyrian texts, the Chaldeans gave gold, silver, elephant hides, ivory, precious stones, valuable woods, and fragrant plants as tribute* to the Assyrian rulers. This suggests that the Chaldeans benefited from the TRADE ROUTES that passed through their region and linked the Persian Gulf with the cities of the Near East. Most Chaldeans probably lived by animal herding, hunting, and farming small plots. Although many of them may have been entirely or partly nomadic*, at least some lived in permanent settlements, including cities. It seems that large numbers of Chaldeans adopted the Babylonian way of life, becoming involved in agriculture and Babylonian politics. Yet even when they took new Babylonian names, they kept links to the traditional Chaldean pattern of family and society. Chaldean society was organized into at least five clans* or tribes. The three major tribes were the Bit-Amukani, Bit-Dakuri, and Bit-Yakin. (Bit means "house of," so the Bit-Amukani were the house of Amukani, or Amukani's descendants.) Each tribe had its own leader. The Chaldeans' religious beliefs are unknown, except that they regarded the remains of dead ancestors as precious and important. One Chaldean ruler of Babylonia, driven off his throne by invading Assyrians and forced to flee into the neighboring land of Elam, took his ancestors' bones with him. For the most part, when Chaldean rulers came to power in Babylonia, they honored the traditional Babylonian gods. Relations With Babylonia and Assyria. Because the Chaldeans had their own leaders and were somewhat nomadic, they were hard for the central Babylonian government to control. The Chaldeans frequently came into conflict with the central government. They were especially disruptive to the Assyrians, who several times conquered Babylonia and

158

Chaldea and the Chaldeans held it for lengthy periods. The Chaldeans enter written history in an Assyrian record of a military campaign into southern Mesopotamia under King ASHURNASIRPAL II, who ruled between 883 and 859 B.C. According to Assyrian records, Assyrian kings destroyed Chaldean communities and forced large numbers of Chaldeans to move from their homeland to other regions within the empire. Other Chaldeans were made part of the Assyrian army. Political turmoil soon erupted in Babylonia. Taking advantage of the opportunity, some Chaldean tribal leaders extended their power beyond Chaldea to become kings of Babylonia. The earliest was Marduk-apla-usur, in the late 800s or early 700s B.C. However, little is known about him. The most famous ruler was Marduk-apla-iddina II, better known as MerodachBaladan II, his name in the Hebrew Bible. An important tribal chieftain, he seized the throne of Babylon in 722 B.C. For the next 13 years, MerodachBaladan held back Assyrian attacks until he was driven from the throne in 709 B.C. Although he returned briefly to Babylon in 703 B.C., he retired to Elam after a nearly 60-year career resisting the Assyrians.

Chaldeans in the Bible Chaldeans appear in several places in the Hebrew Bible In the book of Genesis, Abraham, the patriarch of the Israelites, is said to come from the Babylonian city called Ur of the Chaldees. Here Chaldees probably means simply "Babylonians/' The Book of Dantel describes events set in Babylonia, It contains many references to "magicians and enchanters, sorcerers and Chaldeans/' l The name of ttiese nomadic, swamp-dwelling people had come to represent mysterious and secret sources of knowledge.

Misunderstandings and Myths. Over the years, many history books have given the Chaldeans credit for something they probably never did, that is, for creating a new empire in Babylonia in the late 600s B.C. In 626 B.C., the Assyrians lost their grip on Babylon, and by 612 B.C. NABOPOLASSAR had created an independent Babylonian empire that also controlled southern Mesopotamia. This empire flourished until 539 B.C., when invaders from Persia conquered Mesopotamia. The period from 626 (or 612) to 539 B.C. has often been called the period of the Chaldean empire or the Chaldean dynasty. This is because some early accounts claimed that Nabopolassar was a Chaldean. No evidence supports this claim, however. Consequently, many historians prefer to call the era of Nabopolassar and his descendants the period of the Neo-Babylonian empire. Perhaps the Neo-Babylonian rulers were of Chaldean ancestry; perhaps they were not. Nonetheless, during the Neo-Babylonian period and after, the word Chaldean came to be commonly used instead of the word Babylonian. Indeed, many Greek, Jewish, and Roman writers called all Babylonians Chaldeans. This misuse of the term Chaldean has caused problems for modern historians trying to clarify the history of the Chaldean people. The term Chaldean acquired another meaning as well. Many ancient writers used it to refer to learned magicians, astronomers, and fortunetellers. These practitioners of magic, astronomy, and fortune-telling flourished during the Neo-Babylonian era, which was mistakenly associated with the Chaldeans. Anyone who pursued these traditional Babylonian studies might be called a Chaldean even if that person had no connection to the people of Chaldea. The Chaldeans last appear in the historical record in the 400s B.C. After that time, they probably blended into the general population of southern Mesopotamia. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Babylonia and the Babylonians.) 159

Chariots

CHARIOTS * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

See (f color plate 10,' vol. 4.

160

C

hariots are light two- or four-wheeled vehicles pulled by HORSES. They were first developed in the ancient Near East, where they were used primarily for warfare, HUNTING, and processions. Chariots were made in MESOPOTAMIA early in the third millennium B.C.* Art and artifacts* from that period show two basic types of chariot: a fourwheeled "battle car" and a two-wheeled vehicle. Because horses had not yet been domesticated* in Mesopotamia, these chariots were probably pulled by onagers (wild asses). After horses appeared in the region— sometime around the end of the third millennium B.C.—they were used to pull chariots instead. The earliest Mesopotamian chariots were heavy vehicles with wheels of solid wood. Neither very fast nor very maneuverable, they were probably used primarily in processions and perhaps to transport officers in battle. Evidence suggests that most such vehicles belonged to men of high rank, and chariots remained a symbol of status throughout ancient times. Chariots eventually spread to other parts of the ancient Near East. They appeared in the Levant* during the second millennium B.C.* and spread from there to ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and Egypt. Large numbers of ancient Egyptian paintings and bas-reliefs* depict chariots, and several actual chariots have been found in the tombs of Egyptian rulers, including that of TUTANKHAMEN. Egyptian chariots, like Canaanite models from the Levant, were light, fast, and maneuverable. Constructed of wood, leather, and metal, they had a pair of spoked wheels and a low siding that extended around the front and sides of the vehicle. Because the back of the chariot was open, it was very easy for the individuals riding in it to get on and off the vehicle. A number of other design innovations made Egyptian chariots strong and stable. The use of horses to pull chariots led to the development of chariotry as an important branch of the military. The Egyptians, HITTITES, Assyrians, Persians, and other ancient peoples formed chariot divisions in their ARMIES. Chariots gave armies greater mobility, and they served as fighting platforms to support the infantry. Two-man battle chariots carried a charioteer, or driver, and an archer. During battle, the chariots raced along the sides of enemy formations, allowing the archers to fire upon the enemy infantry. The chariots also pursued retreating troops. Chariots were not well suited for direct attacks on enemy lines, however. Because the vehicles were open and exposed, they provided little protection for the charioteers and archers riding in them, although these soldiers did wear body armor. This armor usually consisted of small copper or bronze plates attached to a leather garment. A suit of such body armor might weigh more than 50 pounds. Chariot horses might have armor as well. The importance of the chariotry in warfare led to many innovations in chariot design. The Hittites developed three-man chariots, with space for a driver, a shield carrier, and an archer or spearman. Hittite chariots played a significant role against the Egyptians in the battle of Qadesh, one of the best-documented battles of ancient times. The Hittite chariots swooped down, dispersing one body of Egyptian troops and falling on the Egyptian camp. The Egyptian king RAMSES II rallied his troops, however,

Chariots and reinforcements arrived. He wasthus able tomanage adrawin the battle rather than the shattering defeat thatfirst hadthreatened. The Assyrians strengthened andimproved theharnessing equipment of chariots and expanded thesize of thevehiclestoholdup fourto men. Such chariotsoften required three four or horses instead just oftwo. The Assyrians also added armored siding tochariots toprovide more protection for charioteersand archers.Yet as Assyrianchariots become larger and heavier, they also became less mobile andmaneuverable. The chariot did not become atrue offensiveweapon until very latein its history. DuringthePERSIAN EMPIRE—in timeof the about B.C.—the 400 Persiansfirst mounted sharp, curved bladeson thewheelsoftheir chariots. When the chariots were driven into anenemy infantry formation, these blades could cut down troops. Though veryuseful in battle,the chariot alsohad anumberofdrawbacks. It could operate effectively only flat on orlevel ground.Thevehicle itself was easily damagedor overturned,and if thehorses pulling it were killed or injured,the chariotwasuseless. Most important, perhaps, was the fact that chariotsand horses were very expensive.As aresult, the chariotryforces in ancient armies werenotparticularly large.By the 700sB.C., CAVALRY troopshad begunto replace the chariotry as theprincipal mounted branch of the military.Thecavalryhadgreater mobility, could travel over more rugged terrain,and wasmuch lessexpensiveto maintain. Charioteers were among the best-trained troops inancient armies, and they often had high military status. Insome societies,thestatusand expense associated with chariots led to theformationof achariot-owning aristocracy. In Babylonia,forexample, charioteers oftenheld positions as judges or courtofficials. In addition to their rolein warfare, chariots also servedasplatforms for hunting—usuallyby kingsand other royalty. Someart of theancient Near East shows kings in chariots huntinglionsandother wild animals. Chariots were also used in royal processions. Such chariots might have sides decoratedin goldor other precious also Wars (Seeand metals. Warfare; Weapons and Armor; Wheel.)

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Childbirth

CHILDBIRTH

See color plate 3, vol. 1.

162

T

hough a natural and common event, childbirth in the ancient Near East had its dangers. Many practices and traditions associated with childbirth reflect this fact. Ancient Mesopotamians believed that the woman, fetus, and newborn were all endangered by the lion-faced demon Lamashtu. During the pregnancy, the woman could use AMULETS AND CHARMS to protect herself from this demon. For instance, an image of the dog-faced demon Pazuzu was believed to protect both the woman and the child. When it came time to give birth, women were assisted by midwives, who represented the mother goddess. A midwife helped physically and spiritually. If the mother was having difficulty, the midwife recited "The Cow of Sin." Long ago, it was said, a cow had become pregnant by Sin, the moon god. Sin helped the cow give birth easily, so it followed that Sin could help women in the same way. In MESOPOTAMIA, women gave birth in a crouching position (to let the force of gravity help), bracing their feet on two stones. A baby born with physical defects was considered a sign of doom. A ritual was performed, and then the baby was thrown into the river. Other babies were named right away. The name might express feelings or prayers ("My god has had mercy on me"). Babies were also named after dead relatives or a grandfather. Mesopotamian children were nursed for two or three years. In Egypt, pregnant women wore amulets to ensure a safe delivery and a healthy child. Women gave birth in a separate structure. They squatted, with their feet on two bricks. They were helped by other woman, who recited spells to speed up and ease delivery. Pregnant women especially asked for the assistance of Isis (the mother goddess) and HATHOR (goddess of fertility and childbirth). The special birthing hut contained statues of these goddesses and painted plaster scenes of the household god Bes and goddess Taweret. Bes was a dwarf with a lion's ears and mane who eased the pain of childbirth and scared away evil demons. Taweret, part hippopotamus, lion, and crocodile also frightened off evil forces. Mother and baby remained separate from the household for two weeks. Then there was a purification ritual for the mother and a celebration for the child. Egyptian children were nursed for three years, while Bes continued his protective function. Wealthy women often used wet nurses—poor women or servants who nursed the baby in the mother's place. The rates of miscarriages and stillbirths were probably high in Egypt, as elsewhere in the ancient world. At least one queen—Mutnodjmet—apparently died giving birth. Her mummy includes the body of a fully formed fetus. The bodies of stillborn babies have been found buried under houses. It is possible that Egyptians hoped that the spirit of the dead baby would enter the mother and be reborn. Little information remains about Hittite childbirth practices. In that culture, too, the gods were responsible for good and bad outcomes. There were rites to honor the gods during pregnancy and childbirth, and rites to assure health and a good destiny for the child. After three months if the baby was a boy or four months if it was a girl, a ceremony welcomed mother and child into the community. (See also Pregnancy.)

CHILDREN

See [color plate 15,' vol. 2.

T

Children

he core social unit in the ancient Near East was the family, and the purpose of having a family was to bear children. Children provided the family with additional workers to help them survive. Later they were expected to care for their mothers and fathers when the parents reached old age. The Egyptians thought that to be childless was shameful, as did the HITTITES. Childlessness was also sometimes grounds for DIVORCE and, in Babylonia, for a man to take a second wife (though he stayed married to his first wife). Couples who were childless could adopt children. Mesopotamia. Ancient texts from MESOPOTAMIA divide life into different periods or segments. One particular text, from about 2000 B.C., distinguishes among children up to age 5, children 5 to 10 years old, and children 10 to 13 years old. The next category is adults. Dividing children who were between 5 and 13 into two groups may have been related to marriage practices. Girls were typically about 13 or 14 when they married, but boys could be as young as 10. Children learned the work they would perform as adults. Boys generally learned their fathers' professions, although some texts that have been preserved are contracts in which parents agree that their boys will work for another man to learn a new occupation. Records show that some children were given to the temple to serve as laborers. Some of these temple workers were orphans, while others seem to have been children whom their families could not support. Many temple workers were the children of enemy peoples who had been captured in war. The peoples of ancient Mesopotamia gave special privileges to the firstborn son. In some cities in southern Mesopotamia, the oldest son received an extra 10 percent of any property inherited from parents. In other areas or at other times, the oldest son received a double share. Families were not large—various estimates put the number of children between two and four. Egypt. Some ancient cultures placed little value on female children, but that was not the case in ancient Egypt. Girls were as welcome as boys because they held the promise of bringing property into the family once they married. Children—both male and female—shared equally in their parents' property. In their first few years of life, children spent most of their time with their mothers and little with their fathers. Farm women took babies with them to work in the fields, carrying the infants in slings. As children grew older, fathers had more influence. Fathers were expected to be strict with their children, and the children had certain responsibilities. Sons were expected to look after younger brothers and sisters, support their parents when old, and bury them properly when they died. Children who did not act to their parents' satisfaction could be disinherited, meaning they would not receive any property when their parents died. There is little evidence that children in Egypt took part in social ceremonies marking puberty. In passing through this change, which takes place in adolescence, children develop sexual maturity. One ritual that marked the transition to adulthood is known, however. Children in

163

Chronicles Egypt wore a lock of hair on the side of their heads. This sidelock was cut off when they reached adulthood. Education apparently began around age ten. For most boys, this did not involve formal schooling but training for their life's work. Girls learned domestic tasks from their female relatives. An ancient drawing of a princess holding a writing tablet suggests that at least some noble girls were taught to read and write. Daughters generally lived with their parents until they were married. Sons usually did the same, although some left home to live with other young men their age. Typically, a young man did not marry until he could set up a household of his own. Marriages were often arranged by the parents of the bride and groom, but love poetry from ancient Egypt suggests that the young people of that land, just like those in the West today, hoped to meet someone they could love and choose to marry. Israel. In ancient Israel, children's lives were much like those of their Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian neighbors. The Hebrew Bible, however, shows YAHWEH giving special gifts to certain children. For instance, Yahweh gives Joseph the ability to understand the meanings of dreams, David the strength to defeat Goliath, and Solomon wisdom. (See also Childbirth; Family and Social Life; Pregnancy.)

CHRONICLES * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

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hronicles are histories—accounts of past events. It is easy to assume that a historian's purpose is to tell the truth about the past. The fact is, however, that people who record history have a variety of goals, and truth is not always their top priority. In the ancient Near East, the role of the historian was often to praise the king in royal INSCRIPTIONS, annals, or other chronicles.

Mesopotamia. In MESOPOTAMIA, the most important historical records were royal inscriptions. Written by scribes* on CLAY TABLETS or on the walls of palaces, temples, or other buildings, they described the achievements of the king. The stated purpose of the inscriptions was to tell the gods how well the king was ruling. They also served to teach later kings to govern properly. However, the kings also expected these inscriptions to become known to the people of the country, and so they served much like modern press releases. Consequently, inscriptions are not objective history but records of events as interpreted by the king. Between about 2350 to 2193 B.C., when the Akkadians rule Mesopotamia, the king was represented in historical tales as a bold warrior whose goal was military victory and domination of other lands. The gods helped the king realize his great plans for the realm. Later royal inscriptions were dedicated to showing that the king followed the advice of the gods. This reflects the idea of kingship throughout the ancient Near East, where religion was always closely tied to the government. While following the gods' advice, the king encountered the most ferocious enemies and the most difficult obstacles imaginable to make his actions seem

Chronicles

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Books of Chronicles The books of Chronicles are two books of the Hebrew Bible. They record the history of the Jewish peo- \ pie from Adam to about 500 B.C. and were written during the time that they were forced by conquest to five in Babylon. Derived from the books of Genesis through Kings, the| Chronicles praise Kings David and Solomon. First Chronicles emphasizes David, expressing the hope that the people of Israel may once again enjoy the glory they knew during his reign. Second Chronicles focuses on Solomon as the builder of the Jerusalem Temple.

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

more impressive. He also acted to restore the ancient and natural order of things, and his goal was the welfare of the kingdom. During the years of the Kassite dynasty*, which ruled Babylonia from about 1595 to 1158 B.C. the most important chronicles were the declarations of war. In these records, the king gave a short history of the relations between his kingdom and the enemy and listed his reasons for declaring war, for the enemies' guilt, and why the gods should support him. Soon inscriptions contained long descriptions of military campaigns and began to resemble histories. The royal inscriptions of the Middle Assyrian kings of the late second millennium B.C.* became increasingly more like annals, giving brief yearby-year descriptions of the king's activities. For the Neo-Assyrian kings— who ruled from 911 to 609—annals, or yearly chronicles, were an ideal means of recording the results of their annual military campaigns. The Neo-Babylonians (612-539 B.C.) are notable for recording the king's failures alongside his successes. Their chronicles served more as scholarly records for the scribes than as propaganda aimed at the people. Although these chronicles were still biased, they were biased in a different way. The scribes tended to interpret all of history in terms of religion. Their chronicles discuss the downfall of Babylonia not in terms of the Persian conquest but as a result of the king's neglect of New Year celebrations and his failure to understand divine signs. Egypt. In Egypt, annals were kept from a very early stage of history. At first, they consisted of year names, listed for each king's reign. Later, during the time of the Middle Kingdom (about 1980-1630 B.C.), the lists were supplemented by journals, which recorded the activities of the temple and the court. There were also royal inscriptions and tomb inscriptions describing the accomplishments of high officials in the service of the king, but few of them survive. During the period of the New Kingdom (about 1539-1075 B.C.), royal inscriptions became long, detailed descriptions of the military exploits of the king. Other chronicles served to prove that the king was the legitimate heir to the throne. One way to do this was to show that the gods favored the king. The Annals ofThutmose III, for example, retell the story of the king's conquest of the Levant* in 17 campaigns over 21 years. The Levant. Although far fewer inscriptions have been found in the Levant, it is clear that here, too, the activities of the local kings were recorded in royal inscriptions as well as annals. Aramaean and Phoenician royal inscriptions of the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.) often show similarities to older Mesopotamian examples. Many parts of the Hebrew Bible can be viewed as chronicles, including the two biblical books by that name. There are even references to annals of the kings of ISRAEL AND JUDAH, now lost, which must have provided later biblical editors with historical information. (See also Akkad and the Akkandians; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Bible, Hebrew; Egypt and the Egyptians; History and Historiography; Kassites; King Lists.) 165

Chronology

CHRONOLOGY

archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Chronology is the study of time. More specifically, it is concerned with measuring time and establishing the sequence of historical events. Thus, it plays a vital role in the interpretation of history by clarifying the relationship between events. This enables historians to explore causes and effects of historical events and to identify trends and movements. Chronology is often displayed on timeline diagrams. When studying modern history, most people assume that the chronology is correctly researched. Readers take for granted that the dates were checked against other written sources, especially against original materials from the period that is being studied. This assumption may be reasonable for modern histories, but it is far less secure for the history of earlier periods. Much of the history of the ancient Near East has to be deduced from archaeological* evidence and is, consequently, more difficult to date accurately. The few surviving written sources are often unclear. Some are incomplete; some are copies of copies. In such cases, archaeologists use a variety of dating techniques to corroborate the dates that appear in written texts.

APPROACHES TO CHRONOLOGY The Down Side to Star Gazing Although astronomical evidence seems like a reliable way to date documents that mention events in the sky, it is not without problems either. For instance, some Egyptian texts do not mention the location from which the astronomical phenomenon was observed. Without knowing whether the observation was made from southern or northern Egypt, a historian cannot pinpoint the exact dates. Some Babylonian chronicles record observations that have been deemed astronomically impossible by mod- j ern scientists,

166

Establishing the chronology of events in an ancient culture presents many challenges. Considerable detective work is involved in piecing together the evidence. Once the detective work is done, historians look for additional facts to verify that their interpretation is correct. Today's historical timeline, sometimes called absolute chronology, enables us to know when past events occurred in relation to our modern system of dating. Historians have confidence that they can extend this timeline back accurately at least to Roman times, and through that, to events in the world of ancient Greece. Archaeologists have various methods—described below—to establish absolute dates even farther back. However, when events in a culture's history cannot be accurately plotted on today's timeline, it may be possible to locate them in terms of their own relative chronology. This method shows the order in which events possibly occurred and perhaps the length of time that each event lasted. It locates events with reference to an arbitrarily chosen fixed point in the past, such as the founding of a dynasty, the foundation of a nation, or the accession of a ruler. Consequently, events do not occur in a specific year, but simply before or after some other event. One example of a relative chronology is the division of early cultural histories into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. These stages in cultural development were based on the technological characteristics of the civilization under study. They were named for the materials that people used to make tools and weapons. While it is true that the different technologies followed each other in relative sequence, these ages cannot be dated accurately. This is because they began at different times and developed for different lengths of time in different regions. In fact, even within the same region, development differed. Thus, while Jerusalem

Chronology was in the Early Iron Age, some nearby region may have been in the Late Bronze Age. Another method to identify the chronological sequence of events is floating chronology. In this method, it may be possible to determine the relative sequence of events and the duration of each event. However, a timeline derived using this method cannot be securely linked with our absolute chronology. Archaeologists and historians have developed the following archaeological and calendar-based methods of dating historical events. Some of the methods outlined here yield absolute dates while the rest yield relative dates. For a more detailed discussion of the methods, see ARCHAEOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS.

* tell mound, especially in the ancient Near East, that consists of the remains of successive settlements * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans This table is an example of a relative chronology. Cultural histories have been divided into different periods based on technological characteristics.

Archaeological Chronology. Much of the information about the ancient Near East comes from archaeological excavations at tells*, which contain temples, palaces, and other buildings, and from artifacts* discovered within these structures. Archaeologists have developed several ways to analyze these finds chronologically. While stratigraphy and artifact typology provide relative dates, thermoluminescent analysis, carbon-14 dating (radiocarbon dating), and dendochronology can provide fairly accurate absolute dates.

TlMEUNtatffcWfN^R^ EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS ca. 1200-500 B.C.

ca. 3000-2200 B.C.

ca. 2200-1600 B.C.

Early Dynastic period; Akkadian empire

Third Dynasty of Ur; isin andI larsa; Old Assyrian period; Old Baoylonian period

Middle Babylonia! antan period (Kassites); (Kassttes); Middle Assyrian period

Neo-Assyrian empire; Neo-Babylonian empire

Late Babylonian period: Persian, Seteuqd, Parthian dynasties

Early Bronze Age

Old Assyrian colony period; Old Hittite period; Middle Hittite period

Hittite empire

Neo-Hittites; Phrygians; Urartians; Lycians; Lydians

Persian, Macedonian, Seleucid, Roman dynasties

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

Persian, Seleucid, Hasmonean dynasties; Roman conquest

Early Dynastic period; Old Kingdom period

First Intermediate period; Middle Kingdom period; Second Intermediate period

New Kingdom period

Third Intermediate period; Late period

Persian, Macedonian, Ptolemaic dynasties; Roman conquest

Levantine, Mesopotamian, Iranian influences

Mesopotamian and Iranian influence

Decline of Dilmun; Qurayya flourishes

Qedar tribes; Syrians; Neo-Babylonian control

Nabatean kingdom in Jordan; Roman conquest

3fej^i

Proto-Elamite culture

Old Elamite kingdom

Middle Elamite kingdom

Neo-Elamites; Median kingdom

Persian, Macedonian, Seleuci^ Parthian dynasties

BilliiiHl^iW

Early Cycladic culture

Middle Minoan culture

Late Minoan culture; Late Helladic (Mycenaean) culture

Dark Age; Archaic period

Classical period; Hellenistic dynasties; Roman conquest

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ca. 1600-1200 B.C.

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ca. 500 B.C.-A.D. 100

167

Chronology

A Question of Characters One of the most exciting artifacts for an archaeologist to find is an object with an inscription. This type of find may contribute to strengthening the chronology of a region in ; two ways. First, the content of the document may provide historians l - with clues about events and dates. Second, the find itself may be scientifically dated. Experts in the field called palaeography study the development of writing and try to estimate the date of an inscription : by the formations of the letters that rare used.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

168

The classic method used for analyzing finds at a site is known as stratigraphy. Stratigraphy pertains to the site's strata, which are the layers of the remains of buildings or other architecture, one upon the next. Archaeologists carefully record finds within each building level of the excavation on the assumption that artifacts found within more deeply buried ruins are likely to come from an earlier time than those artifacts found within building levels above them. (Artifacts not found sealed within identifiable building levels are, in and of themselves, very difficult to date. As a result of worms and other burrowing creatures in the soil over long periods, objects not trapped within building levels may be moved up or down within the soil, making them appear younger or older than they really are.) They may also arrive at a relative chronology of events by comparing the artifacts found in a specific strata with those found in another site in the same strata. This method is called comparative stratigraphy. Another technique, known as artifact typology, involves the examination of objects made by people, such as pottery. Archaeologists study the techniques used in making and decorating these objects and also look for similarities with previously excavated objects. Objects that are clearly more advanced in their technique are considered more recent; consequently, a site with more recent pottery is considered to come from a later period. Three methods produce absolute dates—they allow archaeologists to estimate the age in years of an artifact. Bear in mind that with some of these techniques, the ages are not exact. They are simply estimates that could overstate or understate the actual age by a certain number of years. Thermoluminescent analysis, which is often used to date ceramic objects, is based on the fact that from the time a ceramic object was last heated, it absorbs excess electrons from the environment because of exposure to radiation. When the object is reheated, these excess electrons are released in the form of light—the older the object, the greater the amount of electrons released. Archaeologists can then determine the absolute age of the object age of the object by measuring the light emitted by the object and dividing by the estimated radiation dose per year. Carbon-14 dating is a method of dating materials derived from living matter, such as wood, bone, and grain. It monitors the radioactive decay of carbon-14 accumulated by the material when alive and yields dates that are considered accurate to within 100 years or less. Dendrochronology dates the age of preserved wooden objects by studying the pattern of annual growth rings in the grain of the wood. This technique is highly accurate when it can be applied. However, little data has yet been gathered for it to be applied in the ancient Near East. Calendar-Based Chronology. When partial written records survive, as they do in the ancient Near East, they need to be used carefully. Until the Greeks, there were few writers who could be called historians. In the more advanced cultures before the Greeks, scribes* maintained annals (yearly records) of significant events. However, such records pose several problems to modern historians who are attempting to relate those events to the western calendar. One

Chronology

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

problem relates to what the scribes meant by "years/' The modern western calendar is based on a 365-day year with a leap day every fourth year. But ancient cultures used different measures for the year. Except for the Seleucids, who evolved the first continuous calendar in which year 1 = 311 B.C., they identified the years with reference to some important event of their time or by the years that different kings reigned. For instance, Sumerian and Old Kingdom Egyptians named each year for an important event that occurred in the previous year. This system also remained in Babylonia until the second half of the second millennium B.C.*, after which Neo-Babylonians as well as Persians named their years for the ruling kings. Finally, few records maintained by the ancient scribes have survived in their entirety to the present time, so the records that exist are incomplete. Despite these difficulties, ancient events can be linked to the western calendar through two techniques. One relies on references in ancient annals to unusual astronomical events. The scribes of the ancient Near East often noted astronomical observations in their texts. If they mentioned a particular eclipse in their annals, the timing of that eclipse can be precisely calculated, providing the necessary link to the modern calendar. Historians also look for references to important events, such as wars and conquests that involve foreign powers. Then they look for the same events in the records of that foreign power. If modern historians have already managed to relate the history of that nation to western chronology, the events on the original document can also be linked.

CHRONOLOGY AND THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000

Despite the uncertainties that surround chronology, much of the history of the ancient Near East can be effectively linked to the historical timeline. The links are not precise, but are probably accurate within a few years. This is especially true of events that occurred in the first millennium B.C.*

tO 1 B.C.

Mesopotamia. The entry of ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S armies into Babylonknown to have occurred in 331 B.C. —is recorded in annals known as the Babylonian Chronicles. These annals also extend more than 400 years before that time. That means that the Babylonian Chronicles began in 747 B.C. We can have confidence in the dates of events recorded during that period. Before that year, the Babylonian record is less certain. Some scholars maintain that the earlier chronology is fairly certain. Others, however, distrust much of the earlier evidence and consider the timelines before 747 B.C. less certain. The Babylonian Chronicles can be linked to various Assyrian annals. By making careful comparisons, historians have been able to determine accurate dates for events in Assyria back to about 912 or 911 B.C. The Assyrian texts also contain references to lists of years, called Hmmu lists, in which individual years are named after Hmmu — officials or kings. Portions of these Hmmu lists stretch well back into the second millennium B.C. 169

Chronology However, since the Babylonian chronology is uncertain for this period, the links are not precise.

* sack to loot a captured city

* heliacal first rising of a star after a period of invisibility

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

170

Egypt. The first formal Egyptian chronology was written in Greek by an Egyptian priest during the 200s B.C. The author's work was based on ancient Egyptian annals. These annals may also have been the source for Egyptian KING LISTS. Today the original Greek history itself is lost, but much of the work was paraphrased and copied, and it forms the basis of present-day chronologies for ancient Egypt. Modern historians have subdivided Egyptian history into the Early Dynastic or Archaic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), and the Late Period (664-332 B.C.), as well as several intermediate periods. They have verified and adjusted these periods using astronomy and by linking events to the Old Testament of the Bible. Still, the earliest accurate date of a historical event in Egypt remains the sacking* of Thebes by the Assyrians in 664 B.C., during the twentysixth year of the reign of the Egyptian king Taharqa. The Egyptian Sothic year was the natural year. It began in the summer with the reappearance of the bright star Sothis (Sirius), just before sunrise, after seventy days' invisibility. This rising of Sothis—called a heliacal* rising—was also, coincidentally, the time of the onset of the annual Nile flood that was so important for the agricultural cycle. The Egyptians also maintained a civil calendar, consisting of 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 extra days added at the year's end. Since the civil calendar of 365 days was slightly shorter than the natural Sothic year (365V4 days), every 4 years the first day of the civil calendar would slip back by a day from the reappearance of Sothis. Consequently, the Egyptian New Year's Day coincided with the rising of Sothis only four times in a cycle of 1,460 years. There is a Roman reference to one of these coincidences occurring on the first day of the civil calendar in A.D. 139-140. Egyptologists* believe that knowing this date makes it possible, within certain limitations, to calculate an absolute date in Egyptian history. This can be done by using a document or inscription that states that a heliacal rising of Sothis took place on such-and-such date in the civil calendar. The biblical link with Egypt lies in the Hebrew Bible. There, an Egyptian king named Shishak is said to have invaded the kingdom of Judah during the reign of King Solomon's son Rehoboam. Other evidence has linked Rehoboam to the year 924 B.C. There is a king named Shoshenq in the Egyptian annals who raided coastal Israel. The similarity of the kings' names suggests another possible link between the Egyptian record and the Hebrew Bible. Unfortunately, as with much ancient chronological evidence, nothing is certain. Several scholars question the accepted chronology of ancient Egypt. Skeptics include some experts in carbon-14 dating, who have found that Egyptian artifacts often fail to fit within these accepted calendar chronologies. Until disagreements of this nature can be explained, uncertainty about the chronologies of the ancient Near East is likely to continue. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Calendars; Chronicles.)

Cities and City-States

C

ties played a vital rolein the developmentofhuman culture, espeially inMESOPOTAMIA. Cities could vary greatly insize. What distinguished citiesfrom villageswas thatthey were more permanent, served as centers of economic, governmental,and sacred life,andincluded people who were givendifferent levelsofstatus,orrank,insociety. Over time, cities maintained a close relationship with outlying townsandvillages, obtaining theirfoodfrom the crops grownin andaroundthevillagesand supplying the villages with needed goods inturn. People in thevillages looked to the city for authority and, because those cities were often walled,forsafety.

CITIES AND CITY-STATES

THEDEVELOPMENT CITIES OF

* domesticate to adapt human use * deity god or goddess

ortame

for

The development of cities did not occurquickly—it tookseveral thousand years. Citiesin the ancient Near Eastwere distinguished fromvillages in several ways. The cities were largerand oftenhad public buildings, such as temples. Cities also hadmore people.Many ofthese people were government officials, craftsworkers,ormerchants. This differed greatlyfrom villages, where almost everyone was farmer. a Because the evidence is scanty and often unclear, theexact process of how avillage became a city cannot be determined. However,theoutlinesofthis development can besuggested. When the peoples of the ancient Near Eastbegan domesticating* plants and animals, they ensured themselvesasteady foodsupply. When this occurred, they began to settle near their agricultural landsornearwater sources, building villages. When the supplyofwatertotheir agricultural plots was steady and the soil there remained fertile, thevillages became permanent settlements. JERICHO, first settled around B.C., 9000 and £ATAL HUYUK, settled around B.C., are 6300 examples ofsuch settlements. Eventually, villages grew largeror twovillages located closeto each other grew together, leadingto theriseoflarger settlement systems. The factors contributing to the emergenceofcitiesaremanyand diverse. Cities brought about three major changesinsociety. People began to relate to one another through ties ofterritory andculture rather than through kinship bonds, as was the caseinvillages. Society becamedivided into groups organized byclass, andreligious and politicalleaders directed the people's activities. Finally,asagriculture became more successful, it resulted in a declinein the numberfarmworkers. of Consequently, people began to produce crafts anddevelop otherskills. Soon, the goods they manufacturedin thecities stimulated trade, whichwas often conducted over long distances. Mesopotamia. Cities first arose in the ancient Near East insouthern Mesopotamia duringthe sixth through fourth B.C. millennia (years from 6000 to 3001 B.C.). Religionmay have beenthe chief factorin therise of cities in the region. Cities tended todevelop around sites built tohonor a particular deity*.Each city had its own god orgoddess. These templedominated cities, including URUK, ERIDU, NIPPUR, and LAGASH, UR,were clearly establishedby about B.C. 3500 171

Cities and City-States At first, the temple was the only feature of a city. Built on top of a ZIGGURAT (stepped platform) so it could be seen for miles, the temple symbolized the power of the god to whom it was dedicated. The temple was also the center of the city's economic system because the city god owned the land and the animals. Therefore, all grain and animal products produced on the god's land belonged to the temple. Religious officials accumulated the goods and stored them until they were distributed to the city's people as rations. By about 2800 B.C., these cities had grown larger and began to struggle with each other. Disputes over territory led to three changes. First, unrest led many surrounding villagers to seek refuge in the cities. Second, city dwellers built walls for defense. Walls defined a city's boundaries more clearly. Third, warfare called for military leadership. Strong leaders arose, and these political leaders became rivals to the power of the temple priests. Cities now had two powers—the temple and the palace. This resulted in Jericho is one of the oldest settlements in the world, dating from about 9000 B.C. A tower and a portion of the town wall are shown here. Some scholars suggest that these thick stone walls were built for defense or protection from wild animals. Others theorize that they were built to keep debris from blowing or washing into the town.

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Cities and City-States

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

* incarnation physical form of a spirit or god

* seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C. * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

conflicts between the two because the palaces wished to replace the temples as the center of the redistribution system. Cities in northern Mesopotamia had a different character because of the terrain there. The cities there tended to be smaller and split into different areas by elevation—some sections of the city were on higher ground than others. The cities that arose in Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C.* and early third millennium B.C.* were city-states. That is, each city was independent of the others. Around 2350 B.C., SARGON I conquered numerous cities in Mesopotamia and North Syria, creating the Akkadian empire. Over the next 2,000 years, other empires arose and declined in the region. During these centuries of imperial* control, the cities changed. Although they remained centers for religion, economy, and politics, they were no longer independent. They became part of a larger political unit—the kingdom. Egypt. Evidence for the early development of cities in Egypt is lacking. One reason is that many ancient sites were dug up by the local inhabitants early in the A.D. 1900s because the rubble provided a cheap source of fertilizer. Nevertheless, it is clear that before the founding of the First Dynasty, about 3000 B.C., Egypt had several cities. The cities were generally located in the southern stretches of the NILE RIVER, the area called Upper Egypt. The cities of Egypt began as centers of political power—not religious centers, as in Mesopotamia. This was largely because Egyptians considered their king an incarnation* of the god Horus. Consequently, the Egyptian palace always served as the center of the redistributive system. Throughout the fourth millennium B.C., conflict broke out among Egypt's growing cities as rival leaders struggled to win control of larger areas. Eventually two kingdoms—Upper and Lower Egypt—emerged. These two kingdoms were unified around 3100 B.C., when Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt. MEMPHIS, the city where the kingdoms met, became the new capital of Egypt. Over the next 3,000 years, several cities emerged as important, but the two great cities of Egypt were Memphis and THEBES. Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant. The first villages in Anatolia arose as early as the seventh millennium B.C.* The sites of £atal Hiiyuk and Ha^ilar, dating from this time, show walled towns and brick houses. By the early second millennium B.C.*, larger cities emerged, possibly because of the rich metal deposits in the nearby mountains. A lively trade brought tin for making bronze to ANATOLIA and sent gold and silver to Mesopotamia. The cities that participated in this trade grew in size and became exposed to Mesopotamian, especially Assyrian, culture. Around 1700 B.C., the region was united under the rule of the HITTITES, who built a large empire. Their cities, like those in northern Mesopotamia, had temples and palaces on the highest ground. Smaller religious sites, other public buildings, and residential areas were at lower elevations. 173

Cities and City-States * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Cities in Syria and the Levant* tended to be smaller than the urban centers of Mesopotamia. Around 3000 B.C., several cities appeared in the region, including MEGIDDO. However, many of these cities were abandoned around 2350 B.C., possibly due to changes in climate, warfare between city-states, or invasions. About 300 years later, the cities arose again, both in the interior regions and along the coast.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT CITIES What were the cities of the ancient Near East like? Although information is scant and fragmented, excavations and ancient texts have provided historians with several clues.

* tributary river that flows into another river * oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

Population of Ancient Cities At the lonely, windblown site of an ancient city, one might wonder, "How many people lived here?" There are two ways to estimate ancient populations. Analyzing records from the time is one, though texts can be misleading. Another method estimates population based on the area covered by the city. Some scholars suggest that in southern Mesopotamia, about 200 people could live on each hectare (an area 1,000 meters by 1,000 meters) within a city. Multiplying the figure by the number of hectares produces a population estimate. Such estimates are subject to many errors, however. It is unclear, for instance, if houses were one story or two, but the answer to that would clearly make a difference to population size. Also, using the size of the city might be misteading because some areas may not have been settled.

174

Location of Cities. The location of cities in the ancient Near East was typically determined by geography, commerce, and religious associations. The main geographical factors of importance were the availability of water and fertile land. In southern Mesopotamia, cities generally emerged near the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers or their tributaries*. Similarly, in Egypt, the cities were located near the Nile River. Jericho arose at the site of a spring, and DAMASCUS was built on an oasis* near the edge of the desert. Access to water also provided a convenient means of transportation. Coastal cities, such as the Phoenician cities of TYRE and SIDON, were built where good harbors offered safe anchorage for ships. Some cities flourished because they had advantages for long-distance commerce. For instance, Damascus offered a haven to weary merchants who had brought their CARAVANS across the desert. That city also sat near the easiest pass through the mountains of Lebanon to the Mediterranean coast. The availability of valuable resources led to the rise of some cities. Meroe, the capital of the kingdom of Kush (south of Egypt), benefited from its proximity to sources of granite (for building), ore (for iron), and clay (for pottery). Some cities developed because their site was considered sacred. ABYDOS was considered to be the home of the Egyptian god OSIRIS. In Mesopotamia, the city was a community defined by loyalty to a particular god. The city— and the farmland that supported it—was the god's land. The rulers of the cities were said to be chosen by the god, which gave them the authority to rule. Size of Cities. Ancient Near Eastern cities varied greatly depending on the era, culture, and physical environment. In the third and second millennia B.C. (the years from 3000 to 1001 B.C.), cities in Mesopotamia had populations between 10,000 and 100,000 or more. Typically, the largest cities were political and administrative centers, and the very largest were those that lay at the heart of major empires. NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire in the 600s B.C., had a population as high as 250,000. During Egypt's New Kingdom (about 1200 B.C.), Thebes may have held as many as 90,000 people. Both of these cities were larger than JERUSALEM, the capital of the kingdom of Judah, which had a population of no more than 18,000.

Cities and City-States

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Ancient Waste Disposal How did the people of the ancient Near East dispose of their garbage? The first thing to remember is that they probably produced less garbage than we do today. Life was difficult and all resources had to be = marshaled. Still, there was garbage which they had to dispose of to prevent health hazards. There is some evidence that it was thrown into streets and empty lots. Since some of these deposits show ash, the trash may have been burned to make it more compact and less hazardous to health. The other mechanisms of garbage control were animals, Ancient peoples kept pigs and dogs in all areas of the city, and these animals undoubtedly helped get rid of waste.

The Appearance of Cities. Throughout the ancient Near East, cities were enclosed by walls and GATES. The walls varied in height and thickness as resources and building techniques varied, but were relied on by all peoples as a source of protection. The walls were interrupted by towers, gates, or other structures, where soldiers could gather when the city was under attack. A city's walls and gates were a source of pride. The Epic ofGilgamesh celebrates the walls of Uruk: "See if its wall is not (as straight) as the (architect's) string,/Inspect its... wall, the likes of which no-one can equal." Because the walls were often a symbol of the city, some invaders made a point of destroying them when they conquered the city. Gates served not only as the point of access to the cities but also as centers of trade and commerce. Markets were located in or near the city gates as were scribes*, who helped the people record their letters, sales, and business transactions. In large cities, the gates were often of spectacular proportions and were heavily decorated. Walls and gates could pose a problem when city populations grew. Ancient peoples had two solutions. At some sites, they built suburbs outside the city walls. These were likely to be created only in times of political stability. In other cities, such as the Mesopotamian site of ESHNUNNA, they extended the walls and gates to enclose new areas of settlement. In some cases, this expansion was due not to population growth but to a change in political status. For instance, rulers who conquered a city might choose to build a new palace outside the old city walls because space within the walls was limited. Some rulers even constructed new cities where none had existed before to serve as an impressive, new capital. Examples include the Egyptian city of AKHETATEN and the Assyrian city of KALKHU. Though he did not build new capitals, ALEXANDER THE GREAT established new cities—many of which he named for himself—throughout his empire. In addition to walls, some cities had moats—channels cut outside the walls to hold water and provide another barrier to conquest. Bridges constructed across the moats provided access to the outside world. Mesopotamian cities were usually built near rivers or CANALS, and might even have one or more navigable canals come directly into the city. The Layout of Cities. The walls often held more than just the residential and public areas of the city. They may be extended to include other spaces, the uses of which are not always clear. The Epic of Gilgamesh says that the walls of Uruk held areas planted with date palms and for the making of bricks. A map of Nippur from the second millennium suggests that a large space was used as fruit orchards and vegetable gardens. The dominant feature in most Mesopotamian cities was the temple. Even if the complex did not include a ziggurat, the temple was always located on the highest part of the city. However, temples did not occupy the center of a city. Most were to one side, a location that stressed the difference between holy and common life. Walls were sometimes built within cities as well to separate the religious area from the rest of the city. 175

Cities and City-States In early periods of Mesopotamian history, the temple and the palace were separate and were two distinct sources of power. In the Assyrian age, the two were built in the same area and temples were no longer the focus of the city. Within the city, it is unclear whether specific parts were restricted to people who practiced certain crafts although some evidence suggests that industries were often localized in one section. There is also evidence that neighborhoods of these ancient cities consisted of people from mixed social classes. It is not clear that there were separate sections of cities devoted to trade. Some scholars believe that commerce took place in open spaces just inside the gates. (See also Palaces and Temples; Walled Cities.)

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RELIGION

Plate I Beginning around 2500 B.C., the culture and religion of the ancient Phoenicians were greatly influenced by the Egyptians.This statue of a Phoenician goddess wearing a sun disk closely resembles the way that the ancient Egyptians portrayed their goddesses Isis and Hathor. Not quite eight inches tall, this bronze statue with a silver-plated headdress dates from around the 600s B.C.

Plate 2 Animal sacrifice played an important role in many religions of the ancient Near East.The animals most commonly sacrificed included lambs,sheep, and goats, although cattle, dogs, and otheranimals were sometimes offered as sacrifices as well.The mother-of-pearl, ivory, red limestone, and slate mosaic shown here, from the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2350 B.C.) temple of the Mesopotamian sun godShamash at Mari, depicts thesacrifice of a ram.

Plate 4 Many people of the ancient NearEast believed that a king was given his power by the gods. It was then the king's duty to ensure that his people worshiped the gods properly, by observing holidays and practicing rituals. Dating from between1200 and1000 B.C., this 72-inch-high stela comes from Baluaa in Jordan (in the Levant). Carved from basalt, it portrays a king standing between a god and a goddess, who hold symbols of divinity.

Plate 7 As part of their religious practices, the ancient Elamites made many offerings, especially of animal blood, to their gods.The two 3-inch-high figures of worshipers shown here date from1OOs the 1 B.C.and were found atSusa, which was then part of Elam.The gold figure on the left is holding a kid, and the silver figure on the right is holding a small animal that may be intended for sacrifice.

Plate11 Dating from the 800s B.C., this relief from Sippar depicts the Babylonian sun god Shamash viewing adisplay of respect from the three smaller figures on the left. Shamash represented justice to the ancient Babylonians. Like other peoples of the ancient Near East, the Babylonians believed that theirlaws came directly from the gods and that by following them, they were worshiping the gods properly. In return, they hoped the gods would be favorable to them.

Plate 12 Dating from around 1400 B.C., this mural from an official's tomb near Thebes depicts scenes associated with a funeral.The top panel shows female mourners following a funerary boat. The lower panel depicts the ritual slaughter and purification of a bull that will be served the funerary feast. Following Egyptian religious practice, the butchers are pouring a liquid over the bull and removing his right front

at

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The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief Jack M. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 2 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS An Imprint of The Gale Group NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT

Clay Tablets

CLAY TABLETS

earliest forms of writing were symbols scratched on tablets made Theof clay for recording quantities of goods. Soon people made impres-

sions in damp clay to record business deals, keep accounts, recognize treaties, or set down laws. The clay was then dried in the sun to harden it and preserve the inscribed message. Only rarely were tablets baked in an oven. This early form of WRITING, which was used in much of the ancient Near East, was very durable. Almost half a million clay tablets have been found throughout the region so far, and new discoveries are reported regularly. The tablets provide invaluable and detailed insights into life in the ancient Near East. Before Tablets. Before tablets, there were tokens. As far back as 8000 B.C., people were using clay to keep records. They pressed small lumps of clay between their fingers to make a token about one-half to one inch across. The tokens came in many shapes, including spheres, discs, cones, and rods. Some were plain; others had markings. Each token represented a commodity, such as a bushel of grain, a sheep, or a jar of oil. People used tokens to keep track of supplies, to make calculations, and to conclude transactions. Although the tokens were small, they could be rather cumbersome when large numbers of them were needed. People therefore started to make clay "envelopes'' to contain them. The tokens were placed inside a hollow clay ball, called a bulla, which was then sealed with a cylinder SEAL. A drawback of the envelopes was that they concealed the contents. Once they were sealed, nobody could see how many tokens were inside until the envelope was broken open at its final destination. To overcome this problem, people developed a system of markings. Tokens like those inside were pressed onto the outside of the envelope while it was still soft to indicate how many of each type of token the envelope held. By about 3500 B.C., solid clay tablets had replaced the envelopes. The token impressions that had been placed on the envelopes were soon replaced with drawings of the tokens on the tablets. Now instead of repeating the information contained inside the envelope, the markings themselves gave the message.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

How the Tablets Were Made. People made clay tablets by patting damp clay into the desired shape. The most common shape was that of a rectangle with rounded comers, but tablets were also square, circular, and oval. Some tablets were formed in the shape of barrels, others prisms with as many as ten sides. The tablets varied greatly in size, depending on the amount and importance of the information to be recorded. The smallest tablets were just a few centimeters in length and width. The larger tablets, which contained literary or historical records, may measure as much as 45 by 30 centimeters. The writing was done by scribes*, who in most societies were the only people who knew how to write. After the surface of the tablet was made smooth, the scribe used a reed with a wedge-shaped tip called a stylus to impress triangular-shaped marks in it. For long scholarly texts, several tablets were used. For some long texts, scribes might also draw lines on the tablets to divide them into sections. In most cases, scribes wrote on both sides of a tablet, flipping it over from top to bottom. 1

Clay Tablets The cuneiform clay tablets, shown here, date from the third to the first millennium B.C. Initially, the tablets were inscribed from top to bottom and from right to left. In later years, the direction of writing changed, and the tablets were inscribed from top to bottom and from left to right. The sizes of the inscriptions also changed over the years. When scribes ran out of space on the tablet, they sometimes inscribed the edges or squeezed words between lines.

Once the marks were made, the tablets were placed in the sun to dry. If the message was especially important, the tablet was baked in a kiln— an oven used for hardening pottery. This ensured that the tablet hardened properly and would then last a long time. See color plate 5, vol. 2.

* stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically

What the Writing Was Like. The form of writing used on clay tablets is called CUNEIFORM. The name comes from two Latin words— cuneus, meaning "wedge" and forma, meaning "shape"—and refers to the kind of marks made by the scribe's stylus. Each mark was made by pressing the stylus into the clay, not by drawing it across the surface. As a result, the marks retained the basic shape of the part of the stylus that was pressed in, either the wedge-shaped end or the straight edge. A remarkable number of different symbols could be created by varying the number of wedges and their orientation. Cuneiform was developed by the Sumerians at URUK in about 3100 B.C. Initially, the symbols were closely related to the objects they represented. As time passed, however, cuneiform symbols became more and more stylized*. They began to "stand for" something rather than "be" a picture of it. Eventually, some symbols were used to represent sounds instead of objects. These changes were significant developments; with them, written language could now express many more ideas. What the Tablets Were Used For. Initially, clay tablets were used mainly for recording the movement of goods and people administered by the central temple at Uruk. As the tablets' use widened, they were employed to keep track of inventories, to itemize expenditures, and to record laws and treaties. Some kings had scribes write about their accomplishments to keep the gods and future rulers informed. These records were called royal INSCRIPTIONS. In addition, people used clay tablets for sending letters. Clay tablets were also used to record numerous myths and legends, even prayers to the gods. In most nonliterate societies, these stories and

2

Cleopatra prayers were passed down by word of mouth and thus are often no longer available. The tablets were also used in schools, where students practiced the equivalent of spelling and composition, as well as mathematics, on them.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin stripes of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

CLEOPATRA lived 69-30 B.C. Queen of Egypt

How Tablets Were Kept. Sometimes tablets were stored in large clay containers. They might also be stored in wooden boxes or even stacked on wooden shelves almost like modern books. Not all tablets were stored, of course. Many were discarded once they were no longer needed. Because they were usually rectangular and because of their hardness, they might be used as building material and placed under new pavements or within new walls. This made them that much easier to be found by archaeologists* many centuries later. Royal inscriptions received better treatment. Mesopotamian kings had these tablets buried under the foundations of buildings or stored in special rooms. The tablets were, in a sense, the first time capsules, waiting to reveal their contents to future generations. Why Clay Tablets Were Replaced. Clearly, clay tablets had their drawbacks as well as their advantages. They were time-consuming to make, bulky to store, and heavy to carry (one tablet that has been found weighs 11 pounds). Tablets were also difficult to change. If a scribe made an error in recording information, the clay could be smoothed over and new marks made. However, if a change needed to be made in the text after the tablet had dried, there was no way to do this. In some periods of Mesopotamian history, scribes used wax spread on wooden boards, instead of clay, to record information that was needed only briefly. After the text was no longer required, they could smooth over the wax and reuse it. Despite these difficulties, ancient cultures used clay tablets with satisfaction for about 3,000 years. During all that time, however, written language was evolving, and methods for recording language were being refined. Eventually clay tablets and the cuneiform system of writing gave way to alphabets inked on animal skins and papyrus*. The last known cuneiform tablets date from at least the first century A.D. and perhaps even as late as the A.D. 200s. (See also Alphabets; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

C

>opatra VII (klee»uh»PA*truh) was a queen of ancient Egypt and one f the most fascinating women in history. She was born in 69 B.C., daughter of King Ptolemy XII, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt. In 51 B.C., when Cleopatra was just 17, her father died and she became queen. As was the custom in ancient Egyptian royal families, Cleopatra married her brother, the new king, Ptolemy XIII, who was 15, and the two of them ruled together. Cleopatra and her brother shared an uneasy rule. In 48 B.C., Ptolemy XIII and his supporters seized power and removed Cleopatra from the throne. Cleopatra, however, was ambitious. She wanted not only to rule 3

Climate

Cleopatra, shown here in the guise of the Egyptian goddess Isis, was a woman of keen intellect. Although she was descended from the Macedonians, she learned the Egyptian language. In fact, Cleopatra was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty to do so.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

CLIMATE

4

Egypt but also to return it to its previous status as a world power. To this end, when the Roman leader Julius Caesar visited Egypt in 48 B.C., Cleopatra set out to charm and influence him to gain his political backing. Subsequently, civil war broke out in Egypt between Cleopatra and her brother. With the help of Caesar's army, Cleopatra won the war, and her brother died while trying to escape. Cleopatra then married her other brother, Ptolemy XIV, and she again became cornier of Egypt. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a boy, Caesarion, who she claimed was Caesar's son. Caesar and Cleopatra had fallen in love, so soon after Caesar left Egypt for Rome in 47 B.C., Cleopatra joined him. She was still in Rome when he was assassinated by his enemies in 44 B.C. Cleopatra returned to Egypt until the Roman political crisis caused by Caesar's murder was resolved. Three men—Gaius Octavian, Marcus Lepidus, and Marcus Antonius, or Mark Antony—came to power in Rome in 43 B.C. as corulers. Antony, however, wished to rule Rome alone. Cleopatra saw another chance to achieve her own aims. Consequently, when Antony summoned her to Tarsus, she set out with gift-filled ships to win Antony's heart and gain his backing. She succeeded. The two fell in love, and in 40 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to twins. By 37 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra were married, and the following year, she bore another son by him. Their marriage was unpopular in Rome, and by Roman law, it was invalid—Antony already had a wife. The Roman government stripped Antony of his title, and Octavian sent an army to destroy Antony and Cleopatra. In 31 B.C., their navy was defeated by Octavian's at the battle at Actium, off the west coast of Greece. Shortly thereafter, both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide to avoid being humiliated and probably executed during the anticipated celebration of Octavian's triumph in the battle. Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra took her own life by allowing an asp, a poisonous snake, to bite her. She died in 30 B.C., in Alexandria, Egypt, at the age of 39. She was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty*, which had ruled Egypt since 323 B.C. After Cleopatra's death, Egypt fell under Roman domination. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Ptolemy I.)

C

limate is the pattern of weather in an area over a long period. The climate of a region is typically described in terms of the average temperature and precipitation during the year. The climate of the Near East in ancient times was generally similar to that of the area today. The region was primarily arid or semiarid, with hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall, usually light, occurred mostly in the winter months. However, these general comments do not give a full picture of the climate of the ancient Near East. First, the period under consideration is vast, and there were changes in climate during those thousands of years. Second, because the Near East is a large region, climate varied locally. Geography, plant life, and nearness to the sea all affected the climate of a particular locale—as did human activity.

Climate

* sediment material deposited by water or wind, usually in layers

See map in Geography (vol. 2).

* domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

Studying Ancient Climates. Studying climate in the ancient Near East is not an easy task. The best tools for studying climate are long-term records of what weather occurred. However, such records are not available for ancient times. Although people there created writing systems thousands of years ago, they did not keep regular weather logs. Scientists study ancient lake beds to determine the water levels in ancient times and measure the oxygen trapped in layers of polar ice to find the global temperatures at that time. Geologists measure sediment* deposited by rivers and streams to determine how heavy a river's flow was. By analyzing pollen grains, botanists find what plant life existed in ancient times, which hints at the climate in those periods. Botanists also use the width of a tree's growth rings to determine weather patterns. Wider growth rings suggest better climatic conditions; narrower ones represent poorer conditions. By comparing many trees, botanists can assemble a picture of climate conditions of a period. Ancient records can also help in this search. Accounts of floods, crop yields, and activity such as hunting or forestry give an idea of what weather was like. Comparing texts across time and place produces a picture of climate. Changes Over Time. In the Pleistocene epoch, which lasted until about 9000 B.C., the overall climate of the earth cooled and warmed several times. The periods of cooler climates are called ice ages because vast amounts of water were trapped in sheets of ice called glaciers. Some glaciers formed in the high mountain ranges of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), in the CAUCASUS Mountains, and in the mountains of IRAN. Lakes and inland seas were larger then than they are now because the cold air temperatures prevented lake water from evaporating. With little evaporation and cold temperatures, there was little rainfall. As the last Ice Age ended about 10,000 years ago, temperatures rose. Until about 6000 B.C., temperatures were mild and rainfall was somewhat higher than it is today. Vegetation thrived and forests expanded from the foothills into mountain areas. Grasses spread on the plateaus, inviting game animals. The large numbers of animals and the thriving grasses lured people, who hunted the animals and gathered plants. People also began to domesticate* plants and animals to have a reliable food supply. The climate changes brought about by the end of the ice ages created the circumstances for this important change in human life. Gradually, climate changed again, but at different times in different places. Even as late as 3000 B.C., the deserts of the Near East were moister than they are today. Eventually, the climate in the ancient Near East became much like it is today. Climate Zones. Egypt lies in a desert zone, where little grows except near a river or an oasis*. The hot season is from May to September, and the cool season is from November to March with transitional periods in between. Near the coast, temperatures range from 99°F to 57°E Inland desert areas vary from 114°F during the day to 42°F at night. In winter, the temperature often drops below freezing. The wettest area of Egypt lies along the coast, but even there, rainfall is only eight inches per year. Rainfall is much less toward the south. Modern Cairo gets only an inch per year, and it may not rain for years in the desert. 5

Clothing

* steppe large semiarid grassy plain with few trees

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Ancient MESOPOTAMIA consisted of three climate zones. The mountainous north had cool summers and cold winters. The dry central region was in a steppe* climate zone. Its mild winters and hot summers supported the growth of large grasslands. Southern Mesopotamia was—and still is—an arid region. Some of the world's highest temperatures have been recorded in southern Iraq. Iran shared these three climate zones. On the southern edge of Anatolia stand the Zagros Mountains, where cold, wet winters and dry summers support the growth of thick stands of trees. Near the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, the summers are warm and the winters mild and rainy. The central plateau is a steppe region with a climate similar to that of central Mesopotamia. Southeastern Anatolia is driest and hottest, with summer temperatures averaging more than 85°E The climate of ancient SYRIA and the Levant* was similar to that of Anatolia. Hot dry summers and mild winters were typical, with little variation in temperature. Further inland, there were more extremes of temperature. The plateau areas, though dry, were fertile. Rainfall, which generally came in winter, was light, except near the coast. The Impact of Human Society. The climate of the Near East has changed little in the last 6,000 years. The long history of human activity in the region, however, has added to the difficulty in farming caused by the dryness of the region. Cutting trees and allowing domestic animals to graze extensively have combined to remove valuable roots that hold the soil in place. When rain does fall, then, it runs off quickly instead of seeping into the earth and refilling underground reserves of water. Changing the courses of rivers and building canal systems have contributed to this effect as well. Heavy irrigation has raised the level of salt in the soil, making it nonproductive. (See also Agriculture; Building Materials; Canals; Irrigation; Water.)

CLOTHING

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

6

M

ost of our knowledge about the clothing of the peoples of the ancient Near East comes from sculptures, cylinder SEALS, and artworks, as well as written descriptions. Because few fabrics have survived the several thousands of years since they were made and worn, little is known about clothing before the development of sculpture and writing. These artworks tend to portray the costumes of the rich and royal, and more men than women and children, except in religious works, where women do appear. Mesopotamia. In the second half of the fourth millennium B.C.*, priest-kings wore a kiltlike skirt woven with a crisscross pattern and a fringe around the hem. Priestesses wore long pieces of fabric draped over the left shoulder and around the body, leaving the right arm bare. From about 3000 to 2300 B.C., men and women wore long sheepskin skirts called kaunakes. The wraparound skirts were worn with the wool, which was combed into decorative tufts, on the outside. They were pinned into place and worn down to the knees or to the ankles. Men and women

Clothing

See color plate 1, vol. 2.

ftememfcer; Words in small capital

letters have separate entries, and the Index at the end of this volume will guide you to more information on many topics.

wore headdresses of leather or felted wool (thick, tightly woven animal hair), wigs, and elaborate JEWELRY. They went barefoot or wore simple leather sandals. As evidenced by images on cylinder seals, fashions in Mesopotamia changed around 2300 B.C., when men began to cover their chests with one-shoulder robes similar to those worn by women. Wool fabric with elaborately knotted fringes replaced sheepskin garments. Artwork from about the same time also depicts men wearing robes and kilts of finely pleated material and shoes with upturned toes. They put their hair in a distinctive bun. These new forms of dress were adopted by the Akkadians under Sargon I. During the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), with the introduction of tailoring, people began to wear closely fitted garments. Robes became short-sleeved dresses, held in place with belts. Mesopotamians also began to dye fabrics in vivid colors or embroidered geometric patterns. They wore heavy and highly ornamented jewelry. For underwear, women wore a short skirt; men wore a loincloth. Men and women wore sandals or boots made from soft leather or fabric. Assyrians draped long fringed pieces of fabric around their bodies. Men also wore robes and horizontally patterned woolen kilts that were fastened with belts or sashes. Little is known about women's clothing in Assyria because women were rarely shown in art and sculpture. Assyrian men and women sometimes wore a shawl over the right shoulder, fastened with a fibula, a fancy safety pin, and slippers on their feet. Egypt. Most Egyptian clothing was made of natural-colored linen, a fabric woven from the FLAX plant. Much of the Egyptians' clothing was also made from wool. They sometimes used natural dyes to color their garments, although this was more common during the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). From an examination of artwork from the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 2675-1630 B.C.), it is evident that men wore a pleated kilt wrapped around the hips and tied at the waist. Women were generally depicted wearing a plain sheath dress with shoulder straps that often left their breasts exposed. Both men and women wore cloaks. Around 1500 B.C., Egyptian women began wearing longer, looser garments, which covered one shoulder and fell to the ankles. The robes were fastened beneath the breasts with a sash or belt. They decorated these garments with colorful embroidery, or by creating collar and apron areas. With time, the kilt and draped tunic were decorated with fringes, and embroidered bands adorned hems, sides, and necklines. Accessories were also quite common in ancient Egypt. Men and women wore shawls, belts, scarves, caps, and gloves. Both sexes wore headdresses, usually in the form of elaborate wigs. Most people went barefoot, but important people wore sandals made from papyrus, palm leaves, or leather. Members of the royal family wore similar clothing, but the linen used to make their clothes was finely spun and bleached. Their garments were sewn with special care and decorated with beads and metalwork. The wardrobes of the royal family and the wealthy generally included richly 7

Clothing

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* faience decorated object made of quartz and other materials that includes a glaze * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

embroidered garments, several loincloths, and fringed tunics. In the tomb of the architect Kha,for instance, archaeologists* have found26 knee-length kilts, 17 sleeveless tunics, and 50 loincloths. Anatolia. Vases and drinkingvessels show that Hittites during the 1300sB.C. wore short, belted tunics (some with sleeves) with fringedor dyed borders. They wore high boots or shoes with upturned toes. Men and women decorated their robes and tunics with pleats, fringes, elaborate embroidery,and knots.In fact, HUYUK woolen£ATAL textiles found at reveal that several techniques of weavingand knotting existed in the region from very early times. Archaeologists have also excavated textiles at Acemhuyuk with bluefaience* beads sewn with golden threads. Syria and the Levant. In both Syria and theLevant*, clothing similar to that of their more powerful neighboring states,but it was also often quite distinctive. Syrian cylinder B.C. seals from show the 1700s kings wearing wraparound robes with thick edges, perhaps a fur trim. Egyptian tomb paintings from about the same time show Canaanite men and women in brightly colored, full-length woolen dresses with bold geometric patterns. The dresses were draped over one shoulder and pinned with a metal toggle (pin). Women wore high-top closed shoes with laces, while men wore sandals. Tombsfrom aboutB.C. 1500 show people wearing long, white, closefitting, long-sleeved garments, with seamsand edges trimmed with colored, patterned braids and with small tassels at the hem. Later they wore linen garments, perhaps dyed blue and trimmed with multicolored wool. In Israel, priests wore linen underpants beneath robesor tunics with a fringe or tassel on the bottom four corners. This style was stipulated in the Hebrew BIBLE, along with the requirement thatthe fringe includea blue thread as a reminder to obey God. Laws in the Bible specified thatIsraelites could not wear clothing made from a combination of linen and wool. In most periods, working-class men wore the simple short skirt. Iran. Between 3000 and B.C., 1000 people Susa in in southwestern Iran wore clothing resembling that of their Mesopotamian neighbors, with some local variations. Unlike most peoples of the ancient Near East, who draped lengthsoffabric,thePersiansof the middleof the first millennium

8

wa

Communication * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

Coins

Commerce

COMMUNICATION

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

B.C.* wore close-fitting garments. Scholars believe that fitted clothing was practical because the Persians hunted extensively, especially on horseback. They wore animal skins and later made garments from woven cloth. Both men and women wore trousers that were tight at the ankles and tunics or coats with sleeves. They also wore leather shoes and boots. Women additionally wore long veils that covered their heads. (See also Textiles.)

See Money.

See Economy and Trade.

I

n these days of e-mail and telephone, it is hard to imagine a time when long-distance communication was a matter of sending a messenger who might take months to deliver a message and just as long to return with a reply. For most people of the ancient Near East, this kind of communication was impossible—and unnecessary. For rulers and certain businessmen, however, it was crucial. The Function of Messengers. In the ancient Near East, the messenger between kings played a vital role. The Akkadian word for messenger, marshipri, can be translated as "envoy/' "ambassador," "agent," "diplomat/' "deputy," and even "merchant," depending on the situation being described. Some messengers simply brought information from one ruler to another. A messenger might be sent to deliver tribute* from a weaker to a stronger power or to bring news of events at a faraway royal court. More important messengers were those who were given a certain amount of authority to make judgments about the responses to the message and to act on the ruler's behalf. These messengers, who were really diplomats, were necessary because of the length of time any negotiation and travel between two lands might take. Such messengers were used to arrange marriages, funerals, and religious ceremonies or to negotiate treaties or the sale of goods. Messengers could be anyone, male or female, from slaves to members of the royal family. They were valued for their loyalty, speed, and trustworthiness. Women typically carried messages between queens. In some cases, one ruler requested a specific person—someone known and trusted—to bring messages from another ruler. The choice of messenger was dictated by the situation. If the message was of a personal nature, a king might choose a family member or a trusted member of the royal court. If someone was available who was related to the recipient of the message, that might be a good choice. If danger was foreseen, the messenger might be a soldier.

9

Communication

The Trialsof a Messenger

Travel. Messengers often CARAVANS, traveled sointhat they could carry supplies and gain protection from bandits.One inscription tells,for example, of a caravan that consisted of 2 messengers and 22 other people that was attacked and robbed. The messengers and 12 others in carathe van were killed. As some protection against this kindof danger, messengers often carried "passports" writtenby their rulerto all others.The text of one passport is typical:

Around 1080B.C., an Egyptianmessenger named Wen-Amun was sent to the Phoenician city of Byblos to buy timber to build a sacred boat. His journey suggests the difficulties To the kingsofCanaan,servants of my brother: Thus [says] the of being a messenger. While travelking: "I herewith send Akiya, my brother. No one is to hold him up. ing by sea, he was robbed in the Provide him with safe entry into Egyptand hand him over to the port of Dor. Though without goods to pay for the timber, he sailed on. fortress commander of Egypt. Let him go immediately, and as far as Encountering a ship from Dor, he his presentsare concerned,he is to owe nothing/' seized silver equal to what had been stolen from him. When he Notwithstanding these precautions, messengers were not always well reached Byblos, the prince refused treated. Many letters containing complaints about the mistreatmentof to see him at first. When the prince finally did grant an audience, Wenroyal messengers have been found in Egypt and elsewhere. Amun did not have the rightpapers from his master, and he did not Presenting the Message. When a messenger finally arrived at the deshave enough silver. The prince was tination, the task had only begun. Some messages were admitted, and furious. Wen-Amun sent back to some were turned away. Some messengers were forcedto waitfor a long Egypt for better gifts, and when he time before they gained an audience with the king. received them, the agreementwas made. Just as Wen-Amun was read) At last, the messenger stood before theking—and the scribes* and to start back, 11 ships from Dor arsometimes a translator. If the messagedid not require negotiation, the rived in Byblos and demanded that messenger would deliver it verbally and then hand over a clay tablet the prince arrest Wen-Amun for sealed inside a clay "envelope" that had another version of the message theft. The prince decided in the written on it. The scribe would read the tablet aloud, and the king would Egyptian's favor, but on the way home, a storm forced Wen-Amun compare the two messagesfor consistency. Whenthe messagewas more to land in Cyprus. Threatened by complex, so was the presentation. A diplomat might present the king'srethe local people with death, he quest for some good, suchas timber,and then negotiatea price,for exampleaded for—and won—his life and ple. This could require an extended visit, during which the messenger was allowed to leave. At this point, and any companions stayed at the palace. the account is broken off. How much longer it took Wen-Amun to qet homeis unknown. Returning Home. The trip to a distant palace was only half of the

messenger's job. In order to leave, messengers needed the permission of the ruler of the land they had visited, and they did not always get it. Some found themselves held hostage for years. Thosewho were allowed

10

Cosmetics * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* edict pronouncement of the government that has the force of law

Contracts, Legal

Copper

COSMETICS * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

to return were often given escorts by the ruler who had received the message. These escorts might carry responses to the original message, and they, in turn, would be escorted back to their own land when their mission was completed. Not sending an escort was seen as an insult. The journey home was marked by the same difficulties that plagued the messenger on the first leg of the trip. When the messenger did manage to return home, however, he was often richly rewarded by the king for a difficult job well done. Communication Within an Empire. As the empires of the ancient Near East grew larger, their governmental organization became more complex. Rulers named local governors to oversee government functions in far-flung territories. Communication between the central government and these distant outposts took on growing importance. Rulers used messengers to deliver edicts*, to order the assembling of an army, or to try to learn about developments in the governors' lands. To make it easier for messengers to travel, rulers built systems of roads that were dotted with inns where their messengers could rest along the way. The PERSIAN EMPIRE included an elaborate system of imperial messengers for these purposes. (See also Government.)

See Law.

See Metals and Metalworking.

I

n the ancient Near East, cosmetics were initially used for religious purposes. Over time, people employed them for two other functions: to make themselves more attractive and to heal and protect the skin. The first use of cosmetics, as long ago as the third millennium B.C.*, was ceremonial. Egyptian priests applied cosmetics to the face, especially the eyes, of their statues and other images of their gods. Oils and other preparations were used in embalming to protect and preserve the body after death. Cosmetics were applied to the face of the deceased and were included in the tomb for use in the AFTERLIFE. In coronation ceremonies in Israel and Judah, new kings were anointed with oil. The hot, dry, and sunny climate caused a great deal of wear and tear on exposed skin, especially the face, hands, and arms. Oils and ointments were used to protect the skin from sun and wind and to make the skin smooth and soft. These ointments were made from plant (thyme, oregano, frankincense and myrrh*, saffron, rosewater) or animal (ground ants' eggs) products. These substances were mixed with almond, saffron, or olive oils or with cat, hippopotamus, or crocodile fat. Egyptians also invented a wrinkle remover, made of oil, beeswax, incense, and cypress 11

Cosmetics

See [colorplate10, vol.2.

* second millennium B.C. years 2000 to 1001 B.C.

12

from

berries. Cosmetics were expensive, but they were considered a necessity rather than a luxury reservedfor the rich. RAMSES During III the reignof (from the 1180s to the B.C.), 1150stomb workers at Thebes went on strike when their allotment of oils was reduced. Among the Egyptians, cosmetics were worn by both men and women. Egyptian women used makeup to enhance the beautyof their eyes. They darkened their eyebrows, colored the upper lids, and outlined their eyes with black or gray kohl.Kohlwas an eye makeup madeof sootand two minerals—antimony and galena, a type of lead. They outlined the lower lids with a green paste made from the mineral malachite. In addition to enhancing beauty, this makeup protected thefrom skin the sun and repelledflies, which were annoying and carried diseases. Egyptian women used red ocher to color their cheeks and lips. They used reddish henna, a dye, to color their palms, fingernails, and the soles of theirfeet. Hennawas also usedas a hair dye. Anotherdye (no longer in use) was made of oil mixed with the boiled blood of a blackcat or black bull. The Egyptians made abrasives—stones or minerals very finely ground—to whiten their teeth. Although evidence for the use of cosmeticsin Mesopotamiais limited, women did use cosmeticsfor their eyesand complexion. Fromthe Sumerian royal burialsat UR dating fromthe middleof the third B.C. millennium come cockleshells containing pigments in assorted colors, including yellow, red, green, blue, black,and white.A secondB.C.* millennium Mesopotamian text describes the goddess Inanna-Ishtar applying an eye ointment called "Let him come, let him come," prior to her descending into the underworld. Babylonians also used red pigments on their faces. Israelite women useda white face powder madeof flour and red coloring on

Creation Myths

* incense fragrant spice or resin burned as an offering

CREATION MYTHS

* primeval related to the earliest times

their cheeks. According to religious teachings, a husband was required to give his wife an allowance to buy cosmetics. Because cosmetics were expensive, they were made a little at a time and stored for long periods. An industry arose to manufacture small containers to store ointments and perfumes. Making these containers became an art form, with containers made of precious stones and carefully decorated. A wealthy woman might own more than half a dozen cosmetics jars, all kept in a painted cedar box. Containers, some with a residue of the contents, have frequently been discovered in tombs. Recipes, too, have been found, explaining what ingredients, and in what combinations, produce the best results. Egypt became well known for its cosmetics and developed an export industry. Not all cosmetics were purchased, however. Many women prepared their own, assembling the ingredients, grinding them up, and mixing them with oils and fats. A related industry was PERFUMES. Because of the hot temperatures in the ancient Near East, body odor was common. The Egyptians bathed for pleasure, and the Hebrews had ritual bathing requirements, but this did not solve the problem. Perfume helped by covering over natural odors. Perfume manufacture was often kept secret, which increased the cost of scents. Perfumes were a major industry in Mesopotamia, where they had cosmetic, medicinal, and religious uses. Women were the major manufacturers of perfumes in Mesopotamia. Fortunately, a little goes a long way, and if stored in a sealed container in a cool place, perfume lasts. Open perfume bottles were buried in tombs to keep the air fresh and sweet. Not all cultures approved of widespread use of perfume, however. Israelite priests used it as incense* in the temple, but because it had sacred purposes, they were forbidden to give away the secret of making it. They were even forbidden to give any perfume to their wives. (See also Hair.)

M

yths are stories that give form to a culture's beliefs and values. Among the most recurrent of any culture's myths are its creation stories, which tell how the world came into being. These myths include cosmogonies—accounts of the creation of the physical universe—and occasionally, stories of human origins. Creation myths offer people a way of imagining their place in the universe and their relationship to the gods, other people, and nature. Creation stories in most of the ancient Near East cultures recount that before the world was made, everything was covered with water. This theme can be found in Egyptian, Babylonian, and Hebrew creation myths. Egypt. A basic Egyptian creation story centered on Atum, a creator god who existed at the beginning of all things, floating in primeval* waters like "he who is in his egg." Just as the waters of Egypt's Nile River receded every year at the end of the flooding season, exposing fertile new soil, the primeval waters drew back from Atum, exposing a mound where he began to create aspects of his own being. This brought about the gradual unfolding of the world. First he sneezed, producing air and the male and

13

Creation Myths * deity god or goddess

female deities* Shu andTefnut. Then he created the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut toform a permanent boundary between the newly created world and the surrounding primeval waters. Atum became the sun god Re, whose rising and setting brought time into the world and mirrored the cycle lifeofand death. Geb and Nut gave birth to two pairsofOSIRIS deities: and Isis,who represent order and fertility (and whoseHORUS son was associated with kingship), and Seth and Nephthys, representing the necessary opposite qualities of confusion (disorder) and barrenness. Over time, the priests atdifferent religious centers developed varying versions of the basicMEMPHIS, story.for In example,the primeval creative force ofAtum-Re took theform of the god Ptah,the divine craftsman— who was also the local god of Memphis. The version of the story that came from THEBES singled AMUN outas the great creator. As Amun-Re, he became the chief god ofEgypt. Mesopotamia. For the Sumerians and the Babylonians, creation began with an act of separation in which a single body of primeval matter took on different aspects.A Sumerian fragmentENLIL says sepathat the god rated heaven and earth and created the universe. Related myths describe the origin of the sun, moon, cities, temples, and humans. One story describes the godEnki's creation of the pickaxand brick mold giftsto as the human race to enable humanity to build its cities. The best-known Mesopotamian cosmogony is the Babylonian poem EnumaElish, in which an underlying Sumerian story becomes a celebration of the Babylonian MARDUK, god the cityof Babylon,and the festival of the NewYear. It begins with these words: "When above the heavens were not named,Below, the earth was not called by name." In this account of creation, the primeval water includes a male part named Apsu and afemale part named Tiamat whose mingling produced the gods. The Babylonian Epic Creation of is mainly concerned withexplaining how Marduk became the supreme god when Tiamat and a host of monsters threatened the gods. Marduk defeated Tiamat in a legendary battle. He and the god EA then organized the universe. There are two versions of the creation of the human race: that people grew out of the

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Crete ground like plants and that the gods molded them from clay mixed with divine blood. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Cremation

CRETE

See map in Phoencia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

Israelite Culture. The Israelite culture developed a cosmogony that shared elements of myths from Mesopotamia, CANAAN, and the Levant*. The Hebrew Bible contains several accounts of creation. In each case, the universe and its contents are created by the all-powerful god YAHWEH, but details differ in the different versions. According to the first chapter of the book of Genesis, when Yahweh began to give order to the universe, there were water, earth, wind, and darkness, making this version very close to Greek accounts of creation. The second chapter of Genesis describes the universe before creation as a rainless desert. This may reflect conditions in the Levant, where people depended on rainfall as a source of water. Other accounts say that Yahweh defeated a sea monster named Leviathan before creating an orderly universe. These actions echo those of Marduk and of the Canaanite deity Lotan, who was defeated by BAAL, another Canaanite god. Mesopotamian elements may also underlie other myths that shaped the main Israelite cosmogony in Genesis. One such Mesopotamian element may be seen in the description of Yahweh molding the first person from earth. Moreover, the paradise that Yahweh planted in Eden for the first humans resembles ancient Sumerian accounts of Dilmun, a peaceful, divine garden in which death and age did not exist. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Gods and Goddesses; Literature; Mythology; Poetry; Religion.)

See Death and Burial.

T

he largest of the Greek islands, Crete was a thriving trade center in ancient times. Lying between Greece and the Near East, Crete took advantage of its location to establish trade links with its neighbors. These contacts led to the development of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION, which reached its peak between about 1800 and 1400 B.C. At that time, Crete was the chief trading power in the Aegean region. Geography and Early Settlement. Crete is a long, narrow island in the Mediterranean Sea. Mountains running east to west form the interior. These mountains fall to plains near the northern and southern coasts, which have several good harbors. The climate is Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. Crete was first inhabited around 6000 B.C. by Neolithic farmers who probably came from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). During the next 3,000 years, pottery making was introduced, and the people became skilled in the use of copper tools. By about 3000 B.C., Cretan farming communities were growing grapes and olives and raising sheep for trade. 15

Crete Being able sailors, the Cretans traded wine, oil, and textiles for tin, copper, gold, silver, precious stones, and timber. Trade gave them enough wealth to construct public buildings and homes that comprised some of the earliest towns in the Aegean region.

* artisan skilled craftsperson

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * matriarchal society in which women hold the dominant position

16

The Miiiouii Civilization. Crete's wealth from farming and trading led to the rise of a rich and accomplished civilization around 2000 B.C. Historians call it the Minoan civilization, after King Minos of Greek legend. The development of new towns and villages gave rise to a class of skilled artisans*, such as metalworkers, potters, and weavers. Metalworkers used bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, to make jewelry, tools, and weapons. They used gold, silver, and precious stones to make jewelry worn by Crete's growing upper class. All the metals had to be imported to Crete, but the finished products created by Minoan artisans were traded throughout the Mediterranean. For a time, Crete controlled the trade routes that crossed the eastern Mediterranean. The Minoan civilization was centered on enormous palaces on the island. The largest of these was at KNOSSOS near the northern coast. It served as Crete's religious, social, and trading center. The palaces reveal the island's prosperity and suggest that Minoan civilization had developed into an ordered, hierarchical society run by a wealthy elite. In about 1700 B.C., most palaces on the island were destroyed, probably by an earthquake. The Minoan culture continued to flourish, however, and the palaces were reconstructed on an even grander scale. The architecture of the new palaces was sophisticated. There were grand stairways and courtyards. Graceful columns, wide at the top and narrow at the base, supported roofs. An elaborate plumbing and drainage system used clay pipes to carry rainwater from the roof and set pipes and channels beneath the floor to carry water away from the palaces. In these palaces, archaeologists* have found CLAY TABLETS inscribed with writing. Around the time that the palaces were rebuilt, the style of writing changed from the use of picture symbols to a system using horizontal and vertical lines. This system has been called Linear A, but it has never been fully deciphered. A later form of Cretan writing—called Linear B—was deciphered in the A.D. 1950s and was found to be an early dialect of Greek. Most of these texts that have been translated are accounts— records of the thriving Cretan trade. The walls of the palaces on Crete were decorated with magnificent frescoes* illustrating palace ceremonies. Among the first frescoes discovered was a procession of people carrying pottery and other goods. The hairstyles and clothing of these figures were remarkably like those seen in tomb paintings in Egypt. Egyptian writing in these tombs said the people came from Keftiu, "the isles in the midst of the sea." With the discovery of the paintings on Crete, archaeologists concluded that Crete was the origin of the figures in those Egyptian paintings. The frescoes in Crete also reveal that women held an important position in Minoan society. Their religion centered on a mother goddess, and priestesses played important roles in cults*. Some scholars have suggested that Minoan society was matriarchal*, though that view is not widely held.

Crete

'Findingthe Minoans Minoancivilization was unknownuntilabout A.D.1900 and wasonlydiscovered by accident.Britisharchaeologist ArthurEvanswas shown some ancientobjects that he was told werefoundinCrete. Recognizing themasunusual, he went to the islandtolook further. Searching the at siteofKnossos, found helarge a moundofearth, where began he to dig.Evans'swork uncovered the palaceatKnossos, which prohe ceededtoexcavate for several years. Eventually, Evans decided only not to excavatethe palace but also re-to store large parts to original its splendor. This decision reconstruct to was highlycontroversial, Evans defended it bysaying that "without restorationthePalace would bemeaninga lessheapofruins."

* first millennium B.C.years between 1000 and 1 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Minoanfrescoes contain almost no scenesof battles or warriors. This, coupled with thefact that the palaces had no defense systems, suggests that the Minoans lived in peace. They were probably aided in this by the fact that Crete was a sea power in an age when most Near Eastern kingdoms focused on building their power on land. By about 1600 B.C., the Minoans had reached the height of their wealth. Wealthy people built spacious homes around the palaces and in the surrounding countryside. Smaller towns had clustersof housesfor farmers, fishermen, sailors of the Minoan merchant ships, and artisans. Life for the Minoans appears to have been peaceful and pleasurable. These pleasures came to a sudden end, however, around B.C., 1500 when the nearby volcanic island of Thera exploded. The eruption generated powerful earthquakes and sent enormous tidal waves crashing into Crete. The damage to towns and palaces was repaired; however, around 1400B.C., a new catastrophe occurred, one in which many coastal towns and palaces were burned, perhaps as a result of an invasion from the mainland. Although the island remained an important center of trade, power in the Aegean passed to the Mycenaean Greeks on the mainland. Greek and Roman Rule. Sometime after B.C.,1200 a northern Greek tribe, the Dorians, took control of the island. During first the millenniumB.C.*, numerous city-states* came into being on the mainland and struggled with each other to gain power. Following the Macedonian conquest and the death of Alexander the Great, Crete became for many years the base of operation for pirates throughout the Aegeanand eastern MediterraneanSeas. Towardthe end offirst the millennium B.C., Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. B.C., In the67 Romans took over the island of Crete and made it a Roman province. (See also Aegean Sea; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Palaces and Temples; Shipping Routes.)

17

Croesus

Croesus

CULTS

* deity god or goddess

* sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

18

See Lydia and the Lydians.

T

oday the term cult is commonly used in reference to an untraditional religion or to a group that is committed to unusual teachings or practices. Modern cults are also associated with the extreme behaviors of their members and are not viewed as legitimate religions. When discussing religion in the ancient Near East, this use of the word cult is not valid. Rather, it refers to the links ancient peoples felt with their gods and how they expressed their devotion and beliefs. Religions of the ancient Near East included various cultic activities. In terms of the ancient Near East, a cult refers to the act of worship by a group of people united in its devotion to a particular god or belief. The term also refers to the system that unites the people in their beliefs. This devotion was demonstrated in routine acts of worship, which could include prayers, processions, the adoration of images, gestures, and sacrifice. These rituals sometimes took place in sacred places, such as temples or shrines. Many ancient Near Eastern cults focused on deities*. The Mesopotamians, for example, recognized many gods, but certain cults were devoted to individual gods such as ENLIL, god of the earth and air. Their cult activities followed a regular pattern based on sacred calendars. Other cults concentrated on a single aspect of general religious belief. An example is the cult of the dead, which was widespread in Egypt and called for elaborate burial practices to ensure peaceful life after death. Some cults were official; that is, they were supported by the government and were meant to solidify the connection among a god, a ruling elite, and the people. For instance, the Mesopotamians believed that the purpose of the government was to provide the gods with everything they needed so that the gods, in turn, would help the people flourish. The ruler, who represented his subjects before the gods, was responsible for carrying out the important rituals. These rituals guaranteed the survival of both the state and its inhabitants because a god might turn vengeful if not worshiped properly. Throughout the ancient Near East, all people attended public processions involving images of the gods. An important part of the cult festival took place within the temple. Only priests were allowed in the sanctuary*. However, some people had opportunities to take part in these special acts. In Egypt, high-ranking people could temporarily serve as assistants to the priests for periods of up to a month. Rituals conducted by cult priests and priestesses in some societies, such as those of the Babylonians and the Elamites of ancient IRAN included animal blood sacrifices to the gods. Often these rituals took place not in temples but in holy groves, fenced-in areas of sacred forest with altars at their centers. Elamite cult activities always included music. Music and dance were also involved in the cult festivals and processions of the Hittites of Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Archaeologists* have unearthed many artifacts* related to cults. These include bowls used to hold OFFERINGS to the gods and knives used to conduct

Cuneiform the ritual killing of sacrificial animals. Many of these objects are images representing the gods themselves. Egyptian cult images, generally small and made of wood, depicted the gods in human form, sometimes with animal heads. They were kept in mysterious darkness in the sanctuary. The priest's task was to worship, clean, clothe, and protect these images from evil. Mesopotamian cult figures were also represented by wooden statues in human form. Their faces and hands were plated with gold, and their beards were made of precious stones. Such a statue was considered a manifestation of the god. Priests fed it twice a day and supplied it with music, fragrant incense, and clothing. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

CUNEIFORM * decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of * ninth millennium B.C. years from 9000 to 8001 B.C.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

T

he world's oldest form of writing, cuneiform (kyu«NEE«uh*fawrm) takes its name from the distinctive marks used to create its signs. Cuneiform originated around 3100 B.C. in Sumer in southern MESOPOTAMIA. Eventually, it was adopted throughout that region and remained in use for more than 3,000 years. When cuneiform was deciphered* in the A.D. 1800s, it was a major breakthrough in ancient Near Eastern studies. The Beginnings. From as early as the ninth millennium B.C.*, people had been using small variously shaped pieces of clay, called tokens, in a system of accounting where each token stood for units of goods. The use of tokens increased rapidly after 3500 B.C., when large-scale trade began, especially in Sumer. During the next 400 years, accountants went from placing the tokens inside hollow clay balls to drawing diagrams of the tokens on flat, palm-sized clay tablets. This change first occurred in the southern city of URUK. The illustrations were scratched onto the tablets and ranged from abstract to realistic drawings of the objects they represented. For example, the symbol for sheep was a circle with an X in it, and the symbol for a bull resembled a bull's horned head. Soon scribes* began to use a stylus—a reed with a triangular-shaped tip—to press the shape of the symbol into the surface of the clay. It was from the shape of the mark left by the stylus that the system gained its name. In Latin, the term cuneus means "wedge" and forma means "shape." This marked the beginning of cuneiform writing. Each push of the stylus into the clay created a wedge-shaped impression with a tail, which was formed when the stylus was drawn across the surface. Over time, the signs became more stylized* and consisted of a specific number of wedges. Each wedge, with or without a tail, could be oriented vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. For example, the sign for sheep became a square with a cross in it. By 3100 B.C., about 1,200 signs were in use, but they did not represent the sounds of any ancient Near Eastern language. Instead, they were ideographs that conveyed an idea to the viewer, much like a red eight-sided sign at any street corner around the world today tells the driver to stop no matter what language the driver actually speaks. According to Sumerian mythology, Enmerkar, the king of Uruk during the early third millennium B.C.*, was the first to use cuneiform signs

19

Cuneiform to represent actual speech. Enmerkar might have used the signs torepresent spoken sounds in the Sumerian language and not just objects or ideas. TheAkkadians adopted cuneiform B.C., shortly after after soon2400 they rose to power in Mesopotamia. They needed only half asmany signs, most of which representedthe soundsof syllables, suchas/ab/, /ib/, /ba/, and /bi/, to spell out the words of their language. Aroundthe same time, the direction in which scribes wrote began to change. Thesigns on the earliest tablets were written in columns from top to bottom from and right toleft. Towardthe end of B.C., the third the signs millennium were written fromleft to right in horizontal rows from top to bottom. Who Used Cuneiform? Cuneiform wasused bymany cultures in the ancient Near East, especially in Mesopotamia. TheAkkadians used onesyllable Sumerian words to stand for sounds in their own language, added symbols for sounds that did not exist in Sumerian, and adopted

20

Cuneiform

* dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

See color plate 5, vol.2.

* pictograph graphic character used in a picture writing system

some Sumerian words. The royal inscriptions of SARGON I, who founded the Akkadian empire, were written in cuneiform. The Babylonians of central Mesopotamia and the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia also used the system for writing their Akkadian dialects*. Akkadian cuneiform was used in other regions as well. During the 1300s B.C., the Egyptians, the people of CANAAN, and others in the Levant* used the Akkadian language and cuneiform to communicate among themselves and with foreign rulers. The script was also used to record the languages spoken by the Hittites and others of central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and by the Hurrians of northern Mesopotamia. During the early first millennium B.C. (1000-1 B.C.), the script was used by Urartian kings in Anatolia. Other cuneiform systems with unique sign-forms were developed in the early 2000s B.C. in Elam in southern IRAN, in the 1300s B.C. in Ugarit in north SYRIA, and in the mid-500s B.C. by scribes in the PERSIAN EMPIRE. How Many Characters? The number of symbols used in the ancient Near East varied tremendously. Sumerians and Babylonians each used about 600 cuneiform symbols, or characters. Some consisted of a single wedge, or mark of the stylus, while others required up to 30 wedges. Other cuneiform scripts had fewer characters. The Hittites used about 350 characters, the Elamites 163, the Persians 36, and just 30 at Ugarit. Scribes did not always use all the signs available when writing a particular text. During the rule of the Babylonian king HAMMURABI in the 1700s B.C., scribes wrote messages using only 80 or so signs. Assyrian traders who traveled from Mesopotamia to Anatolia maintained their accounts using only 60 or 70 signs. Managing to communicate with fewer signs enabled more people to learn to read and write. Discovery and Decipherment. Clay tablets are durable, and almost half a million of them have been found during the last two centuries. For the longest time, though, nobody knew what they said because nobody could decipher the script. In the A.D. 1760s, a Danish traveler returning from PERSEPOLIS brought back to Europe the first accurate copies of the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, which was written in three styles of cuneiform—Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. It took more than 40 years for scholars, including the German Georg Grotefend and the Irishman Edward Hincks, to decipher the Old Persian—the simplest of the three writings. Almost simultaneously, the Englishman Henry Rawlinson, working with copies he himself had made of the Behistun inscription, also deciphered the Old Persian portions. The second type of cuneiform, Elamite, remains only imperfectly understood to this day. The third and most complex type of cuneiform—Akkadian—was deciphered only in the 1800s, when large numbers of inscriptions were excavated at Assyrian capital cities, enabling Hincks, Rawlinson, and others to decipher the script. Scholars face many problems in deciphering cuneiform. One problem is that each symbol had many uses. To understand, consider an example in English. Suppose a symbol is derived from a pictograph* for eye. This symbol could mean "eye" or the long i sound heard in bite and fight or the word /. The principle was the same in cuneiform. A sign could

21

Cylinder Seals represent one or more syllables or one or more words. The sign could also be a "determinative/' which helped the reader identify the type of the word with which it was written. A determinative tells the reader if the word next to it is a god, a person's name, an occupation, the name of a city, or the name of a country. Moreover, cuneiform was used by many peoples over a long period of time, resulting in regional differences both within and between regions. Scribes had distinctive styles for particular kinds of texts. They followed certain rules when writing government texts and other rules for writing letters. For this reason, many scholars focus their study only on particular kinds of texts. (See also Alphabets; Decipherment.)

Cylinder Seals

CYPRUS * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

22

See Seals.

T

he island of Cyprus (SY»pruhs) is located in the Mediterranean Sea to the south of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and to the west of the Levant*. The island is dominated by two mountain ranges separated by fertile plains. Around its coastline, it has many natural harbors—safe havens for trading vessels. In ancient times, Cyprus was a thriving trade center because of its location. Moreover, the island had rich deposits of copper at a time when demand for copper was high. Trade brought wealth to Cyprus, but this wealth attracted conquerors. As a result, Cyprus was ruled by many groups of people during its long history. The first people to settle on Cyprus are believed to have come from Anatolia, perhaps as long ago as 6000 B.C. However, little is known about these early settlers. Over time, more settlers reached the island, including HURRIANS, SEMITES, HITTITES, and Egyptians. Settlements increased in size and number, and the island's economy grew. People raised cattle, sheep, and goats and produced textiles, pottery, and other specialized goods. From the abundant copper on the island, they made tools, weapons, and jewelry. As demand for copper grew, trade with other areas increased. By 1400 B.C., Cyprus had developed a city-based complex society and was the hub of a thriving trade network. Around 1200 B.C., Cyprus was colonized by Mycenaeans from Greece, who left a pronounced Greek influence that remains to the present day. Soon after, raids by the so-called SEA PEOPLES, not only on Cyprus but throughout the eastern Mediterranean, interrupted trade. The invasions had less of an effect on Cyprus than on many other areas, perhaps because the island had a stable political and economic system. Cyprus opened new trade routes, began to work in iron (which replaced bronze as the preferred metal for tools and weapons), and continued to prosper. By 800 B.C., Phoenicians, and then Assyrians, began to settle on Cyprus. Within 200 years, the island was divided into at least ten separate kingdoms, all of which were very wealthy. Short-lived conquests by Egypt and Persia followed, and in 330 B.C., Cyprus was conquered by ALEXANDER

Cyrus the Great THE GREAT. After the death of Alexander in 323 B.C., Egypt took control of the island again. Then in 67 B.C., Cyprus was taken over by Rome. The Romans drained the island's great wealth by demanding high taxes from its residents. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Metals and Metalworking; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Shipping Routes.)

CYRUS THE GREAT ruled 559-529 B.C. King of Persia * Levant lands bordering the eastern

shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan *

vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

*

propaganda communication deliberately shaped or slanted toward a particular viewpoint

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

C

yrus the Great (SY«ruhs) founded the PERSIAN EMPIRE, which extended from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), through the Levant*, MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN, to northern Arabia and present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. Cyrus was known as a benevolent king because he treated conquered peoples kindly. The details of Cyrus's early life are sketchy. He was born into a noble family and became king of the Persians in 559 B.C. At the time, the Persians had a small kingdom in southern Iran. They were vassals* of the MEDES, whose kingdom stretched from Iran and the Persian Gulf to the border of Lydia, a kingdom in Anatolia. In support of the Babylonian king NABONIDUS, who wanted to retake a city in Syria, Cyrus created a diversion by rebelling against the Median king Astyages, who was his grandfather. Cyrus succeeded in 550 B.C., in part because a portion of the Median army changed to his side. Hearing of the Medes' defeat, King Croesus of Lydia tried to expand his own territory, but Cyrus moved his army west and defeated Croesus in 547 B.C. Cyrus also conquered Greek settlements on the Aegean coast of Anatolia and then turned his attention to Babylonia. Cyrus's conquest of that region was completed in 539 B.C., when he marched triumphantly into BABYLON, then considered the greatest city in the world. In just over ten years, Persia had gained a huge empire. Cyrus used propaganda* to win the favor of the peoples he conquered. For instance, he spread rumors that Astyages tried to kill him as an infant. He also said that Nabonidus abandoned the worship of the god MARDUK, suggesting that he deserved to fall from power. Cyrus shrewdly followed policies aimed at winning support. Rather than putting his own people in charge of conquered territories, he kept their local rulers in place. He won the favor of the Babylonians by following the customs of the temple of Marduk. He allowed the many peoples in his empire to keep their own religions and worship their own gods. The Jews supported him because he allowed them to return home after they had been forced from their homes in Judah by the Babylonian king NEBUCHADNEZZER II and had lived in Babylonia for about 50 years. Cyrus was open to borrowing ideas from other peoples. His imperial* government followed the model of the Median empire. The capital that he built at Pasargadae shows the influence of many cultures, including those of the Elamites, Assyrians, Greeks, and Egyptians. Cyrus died in 529 B.C. while trying to defeat a tribe of nomads* in Central Asia, although the exact circumstances are in dispute. One version of the story says Cyrus was killed by the nomads' queen after defeat

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Damascus in battle. At his death, the Persian empire passed to his son CAMBYSES. For the peoples of the ancient world, Cyrus became a model of a wise ruler. Persians considered him the founder of their greatness, but his reputation extended beyond his own people.

DAMASCUS * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

' provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

DANCE

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

24

S

ituated in southwestern SYRIA, the city of Damascus (duh»MAS»kuhs) has been inhabited since the middle of the second millennium B.C.* However, evidence of its existence can only be found in texts because Damascus has never been excavated. At the edge of a desert and near an easy route to the Mediterranean Sea, Damascus was well positioned to allow its inhabitants to control TRADE ROUTES. The city was also in a fertile region and could produce enough food to support a growing community. Between about 1400 and 1000 B.C., Damascus was influenced by Egypt, but local rulers remained in power. By the 800s B.C., the city had become the center of one of the kingdoms of the ARAMAEANS. The people of Damascus joined forces with other Aramaeans and repulsed several attacks by the Assyrians. Still, in 732 B.C., the Assyrians seized the region and incorporated Damascus into their empire. After the collapse of Assyrian power in the 600s B.C., control of the city passed to the Babylonians, and in the 500s B.C., to the Persians. In 333 B.C., Damascus became part of the empire of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Later the city became a provincial* capital of the SELEUCID EMPIRE. In 85 B.C., the Nabateans took over and controlled Damascus until about 65 B.C., when it was incorporated into the Roman Empire. Damascus then flourished as a commercial center. It later became an important center of Christianity until it was conquered by Muslims in the A.D. 600s. Today Damascus is the capital and largest city of Syria.

P

ictures painted on the walls of tombs and on POTTERY, engravings on SEALS, and descriptions in texts are the main sources of information about dance in the ancient Near East. They show or describe the kinds of dance steps, the occasions for dance, and the formations for dancing. Ancient Near Eastern peoples danced for entertainment, recreation, and during religious celebrations. Mesopotamia. Images of dancing in ancient MESOPOTAMIA date back to the times before writing, which began around 3000 B.C. Most dance images are from the early second millennium B.C.*, but there are few pictorial depictions of dance after 1000 B.C. Mesopotamian dance shaped dance in ancient Egypt and Greece, and some dance forms performed in ancient Mesopotamia can be seen today. Dance was performed on many occasions, including religious and other celebrations, such as weddings and harvest festivals. Sometimes

Dance

See color plate2, vol.2.

dancers performed special dances to repel sicknessor to protect peoplein mourningfrom demons. In thesecases,the dancers might formacircle around the person as they danced. People danced alone, in pairs, and in groups. Both men and women danced, but instead of dancing together, they took turns dancing. While one group danced, the other sang. Dancers also performedavarietyof steps including jumping and leaping, kneeling andbending, and dancing on pointed toes.Line dances and circle dances were performed mainlyby women. Men only performed three dances. In the squat dance, they danced with their knees bent, alternately thrusting one leg to the side (similar to the famous folk danceof the RussianCossacks).In footthe clutch dance, a group of dancers danced on one legwhile holding the other leg bent infront or back. In the ''whirl/' they spun around incircles, like the whirling dervishesof one branchofIslam. Some dancers were musicians too. Therearepicturesofwomen dancers striking small, handheld drums while they danced. Other illustrations show women dancers playing lyres and male dancers playing lutes. Dancers also clapped their hands and snapped their fingers as they danced. Egypt. Thefirst evidenceof Egyptian dance dates fromthe KingOld dom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.).At the time, dances were part of the ceremony that marked the rebirthofOSIRIS. the god They were also importantin the worship HATHOR, of goddess of love. Temples retained groupsofprofessional dancerswho dancedto honor particular gods in regular observancesand at special festivals. Mostof the dancers were women, although they dressed and wore their hair like young men. Infact, the picture of a male dancerwas the hieroglyphic sign for "to dance/' The oldest dances in Egypt were formal and stately.The movements followed a set pattern, with groupsof dancers performing the same movements in formation. Forexample, in one danceto Hathor (whowasassociated with the cow), women dancers held their aloft, arms likethe horns of a cow. In another dance, female dancers held mirrorsand handheldinstruments called clappers (both associated with Hathor)asthey danced. Sometimes acrobatics formed partof thedance—indeed,the same word was used for both danceand acrobatics. 25

Dance During the time of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), many dances were performed outdoors. Performers danced as the statue of a tomb owner was brought in a procession to the tomb. They also danced at the funeral rites. As in the earlier period, performances included both stately formal dances and more vigorous acrobatic moves. While these religious dances continued to be practiced, a new stage for dancing appeared in Egypt during the period of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). During this period of conquest and prosperity, some wealthy people began to maintain their own permanent group of musicians and dancers, who were considered valuable possessions. Others hired dancers when they needed them for special occasions such as banquets. Written records detail the fact that some dancers were brought in from other regions of Africa, such as Nubia, or from as far away as India. These dancers often wore few clothes, which emphasized the grace of their movements. Anatolia. Information on Hittite dance comes mainly from written records; only a few pottery fragments have been found to give any visual information. These texts relate only to sacred dance. Nothing is known about the role of dance in people's daily lives. Some of the texts are not completely clear. They speak of performers dancing "in the style of the city of Lakhshan"—but scholars have no idea what that style was. What is known is that there were many variations of dance steps and movements. These included leaping, turning, running, bending the knees, standing on the head or hands, and mime dancing ("in the manner of a leopard/' for example). Both men and women danced. There were professional dancers and those who just danced occasionally. Many of the dances were performed in groups in which all the participants made the same movements. In some cases, though, a single dancer would separate from the group to perform acrobatic movements. Occasions for dance included important religious festivals. At the spring festival, for example, dancers surrounded the king and queen as they led a parade of dignitaries to the temple. When the procession arrived at the temple, a solo dancer performed a spinning dance to welcome them. At a procession initiating a hunt festival, special mime dancers re-created hunting scenes, portraying animals and archers. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

26

The Levant. In the Levant*, celebrations such as weddings and royal coronations gave people a chance to dance to the sounds of instruments such as tambourines, lyres, and harps. In addition, processions of women with hand drums often performed dances following military victories, joining triumphant soldiers in their march to the sanctuary of Yahweh. The use of dance for religious purposes can be seen, for example, in the frenzied dancing of the Israelites in their worship of the golden calf. In addition, several books of the Hebrew Bible describe prophets as dancing ecstatically while prophesying. People also danced at times of sickness, the idea being that singing and dancing would cure the ill by driving away the demons that caused the malady. (See also Entertainment; Music and Musical Instruments.)

Date Palms and Dates

D

arius I(duh»RY»uhs), also known asDarius the Great, was one of the greatest rulersof the Achaemenid dynasty.Heextendedthe DARIUS I AND PERSIAN EMPIREand createdan enduring political structure. About 150 yearsafter the deathofDarius I, thelast king of thedynasty, DariusinIII, DARIUS III herited a weakened empire thatwaseventually conquered. Although DariusI was not therightful successor,heseizedthe throne after the death CAMBYSES. of Hestrengthened hisfrontiers toprevent noDarius I madic* tribesfrom overrunningtheborders. Heconquered theIndus Valruled 521-486 B.C. ley to the east, and Thrace, Macedonia,andseveral Aegean islandsin the King of Persia west. He hopedto conquer Greece B.C., aswell when failed butthe in 490 Darius III Athenians defeatedhis forcesatMarathon. Darius recorded hisversion of ruled 336-330 B.C. his riseto powerBEHISTUN inINSCRIPTION. the King of Persia Darius I was an able administrator.Heorganized theempire into 20 in form the ofmoney, horses, * nomadic referring to people whotravel satrapies*. Eachwasrequiredto paytaxes from place to place to find food and and other items,aswellas toprovide ships orsoldiers for thePersian milpasture itary. Dariuswas also knownfor hisachievements as abuilder. Heover* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled saw the constructionof anetworkofroads radiating from hiscapital at territory under the rule of asatrap, or SUSA, includingtheRoyalRoad, which stretched SARDIS 1,500 from miles provincial governor on the AegeanSea to Susa.B.C., Around hebegan 510hismost ambitious * eunuch man who hasbeen castrated, project, a royal complex PERSEPOLIS, at which included theking'spalace, or has had his testicles removed smaller palaces,and meeting halls. Darius I was succeededby XERXES. his son Several other rulers followed, until DariusIIIcametoB.C. power By that in 336 time, thePersian empire was weak and vulnerable.Thesatrapshadbeen rebelling,and there was general unrest. DariusIII hadbeen raisedto thethroneby the powerful eunuch*Bagoas, who hadpoisonedthe twoprevious kings. When Darius triedfree to himselfofBagoas's control, Bagoas tried topoison him. Instead, Darius forced Bagoastodrinkthepoison. In 337 B.C., King PhilipofMacedoniaANATOLIA sent forces his into (present-dayTurkey)to liberatetheGreek cities there fromPersian rule. Philip was murdered beforehecould accomplish B.C.,his sonthis. In 334 ALEXANDER GREAT THE led an army intoAnatolia. Darius was notprepared for this invasion,and despite havingamuch larger army, he was defeated at the battle ofIssus.Hopingtoavoid furtherbattles, Darius sent Alexander lettersoffering friendship. offers His were rejected, andAlexander led his armies intoMesopotamia. Darius fought B.C.but him was again in 331 defeated andforcedto flee. Soon after, Darius III waskilled by hissatrap Bessus. With hisdeath,theAchaemenid dynasty ended, enabling Alexander to declare himself kingofPersia.

DATEPALMS ANDDATES

D

ate palms grow very wellin thearid, desert climate of theNear East. Dates—thefruit of the datepalm—wereanimportant foodcrop in the region in ancient times,astheyaretoday. Other partsof thedate palm, including the trunkand leaves, were used for avariety ofpurposes. Cultivated sincethe fourth millennium B.C.*,date palms areamong the earliest domesticated fruit crops.Thepeoplesof theLevant* and MESOPOTAMIA probably firstbegantocultivate date palms, from andthose 27

David * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

DAVID ruled ca. 1000-970 B.C. King of Israel

Searching for David Most of what is known about King David comes from the Bible, which some would argue is not an accurate historical record, There is very little archaeological evidence to prove that David, or other early kings of an* cient Israel, really existed or to reveal much of their real lives. One important piece of evidence comes from an ancient site known as Tel Dan (present-day Tell al-Qadi), located in the northernmost part of presentday Israel, The Tel Dan site contains ruins of an early religious complex, including a two-room temple. Among the finds at the site was a fragment of a large inscribed stone slab with the words House of David The temple complex dates from a later period than that of David's rule. Nevertheless, the artifact does refer to King David and his descendants.

28

regions, their cultivation quickly spread throughout the river valleys of the Near East and along the NILE RIVER of Egypt. Date palms grow as tall as 100 feet and have clusters of long, featherlike leaves atop slender trunks. Dates are sweet and nutritious fruits that grow in large clusters of up to 1,000 per bunch. A single date palm can produce more than 100 pounds of fruit each year. Although date palms grow best in an arid climate, their roots need a regular supply of water. Consequently, dates were grown along rivers, at oases*, or on irrigated sites. Date palms were also grown in orchards and vegetable gardens, where they provided shade for other plants. The cultivation of date palms required time and money. It took 4 to 5 years before a tree would bear fruit, and about 20 years for the tree to reach full productivity. However, they were valuable and every part of the tree could be used. The trunks, leaves, and other parts of the palm were used as building material or fuel and for making rope and baskets. Dates were also used to make an alcoholic beverage. (See also Agriculture; Food and Drink; Irrigation.)

^L s king of Israel, David united the 12 tribes of Israel and founded a /iLstrong kingdom for his people. David, whose story is told in the Hebrew BIBLE, holds an important place in JUDAISM as an ideal king who achieved great things and who founded an enduring dynasty*. David was the son of Jesse, a wealthy landowner of the tribe of Judah in the land of Judah. The youngest of eight sons, he grew up tending his father's sheep and learning to play the harp. A prophet* named Samuel told the young David that he would one day be king over all of Israel. While still a youth, David won a place as a harpist at the court of King Saul of Israel. He was a favorite of Saul, became a good friend of Saul's son Jonathan, and later married the king's daughter Michal. At this time, Israel was struggling with the PHILISTINES, a neighboring people. David joined one of Saul's armies and distinguished himself by killing a giant named Goliath with a single stone from a slingshot. This feat made David famous, but his growing popularity aroused the jealousy of King Saul, who plotted to kill him. Learning of the plot, David fled. While in exile, he assembled a powerful fighting force. Returning to the land of Judah, David became popular by protecting the local population against bandits and restoring possessions stolen by raiders. He also won the support of the leaders of Judah by paying them respect. In time, the people of Judah chose David to be their king. Meanwhile, King Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in battle against the Philistines. David then returned to Israel to claim that throne, but he had to fight the forces of another of Saul's sons Eshbaal (Ishbosheth), who also claimed the throne. Ultimately, Eshbaal was assassinated by his followers, and the war ended. David conquered the city of JERUSALEM and made it the capital of his kingdom. He brought to it the ARK OF THE COVENANT, a sacred relic and symbol of the Israelites' religion.

Death and Burial * dynasty succesion of rulers from the same family or group * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

DEATH AND BURIAL * funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi

Jerusalem's central location, nearly midway between Israel and Judah, helped unite the two regions. Early in his reign, David reorganized the army and launched a series of wars. Decisive victories over the Philistines ended their threat, and David extended Israelite rule over many small neighboring kingdoms. He also reorganized the administration of his kingdom. In later years, he worked on plans to build a great temple in Jerusalem. David was a successful warrior and effective ruler, but his achievements were marred by family problems and political rebellions. Like many kings who used marriage to forge political alliances, he took several foreign wives to cement relationships with other kingdoms. However, competition and rivalries among these women and the sons they bore to David led to instability. One of the most serious revolts was led by David's son Absalom, who held power for a time before his forces were eventually defeated. SOLOMON, David's son by his wife Bathsheba, eventually succeeded his father on the throne. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah.)

T

he peoples of the ancient Near East observed a variety of customs and rituals when someone died. Many of these customs were designed to prepare the body of the dead person, as well as his or her spirit, for the AFTERLIFE. People generally believed that some part of each individual continued to exist after death, although in a different world from that of the living. They also believed that the dead had the power to help or harm the living. For this reason, many funerary* practices dealt less with soothing the grief of the living than with the proper carrying out of duties toward the dead.

Mesopotamia. In ancient Mesopotamia, the afterlife was not particularly joyous, but it was better than ceasing to exist after death. One who had not been buried and mourned according to the rites could not enter the afterlife. Ideally, death occurred at home, in the presence of family and friends. After death, a spell freed the soul from the body. The soul then rested on a chair that was placed to the left of the funerary bed, waiting for offerings from the family. Before burial, the body was washed and the mouth tied shut. Then the body was oiled or perfumed and dressed in clean clothing. The body was then displayed for public view alongside many grave goods, such as weapons, jewelry, and provisions for the journey to the underworld, or world of the dead. Royal families spent large amounts on their funeral displays. Excavations of the burial sites of Assyrian queens at Nimrud have yielded several extravagant offerings to the dead, such as gold cuffs inlaid with many semiprecious stones. Some burials even included chariots to carry the deceased to the underworld. The dead from more humble classes might get a pair of sandals. Grave goods also included gifts for the gods of the underworld so that they would welcome the deceased. Those who could afford to do these things buried their dead in wooden or metal coffins or stone sarcophagi*. The sarcophagi of kings could be quite impressive; that of ASHURNASIRPAL II was made of dolerite 29

Death and Burial

Servants of the Dead The ancient Egyptians often included small statues of servants among the grave goods they buried with their dead. These models, along with painted scenes of daily life, represented things that the deceased might need. The Egyptians believed that these representations could magically become real. After about 1550 B.C., a new type of figurine appeared—the ushabtl, or "answerer/' These small statues were supposed to answer, "I am present" and to do any work that the deceased was asked to do in the afterlife. Some burials included boxes containing more than 400 ushabtis—one for every day of the year—plus foremen to supervise them.

See color plate 9, vol. 3.

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

30

(basalt) and measured about 12.5 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 6 feet high. Commoners wrapped the dead in cloth or reed mats and buried them with simple grave goods. Kings and some commoners were buried in chambers beneath their palace or house. Others were laid to rest in public cemeteries, but the accompanying ceremonies were often costly. Reforming kings, such as Uru-inimgina of Lagash, who ruled around the 2400s B.C., did their best to ensure that the amounts charged for such services were not excessive. The Mesopotamians believed that the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife depended on the performance of special mourning rites. If the deceased was an important person, these rituals could last a week. Close friends and relatives were expected to display their grief publicly, by wearing old clothes, tearing their garments, fasting, and going about unwashed and ungroomed. The family might hire professional mourners to add to the crowd or lead the laments in which people expressed their grief and praised the deceased. A fine example of what the ancient Mesopotamians called "exalting" the dead is the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which the hero mourns the death of his friend Enkidu. Once the dead person was safely buried, the mourners purified themselves in a special ceremony and returned to their normal clothes and grooming habits. Mesopotamians believed that to speak of death was to summon it. As a result, they avoided the words death or dying and instead spoke of ''going to one's fate/' "being invited by one's gods," or "going on the road of one's forefathers." Egypt. The Egyptians loved life and considered 110 years to be an ideal lifetime. Death was not the fate they feared most, however. They were more afraid of nonexistence. The goal of Egyptians was to ensure that their bodies existed for as long as possible after death. They provided their dead with supplies for the afterlife and took precautions to protect the dead and their treasures. They also went to much trouble to recover the bodies of Egyptians who died abroad. Drowning and being eaten by a crocodile was an Egyptian's nightmare because it destroyed all traces of the body. This fate was said to lay in store for people who offended the gods or swore false oaths. The Egyptians developed a way of preserving dead bodies by turning them into MUMMIES. This process duplicated the drying process that was natural when a body was placed in dry sand, but not when a body is placed in a relatively damp tomb. There were different levels of mummification. At its most complete, the process required many months. The mummifiers removed the body's organs and fluids and stored them in special containers called canopic jars. They wrapped the heart in linen and set it in the body. They then removed the brain, applied drying chemicals to the body, and wrapped it in hundreds of yards of linen. Amulets* and guidebooks to the afterlife, such as the BOOK OF THE DEAD, were also placed in the wrappings. These procedures were too costly for the poor, who simply wrapped their dead in cloth and buried them. The burial involved many complex rituals, such as the Opening of the Mouth. This ritual involved touching the mummy's eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth to symbolize their reopening and the deceased's return to life.

Death and Burial

In the earliest known Egyptian burials, people were buriedfetal in the position, curled up asthey are in a mother'swomb. Later,thebodies were straightened, and the arms were crossed over thechest. Written texts, which might include lists offoods and other items, were buried with prominent people. Written on the walls oftombs and on theinsidesof coffins, the lists were believed magicallytotaketheplaceof theitems. Idealized biographies of the dead personandpainted scenes fromthe person's life, work,and evenher funeral were also included. The elite were buried in wooden coffins, often decorated with gold leaf or paint, inside stone sarcophagi. Itbecame customarytoplacethe bodies of kingsand high-ranking noblesin aseries coffins. of Theinnermost of thesecoffins was moldedto the shapeof thebody. coffins The were elaborately painted, sometimes with imagesofgodswhomight protect the dead, and some were overlaid with gold. TheEgyptians buried their elite with itemsfor the afterlife, suchasfood, furniture, clothing, weapons, tools, utensils, musical instruments,andtoys. Muchofwhatis known about ancient Egyptian culturehasbeen learned fromtheexcavation of tombs and the studyofgrave goodsandburial texts. * cremation burning dead person

of the

body

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

Anatolia. The HITTITESofANATOLIA ancient (present-day Turkey)pracofticed a cremation*, after which they buriedtheremains. Funerary rituals were meant to easethe dead person'spassage fromthesocietyof theliving to the underworld of the dead. Without proper burial,thedead person might roam the worldof the livingas adangerous ghost. Knowledge of Hittitefunerary practicesisbased largely on royal deaths. A textKHATTUSHA, from the Hittite capital, describes indetail the 14-day ritual that followedthe deathof aking'sbrother.Theparticipants included the king, high officialsand their wives, religious officials,people connected to the royalfamily's cult* ofancestor worship, andwomen whose job was to wailand lament.Theritual began fastwith andathesacrifice of an ox as an offeringto the deceased's soul.On thesecond day,the corpse was taken to the siteof the cremation.Thecorpsewasprobably cremated on the third day. Thefollowing day, thebones were wrapped in linen and brought to ameal attended byeveryone who hadtaken part in the ritual. The meal takers offered drinksto thesoulof thedead.On the fifth day, priestesses madean imageof the dead person out oftasty foods and performed a ritual to attract thesoul to theimage.

31

Death and Burial

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

A Funeral Lament In this funeral lament from ancient Assyria, a man has an imaained conversation with his wife, who has died in childbirth. He asks her: Why ore you cast adrift like a boot in the midst of the stream, your plants broken, your rope cut? Why, your face veiled, do you cross the river ofAshur? She replies: On the day of my labor pains my face became dark; on the day I gave birth, my eyes grew cloudy,,.. Death crept stealthily into my bedroom, It made me leave my house; it separated me from my husband [and] set my feet to the land from which I will never return.

See color plate 5, vol. 3.

32

The remaining days involved more ceremonial meals, more animal sacrifices, offerings to the deceased and ancestral spirits, and rituals such as cutting a grapevine with a silver hatchet. Finally, live seagulls and images of gulls were cremated in the burial chamber along with the bones. Later, at a feast, the mourners addressed the deceased: "Don't be angry any more. Be good to your children.... It shall come about that your 'god's house' will receive honor, and offerings will be set for you." During the first millennium B.C.*, Phrygians laid their royal dead on beds in wooden chambers and buried them in enormous tumuli, or burial mounds. Excavations in Phrygia have yielded tombs containing grave goods, such as wood spoons, plates, bowls, and boxes, as well as many pieces of fine furniture. The largest mound in the region, called the Midas Mound, is thought to have belonged to King Midas. The king had been buried in a massive log coffin with at least 14 pieces of furniture, including 9 tables, 2 serving stands, 2 stools, and a chair. The Levant. In ancient times, the region that comprises present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan was home to many peoples, most of whom had their own practices. Many of these peoples believed that death was not the end of the deceased person's existence. Their funeral practices reflected this belief. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the people of UGARTT expected children to properly bury and mourn their parents. They believed that it was vitally important to leave behind descendants who could attend to these responsibilities. Mourners demonstrated their grief by sprinkling ashes or dirt on their heads, rolling in the dirt on the ground, wearing special garments, and sometimes even injuring themselves. Wailing was a very important part of the funerary process. The wallers called out the name of the deceased and complained of their loss. Sometimes professional mourners carried out these duties. Ugartic society believed that the dead, properly mourned and honored, could play a positive role in the survival of the living. There is evidence that some of the dead were worshiped as gods. The Phoenicians, a Canaanite people who lived along the Mediterranean coast, practiced both cremation and burial and made offerings to their dead. Some of the dead were buried in anthropoid sarcophagi (sarcophagi made with clay and in the shape of a human) or stone. The final resting place of a corpse was a permanent reminder of the dead's existence. Anyone who disturbed a burial site was cursed with a dreadful fate: to be without descendants and forgotten by all. The Israelites believed that the existence of the soul depended on the correct treatment of the body, especially the bones. The early Israelites buried clothed corpses with personal possessions and offerings. They prohibited cremation and preferred burial in a cave or tomb dug out of rock. The tomb was a resting place for the corpse, the place where deceased individuals met their ancestors and "gathered unto their kin." The Israelites believed that the dead resided in Sheol, a pale copy of their existence on earth. Sheol was conceived as a subterranean, gloomy, and dusty afterlife, in stark contrast to the world of the living. Those who had lost relatives or friends displayed their grief during a mourning period that usually lasted for seven days. Like the Canaanites,

Decipherment Israelite mourners tore their clothes and sprinkled themselves with ashes or dust. Funerals featured lamenting, weeping, and sometimes singing and dancing. Fasting followed by a funeral banquet seems to have been part of the mourning. Eventually, the practices were codified, leading to modern Jewish practices of mourning the dead for a month ("sitting shiva") and immediate kin refraining from pleasurable activities for long periods.

*

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

DECIPHERMENT

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

Other Regions. The people of BACTRIA, a kingdom in CENTRAL ASIA, buried their dead in shallow graves with grave goods. No splendid "royal tombs" have been found. This suggests either that there were no great differences in social class or that burial goods were not used as an indicator of status. The Saka, a nomadic* people of Central Asia, buried their dead in kurgans, graves under mounds of earth or stones grouped in cemeteries. Some of the deceased lay on their backs in pits, resting on beds of reeds and grasses, and others were cremated. In at least one kurgan, the body of the deceased was burned in a huge bonfire of brushwood. Some cultures in the CAUCASUS, east of Anatolia, also buried their dead in kurgans. Since most kurgans contain few skeletal remains, it is possible that the deceased were cremated and that the cremated remains were buried. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Religion.)

B

ecause so much is now known about the civilizations of the ancient > Near East, it is difficult to grasp the fact that less than 250 years ago they were a great mystery. Scholars interested in the ancient world found tablets, scrolls, and wall paintings with ancient writings, but for many decades they could not read or understand these texts. Beginning in the A.D. 1700s, scholars began to decipher ancient Near Eastern texts. First, they determined how to read the script by identifying the phonetic values assigned to each sign. Then they tried to identify the language encoded in the script. The second step was essential to the decipherment of these texts because, for example, the same set of cuneiform signs was used to render such diverse languages as Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Luwian, Human, Urartian, and Canaanite. Once the process was complete, many mysteries were solved. Palmyrene. The first ancient language to be deciphered in modern times was used in the city-state* of Palmyra in SYRIA. Texts written in Palmyrene were known to Europeans as early as 1616, but the key to deciphering them was not developed until the 1750s. Palmyrene was deciphered on the basis of drawings of bilingual INSCRIPTIONS that contained the Palmyrene and Greek scripts. The Greek script could be read at that time. With the help of the Greek and some assumptions, a French scholar named Jean-Jacques Barthelemy deciphered Palmyrene. He assumed that the script was related to the Hebrew and Aramaic aleph-beth—a system of writing that contains symbols for consonants but not vowels—and that the language encoded in the script was a dialect* of Syriac, itself a late dialect of Aramaic. Barthelemy published his results in 1754. 33

Decipherment * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor,or teacher * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay

* stela stone slab or pillar that hasbeen carved or engravedand servesas a monument; pi.stelae

Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. MESOPOTAMIA Scribes*andin neighboring lands wrote incuneiform*, usingastylus,areed withatriangular tip. The first language writtenin cuneiformto bedecipheredwas the Old Persian. The key to understanding Old Persian depended on the availability of accurate copiesof ancient texts.In the late 1700s,aDanish explorer brought back copiesof texts PERSEPOLIS, he hadthe madein capital of PERSIAN the EMPIRE. The copies showed three differentof sets characters: a simple set that used only40 or sosigns,amore complicated one that employed about 100 signs, and a third set that used several hundred signs. Scholars assumed that the three texts conveyed thesame message; what variedwas the language used. It took more than 40 yearsfor the German Georg Grotefendand the Irishman Edward Hincks to decipher the simplest of the three writings, the Old Persian. Grotefend noticed thatone set of symbolswasrepeated often in these texts. He thought that this setmight represent theword king. He guessed that the other characters king nearmightbe the names of kings. Since he knewthe namesof Persian kings from histories writtenin other languages, he compared the names to the characters. Bymatching them, he cracked the code. He published his findings in the early 1800s. Almost simultaneously,the Englishman Henry Rawlinson, working with copies he himselfhad made BEHISTUN of theINSCRIPTION, carved on a mountainside in western Iran, also deciphered the OldPersian portions. The second type of cuneiform, Elamite, remains only imperfectlyunderstood to this day. The third and most complex type ofcuneiform, Akkadian, was deciphered only in the late 1800s, when large numbersof inscriptions were excavated at Assyrian capital cities, enabling Hincks, Rawlinson, and others to decipher the script. Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Formany centuries, travelers to Egypt had seen on monuments the picturesand HIEROGLYPHICS. symbols that form The meaning of these symbols was unknown, however.The breakthrough took place in 1799, when during the Egyptian campaign of the conqueror Napoleon, French engineers unearthed an inscribed stela* in the Nile Delta. ThisROSETTA stela—the STONE—contained inscriptions in three scripts, one in the ancient Greek language and script and two in the Egyptian language—the hieroglyphic script and a cursive script called demotic. When Englishman ThomasYoung compared the Greekand hieroglyphic texts, he identified the name Ptolemy written in hieroglyphics. Ptolemy V was the Macedonian-descendedB.C., kingof Egyptin 196 when the stela had been carved. However, Youngcould not take the decipherment of hieroglyphics farther.Thefell task to a French linguist named Jean-Francois Champollion, who had determined as a schoolboy that he would learn to read hieroglyphics.At age 16,he had writtena paper arguing that Coptic—the language usedin the Egyptian church—was derivedfrom ancient Egyptian. Champollion used Copticforhints when deciphering ancient Egyptian writing. Champollion began by taking advantage of the way the king's name had been written. The name Ptolemywasenclosedin an oval calledacartouche. The presence of a cartouche always signaled that the person

34

Decipherment * pictograph graphic character used in a picture writing system * linguist person who studies languages * Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

The Envelope, Please In 1857, scholar W.H.FoxTalbot suggested what has been called a translation competition to check on the accuracy of the newly developing understanding of cuneiform writing and the Akkadian language. He and four other scholars examined a text that had never been made public. Each submitted his translation, sealed, to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, where they would be compared. The idea was that if different scholars came up with the same results, that would be evidence that the translation was correct. When the sealed translations were opened, one of the judges declared that "agreement does appear to me to be satisfactory/' Continued work on the ancient languages and scripts has extended scholars' understanding. Yet the 1857 test showed that the pioneers were on the right track.

named within was a ruler. (The suggestion of this link had originally been made by the Palmyrene decipherer Barthelemy.) Champollion found some of the symbols used in the name Ptolemy in another Egyptian monument that mentioned CLEOPATRA. This confirmed that he had correctly identified the sounds represented by these symbols. He went on to identify many other names from the times that the Macedonians and Romans held Egypt, beginning around 330 B.C. Champollion published his findings in 1822. Two years later, he published another, larger book that revealed the key to Egyptian hieroglyphics. He explained that some symbols were meant to represent the consonant sounds of the words they showed, while others were pictographs* representing the objects shown. By the mid-1800s, two other linguists* had added to the understanding of hieroglyphics. German Egyptologist* Carl Richard Lepsius revealed that some symbols stand for more than one consonant sound. Edward Hincks—who helped in the decipherment of Old Persian—pointed out that hieroglyphics only record consonant sounds, not vowels. Mesopotamia!! Cuneiform. Many more texts still remained to be decoded, however. The largest body of cuneiform texts was created in Mesopotamia and began to surface in archaeological* digs in Assyria—a region of northern Mesopotamia—in the A.D. 1800s. The language of many of these texts, Akkadian, had two dialects: Assyrian and Babylonian. Although the two dialects have almost the same symbols, there are significant differences between them. In addition, several other languages were written in cuneiform symbols. These complications made the work of deciphering cuneiform much more difficult. Edward Hincks studied the texts in the hope of finding clues to understanding cuneiform. By the late 1840s, he had identified the values of about 236 Akkadian symbols. He established that some symbols were logograms, which meant that they derived meaning from abstract or realistic pictorial representations of the words. Other symbols were phonograms, which stood for sounds. Hincks also determined that scribes spelled the same words differently in different texts, often depending on the space available. He learned that some symbols represented vowels alone but most were consonants paired with vowels. He determined that the encoded language belonged to the family of SEMITIC LANGUAGES, which includes ancient Hebrew. Finally, Hincks realized that the signs sometimes had more than one pronunciation because the script was originally created for a non-Semitic language. Today scholars know that this language was Sumerian, the first language written in cuneiform. Later Achievements. The decipherment of ancient languages continued in the 1900s. The first Hittite cuneiform inscriptions were found in the A.D. 1890s. They were easily deciphered because they used cuneiform signs with values known from Akkadian-language texts of the same period. One linguist, seeing the word wa-a-tar in a clear reference to water, identified this ancient language as Indo-European. His decipherment of Hittite was published in 1915. Tablets written in Ugaritic—the language used in the Syrian port city of UGARIT—were first discovered in the 1930s. Ugaritic was written in a 35

Demons

Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

peculiar form of cuneiform that used only 29 different signs, suggesting that the script was like an aleph-beth. The script also suggested that the language was probably a West Semitic* dialect. Another more recent decipherment was that of Linear B. This script recorded the language spoken by the Mycenaeans during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) on Crete and the Greek mainland. In the 1950s, this language was recognized as a form of ancient Greek and deciphered. Remaining Mysteries. Despite many successes, linguists have not been able to decipher every known ancient language. Some—such as Luwian and Elamite—have been deciphered to an extent but are imperfectly understood. With others, the initial breakthrough has yet to be made. Examples are Linear A—a precursor of Linear B on Crete—and the script found in the SINAI PENINSULA that many scholars think underlies the alphabets of the Semitic languages. Texts from the ancient Phoenician city of BYBLOS include an unusual system of writing that seems to combine Egyptian hieroglyphics with the alphabet of Canaanite languages. This, too, has yet to be understood. There are several more of these known but not understood languages—and perhaps new languages yet to be discovered as archaeologists continue to unearth new texts. It is possible that these texts will also contain writing that at first seems strange but later becomes clear through the flashes of insight and close attention to detail that make up decipherment. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Alphabets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the Elamites; Indo-European Languages; Languages; Scribes.)

DEMONS

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect

36

A

ncient Near Eastern peoples believed that in addition to the gods, there were other supernatural beings or forces that could affect the world. Scholars refer to many of them as demons. These beings could do good or evil, although generally demons were associated with evil. Many aspects of ancient MAGIC were meant to protect people from demons. In ancient Mesopotamia, people recognized at least two types of demonic forces: supernatural spirits and ghosts of the unhappy dead. Demons often appeared in groups of seven, but there were also individual demons. The best-known demon was Lamashtu, daughter of the sky god ANU. She was said to attack pregnant women, young mothers, and babies. People wore amulets* bearing her likeness or in the form of the head of the demon god Pazuzu or recited incantations* to ward her off. Demons were represented as half human and half animal, a fourlegged animal, a two-legged bird, or a fish. Examples include a figure with a lion's body and a man's head; the merman and mermaid, who had human heads on fish bodies; and the griffin demon, which combined a human body and an eagle's head and wings. Deceased people who were improperly buried or mourned were thought to return as restless ghosts that roamed the world of the living. Those who had died sudden or violent deaths or whose bones had been scattered by animals were believed to be especially angry. Texts listed

Disasters, Natural

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, other object made by humans

Deportations

Diet

DISASTERS, NATURAL * desertification change of useful land into desert through natural processes or human activity

other restless ghosts, such as those of people who were killedby a weapon, died of thirst while in prison, or as aresultof a sinagainsta god or an offense againstthe king. The ghosts of unmarried people joined aspecial classofdemons. These restless demons slipped through windows intohouses, searching for men and women to become thehusbands andwives they hadnever had. Such a demon could bevery persuasive, tempting thevictim with such words as, ''I am the son of aprince, Iwillfillyourlapwith silverand gold." Victims of these demons could becarried into theunderworld, where they, too, became spouse-seeking ghosts. Babylonian ideas about demons were similartosome ancient Jewish beliefs. Bowls and talismans usedinJewish healing rituals contain words similar to those found onartifacts*related todemons fromBabylonia. One bowl describes a demon as alion with flashing eyes thatbreathes fire, similarto someof the combined creatures ofBabylonia. Egyptians also believed that demons caused illnessesandother misfortunes. SETH, murdererofOSIRIS, the was godworshiped as the god of confusion for many centuries until beliefschangedand he wasseen as a demon.Alsofeared werethe demon servantsofSekhmet,thelioness godor dess. Called murderers, they were thought to beespecially dangerous during the lastfive daysof each year. As did Mesopotamians, Egyptians also believedin theevil-roaming dead andfeared them. They could lurkin anyout-of-the-way placeand harm the living. The Egyptians believed that "anyloss is due to[the roaming dead]: the game seizedin—the field itis[they]who[do]athing like that/' To protect themselves from harm, people conducted ceremonies dedicated to appeasethe roaming also (SeeDeathdead. andBurial; Gods and Goddesses; Mythology; Religion.)

SeeMigration and Deportation.

SeeFood and Drink.

A

natural disaster is a devastating event orseriesofevents causedby the forces of nature. These catastrophes cause life,loss large of numbers ofinjuries, andmajor damageto property. Natural disasters may be sudden events,EARTHQUAKES, such as VOLCANOES, FLOODS, eruptions andof storms orfires. Theymay also occur overalong periodoftime. Changes in environmental conditions, suchasdesertification*or thebuildupofsalt in soil are also disasters with serious socialandeconomic consequences. DROUGHT, disease,and insect plagues* could also bring disaster tosocieties. Throughout history, the Near Easthasexperienced natural disasters that caused direct damage to people andproperty anddisrupted societies 37

Disasters, Natural * plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

by destroying farming, travel, and trade patterns. Disasters weakened once-strong societies, leaving them open to invasion and conquest or forcing their people to migrate elsewhere in search of better land. Sudden Disasters. The fall of some ancient Near Eastern civilizations can be attributed to sudden disasters. The geologically unstable areas in and around the Mediterranean Sea have been frequent sites of earthquakes and volcanic activity. On the island of CRETE, in about 1700 B.C., an earthquake destroyed the early palaces. Around 1500 B.C., the nearby island of THERA in the AEGEAN SEA was completely destroyed by a volcanic eruption. Not only did the eruption cause destruction to Thera, but it also caused volcanic ash to fall on Crete, destroying parts of that island. Scholars believe that the eruption on Thera may have caused earthquakes as well as tsunamis (large, high-speed waves created by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions) that also damaged Crete and disrupted shipping activity on the Aegean Sea. The eruption of Thera has been suggested as a possible source for the story of Atlantis, a legendary island continent that sank into the sea. In the 700s B.C., a particularly strong earthquake struck ancient Israel. The event had such as powerful impact on those who survived it that it was remembered for many generations. Floods occurred frequently in the ancient Near East, especially in the regions near the TIGRIS RIVER. Faster flowing than the EUPHRATES RIVER and greatly affected by local, often violent, storms, the Tigris frequently destroyed lives, property, and crops as they neared harvest. In Egypt, floods caused by the NILE RIVER were more predictable and less damaging. However, in the years of high flood, the river could still submerge towns and villages. A greater problem in ancient Egypt was a low flood. Without the life-giving waters of the great annual flood, Egyptian AGRICULTURE suffered greatly. If a period of years of consistently low floods occurred, famine* could be the result. In fact, some scholars believe that the period of decline at the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.) was the result of internal weaknesses caused by low-flood-induced crop failure and famine. Sometimes ancient peoples were faced with the problem of hordes of insects destroying the food supply. Plagues of locusts seriously threatened food supplies, for people could do little to combat them. The Hebrew BIBLE describes plagues of locusts that struck Egypt in the 1200s B.C. Crop failures brought on by other insects or by plant diseases caused by fungus or viruses could also threaten society, as could human disease itself. These disasters were unpredictable and unavoidable to peoples of the ancient Near East. As a consequence, they depended greatly on the gods' ability to prevent natural disasters. They believed that a disaster could be the result of not worshiping a god properly. For example, Egyptians thought that an unworshiped god would leave Egypt and that disasters would then ensue. Gradual Disasters. Regions in the ancient Near East also experienced gradual disasters, which occurred because of ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES. Large tracts of land became useless in Mesopotamia because of the buildup of salt in the soil from heavy irrigation. Ineffective LAND USE hastened

38

Divorce

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall

*

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Disease

Divination

DIVORCE

*

dowry money or property that a woman brings to the man she marries

*

adultery sexual relations between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse

erosion and the loss of good soil. Ongoing deforestation all around the Mediterranean turned once-green areas into deserts unable to sustain much life. Adequate rainfall was critical, and even a little less rain could tip the balance in areas relying on dry farming*. Many rivers and streams dried up as a result of lack of adequate rainfall. These gradual disasters desolated the land and caused changes to societies just as sudden disasters did. Some societies weakened, enabling conquerors to invade and destroy them. Constant warfare over resources in Mesopotamia grew with the population. Drought and famine in Syria and the Levant* both drew groups together and broke them apart. Other civilizations simply disappeared. Societies that no longer functioned well dissolved again into small groups. This gradual process, called retribalization, occurred repeatedly in areas that saw breakdowns of the societies' ability to maintain themselves. (See also Climate; Economy and Trade; Irrigation; Medicine; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Water.)

See Medicine.

See Oracles and Prophecy.

A

ll the major cultures of the ancient Near East recognized that marriage is sometimes imperfect and impermanent. Married couples could divorce, or formally end their unions, although generally it was easier for husbands to divorce wives than for wives to divorce husbands. Laws, customs, and marriage contracts spelled out the conditions under which divorce was permitted and what the rights of each party were. A husband in MESOPOTAMIA, for example, could divorce his wife for any reason. However, he had to give up all claim to her property and might have to pay an additional penalty in silver. According to a law of about 1801 B.C., from the city of ESHNUNNA, a husband who divorced a wife who had borne him sons was driven away from his house and property. A wife's right to divorce had severe restrictions, though. Many marriage contracts from Babylonia in the 1700s B.C. forbade the wife to divorce the husband on pain of death. Other contracts allowed the wife to divorce the husband but specified that she would sacrifice her dowry*. A few marriage contracts granted the wife the same rights as the husband. In those cases, the women were most likely daughters of rich families or independent widows. While these contracts permitted divorce, it seems that divorce was not often practiced. Marriages were the union of two families, both of whom had interests in the marriage continuing. Divorce was more common in Egypt, where both husbands and wives had the right to dissolve their marriages and to marry other partners. Reasons for divorce included a partner's adultery*, the failure of the marriage

39

Djoser

See

color plate 5,

vol. 2,

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

DjOSER

to produce children, or simple dislike. A letter from around 1200 B.C. also suggests that men wishing to advance their careers divorced wives to marry women with better positions in society. When divorce in Egypt occurred, the wife received the household goods she had brought to the marriage, or their value. Some marriage contracts required a husband to support his wife financially throughout her life, even if he divorced her. If the reason for the divorce was her adultery, however, she forfeited this payment. In general, the husband received custody of the children. The divorce laws of the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) dealt with marriages in which one partner was free and the other was a slave or in which both were slaves. If such marriages produced children and ended in divorce, the wife took one child and the husband gained custody of the rest. Hittite laws concerning divorces involving two free people have not been found, but marriage contracts probably regulated the termination of such unions. Among the ancient Israelites, men could divorce their wives, but women had no such right. A husband probably did not have to get permission from any ruling body in order to divorce his wife, but he was required to take certain measures once he had made his decision. Later divorce laws dating from the Hellenistic* period showed the influence of other legal systems. According to marriage contracts from that period, a Jewish husband could begin divorce proceedings by saying a phrase that had been employed for divorces in Babylonia as well. (See also Family and Social Life; Marriage.)

D

joser (ZHOH»suhr) was king of Egypt early in the Third Dynasty. He founded the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), the first long period of peace and prosperity in ancient Egypt. Djoser is best known for his funerary* complex at Saqqara in northern Egypt, which contains the first PYRAMID.

ruled ca. 263O-2611 B.C. Egyptian king * funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * artisan skilled craftsperson

40

The original plan for the burial site was less elaborate than the final product. Construction took more than two decades, during which time, the plans of Djoser and the royal architect Imhotep changed. In its final form, the tomb became a six-stepped pyramid made of STONE that rose more than 200 feet high and dominated the complex. The pyramid was the first stone building in Egypt and the first example of monumental architecture in the world. The other structures in the complex were models of important temples and palaces, showing all the settings in which the ruler had acted as the link between the gods and the people. These models, like the king's tomb, were made of stone instead of the reeds and mud brick* used for the originals they imitated. Stone made them durable. Djoser's project required a complex government administration to coordinate the artisans* and laborers involved. This building project began an era of stone monument building in Egypt and set a precedent for Egypt's later pyramids. (See also Architecture; Building Materials; Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

Dreams Doctors

DREAMS

divination art or practice of foretelling the future * ecstatic person who communicates directly with gods through an altered mental state such as a trance, dream, or rapture * incubation practice of inviting or stimulating dreams by sleeping in a temple, shrine, or other holy place

* epic long poem about a legendary or historial hero, written in a grand style

* prophecy message from a deity; also, the prediction of future events

See Medicine.

T

oday dreams are regarded as the mind's way of dealing with experiences from one's life. This view, however, is part of modern psychology and is little more than 100 years old. Throughout history, people regarded dreams as signs or warnings about the future. Dreams were also thought to be important messages from the gods. Many cultures in the ancient Near East took dreams seriously. They devoted much effort, study, and ritual to understanding dreams. Various societies recorded them, interpreted them, and classified them. Dream interpretation was one kind of divination*. Although important dreams most often came to kings, priests, or other officials, they could also come to ordinary people. Sometimes dreams came through an ecstatic*, who was often associated with a temple. Another practice, called incubation*, involved sleeping in a holy place in the hope of receiving a divine dream. Priests or other seers interpreted such dreams. Leaders often chose a certain course of action because of dreams they had. For example, GUDEA (ca. 2100s B.C.), governor of LAGASH, followed a dream that instructed him to rebuild a temple. The Assyrian king ASHURBANIPAL (ruled 668-627 B.C.) reported that he saw a goddess in a dream who foretold a military victory. A temple priest reported the same dream. In several versions of an epic* about GILGAMESH, dreams play an important role in the hero's life. Dreams foretell both the arrival and death of Enkidu, and predict several struggles that Gilgamesh undertakes. A HrrTITE version of the epic includes a dream of an assembly of gods. In Egypt, letters from the time of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 19801630 B.C.) show family members writing to deceased relatives, expecting to receive their replies in the form of dreams. The Egyptians also kept handbooks of dream interpretations from the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). One such interpretation reads: "If a man sees himself looking through a window: good. It means being called by his god. If a man sees himself shod with white sandals: bad. It means roaming the earth." More elaborate dream manuals date from the Ptolemaic dynasty (305-30 B.C.). The Hebrew BIBLE records many examples of dreams influencing life. The god Yahweh commands Jacob to return to the land of his birth in a dream. He also promises the land to his people in the famous dream of Jacob's ladder. In the book of Genesis, Joseph interprets two of the pharaoh's dreams to be a warning that famine was coming to Egypt. SOLOMON asks for wisdom in a dream, a wish that is granted. Dreams were an important link to the supernatural world for ancient peoples. The close ties of dreams and prophecy* to religion and leadership made belief in the power of dreams a part of culture for thousands of years. (See also Oracles and Prophecy; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

41

Drought

DROUGHT * deforestation removal of a forest as a result of human activities

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* Levant lands bordering the eastern

shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

42

A

drought is an abnormally long period of insufficient rainfall in a region that causes a significant drop in water levels in the ground, lakes, and rivers and hinders the growth of crops. Droughts can be short and last only a few weeks, or they can continue for years. They are caused by variations in normal CLIMATE and weather patterns, such as annual flooding or rainfall, and their impact may be worsened by human activities, such as the misuse of water and land resources. Some droughts in the ancient Near East were made worse by deforestation* and poor irrigation techniques. Since ancient times, droughts have had far-reaching effects on human societies, causing crop failures, loss of natural vegetation, and depletion of water supplies. Livestock and wildlife, as well as humans, may die of thirst and famine* brought on by drought. Drought can also cause deterioration of the land as fertile topsoils dry out and blow away, leaving land that is not useful for growing crops. When water does fall on deforested land, the ground cannot hold it, so it fails to replenish underground reservoirs. Deforested land becomes dried out and useless for growing crops. Much of the Near East has a dry climate with sparse rainfall. Drought is an ever present threat, and some ancient societies in the region, such as those in Syria and the Levant*, relied heavily on the small amount of rain, which they collected in cisterns. Other societies, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, relied on rivers fed by rains and snowmelt in sources far away. A drought due to little or no precipitation at the headwaters of a river could result in lack of water in those areas. Throughout ancient times, droughts periodically ravaged the ancient Near East, causing great hardship to the people and sometimes contributing to the collapse of societies. On occasion, droughts also caused serious political and economic upheaval. Historians believe, for example, that the fall of the empire of the HITTITES in the 1200s B.C. may have been partly caused by a prolonged drought that weakened the Hittites and left them vulnerable to their enemies. When crops failed to grow, it became necessary to import them from somewhere else, thus placing an economic strain on a society. For example, some historians believe that a decline in the levels of flooding of the NILE RIVER may have resulted in a strain on the Egyptian economy of the Old Kingdom. Droughts also caused the migration of ancient Near Eastern peoples as they sought refuge in places less affected by dry conditions. For example, the migrations of the SEA PEOPLES from the Aegean toward Egypt may have been caused by a combination of drought and famine. Evidence of dried up wells in Greece has suggested that a drought may have caused the Greeks to move elsewhere and colonize in the 700s B.C. Droughts could destroy or completely change people's lives. As a result, drought became associated with ancient religious beliefs and MYTHOLOGY. The Israelites, for example, believed that their god YAHWEH sometimes caused drought as a punishment for the sins of the people. A story from the Hebrew BIBLE tells of the prophet* Elijah's declaration that a drought was occurring because Yahweh was punishing the cult* that was promoting the worship of the god BAAL in Israel. In the story, Elijah and the Baal worshipers hold a contest to determine the true god. When

Dynasties

* fertility ability to become pregnant and bear children or to father children

Dumuzi

DYNASTIES

* succession transmission of authority from one ruler to the next

Yahweh emerges as the true god, the Israelites slay the Baal worshipers, and Yahweh ends the drought with rain. A number of other ancient myths tell of battles between gods, the results of which were varied. In some Canaanite myths, for example, the gods Baal and Mot struggle for supremacy. A victory for Baal, the god of life and fertility*, resulted in seven years of abundance. A triumph for Mot, the god of death and sterility, led to seven years of drought and famine. For ancient peoples, such myths helped account for periods of drought and abundance. (See also Disasters, Natural; Environmental Change; Famine.)

See Ishtar.

A

dynasty is a line of rulers who belong to the same family or group or who trace their descent to a common ancestor. Dynasties exist in kingdoms or empires in which rulership is inherited or passed on from one ruler to the next. Individual dynasties sometimes end because of a lack of heirs. At other times, a ruling family may be overthrown during civil strife. Historically, however, a new dynasty generally rises to replace the old one. The power of kingship was very strong in the ancient Near East, and many successors came to the throne with little difficulty. Sometimes, however, an appointed successor might meet with opposition from high government officials or other members of the royal family. Such situations could lead to political struggles and even to civil wars. For this reason, succession* and the choice of successors were major concerns of kings and royal officials. In most Near Eastern societies, kingship was normally passed from father to son. However, brothers, nephews, grandsons, and even brothersin-law or sons-in-law sometimes assumed the throne after the death of a king. In some cases, women, such as HATSHEPSUT in Egypt, also became rulers. This generally occurred when there were no suitable male heirs or when the successor was too young to assume the throne. Ancient Near Eastern dynasties ensured their continuity by establishing formal plans for an orderly succession. For example, in the 1500s B.C., King Telipinu of the HITTITES issued an edict, or official order, that established rules and standards concerning succession to the throne. Sons generally had the strongest claims to a throne because of the normal rules of inheritance. However, kings could strengthen the claims of others they chose, such as a nephew or son-in-law, by formally adopting that individual as a son. In many parts of the ancient Near East, marriage within the family played an important role in the continuation of dynasties. Kings often arranged marriages between royal families to gain loyalty and support, as well as to ensure an adequate supply of potential successors. Within one 43

Dynasties family, relatives might marry to maintain the purity of the royal bloodline. For example, CLEOPATRA VII coruled Egypt first as the wife of her brother Ptolemy XIII and later as the wife of her brother Ptolemy XIV. Much of the history of the Near East focuses on the rule of its many kings. KING LISTS—documents listing the succession of rulers—and ancient texts documenting the achievements of rulers have been used to establish chronologies and reconstruct the history of these ancient societies. Historians also use dynasties to divide the history of the ancient Near East into units of time, evaluating each individual dynasty as well as comparing it with other dynastic periods.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

Mesopotamia!! Dynasties. Mesopotamia contained many different city-states*, kingdoms, and empires at various periods in the region's history. Sometimes dynasties ruled individual city-states, while at other times they headed larger territorial states. Among the most notable early dynasties in Mesopotamia was that established by King SARGON I of Akkad in the 2300s B.C. This dynasty ushered in a new phase of Mesopotamian history where, for the first time, Akkad and Sumer were politically united. NARAM-SIN, Sargon's grandson, expanded his kingdom's boundaries and created the first true empire in the region. Naram-Sin was also the first ruler in the Mesopotamian region to have himself declared a god. During the period between around 2000 and 1595 B.C., much of Mesopotamia was again divided into separate, independent city-states. The thrones of many of these cities were occupied by dynasties headed by AMORITES, nomadic* peoples who had invaded the region. One of the most notable dynasties in Mesopotamia was that of the KASSITES, who ruled Babylon from about 1595 to 1158 B.C. The longest-ruling dynasty in all of ancient Near Eastern history, the Kassites played a major role in expanding the power of Babylon and bringing about a lasting political unification of Babylonia. Dynasties in Egypt. The history of Egypt is traditionally divided into 30 dynasties that span a period of nearly 3,000 years, from about 3100 to the year 332 B.C., when Egypt was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Historians further organize Egyptian history by dividing these dynasties into several major groups: those of the Early Dynastic period, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Period. Three "intermediate periods'' containing dynasties fall between these groups. Historians refer to the time after 332 B.C. as the Hellenistic period, during which Egypt was ruled by the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties. Some Egyptian dynasties are historically more important than others because of the achievements of their kings or the role of Egypt in their periods. The First Dynasty (ca. 3000-2800 B.C.) is best remembered as the time when the city of MEMPHIS was founded. During the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), Egypt reached the height of its power and prosperity. The dynasties of this period included the most famous rulers of ancient Egypt, among them Hatshepsut, THUTMOSE III, AKHENATEN, TUTANKHAMEN, RAMSES II, and RAMSES III.

44

Ea

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Not all dynasties were ruled by Egyptians, however. At different periods, Egypt was ruled by the HYKSOS—who were invaders from the Levant*—the LIBYANS, the Nubians, and the Persians. Dynasties in the Levant. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, Saul, the first king of Israel, was deemed unfit to rule by the Israelite god YAHWEH. Thus, the kingship passed to David (ruled ca. 1000-970 B.C.). Following the death of David's son and successor, Solomon, the kingdom was split into the states of ISRAEL AND JUDAH. However, descendants of David continued to rule Judah until its capture by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. Christians believe that Jesus was a member of the Davidic family. Dynasties in Iran. The most important early dynasties in IRAN were those of Elam. Between about 2350 and 1500 B.C., three dynasties ruled Elam, including the Sukkalmakh dynasty, which ruled for about 400 years. During this dynastic period, Elam became an independent power and had one of the largest territories in the Near East. Perhaps the most famous Iranian dynasty, however, was the Achaemenid dynasty, whose kings founded the PERSIAN EMPIRE, one of the greatest empires of the ancient Near East. (See also Chronicles; Chronology; Government; Marriage; Queens.)

EA * deity god or goddess

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* artisan skilled craftsperson

A

water god and protector of humanity, Ea (AY«uh) was revered by the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as well as the Sumerians, among whom he was known as Enki, which means "lord of the earth." The son of the sky god ANU and Sumerian mother goddess Namma, Ea was the father of MARDUK, the principal deity* of Babylon. Worshiped as part of a trio of gods that included Anu and the earth god ENLIL, Ea played a major role in creation and was associated with wisdom, crafts, music, and MAGIC. Ancient myths say that Ea helped separate the universe into heaven and earth and then used clay to create humans as helpers to the gods. According to the epics* of Atrakhasis and GILGAMESH, Ea helps humanity escape the great floods sent by an angry Enlil. Aware of Enlil's plan to flood the land, Ea secretly warns a man and instructs him to build a boat and load it with animals, precious metals, "the seed of life of all kinds/' his kith and kin, and artisans*, helping humankind survive. Ea's concern for humans made him beloved by the people of ancient Mesopotamia. Many considered him responsible for bringing culture to humanity. In art, Ea was portrayed as a bearded god wearing a tall headdress studded with several pairs of horns. During the Hellenistic period, this image of Ea became the symbol for the zodiacal sign of Aquarius. Creatures that could represent Ea were the merman (with the upper body and head of a human and the lower body of a fish) and the goat fish (with the fore parts of a goat and the hind parts of a fish). The goat fish became the zodiacal sign of Capricorn. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Creation Myths; Flood Legends; Religion; Zodiac.) 45

Earthquakes

EARTHQUAKES * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * tectonic relating to the structure of the earth's crust

46

A

n earthquake is a vibration or shaking of the earth's crust. Earthquakes range in severity from barely noticeable to extremely destructive. The region from Anatolia (present-day Turkey) southward to Mesopotamia and through Iran is part of a highly active earthquake belt, as are the islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Throughout history, earthquakes have devastated property and people, especially those living in structures made of stone and mud brick*. Although few records exist to document ancient earthquakes, evidence suggests that they occasionally occurred in the ancient Near East. There are two common causes of earthquakes. Tectonic* earthquakes are the result of movements of the plates that make up the earth's crust. The most destructive tectonic earthquakes occur in regions where plates meet near the earth's faults, or fractures. Volcanic earthquakes are associated with eruptions of VOLCANOES. Both are the result of the same underground forces. Earthquakes appear to be the causes or contributing factors of decline and destruction in the ancient Near East. The island of CRETE suffered from a series of earthquakes in around 1700 B.C. These earthquakes destroyed Crete's first palaces, forcing the Minoans to rebuild. Later earthquakes weakened the Minoan civilization on Crete, and power passed from the Minoans to the Mycenaeans who had come from the Greek mainland. A volcanic eruption and a resulting earthquake occurred on the island of THERA in about 1500 B.C. The eruption literally blew the island apart. The explosion, quake, and ash fallout ended all life in the Theran city of Akrotiri. The eruption may also have caused some of the later earthquakes on Crete. Some scholars suggest that the destruction of Thera might be one source of the story of Atlantis—a Greek legend of an island continent that sank beneath the sea. It is probable that the eruption and subsequent earthquake on Thera also caused tsunamis—giant waves of water that can reach 50 feet high and travel 500 miles per hour—in the Aegean Sea. These waves would have caused damage to surrounding lands. As a consequence, shipping and trading on the Aegean were probably disrupted. Other civilizations may have come to an end or had their progress halted by earthquakes. In Syria, the city of UGARIT was probably destroyed by one severe earthquake or by a series of devastating shocks followed by a fire in the early 1100s B.C. One of the levels excavated in the city of TROY in Anatolia appears to have been destroyed by an earthquake around 1300 B.C. The survivors leveled the ruins and built a new city on top of the old one. Some societies tried to fix or avert the damage from earthquakes rather than rebuild. For instance, Egyptians built a bracing wall around the pyramid of King Neferkare Pepy II of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2350-2170 B.C.) because it had been structurally weakened by an earthquake. Historians also suggest that people in ancient Crete may have attached religious symbols to pillars of their houses so that the gods would protect them from earthquakes or fires. Earthquakes are mentioned several times in the Hebrew BIBLE. The books of Amos and Zechariah both speak about an earthquake occurring

Economy and Trade prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

EBI A * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory *

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

*

cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

*

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations among or between kingdoms, states, or nations

* Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

FA ONOMY

\NP TRAPI

in Israel as a punishment from YAHWEH. Another biblical episode from I Kings tells of the prophet* Elijah waiting on a mountaintop—possibly on the SINAI PENINSULA—for Yahweh to speak to him. As he waits, there is a strong wind, followed by an earthquake and a fire.

bla (EB»luh) was a city-state* in northwestern SYRIA. The city was eknown only from references in ancient Akkadian and Sumerian texts until A.D. 1968, when a group of Italian archaeologists* led by Paolo Matthiae identified it with the site called Tell Mardikh. Among the most important discoveries at Ebla was a collection of more than 17,000 CLAY TABLETS inscribed in cuneiform*. The texts provide much information on the administration of palace affairs. They also contain literary, economic, judicial, and political subject matter. Ebla experienced several periods of prosperity and importance from around 3500 B.C. until about 1600 B.C. During that time, Ebla became a regional power, with control over several smaller communities. Trade and diplomacy* linked Ebla with Egypt and kingdoms in Mesopotamia. Ebla's fine woolen cloth was a prized trade product. Around 2350 B.C., the city was destroyed in a fire, probably during an attack by the Akkadians. A rebuilt Ebla flourished again between about 1800 and 1600 B.C., only to fall to another military raid, this one by HITTITES from ANATOLIA. After about 1600 B.C., Ebla survived as a minor village with no political power. Research into Ebla's ruins and texts is providing information on the economic and political life of ancient Syria at a time when city-states were beginning to emerge. The Eblaites were a Semitic* people whose culture and language were related to those of other West Semitic groups, such as the AMORITES and the ARAMAEANS. Elements of their writing system and literature were borrowed from Sumer. (See also Semitic Languages; Urbanization.)

T

he term economy refers to a system in which people obtain and use commodities (articles of trade) they need and want. AGRICULTURE was the foundation of economies in the ancient Near East. The production and distribution of food dominated the economy from earliest times. Although commerce eventually branched out into the management of many goods and services, farming remained the basis of wealth in the ancient Near East. As civilizations in the region grew, their economic systems evolved from small, local economies to large, complex systems in which empires traded and transported resources, finished goods, and labor around the region. Ancient Near Eastern peoples also developed measures of weight and volume to calculate quantities and devised rates of exchange to compare the values of things. As economies in the ancient Near East developed, they increasingly depended on trade, both within a society and with other groups. TRADE ROUTES 47

Economy and Trade increased communication and awarenessof the world.Associeties evolved from small communities to great empires, the changes in economies both caused and demonstrated the advance of civilization.

SOURCES INFORMATION OF * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

48

Archaeologists* and historians have ample material to draw from, even from the periodbefore writing, to learn about economies and trade. They also examine written materials that were kept to record business transactions in ancient times. For archaeologists, remains such as stone tools, dwellings, luxury goods buried with thePOTTERY dead, and are related to economic activities and give clues to economic life in times when no records werekept.Ancient environments, plants, and animals also yield clues to economic activity, as do studies on disease and nutrition.These indicate what sort of goods were readily available to people and what resources might have been acquired through trade. Archaeologists study trade patterns byexamining the materials found at a site and comparing them to materials usually occurring in that region. By examining trade goods, suchaspotteryand metals, archaeologists can determine which societies were in touch with each other the routes they followed to move goods from one place to another. By

and

Economy and Trade

* bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

studying the distribution of goods within a society, they can draw conclusions about how the society was structured and what its people valued. Around 3100 B.C., when WRITING originated in Mesopotamia, people began to maintain records of economic and business transactions. By that time, cities had been established, societies became organized, and newly formed bureaucracies* began to maintain detailed records of exchanges. These records provide a wealth of information about economy and trade in the ancient Near East.

ECONOMY * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

Who Pays the Price? Merchants from Babylon traveling the far reaches of empires also acted as diplomats. Sometimes they paid ransom for those who had been taken captive by other peoples, The merchants were repaid by the captives, but n< if it meant that the captives would lose their properly. Babylonian cap tives were protected by the Code c Hammurabi, which states that if a captive could not pay, the village temple would. The code continues [I]f there is not enough in his village temple to ransom himf the palace shall ransom him. His field, orchard or house shall not be sold for his ransom money.

* second millennium B.C. years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.

An economy is based on the process by which wealth is created, distributed, managed, and used. As civilizations developed in the ancient Near East, new economies emerged and evolved over time. A major change occurred during the Neolithic period*, as people shifted from a nomadic* lifestyle and began to settle in villages and rely on resources found locally. When they began to manage their resources of water, animals, and land, doing so required organization and a greater degree of sharing. Consequently, new economic relationships started to develop among people, and more and different kinds of goods and services became more valuable. Societies that had been based on kinship developed into societies based on rank, privilege, and power based on control of the economy. Soon, when a society produced a surplus of any commodity, that society traded it with other societies and developed relations with them. Economic historians classify economies into three basic types: reciprocal, redistributive, and commercial. In most economies of the ancient Near East, some mixture of these three methods of exchange may have occurred, at least in some periods. In a reciprocal economy, goods are transferred between parties who are both consumers and producers. For example, one farmer might supply grain to a craftsperson who makes pottery. In turn, the craftsperson supplies pottery to the grain farmer. Such an exchange of commodities is called barter. Typically, the bartering parties know each other and have some type of social relationship. This relationship develops further because not all transactions happen at the same time and one person may have to wait to receive goods from the other. This leads people to owe and expect things from each other and to trust the other party to fulfill his part of the exchange. The earliest economies were reciprocal economies. Evidence of barter in the ancient Near East is scarce, however, probably because it existed on a small scale, primarily between individuals or small groups. In a redistributive economy, commodities are deposited at a common institution that then distributes the wealth to people according to their position in society. This system requires a strong central authority to receive supplies and distribute them. People trust the central authority and depend on it to support, provide for, and defend them. When that trust fails, the system collapses. Temples often played an important role in redistributive economies of the ancient Near East. An early second millennium B.C.* archive from a temple in the Babylonian city of NIPPUR contains details of goods coming 49

Economy and Trade

* edict pronouncement of the government that has the force of law

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

into and being distributed from the temple. Redistribution also appears to have been used during the Old, Middle, and New Kingdom periods in Egypt, periods that were characterized by their stability. In Egypt, the responsibility of distributing goods fell to the state treasury. A third type of economy, one familiar today, is a commercial economy, or one in which goods and services command a price in the market. People accumulate wealth by selling these goods and services at the best possible price. The role of commercial economies in the ancient Near East is unclear, but historians know that they existed in such cities as BABYLON and ASHUR. For example, an edict* published by Babylonian king Ammisaduqa in the 1600s B.C. discusses how to deal with debts resulting from commercial transactions. Although ancient economies were run and controlled by central institutions, it is not safe to assume that all economic exchanges were directed by them. For example, although merchants in Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.) were partly employed by the temple or the palace, they were probably able to engage in independent trade. In fact, it was often helpful to a merchant in a foreign land if he was not seen as an agent of a governmental institution. A potential trading partner would be less likely to trade with someone who represented a city or city-state* he was in conflict with. Eventually, a more independent business sector did develop. For example, during the Achaemenid period (538-331 B.C.), many citizens of Babylon were involved in private commerce and banking. Maintaining wealth often became a family business, and many of these families left archives that recorded their transactions and dealings.

TRADE

In economic terms, trade is the regular movement of goods from one area to another. As economies grew and trade became more complex, new materials, methods, and ways of living spread throughout the ancient Near East.

* obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

50

Beginnings of Trade. Trade is based on acquiring materials or resources not found locally. Extensive trade for desirable goods existed long before states with a powerful central authority came into being. For example, obsidian* from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) circulated widely among Neolithic communities in the Levant*. Likewise, lapis lazuli* from Afghanistan was already being transported to southern Mesopotamia before 3000 B.C. In Mesopotamia, the unequal distribution of resources between the north and south led to the establishment of trade. Southern Mesopotamia lacked wood, stone, metals, and in early times, animals and plants for agriculture. These items were abundant in the north, but thin soil and fast rivers there made agriculture more difficult than in the south, where soil enriched by the rivers yielded bountiful grain harvests. Consequently, commodities began to flow between the two regions as each supplied the other's needs. As economies grew, early trade networks were established between societies that demanded raw materials, useful goods, and luxury items. The

Economy and Trade

necessities of life were probably availableinregions where strong economies developed. However,rawmaterialsforother products and projects were sought beyond the regional boundaries. For example, theMesopotamian and Egyptian governments could meet the foodneeds oftheir population, but they had to import many goods, such asmetals, semiprecious'stones, wood, and spices, from afar.Tomeet their needs,the people of the Mesopotamian URUK city-state set up of anactive trade network during the Uruk period (ca. B.C.). 3500-3000 ThepeopleofUruk established colonies in Mesopotamia, Syria, andIran thatprobably served as places where goods producedin Urukwere tradedforthose itemsnot locally available.An extensive networkofroads wasused astrade routes during this period. Trade Goods. Archaeological evidence fromtheancient East Near reveals three groups of trade goods: essentials, staples,andluxuries. Not every type of good wasusedby allmembersof asociety, however. Essentials are items necessaryforeveryday life,suchasgrainandsalt, or for their production, suchasgrindstones (heavy stone disksused for grinding grain and sharpening tools). Recordstoprove that ancient Near Eastern peoples traded these goodsarescant, although archaeologicalevidence does exist. Forinstance, asite innorthern Iraq yielded aroom filled with more than 300 grindstones that were clearly intendedfor trade. Vital trade goods suchasthese were usedbyeveryoneandprobably account for moreof ancient Near Eastern trade thanwritten records reveal. Staples are items that areused toproduce other things, either for direct use or for trade. Most tradein staples involved processed rawmaterials rather than finished goods.Forinstance, timberforconstructionand

51

Economy and Trade

* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

Underwater Discoveries Advances in underwater archaeology have made it possible to discover and anatee cargoes of lost ships from the ancient Near East, givintj a clearer pattern of the quantity and kind of goods traded. No ftonger forted to rely on only written records and artworks, for example, scholars are now able to get their hands on the actual material :remains of trading vessels, For example, a ship from the 1300s B.C that was excavated near Uluburun, off the coast of southern Turkey, has yielded an inventory of such trade goods m silver, tin, and ivory. Even edibles such as olives, figs, grapes, and almonds have been found, providing information on the diet of the ship's crew

shipbuilding was plentiful only in the Levant, and most peoples imported what they needed from that region. TEXTILES were commonly traded. Metals such as copper and tin, which were luxuries at first, became essential materials for craft work and military use. For example, during the time of Old Assyrian period (ca. 2000-1750 B.C.), merchants from Ashur established colonies in Anatolia to trade textiles and tin for silver and gold. Luxury items were important to the government and temple because they reflected the power and prestige of the ruler and his society. In addition, these items were used to adorn, make offerings to, and honor the gods. Shells, lapis lazuli, gold, silver, spices, frankincense and myrrh*, exotic woods such as ebony, or rare materials such as ivory showed the people's and ruler's devotion to the gods who protected them. Consequently, the risk and expense of obtaining luxury goods became the business of rulers and wealthy temples. Trade Routes and Centers of Trade. In the ancient Near East, goods were traded overland, sometimes by donkeys and camels, and by water. Geographic barriers, such as mountains and deserts, determined land routes, as did shifting politics and alliances. The most efficient method of moving large cargoes was by water. Sea traders successfully undertook lengthy voyages on the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Traders sailed to many foreign, sometimes distant lands. Dilmun, present-day Bahrain, was the closest and perhaps most important Mesopotamian trading partner in the Persian Gulf. Merchants in Dilmun acted as brokers because goods such as copper and timber from faraway places, such as Magan in present-day Oman, flowed through there. Magan was the source for a decorative black stone that the Sumerian governor GUDEA sought for statues. Mesopotamian city-states also engaged in trade with faraway lands, such as MELUKKHA, probably in India. Whether Melukkha was the source of the wood and ivory used in Mesopotamian boats and temples or was a temporary stopping place for these goods, there was frequent contact between Mesopotamian and Indian societies. The only distant region to which Egyptians traveled was the land of Punt. Punt, which may have been in present-day Sudan or Ethiopia or in southern Arabia, was a source of exotic animals, spices, gold, and slaves. A number of expeditions, including one sent by Queen HATSHEPSUT, went to Punt. Kings of Israel also sought riches from afar. The Hebrew BIBLE recounts a trip to Ophir, perhaps in present-day Saudi Arabia, to restock Solomon's treasury with gold from that land. The Phoenicians are well known as both explorers and sea traders, who traded with lands as far away as present-day England and the Atlantic coast of Africa. Such trips indicate the willingness of ancient Near Eastern peoples to explore new sources of wealth for their economies. Methods of Exchange. For trade to succeed, the merchants involved must be able to exchange items of comparable value. From the Neolithic period, when barter was the chief mode of exchange, ancient Near Eastern

52

Edicts See color plate 3, vol. 2.

* third millenium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

EDICTS

peoples had developed methods to determine the value of goods. Over time, other methods came into use, eventually resulting in specific objects of exchange, such as coins. Metals such as copper, bronze, silver, and gold represented values and were items of exchange. Silver, which was more available than gold, was favored. Goods came to be valued in terms of weights of silver. For example, during the late third millenium B.C.*, in the city of LAGASH in southern Mesopotamia, 8.5 bushels of barley were worth 0.3 ounces of silver. Such systems of equivalence allowed for ease of accounting and standardization of values. In Egypt and elsewhere, gold, silver, copper, and grain were used as currency. Eventually, some metal moneylike objects appeared. Texts from the Old Akkadian period (ca. 2500-2000 B.C.) through the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) refer to precious metals being cast into rings that may have been used as currency. Silver broken into pieces may also have been used to value goods. The earliest coins came from Lydia, in Anatolia, in about 650 B.C. Coins were marked to identify the issuing authority and to certify the purity of the metal and perhaps their weight. Nevertheless, people always weighed coins to gauge their values. It took hundreds of years for coins to become established in the Near East, and then only under the rule of foreign powers. ALEXANDER THE GREAT increased the production of coins, and their use spread throughout the Hellenistic* world. (See also Cereal Grains; Government; Labor and Laborers; Metals and Metalworking; Transportation and Travel.)

A

n edict is an official decree or proclamation issued by a ruler, ruling council, or some other governing body. In the ancient Near East, edicts enacted policy, determined succession, or created rules and regulations. They had the force of law and were intended to establish order in society. They reflected the ideas about justice held by the people that issued them. Consequently, edicts were often powerful and dramatic documents, written in simple language and a forceful and energetic style and read aloud before an assembly. Texts from the ancient Near East frequently refer to edicts, suggesting that such decrees were probably quite common. However, only a few fragments of such edicts have ever been found. One of the best-preserved examples is the Edict of Ammi-saduqa, a royal decree issued in about 1646 B.C. by Ammi-saduqa, then king of Babylon. In this edict, the king declared certain types of loans illegal, and he suspended the tax payments owed by some classes in society for a period of several years. Ammi-saduqa probably issued this edict in response to hard economic times in Babylon. Two edicts survive from the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The Edict ofKhattushili was issued sometime around 1620 B.C. by king KHATTUSHILI I and dealt with succession to the throne. In this decree, Khattushili disinherited his nephew Labarna and named Murshili, his own grandson, his successor. Probably issued while the king lay on his 53

Education deathbed, the edict was sent out to important officials and nobles of the kingdom. The Edict ofTelipinu, issued by King Telipinu between about 1525 and 1500 B.C., dealt with royal succession as well, but Telipinu went further than Khattushili. His edict established the basic principles for organizing the state and methods for dealing with criminals accused of high crimes, designating an assembly to act as high court. In doing so, Telipinu was probably trying to break age-old patterns of revenge in which entire families were held responsible for the actions of individual family members. The Hebrew BIBLE tells of an edict issued by CYRUS THE GREAT after he conquered Babylonia and marched into Babylon. In this decree, Cyrus told the Jews, who had been exiled to Babylon, that they should return to Judah and rebuild their temple in Jerusalem. This edict was cause for celebration among the Jews, and it brought Cyrus their support. (See also Government; Law; Rosetta Stone.)

E goal of education was to develop literacy* and cultural awareness

education played a vital rile in the ancient Near East. The principal

EDUCATION * literacy ability to read and write * apprenticeship system of training in which an individual learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations among or between kingdoms, states, or nations

54

and to train individuals in the skills needed for the administration of government, the economy, and other aspects of society. However, education was not available to all. Children from the upper classes generally had greater access to formal education than those from the poorer segments of society. Moreover, although there are records of educated females, few girls received any formal education. Nevertheless, all children could learn through apprenticeship* training or by observing their parents and elders at work. Because many ancient Near Eastern societies relied greatly on record keeping and bookkeeping, people who could read and write were needed. Prior to the spread of the alphabet, the complexities of writing in the cuneiform* and hieroglyphic* scripts and the level of mastery required meant that few people could function as scribes*. As a result, reading and WRITING were important skills and became the focus of education. Mesopotamia. Formal scribal* education existed in Mesopotamia from at least the late fourth millennium B.C.* Scribal training may have taken place in private schools that were separate from temples and palaces. Often located in the homes of individuals, these schools primarily taught reading and writing. Some families hired private tutors who taught the sons of the house in their residence. With the growth of Mesopotamian civilization, the need for literate people to serve in government led to the development of state-sponsored schools run by experienced scribes. Known as tablet houses, these scribal schools offered an education that was based on producing highly literate students who could function as administrators. The primary focus was on teaching how to read and write Sumerian because it was the language of commerce and diplomacy*. Students also learned other languages, including Akkadian and local dialects.

Education Students learned languages by copying and studying standard texts as well as various lists, such as sign lists, vocabularies, and grammatical lists. Beginning students also TABLETS learned used CLAY how forto prepare the writing. Discipline was strict, and students could be punished severely for disobedience, tardiness, and other types of improper behavior. Along with languages, Mesopotamian MATHEMATICS, LITERATURE, schools taught andMUSIC. Musicwas especially importantfor individualswho were training for a career in the temples and needed to learn religious songs. Mesopotamians also trained ASTROLOGY, specialists MEDICINE,in divination*, and other fields. Most of these specialists found employment in temples or the government. Some youngsters learned theirfather's trade at home, and specialized knowledge was handed down from one generation to the next by artisans*, priests, scribes, and other professionals. Children in Mesopotamia could also learn a profession through apprenticeship training. Surviving contracts show that boys were apprenticed to learn cooking, carpentry, singing, and other skills.

Education and Religion Thestrong linkbetween educationandreligion among the ancient Israelites developed, part, in fromtheword of Godrevealed as in theTorah(part of th£ Hebrew Bible). In thebookofDeuteronomy, exfor ample,Godsays; "And these words whichcommand I you day shall this be upon your heart; andshall you teach them diligently your chilto dren"(DeuteronomyElse6:7). wherein theBible, King David of Israelpreached that "Wisdom gives strengthto the wise man more than the rulersthat are incity" (Ecclesia astes7:19). Theseandother religious texts encouragedthe ancient Israelites to makeeducation an everyday experiencethatwould enrich mind the andbring them closer toword the of God.

* divination the future

art or practice

* artisan skilled craftsperson

of

Egypt. Throughout ancient times, literacy was essential to success Egypt, and scribes were among the most important people in society. During the third millennium B.C., usually only the sons of royalty and high officials received a scribal education, and there was little opportu nity for the nonelite population to become literate. A student learn to become a scribe if hisfather taught him or official if an was hired to teach him. Princes and sons of high-ranking officials might have also received an education at palace schools. the government established foretelling During the Middle Kingdom period, many state-run scribal schools. This led to an expansion of education among children of diverse backgrounds and also to a more uniform education system. By about the B.C., 1500seducation had become quite widespread, and even boys of modest background could attend scribal schools such as those attached to temples, palaces, and other state-run institutions. Scribal training in Egypt involved a long period of education. Students entered school as early as age 6, and they might continue their education until age 20 or older. Elementary training lasted about four years, after which students began advanced work. The scribal schools aimed at producing competent administrators to serve in the government in a civil or military capacity or to serve at temples. Young men training for the priesthood learned practical matters such as managing temple property and personnel in addition to their normal studies. Students also studied suchsubjects as grammar, mathematics, science, and other languages. They generally learned by copying standard texts, writing down materials recited by teachers, and writing lists of words that they had memorized. Students were expected to memorize ancient literature and to be able to recite it. As in Mesopotamia, discipline at schools in Egypt was strict, and students could be severely punished for disobedience or laziness. Boys could also learn theirfather's profession by working with him from an early age. Similarly, girls were taught domestic skills by their 55

Egypt and the Egyptians mothers or other female relatives. Some children learned skills in architecture, engineering, and sculpture from other adults through a system of apprenticeship. Apprentices were expected to give their teachers the same respect they would give their parents.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * second millenium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIANS * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

Other Parts of the Near East. The need for literate individuals led to the tradition of scribal education being adopted by other cultures in the ancient Near East. However, the simple alphabetic writing system developed in the Levant* at the end of the second millennium B.C.* permitted the gradual spread of literacy across the entire ancient Near East, from Egypt to Persia. Education was especially important to the ancient Israelites, and it was strongly tied to their religion. It was the scribe's duty to copy the sacred laws of the god YAHWEH and to read them to the people. In this manner, more people—literate and illiterate—could learn and uphold the religious principles the Israelites believed in. Early education in Persia was based on teaching the Zoroastrian religion and ethics. Later these religious principles were taught along with disciplines such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and fine arts. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Family and Social Life; Libraries and Archives; Schools.)

T

he ancient Egyptians are known for having had one of the oldest and greatest civilizations, marked by such achievements as its massive stone PYRAMIDS. Ancient Egyptian civilization continued for almost 3,000 years, making it one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history. Ancient Egypt's long history was due in part to several strong and stable central governments. Moreover, the Egyptians were able to retain and preserve their identity because their conquerors assimilated* their ways rather than forcing the Egyptians to assimilate.

GEOGRAPHY

* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

Egypt is located along the NILE RIVER in northeastern Africa. It is bordered on the south by Sudan; on the west by Libya; on the east by the SINAI PENINSULA, eastern desert, and the Red Sea; and on the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The borders of ancient Egypt changed through time as it grew more or less powerful and expanded or lost territory. Nonetheless, the populated areas of ancient Egypt generally consisted of three regions: the large Nile River delta*, known as Lower Egypt; the Nile River valley south of the delta, known as Upper Egypt; and the low-lying Faiyum Depression, fed by the Bahr Yusef branch of the Nile River, to the west of the Nile near the delta. The population was concentrated in these three regions because they were the only places where the hot, dry conditions of Egypt's desert were relieved by the floodwaters of the Nile. The Nile River and Delta. The Nile River flows from the central African highlands in the south to the Mediterranean Sea in the north. It

56

Egypt and the Egyptians

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* oasis fertilearea in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi.oases * arable suitable for

growing crops

* dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from the

was amajor transportation route in ancient Egypt, and many individuals made a living transporting goods and people up and down river. the The Nile also providedfoodfor the Egyptians. It was a source fish, an of important component of the ancient Egyptian diet. More significantly,the Nile's annual flooding madethe surrounding AGRICULlands suitable for TURE. As a result,the lands could sustaina large population. The extent of the Nile's annual flooding depended on the amount of rain in central Africa. Some yearshad much lower floods than usual, causing cropfailure, highfood prices, and famine*. Other yearshad much higher floods than usual, causing equally disastrous effects. Years of unusually high or lowfloods were often markedby socialand political instability. This was because Egyptians believed that their rulers were directly responsible for agricultural success and blamed the government when famine occurred. The many branches of the Nile Delta overflowed their banks each summer, allowingfarming in the surroundingfloodplain. fact,Inthe delta had even greater agricultural potential than the Valley, Nile and by 3100B.C., it had several well-established B.C.,the towns. delta By re-1400 gion dominated Egyptian economy and politics because of its agricultural wealth and closeness to the other civilizations in the Near East.

Faiyum Depression and Other Populated Areas. The Faiyum pression is a lakeand anoasis* westof the Nile River.It was settled by farmers as earlyas B.C.7000 and, likethe Nile River valleyand delta, became more intensivelyfarmed and heavily populated over time. Around 1800B.C., the water level of the lake was brought under control, and CANALS were builtto increasethe amountof arable* After land. this, the Faiyum became one of the most prosperousand heavily populated areas of ancient Egypt. The Egyptian people also settled in several places in the desert west and east of the Nile. To the west, the settlements were centered on oases, many of which were onmajor trade routes. Sitesin the desert eastof the Nile were heavily populated because they were important sourcesof minerals, such as gold and copper,and building materials, suchas sandstone and quartzite. Someof these sitesmay have been workedby local populations under Egyptian control rather than settled by Egyptian people. The eastern desert also was the route to the Red Sea, an important trade destination.

HISTORY Most modern historians divide ancient Egyptian history into several kingdoms and periods on the basis of the work of the Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived in B.C.theManetho 200s listed all the kings of ancient Egypt known to him and grouped them into dynasties*. Although historians know that Manetho's list is not completely accurate, much of the information contained on this list does correspond with what they know about the rulersof ancient Egypt.The succession of dynasties reflects thefact that ancientEgypt's historywas markedby periodsof stability, invasion, and instability. 57

Egypt and the Egyptians Each of the more than 30 dynasties that ruled ancient Egypt consisted of a succession of related kings.At several pointsinEgypt's long history, two, or perhaps even three, dynasties ruled different in partsof the country at the same time. The position of king was inherited, and it usually passed to the oldest son of the king's chief wife, although other sons or daughters occasionally took the throne. One dynasty ended and a new one began when a king died without leaving a suitable heir or when outsiders seized power and started their own dynasty. During after and the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 1529-1292 B.C.), kingsin Egypt were giventhe title pharaoh, a term that had been used earlier refertoto the palace. The king was considered the embodiment HORUS. of theIngod this divine role, the king was the high priest of the Egyptian religion and the sole mediator between the gods and the EgyptianAfter people. death, many kings were declared gods and worshiped along with the other Egyptian gods. * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * domesticatedadaptedortamed for humanuse

58

Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods.B.C., Until about 5500 Egypt's population consisted of small nomadic* groupswho livedby hunting, gathering, and fishing. Around that time, new immigrants from westAsia appear to have moved into Egypt, bringing knowledge farmof ing and domesticated* crops. The immigrants settled in villages and established more complex societies. Their settlements grew, an eventually,

Egypt and the Egyptians * predynastic referring to the period before 3000 B.C., when Egypt's First Dynasty began * literate able to read and write

Stumbling Into History In the A.D. 1990s, an important discovery was made when the leg of a stumbling donkey went into what turned out to be an opening to a 2,000-year-old tomb. Archaeologists investigating this site at the Bahariya Oasis, 230 miles southwest of Cairo, found a large, apparently undisturbed tomb complex that extends for several square miles and may contain thousands of mummies. The first 105 mummies to be examined date back to the A.D. 1 OOs, when Egypt was ruled by the Roman Empire, The mummies—men, women, and children—range from being plainly wrapped to wearing elaborate, painted masks.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

small, local kingdoms emerged in the Nile Valley. Historians refer to this period as the Predynastic* period. Toward the end of this period, the peoples of the Nile Valley came in contact, either directly or indirectly through trade, with the literate* Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia and their neighbors, the Proto-Elamites of southern Iran. By about 3100 B.C., a few strong kings had come to dominate Upper Egypt. According to Manetho, one of them, King Menes, conquered Lower Egypt and unified the country in about 3000 B.C., founding the first Egyptian dynasty. Menes strategically located the capital of the newly unified Egypt at MEMPHIS, on the border between Lower and Upper Egypt. Menes' successors, the kings of the first two dynasties, reinforced their hold on the country and strengthened the kingdom's central government. Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. By the time of the Third Dynasty, Egypt entered the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), which was characterized by an era of stability, prosperity, and strong central government. During the Old Kingdom, many of the distinguishing characteristics of Egyptian civilization were established. By then, Egyptians had already invented a paperlike material from PAPYRUS, and their system of writing, called HIEROGLYPHICS. These inventions enabled them to keep the many records needed by the large central government, which had also become very wealthy by this time. The government's wealth and strength are apparent from the massive stone pyramid constructed during the reign of King DJOSER of the Third Dynasty. In fact, the Old Kingdom period is often called the pyramid age because later kings of the period commissioned more and larger pyramids. By around 2200 B.C., the Old Kingdom had become severely weakened. Several factors may have contributed to this, including the increasing inability of the king to control local leaders and unusually low floods of the Nile that may have led to crop failure and famine. The resulting social unrest was followed by the collapse of the central government around 2130 B.C. Local kings asserted their independence, and Egypt became fragmented. This marked the beginning of the First Intermediate period (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.). During this period, a civil war existed between two rival dynasties, one from Heracleopolis whose members made up the rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.). The other dynasty was from THEBES, and its members became the Eleventh Dynasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.). Whereas Heracleopolis was the capital at the beginning of the First Intermediate period, Thebes became the capital after the victory of the Theban dynasty. Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. Around 1980 B.C., King Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II of the Theban Eleventh Dynasty gained control of Lower Egypt and reunited it with Upper Egypt, marking the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. During this period of strong, stable central government and prosperity Egyptian kings built brick pyramids, conquered much of Nubia, and engaged in trade with the Canaanite city-states* in western Asia. Many Canaanites, attracted by Egypt's new prosperity, settled in the eastern Nile Delta. The Middle Kingdom period was also a golden age for Egyptian literature and art.

59

Egypt and the Egyptians AmenemhetI, the founderof the Twelfth Dynasty (ca. B.C.), 1938-1759 reinforced Egypt's unity by moving the capital LISHT, near north Memto phis. Kings of this dynasty also expandedEgypt'sbordersand divided Egypt intofour regions.The final rulerof the Twelfth Dynastywas a queen, Nefrusobek, whose reign ended around B.C.Two 1759dynasties then ruled Egypt. The Thirteenth Dynasty, with some 50minor kings, ruled from Memphis, while at the same time, the Fourteenth Dynasty held the eastern Nile Delta. By around 1630 B.C., invaders from western HYKSOS, Asia, called took control of the Nile Delta. They then moved south, taking over much of the Nile Valley. This launched the Second Intermediate period (ca. 1630-1523 B.C.), during which several native kingsofUpper Egypt ruling from Thebes tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Hyksos.

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. B.C., Around 1 AHMOSE, the first kingof the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. B.C.), 1539-1292 succeeded in defeating the Hyksos and reunited Egypt. Ahmose's rule ushered in the New Kingdom period, the third and longest period of strong, stable central government in Egyptian history. During this period, Egypt achieved its greatest riches and power, controlling lands as farawayas Nubia to the south and northernSyria to the east. Theenormous temples and tombs constructed at the capital ofThebes during the times of the New Kingdomreflect Egypt's great wealth at that time. The New Kingdom lasted almost 500yearsand included the reignsof some of the best-known rulers of Egypt, many from the EighteenthDynasty, suchHATSHEPSUT, as one of thefewwomento rulein her own right. THUTMOSE III,who succeeded Hatshepsut, securedEgypt'sempire inwestern Asia which extended to the Euphrates River in northernSyria. Amenhotep III, who is known for hispeaceful reign, built great monuments, such as a temple to LUXOR. AmunatAKHENATEN was the leader of a shortlived but dramatic culturaland religious TUTANKHAMEN revolution. is famous today for the incredible treasures found buried in his tomb. Another well-known RAMSES king,II of the Nineteenth Dynasty (ca. 1292-1190 B.C.), ruled for 67 yearsand built more monuments—suchas the templeABU atSIMBEL—thanany other Egyptian king. Ramses IPs successors were weak.In about B.C.,the 1200 Twentieth Dynasty came to power under circumstances that are not entirely clear. The Twentieth Dynasty's best-known RAMSES III, king, did repela massive invasion of the NilePEOPLES. Delta SEA by However, the his successors were also weak, and by aroundB.C., 1075 Egyptwas again split among minor local kings. This was the beginning of athird period ofdivided rule, called the Third Intermediate period. This time, no local Egyptian kingwasableto reunite Egyptand establish another period of strong central government. Egypt's neighbors were stronger than they had been in the past, and trying to resist their invasions drained Egypt economically. Libyans from the west moved into the delta and took over Lower Egypt, ruling there as the Twenty-second through the Twenty-fourth Dynasties (ca. B.C.). 945-712 Nubians from the south took control of Upper Egypt.ByB.C., around the 760 Nubians had conquered Lower Egypt as well and reunited Egypt under the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (ca. 760-656 B.C.). 60

Egypt and the Egyptians

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and westernAsia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in B.C. 323 * sluice human-made channel or passage to direct water flow * silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water * levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding

Late and Greco-Roman Periods. TheNubian conquest marked beginning of theLatePeriod,a long period with intervals foreign of and native rule in ancientEgypt that lasted until the end of the ancient Egyptian civilization. BeginningB.C., around the Assyrians 671 launcheda series of attacks directly against Egypt. The last TAHARQA, Nubian fled, king, and in his place the Assyrian ASHURBANIPAL, king rather thanbecoming the pharaoh himself, established local rulers throughout the country. When the Assyrians withdrew, the local rulers Sais at in the Nile Delta were able to reunify the country under the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. This last greatnative dynasty of Egypt lastedfor abouta century.The Persians held Egypt twice,firstfrom 525 B.C., untilwhen 404 local Egyptian rulers were able to free themselves temporarily,and again between B.C. 343 and 332 In 332B.C., ALEXANDER GREAT THE of Macedonia seized Egypt from the Persians and began the Macedonian B.C., dynasty. Alexander In 331 founded the city of Alexandria, which went on to become one of the most important cities of the eastern Mediterranean. Alexander ruled Egypt until his death B.C., after in 323 which his empire, which extended from Macedonia and Greece to the Persian empire and beyond, was divided by his generals.One of PTOLEMY his generals, I, ruled Egypt asgovernor. In 305 B.C., Ptolemy foundedthe Ptolemaic dynastyB.C.), (305-30 under which Egypt achieved a new splendoraspartof the Hellenistic* world. The Ptolemaic dynasty was the last dynastyto rule ancient Egypt. It ended when CLEOPATRA, last rulerof the dynasty, committed suicidein 30B.C. after Rome's captureof Egypt. Egypt became aRoman province. It enjoyed prosperity, but most of its wealth wastransferredtoRome.

ECONOMY Throughout all these periods, the economy ofancient Egyptwasprimarily based on agriculture. Most of the land wasdivided intolarge estates owned by the government or major temples.A fewlarge estates were owned by wealthy individuals, including membersof the royal family, high-ranking priests,and government officials. Regardlessof who owned the land, it was actually workedby hired laborers,whowere paid withrations, including a shareof the crops. Other sourcesofwealth included stones for building, precious stones, and minerals, all of which were owned and exploited by the government. Agriculture. The wealth of ancient Egypt always depended first and foremost on agriculture. Egyptians depended on the floodwatersof the Nile River to provide them with the water necessaryto grow crops. Between July and October each year,the Nile floods becauseofheavy rains in centralAfrica. A.D.Since 1830, these floods have been controlled by a series of dams and sluices*. In ancient times, the floodwaters covered most of the land in the Nile Valley. Silt* carriedby the floodwaterswas deposited on the land, enriching the soil in the surrounding valley and building up natural levees* along the river banks. When thefloodwaters subsided, water was trapped in the valley behind the levees. Once the water soaked into the ground,farmers plowed the fields with wooden 61

Eating and EntertaininginEgypt

plows pulled by oxen and then scattered seeds on the Enough moisture was held by the soil to allow crops to The food crops the Egyptians grew provided them with a rela healthy diet. The main crops were wheat and barley, which were u make bread, porridge, and beer, all staples of the diet. Legume peas, beans, and lentils, provided sources of protein. A variety and vegetables added vitamins and minerals to the diet. Papyrus and FLAX crops were also very important in ancient Egypt. Papyrus, which was used to make a paperlike material, could swampy areas that were not suited for other kinds of crop many uses—sails, ropes, and linen for clothing—and was land areas.

In ancient Egypt people of all classes washed their hands before meals and ate with the fingers of the right hand. During feasts or banquets, people often sat on the ground next to a small table holding their food. Good table manners were very important, and ancient texts on etiquette warn against appearing greedy or gluttonous. The presentation of food was also imTrade. Most Egyptians worked as farm laborers, and in exchan portant Meals were often carefully arranged on mats and decorated their labor, they received enough grain and other crops tofeed t with flowers. Garlands of flowers ily and to barter for the other goods they needed. The Egyptian eco were used to adornjars of wine anc worked on a system that economists call redistribution. In beer. Among the upperclasses, din system, goods are collected by a central authority, such as the ner guests were treated lavishly, ment, and are allocated to the people according to their posi with servants towash and dry their hands,serve their food and drink, work in society. and anoint them with scented oils. The redistribution system worked well as long as the authority

central government was strong. When the central governmen lapsed, the system was undermined. The redistribution system prob fell apart after an economic crisis during the Twentieth Dynasty ( 1190-1075B.C.).After this time, the government had less the trading system.

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Egypt and the Egyptians How Does It End? Ancient Egyptian literature has several examples of fairy tales and folktales. Perhaps one of the more mysterious tales is the one known as The Prince and His Fate or The Doomed Prince. It tells of a prince who is fated at birth to die as the result of a dog, snake, or crocodile attack. The prince goes to seek his fortune in western Asia and marries a princess while trying to avoid his destiny. Although one of the story's themes is the inevitability of meeting one's fate, no one is sure of the ending of the prince's story. Only one copy of the story exists, and its final pages are missing. As a result, the doomed prince has managed to evade his destiny for thousands of years.

* hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * deity god or goddess * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* mummification process of embalming and drying a dead body and wrapping it as a mummy

See color plate 1, vol.3.

Trade, in one form or another, was basic to the ancient Egyptian economy. Almost everything that was grown or made was bartered, or exchanged directly for other goods or services. The direct exchange of goods and services occurred at all levels of ancient Egyptian society. There was private barter between individuals, gifts and tribute from Egyptian citizens to the king and temples, and trade and gift exchanges between the king and the leaders of city-states.

CULTURAL HISTORY Many aspects of ancient Egyptian life reflected the Egyptians' religious beliefs. These beliefs were not only seen in Egyptian religious practices but in their art, architecture, and literature. The ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphics* to record their view of the world and transmit it to future generations. Religion. Egyptian religion was based on the belief in a large number of deities*. Some of the most important deities included AMUN, creator god of Thebes, who eventually was merged with Ra to become the great state god of the New Kingdom; Isis, goddess of nature; SETH, god of storms; and OSIRIS, god of the dead. Although religion was a part of every level of ancient Egyptian society, historians know most about the official state cult*. They also know about the burial practices of ancient Egypt, because these are preserved in monuments, tombs, and artworks. Far less is known about the everyday religious practices of the ordinary people. Ancient Egyptians believed that if the gods were not served, they would desert Egypt and great misfortunes would result. It was the king's duty to serve the gods by building and maintaining magnificent temples and by observing the daily rituals of the state cult. In return, the gods assured the Egyptian people peace and prosperity. The Egyptian religion was the first major religion to adopt the belief in an AFTERLIFE. This belief was reflected in many religious practices, including preserving dead bodies by mummification*, building tombs to house the dead, and worshiping dead ancestors. Egyptians also buried the dead with objects that would be needed in the afterlife, such as the BOOK OF THE DEAD, which contained writings guiding the deceased to Osiris;s region of the dead, as well as clothing, furniture, cooking and eating utensils, and food. Painted pictures of these items could be substituted for the actual objects. In later periods of Egypt's history, animal worship became very popular. Bulls, cats, rams, and many other animals were believed by some people to be sacred, and they were buried in ceremonies along with deceased people. Art and Architecture. The ancient Egyptians are perhaps best known for their pyramids, the oldest and largest stone structures in the world. Most were built during the Old Kingdom period as tombs or monuments for Egyptian kings. 63

Egypt and the Egyptians

See map in Pyramids (vol.4).

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

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Although the pyramids were built more than 4,000 years ago, it is easy to see why they are considered marvels of architecture and engineering. Building them required knowledge of mathematics, as well as precise measuring and surveying skills. Organizing and overseeing the huge labor force and all the materials needed to build the pyramids was an amazing feat, and it reflected the strength of Egypt's central government. Remains of many stone temples and other religious buildings from ancient Egypt also exist. The temples built during the New Kingdom were especially magnificent. Many had features that were designed to resemble plants and other natural objects. For example, some temples had columns carved to look like palm trees. Painting and sculpture were the major forms of official art in ancient Egypt, and both reached a high level of skill and artistry. Most artworks were created to decorate tombs or temples. For example, artists covered the walls of tombs with paintings and bas-reliefs* showing family scenes for the deceased to enjoy in the afterlife. The best-known sculpture from ancient Egyptian times is the Great Sphinx, a huge statue of a man's head on a lion's body. It is located close to the Great Pyramid at GIZA and probably represents King Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2625-2500 B.C.). The statue is massive, rising 66 feet in height and covering 240 feet in length. The style of art in ancient Egypt was very distinctive. Figures and objects were not represented as they would appear to an observer. Instead, they were drawn or sculpted following a set of rules that, because of their consistency, were meant to make them easy to recognize. For example, representations of people in reliefs* almost always showed the head, legs, and feet in profile and the rest of the body facing the viewer. Also, artworks showing both the king and ordinary people always showed the king much taller than the others to reflect the king's importance. Language and Literature. The Egyptian language is a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. The language, which was spoken in Egypt since predynastic times, probably started out as a Semitic* language spoken by immigrants to Egypt from western Asia. Then, as the original Semitic language spread throughout Egypt, it picked up features of the North African languages spoken by the indigenous* people. Around 3000 B.C., Egyptians invented hieroglyphics—picture symbols that represented different ideas as well as sounds—to record their language. Scribes* used hieroglyphics to inscribe monuments and temples. They also used a cursive form of hieroglyphics to keep records and write letters on papyrus scrolls. During the Old Kingdom period, Egyptians used writing chiefly for record keeping. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, written literature had developed. Literature blossomed in the New Kingdom and flourished even more during the period of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Scribes produced huge numbers of papyrus scrolls written in cursive hieroglyphics, many of them simply as penmanship exercises. The scrolls included autobiographies, scientific works on subjects such as mathematics and astronomy, religious writings, hymns, poetry, letters, fairy tales, fables, short stories, and essays. A common theme was how to behave well

Egypt and the Egyptians and ensure a happy life after death. Thousandsofscrolls accumulated in ancient Egypt's many libraries.ThelibraryatAlexandria was thelargest, with almosthalf a million scrolls. Ancient Egypt alsohad avery strong oral literature tradition. fact,In much of Egypt's recorded literature came originally fromtheoral tradition. In addition, many piecesofwriting were meantto beread aloud,including letters and texts.As aresult, bothoratorsandstorytellers were greatly admired and respectedin Egyptian society.

FAMILY AND SOCIETY Ancient Egyptians viewed and portrayed themselves not asindividuals but as part of a largerunit—a familyor asociety.Aspartofthese units, Egyptians lived in communities ranging infrom size villages tocities.

* apprentice Individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field

Family. The basic social unit in ancient Egyptwas thenuclear family, which included afather, amother,andtheir children.The fatherwas the head of thefamily, a reflectionof the general male dominanceinancient Egyptian society. When the father died,hisoldestsonbecame headof the family. The main purpose of marriagewas toproduce childrenwhowould provide labor and support their parents when they grew old. Children usually started helping their parents aroundthehouseor in fields theas soon as they were old enough to dosimple chores. fact, In thisis how most children learned their adult occupations. Girls would learn domestic skillsfrom their mothers and boys would learn theirfathers'occupations. A few children served as apprentices*to carpenters, pottery makers, or other skilled workers. Some girlsmayalso have been apprenticed in professions such asdancing orweaving. Only boys fromwealthy families couldafford to go to school, andmost schoolchildren studied to be scribes. Social Classes. Thepeople ofancient Egypt belonged tothree main social classes, oftenreferredto asupper, middle,andlower classes. Social class was inherited but not necessarily fixedpermanently. Through marriage or hard work,a person could riseto ahigher social class. The tiny upper class included members of theroyal family, offi- army cers, doctors, wealthy landowners,and high-ranking government officials and priests. The somewhat larger middle class included merchants, skilled craftspeople,and manufacturers.Thelargest class,thelower class, consisted of unskilled workers, mostofthem farmlaborers. Prisoners of war formeda separate classofslaves. Egyptian society gave women many of the same rightsasmen, such as the right to own and inheritproperty, filelawsuits, and obtain a divorce. In addition, women served aspriestesses in thetemples. Ethnic Diversity. Despite marked class differences,ancient Egyptian society was remarkably uniformin beliefs its andvalues, especially considering the ethnic diversityof itspopulation. first Egypt settled was

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El

by people moving into the Nile Valley from virtually every direction, including Libyans from the west, Nubians from the south, and Semitic peoples from the east. People from other cultures who were attracted by Egypt's rich farmland and wealth continued to move into Egypt throughout its history. The ability of ancient Egyptian society to assimilate people of many different ethnic backgrounds without prejudice was one of its characteristic features. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Education; Ethnic and Language Groups; Government; Law; Mummies; Nubia and the Nubians; Persian Empire.)

EL * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * deity god or goddess * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

ELAM -\NP i\ EL AMI ITS * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

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O

riginally a Semitic* word meaning god, El (AYL) later became associated with a specific deity*. El was worshiped in some form by various ancient Semitic peoples, including the Phoenicians and other Canaanites. The god YAHWEH is sometimes called El in the Hebrew BIBLE. El was the head of the Canaanite pantheon*. He was king of the gods, the creator of the earth, and the father of humanity. Much of what we know about early Canaanite religious beliefs comes from texts found at UGARIT, a Syrian city that flourished in the second half of the second millennium B.C.* Ugaritic texts show that El played an important role in Canaanite mythology. Although El was the chief god, he did not play an active role in the everyday lives of gods or humans. Instead, he was thought of as an aging god, respected but somewhat withdrawn from the forefront of religious activity. In fact, a small stone statue of El found in the ruins of Ugarit portrays him wearing a beard and crown, slouching on his throne in a way that suggests weariness, perhaps even sadness from being overwhelmed by the cares of the world. Some scholars believe that the early Israelite pantheon included some deities familiar to their Phoenician and other Canaanite neighbors, including BAAL. Over time, the Israelites associated El with Yahweh, a god worshiped only by the Israelites. For this reason and because the word el sometimes meant god in Semitic languages, writers of the Hebrew Bible used El as an alternative name for Yahweh. They also created names based on the word el, including Elohim (a plural form of El), El-Bethel (god of Bethel), and El-Olam (Eternal god).

e

ablished as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, Elam (EE*luhm) as an ancient kingdom in southwestern IRAN. One of the major powers in the ancient Near East, Elam maintained its independence throughout much of its history despite many invasions. Geography and Culture. Elam consisted of both highland and lowland regions, and the political balance between these areas fluctuated. The lowland region (present-day Khuzestan) was periodically involved in the affairs of MESOPOTAMIA because of its proximity to that region. The highlands in the Zagros Mountains generally remained more independent.

Elani and the Elamites

See map in Persian Empire (vol.

The Most Legitimate Heir An important and unique title in Efamite civilization was "the son of the sister/' which applied to a member of the royal family. Early historians assumed that this meant the king's nephew. In reality, it meant the son whom the king had with his own sister and signified the legitimate heir to the throne. Any children born to women married to the king were considered legitimate heirs, When the king married his own sister, however, the oldest son of their union had a stronger claim to the throne than any of the king's other children—even older ones.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * deity god or goddess * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Differences in geography contributed to economic diversity within Elam. The lowland areas developed a strong agricultural base dependent on irrigation, and settlements there grew quite large. Susa, the capital of Elam, was located on the edge of a fertile plain. However, the lowland areas were dependent on the highlands for metals, stone, and wood. In the highlands, agriculture was limited to small mountain valleys. River valleys were the main access into the highland regions, and the rugged, mountainous terrain limited the size of settlements. Geographic diversity also contributed to the development of regional cultures within Elam. Although no single artistic style emerged in the kingdom, the Elamites shared a language that appears to be unrelated to any other regional language. The Elamites eventually adopted the cuneiform* script from the Sumerians and Akkadians. The Elamites also worshiped many deities*, the most important of whom was Inshushinak, the city god of Susa. They also worshiped many Sumerian and Akkadian gods. Religious activities included rituals, regular public feasts, and OFFERINGS to the gods. The king functioned as the highest priest in the land and was sometimes regarded as divine. A special feature of Elamite religion was a phenomenon known as the kiden, a magical protection associated with a specific god. According to the Elamites, the kiden was expressed in talismans (magical objects) symbolizing and linked to particular gods. These talismans had many uses. For example, witnesses often had to take an oath in a room where a talisman was kept, and fear of the talisman's power ensured that the witnesses would tell the truth. Another unique aspect of Elamite civilization was the importance it accorded to women. Elamite women enjoyed great prestige, and many cities had goddesses instead of gods as patrons*. Priestesses had the same rights and powers as priests. In addition, claims to the throne sometimes passed through the female rather than the male line. Old Elamite Period. The ancestors of the Elamites who lived in Elam as early as the fourth millennium B.C. are known as the Proto-Elamites. Archaeological* sites have yielded SEALS, tablets, and other artifacts* that have shed some light on their culture. The Proto-Elamites, contemporaries of the Sumerians, were an important part of the period during which literate urban culture first developed and expanded. Because little else is known about the Proto-Elamites, historians date the beginnings of Elamite history at about 2500 B.C., the period when early Elamite rulers adapted Mesopotamian cuneiform to the Elamite language. The first main phase of Elamite history, the years from around 2500 to 1500 B.C., is known as the Old Elamite period. By the Old Elamite period, conflict already existed between Elam and Mesopotamia. Texts indicate that the Elamites defeated the army of the Sumerian city-state* of UR at least once before this period. During this period, Elam was ruled by the kings of the Awan dynasty*. During much of this dynasty, Elam periodically went to war with Akkad and the Akkadian empire. Around 2300 B.C., Elam was conquered by SARGON I of Akkad. A later Elamite king made a treaty with NARAM-SIN of Akkad, in which he promised to provide the Akkadians with troops. Although the Akkadians 67

Elam and the Elamites

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

* diplomatic concerning relations foreign powers

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dominated Elam and incorporated much of its territory into Akkathe dian state, they allowed the Elamite kings to rule asvassals*. The Awan dynasty collapsed around B.C., destroyed 2150 perhaps by the Gutians,a people who lived in what is present-day Kurdistan.The Gutians also defeated the Akkadians, ending their empire. Then the Shimashki dynasty came to power in Elam, but little isknown about them. Elam faced a new enemy in the 2000s B.C.—the Neo-Sumerian citystate of Ur.King SHULGIof Ur (ruled ca.B.C.)2094-2047 conquered almost all of Elam. Only the highland regionsElam of kept some degreeofindependence. Eventually, in about B.C., the 1900s Elamites rosein rebellion and destroyed Ur,looting the city and carrying awaythe statues of its gods. The Elamites occupied Urwitha military forcefor 21yearsbut later made peace with the dynasties that came to power. The years between 1900 B.C.and are1600 the best-documented period in Elamite history. This era was dominated by the Sukkalmakh dynasty, also known as the Ebartids. Elam became major a independent power during this period, with one of the largest territories in theNear East. Its influence, though not political control, extended over city-states in eastern Mesopotamia, and it had diplomatic* and economic contacts with kingdomsas farSYRIA. as away At that as time, the Elamite kingdom may have had a political systemin which various membersof the royal family—both maleandfemale—shared power. During the 1700s B.C., Elamite kings became activein militaryalliances against the Babylonians, whose powerwasincreasingin southern Mesopotamia. Around HAMMURABI B.C.,King 1764of Babylon crushed the Elamites. About50 years later, however, King Kutir-Nakkhunte Elam of attacked Babyloniaand conquered manyof its cities. This campaign marked the high pointof Elamite military historyforcenturies. Over the next few hundred yearsthe Elamites faceda number of new rising powers, including HURRIANS thein the northwest KASSITES to and the the north. When theKassites conquered Babylon B.C., theyin the 1500s seem to have brought the powerof the Ebartids Elam in to an end aswell, marking the end of the Old Elamite period.TheElamite kingdom entered a period of decline that lastedfor aboutthe next300years.

Elani and the Elamites The Middle Elamite Period. Elam arose again inB.C., the late 1300s when Elamitesfrom the highlands beganto reconquerthe lowlandsafter the Kassites withdrew from Susa.By theB.C., 1200s Elamhad reemerged as amajor power, witha territory comparableto thatofearlier centuries. During this period, Elamite kings undertook major building programs, constructing new cities, temples, and other public works. Elamite literature, art, architecture,crafts and also flourished,and this period became a golden age of Elamite civilization. In the 1200sB.C.,Elam founditself facinga new power—Assyria. Around 1224 B.C.,the Assyrians took controlof the throne ofBabylon. The Elamites invaded Babylonia soon after, destroyingand conquering many cities and driving out the Assyrian king. However, about twoyears later, King Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria of forced the Elamites out ofBabylon and placed aKassite vassalon the throne. Conflict between Elamand Assyria continued for several years.In the early B.C., 1100s internal conflict in Assyria and struggles between Assyriaand Babylonia weakened the Assyrians and provided a periodof quietfor the Elamites. During thisperiod, the Elamites reorganized their kingdom. Led by the Shutrukid dynasty, Elam extended its control in southern and eastern Iran and launched new campaigns against Mesopotamia, including successful a and devastating invasionof Babylonin aboutB.C.1165 Despite repeated military victories and destruction of Babylonian cities, the Elamites faced continual threats fromthe Babylonians. The efforts to subdue Babylonia may have weakened the Elamites, and in the late 1100sB.C., Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar Ilaunched several attacks against Elam. Around B.C., 1100 the Babylonians attackedand destroyed Susa and overran much of the Elamite kingdom. After this devastatingdefeat, littleis known about Elam duringthe next300years. The Neo-Elamite Period. Elam reemerged inB.C., latewhen 800s it became arefugefor Babylonian opponents Assyria. of The kingdom was much weaker than in earlier centuries,and faced it increasing pressures on almost all sidesfromthe MEDES, Assyrians, and Persians. From 750 to 650 B.C.,Elam again became involvedin Mesopotamian affairs, often supporting Babyloniain its struggle againstthe Assyrians. In 720B.C.,the Elamites allied withthe Babylonians SARGON II of to defeat Assyria. They joinedthe Babylonians again B.C. inand 705defeated the Assyriansat the KISH. cityof In spiteof these victories, the Assyrianswere a formidable enemy.SENNACHERIB, Under King the Assyrians invaded Elam and occupied much of the southern part of the kingdom. They also launched assaults into the highland regionsElam of but were less successful there. Whilethe Elamites struggled againstthe Assyrians,thePersians began occupying parts of eastern Elam, including Anshan, an ancient Elamite royal city. Elam experienced a slow decline throughout this period,due inpart to the conflicts withAssyria and the threats from the MedesandPersians. Elam also faced internal troubles, as rivals competed for the Elamite throne. Because of these problems, the Elamites were unableto counter the Assyrians.In 647 ASHURBANIPAL B.C., King renewed the Assyrian attacks on Elam and the following year conquered and destroyed Susa. Manyof 69

Electrum its leading citizens were sent away to SAMARIA, the former capital of the kingdom of Israel. The Elamite king, Khumban-khaltash III, fled into the mountains, but the people there turned him over to the Assyrians, who soon extended their control over much of Elamite territory. With the Assyrian victory, the history of Elam as a state ended. For a short time, parts of the highland regions in the north remained under Elamite control, but they soon fell into the hands of the Medes. Meanwhile, the Persians gained control of the eastern portions of Elam. Although references to the Elamites persisted until the 200s B.C., little is known about them after their defeat by the Assyrians.(See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylon and the Babylonians, Susa and Susiana.)

Electrum

ENLIL * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops * plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

ENTERTAINMENT 70

See Metals and Metalworking.

S

umerians worshiped Enlil (EN»lil), god of the earth and air, who brought both gentle breezes and the winds sweeping storms. Also known as Ellil or Bel (the Lord), Enlil (translated as "Lord Wind") was one of a trio of gods that included ANU—the sky god—and EA—the water god. Although Anu occupied a higher position in the ancient Near Eastern pantheon*, Enlil played a more significant role. According to Sumerian MYTHOLOGY, he played an important role in creation, separating heaven from earth. Representing energy and force, he was responsible for bringing order and harmony to the universe. Enlil was also the keeper of the Tablet of Destiny, which held the fate of both the gods and humans. According to tradition, local gods received authority from Enlil. In turn, they passed this authority on to the king, who claimed kingship through Enlil. Enlil could be very hostile and cruel to humans and was often prepared to punish them even for minor offenses. As a god of storms, winds, and war, he could send various calamities—including famine*, fire, hurricane, plague*, drought, and flood—to punish sins and protect Mesopotamia against its enemies. The most important center of worship to Enlil during the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.) was at a temple called Ekur (Mountain House) in the Sumerian city of NIPPUR. By the late second millennium B.C.*, however, the Babylonian deity MARDUK inherited Enlil's role in the pantheon of the gods.(See also Creation Myths; Gods and Goddesses.)

I

n the ancient Near East, people entertained themselves with a variety of formal and informal activities. Most individuals worked many hours each day just to survive. Once demands for food, shelter, and safety had been met, people developed pastimes, such as music, dance, banquets, sports, games, storytelling, and performances, to amuse themselves.

Entertainment Music and Dance. Music anddancing were among themostimportant and earliestforms of entertainment.InMesopotamia, Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians developed several musical instruments,including flutes, lutes, harps,and drums, which were played feasts, festiat from bas-reliefs*andpaintings suggests bas-relief kind of sculpture in which vals and celebrations. Evidence material is cut away to leave figures that both men and women might bemusicians, singers, anddancers. projecting slightly from the background Egyptians also enjoyed musical entertainment. Duringtheperiod of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.),musicwasorganized andincluded choirs and chamber groups playing pipesand theharp. Female dancers performed at religious celebrations. In thetime of theMiddle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), dances were performed atpublic andprivate events. Dancers and singers entertained guestsatelaborate banquets.In the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.),foreigners arrivinginEgypt brought new forms of musical instrumentsand newtypes ofdance. HITTITESANATOLIA in (present-day Turkey)developed many forms of music and dance. Most ofwhat isknown about their musicanddance concerns religiousor state rituals. Little isknown about specific the role of Levant lands bordering the eastern music and dance in the private lives of theHittites. However, many docushores of the MediterraneanSea(presentments makereferences to singers, musicians, dancers, mimes,andactors, day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest who probably depended on the palacefortheir living. Bank, andJordan In ancient Syria and theLevant*,people entertained themselves by singing, dancing,and playing musical instruments. BIBLE TheHebrew

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Entertainment

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

See color plate 2, vol. 2.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt See [color plate 15,' vol. 2.

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mentions a variety of instruments, including rattles and cymbals, bells and gongs, large and small drums, pipes and horns, and harps and lyres. Jesters, acrobats, and singers were palace servants in UGARIT, an ancient city in present-day north Syria. When King Hezekiah of Judah was forced to pay tribute* to King SENNACHERIB of Assyria, among the prizes he delivered were professional singers and dancers. Banquets. Giving or attending banquets was a form of entertainment in the ancient Near East, as well as the setting for much of the music and dance. Although little is known about such events, it is likely that the guests participated in feasts, music, dance, processions, and other forms of public and private entertainment. Sumerian bas-reliefs from the early 2000s B.C. depict banquets following a battle, a hunt, and the laying of the first brick of a new temple. The Royal Standard of Ur (an inlaid mosaic panel) depicts a victorious battle scene and the ensuing banquet held by the king. In a bas-relief from the Assyrian palace at NINEVEH, King ASHURBANIPAL celebrates with his wife his victory over the Elamites. In a garden, the king reclines on a couch while his wife sits on a throne. They are surrounded by servants who fan them, offer platters of food, and play the harp. Egyptians held banquets to celebrate many events of a person's lifetime, including birth, marriage, and death. Hosting a banquet could be costly, but for those who could afford them, lavish banquets were important. Guests were draped in flowers and served exotic dishes of poultry or beef seasoned with a wide variety of spices. Music and dancing accompanied the feasts. At higher levels of society, men and women dined separately, but this was not the case at all banquets. Although there are records of feasts in Hittite Anatolia, it is not known whether banqueting for entertainment occurred there. Most of the feasts were seasonal and religious and had a festive atmosphere. The Hittite verb dusk, meaning "to rejoice" or "to enjoy," appears often in descriptions of these festivals. It is likely that people did enjoy purely social banquets, especially persons of high social rank. Banquets were also part of life in Syria and the Levant. In fact, some religious leaders thought ancient Israelites enjoyed feasts too much. The book of Isaiah warns those who "have lyre and harp, timbrel and flute and wine at their feasts" against neglecting their religion. Sports. Sports and athletic contests provided recreation and entertainment for many peoples in the ancient Near East. However, it is not clear when sports became an organized form of public entertainment. Displays of strength were connected to religious belief because they reflected the might of the society and its gods. Such displays of power in Mesopotamia may have been linked to festivals. In Egypt, sports were a common form of entertainment. Pharaohs* showed their skill in archery and hunting, but they never competed with ordinary people. Other than hunting, sports were not considered an acceptable pastime for elite men or women. Commoners participated in sports such as wrestling, boxing, and jousting in boats. Some ancient ball games and stick fights were similar to those played today in Egypt.

Environmental Change In Anatolia, Hittite festivals included sports such as juggling, gymnastics, and athletic contests. Mock battles emphasized military power. As with other forms of entertainment, the focus on state and religious ceremonies makes it hard to determine how much sport was a part of daily life. Sports in ancient Syria and the Levant were linked to skills that society valued. Hunting, archery, running, fencing, wrestling, and horseback riding are all mentioned in the Bible.

* papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri * epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

Enuma Elish

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

Storytelling and Performance. Perhaps the oldest form of entertainment is storytelling. All ancient Near Eastern cultures entertained themselves in this way. Egyptians wrote on papyrus* and told stories, poems, hymns, love lyrics, and epics*. Folktales and history passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. When enacted as performances, these stories were often accompanied by music. Performances of some literary works were part of the cult*. During the Babylonian New Year's festival, the CREATION MYTH (Enuma Elish) was recited, and its battle scenes were reenacted. (See also Dance; Family and Social Life; Feasts and Festivals; Humor; Literature; Music and Musical Instruments; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

See Creation Myths.

C

hanges in CLIMATE and landscape affect plants, animals, and humans. This principle is the basis of environmental archaeology. Experts in this field study changes in climate and landscape to understand the relationships between ancient peoples and their environment. They also examine how human activities cause changes in the environment. Environmental archaeologists believe that changes in the environment create a chain of events that have an impact on economies and society. For example, if a region becomes too dry to support grasses, grazing animals will migrate to other areas. People who depend on these animals have to move or find other ways to live. Studying Environmental Change. Environmental archaeology includes the work of many specialists. Bioarchaeologists examine the biological remains of ancient plants and animals and analyze the substances found in bone and tissues. Paleobotanists study ancient plant life, often by examining seed grains and other plant remains found at archaeological sites. Paleogeologists study the layers of rock and soil that have built up over the ages. Traditional archaeologists analyze the ruins of ancient dwellings, pottery, and other artifacts*. By comparing their findings with current plants, animals, and climatic conditions, these scientists reconstruct the environment as it was in ancient times. Environment of the Prehistoric Period. For most of the early A.D. 1900s, many scientists believed that civilizations emerged in the ancient 73

Environmental Change

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia

74

Near East because of significant changes in the climate there. They suggested that a wet period during the last Ice Age was followed by an increasingly drier climate. This changing climate forced people throughout the Near East to move together into river valleys and oases*, where they began to develop AGRICULTURE and domesticate* animals. Today some archaeologists do not believe that a major drying period caused the rise of civilization in the Near East. Instead, they believe that it was caused by the melting ice near the earth's polar regions, which raised sea levels, changed coastlines, and brought more rainfall. Between about 9000 and 5000 B.C., the climate of the Near East may have been wetter than it is today, although the general climate of the region is about the same as it was 10,000 years ago. Small variations in rainfall can make a great difference to agriculture, especially where rainfall and water supplies are scarce. Such variations account for the movements of some early peoples. In much of the region, however, the greatest agent of environmental change was human activity. Peoples' need for farmland, pastureland, and fuel brought about significant changes in the environment, especially in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA, the Levant*, and Egypt. Changes in Rivers. Ancient Near Eastern civilizations were almost directly affected by the changes in the region's major rivers. In Mesopotamia, periodic flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers made life unpredictable. Ancient farmers did what they could to control the often violent floodwaters. They constructed CANALS and other earthworks for IRRIGATION, making agriculture possible in regions where rainfall alone would not suffice to support human life and crops. People in ancient Mesopotamia were also affected by the changing course of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which often forced them to relocate. Moreover, misuse of land and a buildup of salt in the soil as a result of irrigation caused areas to become unusable for farming. The marshlands in southern Mesopotamia, with their surprising diversity of wildlife, changed boundaries as well. In Egypt, the annual flooding of the Nile River was more predictable and less violent than that of the Tigris and the Euphrates. These floods helped agriculture and contributed to an increase in settlements in the Nile Valley and to the political growth of ancient Egypt. The Nile Valley changed as the human population there increased. As late as the fifth millenium B.C.*, elephants, giraffes, lions, ostriches, hippopotamuses, and antelopes lived in Egypt. However, these animals were later displaced by human settlement. Fields and groves of palm trees also replaced woodlands and various forms of plant life. By about 2650 B.C., the Nile Valley had been dramatically altered by human activities. Changes in Land. Human activity changed the land in the ancient Near East more than did climate. For example, southern Mesopotamia, initially a grassland, became a desert after several millennia* of irrigation and farming. Many societies in the ancient Near East experienced social and political upheaval around 2200 B.C. Some experts believe that changes in climate further contributed to the strife by weakening agriculture.

Epic Literature

* desertification change of useful land into desert through natural processes or human activity * habitat type of environment to which an animal or plant is well adapted

EPIC LITERATURE * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

However, evidence for such climatic change is inconclusive. What is certain is that humans have had a powerful impact on the environment of the Near East over the last 2,000 years. Forests throughout the Mediterranean, from Anatolia to Egypt, were once far numerous than they are today. As people cleared forests for agriculture, firewood, and building materials, the tree cover was dramatically reduced and the forests disappeared. For example, Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon) was once home to cedar forests that attracted kings from throughout the ancient Near East for building materials for their palaces and temples. Large-scale tree loss changed wind and moisture patterns, contributing to drier, more desertlike conditions. As trees disappeared, root systems and ground cover were destroyed, allowing rainwater to run off rapidly. As the water rushed downstream in floods, it eroded the land and carried away fertile soil. Consequently, underground water supplies were not replenished, and natural springs dried up. Some streams that had once flowed all the time flowed only occasionally after heavy rainfalls. Other human activities quickened the process of desertification*. Farmers replaced wooded lands with fields and pastures, eliminating the natural habitats* of wild plants and animals in the process. Subsequent overgrazing by domesticated animals, especially goats, also contributed to desertification. In addition, people drained marshes, destroying the natural resources and filtering action of these wetlands. When people moved or abandoned areas where the environment was damaged, these areas seldom recovered. The result was a drier, bleaker landscape throughout much of the ancient Near East. (See also Drought; Geography; Land Use and Ownership; Migration and Deportation; Rivers; Urbanization; Water.)

A

n epic is a long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style. Such tales of great leaders, warriors, and kings can be found in almost every culture, including those in the ancient Near East. Epics were created as early as 2500 B.C. in Mesopotamia to glorify individual heroes and to honor the values of a warlike class of nobles. Ancient Mesopotamian epics about the rulers of early city-states* focus on the leadership and cunning of these rulers, as well as their conquests. In the epics, the heroes face national or international threats, which they must turn back with wisdom as well as might. The epics also deal with the relationships between the leaders and their gods. The earliest epics may have been recited aloud by storytellers long before they were written down. Later works were written down to be recited or chanted. In ancient Sumer, the major epics that have been recovered tell the stories of such legendary rulers as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and GILGAMESH. In the epic Enmerkar and the Lord ofAratta, Enmerkar of URUK challenges the Lord of Aratta and demands that he recognize Enmerkar as his superior. The Lord of Aratta agrees on the condition that Enmerkar perform many apparently impossible tasks. Enmerkar succeeds and peaceful relations prevail. The plot, albeit very typical, emphasizes cunning over 75

Eridu * deity god or goddess

ERIDU * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

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strength and glorifies the wise ruler. Epics such as this one end in praise of the city's main deity*. In the epic Lugalbanda in Khurrumkurra, the hero is not a ruler but labors in the service of Enmerkar. The youngest of eight brothers, Lugalbanda sets off with his brothers to help Enmerkar fight against the Lord of Aratta. He falls ill along the way, and his brothers leave him to die in a cave. After he recovers, Lugalbanda wisely and skillfully prays to the gods, who help him overcome many dangers. The tale of Lugalbanda continues in Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, in which the young man uses his wits to deliver an important message for Enmerkar and helps him conquer the Lord of Aratta. The most outstanding Sumerian epic hero is Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, who is featured in five poems, along with his good friend Enkidu. The Babylonians later adopted the legend of Gilgamesh, and he is featured in a very long Babylonian work that is considered one of the world's great literary masterpieces. The Akkadian kings SARGON I and NARAM-SIN, who, to subsequent dynasties, represented ideal kings, were also the subjects of numerous epic works written in both the Sumerian and Akkadian languages. The themes featured in many Mesopotamian epics appear there for the first time in world literature. One of these themes is that of the half divine hero who has a special connection to the gods. Another is the accomplishment of impossible tasks, especially in contests between rulers. A third common theme is that of the cunning hero who achieves his victories against mightier opponents through the use of wit. Related to this is the idea that wisdom or cunning is better than force in achieving goals. These themes were used later in several great epics, including the Iliad and the Odyssey by the Greek poet Homer. The themes have also been adopted in many works in modern literature. (See also Creation Myths; Literature; Poetry.)

one of the oldest cities in MESOPOTAMIA, Eridu (ER»i»doo) e isidered as a center of Sumerian civilization and of a cult* dedicated to the

god EA (Enki). The city contained various temples, a large ziggurat*, and several other religious buildings. Sumerian KING LISTS cite Eridu as the site of the oldest dynasty in Mesopotamia. The myth titled the Eridu Genesis also refers to Eridu as the first city created by the gods. Archaeological* evidence supports the city's great antiquity—dating portions of it to about 5000 B.C.—as well as its importance as an administrative, spritual, and economic center. Originally located on the seashore or on an inland lake in southern Mesopotamia near the city of UR, Eridu was inhabited until the 600s B.C. Today the site of ancient Eridu is a series of seven mounds, the largest of which is Abu Shahrain. The most extensive excavations at the site took place between A.D. 1946 and 1949. They revealed a remarkable series of temples, religious buildings, palaces, and artifacts* (including a type of dark painted pottery called Eridu ware) spanning a period of several thousand years.

Eshnunna

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

ESARHADDON ruled 680-669 B.C. King of Assyria

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

ESHNUNNA * tributary river that flows into another river * city-state independent state consisting

of a city and its surrounding territory

The oldest building found at Eridu was a small, rectangular mud-brick shrine built on sand. This temple was rebuilt several times, and each time, the new temple was larger and more elaborate than the preceding structures. Later temples were constructed on platforms and were structurally more complex. Archaeologists also found large quantities of fish bones in some of the temples and believe that they may be the remains of offerings to the god Ea. They also unearthed a large cemetery containing an estimated 1,000 burial sites. (See also Creation Myths; Cults.)

€

sarhaddon (ee»sahr*HAD»uhn) was the youngest son of King SENNACHERIB of Assyria and the only son of Queen Naqiya, the king's favorite wife. When Esarhaddon was named his father's heir, his older brothers murdered their father. Esarhaddon then led an army that put down his brothers' revolt. His brothers fled the region, and Esarhaddon marched to NINEVEH—the Assyrian capital—where he was crowned king. During his reign, Esarhaddon consolidated his power and enlarged the kingdom. His most important act as king was to rebuild the city of Babylon, which was destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 B.C. To protect himself from death during the lunar eclipses that occurred during his reign, Esarhaddon used the substitute-king ritual at least four times. At these times, he took the place of a farmer while a substitute took his place as king. After ruling for a brief period, the substitute-king was killed, fulfilling the omen, and Esarhaddon resumed his throne. In 675 B.C., Esarhaddon began the military campaign for which he is most famous—the conquest of Egypt. Four years later, he seized the capital city of MEMPHIS, forcing the pharaoh* TAHARQA to flee. In 669 B.C., Taharqa rebuilt his army and attempted to regain power. Esarhaddon died on his way to Egypt to stop Taharqa. Because of Esarhaddon's experience with his own succession, he chose his heirs before his death. In 672 B.C., he picked his son Shamashshum-ukin to rule as governor of Babylonia and gave his son ASHURBANIPAL the throne of Assyria. He made the rulers of his vassal* states pledge their allegiance to these heirs. Consequently, when Esarhaddon died, his sons rose to their thrones without trouble. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Astrology and Astrologers.)

T

he ancient city of Eshnunna (esh»NUN»nuh) was located near the Diyala River, a tributary* of the Tigris River, which flows southward out of the Zagros Mountains of Iran down onto the Babylonian plain. The city was first occupied sometime before 3000 B.C. It became an independent kingdom after the collapse of the city-state* of UR at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.* Over the course of the next 200 years, Eshnunna's military conquered the city of ASHUR and expanded its rule over a large region that extended from the source of the Khabur River to the vicinity of the city-state of MARI in central MESOPOTAMIA. In the 1700s B.C., Eshnunna, which had only recently been captured by the 77

Ethiopia * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

See color plate 8, vol. 1.

Ethiopia

ETHNIC -\NI> L..ANGUAGF

GROUPS

Elamites, fell to the Babylonian king HAMMURABI, and in the following century, it entered a decline. Archaeological* excavations at the site of ancient Eshnunna, a mound of the remains of successive settlements known as Tell Asmar, began in the A.D. 1930s. The excavations and discoveries at Eshnunna enabled archaeologists to better identify the sequence of events in Mesopotamia in the third and second millennia B.C. Among the most spectacular discoveries were a series of votive statues—figures used as OFFERINGS or dedications to the gods—that had been buried together in a temple beneath the floor near the altar in about 2700 B.C. These statues are among the earliest ones of their type from ancient Mesopotamia that have been found. A series of public buildings—including several temples and a large palace complex—were also uncovered at Tell Asmar. These buildings, dated to about 2000 B.C., reflect the great wealth and power of Eshnunna and are classic examples of Mesopotamian architecture of that period. They contain the typical Mesopotamian feature of a divided courtyard with inner and outer sections bridged by the throne room, which was used as an audience hall by the ruler. Another building excavated at the site appears to have been a workshop for dyeing cloth, suggesting the presence of a textile industry in Eshnunna. Also associated with Eshnunna, although not found there, are a series of tablets inscribed with the so-called Laws of Eshnunna. These laws, some of which are based on earlier legal codes, are thought to be decades older than the famous Code of Hammurabi and were possibly written by the Eshnunnan king Dadusha around 1800 B.C. (See also Architecture; Cities and City-States; Palaces and Temples.)

See Nubia and the Nubians.

T^eoples of the ancient Near East belonged to several ethnic and lanI guage groups. These groups intermingled with one another, and over time, some merged with others while some disappeared. Although the greatest variety of groups was found in MESOPOTAMIA, even Egypt, which appeared to have a uniform culture, contained several ethnic and language groups during ancient times.

MESOPOTAMIA Over the centuries, a number of ethnic and language groups lived, fought, and worked together in the various regions of Mesopotamia. Although the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians are probably the best known of these groups, Mesopotamia was also home to the Akkadians, AMORITES, ARAMAEANS, Chaldeans, HURRIANS, and KASSITES. Sumerians. The earliest evidence of Sumerian inhabitation of the Mesopotamian Tigris-Euphrates Valley dates to the 4500s B.C. The Sumerians

78

Ethnic and Language Groups

* dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

probably included people who migrated to Mesopotamia from various places and had different origins. Their language, which consists of at least two known dialects*, is unrelated to any other known language. The written form of the main dialect may have been an upper-class one rather than a language used by the people as a whole. Akkadians. Around 2400 B.C., the Akkadians took control of northern Mesopotamia. Soon their influence spread through the region that later became known as Babylonia. By the first millennium B.C.*, the terms Akkad and Babylonia had become interchangeable in the region's literature. Scholars refer to the specific dialect spoken by the Akkadians as Old Akkadian to distinguish it from other dialects of the Akkadian language spoken in Assyria and Babylonia during the second and first millennia B.C. (the years from 2000 to 1 B.C.). Babylonians. The Babylonians were a mixture of peoples. Sumerianspeaking groups inhabited Babylonia from as early as 4500 B.C. through 2500 B.C. Thereafter, Akkadians, who spoke a Semitic* language, entered the region. Between 2000 and 800 B.C., other groups arrived in Babylonia. For example, the Amorites had begun arriving from north Syria around 2100s B.C., the Aramaeans from Syria in the 1200s B.C., and the Chaldeans, perhaps from Arabia, in the 800s B.C. These later groups all spoke West Semitic languages. Assyrians. The Assyrian culture closely resembled that of Babylonia, and the people of Assyria spoke a dialect of the Akkadian language. Shortly before 2000 B.C., the Amorites began to take over parts of Assyria, and the population of the region soon included a large percentage of Amorites. Later migrations into the region by the Aramaeans added another group to the population. Consequently, the Assyrian population included a great mix of groups, most of whom spoke Aramaean by the later period of Assyrian history. Hurrians. The earliest reference to the Hurrians in northern Mesopotamia dates to about 2000 B.C. From there, they worked their way westward into SYRIA, establishing a number of kingdoms, including the kingdom of Mitanni, which grew into a major power in the ancient Near East during the 1400s and 1300s B.C. The Hurrians spoke a Caucasian language and may have introduced that language into the region known as the CAUCASUS. Human culture was also a major influence on the literature and religion of the HITTITES, people who inhabited north Syria and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Kassites. A tribal people of unknown origin, the Kassites invaded Babylonia in the 1600s B.C. From about 1595 to 1158 B.C., they ruled over a united Sumer and Babylonia. During this period of political stability and economic prosperity, the Kassites adopted the Babylonian language and culture. Consequently, scholars know very little about the Kassites' own language. However, they do know that it is not related to any of the known languages of the region. 79

Ethnic and Language Groups

EGYPT Ancient Egyptians believed that humanitywascomposed four ofraces: Egyptians, Asiatics, Nubians, LIBYANS.and Apainting from the tomb of pharaoh* SETYI showshow the Egyptians saw these so-called differraces, entiating each representativeby the colorof his skin, hairstyle,anddress. Although thesefigures arejust symbolic representations, they reflect Egyptian views on ethnicity. The three "foreign"groups—Asiatics, Libyans,andNubians—conquered and ruled portions of Egyptat one timeor another. During these periods, Egyptian culturewas influencedby the other cultures.Theforeign groups also had a significant impact on the diversity of the Egyptian population.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

delta fan-shaped, lowland of soil deposited by a river

plain

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

80

Asiatics. Several Asiatic peoples, including Canaanites, inhabited Egypt, eastern delta* regions, duringTwelfth the and Thirteenth Dynasties (ca. 1938-1630 B.C.). Another HYKSOS, group, entered the Egypt between 1720 and B.C. 1710 and ruled that kingdom from about 1630 to 1523B.C. Althoughthe ethnicityof the Hyksos isdebated, it isknown that they retained much of their own culture in Egypt. Still, they presented themselves as traditional Egyptian pharaohs.left They an extendedempire and important influenceson music, religion,andlanguage.

formed especially the

Libyans. Libya is the landto the westof Egypt.Asearlyas the eighth millennium B.C.(years from 8000 B.C.), to 7001 an agricultural culture had been established on its coastal plain, while nomads* flourished ongrasslands in the interior to the south. Forcenturies,the population Libya of remained scattered in various tribal groups throughout the region.

Ethnic and Language Groups

* indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

Libyan tribes began to migrate into Egypt in the 1200s B.C. Some were captured and placed in fortified camps by the pharaohs. Others were able to settle where they chose. By the early 1100s B.C., Libyans occupied much of the western Nile River delta, and in the centuries that followed, many towns in the delta became power bases for Egyptian rulers of Libyan ancestry. Libyan settlement eventually extended into the northern Nile Valley, and from time to time, Libyans raided farther south. Their numbers remained smaller in the south, however, and they were easily absorbed into the indigenous* populations there. Most Libyan settlements in Egypt were permanent. They assimilated* Egyptian culture, and rulers of Libyan ancestry considered themselves Egyptian. Between about 945 and 712 B.C., many individuals of Libyan ancestry became members of the Egyptian ruling elite. Their cultural background had a significant impact on the political structure of the period, which reflected the tribal culture of the Libyan homeland. Nubians. The region of Nubia, which lies south of Egypt, had a settled culture by about 6000 B.C. Still, the first Nubian civilization did not appear until around 3100 B.C. Three Nubian groups appeared between then and about 750 B.C., each with its own distinctive culture. From at least the early third millenium B.C.*, Egypt had regular contacts with Nubia and controlled much of the region at various times after that. In the mid-700s B.C., Nubian kings conquered Egypt and ruled for about 100 years. They saw themselves as guardians of Egyptian culture and encouraged a revival in art and architecture inspired by Egypt's history. The Nubians lost control of Egypt in 663 B.C. and returned to Nubia. By the end of the first millennium B.C., Nubian culture reflected Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and central African ideas.

IRAN * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3000 B.C.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of

writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

As early as the fourth millenium B.C.*, the Proto-Elamites had established themselves in southwestern IRAN. Beginning in the 1500s B.C., Iran began to be settled by the ARYANS, who migrated from Central Asia. The most important of these Aryan tribes were the MEDES and the Persians. Together, the Elamites, Medes, and Persians influenced the history and culture of Iran. Elamites. The Elamites inhabited the region north of the Persian Gulf and east of the Tigris River. Their language was unrelated to any other known ancient language. Under the influence of the Sumerians, the Elamites developed a cuneiform* writing system around 3000 B.C. Nonetheless, the Elamites developed unique regional cultures specific to the areas they inhabited. From time to time, they became involved in the politics of Mesopotamia, often exerting considerable influence on the rulers of Babylonia. The Assyrians conquered much of Elam in the 600s B.C., and other portions of Elamite territory fell to the Medes and Persians in the centuries that followed. The written language of the Elamites remained in use until about the 300s B.C., and the spoken language persisted for several centuries after that.

81

Ethnic and Language Groups Medes. Originally village dwellers, the Medes had settled in northwestern Iran by the 800s B.C. Early written records mention the existence of many Median tribes and kings, and evidence suggests that the Medes were a very diverse people culturally, socially, and politically. Nevertheless, by the 600s B.C., the different Median tribes had united into a single state, becoming a major regional power. As allies of the Babylonians, they aided in the conquest of Assyria in 612 B.C. However, the power of the Medes was short-lived. In the 500s B.C., Persian ruler CYRUS THE GREAT overthrew the Medes and went on to establish the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The Medes remained a privileged group within the Persian empire, and many aspects of their language and culture were integrated with Persian culture. Persians. Evidence suggests that the early Persians may have been tribal nomads. After migrating to the Iranian plateau from lands east of the Caspian Sea, they settled in southern Iran. The Persians were dominated by the Medes until 550 B.C., when Cyrus the Great came to the Persian throne and overthrew the Median rulers. He later conquered Babylonia and parts of Anatolia, making Persia the most powerful empire in the region. Later the Persians conquered Egypt and extended their rule as far as India in the east and Greece in the west. In the late 300s B.C., the Persian empire was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, but the Persians left a cultural legacy that lasted for centuries.

ANATOLIA

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

The most important ethnic group in Anatolia during the Bronze Age (ca. 3000-1200 B.C.) was the Hittites. Of unknown origin, the Hittites invaded Anatolia in about 1900 B.C. and imposed their culture and INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE on the indigenous peoples. They challenged the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyrians for power throughout the region. During the 1200s B.C., invaders, perhaps the SEA PEOPLES, conquered the Hittites. Nevertheless, Hittite cultural practices continued for many centuries in many of the city-states* in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria. The dominant groups in Anatolia during the Iron Age (ca. 1200500 B.C.) included the Phrygians and the Urartians. The Phrygians were a people of southeast European background. Their language, written with the Greek alphabet, was a member of the Indo-European family and is documented in inscriptions on stone and pottery. The Urartians dominated eastern Anatolia in the 700s and 600s B.C. They had a distinctive regional culture and spoke a language, written in cuneiform, that was neither Semitic nor Indo-European in origin. Modern linguists believe that the Urartian language is closely related to the language spoken by the Hurrians of northern Mesopotamia.

CANAAN * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * pastoralist person who herds livestock to make a living

82

Ancient CANAAN consisted of the present-day countries of Lebanon and Israel, southern Syria, the West Bank, and western Jordan. Evidence suggests the presence of West Semitic-speaking peoples in Syria early in the second millinnium B.C.* Originally rural pastoralists*, they later began to settle in

Ethnic and Language Groups

See color plate 1, vol. 2.

fortified urban centers. Traces of their language are first seen in the Akkadian-language cuneiform documents written by local Syrian kings of the 1700s B.C. Around 1300 B.C., the dominant language in the region was a Canaanite dialect of Akkadian. During that period, the two most important Canaanite-speaking groups were the Phoenicians and the Israelites. Also present in the region were the Philistines, who spoke an Indo-European language. Phoenicia. Occupying a narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean coast, Phoenicia consisted of several city-states that shared a single language and culture. Although the Phoenicians called themselves Canaanites, scholars know little about their origin. Their culture developed under the influence of the Akkadians, Amorites, and Egyptians. They Phoenicians became the greatest seafaring people of the ancient world, and they established trading centers throughout much of the Mediterranean region, even venturing out into the Atlantic Ocean. Israelites. The Israelites were another West Semitic group. According to the Hebrew Bible, patriarchs of the Israelites migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan during the second millennium B.C. However, some scholars believe that they originally came from the Sinai peninsula. Enslaved in Egypt for generations, they were released from bondage in about 1270 B.C. They returned to Canaan, conquered a large portion of the region, and eventually established the state of Israel with its distinctive religious views. Philistines. One of the ancient SEA PEOPLES, perhaps of Aegean origin, the Philistines settled along the southern coast of Canaan in the 1100s B.C. Their early history is documented in ancient Egyptian texts and in the Hebrew BIBLE. Very little is known about their native language; only a few words are known, some from inscriptions on SEALS, others preserved in the Bible. A recently discovered inscription from a temple in the Philistine city of Ekron was written in a Canaanite dialect and script, indicating that by 700 B.C., the Philistines had adapted to their Israelite and Phoenician neighbors.

ARABIA

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

The Arabs were related to several groups from the areas surrounding the Arabian peninsula, including Semitic tribes from northern Mesopotamia. Linguistically, they can be divided into two language groups: North Arabic and South Arabic, both subdivisions of West Semitic languages. Northern Arabian languages consist of several dialects from which grew modern Arabic. These languages were not spoken throughout the peninsula, but scholars do not yet know the extent of their geographical distribution. Southern Arabian languages were spoken for a period spanning about 1,000 years, beginning in the 500s B.C. Archaeologists* have found several inscriptions written in these languages. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Arabia and the Arabs; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Caria and the Carians; Chaldea and the 83

Eunuchs Chaldeans; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the Elamites; Greece and the Greeks; Hebrews and Israelites; Languages; Lycia and the Lycians; Lydia and the Lydians; Nubia and the Nubians; Philistines; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Scythia and the Scythians; Semitic Languages; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

EUNUCHS * concubine mistress to a married man * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

EUPHRATES RIVER

See map In Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

84

€

unuchs (YOOnuhks) were men who had been castrated, or had had their testicles removed. In the ancient Near East, eunuchs were often employed as guards for women in the royal household or as government officials. Because eunuchs could not father children, a king could safely employ them to guard and serve his wives and concubines*. Many moved beyond their role as guardians of the royal women to become bodyguards of or advisers to the kings. Among the Assyrians in the second millennium B.C.* and after, eunuchs were highly trusted officials in the government. Some eunuchs played key roles in government and helped shape the course of history. The eunuch Bagoas commanded the Persian army in Egypt and was an important power in the PERSIAN EMPIRE under ARTAXERXES III. In 338 B.C., Bagoas had Artaxerxes poisoned and placed one of the dead king's sons on the throne. Two years later, he murdered the new king and helped another heir take the throne as King DARIUS III. When Darius resisted the eunuch's control, Bagoas planned to have him poisoned as well. The king learned of the plot and made Bagoas himself drink the poison, ending the manipulative career of one of the most powerful eunuchs of the ancient world. Nehemiah, governor of Judah in the 400s B.C., was another famous eunuch in the Persian empire. Nehemiah oversaw the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls, enabling the city's weakening population to flourish. His memoirs are recorded in the Hebrew BIBLE in the book bearing his name.

|Tjunning from eastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to the Persian fX^Gulf, the Euphrates (yoo»FRAY»teez) River played an important role in the history of the ancient Near East. Many of the cities of the ancient Near East—such as BABYLON and UR—were built near the banks of the Euphrates, and these cities depended on both the Euphrates River and the TIGRIS RIVER for their existence and survival. The Euphrates provided water for people, ANIMALS, and AGRICULTURE, as well as a means of transportation. The Euphrates River, the longest river in western Asia, extends for about 1,700 miles. The character of the river changes dramatically during its long journey to the sea. In its upper reaches, the Euphrates runs through deep gorges and narrow valleys. During most of its middle courses, it flows through broad plains. As the river nears the Persian Gulf, it divides into many channels and travels through a maze of marshes and lakes before making its final journey to the sea. Throughout history, the Euphrates served as Mesopotamia's main source of IRRIGATION. This was largely because its annual flooding was less

Faience

* millennium period of millennia

1,000years;

FAIENCE * amulet small object thought tohave supernatural or magical powers *

Levant lands bordering theeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest Bank, andJordan

pi

severe and more controllable than thatof thenearby Tigrisandbecauseit was a more reliable water supply.The use of theEuphrates forirrigation helped moisten the soil and provided waterforagricultural purposes, thus allowing people to settle along theriver. The Euphrates floods between March and June,when spring rains and melting snows in the mountains ofAnatolia feed theriver. In the ancient NearEast, a networkofirrigation canals downstream directedthe floodwaters onto farmlands. Since flooding could also cause great damage to buildings, communities such asSippar built walls around their cities to protect them from rising waters. Over time, the annual floodingof the river also deposited salton the land in southern Mesopotamia, which decreased itsfertility. This meant that it could not be used forfarming, and thepeople who hadsettled there had to goelsewhere. The EuphratesRiver has also changed itscourse many times overthe millennia* becauseof changing landformations — bothhuman-made and natural. As a result, some ancient sites thatwere once nextto the Euphrates are now far from (See also it. Floods; Geography;Rivers; Water.)

/faience(fay^AHNS) is the name usedforobjects madeofshaped I quartz that is covered with aglaze. Faience requires the use of high * temperatures to harden the object andchemically fuse theglaze to the surface. This processis thoughtto have IRAN been or inventedin northern MESOPOTAMIA around B.C.4500 Egyptians began using itshortly thereafter. Atfirst, craftspeople made small faience objects such asbeads, cylinder SEALS, amulets*,and containersforcosmetics. Laterthey made faience vases, small statues, architectural decorations,andbricks. To make faience, artisans first mixed finelyground quartz with water, shaping the material by hand or inmolds. Thenaglazewasadded, either by applying it on thesurface of the objector byplacingtheobjectin a containerfilled with the glaze material.Theobjectwas thenheatedto a very high temperature (1,440°Forhigher) so thatthematerial hardened and the glaze formedachemical bondwithsurface. the Faience makers used opaque glazes, meaning that the material underneath could not be seen. Such glazes could beused toproduce rich colors—and could hide imperfections underneath. Faience produced in Mesopotamia and Egyptwastypically blueorgreen, colors achievedby the use of copper in the glaze material. During the timeof the Middle Kingdom ofEgypt (ca. B.C.),1980-1630 faience began to be produced in the Levant*andSyria. Artisans often imitated Egyptian styles and subjects. Duringthe LateBronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) in the Levantand the NewKingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.)in Egypt, workshops were producing faience objects in great quantities and distinctive shapes.Onepopular style Syria in was a goblet in the shape of awoman's head. Artisans used yellow, blue, green, and black glazes, usuallyin combination. These faience objects were popular in the palacesoflocal kingsandnobles. They were also valuable trade goods and were takentoAssyria, Iran,and Cyprus. Afterabout B.C., 1100 85

Failaka Island the popularity of faience declinedas improvementsin glassmaking increased the demandfor (See also glass. Glass and Glassmaking.)

FailakaIsland

FAMILY AND SOCIAL LIFE

See Bahrain.

T

he family and household werethe basic building blocksofeachancient Near Eastern society. The family term refersto peoplelinkedby ties of blood, marriage,or adoption. Householdis a broader term that includes everyone living underone roof, usually underasingle authority. A household might include slaves, live-in servants,and other employeesas well asfamily members. Family had an additional meaning in ancient times. People viewed their families as extending backwardand forward in time,and the dead were seen as playing vital rolesin the livesof the living. Having children ensured that a person wouldbe properly treated after death.

Mesopotamia. The culturesMESOPOTAMIA of ancient were patriarchal, which means that men dominated privateand public life.A person'sstatus depended on that of his or her father's family.Men headed family the unit, made all decisions, and exercised great authority over their wives, children, and grandchildren.The law codeof theHAMBabylonian king MURABI states,"If a son strikeshis father, they shallcut off his hand/' While there is no evidence that thislaw wasever carried out,the punishment illustrates the respect due to fathers, whose relationship to their families was likea king's relationshipto his people. These patriarchs could even give awayafamily memberin paymentof a debt. They also had the right—though not theduty—to laterbuy backthe family member. What we call the nuclearfamilytoday—father, mother, and their children—was calleda house.A man was supposed to "build a house." If his wife did not providehim with children,he could takeasecond wife. A couple could also adopt a child, either a newborn who had been abandoned or an older child adoptedin return fora sum ofmoney. People also freed slavesand adopted them. The typical Mesopotamianfamily had two children. Usually more children than that were born into the family, but many died ininfancy. The extendedfamily, called "the houseof the father," includedall the descendants of the patriarch. These extended families sometimes livedin the same home or in neighboring homes. Egypt. The basic social unitin ancient Egyptwas the nuclear family.Although a young married couple might live with either spouse's parents, ideally a man did not marry until he could afford to establish his own home. One Egyptian text warns that living with in-laws leadstotrouble. Men could marry more than one woman at a time,but this practiceapparently wasrare outsidethe royal family. 86

Family and Social Life Daughters normally lived with their parents until they married or left home to become servants in another house. Sons, on the other hand, might go off to live with other young men of the same age. Women who had no children sometimes raised children fathered by their husbands and born to female slaves or servants. Childless couples or individuals could adopt children or young men to inherit their property and perform funeral rituals for them. Egyptian households sometimes included more than the nuclear family, but this was not common. Sometimes two related men and their families shared the same household. Widowed, divorced, or unmarried women sometimes lived with their closest male relatives. When several generations or families lived together, the house was often partitioned so that each nuclear group had a private space of its own. * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* indentured servant someone bound into service for a set time in repayment of a debt

Anatolia. The HITTITES, whose empire covered much of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the second millennium B.C.*, kept administrative records in which the symbol for "house" referred to a household. The household was a term of economic measurement in which men, women, and children were identified as labor units. If a household's workforce was too small to perform the labor expected of it, the government assigned prisoners of war to the household to make up the shortfall. A "normal working unit" consisted of ten people, suggesting that the average size of a household was about ten: parents, three or four children, and a few servants. Marriage was expected to result in children. Wives who did not bear children might provide their husbands with slave women for the purpose. Adoption was also practiced, as in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, but details of Hittite adoptions are scanty. In most cases, a wife went to live in the house of her husband. Occasionally, however, a husband moved into the house of his wife's father. Slaves and indentured servants* were allowed to enter into marriage with free people. In such marriages, the wives and children took on the social status of the husbands and fathers. Hittite society was also patriarchal, with men generally having unquestioned power over their wives and children. In some cases, though, women had control. Because widows had the right to determine whether their sons would inherit their fathers' estates, sons were encouraged to treat widowed mothers well. On occasion, a husband or father would grant his wife or daughter the right to exercise power equal to his own over the other children. This probably occurred when the man was dying or expecting to be away from home. Lycia, in southwestern Anatolia, had a matrilineal society, one where the family name was taken from the mother's name. According to a firstcentury B.C. writer, Lycian women were respected more then men; Lycians made their daughters their heirs, not their sons. Israel. The people of ancient Israel identified themselves as members of kinship units called tribes. The Hebrew BIBLE usually divides the people of Israel into 12 tribes. Although tribal identification was important in military and territorial organization, the everyday lives of individuals 87

Family and Social Life clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest

See [color plate 13.

V

vol. 2. '

were more closely governed by subdivisions of the tribe. The unit of kinship below the tribe was the clan*. Men within a clan held different ranks, with the older ones probably being the most honored. Below the clan was the basic unit of Israelite kinship, the house, sometimes defined as an extended family consisting of a patriarch and up to three generations of his descendants. As in other societies of the ancient Near East, the father was the highest-ranking member of a family. His wife had the next highest rank. The oldest son held the highest status among children. Younger unmarried sons might perform various tasks for their older siblings. If a wife did not bear children for her husband, she might provide a servant to do so. That servant, however, would not gain any social standing or wifely rights. The father could also adopt a child. When a man without a male heir died, it hindered the inheritance of property. In such cases, it was the duty of the dead man's brother to marry his widowed sister-in-law and to produce an heir with the dead man's widow. In this manner, the property would remain within the family. Iran. Like the Israelites, the Persians in Iran divided themselves into tribes. The tribes, in turn, were divided into groups called phratries, which were much like the Israelite clans. Within the phratries were patriarchal families, in which men had total control over their children and all the members of their household. Children, in turn, were expected to show respect and obedience to their fathers. So closely were families identified with husbands and fathers that when a man committed a serious crime, his entire family was punished. A father's power was limited by the government, however. Persian boys as young as five years of age were taken from the home and placed in a training program—run by the government—to turn them into soldiers. Royal men and nobles practiced polygamy, having more than one wife at a time. They sometimes also practiced endogamy, which means marrying female relatives. These practices seem to have occurred among ordinary Persians as well. In Mesopotamia, endogamy kept money within the family. It was also practiced in ancient Israel—for example, when the patriarch Jacob was sent to marry someone from his mother's tribe. Another Iranian group, the Elamites, may have had a matriarchal society. Kingship may have been based on marrying the king's daughter. Moreover, the fact that Elamite goddesses held places of importance within their societies suggests that women were also regarded more highly than in other societies.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

88

Inheritance. The customs and laws that gave shape to family life in the ancient Near East were concerned largely with transferring ownership of land and other property from one generations to the next. For example, Persian men practiced polygamy to ensure that they would have several descendants and endogamy to ensure that family wealth remained within the family. In the early third millennium B.C.*, land in Mesopotamia was jointly owned by all the sons of a father. Documents show that when land was sold, brothers were present not because of the need for witnesses but

Family and Social Life

Married or Not? If a man took the daughter of a man without asking her father and her mother, and has not held a feast and made a contract for her father and her mother—even if she lives in his house for a full year, she is not a wife. If he did hold a feast and make a contract for her father and mother, and took herf she is a wife: the day she is caught in the embrace of [another] man, she shall die, —from a Mesopotamian law code

because they received part of the payment. In cities, property was typically divided among sons or grandsons after a man's death. This division included all property, from land and house to furniture and slaves. A daughter was usually given some property during her father's life. If such a gift had not already been awarded, the sons were obliged to set aside a share as a gift to her when their father died. In some areas, the oldest brother received a double share. There was also a law in Mesopotamia stating that people could will their goods to anyone of their choice. However, many people died without making a will. In those cases, the law stated that the child who took responsibility for the deceased's burial would inherit his or her property. Scholars do not know much about inheritance laws among the Hittites, but it appears that women could not inherit property directly from their fathers. There, as in most ancient Near Eastern cultures, sons inherited the family property. Among the ancient Israelites, a father's land was divided among his sons, but the oldest son received a double portion. If a man had no male heirs, a daughter could receive an inheritance. However, she was obliged to marry within her tribe so that property belonging to that tribe would not pass into the ownership of another. Social Life. Life in the ancient Near East was not all work and no play. Important family events such as weddings and funerals provided occasions for families to get together and socialize. Families in the ancient Near East also attended community events, such as temple festivals and harvest feasts. Egyptian art clearly shows that people were viewed not as isolated beings but as members of a community. Even when a person is shown performing a task alone, without the help of an assistant, he or she is typically shown working among other people doing similar tasks. Elite families banquet together. Common folk bake bread, brew beer, and tend fields together. Communal life is a central theme of Egyptian art as well. Sculptures and paintings portray men surrounded by their women folk and children. The majority of the Hittite population probably lived in the country and engaged in farming. Consequently, many Hittite festivals related to agricultural life. The festivities included banquets, sports competitions, music, and dance. Historians also believe that participants in religious festivals ate, slept, and perhaps performed in taverns. In Mesopotamia, the temple represented a city's identity as a community. Ancient people in Mesopotamia had several religious holidays a month. During these times, there were games and entertainment events that people could participate in or watch. Music was also a part of temple festivities. In ancient Israel, poetry had a place in the social lives of the people. Ancient Israelites would attend performances of poets reciting long narrative poems. These events may have taken place during holidays. Such performances were a way of transmitting cultural stories and values to an audience whose members might not be able to read. (See also Children; Divorce; Entertainment; Feasts and Festivals; Houses; Marriage; Property and Property Rights; Women, Role of.)

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Famine

FAMINE

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

*

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

90

A

famine is an extreme and long-lasting shortage of food that causes widespread hunger and starvation and an increase in the death rate. Famines may affect an entire society or region. Sometimes, however, they affect only certain groups of people, generally the poorer classes of society, who cannot afford to buy foodstuffs that become more expensive during shortages. Famines are caused by both natural phenomena and human activities. The most common natural causes of food shortages due to famine are DROUGHT, flooding, unseasonably cold weather, plant diseases, and infestations by insects or rodents. All of these natural events can lead to crop failures and food shortages. Among the human factors that contribute to famine are overpopulation, war, and lack of transportation to move food to where it is needed. Overpopulation usually contributes to famine when it is combined with a natural phenomenon, such as drought, that causes crop failures and food shortages. War and lack of transportation contribute to famine when they cause the disruption of the normal production and distribution of foodstuffs, either intentionally or by accident. Famine posed a periodic threat to societies in the ancient Near East. The earliest recorded famines in this region date to the fourth millennium B.C.* These early famines were primarily the result of natural causes. In Egypt, for instance, decline in water levels of the NILE RIVER caused crop failures as well as a reduction in the area of land that could be farmed. Famine followed relatively quickly under such conditions. A series of disastrous famines may have also caused a period of decline in Egypt between the 2100s and 1900s B.C. The devastation of famine in ancient Egypt is reflected in ancient Egyptian texts and art. Art in Egyptian king Unas's (ruled ca. 2371-2350 B.C.) burial chamber shows a scene of starving people. It most likely depicts Unas aiding famine-stricken people. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, famine was often the result of political disruptions rather than of unfavorable climate conditions. Frequent warfare disrupted AGRICULTURE. For example, cities under siege* by enemies eventually ran out of food supplies, and the people behind the walls would starve. Failure to maintain irrigation systems in times of turmoil contributed to flood damage, which destroyed crops and damaged the land, causing famine. Political conflict also disrupted trade, preventing food from being transported from one place to another. A catastrophic famine in southern Mesopotamia in the 1100s B.C. contributed to a period of decline for the Babylonian empire. Sensing the Babylonians' vulnerability an advantage, Aramaean tribes invaded the already weakened Babylonia. Some societies tried to protect themselves from famine by stockpiling grains to be used in times of shortages. Other societies imported food from other lands. For example, the Hittites imported food from Egypt and the city of Ugarit during periods of famine. Sometimes famine relief was offered in return for ruling privileges. For example, in the First Intermediate period of ancient Egypt (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.), an official called Ankhtyfy apparently came to the aid of neighboring lands during a famine in exchange for authority over them.

Feasts and Festivals Famine played a role in the MYTHOLOGY of the ancient Near East. Some myths explained famine, as well as other natural events such as drought, as the work of the gods. Sometimes famine was a form of punishment, and at other times, it was the result of struggles among the gods. According to the Hebrew Bible, a famine caused the patriarchs to migrate to Egypt at an early point in their history. The Bible also mentions famines in Egypt and Canaan. The story of Joseph tells of how he enables the Egyptians to withstand a famine by stockpiling grains. As a result, Joseph becomes highly honored even though he is a slave. Later Joseph aids his brothers who have come from Canaan seeking relief from the same famine. (See also Disasters, Natural; Floods.)

Farming

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS See 'k color plate 8; vol. 2.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See Agriculture; Animals, Domestication of.

F

s t s and festivals were vitally important to cultures in the ancient Near East. A typical feast involved a shared meal accompanied by entertainment. Festivals varied greatly, but many of them included music, processions of worshipers carrying images of gods and goddesses, and offerings of food and sacrifices at temples. People have long celebrated feasts to mark the changing of the seasons. The survival of the peoples of the ancient Near East depended on the cycle of planting and harvesting that accompanied each season. Some festivals were dedicated to worshiping the gods, and others celebrated cultural pride or state occasions. These ceremonies helped unify societies and empires. Finally, feasts or festivals marked a rite of passage in a person's life, such as marriage or death. It is not always easy to distinguish between these four types of ceremonies. However, each feast and festival had its own meaning and characteristics. Seasonal Celebrations. In prehistoric times, people probably observed that seasonal changes affected the animals they hunted and the wild plants they gathered for food. They believed that various gods controlled the forces of nature. Such observations and beliefs led them to develop feasts and festivals, which they thought would please the gods and ensure a continuing food supply. As agriculture developed in the ancient Near East (ca. 9000 B.C.), the most important feasts and festivals were held during planting time and harvest time. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, each city-state* or kingdom had its own calendar to guide people toward the proper time for feasts and festivals. Festivals marked the agricultural cycle and celebrated events such as the hitching and unhitching of plows. During certain times of the year, rulers traveled throughout the land to present offerings of crops and meat to the gods. These festivals reflected the Mesopotamian belief that humans were created to serve the gods. 91

Feasts and Festivals

An Intimate Banquet for 47,000 When Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II founded his capital at the city of Kalkhu in the 800s B.C, he celebrated the inauguration of his palace with a grand banquet for 47,000 people. The feast, a description of which was recorded in the Assyrian royal archives, lasted for ten days, Ashurnasirpal's banquet included "10,000 fattened head of cattle, 1,000 calves, 10,000 stable sheep, 15,000 lambs,... 1,000 spring lambs,... 500 gazelles, 1,000 ducks, 500 geese,... 10,000 doves,... 10,000 [jars of] beer, 10,000 skins with wine/' and various other meats, vegetables, drinks, and oil.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

A similar connection between feasts and festivals and seasonal changes existed in ancient Egypt. The annual flooding of the NILE RIVER provided a regular seasonal mark for the month-long festival of Opet, a celebration of the close relationship between the king of Egypt and AMUN, the king of the gods. Because work in the fields was not possible during the flooding, rich and poor alike took part in the festival. During the festival of Opet, priests bathed, dressed, and adorned the image of Amun with jewelry and brightly colored linen and then placed it in a boat. Led by the king himself, they carried Amun out into the noisy street and then on to the temple of LUXOR at the south end of the city. Along the way, ordinary citizens struggled to catch a glimpse of the god as drums beat and men danced. In later times, the boat was placed on the Nile and towed to the temple by high officials who vied for the honor. After a ritual at the temple, people asked questions of the god. The questions were phrased so that they could be answered yes or no. If the boat moved forward, the answer was yes; if the boat moved backward, the answer was no. The temple officials also distributed food and drink. During an Opet festival in the 1100s B.C., temple officials handed out 11,341 loaves of bread and 385 jars of beer. In ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the Hittite king and queen participated in a procession on the sixteenth day of the spring festival. The procession went from the palace to the temple and included singers and musicians. Their presence at the temple emphasized the belief that rulers needed the honor of the gods. In ancient SYRIA and the Levant*, people also worshiped many gods and maintained images of them in temples. Although a wide variety of information about religious practices has been gathered from early sites, such as UGARIT, much of it is unclear. Historians believe that feasts and festivals took place in October and December to mark the plowing and sowing and in the spring to celebrate the harvest. The ancient Hebrew calendar told the Israelites when to hold their feast and festival days. Several celebrations for particular harvests are mentioned in the Hebrew BIBLE, such as the Pesach and Matsot festivals. The Pesach (Passover) festival involved a pilgrimage in which a yearling sheep or goat was sacrificed and consumed. The Matsot festival (Festival of Unleavened Bread), perhaps originally a holiday associated with the barley harvest, came to be celebrated together with the Pesach festival in remembrance of the Exodus* from Egypt. During these celebrations, families would gather together and eat a special meal of sheep or goat, vegetable (bitter herb), and grain (unleavened bread); drink wine; and instruct children on the meaning of the event. These celebrations demonstrate the importance of seasonal feasts and festivals to the ancient Near Easterners. Acts of Worship. Some feasts and festivals were acts of religious worship. Although many began as seasonal rites and took place at regular intervals, the intent of these celebrations was to honor the gods rather than mark a particular season. In Elamite society, in southwestern IRAN, a festival called the Feast of the Pouring Offerings honored Kiririsha, the goddess known as the

92

Feasts and Festivals State occasions, such as a military victory, were often celebrated with a feast as seen here on the Royal Standard of Ur, a twosided mosaic panel. Often called the "peace" side, this side of the mosaic shows a feast in progress. In the top panel, the king and his court are seen feasting and enjoying a musical performance. In the panels beneath, attendants bring in captured goods, cattle, goats, and sheep.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* civic matters relating to citizens or a city

mother of the gods by the Elamites. Fattened rams were ritually slaughtered so that their blood flowed down from the altars. Then all the participants received meat from the sacrificed animals. In Egypt, feasts and festivals honoring the gods were a central part of life. These celebrations of the gods occurred throughout ancient Egyptian history. People were allowed to take time off from work to celebrate festivals of favorite deities. These festivals included processions and sacred dramas, during which performers reenacted the battle between the gods HORUS and SETH. As elsewhere, the number of such festivities increased over time. A temple calendar created during Ptolemaic times (305-30 B.C.) notes more than 40 festivals. In Anatolia, Hittites and others also held festivals of worship. It was the king's duty to keep the gods content by making annual visits to their shrines during the appropriate festivals. A typical festival involved a purification ritual in which the king dressed in special garments and ate a sacred meal in the temple. Following this, the king made an offering of meat, bread, beer, and wine to the gods. The festival was accompanied by the performance of sacred songs and dances and often included other entertainment, such as juggling, gymnastics, and mock battles. The Hittites believed that if the gods were pleased, they would provide protection from sickness, famine*, and enemies. In Syria and the Levant, as elsewhere, some acts of worship included feasts and festivals. Thanksgiving for a divine favor or a feast held in payment of a vow to a god were common. Historians believe that monarchs played leading roles in the feasts and festivals as they did elsewhere. An ancient artwork from this region shows a king being presented to a god during a festival ritual. State Occasions. Because the head of state was often the head of religion, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a feast of worship from one for state purposes. Some ceremonies, however, were clearly civic* celebrations. Feasts or festivals to commemorate historical events or the visit of an important official from another region served political and social purposes. Several documents have been found at UR in Mesopotamia that list rations of bread, beer, oil, fish, and spices given out to foreign rulers and their servants. 93

Fertile Crescent * diplomatic concerning relations with foreign powers

The King of Babylon and theAkTtu Festival The ancient Babylonians celebrate their New Year's festival—the Aklti festiva^-on the first day of spring. During this 12-day festival, the Babylonians paraded the statue of Marduk, the city god of Babylon. They also recited the Babylonian Epic of Creation to explain and as* sert Marduk's supremacy. The king's role in the cult of Marduk was also renewed at this time Because the king was central to this festival, it could not be celebrated without him; During the time of the Neo-Babytonian empire, King Nabonidus was absent from the capital for several years, and the AkJtu festival was not celebrated.

FERTILE CRESCENT

* arable suitable for growing crops

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In Egypt, feasts and festivals for state occasions were common. The New Year's festival became the time for giving and receiving diplomatic* gifts. Another state occasion, dating from the beginning of Egyptian history, was the Sed festival. This festival featured a symbolic renewal of the king's powers and rule and took place decades after he first came to the throne. The Sed festival lasted over an extended period of time, during which the king participated in rites that symbolized his taking control of the land anew. Like the Egyptians, the Hittites held state ceremonies that provided music, dance, and entertainment. One festival included a mock battle between Hittite dancers armed with bronze and their opponents armed with reeds. This dance may have commemorated a specific battle or symbolized Hittite strength. Rites of Passage. Feasts and festivals also occurred to mark changes in a person's life. In Egypt, feasts and festivals celebrated several rites of passage, especially death. Wealthy Egyptians held a feast every year in memory of their deceased loved ones. At these feasts, guests sat on floor mats and used their fingers to eat their food, which consisted of butter, cheese, fowl, and beef seasoned with cinnamon, parsley, and rosemary and sweetened with honey. Professional dancers whirled and jumped to the music of harps, lutes, flutes, and tambourines as the guests snapped their fingers or clapped along. Guests were encouraged to drink wine until they reached a state of intoxication that made them feel closer to the dead. Throughout the ancient Near East, feasts and festivals reinforced values and strengthened religious beliefs, the recognition of shared history, and the idea of unity under the power of one ruler. These common bonds forged social and national identities that were important as civilizations developed. (See also Agriculture; Cults; Death and Burial; Family and Social Life; Religion.)

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he Fertile Crescent is a historic, roughly horn-shaped region where the civilizations of the ancient Near East began. The Fertile Crescent starts at the head of the Persian Gulf between Iran and the Arabian peninsula. It stretches up from the valley of the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in lower Mesopotamia, through Syria, and down along the Mediterranean coast of Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt, where it continues down the NILE RIVER valley. Although the region is bordered by harsh deserts and rugged mountains, the Fertile Crescent itself is watered by a number of rivers and streams fed by seasonal rains. In the past, the climate in this region was probably better suited to productive agriculture than it is today. These conditions made the Fertile Crescent arable* in ancient times, allowing people to settle there. These people were able to establish communities and build towns. As populations grew, they developed systems of government and trade and eventually built cities. As a result, the regions within

Fishing the Fertile Crescent were home to the earliest civilizations of the ancient Near East. Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, and Egypt were all located within the Fertile Crescent, and most settlement was concentrated within the area throughout ancient times.

FISHING * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

A

long with hunting and gathering, fishing was a basic source of food for the earliest inhabitants of the ancient Near East. Artifacts* from the NILE RIVER valley of Egypt, for example, indicate that people engaged in fishing as early as 9000 B.C. Even after AGRICULTURE was well established in the ancient Near East, by about 4000 B.C., fishing continued to provide people with a nutritious (fish is an excellent source of protein) and tasty addition to their diets, which were based primarily on grains, vegetables, and fruits. Fishing was a major economic activity in coastal areas as well as along rivers and streams. In other areas, it played a less important role in the economy. Even in those areas, however, people sometimes created artificial fishponds and stocked them with fish. Evidence suggests that people practiced fishing along the banks of waterways and that they also used boats or rafts to fish in the main channels of rivers or offshore in lakes and seas. Fishing and hunting probably developed at about the same time. The character of these activities, however, differed significantly. Hunting became associated with people from the upper classes, while fishing was linked primarily with the lower classes of society. This is evident in ancient art, where huntsmen generally belonged to royalty and fishermen were usually common folk. Artifacts, texts, and art have revealed a great deal about the fishing techniques used in the ancient Near East. These techniques were similar throughout much of the region, due largely to cultural exchanges and similarities in CLIMATE. Fishing methods used in the world today are based on techniques that originated in the ancient Near East. Fishermen used spears, fishing poles, lines with hooks, and nets to catch fish. Fishing accessories included stone and lead sinkers and stone net anchors to keep fishing lines and nets submerged. The earliest fishing nets were made of plant fibers, while later nets consisted of cotton or linen yarn. Nets could be repaired using yarn and netting needles made of bone, metal, or wood. The oldest and most important type of net was the seine, or dragnet. This wall of netting, sometimes as much as 980 feet long, was spread out parallel to the shore. A rope weighted with sinkers at the bottom of the seine kept the net submerged, while wooden floats along its top edge helped keep the wall of netting upright. Fish were surrounded and ensnared when the net was dragged to shore. Seine nets could catch large numbers of fish, and they required the work of several fishermen. Individual fishermen used cast nets. These circular nets—up to 26 feet in diameter and weighted with sinkers—were thrown into the water by a fisherman standing on the shore, in shallow water, or in a boat. The 95

Flax

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

FLAX * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

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net landed like a parachute, sank into the water, and was then hauled back with the catch of fish inside. Because of cast nets' smaller size and the method of handling them, they could not catch as many fish as seines. Fish became an important article of trade in several regions of the ancient Near East. Although they were sometimes transported alive, fish were usually preserved by drying, salting, or pickling. This enabled them to be moved greater distances and remain edible for longer periods. They were also used to pay taxes. In some areas, such as ancient Sumer, fishermen had to purchase the right to fish in rivers, lakes, and canals from temples, local rulers, and other landholders. Competition for fishing rights sometimes led to conflicts. Fish and fishing played an important role in the religion and MYTHOLOGY of the ancient Near East. OFFERINGS of fish were often made in temples, and fish and fishing became associated with certain gods such as EA, the Sumerian water god. Fish and fishing also appeared in ancient art. For instance, many ancient Egyptian WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* show scenes of people fishing. Some of these scenes portray the Egyptian upper classes, who took up fishing for pleasure and relaxation. Fishing also figured prominently in the wall paintings produced by the MINOAN CIVILIZATION on the island of CRETE. (See also Animals; Animals in Art; Food and Drink; Hunting.)

f lax is a plant that was grown throughout much of the ancient Near I East. The people of the region used the fibers of the flax plant to " make linen yarn and fabric, and they used its seeds to make oil for cooking. The linen produced from flax was one of the most important TEXTILES of the Near East. In fact, the ancient Egyptians believed that their gods were clothed in linen. Flax was probably first cultivated in the ancient Near East during the Neolithic period*. It became a commonly grown crop in the region, especially in Egypt, where it was used to make linen as early as about 5000 B.C. Linen remained the predominant fabric in Egypt throughout ancient times. Flax can be grown in a variety of soils and climates, so it came to be widely cultivated throughout the ancient Near East. After harvesting, the flax stalks were tied in bundles and left to dry. Once dry, the seeds were removed for making oil. The dried stalks were then soaked in water, taken out, and pounded with various tools. The fibers were then removed from the outer bark, divided according to quality and color, and prepared for spinning into yarn. Flax fibers range in color from golden brown to creamy white, and yarn from flax varies in texture from coarse to very fine and smooth. Depending on the color and quality of the fibers, the people of the ancient Near East could make linen of various colors and textures, from a coarse, canvaslike cloth to fine, smooth fabric. Bleaching the yarn produced pure white cloth, but dyeing it was more difficult because flax fibers are not

Floods easily penetrated by dyes. As a result, most linen cloth produced and worn by people in the ancient Near East ranged in color from white to golden brown. (See also Agriculture; Clothing.)

FLOOD LEGENDS

FLOODS

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egends of a Great Flood can be found in several cultures of the world, including many in the ancient Near East. In many Near Eastern stories, the gods send a great flood to punish the human beings because they have become too numerous, too proud, or too sinful. Typically, a sympathetic god warns one man of the impending disaster. The god instructs him to build a boat and take representatives of all types of animals to ensure continuity of life. The Old Babylonian Epic ofAtrakhasis and the Standard Version Epic of Gilgamesh (especially the eleventh tablet), contain tales of the Great Flood. The Sumerian Flood Story, written down around 1600 B.C., contains another version of the legend. Some Mesopotamian KING LISTS also mention a Great Flood, which often serves as the dividing line between periods in the past. Another flood legend is the story of Noah and his ark. Found in the book of Genesis in the Hebrew BIBLE, this legend was written down between 1000 and 600 B.C. The Greeks also had their own legends, such as the one found in the Bibliotheca, the oldest preserved written account of a tale that was retold orally for centuries. Here the god Zeus sends a flood to destroy humankind. However, the god Prometheus instructs his human son Deucalion to build a boat, helping humanity survive. Flood legends were probably created to explain natural disasters. They also served to impress the power of the gods and expressed the religious ideas of survival and rebirth in a world created anew. (See also Creation Myths; Disasters, Natural; Floods; Mythology.)

F

oding—the rising and overflowing of a body of water beyond its normal boundaries—may be the most studied and recorded natural phenomenon in human history. The earliest records of the rise and fall of water levels came from the ancient Egyptians who observed the NILE RIVER. As societies established themselves and developed along rivers, the timing and severity of floods became of great importance. Floods could destroy life, property, and agriculture. They could weaken societies by disrupting farming and trade to the point where the society no longer functioned well as a unit. Such societies might then be open to attack or might decide to dissolve and move elsewhere. Floods could also be beneficial; farming in areas of the ancient Near East without sufficient rainfall depended on the water the rivers provided. As a result, one of the great concerns of these early societies was controlling water, and dealing with floods was an important part of social organization. Public works for water and flood control grew with societies, and law and commerce both expanded as a result of such projects.

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Floods

silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

Archaeology and Floods A flood leaves behind a layer of mud. Archaeologists look for this layer as they excavate through successive layers of earth* When they find a layer of sediment, they measure its extent and thickness to determine the intensity of the ancient flood. In the 1920$, Sir Charles Leonard Wooliey thought that he had proof of Noah's flood when he discovered sediment while excavating the site of the ancient Sumerian city of Ur (in present-day Iraq). The sediment was about ten feet thick, dating from around 4000 B.C. However, the layer did not cover the entire city as it should have if there had been such a large flood. Other evidence showed that society had not been disrupted. Wooliey, who contributed greatly to knowledge of early Mesopotamia, had found evidence of a flood, but he had not found Noah's flood.

* fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients * levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding * drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

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Beneficial Flooding. People today usually regard floods as disasters. Floods in the ancient Near East could be disastrous as well, but they were also the basis of life. Not only did seasonal flooding water the land; it also enriched it. Silt* deposited by a flooding river provided essential nutrients to the soil, which promoted crop growth. The lands beside the rivers, called floodplains, were the first and most readily used areas for agriculture. In Mesopotamia, most civilizations developed close to the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER. The "land between the rivers" provided reasonable sites for agriculture. Southern Mesopotamia was more dependent on the seasonal flooding of the rivers for agriculture, while the north relied primarily on rainfall. The Euphrates River was especially useful to early societies, and it was the principal water supply for Sumer, Akkad, and later for Babylonia. The Tigris River was less controllable and therefore not utilized to the same extent as the Euphrates. In order to use the Euphrates River for agriculture, settlers expanded the floodplain by using channels and CANALS for IRRIGATION. These water management systems were crucial to life in Mesopotamia. In fact, Mesopotamian kings often listed the canal systems they constructed as great achievements of their reigns. Throughout Mesopotamia, planting took place in autumn, when the water levels in the rivers were at their lowest. At this time of year, the canals were used to bring enough moisture to the land so the plants would grow. Flooding, the result of melting snow and storms in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), occurred in Mesopotamia in April, May, and June—the harvest season. The spring floodwaters would be used to water fields that were lying fallow* in order to prepare them for the next planting season. However, the floodwaters had to be controlled very carefully; otherwise, too much water could spell disaster by ruining crops about to be harvested. To control floodwaters, levees* were used to keep the water from overflowing. The ancient Egyptians also depended on a river's water. The Nile River made life easier for farmers in Egypt because the great annual flood occurred at exactly the right time. Beginning in June, the waters rose steadily, fed by the torrents of rain that fell in central Africa. The flood crested in September, leaving the soil moist for fall planting. Egyptian farmers learned how to save water from the flood to nourish the young plants. Harvesting took place before the worst of the drought*, which usually began in March. The cycle then repeated itself in June. The silt deposited by the Nile was especially rich, and it refreshed the soil completely each year. As a result, farming did not exhaust the land, and it could be used again each season. Egyptians developed a practical calendar of three seasons based on the behavior of the Nile: Inundation, or flood; Emergence of the fields from the water; and Drought. Egyptian society developed according to responses to the Nile's condition. During Inundation, when the fields were underwater, the Egyptians worked on building projects. During Emergence, they reserved water for the growing season. During Drought, they harvested and threshed their grain. The intensity of the Nile's annual flood usually determined the prosperity of Egypt. For example, a large flood sent water farther across the

Floods

* dike embankment used to confine or control the flow of water * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

* sluice human-made channel or passage to direct water flow * regulator gate or valve to control the amount of water passing through a channel

land and meant that more land could be tilled and more food could be grown. When Egyptians were able to grow more grain, which was Egypt's main product, they could export it and increase their wealth. The Greek historian HERODOTUS, writing in the 400s B.C., called Egyptian civilization "the gift of the [Nile]/' The Nile's water gave life to the dry land, and the annual flooding of the Nile determined property values. Consequently, real estate values depended on how regularly land received the benefits of the flood. "Black land" was valuable. "Red land" was almost worthless. Taxes on land varied accordingly and were higher after the annual flood than before it. The Nile's annual flooding also contributed to the political development of Egyptian society because organization was needed to build and maintain dikes*, catch basins, and canals. The central government could direct the large labor forces necessary for such works, and by the time of the First Dynasty* (ca. 3000-2800 B.C.), water-control projects had been built along the length of the river. Harmful Flooding. As important as seasonal flooding was, it could not be counted on to be just the right amount of flooding. There was no way of predicting the intensity of a seasonal flood, so if it were too high or too low, it could bring catastrophe to people living near the rivers. Floods also occurred outside of flood season, especially in Anatolia and Mesopotamia, where the rivers are much more affected by local conditions such as heavy winter rainfall. The water levels and flow of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers vary considerably from year to year. They also vary within seasons and with local conditions, such as winter rainfall or the rate and amount of melting snow in eastern Anatolia. The Tigris especially is subject to destructive flooding. In ancient Mesopotamia, the development of sluices* and regulators* helped protect the grain supply from flood. These water-control devices required constant watching and repair, so law codes such as the Code of Hammurabi set penalties for people who ruined crops as a result of the neglect or misuse of water management systems. Although flooding made life possible in Mesopotamia, it also created risks, the greatest of which was destruction of crops. Annual floods that were too high ruined standing crops in the field. This occurred frequently enough that there are many references to crop loss from flooding in law codes and legal documents. Another problem created by floods was that they could bring too much sediment into the canals and clog them. Clearing them required constant, labor-intensive cleaning. Seasonal flooding brought yet another problem to the nearly flat land near the Tigris and Euphrates. The land needed water, but it also needed to be drained of water after the floods because the water standing in the fields could draw salt up from the ground below. The salt remained when the water eventually dried, and this buildup of salt, called salinization, was a serious problem. Salinity made soil useless to the farmer, and large tracts of land sometimes had to be abandoned. To slow the salinization process, Mesopotamian farmers tried not to use the same fields over and over again and protected fields from flooding with dikes and levees when they could. Occasionally, the flooding could be so severe, especially if a 99

Food and Drink

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

FOOD AND DRINK

protective levee broke, that cities near the rivers could be buried under many feet of silt. In Egypt, even the relatively gentle flood of the Nile could bring havoc because there was no way to stop the river's spreading. Although a large flood yielded more grain, whole towns could be ruined if the flood were too high. In fact, Herodotus claimed that during these times, towns looked like islands and ships could sail straight across the country without following the path of the stream. He also said that boats sailed past the pyramids at these times. A low annual flood could also cause trouble. Less land tilled meant less food, and a famine* could result. To prevent this, Egyptians built dikes and catch basins to trap water. They sank wells and built canals to extend the reach of the river. They invented devices called nilometers to measure the rise of the river. As the boundaries of Egypt grew, the Egyptians set nilometers farther and farther up the river. The earlier they knew what the Nile was likely to do, the better they could prepare for whatever it brought. The grave consequences of floods or lack of floods made them the subject of intense interest for residents of the ancient Near East. Floods were important cultural and religious events as well. Many of Egypt's religious practices related to the motions of the Nile. Several civilizations had FLOOD LEGENDS that told of great floods, interpreting the tales through the eyes of their religion and philosophy. Archaeologists* have discovered Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Human, Khatti, Israelite, and Sumerian versions of flood myths. (See also Agriculture; Calendars; Cereal Grains; Law; Religion.)

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he diet of the people in the ancient Near East was simpler than that of people today. Their diet consisted primarily of CEREAL GRAINS and a variety of vegetables and fruits. In addition to water and milk, people of the ancient Near East drank both beer and WINE. Trade in food products took place throughout the ancient Near East, but this type of commerce was rather limited. Instead, each area relied primarily on local products, and many families produced only enough food for their own needs. People also preserved and stored food for later use to ensure that they could feed themselves.

KINDS OF FOOD AND DRINK Compared to the varied foods and drinks available in many places in the world today, the diet of the people of the ancient Near East was very limited. Breads and cereal grains were the most common food, and these were supplemented with vegetables, fruits, some dairy products, beer, and wine. Meat and fish were rare dishes, eaten usually by the wealthier classes, although other people might eat them on an occasional basis. Breads and Cereal Grains. Breads and cereal grains were important staples throughout the ancient Near East. Bread was considered the " staff

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Food and Drink

Food Rations Food and drink also made up part of the "pay" for workers in the ancient Near East, The food was rationed and distributed on a daily or monthly basis. Some ancient texts from Babylon, dating from about 2000 s.cv list the typical rations distributed to individuals* Children up to 5 years old received 2.5 gallons of barley per month; those aged 5 to 10 received about 4 gallons; and children aged 10 to 13 were given 5 gallons. Adult men received between 10.5 and 15,5 gallons, while women received about half that amount. Elderly adults generally were given about 5 gallons. Work* ers also received small amounts of vegetables, fruits, and other foods. Experts believe that most people ate a diet that contained adequate calories to keep them fairly healthy.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* ferment to undergo gradual chemical change in which yeast and bacteria convert sugars into alcohol

of life" and comprised the most important component of many ancient Near Eastern diets. Bread could be made from the flour of barley, wheat, or other grains, and it was baked in a variety of sizes and shapes. Much of the bread in the ancient Near East was unleavened, or made without yeast. Ingredients such fruit, spices, or herbs might be added to breads before they were baked to provide flavor. Flour from grains was often enriched with fat, milk, or eggs and mixed with honey or fruits to make sweet cakes and biscuits. Whole grains with the husks removed were mixed with water, milk, or other liquids and eaten like the cereals of today. In Babylon, for example, a common breakfast consisted of a type of porridge made from the grains of emmer wheat mixed with water. Vegetables and Fruits. The second most important component of the ancient Near Eastern diet consisted of various vegetables and fruits. Consumption of these foods helped balance people's diets by providing important vitamins and other nutrients not found in bread and grains. The inhabitants of the ancient Near East grew a variety of vegetables. Lentils and peas were widely cultivated in the Levant*, Anatolia, and the Zagros Mountains region by 6000 B.C. Other vegetables included garlic, onions, lettuce, cucumbers, turnips, radishes, and various beans. Common fruits included grapes, figs, dates, and pomegranates. Apples and pears were grown in some areas, such as Mesopotamia. Fruits and vegetables were often eaten raw, but people also cooked them and used them in soups, stews, and other dishes. Fruits were generally eaten fresh and uncooked, although some—particularly grapes, figs, and dates—were dried for eating out of season. Some fruits were used as the ingredient of more exotic foodstuffs and beverages. Beer and Wine. Beer was an important drink in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other areas of the Near East, and it generally was more common than wine. Made from various grains, beer provided a nutritious addition to the daily diet. There were many varieties of beer. The quantity of the grain used in brewing could determine its strength. The cheapest beer was diluted with water. Spices, honey, and dates were added to beer to produce different flavors. Found primarily in grape-growing regions, such as Egypt, wine was a less common drink in many areas of the ancient Near East. Moreover, wine was generally enjoyed by only the wealthier members of society. Wine was not only made from grapes but also from the juice of other fruits, including dates, figs, and pomegranates. It was generally diluted with water to reduce its strength and increase its volume. In addition to their consumption as household drinks, both beer and wine played a role in religious rites and ceremonies. They were often served as OFFERINGS to the dead or to the gods. Dairy Products. The dairy products consumed in the ancient Near East included milk, butter, and cheese. These products came primarily from GOATS and SHEEP, although CATTLE and CAMELS also provided dairy products in Anatolia and Arabia. Milk was usually left to ferment* before it was 101

Food and Drink

consumed. A common typeof butter usedin the Near Eastwas ghee,a liquid butterpurified by melting, boiling, and straining. Babylonians also used a round, chalky, very hard cheese that when grated and mixed with water, turned backto sour milkfor drinkingor other purposes.

VintageWines

Just as wines today are bottted at specific wineries and labeledaccording to year, some wines in the Meat and Fish. Meat played a limited role in the diet of most people ancient NearEast were labeled in the ancient NearEast. Domesticated* sheep, goats,and cattle were raised the same way. Certainareas were chiefly for their wool and milk, and they were too valuable to slaughter known as especially good wineproducing regions, and wineries in on a regular basis. Moreover, fertile land was too precious to devote to those areas produced the bestraising livestock primarilyfor meat. Hunting wild animalswas reserved known wines, |ars of wine found in mainly to the upperclasses.As a result, meat generally formeda regular the tomb of King Tutankhamen in Egypt had labels gMng the place, part of the diet for only the wealthier members of society, while the poorer classesate it onrareorfestive occasions. date, and year (vintage) of the wine and sometimes information about Fish was a more commonfood amongthe lower classes,butformed it the wineries. Experts think that a part of the diet only in areas near rivers, lakes,or seas.Fowl—including some of these wines represent the pigeons, geese, ducks, and other wild and domesticatedbirds—were best virtage years. Wine labels eaten in many areas, but generally only by the rich. found in other places in Egypt describe the wine in various ways, suchas "good/' "very good/' Oils, Condiments, and Sweeteners. Oils were used throughout "genuine/* and "sweet/' ancient NearEast for both cookingand seasoning. Oliveoil was among

* domesticated adapted or human use

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tamed for

the most common types of oil, and it was an important trade product in many parts of the NearEast. Ancient peoples also producedfrom oil a number of other plants, including FLAX,and thesesame. seeds of Ancient peoples used a number of food products as condiments and sweeteners. One of the most common seasonings was salt, but people also seasonedfood with spicesand herbs suchas coriander, cumin, mustard seed, marjoram, and rosemary. The chief natural sweetener was honey, but people also usedthe juice from various fruitsas sweeteners.

in

th

Food and Drink

FOOD PREPARATION AND STORAGE Bulgur With Vegetables Bulgur wheat which is rich in nutrients, was a staple food throughout tie ancient Near East. For an authentic bulgur dish, add 2 tablespoons of butter and \ teaspoon of salt to 3 cups of boiling water. Next, slowly pour 1 cup of bulgur wheat into the mix and cover the pot, allowing it to simmer for about 20 minute or until almost all the water is absorbed. Then place a skillet over low heat on a separate burner. Add V4 cup of oil and 1 egg plant peeled and cut Into 1Inch squares to the skillet stirring frequently. Add 1 chopped onion and cook until it becomes transparent but not brown* Next, add V2 head of chopped cabbage, 3 sliced carrots, and 6 sliced stalkj of celery and cook until they are soft. Finally, add Va cup of chopped parsley, stir in the bulgur and serve.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

See color plate 6, vol. 2.

People in the ancient Near East prepared and stored foods in many ways. Food preparation included the different ways in which foods were cooked and eaten, as well as the processes that made food products suitable for consumption and long-term storage. Food storage was important because it allowed food products to be saved and stored for later use. Food Preparation. Foods generally were prepared in various ways. Meat, fish, and fowl were roasted, fried, baked, or boiled alone or as part of a stew. Certain foods, however, such as bread and beer, required a specific process for preparation. The initial step in making bread was to prepare a soft dough by mixing flour with water and a little salt. This dough was shaped by hand and then baked inside a clay oven or cooked on a flat stone placed over a fire. Sometimes yeast was added to the dough, which was then left to rise before it was cooked. Some loaves of bread were baked in molds; others were made in fancy shapes of animal and human figures. Breads were also sometimes topped with seeds or mixed with fruits. The first stage in preparing beer was to soak grain in water, allowing it to sprout, and then to bake it. It was then dried out, crushed, and mixed with ingredients such as herbs, spices, honey, and dates. The resulting mixture was then combined with fresh grain and warmed in a slow oven. At a certain point, this heated mixture was placed on a large mat to cool. A sweet substance, such as honey or dates, was added to assist fermentation. The last step of the process was to mix the fermented, souplike mash with water in a vat and then to strain, or filter, the finished beer into other containers. Recipes were probably handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation. Most children undoubtedly learned to cook by simply watching and helping their elders. However, three cuneiform* tablets found in southern Babylonia and written in about 1700 B.C. contain a total of 35 recipes for making soups and meat dishes. These early "cookbooks" could not have been intended for use by the average family because most people could not read. Perhaps these tablets are records of meals prepared for a banquet in the palace or served to the gods in the temple. Food Preservation and Storage. Unless preserved in some way, all foods last for only a short time before spoiling. Food processing and storage were thus very important to ancient peoples, allowing them to save foods for later use or times of special need. The main techniques for preserving food were drying, salting, and smoking. Meat, fish, and fowl could all be preserved this way, allowing them to be stored for significant periods. Most vegetables were not processed and preserved, so people only ate these foods while they were in season. Certain fruits—including figs, dates, and grapes—could be preserved by drying. The dried fruits were then pressed into cakes or stored in pottery containers. Certain grains could be preserved by heating, which killed the seeds and prevented them from sprouting. To protect the seeds from spoilage and rodents, the grain was sometimes treated with smoke and fumes and stored in large sealed containers. 103

Fortifications In individual households, people generally stored foods in clay jars of various sizes and shapes. These might be placed in a certain room, in an area of a courtyard, or in storage areas sunk into the floor. Most communities also set aside special areas for the storage of food. Public storehouses generally were located in areas that were both accessible and easy to guard and defend, such as near a city's main gates or administration buildings. (See also Agriculture; Animals, Domestication of; Feasts and Festivals; Fishing; Hunting.)

FORTIFICATIONS * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* rampart protective barrier

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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fortifications—structures built to protect against attack—played an • important role in the city-states*, kingdoms, and empires of the * ancient Near East. This was especially true for cities built on flat plains that had no natural barriers, in regions such as southern Mesopotamia. Most early fortifications consisted of walls built around a city. These walls not only provided protection from enemy attack, but they also marked the limits of the city. Their size and strength symbolized the power and prestige of the state or ruler. In some places, walls also served as barriers against flooding. In addition to city walls, ancient peoples also built fortresses at strategic points within their territory and along its borders to help defend against invaders. The nature of fortifications varied greatly, depending on a combination of military, political, economic, and geographic factors. These factors influenced the size, shape, and structure of fortifications as well as the materials used to build them. Wealthy, powerful cities could afford to build large and elaborate fortifications. Communities that lacked adequate resources might devise a simple defensive system by arranging an outer ring of houses around the settlement. The rear walls of these houses provided a simple barrier against intruders. As the political and economic fortunes of a city or town changed over time, its fortifications often changed as well. Basic Elements of Fortifications. The fortification systems of the ancient Near East consisted of several basic elements: a barrier wall or earthen rampart*, GATES, towers, and surrounding ditches and slopes. The earliest and simplest type of barrier was a solid wall of stone or brick. Built to various heights and widths, such walls generally provided an effective barrier against attackers. Sometimes other solid walls were built against the outside of the original wall to make the wall thicker and to provide added defense. Another type of barrier was the casemate wall, which consisted of two parallel walls with a space between. The space might be filled with soil or stones to provide added strength or left open and used as a storage space. Sometimes the casemate walls were integrated into dwellings and functioned as the rear part of a house. Solid and casemate walls generally had walkways and overhanging balcony-like structures along their tops from which defenders could attack an enemy. Some ancient cities had large earthen ramparts, or mounds, rising as high as 295 feet. However, archaeologists* have found no evidence that city walls

Fortifications were built on these ramparts. This suggests that they served to mark city limits or to give inhabitants a feeling of security. People in the ancient Near East entered and left their WALLED CITIES through gates. There were generally only a few main gates because they represented the weakest line of defense in a wall, the place where the city was most easily accessible to foes. Projecting towers were usually built on each side of a gate, providing a platform from which armed troops could defend it and the city. Rooms within the towers housed guards or served as storage areas. Often towers were spaced apart along other sections of a wall to serve as platforms for defenders. Walls also contained bastions, reinforced corners that enabled defenders to fire at attackers from various angles. Urban fortifications often included deep ditches called moats, which surrounded the city walls. Constructed at the foot of walls or ramparts to increase their height, moats were especially important on level terrain, where there were no natural slopes or hills to help protect the site. Sometimes moats were filled with water, providing an added level of defense. Protecting the outer slopes of some walls were inclined layers of soil, bricks, or stone known as a glacis. A retaining wall of brick or stone at the foot of the glacis helped to hold it in place, and the face of the glacis was sometimes covered with paving stone. The glacis served two purposes: it helped protect the foundation of a wall from damage due to erosion, and it created a smooth, slippery slope that was difficult for attackers to climb. * eighth millennium B.C. period from 8000 to 7001 B.C. * Levant lands bordering the eastern

shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* siege long and persistent effort to force

a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

History of Fortifications. Fortifications started to appear in the Near East as early as the eighth millennium B.C.*, when rivalries between neighboring settlements created a need for defensive structures. Among the earliest known examples of a wall and tower are those of the town of JERICHO in the Levant*, which date back to the eighth millennium B.C. In the centuries that followed, fortifications sprang up throughout the Near East, becoming increasingly large and sophisticated. By the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), the rise of large territorial states—often at war with each other—had created a need for extensive fortifications. The most outstanding example of city fortifications in Mesopotamia during this period protected the Sumerian city of URUK. Surrounding Uruk was an enormous wall nearly 6 miles long with about 900 semicircular towers. The best-known fortifications in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) are those of TROY, which consisted of massive city walls, bastions, and towers. Though no remains of fortifications from this period have been found in Egypt, evidence from paintings and other sources reveals that the Egyptians also built impressive urban fortifications. During the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), many cities had begun to incorporate earthen ramparts, glacis, and moats into their fortifications. The most impressive use of these elements was in the Levant, where some cities had massive earthen ramparts up to 130 feet thick at the base and nearly 50 feet high. The steep slopes created by such ramparts and glacis provided better protection against the siege* weapons and techniques of warfare that were used during this time. The expansion of rival empires in the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.) led to the development of new methods of warfare and more extensive fortifications. NINEVEH and BABYLON had immense

105

Fruit

* imperial pertaining to an emperor an empire

Fruit

FURNISHINGS AND FURNITURE

106

or

fortifications that fit their status as capitals of mighty empires. fortifiThe cations of Babylon, included two enormous walls, one inside the other many towers; and a large moat nearly 330 feet wide. Many large cities built separate defensive systems within such fortifications to provide added protection to palaces and government buildings. Because this was a period of intense rivalry between kingdoms and empires, almost all cities of the ancient NearEast constructed strongfortifications for defense. Toward the end of the first millennium B.C., a new dynamic began to unfold. Fortified cities in conquered territories posed a threat to the co quering imperial* power. This was because the conquered inhabitants might feel that the walls made them secure and that they could therefor revolt. For instance, when the city of Babylon tried to revolt against Persian rule in the 400s B.C., the Persians destroyed the city's walls to deprive the city of defenses. The Persians did the same to other cities in quered areas to make them defenseless against their imperial forces. At the same time, they established military forts throughout their empire to station troops and secure conquered territories. Such forts had existed throughout the centuries, but they became a standardfeature of imperial rule.(See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Building Materi Cities and City-States; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Arm

See Agriculture;Food and Drink.

P

eople in modern Western cultures regard furniture as a necessity. Their homes are furnished with pieces used for sitting, sleeping, eating from, and so on. The people of the ancient NearEast, however, were accustomed to sitting, lying, or squatting on the ground. For many, item such as chairs and tables were not necessities but extras, perhaps even luxuries. Most ancient furniture was made of wood, leather, reeds, and cloth— materials that decay over time. The survival of complete or nearly complete

Furnishings and Furniture pieces of furniture depends on both local custom and climate. Furniture placed in tombs in an extremely dry climate, such as in Egypt, was most likely to be preserved. Furniture from other areas is known from the parts that have been found, such as bronze hardware or IVORY decorations that were once fastened to furniture pieces. Images and descriptions of furniture in artwork and texts reveal how ancient furniture was used.

ANATOLIA TO MESOPOTAMIA * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The archaeological* site £ATAL HUYUK in ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) contains some of the oldest known furniture in the ancient Near East. Buildings dating from the late seventh millennium B.C.* have platforms made of plaster extending out from the walls. These probably served as benches, tables, and beds. Recesses in the walls probably served as cupboards. The people of £atal Hiiyuk may have had movable furniture as well. A small statue found there shows a goddess sitting on a stool supported on both sides by standing cats. This is the earliest known example of a seat with animal supports—a style that was used for the seats of gods, kings, and nobles for the next 6,000 years. While the discoveries at £atal Hiiyiik provide valuable glimpses of early furniture, most evidence of furniture from the ancient Near East dates from around 3000 B.C. or later. Household Furnishings. From very early times, people appear to have kept their clothing and personal possessions in bags, baskets, and boxes rather than in large pieces of furniture designed for storage. A Mesopotamian household would have had many reed chests for storing goods, including inscribed CLAY TABLETS that detailed business or other records. Kitchenware included kettles for boiling water and small jars for oil, liquid butter, and beer, as well as sets of millstones used for grinding grain, spices, and sesame seeds. Household textiles included rugs, carpets, and blankets, made of wool, goat hair, or linen. Among the HITTITES of Anatolia, household furnishings included baskets and chests to hold blankets, clothing, and other objects. POTTERY pitchers, bowls, cups, jars, and plates were plentiful and were often shaped like animals such as bulls, lions, or birds. These were used in religious rituals and for everyday use. Household and personal objects of the people who lived in the Levant* included reed mats, which served as rugs. Many people kept their personal possessions in wooden chests, some of which had sliding lids. When these chests were not available, people used reed baskets to store goods. Daylight was supplemented by pottery lamps that held olive oil and wicks made of FLAX. Furniture. Most people slept and sat on the floor or on platforms or simple benches, with mats, rugs, and cushions for comfort. The wealthy and powerful, however, cherished fine items of furniture. Tables were in use by 3000 B.C. Some were simply stands to support bowls or pitchers; others appear to have had removable tops that served as trays. Later tables were made with tray tops or tops that had depressions in 107

Furnishings

and

Furniture

See colorplate1, vol. 4.

* stela stone slab or pillar

that hasbeen carved or engravedand servesas a monument; pi.stelae

* sphinx imaginary creature body and a human head

with a lion's

* booty riches or property gained through conquest * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * artisan skilled craftsperson

108

the center to hold food. Some large tables may have been used asserving stands or sideboards.Beds and couches were less common and consisted of woodenframes with resting surfacesof woven rope. The most common kind MESOPOTAMIA of seatin was the stool. There were many types—boxlike stoolsof woodor reeds, folding stools with crossed legs, and tall cylinders. Some were elaborately decorated.For instance, stools shown in the Royal Standard of Ur,which dates from around 2500 B.C., include carved bull's legs. The earliest chairs were simply stools with backs. Chairs were madeof many kinds of wood, sometimes painted or covered with copper, bronze, silver, or gold.Seats were sometimes upholstered with leather. fanciThe est chairs of all were royal thrones, which were often extensively decorated with ivory, gold, GEMS. and A stela* from about B.C. shows 2100a god seated on a stool that isdecorated with panels thatlook like the decorations on the outer walls of temples. In the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000to B.C.), furni-1001 ture became more elaborate. Pieces decorated with ivory carvings have been found in sites from Anatolia, Mesopotamia,and the Levant. These items includefinely carved sphinxes* and plaques thatdecorated wooden boxes. From UGARIT, a cityon the Syrian coast, archaeologists have found a round table with a rose design in the center. That rosette, as thedesign is called, was carvedfrom elephant ivory to show animals and mythological creatures. Thousandsof ivory objects, including attachments furfor niture, have been found atAssyrian sites dating from the 800sto the 600s B.C. Assyrian kings often commissioned workshops to build pieces for them. They also collected furnitureasbooty* from their conquests and received it as part of tribute*. Excavators have found examples of magnificent wooden furniture, together with iron, bronze, and clay objects, in tombs dating from the 700sB.C.at the Phrygian siteof Gordionin Anatolia. Some ofthese pieces have ornate inlays, showing that artisans*had masteredthe art formof ing patterns by joining together tiny pieces different of colored woods. One table consisted of a walnut top on three curved legs. Thelegs and framework supporting the top were designed in an intricate geometric pattern made of thousands of piecesof juniper inlaidin boxwood. Even in antiquity, Phrygianfurniturewas famous.In B.C., the the400s Greek historian Herodotus recommended to his readers that awooden throne given by the Phrygian king Midas to the Greek temple at Delphi some three centuries earlier waswell worth seeing. The typical house in the Levant had chairs or stools and tables. Most people slept on reed mats. Beds, which were found only in the homes of the wealthy, were of two types: mud brick with mud-brick pillowsor wooden frames that supported leather or rope webbing. Tables were more common. Many had three legs, making them well suited tobalance on the uneven dirt floors of most houses. Often the legs were carved in theform of animal legs, paws, or heads. Hollows in the table surfaces may have served as food containers. A typical household owned between three and eight stools or chairsforeach table. Seats usually consisted of wooden side railsto which leather fiber orwebbing was attached.

Furnishings and Furniture

EGYPT * ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized wood from certain tropical trees

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

* dowry money or property that a woman brings to the man she marries

See color plate 2, vol. 1.

Egyptian furniture and home furnishings varied according to wealth and class. The royal family sat on chairs of ebony* or wood with ivory inlays. They stored their clothes in chests decorated with gold paint. The lower classes probably sat and slept on reed mats spread on the floor and kept their belongings in baskets. Examples of furniture and household goods from all classes of society have survived, thanks to the practice of burying goods with the dead and the dry desert air. These grave goods sometimes included furniture used during the person's lifetime. Other pieces were especially made for burial, often in the form of a model or miniature. Household Furnishings. The interiors of Egyptian houses gained both color and comfort from mats and textiles, including cushions, woven wall hangings, and chair covers. Most houses had lamps, usually small pottery bowls with oil-soaked fiber wicks. Occasionally people placed lamps on tall wooden stands to create a light similar to a modern floor lamp. One such lamp was found among the household goods in the tomb of Kha, an architect who lived sometime around 1400 B.C. It consisted of a stone slab, a tall column carved to resemble a papyrus stem, and a bowl at the top to hold the fuel. Kha's burial goods included a commode — a wooden stool with a hole in the seat, under which a chamber pot was placed. Marriage documents listing the items a bride brought to her new home are a good source of information about the furnishings of Egyptian households. These items included clothes, textiles, jewelry, metal vessels for washing and cooking, a mirror, and a bed. The Egyptians used chests and baskets of all shapes and sizes for countless purposes. They stored their clothes in boxes. Rectangular boxes with flat lids, sometimes with four short legs, held linens and household effects. Scribes* kept their writing materials in boxes shaped like shrines; similar boxes also held jewelry and other valuables. Small sturdy wooden chests with legs or boxes made of reeds often held amulets*, strings of beads, metal razors and tweezers for removing facial and body hair, braids of false hair, and cosmetics. Numerous storage containers might be needed, as households often stored large quantities of textiles to provide part of a bride's dowry* or to use as barter for other goods. Furniture. Stools and small tables were the most common items of household furniture. Wealthy individuals owned chairs and beds. Furniture styles changed over time. Those of the Old Kingdom (from about 2675 to 2130 B.C.) tended to be heavier and more massive. During the times of the Middle Kingdom (from about 1980 to 1630 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (from about 1539 to 1075 B.C.), pieces were lighter. Lion legs were the dominant decoration on furniture. Decorations sometimes reflected the symbols of HIEROGLYPHICS, the Egyptian system of writing. For instance, the posts on a queen's bed from the Old Kingdom were in the form of the hieroglyphic symbol meaning "great/' The curved neckpiece on which Egyptians rested their heads when they slept resembled the hieroglyph for horizon.

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Games

Furniture Fit for the Gods The Egyptians and the Mesopotamians regarded the temples they built as their deities' houses, Uke { any fine house, a temple needed } furniture—and only the finest materials and most exquisite work* manship would do for the gods and goddesses* So important and well i known were the beds made for Mesopotamian temples that they j were used in the naming of years. For example, a year during the reign of King Shulgi of Ur was ''the year in which the bed of Ninlil was constructed." The goddess Ninlil was the wife of Enlil, an important Sumerian god.

* deity god or goddess

GAMES

* Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

110

The stool was by far the most common piece of furniture. Peasants and workers might use rough, three-legged stools, but nobles and kings sat on finely inlaid pieces. Work stools tended to have wooden or leather seats; seats of woven reeds were more likely to be used within the home. There were folding stools, stools made of wicker, and for the poor, stools that were simply small slabs of stone or wood. Chairs indicated a higher status than stools. A basic type was simply an animal-leg stool with a slanted back added. Some chairs had seats close to the ground and wide enough to hold someone sitting cross-legged. Stools, chairs, and beds sometimes stood on cone-shaped limestone supports, which raised the furniture off the packed-mud floors and helped keep them clean and away from crawling insects. Lavishly decorated chairs served as royal thrones. A spectacular example was found in the tomb of TUTANKHAMEN. The throne is made of wood covered with gold sheeting and decorated with semiprecious stones and colored glass. The legs are carved to resemble lion's paws, and the backrest features a painted scene of the king and his wife. Those who could afford tables used them for dining. Each diner had his or her own small table—large communal tables are unknown. Those too poor to own tables simply kept their plates beside them on the floor. Like tables, beds were rarely found in humble households. The early beds slanted downward from head to foot, although later beds were parallel to the ground. Instead of pillows, the Egyptians rested their heads on small wooden or stone headrests or neck rests, sometimes softening these with cushions. Egyptians prized their beds as a mark of elegance and civilization. The hero of The Story ofSinuhe, returning to Egypt after long years of travel in less refined lands, rejoices at once more being able to sleep in a bed. Some beds had footboards carved with images of deities* traditionally thought to protect women during pregnancy, childbirth, and nursing. (See also Houses; Wood and Woodworking.)

J

ust as people play games to amuse themselves today, people of the ancient Near East played games to entertain themselves. They played with toys, enjoyed board games and games of chance, and also participated in outdoor games. No one knows exactly how some of these games were played. However, others are familiar to people today. Much physical evidence of ancient games and toys has not been preserved because most playthings were made of perishable materials such as wood, leather, or unbaked clay. Objects clearly identifiable as things for play appeared in the ancient Near East beginning in the Neolithic period*. It is possible to gain a sense of games and toys and their uses from this time on. Written references, artwork, inscriptions on buildings and pottery, and other archaeological* evidence help create a picture of the games played and enjoyed in the ancient Near East. In all likelihood, children's outdoor activities were the earliest form of games. Running races, skipping rope, wrestling, and other forms of active play have always been a part of childhood. An Egyptian tomb scene from about 2300 B.C. shows boys engaged in a tug-of-war. Children also played

Games

*

leapfrog and a game in which one child balanced on another'sback. They also liked whirling games that made them dizzy, arm wrestling, and swimming. In addition, they probably used swings and seesaws. Boys unSee colorplate9, doubtedly played war and hunting games with weapons they made vol. 2. themselves.Girls played house with dolls. Surviving records show that several ball games were playedinEgypt, with balls made of leather, fabric, or reeds that might stuffed be with rags. Sometimes balls were madeof wood. Scrapsofwool servedthe same purpose in Mesopotamia and the Levant*. These balls rolled but did not Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentbounce. Children used them to play catch andjuggle. to day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Although almost anyobject couldbe usedas atoy, ancient Near EastBank, and Jordan ern peoples had some objects that were clearly intended only forplay. Among the earliest play objects were baby rattles, foundat numerous sites in the NearEast. Other toys, suchas miniature dishes, furniture, and animals made of wood and clay, are mentioned in texts that were found at archaeological sites. Archaeologists also believe thatmany of the small humanfigures found throughout the ancient Near East may have been dolls. Tops were also usedfor play.A topliketoy made of a small disk through which holes were bored for leather straps existed inMesopotamia and the Levant. When the straps were stretched and relaxed in

Ill

Gardens

See color plate 4, vol. 2.

GARDENS * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

112

turn, the disk began to spin, jump, and hum. This toy is still in use throughout the world. Other toys with moving parts, often activated by strings, have also been found. Not all games were children's games. Adults also played several games, some of which were taken quite seriously, such as games of chance. Moves on board games were made by throwing dice or animal knucklebones. These knucklebones, called astrigali, were among the most widely used gaming pieces in ancient times. With four long sides, they were used as four-sided dice. Astrigali were made of stone, metal, and glass, as were other types of dice, including six-sided and pyramid-shaped dice. Astrigali were also used in several dice games. Perhaps the most popular board game was the game the Egyptians called senet This game was known throughout the Near East. It was played on a board of thirty squares, some of them beautifully crafted of rare materials. Dice throws determined the moves. Although the rules of the game are unclear, the object may have been to reenact a quest for eternal life. Babylonian clay tablets with square fields inscribed with signs of the ZODIAC comprised the board for the "game of princes/' Some of the boards were made with precious and semiprecious stones. This game was probably played by throwing astrigali. Guessing games, referred to in the Hebrew Bible, and similar games of language or pantomime also amused people in the ancient Near East. (See also Entertainment; Family and Social Life.)

T

hroughout the ancient Near East, gardens were kept as places for growing fruits and vegetables, as places of refuge from the hot and dusty climate, as sanctuaries for rare animals and plants, and as symbols of status and wealth. The ways in which they were planted and cared for depended on the region, the wealth of the owner, and the availability of water. As early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, the Egyptians began growing gardens in the Nile Valley. Here gardens were cultivated in palaces, houses, and temples, and IRRIGATION was dependent upon the waters of the NILE RIVER. In palaces and houses, the magnificence of a garden depended on the wealth of its owner. Gardens of pharaohs* and wealthy officials sometimes contained zoos, pools, lakes, pavilions, shade trees, and shrines. Conversely, the gardens of less wealthy people usually consisted of only a few trees planted in pots next to their homes. Small gardens were often watered by hand, while large gardens depended on irrigation canals, which brought water from pools and wells. The rulers of ancient Egypt also collected rare species of plants for their gardens. Queen HATSHEPSUT (ruled ca. 1472-1458 B.C.) sent a plant-collecting expedition to a region south of Egypt known as the land of Punt, while THUTMOSE III (ruled ca. 1479-1425 B.C.) sent an expedition to SYRIA to gather new plants for his garden. RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.) created a garden with fruit trees and flowers from many regions and faraway lands. The walls of some pharaohs' tombs were painted with scenes

Gates

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory

GATES

See [color plate 12, ] vol. 3.

of garden landscapes because it was believed these paintings gave pleasure and nourishment to the dead. Egyptian gardens contained a wide variety of fruit trees such as fig, date, and pomegranate, which provided both food and shade. Vegetables and legumes were grown here as well and included such items as lettuce, onions, peas, broad beans, lentils, cucumbers, and radishes. Cuneiform* texts dating from the third millennium B.C.* provide information about the gardens, parks, and orchards in the cities of MESOPOTAMIA. Here gardens were planted at palaces, estates, and temples. Like the Egyptian rulers, Mesopotamian kings viewed gardens as status symbols and collected rare species of plants and animals to keep in them. Among the Mesopotamian kings who created elaborate gardens were TIGLATH-PILESER I (ruled ca. 1114-1076 B.C.) and NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (ruled 605-562 B.C.). The most famous of the Mesopotamian gardens were the HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON. Sumerians developed the technique of shade gardening, in which date palms were planted around the garden to provide protection for the other plants from wind, sun, and sand. Among the crops grown in these gardens were peas, beans, lentils, garlic, leeks, cucumbers, lettuce, melons, cumin, coriander, mustard, watercress, grapes, figs, and apples. These gardens usually were located near rivers and canals. In Persia, the garden was called paradeisos, a name meaning "beautiful garden/' which is related to the word paradise. The earliest example of a paradeisos was the garden in the city of Pasargadae in Persia, where king CYRUS THE GREAT (ca. 559-529 B.C.) planted many trees in even rows alongside his palace. Gardens similar to Cyrus's were created in ANATOLIA, Syria, and the Levant*, and were cultivated by satraps* during the time of the PERSIAN EMPIRE.

Q

aates played an important role in the FORTIFICATIONS, or defensive fstructures, of urban settlements in the ancient Near East. They served? as entrances and exits to WALLED CITIES, allowing inhabitants to move between their homes in the city and the surrounding countryside. Gates often had a symbolic function as well. Large decorated gates served as symbols of the power and prestige of a city and its rulers. The earliest gates were probably simple openings in a wall, defended by guards or fitted with wooden doors. Gates needed to be defended because they were openings to the city that could potentially be penetrated by attackers. As such, gates were the weakest points in a wall's defenses. As a result, the peoples of the ancient Near East soon devised ways to protect gates and make a city less vulnerable. One technique people used to strengthen their defense was to limit the number of gates in a wall, thus providing fewer weak points for an enemy to attack. Large walled cities might have only a few main gates and several smaller ones. To protect the gates themselves, people built towers that projected outward from the wall on either side of a gate. These towers helped protect the approaches to a gate, and their roofs served as platforms from which defenders could fire their weapons at an approaching 113

Gems

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head

See color plate 3, vol. 2.

GEMS * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * mosaic art form in which objects are decorated with small pieces of stone or glass that form an image * artisan skilled craftsperson * lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

114

enemy. The towers flanking a city gate were often very large. Many contained from two to six rooms, which were used to house guards, store supplies, or serve other military or civilian purposes. The approaches to gates and their towers were sometimes perpendicular to the walls, generally up a sloping ramp or a series of steps. However, sometimes the approach to a gate was angled so that it was parallel to the city walls. This made attackers an easier target for the defenders on the walls above. In addition to large fortified gates, many cities' walls—such as those in KHATTUSHA in Anatolia (present-day Turkey)—had small, narrow gates with passageways leading through the city walls or under them. Called posterns, these gates provided shortcuts to farmers going to fields in the surrounding countryside. Without them, residents might have had to walk great distances to reach the main gates of the city. Because the posterns were small and narrow, they could be blocked quickly and defended easily from the walls above. Most large city gates had heavy wooden doors—often clad in bronze or reinforced with metal—that could be locked from the inside by heavy horizontal beams. Sometimes these doors were richly decorated with basrelief* scenes or designs on the bronze. The scenes on some ancient gates uncovered by archaeologists* depict events from the lives of rulers. For instance, bronze gates erected by Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II show a battle between Aramaeans and Assyrians. Some main gates were also decorated with stone bas-relief carvings or colored tiles. Many of the subjects were real or imaginary animals, such as lions, bulls, and sphinxes*, that served as guardian figures to protect the gate. The most highly decorated gates often served a ceremonial function during processions and other important events. One of the most famous of such gates is the Ishtar Gate built by Nebuchadnezzar at BABYLON, a blue-tiled gate with golden images of bulls and dragons. This gate was situated along the approach to the temple of MARDUK, the principle god of the Babylonians. (See also Animals in Art; Architecture; Sculpture.)

Q

ems are precious or semiprecious stones, which people value for their color and brilliance as well as for their magical properties. JEWELRY was common in the ancient Near East, but only the richest and most important people—both women and men—could afford jewelry studded with gems. Gemstones added color, protection, and interest—and costto the items. Gems were also used as tribute*. Gemstones are hard enough to last but soft enough to be carved. Most were carved into beads of varying sizes and colors. In some cases, flat pieces of stone were cut into different shapes and set in metal to create mosaics* that depicted, for instance, the feathers of a bird. Gem carvers at first used local stones. However, land and sea trade made gemstones from distant regions available. Consequently, it was possible for artisans* in Egypt or Mesopotamia to work with lapis lazuli* from Afghanistan. The earliest known use of gems in the area was in ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), where thousands of malachite beads with holes drilled in

Gems

See [ color plate 4, vol. 4.

Gems were a symbol of wealth and power in the ancient Near East, especially those studded with the most valued stones— lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian. In addition to their use as a decoration, some gems were thought to have magical properties that could protect the wearer from evil and sickness—red stones symbolized strength and vigor as well as death and sadness; green stones symbolized life.

them and dating from around 7000 B.C. have been found. In Mesopotamia, the body in a tomb dating from around 3000 B.C. was covered with 25,000 semiprecious stone beads, along with gold jewelry adorned with turquoise and lapis lazuli. At a royal tomb in UR, from around the same time, a queen's body was covered with gold and silver jewelry that contained lapis lazuli, carnelian, and agate. The living wore gems as a symbol of their wealth and power as well as for protection from evil and illness. Sumerian royalty and the elite wore pins, diadems (headbands), earrings, beaded necklaces, rings, bracelets, and armlets. These pieces of jewelry might contain lapis, carnelian, agate, turquoise, malachite, and other colored gems. Gemstones, in addition to being purely decorative, could also be engraved with a wide variety of images and inscriptions and used as SEALS. Gems were an important part of Egyptian jewelry making. Although the most prized stones were lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan), turquoise (from the Sinai), and carnelian (from Alexandria and Nubia), Egyptian jewelry makers used many more stones. The colors chosen conveyed symbolic meaning. Red symbolized strength and death. Green referred to the rebirth of life and was thus linked to good harvests. Egyptians used gems in necklaces, pendants, bracelets and armlets, earrings, diadems, and beltlike girdles. Gems were often used in complex designs and to portray people, animals, and vegetation. One piece from

GEMS OF THE ANO&fT NEAR EAST Common Gems agate

Colors

amethyst

violet

calcite

white

carnelian

bright red

chalcedony

white, gray, blue, brown

emerald

green

feldspar

colorless; also pink to red

hematite

steel gray

jasper

red; also yellow, green, grayish-blue

lapis lazuli

deep blue or violet

malachite

green

obsidian

black

quartz

white; also colorless

steatite (soapstone)

gray, green

turquoise

bright blue

multicolored bands or stripes

115

Gender and Sex

* amulet small object thought to have

supernatural or magical powers

GI-NDK Si x * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

116

2000 B.C. shows two birds, two snakes, a scarab beetle, and other religious symbols and is inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, feldspar, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and garnet. The stone inlays are cut into varying shapes and sizes to represent the birds' different feathers. The colors alternate, so each feather is obvious. A unique use of gems in Egypt was the carved scarab, an image of the dung beetle, which was a popular amulet*. Scarabs were first used in the Old Kingdom (beginning around 2675 B.C.), but their popularity grew during the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), when they began to be used as seals. They were worn on pendants, tied to bracelets, or tied with thread or wire to a finger. (See also Amulets and Charms; Economy and Trade; Lapis Lazuli.)

W

hen archaeologists* and scholars study past human cultures, they focus not only on buildings and artworks but also on the ideas and social structures that determined how people lived. One area of study concerns gender, focusing on the beliefs and customs that determine how a particular culture views men and women. To ancient Near Eastern societies, each gender was believed to have its own rights and responsibilities. Those rights and responsibilities varied considerably. Social Status. Almost all ancient Near Eastern cultures were patriarchal. That is, men occupied most political positions and dominated decision making. There were exceptions to this principle, however. Some evidence suggests that the Lycians in ANATOLIA and the Elamites in IRAN had matriarchal societies. Moreover, some queens, such as HATSHEPSUT of Egypt, ruled some states, and Assyrian wives acted as the heads of households and businesses when their husbands were away. The very fact that these powerful women stand out in the historical record, however, suggests that they were exceptions to the norm, and society could respond harshly to those who defied gender expectations. The man who followed Hatshepsut on the Egyptian throne took pains to wipe out public memory of her by erasing references to her from monuments. Images in art and literature offer some clues about a society's attitudes toward gender. However, these images often represent the stereotypical views held by a society. For instance, art of everyday life in the ancient Near East reflects the patriarchal society in which women's roles were seen as distinctly different from and less important than those of men. Mesopotamian art, for example, contains many representations of goddesses but few of earthly women or of everyday activities. When women do appear, they are generally shown as barefoot prisoners, suffering figures in war scenes, or mothers nurturing children. Reading artifacts* for clues to ancient social attitudes can be a difficult practice, however. For years, archaeologists suspected that men had active lives outdoors while women did not. There is evidence to support this view. For example, objects of personal adornment found at Hasanlu, a site in northwestern Iran dating from around 800 B.C., include metal belts

Gender and Sex

Color Codes A clue to the belief that women were occupied indoors while men worked outdoors is offered by Egyptian art. Typically, women are shown witJUight, yellowish-brown skin. Men's skin is a darker reddishbrown, The lighter color for women may indicate that they were less exposed to sunlight Mate high officials are also shown with light skin, This suggests that they may have reached a point in their careers where they could spend most of their time working indoors.

* adultery sexual relationship between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse

and armbands for men and hair adornments and dangling earrings for women. Belts, often used to hold weapons, suggest action, and armbands draw attention to the biceps. The men's ornaments, then, are related to action and strength. The women's emphasize the face and beauty and hint at a less active life spent indoors. On the other hand, further studies suggest that gender distinctions were not so clear-cut. Some of the women whose remains were found at Hasanlu were wearing large, heavy pins in the shape of lions. These symbols of high status and power were normally associated with male pursuits such as hunting. These women apparently wore the decorations because they had high-status positions. Thus, gender may not have been the only factor that determined women's social position. Scholars attempting to interpret the past, then, need to bear these distinctions in mind, as well as to think about gender-related roles. Evidence from artworks and artifacts does not tell the entire story of status either. In Egyptian art, wives might be shown as smaller figures than their husbands, perhaps reflecting the male-dominated social structure. On the other hand, this might simply reflect the fact that women are generally physically smaller than men. Egyptian law indicates that women were given equal rights to men. Women could own, inherit, and dispose of property and enter into business deals. Unlike women of other cultures, who needed male guardians to speak for them in court, Egyptian women could go to court on an equal footing with men. This equality could work both ways. In one court record, a woman who committed a crime with three men was given the same punishment as the men. Scholars must therefore balance the information gained from artworks and artifacts with what they know from other sources in drawing conclusions about gender roles. Sexual Behavior. Where sexual behavior was concerned, some men and women lived under what today would be called a double standard. Society and the law had different expectations for men and women— and different punishments when they broke the rules. For example, the ancient Israelites defined the crime of adultery* according to gender and class. A married man who had sexual relations with an unmarried woman was not committing adultery. A married woman who had such relations with anyone but her husband was committing adultery and risked execution. Under Hittite law, adultery could be punished by death, but if the act took place in an isolated area, the married woman's life was spared. The assumption under that circumstance was that she could not cry out for help. Egyptian attitudes toward adultery were more lenient. There was no death penalty attached to the act, although participants were open to the disapproval of their neighbors. Attitudes toward sexual behavior stemmed from the belief that the family was the organizing unit of society. In Mesopotamia, for example, prostitution was considered part of society, yet prostitutes were outsiders, women who had ''lost their way." Homosexuals were viewed in the same way by Babylonians, and Assyrians severely punished men for homosexual acts. The Israelites banned homosexuality entirely. Other Near Eastern cultures, such as the Egyptian, may have 117

Geography tolerated homosexuality but regarded anyone who did not marry and have children as abnormal. (See also Family and Social Life; Marriage; Women, Role of.)

GEOGRAPHY

* alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar material deposited by running water

T

he geography, or the physical and biological features, of a region determines many aspects of life for the people who live there. A region's geographical features can isolate it or can attract people from other lands. The geographical features of the Near East range from coastal plains to barren deserts, from rugged mountains to fertile plateaus. Mesopotamia. The Greeks gave MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq and eastern Syria) its name, which means ''land between the rivers'' to mark its geographical location. Mesopotamia, a plain bordered by the EUPHRATES RIVER on the west and the TIGRIS RIVER on the east, lies in the eastern third of the horn-shaped region of the Near East known as the FERTILE CRESCENT. The Tigris and Euphrates are 250 miles apart as they flow out of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The Euphrates takes an 800-mile southeasterly course, the Tigris a more southerly course for about 550 miles before the two rivers join to form the Shatt al Arab River in southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Euphrates and Tigris flow through plains, but the Tigris cuts so deeply into the plains that it is surrounded by cliffs and hills. South of the great eastward bend in the Euphrates, in the central part of Mesopotamia, the rivers enter the southern alluvial* plain. There, after centuries of carrying and depositing silt, the rivers have created a fairly flat plain. This flat landscape makes it easy for the floodwaters to reach the land in spring and makes it possible for the rivers to change their courses. One advantage of the flat land is that it facilitates IRRIGATION, so early peoples did not have to rely on the irregular and sparse rainfall to provide water to the land. When adequately watered, the soil yields abundant crops. The Tigris, however, is not as suitable for irrigation as the Euphrates because it tends to flood destructively. Mesopotamia's climate varies according to region. The southern part is an arid region, where some of the world's highest temperatures have been recorded. Winters in the south are generally mild. The northern part of Mesopotamia is cool, and it is subject to cold winters. Summers in the north are hot and dry, but they are cooler than in the south. Mesopotamia receives very little rainfall in the summer, but the northern part receives a fair amount of rain in the winter. Egypt. Located along the northeastern edge of the African continent, Egypt is bordered on the south by Sudan; on the west by Libya; on the east by the SINAI PENINSULA, eastern desert, and the Red Sea; and on the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Huge, sandy deserts lie south of Egypt as well as to the west and east of the NILE RIVER valley, isolating the region. Settlements in ancient Egypt were established along the Nile River, which provided the water necessary to sustain life. The Nile flows northward,

118

Geography

* sluice human-made channel or passage

to direct water flow

out of Sudan.The river floodsannually,between JuneandOctober,when the flow of its tributariesis increasedby melting snowsandrainsin Ethiopia. However,A.D. since 1830, the floodshave been controlled by a series of damsandsluices*. Egypt's climate consists of a hot seasonand acool season. Thereis some rainfall in the coastal area,but itrarer is in thesouth.Fewplacesin Egypt receive more than one inch ofrainperyear. Temperaturescan rangefromfreezing to hot, depending on the location. Anatolia. Situated in the westernmost partAsia, of Anatolia (presentday Turkey) is dominated by mountains surroundingacentral plain known as the central Anatolian plateau.Anatolia'shighest peak, Mount Ararat, rising to 16,854 feet abovesealevel, liesin fareastern Anatolia, the most rugged and mountainous part of the region. Out ofthese mountains, both theTigris and Euphrates Riversflowsouth.In the extreme southeastern partofAnatolia isrolling, fertileland. This area is the northern extent of theFertileCrescent. The Taurus Mountains, which lie to the southof thecentral plateau, run the length of the Mediterranean coast.Inwestern Anatolia, alternating mountain peaks and valleys serve as abarrier between thenarrow coastline along theAegean and Mediterranean Seasand thecentral Anatolian plateau.

119

Geography

Oases: Islands of Life West of the Nile River lies the Libyan Desert, also known as the Western Desert, its sandy expanse is broken only occasionally by slight depressions, or hollows. In some of these hollows, natural springs pro* vide enough water for both domestic and agricultural use. These oases, with their striking fertility amid the vast desert, have served as resting places for trade caravans, They also sustain small communities and have done so since ancient times. Signs of very early agriculture have been found at many oases, although oases were valued more for their location and water than for their agricultural uses. The oases range in size from 2 acres to more than 896,000 acres.

* steppe large semiarid grassy plain with few trees

120

The Anatolian climate varies widely, depending on geographic factors such as altitude and nearness to the coast. In general, coastal areas are humid and experience warm summers and mild, rainy winters. Interior areas are semiarid, with greater seasonal variation in temperature. Anatolia's rivers are fed by irregular rainfall in most areas and by seasonal snowmelt. The irregularity of the water level and the shallowness of the riverbeds make navigation nearly impossible on almost all of the region's rivers. In spite of its irregularity, rainfall is generally plentiful enough to sustain grasslands in valleys and on plateaus as well as deciduous forests (forests in which trees shed their leaves annually) on the mountain slopes. Iran. The majority of IRAN is made up of the huge central plateau and its surrounding rugged mountain ranges. In the west, the Zagros Mountains run southeast all the way to the Persian Gulf. These mountains form a barrier between Mesopotamia and Iran. In the north, the Elburz Mountains lie along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. East of the central plateau are smaller mountain ranges. The central plateau also contains two large deserts. To the north is Dasht-i-Kavir, a harsh, saltcovered land in which neither plants nor animals live. To the east lies Dasht-i-Lut, a barren, rocky desert that is equally uninviting. Iran consists of three main climatic regions. The Elburz Mountains in the north are extremely cold. The northern slopes of the mountains, however, benefit from warmer, moist air from the Caspian Sea. The central plateau is temperate, experiencing moderate temperatures and distinct seasons. Along the southern shores of Iran, the climate is quite hot. It is rare for the temperature to go below freezing, even in January, the coolest month. Most of Iran receives very little rain. Average annual rainfall ranges from about eight to ten inches. The rivers run dry in the summer, and the water in many lakes evaporates significantly, leaving behind water with a high salt content. The Levant. The lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, including present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan, are known as the Levant. The climate in this region is affected by its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Near the coast, the summers are hot and dry and the winters are mild. Further inland, the weather varies more depending on the geographical features. Syria has a narrow, flat coastal plain—only about 20 miles wide— along the Mediterranean Sea. Beyond the coast, a narrow mountain range, called the Jebel an-Nusayririyah runs north and south. To the south of this range, along the Syria-Lebanon border, lie the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Syria's highest peak, Mount Hermon, at more than 9,000 feet above sea level, is located in this range. To the east, stretching from the coastline and mountains is a plain that extends all the way to the Euphrates River. Known as the Syrian Desert, the plain extends through several countries. The land is not shifting sand but a rock and gravel steppe*. The treeless steppe supports only sparse, bushy growth, except along rivers, where trees grow naturally or can be cultivated.

Gilgamesh

* navigable deep and wide enough to provide passage for ships

Away from the Mediterranean coast the seasons are more marked. Temperature extremes are more distinct in the arid climate of the Syrian Desert. The summers are hot and winters are cold and snowy on the steppe. Moving eastward from the coast, the average annual rainfall decreases from a maximum of 40 inches to approximately 5 inches in the far reaches of the steppe. Variety marks Israel's landscape, which shares features with the Palestinian Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The region contains several mountain ranges, including the mountains of Galilee in the north and the Mount Carmel range in the northwest. At the southern end of Israel lies the harsh Negev Desert. Bordered by Israel, the West Bank and Jordan and fed by the Jordan River is the Dead Sea, which, at 1,300 feet below sea level, is the lowest point on the earth's surface. The Jordan River in the east forms a boundary between Israel and Jordan. In ancient times, the Jordan River was the largest and most dependable source of freshwater for this part of the Levant, but it was not navigable*. Because its riverbed was deep, it was impossible to use the river's waters for irrigation. Israel receives only modest rainfall, and most of that falls during the winter months. Rainfall is significantly lower in the south than in the north. The modest rainfall and mountainous terrain limit Israel's fertility. Lebanon lies on the Mediterranean coast, to the north of Israel and east of Syria. The Lebanon Mountains are Lebanon's most distinctive land feature at approximately 100 miles long and 6 to 35 miles wide. Fertile lands for agriculture are found on the coastal plain and in the northern mountains. Rivers in Lebanon tend to run only in the winter as they drain the slopes of the Lebanon Mountains. The climate in Lebanon is hot and dry in the summer and mild and humid in the winter. The Arabian Peninsula. The vast peninsula of Arabia is bordered on the west and in the extreme southwest, along the RED SEA, by mountains. The rest of the peninsula is a plateau that slopes somewhat to the east, toward the Persian Gulf. On the plateau are several large, sandy deserts, some of them the largest in the world. Arabia's extreme dryness causes the region's rivers to run dry during the hot, dry summer months. (See also Agriculture; Building Materials; Environmental Change; Water.)

GILGAMESH

ilgamesh (GIL*guh»mesh) was one of the earliest and most imporGtant heroes in ancient Near Eastern LITERATURE. Many scholars be-

lieve'that Gilgamesh, who is listed in Sumerian KING LISTS, was the ruler of the city of URUK around 2700 B.C. Others believe that the character of Gilgamesh is based on a Sumerian god called Gilgames (or Bilgames). All scholars agree that the fantastic adventures of this legendary character are purely fictional. 1•

^_1_

Tales About Gilgamesh. Among the earliest tales known about Gilgamesh are several Sumerian poems that were probably composed around 2100 B.C. The surviving fragments are of copies made around 121

Gilgamesh

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style * second millennium B.C. years 2000 to 1001 B.C.

from

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

1700B.C. These works include GilgameshandKhuwawa; Gilgamesh and theBullofHeaven;Gilgamesh and King Agga ofKish; Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the NetherWorld;and TheDeath Gilgamesh. of They relate the incidents and adventuresin the life of the hero. The most famous and complete record of the adventures of Gilgamesh appearsinEpic the of Gilgamesh,a long epic* poem, a version of which was composedin theAkkadian language first in the halfof thesecond millennium B.C.* This workwas later rewritten,and copiesof that version were made duringthe B.C. 600s Several of these copies have survived, but the most complete one wasfound byarchaeologists*at thesite of the ancient city NINEVEH. of This surviving version, known as the Standard Versionof Epic the of Gilgamesh, marks an important step in the development of Mesopotamian literature. In it, many of the storiesof Gilgamesh are woven intoa single narrative. major A theme of the epic is Gilgamesh's acceptanceof his mortality.He seeks fameand glory through heroic deeds but finally realizes that he cannot achieve the impossible, and he accepts the fact that he, likeallhumans, must die. The Epic. The version of the story found at Nineveh wasinscribed on 12 tablets in the 600s B.C.The first tablet containsa prologuein which Gilgamesh is described as part human and part divine,the sonKing of Lugalbanda ofUrukand the goddess Ninsun. Gilgamesh ispraised as a wise man and mighty warrior,and his great achievementofbuildingthe walls ofUruk is noted. However,he is also describedas atyrantwhomistreats the young peopleof his city.The ANUhad god the mother goddess Arum create a man named Enkidufight to Gilgamesh in the hope that this will cure the king of his harshness toward the people. The second tablet narrates the confrontations between Gilgamesh and Enkidu atUruk. Gilgamesh winsthe struggle,but he is soimpressed by his opponent's skill and courage that the twobecome friends. (In the

122

Giza

A Hero Reduced

The following passage reflects Gilgamesh's grief at the loss of his friend and fellow traveler, Enkidu; £nkidu, whom I still love very much,/Who journeyed through aII hardships with me,/Didjour< ney to the fate of all mankind, for days and nights did I weep over him,/And would not let them bury himf/As if my friend might rise at my cries,... And since he's gone, I have not found Iife,/Though roaming, trapper-like, about the steppe.

* underworld world of the dead

earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh, Enkidu was his slave.) The third, fourth, and fifth tablets describe Gilgamesh;s quest for eternal fame. They relate the story of how he travels with Enkidu to a distant cedar forest to battle the monster Khumbaba (or Khuwawa), the guardian of the forest. Gilgamesh kills the monster, believing that that heroic deed will help him win the favor of the gods. In the sixth tablet, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, where ISHTAR, the goddess of love, proposes marriage. However, Gilgamesh refuses the offer, insulting the goddess. Enraged, Ishtar sends the divine Bull of Heaven to destroy Gilgamesh. Enkidu and Gilgamesh kill the bull in another heroic adventure. In the next two tablets, Gilgamesh's views on life, death, and immortality change. Enkidu has a dream in which the gods Anu, EA, and Shamash decide that he must die for killing the Bull of Heaven. Shortly thereafter, Enkidu falls ill and dies. Gilgamesh grieves over the death of his friend. He then becomes determined to gain immortality and possibly become a god. The ninth, tenth, and eleventh tablets describe Gilgamesh's travels to find Ut-napishtim, the survivor of the Great Flood who had gained immortality. He journeys through strange lands and meets creatures who try to talk him out of his pursuit. Finally, he finds Ut-napishtim, who offers a challenge: if Gilgamesh can stay awake for seven days, he will get the immortality he desires. Gilgamesh accepts the challenge but falls asleep. Pitying him, Ut-napishtim tells him the location of the Plant of Life, which can restore youth. Gilgamesh finds the plant and proceeds on his way home, where he plans to test it on an old man first. On the way, Gilgamesh puts the plant down when he stops to bathe in a spring, only to find that a snake had taken the plant and shed its skin (rejuvenated itself) as it slithered away. Betrayed by his humanity, its frailty and its limitations, Gilgamesh returns home, disappointed and tired but wiser and at peace. Weeping, he says simply, "I should have turned back." He sees that he should not have attempted to escape death or cheat it. Then Gilgamesh repeats the words from the epic's prologue about building the walls of Uruk, indicating that he has come full circle, giving the reader a sense of finality and completeness. The twelfth tablet of the epic, which some scholars consider a later addition to the poem, relates how the spirit of Enkidu returns from the dead and describes the underworld* and AFTERLIFE to Gilgamesh. The complete work remains one of the world's greatest epics. Rich in timeless themes, it provides a unique look into the hearts and minds of the people of the ancient Near East. (See also Epic Literature; Flood Legends.)

G

iza (GEE»zuh) is a modern-day city in northern Egypt located in the desert west of the NILE RIVER. It is famous as the site of Egypt's largest and best-known PYRAMIDS and of the statue known as the Great Sphinx. These monuments date from the Old Kingdom period (ca. 267-2130 B.C.). The site was ignored for several centuries but became a popular religious destination during the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). f

GI/A

123

Glass and Glassmaking

See map in Pyramids (vol. 4).

* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber * Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt * sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head

* pilgrimage journey to a sacred place as an act of religious devotion * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

GLASS AND GLASSMAKING

* artisan skilled craftsperson

See [colorplate 15, ] vol. 4.

124

Three kings of the Fourth Dynasty had huge pyramids built at Giza as their tombs. The largest, called the Great Pyramid, was built by king KHUFU (ruled ca. 2585-2560 B.C.). More than 480 feet high, it is the largest stone structure in the world. Two other large pyramids were built by Khufu's son and grandson. Together these three pyramids were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. There were also a number of smaller pyramids built to house the remains of royal wives and mastabas* for top government officials and others of the royal family. In the quarry near the pyramids that provided much of the stone for their construction, there remained a large outcropping of rock that artisans sculpted into the Great Sphinx, a seated lion with a human head wearing a king's headcloth. Most Egyptologists* believe the face of the sphinx* is that of Chephren, Khufu's son, although it has been suggested that the face is that of Khufu himself. At the end of the Old Kingdom, Giza was abandoned. The pyramids suffered in the chaos that followed the collapse of the Old Kingdom, when the tombs were probably robbed of their contents. During the New Kingdom period, however, Giza regained prominence. Thutmose IV (ruled ca. 1400-1390 B.C.) employed workers to remove the sand that had covered the Great Sphinx. People began making pilgrimages* to Giza to worship the sphinx, which was then thought to represent a form of the god HORUS. People also came to Giza to worship the goddess Isis, who had a temple in the complex. During the first millennium B.C.*, the area was once again favored as a burial site. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Sphinx.)

Qi*

lass is made by mixing fine sand or ground sandstone and an alkali fsuch as potash, made from the ashes of burned plants, and ground limestone. The mixture is heated to a very high temperature in an oven so that the ingredients completely melt and fuse together. Then the liquid is poured into molds, blown, or rolled into sheets and allowed to cool. The shaping must be done quickly because the glass cools to a solid in only a few minutes. Glass can be colored by adding minerals to the mixture. This method of glassmaking, invented almost 4,000 years ago, is fundamentally the same method used today. Some glasslike objects that have been found were made as early as 4000 B.C., but these are thought to be accidents that were created when artisans* were making FAIENCE, which is similar to glass. The Mesopotamians are credited with the invention of glass in about 1600 B.C. Glassmaking quickly spread to Egypt. CUNEIFORM texts from around 1500 B.C. indicate that the principal use for colored glass was to imitate rare and precious GEMS used for JEWELRY and SEALS. Glass, often of brilliant colors, could also be made into hollow vessels. Glass vessels were shaped in several ways. Molten glass was gently sloshed around the inside of a clay bowl (or other shape) to form an even layer. After the glass hardened, the clay was carefully chipped away. Similarly, a layer of softened glass could be formed around a solid clay shape with an opening. After the glass hardened, the clay inside was removed to

Glass and Glassmaking

* mosaic art form in which objects are

decorated with small pieces of stone or glass that form an image

*

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

leave the formed glass. Finally, a snakelike ribbon of molten glass could be wound around and around the same sort of core shape, resulting in textured glass. The first glass vessels were small, used as containers for perfume and cosmetics. The colors of the glass included red, green, yellow, white, and blue. Egyptian glassmakers favored red and blue. Early glass was not transparent. Glass was decorated in several ways. Designs could be gently carved into it, or glass threads of different colors could be applied to the surface. There was a special technique for making mosaic* glass vessels. Pieces of colored glass were cut into the desired shapes and sizes, then fitted together over a solid clay or packed sand core. Over this was placed a mold. The mold was heated just enough to fuse together the glass pieces underneath. Then the mold and core were removed. Amassing the materials for glassmaking was labor-intensive. In the 600s B.C., Egyptians discovered that they could slightly vary the formula for glass to make use of plentiful and easily quarried local materials. At that point, glassmaking became an industry, including an export trade. Glassmaking became an important industry in the Levant*, eventually replacing faience as a luxury good produced for trade. Syrian glassmakers showed great skill. In the 700s B.C., they began producing cut glass—glass that is scored to produce interesting shapes. After the 100s B.C., they were producing objects by glassblowing. In this process, a lump of molten glass is put on one end of a hollow tube. The glassblower blows through the tube, as if blowing up a balloon. This produces thin-walled objects in round, oval, and any other desired shapes. The process may have been adopted from IRAN, another leading center of glassmaking. Glassmakers in Iran produced cut and polished glass vessels and combined glass and gold to make bowls fit for—and used by—kings. They also perfected the manufacture of almost colorless glass.

These beaded head pendants, made of sand-core glass, date from the 300s B.C. They were excavated at Carthage, in present-day Tunisia, on the coast of North Africa. At the time, Carthage was controlled by the Phoenicians, who were skilled at producing colorful glass beads in the form of human and animal heads.

125

Goats

GOATS * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

GODS AND

GODDESSES * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made * deity god or goddess * piety faithfulness to beliefs

126

Q

oats and SHEEP were the earliest and most important domesticated* animals in the ancient Near East. Combined with the development of AGRICULTURE, the domestication of these animals led to the establishment of settled communities based on farming and the herding of livestock. In very early times, people in some parts of the ancient Near East hunted wild goats for food. Evidence suggests that goats were first domesticated in the Zagros Mountains of western IRAN sometime between 7500 and 7000 B.C. The earliest domesticated goats may have originated from a wild species with long curved horns known as the Bezoar goat, found in mountainous regions throughout western Asia. By the third millennium B.C.*, goats of several species had been domesticated throughout the ancient Near East. Some of the species could thrive in areas far beyond their normal environments. People in the ancient Near East valued goats for their milk, meat, and hides and for their ability to lead flocks, which often included sheep. Herding goats and sheep was an important economic activity, and herders moved flocks continually from one pastureland to another. Temples also maintained large flocks of goats, not only for their milk, meat, and hides but also for use in ritual sacrifices and OFFERINGS. These flocks sometimes consisted of as many as 350,000 animals. Temple goats also played a role in divination. Priests examined the internal organs of sacrificed animals to foretell a god's will on various subjects. (See also Animals; Animals, Domestication of.)

or the people of the ancient Near East, gods and goddesses played an important role in everyday life. People frequently consulted the oracles*, asking the gods for advice, help, and protection. They thanked the gods for providing good harvests and other blessings and prayed for pardon when they believed the deities* had been angered. People considered the gods and goddesses to be the ultimate rulers of heaven and earth. Human beings were considered the servants of the gods and had a responsibility to worship them, maintain their temples, and provide nourishment to them through OFFERINGS, rituals, and sacrifices. Ancient Near Eastern peoples believed that human behavior was closely watched by them, who handed out both rewards and punishments. It was the role of priests to determine what would make the gods happy, and it was up to the people to express their piety* by providing the necessary offerings and praise. Ancient Near Eastern mythology is filled with stories about gods and goddesses. CREATION MYTHS recount how the gods created heaven, earth, and living things. All the myths about the gods reveal the gods' characteristics, including their strengths and weaknesses. The gods could be kind or cruel, fair or unjust. In many ways, the deities were anthropomorphic; that is, many looked like humans and had similar traits and characteristics. They displayed anger, jealousy, and hatred, as well as kindness, understanding, and love. Unlike humans, however, the gods were larger than life and had supernatural powers. Many were immortal.

F

Gods and Goddesses * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * fourth millennium B.C. years 4000 to 3001 B.C. * patron special guardian, supporter

from protector,

or

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * Semitic of or relating to people of the NearEast or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

Each of the ancient Near Eastern cultures had many deities. Some were major deities, while others wereof only minor importance. Together, all the godsand goddessesof a culture formeditspantheon. Each of the ancient Near Eastern city-states*had its own pantheonbut was especially dedicated to the worship of a particular god orgoddess. Manyof these gods and goddesses had counterparts in other cultures. While the names of the gods often differed, their powerand characteristics were quite similar. Mesopotamia. The earliest Mesopotamians were animists, concerned with nature spirits.By the late fourth millennium B.C.*, these spirits were perceived as having humanforms and emotions. Each city, town, and village MESOPOTAMIA in had its own patron* deity, whomthe people considered a king. The local deity, along withthe god's familyand servants, was thought to livein a temple,the palaceof the god.Astatueof the deity in the temple allowed the god to be accessible to worshipers. The temple was the centerfor the god'scult*,the membersofwhich were responsible for providingthe god with shelterand food. During the third millennium — B.C.the years from —B.C.3000 to 2001 the Mesopotamians established linkages among their gods and goddesses. For example, the god of one town mightbe the son of agoddess worshiped in another town. The godsof the largest cities eventuallybecame the most important deities in the pantheon, and these major gods were worshiped throughout Mesopotamia. Over time, the gender and family ties among deities sometimes changed, and their names might change as well. For example,as the influenceof Semitic* peoples increased in ancient Sumer, many Sumerian gods received Semitic names. Ancient Mesopotamian myths explainedhowmajor the deities organized the world after the separationof heavenand earth. Lesser gods labored for themajor gods, digging riversand canalsand building homes. Burdened by such tasks, the lesser gods eventually rebelled, andmajor the gods agreed to create humansto act as servants instead. EA,the god of wisdom, then created humans.Hismother, Namma,agoddesswhorepresented the primalwaters*, helped him in thistask. According to early Mesopotamian myths, the responsibilities for heaven and earth were divided among ANU, the thegods. god ofheaven, presided over the divine assemblyof godsand goddesses.His son Ishkur, the storm god, was responsiblefor rain ENLIL, andthe thunder. citygod of NIPPUR, organizedthe world after creation.His son Ninurta, the wargod, defeated theforces of evil that threatened divine rule. Enlil's son Nanna,the moon god, residedin the URand cityofwas responsible for the division of time. Nanna had a son,Utu, and adaughter, Inanna. Utu, the sun god, livedin the cities Larsa of and Sipparand was responsible for justice. Inanna,the goddessof the morningand evening star (Venus), resided URUK.inResponsiblefor loveand war, she later became known ISHTAR. as Besides thesemajor deities, there were hundredsof minor godsand goddesses associated with Mesopotamian citiesand towns. There were also thousands of unnamed deities,who servedas the personal godsof individuals, as wellasDEMONS, manywho served the gods.

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Gods and Goddesses * primal waters in mythology, the original oceans that covered everything in earliest times * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

This Egyptian wall painting shows the pharaoh Sety I with the goddess Hathor. Daughter of the sun god Amun, Hathor was worshiped throughout ancient Egypt. She is depicted here in her most common form—a woman wearing cow's horns with a sun disk in between. A benevolent goddess, Hathor was associated with women, music, dancing, and sexuality.

128

In the second millennium B.C.*, alliances and military conquests united the cities and towns of Mesopotamia into nations and empires. As the region united, some city gods became national gods, worshiped by people throughout all of Mesopotamia. Two of the most important of these national gods were ASHUR in Assyria and MARDUK in Babylonia. When illustrated in art, Mesopotamian deities were distinguished from humans by their size, costumes, crowns (often with several pairs of horns), and symbols. The depictions illustrate the deities' power or the myths and stories about them. The storm god Ishkur, for instance, is often shown holding forked lightning in his hands. Egypt. As in Mesopotamia, the people of ancient Egypt also worshiped many gods and goddesses. Egyptian temple worship focused on the main deity of the temple, but it included other divine beings as well. Many of the gods were related to one another in some way. Although Egyptian deities lived in heaven, they also appeared on earth, where they resided in temples with their divine families. Cult statues of deities, made by the temple priests in secrecy, were kept in the innermost section of the temple. The image of the principal god of the temple was placed in a special shrine within the temple. Egyptian myths described the powers of the gods and explained the relationships among them. Creation myths are particularly revealing, explaining how the gods created heaven, earth, and humans and describing the responsibilities of the pantheon of gods. Throughout Egypt's long history several different views arose at different times in different religious centers. According to the mythology of priests at Heliopolis during the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), only the primal waters existed at first, and in them was Atum, the creator. A pantheon of great gods emerged from Atum as manifestations of him. The first deities to emerge from Atum were Shu, god of the space between heaven and earth, and his sister, Tefnut, the goddess of moisture. They represented the male and female forces of the universe. The next generation of gods was Geb and Nut. Geb, the god of the earth, was also known as father of the gods. Nut was the goddess of the sky. Together, they formed a permanent boundary between the newly created world and the primal waters that surrounded it. The next god to appear was Ra, the sun god, who divided day and night and brought order to the universe. Worshiped in Egypt, Ra was often combined with other gods. After the 1500s B.C., Ra was combined with AMUN, a local god of the city of THEBES, to become Amun-Ra. One of the most important Egyptian deities, Amun-Ra was considered the king of gods, creator of the universe, and father of Egyptian monarchs. Geb and Nut had four children—two sons, OSIRIS and SETH, and two daughters, Isis and Nephthys. Organized in pairs, Osiris and Isis represented order and the fertility of the earth and humankind, and Seth and Nephthys represented disorder, confusion, conflict, and infertility. Seth brought death into the world by killing Osiris, but Isis raised Osiris from the dead, and he became the lord of the underworld, where he judged the souls of the dead. HORUS, considered the son of Isis and Osiris as well as Osiris reborn, defeated Seth in battle and became god of the sky and of

Gods and Goddesses * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * embalming treating a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

A God's Best Friend Many Mesopotamian gods were associated with particular real animals or fantastic beasts, and the deities were often depicted with these creatures. A god might be linked to an ordinary animal, such as a lion, a snake, or a bull. However, the beasts associated with gods could also be fantastic creatures that combined different animals, such as a lion dragon or a goat fish* Some of these beasts combined the parts of several creatures. For example, the snake dragon associated with the gods Marduk, Nabu, and Ashur, had a snakelike body, horns, the forelegs of a lion, and the hindlegs of a bird Statues of these beasts often stood at the entrances to temples and shrines to guard as watch beasts. Statues of beasts also were used inside temples and shrines as altars.

indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

k

See color plate 5, vol. 1.

earthly kingship. Horus represented the final form of the creator god Atum, and each pharaoh* was considered a manifestation of the god. Egyptians worshiped many other local and national deities. Among the most important were Thoth, Anubis, Ptah, HATHOR, and ATEN. Thoth, the moon god, was a scribe* for the gods. His responsibilities included learning, writing, and good government. Anubis was the god of death and embalming*. The god Ptah, worshiped primarily at the city of Memphis, was a creator god. Hathor was the goddess of women and of music and dancing; she could also be the source of drunkenness and sexual arousal. For a short time, the god Aten became a major deity during the reign of AKHENATEN (ca. 1353-1336 B.C.), who attempted to make him the sole and exclusive god of Egypt. When illustrated in art, Egyptian deities were shown as composite in form, combining human and animal characteristics. In the later periods of Egyptian history, they were represented as the animal itself or as a human with the head of the animal. For instance, Horus appeared as a hawk or falcon, Thoth as a baboon or ibis, Hathor as a cow, Amun as a ram or goose, and Anubis as a jackal. Just as in Mesopotamia, the artworks depict the deities' power or the myths and stories about them. Anatolia. The region of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was occupied by different peoples in ancient times, including the Hattians, HITTITES, and HURRIANS. Each group had its own deities. In their traits and powers, the deities resembled those elsewhere in the ancient Near East. The Hittites were among the most important peoples to occupy Anatolia. They had a remarkably complex pantheon of deities, which they called the thousand gods. This pantheon included Hittite gods as well as deities borrowed from the Hurrians, Hattians (indigenous* people who lived in Anatolia before the Hittites), and others. The Hittites often adopted deities directly from other cultures, merely changing the names. Thus, the Hattic goddess Inar became the Hittite Inara. Consequently, gods in the Hittite pantheon often had many manifestations, or forms, that included different names and genders. Hittite religious texts dating from between 1600 and 1400 B.C. mention several Hattian gods. Among these were a storm god who went by different names and several deities of the sun, including the sun goddess of Arinna. The children of the storm god and sun goddess included two sons, the storm gods of Nerik and of Zippalanda. Other deities of Hattic origin were Telipinu, a god of vegetation, and the sun god of Eshtan. Between 1350 and 1200 B.C., the Hittites adopted several Human deities, including the storm god TESHUB, the sun god of Shimegi, the vegetation god KUMARBI, and the moon god Kushukh. Teshub's mate was the sun goddess KHEPAT, who had been combined with the Hattic goddess of Arinna. As in other religions of the ancient Near East, the storm god always held a prominent place in Hittite religion because of the importance of rain for AGRICULTURE. The Hittite pantheon also included several Aryan deities, including Indra, Mithra, Varuna, and the Natwatwa twins, as well as a Syrian goddess named Kubaba. Later worshiped by the Phrygians as their primary goddess, Kubaba was eventually adopted by the ancient Romans as the goddess Cybele. 129

Gold Many Hittite deities served as protectors of certain places or groups. The Hittites also recognized other divine spirits. Mountains, rivers, springs, and other natural features were considered holy and received offerings just like other gods. See color plate 13, vol. 1,

From Architect to God A man known as Imhotep worked in the court of King Djoser in Egypt during the 2600s B.C. What scholars know of Imhotep makes it clear that he was a multitalented person. He explored many different areas of j human endeavor, He held the offices of chief executive and master sculptor. Credited with inventing the technique of building with cut stone, Imhotep probably was the architect who planned Egypt's first < pyramid, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. An author of a book of in- j struction, Imhotep was also a healer and a priest. After his death, in honor of his extraordinary gifts, Imhotep was considered a god, the son of the god Ptah. A shrine to Imhotep was built at a temple in Thebes, and Egyptians also worshiped him at a chapel on the island of Philae in the Nile River.

*

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Gold 130

Iran. As in Anatolia, several groups lived in IRAN at different periods in history, including the Elamites and Persians. Among the earliest Elamite deities was Simut, the "god of Elam" and "powerful herald of the gods./; Other Elamite deities included Narunde, the goddess of victory; the sky goddess Pinengir; the Seven Wise Men; and Khumban, who was associated with the Sumerian god Enlil. Ruler of the atmosphere, he sometimes caused disastrous storms. The most important and powerful Elamite god was Inshushinak, the "King of the Gods/' The most important god of the Persians was AHURA MAZDA, the "Wise Lord." His evil counterpart was his twin brother, AHRIMAN. In the 600s B.C., the Persian prophet Zoroaster proclaimed that there was only one god— Ahura Mazda. Many Persians continued to worship other deities, including Mithra, the sun god and god of war, a popular Aryan god. Syria and the Levant. For most of ancient history, the region comprising present-day Syria and the Levant* consisted of many fortified city-states, each with its own deities. As in Mesopotamia, these city gods were related to each other, and they had specific responsibilities. The gods were present in all phenomena, including rain and thunder, birth and death, drought and fertility, beauty and terror. At the same time, worshipers had a very personal relationship with their gods because the gods possessed human characteristics and resembled humans. The oldest known pantheon is that of EBLA. Its principal god, Dagan, became one of the most popular deities of this region. Next in rank to Dagan was ADAD, the god of storms and weather. Among later Syrian gods, the most important seems to have been EL. However, El's importance later declined in favor of BAAL, a storm god. Baal's wife and sister ANAT was a goddess of war and fertility. She was eventually displaced by the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Two other important Syrian gods were Mot—the god of death—and Reshef—the god of the underworld. Unlike their neighbors, the Israelites strived to abandon the worship of all other deities in favor of just one god—YAHWEH. Yahweh's dominant place in ancient Israel evolved gradually, and at times, he was associated with other gods such as El. Nonetheless, at many points throughout their history, the peoples of ISRAEL AND JUDAH turned to the worship of the gods of their Canaanite neighbors, especially BAAL. Eventually, however, the Israelites rejected all other gods and worshiped only Yahweh, the god of the Hebrew BIBLE. (See also Animals in Art; Birds in Art; Cults; Egypt and the Egyptians; Mythology; Palaces and Temples; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Theology.)

See Metals and Metahvorking.

Government Gordium

GOVERNMENT * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See Alexander the Great.

T

he peoples of the ancient Near East developed various institutions of government to maintain order, administer the law, defend against enemies, and provide services that supported the economy and society. Before the rise of cities and city-states*, governing was the concern of tribal chieftains and village councils. As settlements grew, local leaders assumed more power, and kingships arose. Kingship became the main form of government in the ancient Near East, and other institutions existed mainly to help the king with the administration of the state.

GOVERNMENT IN MESOPOTAMIA * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

* fourth millennium B.C. years from

4000 to 3001 B.C.

The ancient lands of Sumer and Akkad consisted of several city-states. Although every city was protected by a patron* god or goddess, it also needed a form of secular* power. This power was always held by a ruler and his representatives. Early Rulers. The rulers of early Mesopotamian city-states had different titles, depending on the role they played in their societies. At the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, the period of the earliest written texts, each city's ruler was connected in some way with the temple—the center of the economic and societal systems through which all goods and services circulated. At URUK, the ruler was called an en; at LAGASH, an ensi; and at Isin, a sanga. Beginning in the early third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), the palace, headed by a lugal, or king, whose principle functions were military, began to replace the temple as the center of economic and governmental power. Whether secular or religious, all rulers were believed to hold power only by the authority of the gods. Mesopotamian rulers were seen as representatives of the city god. No matter what title a ruler held, his religious responsibilities included building and maintaining the city's temples and satisfying the gods through rituals, OFFERINGS, and religious festivals. A community's favor with the gods and its prosperity depended on how well its ruler fulfilled these duties. Consequently, it was in the ruler's best interest to honor his religious obligations. Another duty of Mesopotamian rulers was to administer the laws that the gods had entrusted to him. Justice and the protection of the poor and weak were inseparable parts of social order and peace. Thus, while a ruler's power as an enforcer and lawmaker came from the gods, it served an important secular role as well. City Governments and Institutions. Cities were often divided into districts, which were generally governed by an assembly, often known as the Elders. Membership in this assembly, which included the heads of powerful local families, was based almost solely on heredity. Elders were responsible for enforcing laws, maintaining order, and resolving disputes

131

Government and other local issues. They also helped select citizens to provide labor or military service to the state. In some cases, the district governments were completely controlled by the ruler of the city-state. However, many local governments were able to maintain a significant degree of independence.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* deity god or goddess

* divinity state or quality of being a god

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

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Changing Patterns of Government. With the rise of the Akkadian empire in the late third millinnium B.C., governments changed to accommodate the demands of a large territorial state. The founder of the dynasty* of Akkad, SARGON I (ruled ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), made several changes during his rule that centralized power within the kingship. To gain greater control over his growing empire, Sargon replaced local rulers with loyal provincial* governors. There was a civilian governor, who performed religious and judicial duties, and a military governor, who was supported by troops sent by the central government. Sargon also built military posts in many cities and sought to ensure the loyalty of his armies by awarding soldiers large grants of land. A large bureaucracy* was established to keep all sorts of administrative records, such as shipments of goods, offerings to temples, and the collection of taxes. Despite these changes, Sargon and his successors did not break completely with the traditions of previous governments. They adapted to local politics and assumed roles with traditional structures. For example, at the city of UR, Sargon installed his daughter as the high priestess of Ur;s patron deity*. It is probable that this role had traditionally been held by the ruler's daughter, so Sargon was acknowledging and continuing local beliefs. When Sargon's grandson NARAM-SIN (ruled ca. 2254-2218 B.C.) rose to the throne, he became the first Mesopotamian ruler to claim divinity* for himself. This change was important because it reflected the new idea that the king was the patron god of a united empire. Few kings after NaramSin claimed divinity, although his immediate successor, Shar-kali-sharri, and King SHULGI of Ur (ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C.) did. Under Shulgi's leadership, bureaucracies in Sumer and Akkad expanded greatly. Shulgi also introduced a system of messengers and road stations throughout the empire, standardized weights and measures, and introduced a new calendar. The introduction of more detailed record keeping for all phases of the economy and society meant that more officals loyal to the state rather than to a particular city or temple needed to be trained and employed. This centralized bureaucracy became a prominent feature of government. A New Political Order. By the middle of the second millennium B.C.*, a new political order emerged, one in which powerful rulers known as Great Kings governed empires, such as the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. Administration was accomplished through a multilevel system of government, which consisted of the Great Kings, major vassals* where the royal house descended from the Great Kings' ancestors, and minor rulers. In conquered territories, kings often entrusted power to loyal supporters or members of the royal family, although they sometimes left local rulers in charge. Relationships between the king and these rulers were maintained through treaties, marriage arrangements, and other obligations, such as providing land in return for military support.

Government In this new political order, the king was the center of the government. Palaces served as the royal residence, the royal treasury, the site of state ceremonies, and the center of administrative activities. Palaces were large and impressive, reflecting their role in government and the prestige and authority of the king.

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

The Neo-Assyrian Empire. During the 1300s B.C., Assyria established itself for the first time as a territorial state. Beginning in the 800s B.C., Assyria began to expand by conquering its neighbors. The Assyrians established dominance in other states by having them send tribute* to the Assyrian king. However, the kings of these territories kept their thrones. This changed when TIGLATH-PILESER III became king in 745 B.C. and replaced the local dynasties with provincial governors.

GOVERNMENT IN EGYPT

Honorary Titles Important officials in ancient Egypt often had many titles added to their names. Some titles indicated an in* dividual** function, such as Oversea of the Great Mansions, Other titles reflected the individual's rank within a particular branch of the govern* ment Some officials, however, had as many as 200 different titles, These names probably did not all refer to their functions and ranks. Many were honorary titles, perhaps awarded because of a particular accomplishment or contribution.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

By about 3500 B.C., towns in Egypt's Nile River valley had gained control of strips of land along the river. Easy access along the Nile and the concentration of towns in the narrow river valley led to the formation of strong links among communities. This made it easier for a powerful ruler to bring large areas of the Nile Valley under his control, and kingdoms developed in Egypt. Two major kingdoms emerged in Egypt: Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. According to tradition, sometime between 3100 and 3000 B.C., King Menes joined the two regions into one great kingdom, with its capital at MEMPHIS, and became the king of a united Egypt. Although the position and prestige of the king changed over time and not all kings ruled the whole land, the concept of kingship remained stable throughout Egypt's long history. Kingship in Egypt. The Egyptian king was an absolute ruler who Egyptians believed was divine but inferior to the major gods. The king was the supreme high priest and, as some of his titles stated, the main link between Egyptians and their gods. As high priest, it was the king's duty to build and maintain temples and to see that religious rituals and ceremonies were conducted properly. In return, the gods assured the king—and the Egyptian people—peace and prosperity. Although the king was an absolute ruler, the task of governing a large kingdom required help from others. He, or occasionally she, appointed various officials and scribes*, who carried out such administrative activities as collecting taxes, building temples and other public buildings, overseeing economic activities, maintaining law and order, and protecting Egypt's borders from attack. Although these tasks remained the same throughout Egypt's long history, the officials or institutions that carried them out changed over time as a result of political and social change. Early Government Administration. The basic structure of government administration in Egypt took shape during the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). Governmental positions and institutions 133

Government

Long-Lived Kings In many parts of the ancient Near East, myths and legends described how early kings came to power. Ancient texts from Surner, for example, tell of how the early kings of the city of Eridu were lowered from heaven and took the throne* According to these texts, two of the early kings of Eridu—considered the oldest city in Sumer—reigned a total of 64,800 years between them. This reflects the ancient Sumerians' belief in the antiquity of Eridu as well as the idea that kingship came from the gods.

134

established during this period remained in place throughout ancient Egyptian history. Administration centered around the king, who governed Egypt from his palace with the assistance of a group of high officials. The highest senior official, called the vizier, coordinated and supervised all governmental affairs. Two other senior positions were Overseer of All Royal Works, who organized and supervised the labor forces needed for royal building projects and agriculture, and Overseer of the Treasury, who collected, stored, and distributed goods in the state treasury. Egypt was divided into provinces called nomes. Royal control over the nomes increased gradually, but local governments retained some degree of authority. The overseer of Upper Egypt acted as the central government's head of provincial affairs, while officials known as Great Overlords of the Nome served as a type of provincial governor. Restructuring Government. During the period of instability that followed the end of the Old Kingdom, royal authority in Egypt broke down, and provincial rulers took on more responsibilities. This period ended in 1980 B.C., with the rise of the Eleventh Dynasty. This dynasty, the first in a period known as the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), established a new capital at THEBES and began to rebuild the country and restructure the government administration. However, another family, that of the Twelfth Dynasty, seized power and moved the capital far to the north to the area of LISHT. The principal arm of the government was the White House, or treasury. It was the main storehouse and accounting and distribution center of national revenues. The treasury had a large bureaucracy that included officials throughout the empire. The central government's control over the provinces was a delicate matter in the early years of the Twelfth Dynasty. Provincial rulers had become accustomed to some independence, and the central government exercised caution in dealing with them. The king maintained control by appointing all senior provincial administrators, or nomarchs. He also visited many provinces and helped settle local disputes. The provincial nomarchs continued to enjoy a large degree of freedom, however. They collected their own revenues, kept armed forces, and acted as local high priests. They strengthened their power by forming alliances with neighboring provinces and through marriage arrangements. By the late 1900s B.C., the administrative structure of Egypt became more centralized. The vizier supervised Egypt's administrative life, and the treasury took control of provincial treasuries and became more important than ever. A labor bureau, known as the Office of the Provider of People, was established during this period and was responsible for registering and assigning the manpower to government projects. Also, Egypt was divided into three main administrative units: District of the North, District of the South, and District of the Head of the South. Each district contained a number of nomes and was headed by several officials assisted by a large bureaucracy. At this time, other officials, known as councillors, were sent to the provinces on government business and carried out general administrative duties, such as supervising

Government the construction of irrigation canals. During B.C.,the center 1700sof power shifted to a new dynasty at Memphis that could neither Egypt together nor prevent its invasion andHYKSOS. conquestby the

hold

Ruling a Growing Empire. During the period known as the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), followingthe expulsionof theHyksos, * Levant lands bordering the eastern Egypt began to expand its rule over parts of the Levant* and toNubia, shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- the region to the south of Egypt.As the Egyptian empire grew,itsrulers day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West faced the new responsibility of governing conquered peoples, which led Bank, and Jordan to changes in government administration. The conquered territories had special administrations tooversee their government and affairs. The chief administratorfor Nubia was aviceroy, a governor overseeing the land as the king'srepresentative. In theLevant, local kings were overseenby a number officials, of titled Overseers of All Northern Foreign Lands,who were assistedbymilitary commanders. During the New Kingdom period, the central government revolved more than ever around the king.The palacewas run byoffianumberof cials, including the chief royal steward, who managed the vast royal estates throughout the country. There was one vizier for the north,stationed in Memphis, and one in the south, usually residing atThebes. The

135

Government

Symbols of Power Throughout much of Egyptian history, the king wore the Double Crown. This was a combination of the White Crown of Upper Egypt and the Red Crown of lower Egypt which symbolized the king's authority over the entire nation. The Blue Crown, which symbolized coronation and legitimate succession, was later combined with the Double Crown* On top of these crowns was the Uraeus, a rearing hooded cobra, the symbol of Wadjit, the goddess of Lower Egypt. Alongside the Uraeus was the neck and head of the vulture goddess, Nekhbet, of Upper Egypt,

viziers worked closely with two overseers of the treasury, and they were assisted by officials. Among these were heralds, who represented the vizier around the country and maintained communication between the office of vizier and the various local branches of government. The religious administration became very important in the New Kingdom. Much of the wealth from the provinces and territories went to the temples, and the priests gained control of large tracts of land as well. Temples had their own treasuries and other institutions, and temple administrations began to resemble those of the king's palace. Later Changes in Government. Between about 1075 and 656 B.C., royal prestige and authority in Egypt declined, and the united kingdom was once again divided into northern and southern kingdoms, ruled by separate dynasties. By around 730 B.C., Egypt had fragmented into many small areas headed by rulers who used the title of king or claimed authority over a particular territory. The limited authority of these kings forced them to rely increasingly on their own families for help in governing. As a result, large numbers of well-established and experienced officials were replaced by loyal, but not necessarily competent, royal relatives. Beginning in about 664 B.C., the government of Egypt began to improve. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty reunified the nation and divided it administratively into the two traditional areas of Upper and Lower Egypt. The new rulers appointed government officials, reorganized the navy, and increased revenues to the central administration. Many of the types of officials who had governed in previous centuries, such as viziers, once again became part of the central government. Provincial institutions were run by two governors, one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt. The next level of government consisted of 40 nomes (provinces), each headed by a nomarch. Below them were towns governed by mayors. After ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Egypt in 332 B.C., he and his successors took over the Egyptian kingship. Most of the changes they put into effect occurred at the upper ranks, where Egyptian officials were replaced by Greco-Macedonians. At the local level, administrations remained largely unchanged, and Egyptian government continued to function much as it had over the course of more than 3,000 years.

GOVERNMENT IN ANATOLIA * aristocracy privileged upper class * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

Ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) consisted of city-states, each ruled by powerful families who formed an aristocracy*. By about 1500 B.C., the HITTITES had established their empire. They had transformed the kingship of city-states into an imperial* monarchy with the king as an absolute ruler. As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, other government institutions, such as a bureaucracy, developed to assist the king. Hittite Kings. During the second millennium B.C., the ruler of the Hittite empire was known by many titles, including Great King—a title that was also used elsewhere. The king, who gained his authority from the gods who also protected him, was the chief priest of the national god. He was responsible for overseeing rituals and ceremonies.

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* diplomatic concerning relations with foreign powers

Communication Between Kings Rulers in ancient Mesopotamia often communicated by letter as part of diplomacy and foreign affairs. Kings often addressed each other as father, son, or brother to imply a certain type of relationship. For example, to address another ruler as father indicated that king's seniority or superiority. The word brother implied a equal relationship, while the term son signified a position of inferiority. Rulers could be very sensitive to these forms of address and might strongly resent one that they considered inappropriate.

The king was also responsible for organizing, maintaining, and directing the army and for establishing friendly relations with other states, negotiating treaties, and arranging marriages between ruling families. Although the king sometimes carried out such military and diplomatic* activities himself, he also appointed representatives to act on his behalf. The king was the chief judge of the land, and he enforced the law, handed down decisions regarding crimes, and settled disputes. Hittite Administration. The day-to-day work of the Hittite government was carried out by a royal bureaucracy, consisting of many officials, each responsible for a broad range of activities. The royal palace served as the central government, and local officials operated within a network of government institutions directly connected to the central authority. These institutions collected goods and revenues, sent wealth to the central government, and redistributed goods on the local level. Within Anatolia, the administrative level directly beneath the king was that of the "Lands," nearby states subdued by the king that were governed by prominent members of the royal family. The next level consisted of royal appointees known as stewards, who governed the districts. "Lords of the watchtower" governed small territories in frontier regions, supervising a number of towns. Their responsibilities included watching the borders, organizing agriculture, maintaining royal buildings and temples, and administering justice within the areas under their control. Over time, the Hittite empire included a changing array of conquered territories and kingdoms, some of which were incorporated into the central Hittite state. Others became vassal kingdoms that were generally ruled by members of the local ruling families. Their kings were bound by treaty to the Hittite king and were obligated to pay tribute, provide military assistance to Hittite armies, and protect the rights of the designated successor to the Great King.

GOVERNMENT IN THE LEVANT Throughout ancient times, the Levant consisted of small political units headed by chieftains, military leaders, and kings. Some city-states in the region developed a type of government known as an oligarchy, where a small group of people rule together. The city-states of the Phoenicians and Philistines had kingships. Evidence points to the existence of oligarchic rule in early Israel, where groups of elders held authority and made decisions for the community. They oversaw tax collection and were responsible for sending men and supplies to the army in times of war. Over time, these groups may have become advisers to the king. In CANAAN, the king was considered the son of the patron god of the state. As the god's chosen representative, he had a duty to defend the god's territory, establish and enforce the law, and care for the people. He did this with the help of a palace administration centered at the capital city. This administration consisted of senior officials and a bureaucracy whose members were stationed all over the state.

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* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

Temples played an important role in society, both as a symbol of the gods and as part of the economic system. It was the king's duty to build temples and to appoint priests, prophets, scribes, and musicians to run the temples. The state cult* was the responsibility of the Canaanite government, and as the supreme authority over this cult, the king had many religious duties, including offering sacrifices and participating in other rituals.

GOVERNMENT IN IRAN

* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

Graves

GREECE AND THE GREEKS

The kings of Persia in IRAN were believed to be the chosen representatives of the god AHURA MAZDA. As such, it was the king's duty to administer justice, and one of the most important components of justice was being faithful to the law of Ahura Mazda. The Persian empire was created by CYRUS THE GREAT (ruled 559-529 B.C.). Cyrus established an imperial government for ruling the conquered territories. One of his successors, DARIUS I (ruled 521-486 B.C.), contributed greatly to the administration of the empire by organizing it into 20 satrapies*. Each satrapy was ruled by a governor called a satrap, a high-ranking Persian official who was required to pay taxes in the form of money, horses, and other items, as well as to provide ships or soldiers for the Persian army and navy. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Cities and City-States; Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Israel and Judah; Persian Empire; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

iSee Burial Sites and Tombs.

Q

reece is the part of Europe geographically closest to the Near East. Throughout history, the two areas have influenced each other as a result of close contact, through trade and war. The Greeks picked up ideas from the civilizations of the Near East and added many important elements of their own. Ever since, the world has learned from the unique Greek culture.

GEOGRAPHY See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 4).

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Mainland Greece is at the southern end of Europe's Balkan Peninsula. Across the Ionian Sea to the west are Sicily and southern Italy. To the east, the AEGEAN SEA separates Greece from the Near Eastern peninsula of Turkey, which the ancient Greeks called ANATOLIA. The Greek peninsula is almost divided into two parts by the Gulf of Corinth. On the smaller, southern part, known as the Peloponnese, the land is rough and hilly, with many valleys leading down to its long, rugged coastline. The northern section is more mountainous; its highest

Greece and the Greeks * headland high land that juts out over a

body of water

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

peak, Mount Olympus, is almost 10,000 feet high. The coastline is indented with bays and headlands*. In general, the terrain in Greece is more rugged and the soil is less fertile than in many areas of the Near East. The many islands of the Aegean Sea, which include the large island of CRETE and the Cyclades, are considered a part of Greece and are often called the Greek islands. However, until late in the second millennium B.C.*, they were influenced more by the civilizations of the Near East than by peoples from the Greek mainland. As the inhabitants of the islands had increasing contact with the peoples of the Greek mainland, they brought Near Eastern culture to the Greeks.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT GREECE The islands of the Aegean Sea probably received their first settlers from Anatolia. These people brought techniques for farming, for making pottery, and perhaps for primitive metalworking from the ancient Near East. In Crete, settlers developed a unique culture called the MINOAN CIVILIZATION. Several kingdoms emerged on Crete, and each was centered around a magnificent palace. The islanders became a seafaring people and amassed great wealth from trade in the eastern Mediterranean region. The fact that they did not fortify their cities indicates that they were able to remain peaceful at first. Later in the second millennium B.C., however, early Greek mainlanders—known as the Mycenaeans—appear to have taken over the Minoan cities on Crete and built walls around them. The Mycenaeans had probably entered the Greek mainland from the north. In about 1150 B.C., another Greek people, the Dorians, attacked the Mycenaeans on the mainland and also crossed the sea to Crete. The Dorians had stronger weapons and were able to bring down the developed settlements on the mainland, Crete, and around the Aegean. The invasions left the palaces and cities in ruins. This invasion began the period that modern historians call the Dark Age, which lasted from about 1150 to 800 B.C.

* dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

The Greek Language. By late in the second millennium B.C., the tribes on the mainland spoke early versions of Greek, a distinct IndoEuropean language. At the time, several dialects* of the Greek language were spoken and understood by the people of the region. The Minoans apparently did not speak Greek until the Mycenaeans brought it to Crete. This version of the language was written down in a script scholars call Linear B. After the Dorian invasion, their dialect of Greek became prevalent. By the 500s B.C., there were four main types of Greek dialects. The Greek language became more uniform during the Hellenistic* period, when people throughout the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia spoke a common dialect of Greek known as Koine. The Rise of Greek Culture. There is no sign of any Dark Age buildings to rival the Minoan and Mycenaean palaces, and the art of writing probably died out during that period. However, a new culture was beginning to grow—one that, yet again, was picking up ideas from the peoples it had displaced. 139

Greece and the Greeks

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrenderby surroundinga fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* deity god or goddess

* rhetoric study of therules of the oral or written discussion of a subject

Although the Mycenaeans had been conquered by the Dorians, stories of their earlier victories continued to be told, especially tales about their celebrated siege* TROY,ofin Anatolia, around B.C. These 1200 stories were collected and written down at the end of the Dark Age. They evolved into two of the most celebrated works in world literature: Homer'sIliad and Odyssey, which interweavethe exploitsof Greek heroes and the plotting and planning of their gods. The NearEast continued to influence Greece during the Dark Age. Scholars have noted that the religion described in Homer's works is in some waysdifferentfrom earlier Greek beliefs.For example,the godsact as a sometimes argumentativefamily, like gods in Babylonian myth, whereas Greek deities* were traditionally seen as individuals who did not belong to a larger group. This suggests that Greek views of the gods were shifting to be more in accordance with Near Eastern views. By 900B.C., Greekshad settledthe islandsof the central Aegean and sections of the west coastof Anatolia (East Greece). Between B.C.,750 and 550 Greek settlers spread to the west, establishing colonies in southern Italy (Magna Grecia),Sicily, southern France,and northern Spain. They alsoestablished colonies south across the Mediterranean Libya in in Africa north (Cyrenaica) and, in the northeast, ringing the shores ofBlack the Sea. Thesefar-flung colonies alloweda varietyof cultural influences, as well as great wealth, to circulate widely. Greek cities, unlike those of the Near East, were smalland independent. The citizens were rarely willing to cooperate with their neighbors, and they feuded almost as often as they traded. One consequence of this isolation was that Greek cities in Anatolia were unable to defend themselves alone and were quickly made subjectto larger Asian empires—first Lydia in the 600s B.C.,and then Persia B.C.after546 Classical Greece. The classical periodof Greece PERSIANbegan withthe WARS, in which the Greeks repelled Persian invasions. The mainland city of Athens was the targetof the first PersianB.C. invasion because in 492 Athens had sentforces to help some Anatolian cities reject Persian rule there.The Persians then launchedmajor expeditions B.C. B.C., and with in480 the 490 intention of subduing theGreek mainland. The Greek victories in these wars led to the liberation of the cities of Anatolia, freeing them for expanded trade with the Greek mainland. It also gave Athens the opportunity, as the leading naval power that defeated the Persian fleet, to dominate sea trade. Athens gained great wealth and became the center of the vibrant Greek civilization that flowered during the next 50 to 100 years. This period produced major works of sculpture, architecture, philosophy, history, rhetoric*, and medicine and is considered to be the starting point of "Western" culture. Athens's domination of the Greek world was resisted by Sparta, the chief city of the Peloponnese. Sparta had been the leading military force among the Greek cities for many years and resented Athens'sattempt to expand. A series of battles, known as the Peloponnesian War, occurred between Athens and Sparta from about B.C. 431 to 404 Athens made several rash mistakes, allowing Sparta and its allies to break up Athens's power base. Athens remained the main center of a

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Homer's Image of Egypt In the Iliad, the Greek hero Achilles refuses to fight the Trojans for a long time. He says that he would not be willing to do battle even for all the wealth in Thebes: Egyptian Thebes, where the houses overflow with the greatest troves off treasure, Thebes with the hundred gates and through each gate battalions— two hundred fighters—surge to war with teams and chariots. Egypt, to the poets of Homer's tradition, was the very essence of wealth and power.

still glorious culture but lacked the political influence that it had enjoyed before its defeat. One of the allies who supported Sparta was the Persian empire — a long distance away, but still extremely wealthy. Persian influence was felt in Greece for the next 60 years or so, the Persians coming to the aid of different local cities as they fought each other for power. Macedonia and the Hellenistic World. In 359 B.C., a new force emerged when the kingdom of Macedonia, to the north of Greece, gained a new king, Philip II. Philip saw the warring Greek cities to the south and sensed opportunity. In less than 25 years, Philip dominated all the northern cities of Greece, including Athens. Then, over a 13-year period, Philip's son ALEXANDER THE GREAT led a united Macedonian and Greek expedition all the way to India. This expedition crushed the ancient Persian empire and resulted in a new balance of power in the ancient Near East. From this time on, the influence of Greek culture rivaled that of any of the Near Eastern civilizations. Philip had greatly admired Greek culture and taught his son to admire it as well. Thus, Alexander's conquests had the effect of spreading Greek culture across western Asia. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., the vast Macedonian empire that he had created disintegrated into three large realms: Macedonia, Asia, and Egypt. Macedonian monarchs ruled all three lands — and though they warred with one another, all three of them provided fertile soils for further development and intermingling of Greek and Near Eastern cultures. These blends of Greek and local cultures resulted in what is broadly called Hellenistic culture. The roughly 300 years after Alexander's death, when Rome began to impose its own power across the Near East, is known as the Hellenistic age.

GREEK CIVILIZATION AND THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Ancient Greece provided unique and glorious contributions to the development of Western civilization, many of which owe part of their origins to the older, Near Eastern cultures. In social organization and politics, perhaps, the Greeks remained totally unlike the groups they came in contact with, but signs of Near Eastern influence exist in other cultural areas—from art and architecture to science and philosophy.

*

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Society and Politics. Greek politics was very different from ancient Near Eastern politics. City-states* and lands in the ancient Near East were frequently large and almost always ruled by kings. Kingship was not unknown in Greece, especially in Mycenaean times, but during the classical period, several Greek city-states were democracies, meaning they were ruled by their citizens. The most famous ancient Greek democracy, known as the Council of 500, was centered in Athens from around 508 to 322 B.C. The council, which was made up of citizens chosen by lottery, prepared legislation, and an assembly of Athenian citizens voted on the issues. The assembly included all qualified citizens of the city, typically fewer than 5,000 people. 141

Greece and the Greeks Not all inhabitants, such as foreign-born residents and slaves, were able to vote. In addition, Greek culture generally did not recognize any rights for women. The fact remains, however, that a pattern of Greek government was ruled by groups of people rather than by a single leader.

* colonnade row of regularly spaced columns or pillars

Small Change? What could be more basic to our Idea of trade than money? Vet during ancient times, trade took place either by barter, which means exchanging goods directly, or by using desirable metal objects such as silver bats. The first coins to be issued came from lydia around 600 B.C. Lydian coins contained gold as well as silver and must have been used for large transactions only. It was in the cities of Greece and Anatolia that smaller, silver coins of different sizes were first used for buying and selling.

Architecture and Art. The most notable buildings of ancient Greek architecture were its temples and theaters. The temples were usually surrounded by a colonnade* that supported an overhanging stone roof. Though the careful details and proportions of these temples were a Greek creation, the influence of Egyptian monument building in stone was clearly felt; the Greeks had previously made temples from clay and wood and later switched to stone. Greek theaters, which were great semicircles with rows of seats carved into hillsides, were as unique as the plays that they housed. The sculpture of Greece also borrowed techniques from Egypt. Typical statues at the end of the Dark Age were clay molded figures standing upright and looking straight ahead, with rigid looking bodies and limbs. Visits to Egypt during the 700s B.C. inspired Greek artists to create much larger works in stone. Around 480 B.C., Greek sculptors developed a new pose for the human body, one in which the body weight is unevenly distributed on the feet. In these sculptures, the head, torso, arms, and legs are gently and naturally turned and bent. Mythology and Religion. The Greeks' religious beliefs were based on myths about their gods, whom they believed played certain roles in human activity. Different gods served different functions. Many of the characters in Greek mythology may have their origins in earlier stories from the ancient Near East. For example, certain myths about Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, can be traced to a Syrian legend. Greek cities also had their own patron gods and goddesses. The Greeks built magnificent temples for their deities, and priests and priestesses served in them to ensure that rituals were performed correctly. Literature, Philosophy, and Science. Greek literature began with myth and with the stories of Homer and other writers. Athenians produced much of Greek literature: there were Athenian playwrights such as Sophocles, historians such as Thucydides, orators such as Demosthenes, and philosophers such as Plato. People who traveled to Athens from elsewhere also became prominent writers. The Greek historian HERODOTUS was born in Anatolia. The philosopher Aristotle came from Macedonia. The list of ancient Greek contributors to Western culture includes many people. Hippocrates, born on the Aegean island of Cos (or Kos), is known as the father of modern medicine. Democritus, born in Thrace in northern Greece, was the man who coined the term atom to mean a particle of matter. Pythagoras, the mathematician from Samos, and Archimedes, the physicist from Sicily, are other well-known ancient Greeks. Greek philosophy provided the means to study and analyze the world in a way that had never been done before. The tool with which Greece's contribution to culture was recorded was largely a product of the ancient Near East. The Greek ALPHABET—the

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Hair basis of many other alphabets—was developed from a writing system used by the Phoenicians, who lived in the area that is now Israel and Lebanon. (See also Hellenistic World; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

GUDEA ruled ca. 2144-2124 B.C. Ruler of Lagash * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

I

n the late third millennium B.C.*, the ancient Sumerian city-state* of LAGASH was ruled by Gudea (goo»DAY»ah), who was more a governor than an independent king. During his reign, Gudea built and restored scores of temples, including a temple to Ningirsu, the patron* god of Lagash. Gudea also supported the arts and literature. This is evident in the artistic and literary developments of the period as well as in the reemergence of Sumerian as a dominant written language. Among the most important artistic achievements from his reign are the cylinders of Gudea, the longest and most complex surviving early Sumerian literary work. The clay cylinders are inscribed with a hymn that describes the reconstruction of Ningirsu's temple—the Eninnu. In it, Ningirsu promises Gudea such material rewards as these: Prosperity shall accompany the laying of the foundations of my house. All the great fields will raise their hands for you, dikes and canals will crane their necks for you, and for you the water will rise to the high ground which the waters do not reach. Cream will be poured abundantly in Sumer in your time. To build his temples, Gudea imported materials from distant lands. He also claimed to have made the Elamites and other inhabitants of Susa provide laborers to help build the temples. Many of the finished temples contained statues of Gudea, which portray the ruler standing or seated on a low stool. Dressed in a long robe, he often has a shaved head or wears a distinctive headdress decorated with fine curls. In all the statues, his hands are clasped together in reverence to the gods. These and other images of Gudea present him as an ideal ruler who was strong, wise, pious, attentive to divine command, authoritative, and protective of his people.

Gutians

HAIR

i See Akkad and the Akkadians.

A

rchaeologists* working at sites in the ancient Near East have found bronze razors; combs made of wood, ivory, and bone; and curlers that were probably used for curling women's hair and men's beards. Wall paintings, carved panels, and statues offer evidence of the great variety of hairstyles worn over the millennia*. From these objects and artworks, it is clear that the men and women of the ancient Near East shaved, cut, curled, and arranged their hair. 143

Hair * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

It is not always known whether everyone in a particular society wore the styles represented in the surviving artworks. Scholars do know, however, that hairstyles often had a social significance. People's age, class, or role in society often determined their hairstyle. In Egypt, for example, children wore short hair, often with one long lock falling down the right side of the head. Grown royal children wore loose sidelocks over their wigs to highlight their relationship to their father, the king. Among the Babylonians of MESOPOTAMIA, a slave wore an apputtum, which was most likely a distinctive hairstyle. The law forbade barbers to shave away a slave's apputtum without the owner's permission. The barber's penalty for committing this crime was to lose a hand. In many societies in the ancient Near East, long hair was considered a mark of beauty for both men and women. Kings, nobles, and other elite sometimes grew their hair long. Common people and slaves, on the other hand, often wore their hair shorter because they could not afford the care that long hair required. Women's Hairstyles. Images from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), Mesopotamia, and the Levant* illustrate developments in women's hairstyles in these three regions. A figurine from the sixth millennium B.C.* shows a woman with long hair hanging down her back in a braid or plait. Other figurines depict women wearing long hair piled on their heads in topknots. A Mesopotamian goddess or priestess in an image from the fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) has long hair tucked behind her ears and falling past her waist. Women in other artworks, shown engaged in everyday activities such as weaving, wear their hair in braids. Between 3000 and 2001 B.C., there was great variety in Mesopotamian women's hairstyles and headdresses. Women kept their hair long but rarely allowed it to hang down. Instead, they wore elaborate topknots or arrangements of braids on top of their heads. Some images show women with their hair contained in nets, scarves, coiled turbans, or headdresses of pleated cloth. An image from the first millennium B.C.* shows a queen of Assyria with curled, shoulder-length hair and a crown that resembles a miniature fortress. Ancient artworks and the evidence found at burial sites suggest that some Canaanite and Israelite women wore wigs over their long hair. Before about 900 B.C., women in SYRIA and CANAAN parted their hair in the middle. Later they wore short hair with curled or braided bangs. Royal Egyptian women wore wigs made of human hair, with vegetable fiber beneath the hair for extra fullness. Underneath the wigs, the head was often shaved or the hair cut quite short to prevent head lice. Wig styles seem to have reflected stages in women's lives rather than social class. Married women wore long-haired wigs, sometimes in a style that divided the hair into three parts. Unmarried women wore shorter hair that grazed the shoulders, with curls hanging beside the face. Women also wore special hairstyles during pregnancy, childbirth, and nursing. Men's Hair and Beards. Mesopotamian artworks from the second half of the fourth millennium B.C. often depict a male figure that scholars call

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Hair As seen in this Eighteenth Dynasty wall painting from the tomb of Nebamun, wealthy and refined Egyptians often wore perfumed cones made of animal fat on top of their wigs. During the course of an evening, the fat would melt over the hair, face, and clothing, spreading the perfume.

the priest-king. This figure wears shoulder-length hair held in place by a headband and has a full, thick beard. The same hairstyle and beard still appear in sculptures hundreds of years later. Later artworks show a greater variety of styles, though, including men without beards or wearing longer wavy or curly hair. The variety and complexity of women's hairstyles may have influenced the hair fashions of Mesopotamian men during the third millennium B.C. A gold helmet found in a royal cemetery is decorated with a thick braid wrapped around the head and looped in a bun at the base of the neck. This style became associated with royalty and was also adopted in Persia. During the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2700 B.C.), Sumerian men began to shave their heads and faces, but Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian men kept long curly hair and curly beards. By about 2500 B.C., most men were clean-shaven. In some cases they kept their beards but shaved their heads. During the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), kings were generally bearded and moustached, but other men might be beardless and have shaven heads. Assyrian kings had moustaches, thick, elaborately curled beards, and curled shoulder-length hair. During the same period, imperial Hittite men had long, straight hair and were clean-shaven. Syrian men depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings from the 1400s B.C. wear short beards and either shaven heads or shoulder-length hair held in place by a fillet, a strip of metal worn like a headband. Ancient Egyptian art shows Canaanite and Israelite men with pointed beards covering their cheeks and chins but usually without moustaches. Art produced in Canaan sometimes shows noblemen and gods as cleanshaven, however. Israelite men are always portrayed with full beards and long hair tied back with linen bands. During the late first millennium B.C., some Israelites and Neo-Hittites adopted the Assyrian custom of arranging their beards in curls. Minoan men and women had long, wavy black hair, and the men were usually clean-shaven. Egyptian men, like Egyptian women, often wore braided or plaited wigs over bald heads, shaven heads, or close-cropped hair. Some men kept mustaches, but they were rare. Wigs were considered attractive for both men and women. Priests were required to display their shaven heads when they were in the temple. Outside the temple, they, too, wore wigs. (See also Clothing; Jewelry.) 145

Haiiiitic Languages

HAMITIC LANGUAGES * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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^ J ost of the major LANGUAGES of the ancient and modem Near East / ^ Ibelong to a large family of languages that goes by several names. Scholars in the United States usually refer to this group of languages as Afro-Asiatic languages. In Europe, they are called Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic languages. This large language family includes more than 250 distinct languages and dialects*, which fall into five main branches, or subfamilies: Egyptian, Semitic*, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic. Of these branches, Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic belong to the Hamitic family of languages. The Egyptian subfamily consists of the ancient Egyptian language, which can be divided into two stages, each of which is characterized by certain differences in grammar and usage. The older form of Egyptian is called Older Egyptian, which was the language of all written texts from about 3000 to 1300 B.C. Older Egyptian, which can be further subdivided into phases that affect the writing system known as HIEROGLYPHICS, survived in formal religious texts until the A.D. 100s. The second stage of the Egyptian subfamily, known as Later Egyptian, remained in use from about 1300 B.C. to A.D. 1300. It also can be subdivided into several sublanguages: Late Egyptian, Demotic Egyptian, and Coptic Egyptian. Much of the greatest literature of ancient Egypt was written in Late Egyptian. Demotic Egyptian was in use from the 600s B.C. to the A.D. 400s. Coptic Egyptian, the language of Christian Egyptians, lasted from the A.D. 300s to the 1300s. It was replaced by Arabic, which remains the spoken and written language of Egyptians today. The Berber subfamily includes modern Tuareg (spoken in the central Saharan region of Africa) as well as other languages and dialects of northern and northwestern Africa. Many groups that speak Berber also speak Arabic, and Arabic script is used to write the Berber languages. Written records in Berber do not appear until the A.D. 1800s. However, many scholars believe that these languages are descended from the language of ancient Libya, which appears on thousands of inscriptions dating from the 100s B.C. Today about 15 million people in eastern Africa—from the Sudan to Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania—speak languages belonging to the Cushitic subfamily. The existence of this language group has been known to the West only since the A.D. 1600s. Although there is no written record of Cushitic in the ancient world, some of these languages show close ties with ancient Egyptian. A group of languages known as Omotic includes languages spoken in parts of southwestern Ethiopia. At one time, this group was considered part of the Cushitic subfamily, but scholars argue that it may not belong to the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. The Chadic subfamily includes 140 languages and dialects that are spoken today by about 30 million people in central and West Africa. Among the most important of these is Hausa, a language of northern Nigeria and neighboring areas. Little is known about the relationship between modern Chadic languages and ancient languages. The Semitic subfamily has existed in the ancient Near East since at least the fourth millennium B.C.* Spoken in Mesopotamia, Syria, the Levant*, and the Arabian peninsula, it included such languages as

Hammurabi Akkadian, Eblaite, Amorite, Ugartic, Aramaic,Old Canaanite,and Phoenician. Many Semitic languages arestill used widelyinwestern Asia and northern Africa, including Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic—the language of Ethiopia. (See also Indo-EuropeanLanguages; SemiticLanguages; Writing.)

HAMMURABI ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C. King of Babylon

H

ammurabi(ha«muh*RAH«bee), also spelled Hammurapi,was the sixth kingof the Amorite dynasty* BABYLON. of the city-state* of During his 43-year reign,he establishedone first of the sets ofwritten laws in history, calledthe CodeofHammurabi. Healso united most of MESOPOTAMIA underthe ruleof his kingdom, known as the OldBabylonian empire. Hammurabi's ancestors AMORITES, werea tent-dwelling, nomadic* peoplefrom the Syrian desert, who firstentered Mesopotamia latein the third millennium B.C.* Hammurabi's father, Sin-muballit, was theking of an Amorite dynasty that had been ruling Babylonforabout 100years. When Hammurabi inheritedthe throne from B.C., father his around1792 he was still a young man.He had probably prepared for hisresponsibilities as kingby performing some official dutiesin thegovernment when he was younger. Like previous Mesopotamian kings, Hammurabi beganhisreignby praising himself. Heclaimed that he hadbeen destined to be theking since the beginning oftime and proclaimed hisdedication tojusticein the laws he made for his people. Unlike earlier Mesopotamian kings, Hammurabi continued to proclaim hisdedication tojustice throughout his reign.A statueof Hammurabi presented him as the"king ofjustice/' and Hammurabi spokeofhaving "establishedjusticein theland" only monthsafter he took the throne. During thefirst yearsof his rule, Hammurabi builtandrestored temples, canals, city walls,and public buildings.Healso honoredthegods of Mesopotamia by dedicating shrines, temples, andcult objects tothem in the cities and towns of hisrealm. Around 1787 B.C., Hammurabi conquered the southern city-states of URUK and Isin, whichhad been controlled by chief his rival, King Rim-Sin of the city-stateof Larsa.For the next20years, Hammurabi's kingdom did not engage in anymajor wars. During this time, Hammurabi concentrated on building and renovating temples, strengtheningthewallsof his cities in the north against possible enemies, andimplementing justice within his land. About 23 years after he had conquered UrukandIsin, Hammurabi began a campaigntodefeatRim-Sinand seize Larsa. Aspart of hismilitary strategy, he constructeda dam on the Euphrates Riverupstream from Larsa. Evidence suggests thathe either releasedthewaters suddenlyto cause a devastating floodLarsa in orwithheldthewaters inorder tocause drought and famine. Once Larsawasconquered, Hummurabi's kingdom became the dominant power in theregion. Around 1762 B.C., Hammurabi went toMARI, war powerful aagainst kingdom to the northeast. Marihadonce been anallyofBabylon,and it

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Hammurabi, Code of * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

HAMMURABI, CODE OF * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

148

is not known why the two powers became enemies. The cause may have been a dispute over water rights or it may have been an attempt by Hammurabi to gain access to the overland trade route from which Mari derived its wealth. By conquering Mari, Hammurabi extended the power of the Old Babylonian empire farther up the Euphrates River. Two years later, Hammurabi began a campaign to defeat ESHNUNNA, a city-state east of the Tigris River. Using his strategy of damming the river waters, Hammurabi soon conquered Eshnunna. Toward the end of his reign, Hammurabi became very ill and had to hand over his power to one of his sons before he died. Many Babylonian inscriptions have been discovered which say, ''for the well-being of Hammurabi" and may date to the time of this illness. Around 1750 B.C., his son Samsu-iluna took over the throne, and Hammurabi died shortly thereafter. Hammurabi's reign is regarded by many as a high point of Mesopotamian civilization. During this time, Mesopotamia made significant advances in the arts and in the study of astronomy and mathematics. Multiplication tables, tables of square and cube roots, and what we call the Pythagorean theorem were all known and used. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Hammurabi, Code of.)

O

ne of the best-known artifacts* from ancient MESOPOTAMIA is a stela* that contains 282 laws set down by King HAMMURABI of BABYLON. These laws are collectively known as the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest sets of written laws in history. The stela, made of black basalt* and standing about eight feet tall, depicts in relief* King Hammurabi receiving rod and ring, symbols of kingship, from the sun god Shamash. The laws are engraved in cuneiform* beneath this relief as well as on the back of the stela from top to bottom. Archaeologists* think that originally there were at least two stone stelae containing these laws in Mesopotamia, parts of which were copied onto clay tablets by scribes* and their students. However, only one stela has been recovered to date. Hammurabi decreed that his code was to be located in a public place, where people could read the laws or have them read out loud whenever they had a legal question. Historians believe that one copy of the code was kept in a temple next to a statue depicting Hammurabi as the King of Justice. In ancient Mesopotamia, it was thought that the gods established the order of the world, that the king was the representative of the gods on earth, and that it was the king's job to implement justice on the gods' behalf. Consequently, the Code of Hammurabi served as a prescription for maintaining the divine order of the world. The code includes laws about a variety of topics. Some of the legal issues covered by Hammurabi's laws included theft, murder, manslaughter, property damage, MARRIAGE, adoption, DIVORCE, trade, TAXATION, and the manumission* of SLAVES. Many of the laws in the Code of Hammurabi share similarities with other law codes of the ancient Near East. In fact, Hammurabi probably collected parts of older law codes from previous

Hanging Gardens of Babylon * manumission act of legally freeing a person from slavery

False Accusations The Code of Hammurabi contains several laws that forbid accusing someone of a crime without providing proof of that person's guilt. The first law of the code states: If a man accused another man and brought a charge of murder against him, but has not proved it, his accuser shall be put to death. The third law states: If a man came forward with false testimony in a casef and has not proved the word which he spoke, if that case was a case involving life, that man shall be put to death. The fourth law states: If he came forward with false testimony concerning grain or money, he shall bear the penalty of that case.

HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON * Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

kings and included them in his code to prove his commitment to an ancient tradition of justice. The Code of Hammurabi shares common themes with the older Sumerian laws set forth by King Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ruled ca. 1934-1924 B.C.), including the commitment to justice and the wellbeing of the people. The laws of MOSES in the Hebrew BIBLE also are similar to the Code of Hammurabi. However, the similarities are generally thought to be due to common cultural roots rather than a direct influence of Hammurabi's laws on the laws of JUDAISM. Hammurabi's laws were more severe in their punishments than earlier Akkadian and Sumerian laws. One special characteristic of the Code of Hammurabi was the concept of "an eye for an eye/' in which the perpetrator of a crime is punished by having that same crime inflicted on him. For example, the code states: "If a man struck another man's daughter and . . . if that woman has died, they shall put his daughter to death." The Code of Hammurabi recognized three social classes: awilum (landowner), mushkenum (landless free citizen), and wardum (slave). Punishments for crimes varied according to the social class of the victim. For example, Law 200 states: "If a man has knocked out the tooth of a man of his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth." However, Law 201 states: "If he has knocked out a commoner's tooth, he shall pay one-third mina of silver." Some historians believe that because many ancient Mesopotamian people could not read the cuneiform script used to write the laws and because the stela was probably not accessible to everyone, the Code of Hammurabi was used only by the elite and educated. Other historians believe that the laws were meant to serve as guidelines for future kings, in the hope that they would continue the traditions of their predecessor Hammurabi. (See also Law.)

D

uring the Hellenistic* period, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, famed for their beauty and magnificence, were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. However, the gardens are not mentioned by ancient writers living during the time that they were said to have been built. Neither Babylonian cuneiform* tablets nor the inscriptions of Babylonian king NEBUCHADNEZZAR II speak of the gardens, though they do describe, in great detail, many building activities in Babylon. Moreover, the Greek historian HERODOTUS, who traveled to Babylon in the 400s B.C. and wrote about the region, does not mention the gardens. Nevertheless, it is commonly believed that the gardens were built by Nebudchadnezzar for his wife, Amytis, who was from Media (in presentday Iran). It is said that the king built the gardens to resemble a mountain to please Amytis, who was homesick for the mountainous landscape of her homeland. Although the mountainous shape of the gardens is generally agreed on, their size and their source of water are disputed. Diodorus Siculus, a historian writing during the 50s B.C., reported that the gardens were 75

149

Harbors

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * vaulted having an arched ceiling or roof

HARBORS

* guild association of professionals that sets standards and represents the interests of its members

150

feet in height. Strabo, a geographer writing a few years later, reported them to be even larger. It is unknown how the gardens were irrigated. Some ancient writers described pumps that were used to transport water from the EUPHRATES RIVER. Others suggested that the source of water was a well that was equipped with an endless chain of buckets. Archaeologists* have searched for the remains of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon inside the walls of Nebuchadnezzar's palace and have discovered large underground walls, vaulted* rooms, and a well. These remains could be the original foundations of the gardens. Some archaeologists believe that the gardens were built in the area outside the palace near the Euphrates River because one of Nebuchadnezzar's inscriptions describes forming baked bricks into the likeness of a mountain in this region. A series of underground canals used for water supply and drainage were also found nearby and could have been used to irrigate the gardens. More recently, it has been suggested that late classical writers, who were writing many hundreds of years after the gardens' construction, may have confused the enormous building activities of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon with memories of a vast artificial garden in the city of Nineveh. This city was the famous capital of the Assyrians, who were known to have built irrigated terraces planted with trees from distant lands. Until new archaeological and textual discoveries are made, details about the Hanging Gardens of Babylon will remain unknown. (See also Babylon; Gardens.)

A

harbor is a sheltered coastal area where the waters are deep enough for ships to approach the shore. Harbors also enable ships to escape storms, anchor safely, and load and unload cargo. The ancient Near East had many excellent natural harbors as well as some that were improved by human efforts. Because these harbors were used by ships from all over the Near East, they become important centers of seafaring trade. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER were crowded with ships transporting goods. Like other bodies of water, the rivers in Mesopotamia had harbors that were used for docking and unloading cargo. These harbors attracted sailors from other lands, such as Dilmun (near present-day Bahrain), Magan (present-day Oman), and MELUKKHA (in present-day India), who came to buy and sell goods. During the 1800s B.C., societies of merchants or guilds* were formed in the wealthy port cities that surrounded the Mesopotamian harbors. The NILE RIVER was the most commonly used route for transporting goods in ancient Egypt. However, one of the most famous trade expeditions in Egyptian history was launched from the harbor of Mersa Gawasis, located on the northwestern coast of the RED SEA. In about 1495 B.C., Queen HATSHEPSUT commissioned an expedition to Punt, a mysterious land of legendary wealth located along the southwestern coast of the Red Sea. The ships used for the expedition were carried in pieces overland from the city of THEBES to the harbor. After assembling the ships,

Hathor * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized wood from certain tropical trees

breakwaters barriers to lessen the impact of waves, such as in a harbor; also called breakwalls or moles

HATHOR * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * predynastic referring to the period before 3000 B.C., when Egypt's First Dynasty began

* deity god or goddess * underworld world of the dead

the sailors departed for Punt. Many months later, the ships returned loaded with frankincense and myrrh*, ebony*, IVORY, panther skins, and COSMETICS.

Some of the most important harbors in the ancient Near East were on the Mediterranean Sea. One particularly important harbor was in UGARIT, a city located on the Mediterranean coast of present-day Syria. The city's White Harbor, so-called because of the white cliffs surrounding it, was important because it was located between ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to the north and Canaan and Egypt to the south. In addition, the harbor was directly east of the island of CYPRUS, which had rich copper mines. This location led to seafaring trade with many cities, and as trade grew, so did Ugarit. However, the ships also brought disaster. Around 1200 B.C., invaders attacked from the sea and destroyed the city. Harbors were essential to the commercial empire of Phoenicia (presentday Lebanon). The Phoenicians made improvements to harbors at the cities of SIDON and TYRE. In the 1200s B.C., they built breakwaters* to protect the harbors from rough seas. These changes were among the first human-made improvements of harbors in history. (See also Economy and Trade; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Ships and Boats.)

H

athor (HATH>awr) was a sky goddess and the universal mother goddess of ancient Egypt. She was most often pictured as a woman wearing a pair of cow's horns with a sun disk between them. She was also depicted as a lioness, snake, and tree goddess. Sometimes called the cow goddess, she was also represented as a cow or as a woman with a cow's head, horns, and ears. It is not known whether Hathor had her own cult* in predynastic* Egypt, but it is clear that she was widely worshiped in ancient Egypt after that time. Temples and priestesses were dedicated to Hathor, and she was well represented in art and architecture, especially in tombs. Hathor was the daughter of the sun god Ra and, in some ways, the mother of the falcon god HORUS. Her name literally meant "house of Horns/' Because Horus symbolized the king, Hathor symbolized the mother of the king. Eventually, however, the role of Horus's mother was given to the goddess Isis, and Hathor became Horus's wife. Hathor was primarily a benevolent, or helpful, deity*. She protected and assisted the dead in the underworld*, healed the sick, and helped women in childbirth. Her role in healing was probably based on a wellknown story in which Hathor restores Horus's eyesight after he is injured during a battle. She was also associated with sexuality, wine, music, and dancing. Dances were held in her honor, and music was an important part of worship in her cult. Hathor was also occasionally considered a destructive deity. According to one myth, Hathor in the form of a fierce lioness nearly destroyed all of humanity before AMUN could trick her into stopping the slaughter. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.) 151

Hatshepsut

H

atshepsut(hat«SHEP»soot)was a queenof ancient Egypt who later proclaimed herselfthe kingdom's ruler,or pharaoh.She was one of only four women everto rule Egyptin her own right. Hatshepsutwasable to gain control of the throne largely becauseof her strong characterand forceful personality. Hatshepsutwas the daughterof a pharaoh named Thutmose I. As was ruled ca. 1472-1458 B.C. common among ancient Egyptian royalty, Hatshepsut marriedherhalf Egyptian pharaoh brother, Thutmose II, and theyhad a daughter named Neferura.Around * regent person appointed to govern 1492B.C., ThutmoseII succeeded Thutmose I aspharaoh, with Hatshepsut while the rightful monarch is too youngas his queen. After an unremarkable reign,he died unexpectedly around or unable to rule 1479 B.C. Becausehe had no sons with Hatshepsut, Thutmose II wassuc* oracle priest or priestess through whom ceeded by THUTMOSE III,his son by a minor wifeand Hatshepsut's stepson. a god is believed to speak; also, the Thutmose III wasjust a boy whenhe inheritedthe throne,so at first, location (such as a shrine) where such Hatshepsut reigned as regent*. During that time, shegained powerand utterances are made the support of important royal officials. Then B.C., after around 1472 * funerary having to do with funerals or about seven yearsas regent, Hatshepsuthad herself declaredthe rulerof the handling of the dead Egypt by an oracle*from AMUN. the god She abandonedthe titlesof queen, which belonged to her as the chief wife of ThutmoseII, and ; adopted all the pharaoh s traditional titles. In art and architecture, she was depicted wearing kingly dress, includingthe ceremonial false beard that was an ancient symbol of theking's power. However,it is not known whether she dressed as a man in life. real From thenuntilherdeath about 14 years later, Hatshepsut ruled Egyptas the dominant partnerin a coreign with Thutmose III. During Hatshepsut's reign,Egyptwasinvolvedin relatively little military activity. Thereare no recordsof military campaigns Asia, in and Egypt seems to have lost much of the ground that previously hadbeen won in Asia. Nonetheless, Hatshepsuthad a prosperous reign,asreflectedby the impressive buildings and monuments that were constructed during her rule. She had the temple at Thebes renovated, includingthe addition of a chapel andfour obelisks, each nearlyfeet 100tall.Shealsocut atomb for herself in theValleyof the Kings.Herbest-known achievement magnifis a icentfunerary* templeshe had built for herself Dayr atal-Bahri. The foundation of the temple stands today muchas it must have looked in her time. Inscribed on its wallsare the major eventsofHatshepsut'sreign, including the storyof how Amun grantedher the rightto rule Egyptaspharaoh. During Hatshepsut's reign,a man named Senenmut became one of the few commoners everto gain prestigeand renownin ancient Egypt. Senenmut was an influentialman who held many important offices. He was the administratorof royal domainsand tutorto Hatshepsut's daughter, Neferura. He also supervisedthe construction of the Dayr al-Bahri temple. (Seealso Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs.)

HATSHEPSUT

HEALTH 152

T

he ancient Egyptians hoped that they would enjoythe twin blessings of "a good old age and a goodburial." They believed that lifean ideal lasted for 100 or 110years—butit was the rare Egyptian who reached such an advanced age. Throughoutthe ancient Near East, people faced many health hazards, including diseaseand infectionby parasites*. Although

Health *

parasite organism that lives inside another organism and is often harmful to the host organism

* plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* epidemic spread of a particular disease

within a population

* domesticate to adapt or tame for

human use

* migration movement of individuals or

peoples from one place to another

the diseases were caused by unclean water, poor sanitation, crowded living conditions, and dietary deficiencies, most ancients believed that diseases were the result of attacks by demons or other supernatural beings. In Akkadian (the language of the Babylonians), the term for plague was literally "the touch of god," often Erra. In the Hebrew BIBLE, plagues* are similarly referred to as "the touch." Consequently, most ancient Near Eastern peoples sought relief from these troubles in MAGIC and RELIGION. Diseases and Ailments. More is known about the diseases and ailments of the ancient Egyptians than about those of any other Near Eastern culture. That is because of the Egyptian practice of preserving bodies. By examining MUMMIES and skeletons, as well as ancient medical texts, archaeologists* have been able to identify the problems that afflicted the people of ancient Egypt. Dental problems were common, especially wear on tooth enamel caused by sand in bread and other foods. Other health problems included broken bones, bone cancer, obesity, arthritis, lung diseases such as emphysema and tuberculosis, smallpox, polio, and parasitic diseases. Medical texts from ancient MESOPOTAMIA suggest that eye diseases were common there, perhaps in part due to a diet poor in vitamin A. The Mesopotamians also suffered from many ailments of the digestive system, some of which were probably caused by intestinal parasites. Skin problems such as sores and rashes occurred frequently and may have been caused by the hot, dry, sunny climate as well as by certain infections. Records left by the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) mention ailments of the eyes, mouth, throat, and digestive system. They also refer to plagues—devastating epidemics* of disease. Few references to health or illness appear in texts that survive from ancient IRAN. Health problems there were probably similar to those of neighboring Mesopotamia. It is clear, however, that people who suffered from some diseases with visible signs, such as skin ailments, were outcasts from society. Health problems in SYRIA and CANAAN were much like those elsewhere in the ancient Near East. People combated infestations of insects such as lice by shaving and covering themselves with oil. Internal parasites such as tapeworms and whipworms, however, were not so easily defeated. The Hebrew Bible mentions illnesses among the ancient Israelites, including fevers, parasitic diseases, stroke, epilepsy, and skin diseases including leprosy. The Israelites believed that the plagues they suffered were caused by contact with other peoples. They also regarded a woman's infertility, or inability to bear children, as both an illness and something that lowered her social status. Public Health. Many health problems in the ancient Near East were related to changes in lifestyle, such as domesticating* animals, which placed people in closer contact with animals and, consequently, the diseases they carried. Another change was the shift from the hunting-andgathering life to settling in permanent communities in which people lived close together in large numbers. Greater population density allowed some diseases to flourish and to spread more easily. Finally, war, trade, and migrations* led to more contact among different populations. These events also spread diseases more widely. 153

Hebrew

Disease Prevention This extract from an ancient Mesopotamia!! letter shows some understanding of disease transmission and prevention: / hear that the woman Nanna is ill,. * . Give strict orders that no one drink from a cup she drinks from, that no one sit on a chair she sits on, and that no one sleep in a bed she sleeps in so that she does not infect [any more] of the women around her.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

Hebrew 154

The Mesopotamians recognized that some illnesses passed from person to person. They tried to prevent this spread by isolating sick people. Sometimes they moved the population of an entire village in the hope of preventing epidemics. The social and physical conditions of people's lives also affected health. In some societies, food was unequally distributed among classes, so some people consumed more varied and plentiful food than others. Those whose food was insufficient or limited were more likely to suffer from conditions caused by a lack of nutrients. Poor sanitation also contributed to public health problems. Water was necessary to life, but it could also bring disease. In Syria and Canaan, people collected rainwater in large containers called cisterns. Over time, water standing in these cisterns could become contaminated with disease-carrying organisms or with parasites. River water, too, could harbor health threats such as disease-causing parasites. Contamination of drinking water by garbage or by human and animal wastes was one of the worst public health problems of the ancient world. Excavations in Egypt have shown that even the most luxurious homes, well built and maintained, were surrounded by heaps of garbage, open sewers, and thousands of flies. Some cultures made efforts to dispose of human wastes effectively, although it is not clear whether they did so specifically to protect their health. In Mesopotamia, for example, some towns and cities had clay sewer pipes. Archaeologists have found clay pipes and drainage systems in several Hittite sites too, and some Hittite homes had toilets. Various cities in CANAAN also had drains, and remains of ancient toilets have been discovered in JERUSALEM. Life Expectancy. It is difficult to determine how long people lived, on average, in the ancient Near East. Some of the best-preserved human remains come from Egypt, but even experts in the study of these relics do not always agree on life expectancy. Some experts suggest that Egyptians rarely lived more than 40 or 50 years, while others argue that those who survived into adulthood and did not die giving birth had a good chance of living to age 60. It must be remembered, though, that the mummies from which much of our information is gathered were almost always from Egypt's upper classes and do not represent Egyptian society as a whole. Members of the privileged classes in Mesopotamia might live to age 70, although the average life expectancy of the ordinary farmer or laborer was undoubtedly much lower. Even for the privileged, however, existence was full of health threats. Accidents, famine*, and CHILDBIRTH, as well as illness, claimed a heavy toll in lives. Infant mortality, or the percentage of people dying before their first birthday, was also high in all ancient societies. (See also Drought; Famine; Medicine.)

See Semites; Semitic Languages.

Hebrews and Israelites

HEBREWS AND ISRAELITES * patriarch male leader of a family or tribe * nomadic referring to people who move from place to place in search of food and pasture * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * matriarch female leader of a family or tribe * famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

Where Are They Now? In 722 B.C, the Assyrians conquered the kingdom of Israel and forced th€ ten northern Israelite tribes to relocate throughout the Assyrian empire. The people of these tribes blended into their new societies and were lost to history. However, many Jews continued to believe that their descendants would be found someday. One traveler in the A.D. 800s claimed to have found the tribes beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. From time to time, claims have been made that certain religious and ethnic groups—the Mormons, the Afghans, the Japanese, and the indigenous people of North America—are descendants of these tost tribes.

Hebrew is generally used to refer to the patriarch* Abraham T he(alsotermcalled Abram) and his descendants—a nomadic* tribespeople who worshiped the god YAHWEH. The traditional history of these people— beginning with Abraham's migration from MESOPOTAMIA to CANAAN—is told in the Hebrew BIBLE. The term Hebrew itself is rarely used in the Bible, in most cases only by other people in their references to or about Abraham or his descendants. Some historians believe that the name Hebrew may have come from a people who lived in Canaan during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) and were referred to in cuneiform* and Egyptian hieroglyphic* texts as Khabiru. Others suggest that the term Hebrew derives from the name Eber, the name of one of Abraham's ancestors. The term Israelites refers to the descendants of Abraham and his immediate family—considered the patriarchs and matriarchs* of Israel. According to the Hebrew Bible, Abraham's grandson Jacob, who was renamed Israel by Yahweh, had 12 sons. Their descendants were later organized into 12 tribes, each named for one of Jacob's (Israel's) sons or grandsons. Together, these tribespeople came to be known as the children of Israel or the Israelites. Biblical History. According to the Bible, Jacob and his family fled to Egypt to escape a famine* in Canaan, and there their descendants eventually became slaves. A leader named MOSES led them out of captivity on a 40-year journey through the desert back to Canaan, which Yahweh had promised to them as their homeland, the Promised Land. During the Exodus, as this journey was called, Yahweh revealed the TEN COMMANDMENTS to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Israelites then completed the journey to Canaan, where they began a new phase of their history. Once back in Canaan, the Israelites came into conflict with Canaanite peoples and the PHILISTINES, a people who had come from the eastern Mediterranean and settled in Canaan. To combat the Philistines, the Israelite tribes united under King Saul. The Bible describes a series of wars in which the Israelites overcame these groups. After Saul died in battle against the Philistines, his son-in-law DAVID, a former outlaw, became king. David conquered JERUSALEM, which had been under foreign control but was situated between lands held by the southern and northern Israelite tribes, and made it Israel's capital. During the reign of SOLOMON, David's son and successor, Israel became an empire that stretched from Syria to Egypt. Solomon also built a splendid temple and palace in in the city of Jerusalem. Still, the Israelite kingdom was fragile. Some tribes objected to the taxes and forced labor that paid for and built the new structures, and tensions existed between the northern and southern tribes. After Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided into a northern kingdom called Israel and a southern one called Judah, whose people were the Judeans, or, in modern English, Jews. After the split, the histories of the kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH were separate. What Modern Historians Believe. No contemporary archaeological* evidence exists to support the story of the patriarchs and early Israelites as told in the Bible. Historians are divided on the accuracy of

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Hebrews and Israelites * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* bureaucracy system of officials and clerks that perform government functions * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

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biblical accounts because this text was compiled many centuries after the events occurred. Moreover, it was compiled by editors whose intentions may have been to strengthen national and religious unity by emphasizing the shared past of the Israelite people. Notwithstanding its problems, the Bible is considered a starting point for discussing the early history of the Israelites and for archaeological investigations. Although historians know that the Israelites were a Semitic* people, they know little of their history before 1100s B.C. At the time, the Levant* was undergoing social and political change, perhaps caused by population movements and invasions of the SEA PEOPLES. City-states* were falling, urban culture was weakening, and people were on the move. Some historians believe that the Israelites settled in the thinly occupied highlands of Canaan during this period. Others, however, have suggested that the Israelites may have originated among segments of the Canaanite population. After arriving in Canaan, the Israelites began to shift from a nomadic lifestyle to permanent settlement and agriculture. At first, they occupied the northeast region of present-day Israel, but they eventually moved down the hills and into more fertile regions. They tended to form new settlements in areas outside the territories of the old city-states. Archaeological evidence from the region does not easily support the idea of the sudden or violent changes resulting from the battles with other groups as described in the Bible. Instead, the Israelite expansion may have involved gradual blending with other groups as well as conflict. Over time, the Israelites came to share many customs, traditions, and cultural elements with their Canaanite neighbors, although they maintained a separate identity. Some historians also think it is unlikely that the empire of David and Solomon existed as described in the Bible. The lack of historical evidence about David and Solomon suggests to some scholars that their achievements may have been more modest than described in the Bible. A few others even question whether the united monarchy existed. Instead, they suspect that the kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged separately between 900 and 800 B.C. and that later Jewish historians claimed there had been a united kingdom in order to link the people of the two kingdoms to a common heritage. Government and Economy. The Israelites had established settled communities by 1200 B.C. Divided into tribes, they were headed by a tribal chief who came forward at times of crisis. It is unclear what role the leaders played in day-to-day governance. The tribes recognized their shared identity as "children of Israel" and were united mainly by their religion, the worship of Yahweh. After the Israelites adopted kingship as their system of government, a bureaucracy* developed within the monarchy to handle the administration of the royal estates, tax collection, and defense. The state cult* was also a function of the monarchy. The king had supreme authority over the cult and performed such duties as offering sacrifices and ordering the people to religious meetings. There were also two classes of priests: the Levites, who were in charge of temple maintenance, and the Kohens, who performed sacrifices and rituals.

Hebrews and Israelites

* terrace artificial level platform of earth, supported by an outer wall, dug or built into the side of a hill; terraces may be stacked on top of each other like stairs

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

*

Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

The economy of the early Israelites was based on agriculture, and ownership of land was the basis of wealth and social status. Farmers either developed or adopted from neighboring cultures several technical advances that helped them cultivate the hilly, dry land. They dug cisterns (reservoirs) in rocks where they could store rainwater and built terraces* to plant crops on steep hillsides. Their principal crops were grain, olives, and grapes. Although they had taken up farming, and eventually urban living, they did not abandon raising livestock. They maintained herds, primarily sheep and goats but also some cattle. Craftspeople produced pottery, including cooking pots with handles and jugs with spouts. Metalworkers produced tools and weapons of bronze, which was gradually replaced by the use of the more abundant and stronger iron. The Hewbrew Bible describes trade in foreign luxury goods under King Solomon, but archaeological evidence supports only modest trade in the region. Society. In the period before the establishment of the monarchy, Israelite settlements differed from the earlier Canaanite cities in that they did not have large temples or palaces, nor were they surrounded by walls. Settlements fell into three types: villages, towns or villages with buildings circling an open center, and farmsteads that consisted of individual buildings or small clusters of buildings in walled compounds. During the early years of the monarchy, the village pattern of settlement gave way to cities and towns. These were usually surrounded by a thick defensive wall pierced by a single GATE. Many cities had systems of wells, pools, and tunnels to distribute water. Differences in the size and quality of buildings were not extreme, suggesting that the differences between social classes were not great. There were free farmers or herders who worked their own land and whose individual wealth and social status depended on the amount of land they controlled. In addition, some individuals may have been recognized as having higher status because of birth, performance in battle, or for other reasons. Slaves occupied the lowest social class. The majority of people, however, were free peasants. Two kinds of education existed among the Israelites. One was the traditional ancient Near Eastern system of home schooling, in which parents taught children practical skills, social customs, and religious and moral matters. The other was a formal system devoted to training in writing. In the schools in this system, professional scribes* were trained to perform such functions as writing letters and keeping records. The scribes trained in this manner became an essential part of the religious tradition, responsible for copying sacred and legal documents and for teaching the law. Alphabet and Language. The Israelites spoke Hebrew, a Semitic* language that is closely related to Phoenician and Moabite (from the kingdom of Moab in present-day Jordan). As a spoken language, Hebrew was replaced by Aramaean by the 300s B.C. It existed only as the language of Jewish religious traditions and worship until it was revived in the A.D. 1800s and 1900s. The early Hebrew alphabet that was used before the 500s B.C. was based on early Northwest Semitic traditions. It was an aleph-beth, having 157

Hellenistic World signs only for consonants. A later form of Hebrew alphabet, called Classical or Square Hebrew, was based on the Aramaic alphabet.

Hie Question of the Khabiru In the 1300s B.C, Canaan was occupied by smalt kingdoms and citystates whose documents refer to a class of people called the Khabiru (sometimes Hablruor Hapiru). The terms referred to social outcasts, including refugees, outlaws, and other people outside the mainstream of society. Rulers sometimes used the term as an insulting way to refer to their enemies. Some modern scholars, noting the similarity between the terms Khabiru and Hebrew, suggested that these documents contain early mentions of the Hebrews. However, because the connection cannot be proved, most scholars believe instead that the term refers to a miscellaneous social class rather than a particular nation or people.

HELLENISTIC WORLD * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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Culture. Very little is known about the culture of the early Israelites. Aside from some settlements uncovered by archaeological excavations, few physical objects can be dated with certainty to the era before the divided monarchy. While the Israelites placed great importance on their distinct and unique identity, in truth, they shared many cultural and artistic elements with other peoples who lived in Canaan. Despite the official devotion to Yahweh, Israelites were exposed to other cults, and some worshiped other gods—such as the Canaanite deities BAAL and Asherah—instead of, or in addition to, Yahweh. The architecture of the Israelites expanded from residential structures to include public buildings such as palaces and temples. In the south, they were influenced by Egypt and built structures modeled on Egyptian palaces, with rooms arranged around a central courtyard. In the north, a different type of public building appeared. It consisted of two rectangular rooms and a porch supported by two columns, a style influenced by Syrian architecture. Much art in the ancient Near East concerned images of gods and goddesses. However, making images of Yahweh was forbidden by the religion of the Israelites. As a result, the surviving artworks of the Israelite period tend to be sculptures of guardian lions or other animals from gateways or public buildings. The Israelites had a rich tradition of poetry. The biblical PSALMS are among the best-known examples of Israelite poetry. Such poems were often set to music. Among the Canaanites, music was both a folk art and part of temple worship. The Israelites probably shared this musical tradition; the Bible contains references to singing and playing musical instruments, and King David is said to have been talented at music. (See also Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

T

he term Hellenistic (he»luh»NIS»tik) refers to the Greek-influenced cultures throughout the lands of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia during the period between the death of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 323 B.C. and the conquest of Egypt by Rome about 300 years later. The word comes from Hellas, the Greek word for Greece. Alexander, himself a Macedonian, admired Greek culture and initiated the spread of Greek ideas throughout the areas he conquered, from Egypt and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the west to the borders of India in the east. After Alexander's death, the lands he conquered did not remain a single empire. His generals began to fight among themselves, and eventually, three important dynasties* were established. The lands from Syria to India fell to Seleucus I, founder of the SELEUCID EMPIRE; Egypt and the southern Levant* became the domain of the Ptolemies; and the Antigonids ruled MACEDONIA.

Herodotus

*

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

j? ^%j See map in Alexande (vol.1).

HERODOTUS lived ca. 484-430 B.C. Greek historian * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Settlers from Macedonia and Greece moved to the new empires in large numbers. These colonists built numerous cities, which were laid out to resemble traditional Greek city-states*. The colonists also brought their language with them, and Greek became the language of government and commerce. In addition, coins of the type used in Greece, especially Athens, were now minted in large quantities throughout the Hellenistic world, and these helped promote trade. The Hellenistic colonies were ruled by the central state authority of their land or by his local representative. For example, the Seleucids divided their territory into smaller administrative units ruled by military governors responsible to the king, a system similar to the satrapies* of the Persian empire. This blending of Greek culture with that of the ancient Near East was typical of many aspects of life during the Hellenistic period. The decline of the Greek-influenced world began when the Romans conquered Macedonia and Greece in 148 B.C. At this time, the Seleucids also began losing power to the Parthians in IRAN. By 63 B.C., the Seleucid state had ceased to exist, and the Romans ruled those parts of their former empire not already conquered by the Parthians. Egypt, the last surviving Hellenistic power, became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 B.C., marking an end to the Hellenistic world. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Ptolemy I.)

H

erodotus (hi«RAH»duh»tuhs), a Greek writer of the 400s B.C., was the first major historian of the ancient Near East. His work is simply called the History, which means "inquiry" in Greek. In the History, he sought to give an account of the PERSIAN WARS between the Greeks and the Persians and the events leading up to them. Most of what is known about the Persian Wars comes from his writings. Herodotus's writings are also a major source of information about the history and legends of the ancient Near East. Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus, a Greek city-state* in Caria in southwest ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), which was under Persian rule at that time. As a youth, he was banished from the city for his opposition to the Persian regime. He then traveled widely and lived in several places, including Athens and Thurii, a Greek colony in southern Italy. During these travels, Herodotus collected numerous stories, which he later included in the History. He organized his work by beginning with an account of the rise of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. He wrote about the lands that were conquered by Persia, including Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA, supplying details about the customs, religions, and histories of each land's people. He then described the Persian Wars, including Persia's attack on Greek city-states, the major land and sea battles, and the surprising victory of the Greeks against the much larger Persian army. Later historians, including some from the ancient world, have found errors in some of Herodotus's work. However, modern archaeologists* have found that some of his accounts of places and events are supported by their own findings. Herodotus's detailed descriptions of ancient Near

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Hieroglyphics Eastern social customs—which he often tells with great enthusiasm because they were so different from his Greek customs—are still enjoyed by modern readers. (See also History and Historiography.)

HIEROGLYPHICS

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Hittite Hieroglyphics In addition to the Egyptians, the Hittites also developed a hieroglyphic script, during the second millennium B.C The script first appeared on Hittite Old and Middle Kingdom seals at Bogazkoy. It was initially used on royal seals and was later used to write identifying labels on sculptures. Overtime, however, Hit* tite hieroglyphics was increasingly composed in the Luwian language, instead of Hittite, By about the 700s B.C., the Hittite hieroglyphic tradition had come to a close.

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T

he term hieroglyphics (hy«uh«ruh*GLI»flks) refers to a system of writing in which picture symbols represent ideas and sounds. The term was derived from the Egyptian expression ''god's words/' First developed in Egypt around 3000 B.C., the system continued to be used for INSCRIPTIONS on monuments, wall paintings, and religious texts until the A.D. 300s. Other systems of hieroglyphics, possibly inspired by the Egyptian, were used in Crete during the Middle Bronze Age, in Hittite Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, and in Neo-Hittite north Syria in the Iron Age. Decoding each of these different forms of hieroglyphics became a key to understanding much about these ancient cultures.

Hieroglyphic Symbols. Egyptian hieroglyphics was based on a set of about 700 signs, including pictures of living beings and objects, gods, goddesses, people, animals, human and animal body parts, plants, celestial bodies, buildings, furniture, and vessels. Each of these signs was used as a logogram, phonogram, or determinative, to convey the message to the reader. Basic Egyptian vocabulary was expressed by logograms (derived from the Greek words for "word" and "writing"), where the sign literally means what it depicts. Scribes* used the sign in the shape of a house to mean house, or the sign in the shape of a head to mean head. Phonograms (from the Greek words for "sound" and "writing") were used to sound out a word, most often because no suitable logogram existed. Individual signs might represent one, two, or even three consonants. Vowels are not expressed in this system. The sounds represented by the signs were usually related to the name of the object shown by the sign. For example, because the Egyptian word for house was per or par, the sign in the shape of a house could represent the sound p-r in a word, even if that word had nothing to do with a house. Among the phonograms, there was a set of 24 symbols, each representing the sound of a single consonant. These symbols included all but one of the consonant sounds in spoken Egyptian. Still, the Egyptians never developed hieroglyphics into an alphabetic system of writing, in which symbols standing for single sounds are combined to create words. When phonograms are used to "spell" out a word, the word is usually followed by a determinative, a sign that gives the reader a visual clue (it was not read) to the meaning of the preceding word. For example, the picture of a house might follow the word for a building, room, house, or tomb, or the picture of a seated god might follow the name of a god. A special determinative was the cartouche—an oval enclosing a person's name—which indicated that the person named was an Egyptian ruler. To help the reader decide whether a sign was a logogram (which is to be read) or a determinative (which is just a visual clue), the scribes often placed a vertical line after a logogram.

Hieroglyphics

An examplefrom English showshow the system worked. Suppose a word contained the phonograms w-sh-ngt-n(remember that hieroglyphics did not includevowels).Ifthe phonograms were followed by thepicture of a sitting man, thereference wouldbe to aperson, George Washington. If they were followedby the symbolfor avillage,theword refer would to a place, Washington, D.C. Hieroglyphicswasgenerally written fromright to left with the heads on human and animal signs facing right. Inmonuments and wall paintings,the sequence could different be forartistic reasons. In allcases, however, the text wasalways read from the directionin which the human and animal heads faced. Changes to Hieroglyphics. In use formore than3,000 years, Egyptian hieroglyphics evolved over time. During the OldKingdom period (from about 2675toB.C.), 2130there were about 1,000 signs. This number declined to about 750during the time of theMiddle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.)and New Kingdom (ca. B.C.). 1539-1075 B.C., From about 300 the number of signs increased to several thousands. The newsigns included combinations that creatednewmeaningsbytaking advantageof the fact that hieroglyphics wasbased onpictures. Forexample, scribes had used a rectangular box open on oneside toindicate thesound /m/ and a crawling snake for the sound /f/.Inlater years, these signs were combined by placing the snake symbol inside theopen box. Theresult was two new signsforwords.If the snake facedtheclosedend of thebox, as though it hadjust crawledin, the symbol meant"toenter." faced If it the open end, the meaning was "to exit." Because each symbol had to be carefully createdonsurface the individually, hieroglyphics wasdifficult a systemto adopt easily. Consequently, scribes derived other waysofwriting theEgyptian language from hieroglyphics. They developed another formofwriting called hieratic, whichfirst appeared around B.C.In2600 B.C., theanother 600s cursive form of hieroglyphicswas also developed. Called demotic,form this was a shorthand andsimplified versionofhieratic, whichitmostly replaced. Deciphering Hieroglyphics. A.D.300s, In theEgypt, thenapartof the Roman Empire, became Christianized. Undertheinfluenceof the Christian church, a new systemofwriting basedon theGreek alphabet was adopted. Hieroglyphics and the hieratic anddemotic scripts were abandoned, and the meaningof the symbolswasforgotten. Hieroglyphic 161

History and Historiography

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning

HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * annals record of events arranged chronologically by year * coronation act or ceremony of crowning a leader

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

texts on monuments were still visible, though, and European scholars and travelers tried to understand what these scripts meant. Their attempted explanations were often fanciful—and completely wrong. The key to understanding hieroglyphics came in the early 1800s, after the discovery of the ROSETTA STONE. This monument, which dates from about 200 B.C., contains inscriptions in three scripts: ancient Greek and demotic and hieroglyphic Egyptian. French scholar Jean-Frangois Champollion determined that the three inscriptions all contained the same text. By comparing the Greek to the hieroglyphics, Champollion developed the basic principles to decipher* hieroglyphics, enabling later scholars to understand other Egyptian writings. (See also Alphabets; Decipherment; Egypt and the Egyptians; Languages; Writing.)

H

istoriography is the writing of history. Modern historians write history by examining ancient inscriptions, manuscripts, texts, artifacts*, and other sources and use that information to try to reconstruct a record of human activities. Their aim is to get a true understanding of people in earlier times. The peoples of the ancient Near East recorded their histories in various kinds of written documents, such as INSCRIPTIONS, KING LISTS, CHRONICLES, and annals*. These sources contain two types of history. The first type documents recent events: battles, coronations*, or other important events that were recorded soon after they occurred. The second type presents events and people from the remote past. The dividing line between these two types of histories is often unclear. Yet in the ancient Near East, the recording of recent events was distinct from the recording of the remote past, both in terms of the kind of information they contained and the reasons for writing. The audience for historical works also varied in the ancient Near East. Some works were intended to be read to the public, while others were of interest to only a small group of people, such as scribes*. In some cases, historical texts were created for a god rather than for humans. Texts such as these were often put in inaccessible places because they were meant only for the gods.

TREATMENT OF RECENT EVENTS When peoples of the ancient Near East recorded recent events, they primarily relied on eyewitness accounts. The purpose of recording history was to preserve the story of important events, especially triumphs and accomplishments, for future generations. The main focus of such accounts was usually the king. Historical records included not only references to specific public events but also information about the king's life, character, and achievements. Mesopotamia. In ancient Assyria and Babylonia, the recent events that were recorded were almost always about the activities of the king.

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History and Historiography Among the earliest texts were simple inscriptions crediting the king with building temples. Over time, these inscriptions developed into lengthy texts praising the king for constructing temples and palaces. Babylonian inscriptions dealt almost entirely with royal building activities. Assyrian texts, however, placed greater emphasis on their king's military campaigns. Some Assyrian texts are in the form of annals, which were written by royal scribes and listed the king's wars in chronological order. Based onfield records, these wereofficial the versionof events that would become the source for future historical texts. Nevertheless,the purpose ofAssyrian texts, and texts from other Near Eastern cultures,was not to create an accurate record of events. Instead, the texts were intended to glorify the king and recount his conquest of the kingdom's enemies. Another type of historical writing in ancient Mesopotamia was "letters to the gods." These special texts were usually written for presentation at public gatherings to celebrate an important military victory. Addressed to a god, they praised the king for his great victory and honored the soldiers who fell in battle. An interesting feature in some of these texts is that they included details about the geography and customs of foreign lands. Egypt. As early as aboutB.C., 2600 the Egyptians developeda chronological method for recording important recent events. first,Atthese texts simply recorded the names of kings and the years of their individual reigns. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.),1980-1630 these records included information on government activities. The ancient Egyptians also wrote inscriptions on the tombs of highrankingofficials. The autobiographical texts listed the achievementsof

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History and Historiography * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

An Egyptian Historian One of the few named individuals who might be considered a historian In ancient Egypt was a priest named Manetho, tn about 280 B.C, Manetho compiled a list written in j Greek, of all Egyptian kings from the beginning of Egyptian history to his own time. He divided the list into 30 dynasties/ giving the name and length of reign of each ruler as welt as information about him. Fo example, Manetho claimed that the first Egyptian king, Menes, "was taken by a hippopotamus and died/' Only fragmentary copies of Manetho's work have survived. However, these fragments have been important sources for scholars1 trying to confirm the succession of Egyptian kings. Moreover, scholars still use Manetho's division of Egyptian rulers into 30 dynasties.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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the deceased as well as his titles and honors and how he earned them. Officials also installed stelae* with inscriptions that detailed the accomplishments of important leaders. Both types of inscriptions were major sources of historical information for later generations of Egyptians. By the 1900s B.C., some royal inscriptions in Egypt reflected important changes in historiography. Instead of just recording events, these inscriptions described the circumstances that existed when the events occurred. This was important because it helped explain not only what happened but also why it happened. Beginning in the 1500s B.C., Egyptian kings produced inscriptions that contained narratives of their military conquests. Based on field records and other sources, these inscriptions included detailed descriptions of some military campaigns and overviews of others. The inscriptions served an important purpose. They helped the king prove that he was the rightful heir to the throne because of his victories over foreign armies. Victory, the Egyptians believed, was proof that the king had the support of the gods. Some of the inscriptions also contained highly poetic stories of battles. The Hittites. Most ancient Hittite texts contain accounts of recent events and were presented in royal inscriptions. The earliest of these texts describe events that occurred around the 1700s B.C. The Hittites continued to record their history until the end of their civilization in the 1200s B.C. They maintained two types of inscriptions, and each took the form of public pronouncements of the king. Annals, which reported the king's military activities year by year, were one type of Hittite royal inscription. These texts describe the king's "manly deeds'' and were meant to impress the reader and justify the king's succession to the throne. Some annals cover a greater time frame than a king's individual reign and record the activity of other Hittite princes and generals. In this way, they are very different from Assyrian and Egyptian annals, which focused exclusively on the achievements of the king. Hittite annals also contain information on military campaigns, such as explanations of strategy and the reasons for undertaking or delaying actions. A second type of Hittite text dealing with recent history contained justification for past actions. This emphasis on accountability is distinctive to Hittite historiography. The earliest example of such a text is the "Political Testament" of KHATTUSHILI I. Addressed to nobles and officials, this text explains that the king's unusual selection of a grandson as heir was due to the evil behavior of certain members of the royal family. The king cites events from the past (although not in chronological order) in support of his decision. The use of past historical events to justify current actions became a significant feature of Hittite historiography. Syria and the Levant. In ancient Syria and the Levant*, recent history was recorded in memorial inscriptions, which include royal inscriptions written in an autobiographical style. Memorial inscriptions dating from the 1200s B.C. to 700s B.C. are found throughout the Levant. The inscriptions were dedicated to a god and contain details about the king's

History and Historiography

* civil relating to the state or its citizens

relationship to the god as well as accounts of his achievements. Generally composed late in a king's reign or after his death, these inscriptions are not presented in chronological order. They served mainly as a memorial to a ruler and his accomplishments. Memorial inscriptions often refer to a troubled period of civil* disorder or foreign domination that was ended by the ruler. For example, the stela of King Mesha (ca. 800s B.C.) describes how he liberated his people from Israelite domination and praises him for constructing temples and other buildings. No memorial inscriptions have been found from the kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH. However, some of the books in the Hebrew BIBLE contain accounts of military and other activities by kings that resemble memorial inscriptions found elsewhere in the Levant. The Hebrew Bible also specifically refers to the existence of the annals of the kings of Israel and Judah. Biblical narratives about King David may have been based on eyewitness reports of the events. Indeed, the succession story of David found in the book of Samuel and the book of Kings in the Hebrew Bible is regarded by some experts as the foremost example of Israelite historiography because of its accurate presentation of the Israelite monarchy.

TREATMENT OF THE REMOTE PAST Historiography dealing with the remote past serves to explain the present in terms of a society's origins. This approach relied heavily on mythology, and it presented history largely in religious terms rather than relating actual events that took place. As time passed, however, records became more accurate and detailed.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Mesopotamia. Chronology, or the sequence of events, is an indispensable part of presenting the remote past. Chronologies developed in Mesopotamia in response to the practical need for dating administrative documents. In Babylonia, it led to the creation of a system in which each year was named for an important event that occurred during the previous year, such as a military victory or the dedication of a temple. These year names enabled scribes to trace the chronology of Babylonian kings. Chronologies eventually spanned thousands of years, providing a history of the remote past for later generations. The Assyrians also devised a similar system of limmu lists, where each year was named for an important official. The Mesopotamians also used king lists as a chronological record. Such lists were used to understand the remote past, including the origins of kingship and the state. The Sumerian king list, first produced during the second millennium B.C.*, extended into the distant past and included references to mythical events and godlike kings. In this way, Sumerian history reached back to the time of human origins. The Assyrian king list, first compiled in the 1200s B.C., also reached back into the distant past. Once the king list was established, the Assyrians continued to add the names of new rulers. Another group of texts dealing with the remote past were chronicles. Like annals, these works presented a precise chronology dated according 165

History and Historiography to the reigns of kings. A single chronicle might cover the reigns of several kings, and series of such texts extended over many years. By the 600s B.C., chronicles had become quite precise and detailed in their accounts. As with annals, they focused on the king, but they were not written to justify his actions. Instead, they recorded the activities of successive rulers with a great deal of objectivity and concern for factual accuracy.

The Historian of Babylon In the late 300s and early 200$ &c, a Babylonian priest named Berossus wrote a three-volume work, the Babyloniaca, that traced the history \ and culture of Babylonia from the creation of the world to his own time. Although only fragments of this work survive, it was widely used by early Greek historians as a source? of information on ancient Mesopotamia. For hundreds of years, Berossus was recognized as the ultimate authority on the history of Babylonia, Written in Greek, Berossus's work may have been a token of gratitude and support to the Greek-speaking kings who restored order to Mesopotamia after the death of Alexander the Great and the breakup of his empire.

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Egypt. Around the 2300s B.C., the Egyptians compiled annals covering a period of about 700 years, and they preserved this information on a stone monument known as the Palermo Stone. This artifact is believed to have originally contained the names of all the kings of Old Kingdom Egypt and the years each ruled, along with one or more important events for each year. A text similar to the Palermo Stone, called the "Turin Canon of Kings," dates from the 1200s B.C. Although only fragments of this papyrus text remain, it originally contained a list of all the kings of Egypt, with the lengths of their reign. It extends into the distant past and deals with the role of gods and spirits in early Egyptian history. The Hittites. The Hittites did not develop a way of recording the remote past comparable to that of the Mesopotamians or Egyptians. Their civilization was shorter, and they did not have any interest in long-range chronology or king lists. In texts that do deal with history beyond one or two generations, accounts of the past are used to lend force to arguments concerning matters such as treaties. Only one text treated the remote past extensively: the Edict ofTelipinu. This text served to regulate succession to the throne, and it did so by setting forth the history of the monarchy to show the importance of a strong kingship to the survival of the state. The Levant. Apart from the Hebrew Bible, texts that deal with the remote past of the Levant are scant. King lists exist from a few cities in the region, and the works of later historians refer to annals. Other than this, information is not dated and does not resemble the annals or chronicles elsewhere in the ancient Near East. The writers of the Hebrew Bible used ancient sources such as annals, chronicles, and king lists in creating their histories. Biblical writers also used materials based on oral tradition and mythology to reconstruct the history of Israel and its people and to extend it back to the origins of humans and the world. Because the Hebrew Bible is a religious document as well as a historical one, some later editors may have changed dates and facts to support certain religious beliefs. The Hebrew Bible went beyond any other history written in the ancient Near East in the scope of its presentation of the history of a nation and people. Rather than focusing on the role of kings, its focus is on the origins and destiny of the people as a whole. Moreover, it makes no distinction between the recent past and the remote past in terms of the activity of God in civil and human affairs. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Books and Manuscripts; Epic Literature; Herodotus; Libraries and Archives; Writing.)

Hittites

HITTITES

T

he Hittites(HIT^tyts)lived ANATOLIA inancient (present-day Turkey), where they flourished from about B.C. During 1700to1200 that time, they becamemajor a political forcein theNear East.

HISTORY Anatolia is dividedbymountains, which made difficult it for anyancient power to gain control of theentire region.Anatolia'searly history, then, was markedby the developmentofindependent states, includingthe early Hittite state.

plague contagiousdisease that quickly kills large numbers of people

The Old Kingdom. Theearly Hittite rulers aimed tocontrol thetrade in metalore and metal products. KHATTUSHILI King I(ruled B.C.) ca. 1650-1620 made KHATTUSHAin north-central Anatolia, thecapital andrenamed himself after the city.Thecity'slocationon aplateau made iteasy toprotect from enemies and agood stronghold fromwhichtolaunch attacks. Khattushili quickly began effort an toexpand theterritoryhecontrolled.He defeated aforce to the northand akingdom named Arzawato thewest. He then turned south SYRIA, toward where most trade routes met. Hedied before he could conquer Syria,but hissuccessor, Murshili I,continued the effort. He quickly tooktheimportant Syrian city Halab of (Aleppo) and, in aboutB.C., 1595 the more important city ofBabylon. Shortlythereafter, Murshili returnedtoKhattusha because thegovernment there was tooweakanddisorganizedtocontrolthe newconquests. However, he wasassassinatedby abrother-in-law,andduringthe next century, weak rulers led theHittites. TheHittites lost Syriaand Arzawa, and tribes fromthe northwest were abletochip away atHittite lands to within a fewmilesofKhattusha. Nevertheless, thecapital remained a symbolofHittite powerandpotential. Tudkhaliya I tookthe throneB.C., around andHittite 1450 fortunes seemed to improve.Hequelled nearby unrest, then retrieved Arzawa and acquired some additional land.Hemade apeace treaty with AfterEgypt. he died in about B.C.,1420 however,thesituationhadworsened again, and the armies of the Hittites'Anatolian enemies seized moreandmore Hittite lands. Hittite fortunes fellso lowthatin aletterto theking of Arzawa, AmenhotepIII ofEgypt wrote, "Ihave heard . .that . theland of Khatti [as the Hittite kingdomwascalled] is dead/' The Hittite Empire. TheHittites'fortunes were soon reversed. Around 1380 B.C., SHUPPILULIUMA — the I great-grandson of Tudkhaliya — rose to the throne. He first consolidated hisempirein thenorth and west. He then advanced intoLebanon KARKAMISH, andSyria aandtook city on the west bank of the Euphrates River.Thiswas avital conquest becauseKarkamishwas a hub oftrade. Shuppiluliuma's success broke the power of Mitanni,the kingdom HURRIANS ofSyria. ofthe Shuppiluliuma then sent an expedition toEgypt,butvictory therewascostly. Captive prisoners brought with them aplague*,which soon killed theHittite king and his son and desired successor. Murshili II, another son ofShuppiluliuma, ascended thethrone around 1339 B.C. He reconquered Arzawain thewest, quieted unruly 167

Hittites

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with foreign kingdoms, states, or nations * pastoralist person who herds livestock to make a living

tribes in the north, held Karkamish against anAssyrian attack, andkept Syria under Hittite control. Hemaintained internal stability, and neither Egypt norAssyria attacked during hisreign. Duringthereignof his son Muwattalli II (ca. 1306-1282 B.C.),warwith Egypt erupted when Egypt tried to take over Syria.TheEgyptianandHittite armies foughtabattleat Qadesh, but Syria remained inHittite hands. Shortly thereafter,the Assyrians, whose power increasedas aresult of the defeat of the Hurrians, began threatening theHittites from theeast. KHATTUSHILIIII (ruledca. 1275-1250 B.C.) countered thethreat bysigning a peace treaty with Egypt. Healso gave hisdaughter inmarriage to the pharaoh*. This kept the Assyrianscheck—if in they attacked theHittites, they would also be fighting Egyptian armies. The Hittites alsofaced challenges on thewestby apower namedAhhiyawa, whose kings resided at Mycenae. TudkhaliyaIV(ruledca. 1254-1220 B.C.) tried to counter this threat bycapturing Cyprusandtaking tighter control oftrade in the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, this was the beginning of the end. Therewasunreston allsidesof theempire,and dissent within. The once great empire was now toodisorganized toprotect itself when its lands were invaded inB.C., theperhaps late 1200s by the SEA PEOPLES. AroundB.C.,1190 Anatolian enemies, fromperhaps the north, invaded and burned Khattusha to theground.

CULTURE Excavationsat Khattusha have yielded more CLAY TABLETS. than 10,000 They have helped archaeologists* reconstructwho theHittites wereand how they lived. The tablets have also provided scholars with information on the government, economy, religion,andliteratureof theHittites. Government and Laws. TheHittites were ruled byhereditary kings. Succession passed fromfather to son,but itcouldbe anyson,notnecessarily the oldest.The kingwas in chargeof theoperationof thegovernment and of all the administratorsheappointed.He wasalsothe land's chief priest and presided overthe empire'sreligious events.Theking was seen as acting in the place of the gods, protectedbythembutrulingthe land that belonged to the chief god.He wascommanderinchiefof the military and chief diplomat*and wasexpectedtojoinhistroopson the battlefield. The kingwasalsothe highest judgein theland,and themost serious crimes were brought before him. The Hittiteshad a codeof laws thatconsistedof 200paragraphs of text on clay tablets.The laws defined crimesashomicides, kidnappings, sorcery, and sexual offenses;set rules formarriages, wages, andprices of goods; and prescribed punishments, including fines,banishment,and death. Twoversionsof the code have been found,onedating fromabout 1650B.C. and the other from betweenB.C. 1350 Theand later 1200 version contains some changes in the punishments assigned tovarious crimes. Economy. Most Hittites were small-scale farmersandpastoralists*. They raised oxen, sheep, goats, horses, mules, donkeys, pigs,anddogs. 168

Hittites

WinnersandLosers A popular Hittite athletic event was the archery contest. The king judged the competition andchose the best archers toserve in the army. The winnersalso received wine as a prize. Theloserswere required to fetchwater naked.

* deity god orgoddess

Some animals were usedasworkers —oxenforplowing, horses topull chariots, mulestocarry loads. Goatsandsheep produced milk, whichthe Hittites consumed directly ormade intocheese. They also cultivated wheat, barley,and oatsforbread, cake, andcereal and fruits grew andvegetables, including grapesforraisinsandwine. Food producers were obliged to give part ofwhat they producedto thegovernmentastax. a Somefarmers workedonlands ownedbyanother individualor an institution such as atemple. Captivesandslaves couldbesenttoHittite villages to workthefields,major a helpin aland that often suffered ashortage of workers. The Hittites were skilledinmetalwork, fashioning objects fromcopper, tin, bronze, andiron. There wereavarietyofcraftspeople: potters, leatherworkers,weavers, blacksmiths, beekeepers, carpenters, sculptors, gold- and silversmiths,andglassmakers. Most of crafts theseworkers were controlled by thepalaceortemple. Religion. Hittite religious traditions drewonthoseof other peoples. The Hittites had somany deities* thatthey said theyhad "athousand gods." When the Hittites adopted thegodsofother peoples, they also adopted the prayers andphrases addressedtothese godsin the original languages. The important gods were TESHUB theand storm the godsun goddess Khepat. Hittite mythsandlegends reflect Humantraditions,

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Holy Land Hittite Queens Hittite queens had a measure of power and prestige, Pudukhepa, wife of Khattushili III, had an administrative role. She and King Ramses It of Egypt carried on a vigorous correspondence full of mutual respect Even the gods listened to Pudukhepa. When her husband was ill, she implored the goddess Lelwani to make him well. Lelwani answered the prayers: Khattushili lived to be 70, leiwani apparently favored Pudukhepa, though, She lived to be 90.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

Holy Land

HORSES * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use * cavalry soldiers who fight on horseback * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

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including the Kumarbi Cycle, a three-part story of KUMARBI and his desire for power in heaven and his battle with his son Teshub. Official festivals occurred monthly, along with seasonal festivals in the spring and fall. The king, queen, or a prince presided. A statue of the deity was offered food and drink, clothing, and entertainment from musicians, acrobats, and athletes. The Hittites believed in an AFTERLIFE and considered it necessary to follow the proper death and burial rituals for a smooth transition from the world of the living to the world of the dead. The Hittites also believed that their dead ancestors reached from beyond the grave to provide strength to the family. A grandfather was thought to pass his powers to his grandsons. For this reason, from about 1500 B.C. on, grandsons took the name of their grandfathers when reaching the Hittite throne. Literature and Mythology. Hittite literature was greatly influenced by Mesopotamian traditions. It was from Mesopotamia that the Hittites adopted the cuneiform* writing system, and the achievements of Mesopotamian culture had an impact on Hittite writing. Like others, Hittite kings left often glorified accounts of their achievements. They considered it important to be recognized and remembered as mighty warriors and wise rulers. They also wrote official proclamations that provided instruction on how to organize the state or punish crimes. The Hittites are better known for their architecture than their art. Their capital at Khattusha contained at least 30 temples, some administrative and royal buildings, and many homes and workshops. The city was surrounded by high walls with towers, seven gates, and a moat. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Government; Khatti; Law; Metals and Metalworking; Neo-Hittites; Religion.)

See Israel and Judah.

H

orses were domesticated* in the ancient Near East around 3000 B.C., much later than SHEEP, GOATS, and CATTLE. Valued primarily for their labor rather than for their meat or hides, horses played an important role in warfare. The armies of many ancient Near Eastern empires contained horse-drawn CHARIOTS and mounted cavalry*. Horses also played a role in transportation and farming and were represented in art and RELIGION. Horses were probably introduced into the ancient Near East from a region in Central Asia north of the Black and Caspian Seas. By 2000 B.C., horses had been domesticated in Iran, Anatolia, and northern Syria. Horses were not commonly used in Mesopotamia until the 1800s B.C. They did not reach Egypt until about 1600 B.C. Horses were probably first used as pack animals for carrying goods or pulling wagons. Nomadic* peoples of Central Asia rode horses as early as

Horns

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

HORUS

the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), and some groups became accomplished horsemen. Riding horses in the ancient Near East was uncommon until horses were introduced into warfare. Among the first groups in the Near East to develop horse-drawn chariots for use in warfare were the people of Mitanni, a HURRIAN kingdom in northwestern Mesopotamia, and the HYKSOS. By about 1600 B.C., the use of horse-drawn chariots had spread throughout Mesopotamia and into Egypt. Among the earliest peoples to fight and hunt on horseback were the HITTITES, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians. Such horseback riding led to the development of mounted cavalry. The use of horses in warfare greatly increased their importance to Near Eastern societies. People developed specialized gear for both riding and harnessing horses to chariots and wagons. Horse breeding and training became important activities, and certain groups became known for their skills as horsemen and breeders. The KASSITES and Phrygians were among the first to breed horses systematically and successfully. They bred horses for specific characteristics, such as size, and kept detailed records of horses and their pedigrees, or ancestry. Only wealthy people could afford to own and raise horses. Horses became a symbol of status and prestige. In many societies, charioteers were members of the highest social classes. The demand for horses in warfare was high and contributed to a thriving trade. Nubian horses, a particularly large and strong type bred in Nubia (present-day Sudan) and Egypt, were especially in demand by the Assyrians to pull their large chariots. Horses made suitable gifts for monarchs, and they were often used in ceremonial processions. In both art and religion, horses symbolized such characteristics as power, wealth, and sexuality. The Kassites considered the horse to be a sacred animal, and the Greeks sometimes sacrificed white horses to the gods. Horses also figured in ancient MYTHOLOGY. A creature with the body of a horse and the head, arms, and torso of a human was popular in Assyria, Babylonia, and eventually Greece, where it was called a centaur. In the Hellenistic* period in Babylonia, a leaping winged centaur, with bow and arrow drawn, came to represent the astrological sign Sagittarius. Persian mythology includes a story about a battle between an evil black horse and a good white horse. (See also Animals; Animals, Domestication of; Animals in Art; Transportation and Travel; Wars and Warfare.)

H

orus (HOHR»uhs) was one of the most important gods of ancient Egypt and was the kingdom's first state god. The name Horus meant "the high" or "the distant one." As the god of the sky, Horus was depicted as a hawk, falcon, or a man with a hawk or falcon's head. Early in Egyptian history, Horus became the symbol of divine kingship. He was identified with the king, who was considered a living manifestation of the god. Horus was the son of OSIRIS, king of the gods, and Isis, the mother goddess (although some say HATHOR was the mother of Horus). According to 171

Houses

Horus, was one of the most important gods in ancient Egypt. As the sky god, Horus was usually depicted as a hawk or falcon, or as in this relief, a man with a hawk or falcon's head. Egyptians considered their king the living manifestation of Horus, who was also the king of the gods.

HOUSES * deity god or goddess

* eighth millennium B.C. years from 8000 to 7001 B.C.

See color plate 8, vol. 3.

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an ancient Egyptian legend, Isis secretly raised Horus in the marshes of the Nile Delta, where she used her magical powers to protect him from all kinds of dangers, especially scorpions, snakes, and crocodiles. Isis also protected Horus from his uncle, the god SETH, who had killed Osiris and tried to take over his position as king of the gods. Later Horus challenged Seth to the throne, and after many years of battle and with support from the other gods, Horus finally won. He became king of the gods and of humanity and was considered the reincarnation of Osiris. At that time, Osiris came to symbolize Egypt's dead kings, and Horus was identified with the living king. During one of Horus's battles with Seth, Horus's eye was ripped out but was healed by the goddess Hathor. The representation of the restored eye, known as the Eye of Horus, became one of the most important religious symbols in ancient Egypt. It was a sign of protection and was often worn as an amulet (object thought to possess magical powers) on necklaces or placed in tombs. Since Horus was the sky god, the Eye of Horus also symbolized the sun. In addition, the Eye of Horus represented all that was complete, good and holy. This included the concept of kingship, the power and strength of the king, and the salvation of the cosmos. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

I

n the ancient Near East, the house not only sheltered a family but was also the center of its daily activities. The grand structures of PALACES AND TEMPLES were houses built on a larger scale for kings and deities*. Although much of our knowledge of the ancient past comes from the excavated remains of the more impressive structures, the daily life of the ancient world took place within the humble walls of the houses in which generations of ordinary folk were born, lived, and died. Mesopotamia. The oldest known houses in MESOPOTAMIA, dating from the eighth millennium B.C.*, have been found at the sites of Qermez Dere and Nemrik in the north. These houses are single round rooms built partly underground. In the western Zagros Mountains, the people who inhabited the sites of Jarmo and Tell Maghzaliyeh built rectangular multiroomed houses around 6750 B.C. By the second half of the fifth millennium B.C. (4500 to 4001 B.C.), two regional styles emerged in Mesopotamia. In the north, at such sites as Tell Arpachiyah, people built a type of round house called a tholos, made of pressed mud on a stone foundation. These houses consisted of just one room, sometimes with a rectangular chamber attached at the side. In the south, a typical house had a three-part structure with a single large central room and a row of smaller chambers on either side, such as those found at the sites at Chogha Mami and Tell es-Sawwan. After 3200 B.C. or so, as large urban centers developed, a new house form consisting of a central unroofed courtyard with rooms on all sides became the standard. This style remained in use for thousands of years and became the basis for later architecture in Mesopotamia. Temples, palaces, and ordinary houses were built around central courtyards. The

Houses form was not rigid, however.Incrowded urbansettings,some houseshad rooms on only two or three sidesof thecourtyard. (City houses were next to each other and shared outer walls.) The houses of the wealthy included bathrooms andchambers where household goods could bestored. Sometimes they contained aroom that served as a shrine to godsand ancestral spirits. Some larger houseshad a second story. Housesin Mesopotamia were always made of brick— mud mud, straw, and water mixed and dried in thesun. Sometimes stonewas used for foundations. Woodwasscarceandexpensive. Beams anddoors made of wood were considered precious partsof ahouseandwere carefully listedin billsof saleor inwills. * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Anatolia. Archaeologists* ANATOLIA working (present-day in Turkey) have uncovered the remainsofvery early houses dating frombetween 9000 and 6000 B.C. The remains consistoffieldstone foundations that supported mud-brick walls.Thestructures varied little size inandstood side by side withno spaces between HUYUKwere £ATAL them. Houses at apparently enteredby climbingaladder fromthegroundto aroof shared by all the structures and then bydescending another ladder through a hole in the roof of the individual house. Elsewherein Anatolia,people built houses with entrancesatground level. TheHITTITESforged an Anatolia-based empirein themiddleandlate second millennium B.C. (period from 2000 B.C.). to They, 1001 too, built houses of mud brick, perhaps reinforced with wood,onstone foundations. Wooden beams supported flat roofsthat were packed withmud and twigs. Atypical house might haveaforecourtoropen space front, in with two rooms behind it. Other rooms couldbeaddedasneeded. There could be a second story, enteredbymeansof awooden ladder fromthe courtyard. Ahouse builton ahillside might contain storage rooms under one part of the building and residential spaceson theupper level. Houses had hearthsfor firesand areasfor bathing.

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Beware of the Dog The ancient Mesopotamians believed that by keeping spirits of ill will out of their houses they could protect themselves from disease and misfortune. On the walls of their houses they hung small clay tablets with quotations from mythical works and certain tablets that contained blessings for the owner of the house that were believed to ward off the plague. People also buried small statues they believed had protective qualities under the doors, in the bedrooms, and along the walls of their houses. Some of these figurines were of dogs and bore inscriptions such as, "Don't think it over, [but] bite!" These hidden statues served as a household's spiritual watchdogs.

See [color plate 13, vol. 3.

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Egypt. The ancient Egyptians were more likely to demonstrate wealth and social status in the richness of their family tombs than in their houses. Most houses were fairly small and simple. Still, wealthy people did have larger homes than common folk. One high-ranking official's home had 28 rooms on the ground floor. Such country estates often included gardens as well. The paintings that decorate Egyptian tombs show scenes from the idealized world of these country estates rather than the cramped reality of the ordinary Egyptian's life. Most Egyptians had simple homes. Because work was done outside, the needs for indoor space were not great. The main elements of a house were a large room for eating and entertaining, small rooms for sleeping and washing, and areas that served as kitchens, workshops, and storage spaces. Small windows, which could be covered with wooden grilles or reed mats to shut out dust, were designed for ventilation and light. The city of AKHETATEN (dating from the 1300s B.C.) contained a large area of ordinary workers' houses built close to each other on narrow streets. A partly roofed area at the front of the house was used for keeping livestock and for such tasks as grinding grain. Behind it was the main living room. Smaller chambers at the rear of the house were used for sleeping or storage. In some houses, the kitchen was located in a back courtyard, while in others it was on the roof. Some houses had a chamber on the roof for women and young children. Iran. In the fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) site of Tepe Sialk on the northern Iranian plateau, people built multiroom houses. Erected on stone foundations, the houses had walls made of molded rectangular brick and were decorated with buttresses (stone or brick structures to support the wall) and alcoves. The doors were less than three feet high and narrow; windows looked out onto the streets, which wound through the town separating estates from each other. The interiors were decorated in red or occasionally in white; the dead were buried beneath the floors. The city of Susa in southwestern Iran was the capital of the Elamite kingdom during the years between about 2000 and 646 B.C. Excavations there have yielded royal and religious buildings, as well as the houses of some important citizens. These were like little palaces organized around a central courtyard. Visitors reached the courtyard by passing through a series of rooms in a zigzag arrangement. The reception room in such a house was a long rectangle, perhaps measuring 80 feet wide and 16 to 17 feet long. It contained a chimney specifically designed for heating, different from the hearths and chimneys used for cooking. This type of heating system was unknown in nearby Mesopotamia. The Levant. The region that consists of present-day Syria, Lebanon, the West Bank, Jordan, and Israel was one of considerable cultural mixing and ethnic diversity, resulting in many styles of homes. Still, some features were standard from about 3500 to 500 B.C. A typical house was built of sun-dried mud bricks on two or three layers of stone foundation. Floors were usually of packed earth, although some houses had floors plastered with mud or paved with stone. The ceiling and the flat roof were made of wooden beams and reeds packed with mud.

Human Form in Art To create more living space in crowded towns, people began building houses with upper levels. In Canaanite houses, these levels were reached by staircases inside an enclosed courtyard, while Israelite houses had ladders leading to the roof or upper levels. The family's private chambers were usually located in the rear of the upper level. Activities such as washing and cooking were performed on the terrace, which was formed by the roof of the lower level. The ground floor of the house might contain shops, craft workshops, and storage rooms. Houses in the city of UGARIT on the north Syrian coast had rooms of varying sizes. The number of rooms depended on the status and wealth of the owners. All of the houses, however, had small central courtyards, living spaces on the upper floor or floors, and windowless rooms on the ground floor for storage and possibly also to serve as workshops. Nearly every house also contained a family tomb built into the basement and usually entered through its own door. Tombs were within the house because houses were expected to remain in the same family's hands over time. Israelite sites dating from 1100 to the 580s B.C. feature houses built to a standard rectangular pattern. The entrance led into a large courtyard open to the sky. To the left, part of the courtyard was roofed. Here cooking, baking, washing, and household chores such as spinning and weaving took place. To the right was a storeroom equal in size to the roofed part of the courtyard. A doorway at the rear of the central courtyard, opposite the entrance, led to a room used for dining, sleeping, and entertaining guests. Some of these activities may also have taken place on an upper level, which was reached by a ladder. The residents may have kept livestock in one or more of the ground-floor rooms. (See also Architecture; Bricks; Building Materials; Furnishings and Furniture; Stone.)

HUMAN FORM IN ART * stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

I

n portraying people, artists of the ancient Near East tried to show them realistically but not as individuals. That is, the people depicted in art are recognizably human, but they are idealized or stylized* to emphasize certain features rather than to show characteristics unique to the individual person being portrayed. Artists used the size and posture of a figure and the positioning of other humans in their artworks to make a point about the status of the people they portrayed. Egyptian and Mesopotamian artists each had standard ways of presenting human figures, which they followed over the course of several millennia*. This style was more rigidly followed in Egypt. In Mesopotamia, where different peoples dominated the region from time to time, there was more variety. Portraying the Human Body. The Egyptian style used in painting and reliefs* was standard in Egypt for about 3,000 years. People were portrayed with the head in profile and with one entire eye visible. The shoulders and chest faced forward, while the hips, legs, and feet returned to a profile view. When humans are shown facing left, the right hand appears on the left arm and the left hand appears on the right arm. Both feet rest on a baseline.

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Human Form in Art

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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Egyptian artists used mathematical calculations to determine theproportions of the body parts. Egyptians used a grid of 18 squares that stretchedfrom the baseline to the hairline. Fromthe sole of the foot to the ankle was 1 square, from the ankle to the kneecap was 5squares; and so on. These proportions changed over time,but the general principleof following strict guidelines continued. The combination ofprofileand frontal views along withthe use of standard proportions give Egyptian art its distinctive look. No evidence of aformal systemof proportions exists for Mesopotamian art. Still, many scholars believe that similar guidelines existed.In Mesopotamian art, as in Egyptian, human figures were shownin acombination ofprofiles andfrontal views. These combinations would be impossible to see in real life, but they allowed the artists to make images that conveyed the human body. In early Sumerian art, as in aprocessional scenefrom the royal tombs of Ur, the head and legsare inprofile but the bodyfrom the shoulders to the hips isdepicted in frontal a view. The style was followed down to Assyrian times, whereit appearsin the magnificent scenes of battles and lion hunts that decorated thepalaces of Assyrian kings. In full-body sculpture, also called sculpture in the round, the human figure is three-dimensionaland freestanding. The viewer can walk around the statue and see the figure from all sides rather thanthe two-dimensional view in a painting orrelief. Whetherthe subjectwas shown standingor sitting on a throne, the front of a statue looked likethe front of the person: headfacingforward, withthe eyesin the front; torso facing forward; and legs andfeet pointing straight ahead. The art of ancientSyria and the Levant*was influencedby thatof the Egyptians and Mesopotamians. Duringthe Early BronzeAge(ca. 3000-2200 B.C.), inlandSyria borrowed techniquesand traditions from Sumer. For example, statuesSyria in portray worshipers dressed inSumerian garments. Sculptures from Phoenicia during the Iron Age(ca. B.C.) 1200-500 showfigures wearing Egyptian costumesand headdresses. Although they

Human Form in Art

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* propaganda communcation deliberately shaped or slanted toward a particular viewpoint * hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks

The Medium Makes the Message The material used to create art had an impact on how humans were portrayed. A temple from the Kassite period of Babylonian history, dating from about 1400 B.C., illustrates this idea. In this temple, reliefs were created by combining a series of bricks, each carved to hold part of the final image. Because the bricks were a standard size, the sizes of different parts of the body were determined by the height of the bricks. The legs of the people shown were made extra long so that the figure filled the height of the wall being decorated. A Persian relief used the same principle of manipulating form to fit a space, al* beit in the opposite way. Artists working on this relief shrank some of the figures so they would fit underneath a nook in the wall.

* indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

borrowed from other cultures, the people of Syria and the Levant also added their own contributions to the portrayal of the human form. Unlike the rest of the ancient Near East and perhaps because of their isolation, the Minoan artists of Crete portrayed people engaged in sports or leisure activities rather than in scenes of battle or worship. The Minoans are especially known for their frescoes*. In them, they portrayed the human form in more natural poses than did the Egyptians or Mesopotamians. The sculptures produced by the Minoans were generally miniature rather than life size or large. Two examples from around 1600 B.C. are female figures — snake goddesses—who are seminude and hold snakes in front of them. Later, during the 600s B.C., Crete and Greece were influenced by Egyptian art, and their sculptures assumed the proportions and formal poses of Egyptian figures. Idealized Forms. Ancient paintings and sculptures typically were not accurate pictures of a particular person. In reality, people were short and tall, fat and thin, ugly and beautiful. However, art at this time was not depicting reality as seen by the human eye. Humans were shown in ideal ways. In Egyptian art, men had broad shoulders and looked muscular, and women were smaller and had a slighter build. The size difference reflected the fact that Egyptian society was male-dominated. Generally, there was little attempt to depict physical changes that would reveal age. In Egypt, however, artists drew lines on the neck to indicate folds that came with aging. Older people might also be portrayed as fatter, although this could also symbolize wealth. In addition, Egyptians used colors symbolically to indicate age or other attributes. Red skin was used to portray men, and yellow was used for women, a technique borrowed by the Minoans of Crete. Gods were painted in blue or gold. Throughout the ancient Near East, many paintings, reliefs, and sculptures were ordered made by a ruler. In these cases, art served as propaganda*; it was one way the ruler made clear the power and authority of being king. A statue of GUDEA, leader of the Mesopotamian city of Lagash, emphasizes his shoulders and chest to show his power, and his clasped hands reveal religious devotion and justice. In group scenes, the king was always the largest figure and tended to be in the center. Further, in some cultures, a king shooting a bow was shown with the bowstring passing behind his head so as not to pass in front of his face. As people's status decreased, so did their size. At the lowest rung were enemies, who often were shown lying down or crouching in submission. In the Persian reliefs at the palace at Persepolis, the hierarchy* is obvious. King DARIUS I sits enthroned at the center, larger than life and larger than anyone else. Persian nobles of equal rank are smaller but all the same size. Nonnobles are smaller still. Some images were styled to emphasize the particular traits of different groups of people. An Egyptian painting from the 1280s B.C. shows four groups of people — those of Egypt, Libya, Nubia, and the Levant. Each is depicted in characteristic clothing and hairstyle. A similar example comes from the palace at Persepolis. Reliefs showing 20 different peoples who lived in the PERSIAN EMPIRE decorate the staircase leading to the audience hall of the palace. Each figure, whether Mede, Scythian, Persian, 177

Humor * tribute payment made by asmaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

HUMOR

* piety faithfulness to beliefs

178

or Ionian, appearsin indigenous* dressandcarries some object associated with his homeland as tribute* (See also toArt, the king. Artisans,and Artists;Bas-Reliefs; Sculpture.)

culture has its own senseofhumor—theperceptionand exC eryression of the ridiculousor amusing. Still,allcultures share some ideas about what ishumorous. Humor breaks taboos, referringpubliclyto things considered private, suchas sex andbodily functions.Itridicules people by pointing to truths they prefer toignore, or itembarrasses people by presenting them in an unfavorable light. Whatever thesituation, the object of humor is to provoke laughterand to entertain. Humor was commonin ancient LITERATURE, Near Eastern and many examples ofjokesand humorous sayingsorepisodes have been found in many texts. Numerous surviving examplesofancient Near Eastern humor deal with the breaking of taboos, suchasbodily functions.One Babylonian poem scolds awoman: "Why did youbreak windfeel and mortified? Why did you stinkupyourboyfriend'swagon likeawild ox?" Sexual behavior is another favorite subject.Forinstance, aBabylonian poem includes a humorous episodeinwhichawidowed queen must deal with sexual frustration. Literatures of the ancient Near Eastarealso richinstoriesinwhich someone is outwitted or put to shameby aperson less cleveror at adisadvantage. One well-preserved Babylonian story, forexample, tells of how a poor man named Gimil-Ninurtatricks NIPPUR the mayor into ofgiving him afine meal, new clothes, and apound ofgold. Social satire,a typeofhumorinwhichthehumorist makes fun ofcertain professionsor classesofpeople,wasalso common. Just aspeople today tell jokes about lawyers,an Egyptian joke makes fun of apotter, remarking that although he iscovered with earth, he isstill among the living. In a Sumerian satire,apriestisridiculedfor hispiety*. Whenhis boat sinks, he hopes that the rivergodwill enjoyhiscargo. Whenheslips and falls, he is not sure that heshould get upbecause it was thewillof the gods that he should fall. They also produced witty sayingsandproverbs.Oneexample Babyof lonian wisdom offers this advice:"Donot buy an ox in thespringtime,do

Hunting

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

HUNTING * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use * anthropologist scientist who studies human cultures

not choose a girl on a holiday. Even a bad ox will look good in that season, a bad girl just wears good clothes for the occasion/' A type of humor that was common in Mesopotamia and Egypt centered on animals behaving like humans. Various human weaknesses are revealed in humorous stories about conceited dogs and wily foxes. This type of humor also was portrayed in art. For example, a series of Egyptian drawings show a group of mice asking a cat pharaoh* for peace and an army of mice laying siege* to a cat fortress. Ancient Near Eastern literature also contains comic characters usually found in folklore around the world, including the trickster, the wise fool, the country bumpkin, and the deceived lover, whose actions and failings reflect the human condition. (See also Animals in Art; Poetry.)

P

eople throughout the ancient Near East hunted animals, but the role of hunting changed over time. Before people developed AGRICULTURE and domesticated* animals, hunting was a survival strategy, and wild game was a food resource. While people continued to hunt for food after adopting food-producing strategies, hunting took on another role. People also hunted for sport, and in several cultures, the royal hunt was used to enhance the status of the king. Anthropologists* use the term hunter-gatherers to describe people who live by hunting wild game, FISHING, and gathering wild food such as fruits and seeds rather than by growing crops or herding animals. Before the beginnings of controlled food production, all people were hunter-gatherers. In prehistoric Egypt, for example, people living along the NILE RIVER hunted hippopotamus, giraffe, antelope, and buffalo and also fished and gathered turtles and shellfish. People eventually began to domesticate some of the animals they had once hunted, such as SHEEP, GOATS, and CATTLE. Other game animals such as deer and antelope, however, were never domesticated. The dog and the cat, two domesticated animals, became the hunter's helper. An Egyptian stone carving dating from around 2400 B.C. shows a hunter pursuing several antelope with the help of three trained dogs. Hunters sometimes used a cat to make geese and other fowl fly up out of the reeds so that they could more easily be killed or captured. After the rise of agriculture and the ensuing growth of urban civilization, hunting became a pastime instead of a necessity, at least for some people. Egyptian tomb paintings often show noble families on fishing and bird-hunting excursions in the reed marshes along the Nile. The kings of Assyria in northern MESOPOTAMIA liked to be portrayed as strong, brave, and skillful hunters who were victorious over the fiercest beasts. King Tiglath-pileser I, for example, claimed to have slayed 4 wild bulls, 10 elephants, and 920 LIONS. A successful hunt meant that the king enjoyed divine favor. It also demonstrated the ruler's personal qualities and symbolized the protection he gave his people. Assyrian royal hunts were carefully managed, however. Often, captured wild lions were released into royal game parks so that the king could kill them under controlled conditions. The practice of having royal parks continued in the PERSIAN EMPIRE. 179

Hurrians

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor,or teacher

HURRIANS * Fertile Crescent semicircular area of rich farmland that stretches from Egypt across the southeastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea down to the Persian Gulf * third millennium B.C. years to 2001 B.C.

180

from 3000

Assyrian kings decorated their palaces with some breathtaking basreliefs*of hunting scenes. A relief ASHURNASIRPAL from the palace II of at Nimrud shows the king hunting bulls and lions from achariot. Themost vivid hunting scenesare carved intothe walls ASHURof the palace King of BANIPALNINEVEH. at One scene showsthe king stabbing a lion standing on its hind legs. This motifwas adopted SEALof Assyrian as the royal kings. Images of these hunts were often spectacular. Wall paintings show Amenhotep III of Egyptand his court hunting antelope from chariots, with a royal scribe* keeping countof the king'skills. Amenhotep also slew more dangerous game, suchas wildalso (See bullsand Animals; lions. Animals in Art.)

T

he Hurrians(HUR»ee»uhnz) wereone of many peopleswho migrated to theFertile Crescent* from the surrounding hills. Sometime before the end of the third millennium B.C.*, Hurrians arrivedin northeastern MESOPOTAMIA. From there, they worked theirwaywestward into SYRIA, establishinga numberof kingdoms, including the kingdom of Mitanni, which grew intomajor a power in the ancient Near Eastduringthe 1400s and 1300s B.C. Human culture, whichhad absorbed many Mesopotamian elements, was alsomajor a influenceon the literatureandreligion of the HITTITES,a peoplewho inhabited ANATOLIA north Syria and (present-dayTurkey). Origins and Migrations. The language of the Hurrians suggests that they originated in eastern Anatoliaor a region near the Zagros Mountains of northwestern IRAN. Thisis because the Human language ismost closely related to the language URARTU,of a kingdom that historians know arose in eastern Anatolia.

Hurrians

Hurrians in the Hebrew Bible Does the Hebrew Bible record interactions between Hurrians and Hebrews? Many American scholars believe that a people called the Horites—who appear in the book of Genesis—were Hurrians, Although some European scholars disagree, those who support the identification of the Horites with the Hurrians point out thatthe Hurriansare known to have been numerous along the Syrian coast They may well have moved south from there into regions where they would have come in contact with the Hebrew population.

* dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Historians believe that the migrationofHurrians occurred overalong period of time. From about B.C. onward, 3000 small groups ofHurrians left their homelandand migrated westward. ByB.C., around small2200 Hurrian states existed along and between the upper reaches of theTigris River and the Euphrates Riverin northern Mesopotamia. By around 1700 B.C., the Hurrianshad expanded westward into northern Syria. Infact, many textsin their language have been foundat ALALAKH, locatedjust northof the present-day Syrian border along the Mediterranean Sea. However,the Hurrian heartlandwas in northern Mesopotamia. It was in this region that the Hurrians establishedpowerful the kingdom of Mitanni.

The Kingdom of Mitanni. Theoldest known references toMitanni are foundin Egyptian texts dating fromthe B.C.late These 1500s texts also contain the namesof the kingsof Mitanni,but B.C. after only the early 1400s However, these royal namesare not Hurrian. Theyarerelatedto the IndoEuropean language-speaking groups that conquered northern Indiain the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 B.C.). to 1001 Consequently, some historians believe thatIndo-Europeans, along with groups Hurriof ans, entered northern Mesopotamia fromthe eastand founded Mitanni. An Indo-European dynasty* ruledthe kingdom, althoughthe majority of the the population was Hurrian, and Hurrian was the spoken language. Mitanni became the dominant powerin northern after Syria the Hittites lost controlof the area around B.C.In the 1500 B.C., mid-1400s Mitanni came into conflict with Egypt, which also wantedtoexpanditsrule into Syria. UnderKing Saushtatar, Mitanninot only survived this conflict but also acquired new territory on the borders of the Hittite empire. Saushtatar ruledfrom the capital city, Washukkani, which modernarchaeologists* have not yet located. During the 1400s B.C., Mitanni reachedthe heightof its power. By around 1420 B.C., the Mitanni kingdomhad grown, stretching fromthe Mediterranean Sea to northern Iran. Shortly thereafter, Mitanni established peaceful relations with Egypt. During this time,as a gesture of peace, Mitanni kings sent their daughters to become the wives of the rulers of Egypt. During the reignofKing TushrattainB.C., theMitanni 1300s beganto lose power.The Hittite empirehad emergedas aserious threat,and itconquered Washukkani.By around B.C., after 1350 the Hittites had seized much Mitanni territory,one of Tushratta's sons killedhim in disgust. Following attacks by the Assyriansin its major cities, Mitanni became partof the Hittite empire. Hittite control over Mitannidid not last long. Assyria,which referred to the Hurrian kingdom as Khanigalbat,had become strongerand more aggressive, and eventually the Assyrian empire overwhelmed the last remnants of theformer kingdomof Mitanni.The Assyriansdispersed the Hurrian population, settling new groups in the region, and theHurrian language gradually disappeared. However, Hurrian culture greatly influenced those partsof the Hittite empire that remained from free Assyrian rule. The Hittites worshipedthe Hurrian TESHUBand storm adopted god the Hurrian literary work calledthe Kumarbi Cycle into their mythology. 181

Hyksos

HYKSOS * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

* sinew tough cord of tissue that attaches muscles to bones

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* tribute payment made by a smaller or

weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

182

T

he Hyksos (HIK»sahs) were a nomadic* group from west Asia who ruled Egypt from about 1630 to 1523 B.C. The word Hyksos is the Greek pronunciation of an Egyptian term meaning "shepherd kings." The exact origins of the Hyksos are not known. Some historians think they were HURRIANS who came from SYRIA, while others believe they were AMORITES who came from the Levant*. The Hyksos Takeover. Most of the information on the Hyksos takeover of Egypt comes from writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived in the 200s B.C., and from archaeological* excavations. According to Manetho, the Hyksos invaded Egypt from the east, destroying cities and temples and oppressing the population. In reality, the Hyksos takeover may have been more gradual and less forceful than Manetho suggested. Archaeological evidence indicates that there was a large presence of immigrants from west Asia in the eastern Nile Delta as early as 2000 B.C. and that the number of immigrants increased over the next 300 years. At first, the west Asian immigrants appear to have peacefully coexisted with the indigenous* Egyptians. Egypt was already ethnically diverse, and the immigrants were probably accepted into Egyptian society without prejudice. However, when Egypt's central government weakened around 1700 B.C., some of the west Asian immigrants may have decided to take advantage of the situation and seize control of power. First, they created a series of small states in the eastern delta*, with a center of power at the city of Avaris, which is the only known Hyksos city in Egypt. Then around 1640 B.C., they captured the city of MEMPHIS. This event, according to Manetho, marked the beginning of the Fifteenth Dynasty, which consisted of a succession of six Hyksos kings who ruled Egypt for almost a century. It is not surprising that the Hyksos were able to seize control of Egypt. They had superior weapons and methods of warfare that gave them a further advantage over the Egyptians, who were already weakened by internal problems. Egyptian soldiers used wooden bows and arrows with stone arrowheads. They also fought nearly naked and on foot. In contrast, the Hyksos used compound bows made of wood, horn, and sinew* that could send their bronze-tipped arrows twice as far as the Egyptian arrows. They also wore armor and leather helmets for protection, and they fought from horse-drawn CHARIOTS. In short, the Egyptians were no match for the Hyksos. Once in power, the Hyksos kings presented themselves as traditional Egyptian pharaohs*. They used Egyptian titles in their royal court, adopted the Egyptian system of writing called HIEROGLYPHICS, and retained the general structure of the Egyptian government. However, unlike traditional Egyptian pharaohs, the Hyksos ruled most of Egypt outside the delta only indirectly. In those regions, the Hyksos allowed the local kings to remain in power as long as they were willing to acknowledge the authority of, and pay tribute* to, the Hyksos kings. Driving Out the Hyksos. Although the local kings of THEBES in central Egypt grudgingly acknowledged the authority of the Hyksos rulers,

Hymns there was growing resentment toward them. Around 1575 B.C., King Seqenenre II of Thebes rebelled against the Hyksos. Seqenenre did not succeed in his rebellion and was killed in battle. His successor Kamose, continued the fight. He eventually recaptured much of the Nile Valley. Later Kamose tried to capture the Hyksos capital of Avaris but failed. King Kamose was succeeded by his younger brother AHMOSE, the first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the founder of the New Kingdom. Because Ahmose had adopted Hyksos weapons and methods of warfare, he was able to capture Memphis, which completed the recapture of the Nile Valley. Around 1530 B.C., Ahmose captured Avaris and pursued the Hyksos out of Egypt and into the Levant, where the Hyksos had a stronghold. Eventually, the Hyksos surrendered, and the Levant came under Egyptian rule. Although the Hyksos were driven out of Egypt after ruling for a relatively short time, they had a lasting impact on Egypt. As a result of Hyksos influence, the Egyptians created a permanent professional army and improved their military technology, allowing them to create their empire. The Hyksos also had an influence on Egyptian music, language, and religion. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Weapons and Armor.)

HYMNS * deity god or goddess * piety faithfulness to beliefs

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

H

ymns are poems addressed to deities* or rulers that praise, celebrate, make requests, and give thanks. Hymns are found in the LITERATURE of many ancient Near Eastern cultures, including those of the Sumerians, Egyptians, Israelites, and Greeks. Of the surviving 130 royal hymns from ancient Sumer, some address the gods, seeking their protection and blessings for the king. Others praise the king, who is presented as a god and an ideal human being. The hymns, which were recited in court, praise the king's power and authority, beauty and strength, wisdom and piety*, and justice and achievements. Among the finest Sumerian hymns are those written for SHULGI, a great king of ancient UR. Ancient Egyptian literature contains several hymns, including those to OSIRIS, prayers of the goddess Isis for her baby, hymns to the gods AMUN and Ra, and those of the pharaoh* AKHENATEN. Many Egyptian hymns are prayers of thanksgiving, such as one in which the artist Nebre thanks Amun for healing his son. The Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD contains hymns of mourning. Ancient Egyptian hymns were sung or recited during sacred ceremonies, and many of these works have been preserved. Hymns were also common in ancient Israel and Greece. The largest collection of hymns from ancient Israel is found in the Hebrew BIBLE in the book of Psalms. The book contains numerous songs of praise, addressed to God. Greek hymns begin with the name of the deity to whom the work is addressed. They were important in religious ceremonies and as an accompaniment to dancers. One of the oldest surviving Greek hymns is addressed to the god Dionysus by his women followers. (See also Prayer.) 183

Iconography

ICONOGRAPHY * deity god or goddess

184

I

conography is the use of imageryortraditional illustrations selected to convey the meaning in aworkofart. Easilyrecognizable visualimages of the gods and rulers served to helppeople recall thepowers of a deity* or king. People of the ancient Near Eastbelieved thatgodsand goddesses, who had created societies, hadultimate power over them, and if displeased, could destroy them. Kingswere seenas the gods'chosen representatives. The portrayalofdeitiesandkingsin artreminded

Iconography people of their role and helped keep them united in their beliefs and purposes as a society. The ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians often used animal imagery to symbolize their gods. For instance, during the Akkadian Empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.), the goddess ISHTAR was portrayed as a lion. Egyptian iconography consisted of a mixed form in which gods typically were depicted with an animal head on a human body. In the Egyptian Late

PRINCIPAL SYMBOLS Q^MESOPOTAMIAN DEITIES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Symbol

Deity represented*

Solar disk

Utu/Shamash, sun god

winqed disk

Utu/Shamash, sun god; Ashur, state god of Assyria; Ninurta, war god

•••

Possibly Utu/Shamash, sun god

crescent

Nanna/Sin, moon god

%m^^wmg^ww^«^^@|^W^^nw9W

Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion, love, and war

seven dots or seven stars

Sebittu, the seven gods

lightning

Symbol of storm gods throughout the ancient Near East

»jPi^;PiipSt|tmiirj:i^P
triangular-headed spade

Marduk, state god of Babylonia

plough

Ningirsu, city god of Girsu

barley stalk

Shala, goddess of agriculture

stylized tree

Possibly a general symbol of fertitlity

vase with streams

Possibly a general symbol of fertility; Enki/Ea, wisdom god; Marduk, state god of Babylonia

homed cap

Anu, sky god; Ashur, state god of Assyria

stylus

Nabu, scribal god

lamp

Nusku, fire goda

"omega"

lozenge

Associated with the mother or birth goddesses; Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion, love, and war Possibly Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion, love, and war

bull

Associated with storm gods

!••

Iftarwa/lshtar/gocWess of p&ssfon, love, and war; MMil, goddess of Nippur

horse

Utu/Shamash, sun god

horse head

(unknown)

dog turtle scorpion

homed snake striding bird

Gula, goddess of healing

Enki/Ea, Wisdom god Ishkhara, of love healing Ishtaran, city godgoddess of Der; Ningishzids, godand of the underworld god of th« wKfesrworki Papsukkal, messenger god

bird with back-turned head Harbe, Kassite god bird on high perch

Shuqamura and Shumalia, twin gods

bird on low perch

Ninutta, War god

(snake-)dragon

(unknown)

lion-dragon

IW||l|^^wPWjW|||H^WplS^i^Pl|p

qoat-fish

Enki/Ea, wisdom god

double lion-headed scepter

Nergal, god of the underworld

lion-headed staff

Nergal, god of the underworld

eagle-headed staff

Zababa, patron god of Kish

ram-headed staff

Enki/Ea, wisdom god

crook

Amurru, god of the nomads

ring-post with streamer

Inanna/lshtar goddess of passion, love, and war

ring-post without streamer

Possibly Enki/Ea, wisdom god

ring-post

Possibly Utu/Shamash, sun god

*"/" separates Sumerian and Babylonian names of deities

185

Incense Period (664-332 B.C.), the gods could be represented by more than one animal image. For example, the goddess HATHOR was shown as a cow, a snake, a lioness, or as woman with a cow's head. This way of displaying their gods occurs as early as 3000 B.C. Ancient people sometimes portrayed their gods in human form. When shown as humans, the gods were usually portrayed with an object that came to symbolize the deities themselves. For example, the HmrrES of ANATOLIA portrayed the storm god holding a lightning bolt and the moon god with a crescent moon on his hat. In ancient Mesopotamia, the sun god might have rays coming out of his upper body and be shown rising between mountains. During and after the Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamian gods were commonly shown wearing a headdress with sets of horns—the greater the number of sets, the more major the god. When appearing in a scene with people, gods in human form were distinguished by their larger size. Other ancient peoples also used symbols for their gods. The Persians depicted their chief god, AHURA MAZDA, as a human within a winged disc. Unusual in the ancient world was the Israelite god YAHWEH, who was not depicted by his worshipers. A passage in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 4:12, 15) says that Yahweh has no form, no shape that can be shown. Other Near Eastern cultures also had gods that were not symbolized. Imagery and symbols were also used to represent rulers in the ancient Near East. In Mesopotamia, the king could be recognized in art by the garments, headgear, and weapons he was wearing. To the ancient Mesopotamians, these served more as identifiers than did actual physical features. Hittite kings in art were also recognizable through their dress. Other figures appear in Near Eastern art, from those of nobility and high ranking officials to conquered peoples. Such people were portrayed in ways that reflected their situations. For example, captives were shown with their arms bound. The ancient people who viewed such art would have been able to identify who or which group the figures represented based on how they were portrayed. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Human Form in Art.)

INCENSE * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made * embalming treating a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

186

I

ncense is a substance made from the sap, wood, bark, roots, or fruit of certain plants. When burned, it releases a fragrant or spicy odor. In the ancient Near East, incense was used for religious purposes and was an important article of trade. Two of the most important forms of incense were frankincense and myrrh*. The ancient Babylonians burned incense while offering prayers or sacrifices and consulting oracles*. They also believed that they could read the future from the smoke rising from burning incense. Incense was also important to the Egyptians, who used it daily in rituals to their gods. The ancient Israelites believed that incense had miraculous powers, and they made daily OFFERINGS of incense to please their god YAHWEH and to protect the priests. Only priests could offer incense to Yahweh, and its use for nonreligious purposes was forbidden. The Greeks burned incense as an offering to the gods and for protection against DEMONS. Incense also played an important role in funerary rites and was used in embalming* dead bodies. The use of incense at funerals may have

Indo-European Languages arisen as a way of masking the disagreeable odors of decomposing bodies. Still, it also had religious signifance. Burning incense was believed to purify the dead, and the rising smoke represented the soul of the deceased rising to heaven. Ancient peoples also believed that incense had divine powers. They used it as a medicine to cure diseases and heal wounds. People also used certain kinds of incense as PERFUME, believing that it made them divinely beautiful or transferred them to a higher level of life. Incense was also an important item in Near Eastern trade. The demand for frankincense and myrrh, which came primarily from southern Arabia, encouraged trade between that region and the kingdoms in the FERTILE CRESCENT. Trade routes also ran between Egypt and Syria and other regions in the Near East. So much wealth was involved in the incense trade that it often had political consequences. The Assyrians and Babylonians expanded their empires, in part, to gain greater control over the incense trade. (See also Cosmetics; Death and Burial; Economy and Trade; Oracles and Prophecy; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

* archaeological referring to the study of

past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

I

ndo-European languages are today the most widely spoken family of languages in the world. In use from western Europe through Central Asia to India, they are also the dominant languages in the Americas and in Australia. While most of the languages of the ancient Near East were HAMITIC LANGUAGES, a few of the languages of that region belonged to the Indo-European language family. The idea that certain languages were all part of an Indo-European language family first took shape around A.D. 1800. Scholars at that time began to recognize similarities between Greek, Sanskrit (an ancient language of India), Latin (the language of the Romans), and a number of other languages. The research of linguists, or language experts, was later combined with archaeological* evidence, allowing scholars to trace the development of Indo-European languages as well as the relationships among them. The Indo-European language family includes ten main language groups, or subfamilies, two of which are no longer spoken. The groups are Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Italic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Celtic, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian. Indo-European languages share common roots for several words, certain grammatical forms, and patterns of sounds. Yet the languages also have many differences that reflect their individual development, which occurred over thousands of years. Development of Indo-European Languages. All ancient and modem Indo-European languages are thought to have descended from a common parent language, sometimes called Proto-Indo-European. The origins of that language are unknown, but scholars are quite certain that it began to divide into several distinct languages as early as the 4500s B.C. The home of the Indo-European languages is thought to be in the region north of the Black Sea. By the third millennium B.C.*, people from that region had begun to migrate, spreading different Indo-European dialects* throughout Europe and Asia. Soon these dialects developed into distinct languages, many of which have been preserved in written records. 187

Inheritance

*

Romance language one of several languages that developed from Latin, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish

Mystery of an

Extinct Language Two Indo-European language groups have become extinct: Anatolian and Tocharian. White scholars know quite a bit about Anatolian and the people who spoke it, Tbcharian is more of a mystery. Known only since A,D, 1908, the Tbcharian languages were an isolated group of Indo-European dialects once spoken in remote areas of northwestern China. The Tochar-J Jan dialects were strikingly different \ from the Iranian languages spoken by people in surrounding regions Instead, they showed similarities to some of the Indo-European dialects! spoken in Europe. Scholars do not know how Tocharian came to this remote area nor how it disappeared Some experts suggest that the Tbcharians migrated to China from Europe as early as the third millenium B.C. Until more evidence is found, however, the origin and disappearance of the Tbcharian lan-3 guage group will remain a mystery,]

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Inheritance 188

Indo-European Languages of the Near East. The majority of IndoEuropean languages developed in areas outside the Near East, primarily in Europe. For example, the Italic subfamily today includes the so-called Romance languages*. The Germanic languages include German, English, and the languages of Scandinavia, while the Balto-Slavic subfamily consists of Russian, Polish, and other languages of eastern Europe and areas near the Baltic Sea. Only three subfamilies of Indo-European languages were spoken in the ancient Near East: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, and Greek. The Anatolian subfamily of languages, now extinct, was one of the oldest Indo-European language groups in the ancient Near East. These languages were spoken in ANATOLIA and northern SYRIA as early as the second millennium B.C.* The best-known Anatolian language is Hittite, which was spoken in the northwestern parts of the region. Hittite was written in a CUNEIFORM system adapted from that used in MESOPOTAMIA. Hittite texts date from the 1600s to about 1200 B.C. Another Anatolian language, Luwian, was spoken in southern Anatolia and northern Syria. Forms of this language were written in both cuneiform and a HIEROGLYPHICS system. Scholars believe that the Luwians borrowed cuneiform from Mesopotamia but that they created the hieroglyphic system on their own. Surviving texts in the Luwian language date from between 1400 and 200 B.C. Closely related to Hittite and Luwian is Palaic, a language spoken in areas north of the Hittite heartland in central Anatolia. This language was extinct by the 1300s B.C. Other ancient Anatolian languages—all spoken in western Anatolia—include Lydian, Lycian, Pisidian, Sidetic, and Carian. Little is known of these languages except that they were written in a script closely related to Greek. A second group of Indo-European languages is Indo-Iranian. This group contains two main subgroups. The first, Indo-Aryan, which includes Sanskrit, was spoken in India, Pakistan, and Iran. The second subgroup are the Iranian languages, including Avestan, the sacred language of Zoroastrians, spoken in Iran as early as the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), and Old Persian, the language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Historically, Greek is one of the oldest and most important IndoEuropean languages. Various forms of Greek have been spoken in Greece from at least the 1600s B.C. One of the oldest known forms of ancient Greek was Mycenaean, which dates from about the 1200s B.C. Later dialects—Arcadian, Aeolic, Doric, and Ionic—were spoken on the Greek mainland, on the islands of the AEGEAN SEA, and in western Anatolia. By the 400s B.C., a dialect known as Attic became popular among the Greeks. During the Hellenistic* period, the Attic Greek language and culture spread far beyond the borders of Greece. Modern Greek is descended from earlier forms of the language. Meanwhile, ancient Greek remains an important language for learning about the ancient world. (See also Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Semitic Languages; Sumerian Languages; Writing.) See Family and Social Life; Law.

DAILY LIFE

Plate 2 Once a year, the ancientEgyptians went to their relatives' tombs for a funerary banquet. Egyptians believed that during this meal, the living could communicate with the dead. Dating from the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca.1539-1292 B.C.), this scene from a tomb painting at Thebes shows events at such one banquetThe seated figure at the far right of the lowerpanel plays a double flute.The two women to her right are dancing next to a stack jars of of wine.

Plate 4 The people of the ancient Near East sometimes played games to entertain themselves.The game board shown here dates from around 2700 B.C. and was found at a tomb at Ur in Mesopotamia. The board, which is approximately I I inches long and 5 inches wide, is made of wood and is covered with shell, bone, lapis lazuli, and colored stone inlays. Next to the board are two sets of game pieces. Although modern scholars know how some ancient Near Eastern board games were played, the exact rules for this game are not known.

Plate 5 All the major cultures of the ancient Near East allowed marriages to be dissolved. In this tablet, Hittite king Tudkhaliya IV (ruled ca. 1254-1220 B.C.) grants a divorce between Ugarit's kingAmmishtamru and his wife, the daughter of the ruler of the Syrian kingdom of Amurru.The seal impression in the center of this cuneiform clay tablet belongs to Tudkhaliya, and it may have been placed there to authenticate the divorce agreement.

Plate 6 These Hittite storage pots were found at Bogazkoy (ancient Khattusha).The Hittites and others in the ancient Near East made pottery to store food and drink and other items. It is possible that these pots, or objects like them, were used by the palaces and temples to store goods that were later distributed among the people as part of an economy based on redistribution. The Hittites also specialized in making artistic pottery in the forms of lions, bulls, and waterbirds.

Plate 7 Scholars have been able to learn about the clothing worn by people in the ancient Near East from their portrayal in art. Dating from between 500 and 300 B.C., the figure, probably of a Mede, depicted on this six-inch-high gold sheet from Central Asia is wearing trousers and a tunic. This type of outfit was also worn by the Persians, especially when they engaged in hunting or warfare.

Plate 8 This relief from Khafaje in Mesopotamia, which dates from around 2700 B.C., depicts a feast. At the top left and right, a man and woman enjoy a drink while servants attend to their needs, and in the center, a musician plays a harp. Ancient Mesopotamians observed many state and religious occasions with a feast. In fact,each city-state or kingdom in Mesopotamia had its own calendar to guide people on the proper dates for feasts and festivals. til

Plate 10 The painted cosmetics box shown here belonged to an Egyptian noblewoman during the reign of Thutmose III (ca. 1479-1425 B.C.). The cedar box holds glass and alabaster jars containing ointments and oils. Standing in the center of the box is an eye paint (kohl) container with a wooden device for the paint's application. Egyptian women used this to darken their eyebrows, color their upper eyelids, and outline their eyes. In addition to enhancing beauty, makeup protected the skin from the sun and repelled disease-carrying flies.

Plate II Dice games were among the games of chance played in the ancient Near East.The dice were made of stone, metal, and glass and could be four-sided, six-sided, or even pyramid shaped.Two royal children are portrayed rolling dice in this Neo-Hittite relief from Karkamish, which dates from the 700s B.c.The relief itself is approximately 18 inches in lengthThe square section between the children at the center contains an inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics.

Plate 14

Seals such as the one from ancient Bahrain shown here held a place of importance in the ancient Near EastThey were used to authenticate documents, to seal rooms or objects, and for religious purposes. Stamp seals found in Bahrain are markedly different from seals excavated elsewhere in the ancient Near East. This was probably a result of the Bahrainis' adapting the techniques of the wide range of peoples with whom they conducted trade.

Plate 15

Dating from around 1500 B.C., this Cycladic fresco from Thera depicts two children engaged in a boxing match. Other children's games included foot races, rope skipping, wrestling, tug-ofwar, and leapfrog. However, children's activities were not limited to leisure activities.Youngsters were also expected to work with and for their families.

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief JackM. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 3 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS An Imprint of The Gale Group NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT

INSCRIPTIONS scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* funerary having to do with funerals or the handling of the dead * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

T

Inscriptions

he term inscription refers to writing on a durable material that is meant to provide a permanent record. In the ancient Near East, inscriptions were usually made by scribes* and masons working on many different types of material. Inscriptions are found throughout the ancient Near East on palace walls, statues, and rock formations and on smaller, movable objects, including tablets and scrolls. Kings often had inscriptions made to preserve their accomplishments for future generations to see. Inscriptions were also made by travelers who wanted to leave their mark on a place. As a result, the texts range from basic names and dates to accounts of almost fantastic tales and exploits of rulers. Type. Inscriptions provide important data for reconstructing the history of the ancient Near East. They are the words of the people themselves. Although inscriptions are helpful to historians, they cannot be solely relied on because they only provide a one-sided and often exaggerated view of events. The monumental royal inscriptions archaeologists* have uncovered generally show kings portraying themselves in the best light possible. The pattern is the same no matter where the inscriptions were written or during which period. They were written in the first person, each naming the particular king and his ancestors, emphasizing his relationship to the gods, and telling of his achievements, both civic and military. Each royal inscription also specifies the king's current project and puts a curse on anyone who might steal or harm the monument. KING LISTS, texts containing the names of kings and details of their reigns, are another type of inscription that provide historical data, but these too are often biased. Many other types of inscriptions exist, such as funerary*, celebrative, commemorative, and SEAL inscriptions, along with administrative records and school lessons. In Egypt, the Levant*, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), and parts of Iran, there are also ''graffiti" inscriptions, which contain a person's name and a prayer. Such inscriptions serve to record that that person was passing along a road or route. Scholars suggest that these inscriptions are not found in Mesopotamia because the landscape there is flat and not as rocky as elsewhere in the ancient Near East. Therefore, there was little for a passerby to leave his mark on. Format. Writing emerged around 3300 B.C. in Sumer and shortly thereafter in Egypt. Sumerians used a system of writing known as cuneiform*, which consisted of several hundred symbols that represented words and syllables. Egyptians used HIEROGLYPHICS, pictorial symbols similarly representing words and syllables. Later, other cultures of the ancient Near East developed their own systems of writing, which were often based on hieroglyphics and cuneiform. In the early second millennium B.C.*, people who spoke Semitic* languages in the Levant developed a system of writing based on an aleph-beth, which contained signs only for consonants. These scripts were written in different directions, some left to right, some right to left, and some top to bottom. In some inscriptions in South Arabic, Greek, and Semitic languages, each line takes the reverse direction of

1

Inscriptions

* literate able to read and write

* parchment writing material made from the skin of sheep or goats * papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

* piety faithfulness to beliefs

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

2

the one before, much like the way an ox plows a field, a system known as boustrophedon. Large public inscriptions, such as those on palace walls, contained text and pictures. Few people knew how to read, and the small literate* elite of one region often did not know the language of another area. Consequently, pictures recording a victory over enemies were an effective means of showing the greatness of a king because they could be "read" by everyone. Materials and Methods. Scribes in the ancient Near East wrote on and carved in stone, clay, wax, wood, leather, parchment*, metal, ivory, and ostraca—flat stones or broken pieces of clay pottery; in Egypt, papyrus* was used. To carve inscriptions in damp clay, scribes used a stylus—a reed or metal tool with a pointed end for writing and a blunt "eraser" end for smoothing out errors. When the inscription was to be made in stone, scribes either inked or scratched the symbols and pictures into the stone, and then stoneworkers followed the marks using a chisel. The dry climate in Egypt allowed scribes there to use papyrus, a paperlike material on which scribes used pens or brushes and ink. Smaller objects, such as pottery, seals, or metal and ivory personal items, including amulets and bowls, were also sometimes inscribed. Pottery inscriptions were either painted in or scratched in. Smaller luxury items might be inscribed with the owner's name as were seals. Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian kings were concerned with "celebrative texts," which contained a record of their military victories and civil accomplishments. The earliest preserved inscriptions are brief, but there are longer texts dating from the time of the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.). They describe the kings' continued power and their greatness. For example, inscriptions about the kings SARGON I and NARAM-SIN placed in the major temples of the country tell of the wide-sweeping changes they instituted with their victories. The inscriptions also attribute the victories to the piety* of the kings, saying, "Sargon, the king, bowed down in prayer to Dagan in Tuttul, and [the god] gave him the Upper Country." These glorifications of kings proved to the gods that they had made wise choices in Sargon and Naram-Sin. One of the longest inscriptions found in the ancient Near East appears on the seven-foot-tall stela* ordered by King HAMMURABI of Babylon. It shows Hammurabi standing, facing the enthroned sun god Shamash. Hammurabi appears to be listening to Shamash. Below the figures is a lengthy cuneiform text explaining how Hammurabi was chosen by other gods to care for the Mesopotamian people and to create a system of laws to ensure justice and well-being. The inscription goes on to list his 282 laws, known as the Code of Hammurabi. This inscription is addressed to Shamash to impress him with what Hammurabi did on his behalf. In keeping with the idea of leaving a permanent mark, it is also addressed to Hammurabi's people and the generations to come, and it curses anyone who tampers with the stela. Mesopotamian kings also left "private" celebrative inscriptions that were not meant for the public. The kings intended these inscriptions for

Inscriptions

the gods andfuture kings. Such inscriptions were usuallynotillustrated and were placedin the foundationorsome other out-of-the-waypart of a palace or temple. They describehowwelltheking servedthegodsand contain instructionsfor futurekings. Becausetemples were frequently rebuilt, a king could expect thatasuccessor would findthese inscriptions and be suitably impressedby hispredecessor'saccomplishments. The most commonly preserved formofinscribed material from Mesopotamia TABLET. CLAY is theSome 500,000clay tablets have been recovered to date. They spantheperiod from B.C.about through 3300 at least thefirst century A.D. Mostof the tablets arerecords ofvarious kinds from palaces, temples,andprivate households. They include sales receipts, leases, accounts, letters, marriage contracts, wills, and court decisions.Another important groupoftablets includetheschoolwork of studentsand teachers, ranging fromsimple lists ofsigns and 3

Inscriptions * epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

I Destroyed, I Felled, I Conquered The following is an inscription describing a victory of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II: / besieged [and] conquered the city. I felled 3,000 of their fighting men with the sword. I carried off prisoners, possessions, oxen... from them. I burnt many captives from them. I captured many troops alive: I cut off some of their arms [and] hands; I cut off of others their noses, ears, [and] extremities. I gouged out the eyes of many troops. I made one pile of the living [and] one of the heads. I hung their heads on trees around the city. I burnt their adolescent boys [and] girls. I... destroyed, burnt, consumed the city.

4

Sumerian and Akkadian words to mathematics problems, epics*, myths, and legends. Egypt. Egypt is known for large inscriptions in tombs, monuments, and temples. The earliest inscriptions are displays of laws and decrees. Not until the establishment of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.) did pharaohs* inscribe their military exploits in detail. King Kamose commissioned three inscribed stelae to celebrate his military victories over the HYKSOS. King THUTMOSE III described 21 years of military campaigns, including a list of the spoils of war, which he offered to the god Amun-Ra. These inscriptions are found variously on stelae and on the walls of the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Those found at the temple were in recognition of Amun-Ra, who is believed to have granted the king his victory. This was also Thutmose's way of claiming his legitimacy as heir to the throne. Inscriptions in tombs were very important to the ancient Egyptians because they helped guide the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. At first, inscriptions were carved into the walls of tombs; later, inscribed linen shrouds or papyrus scrolls buried with the body helped the soul reach its destination. Tomb inscriptions contained prayers, such as the one the deceased recited on his day of judgment, as well as a ''road map" through the underworld—if he got lost, he could be stuck there for eternity. One especially helpful map was carved into the bottom of the coffin. It showed a safe route through the underworld, including tips on etiquette and advice on repelling snakes and crocodiles. During the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), only members of royalty had these guides along with autobiographical inscriptions, but by the New Kingdom period, many Egyptians were buried with inscribed spells for guidance. Egyptians also left smaller and shorter graffiti inscriptions carved into rock throughout the kingdom. These served as markers to identify the person who visited or passed by or to record significant accomplishments, such as a military victory or a mining expedition that occurred there. The markers were situated on well-traveled routes, so many visitors would see them. Iran. The most important inscription in Iran was the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, carved into the cliffs in the Zagros Mountains. The carvings show Darius Fs triumph over rebels and his ascent to the throne of the Persian empire in 521 B.C. The accompanying text was written in cuneiform in three languages: Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite. Darius arranged for smaller copies of the inscription to be circulated throughout his kingdom. Various inscriptions in the Elamite language have also been found in Iran. One of the earliest is the Treaty of Naram-Sin, from around 2250 B.C., which was found at Susa. This treaty, a series of about 24 tablets, records an agreement between the Elamite king Khita and the Akkadian conqueror, King Naram-Sin. In the treaty, Khita states that Naram-Sin is his ally and promises to provide the Akkadians with troops. Several thousand cuneiform tablets, many containing Elamite inscriptions, have also been

Inscriptions recovered at Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenid empire from the 500s to the 300s B.C. These tablets record the distribution of food, clothing, and silver to various officials throughout the empire.

* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Anatolia. Inscribed royal pronouncements in Hittite Anatolia from around 1600 B.C. were meant to impress. Some detailed a king's military victories, or his "manly deeds/' year by year. These were an early form of autobiography. Some texts looked back and explained a king's actions, justifying his unorthodox or failed activities. An inscribed apology of King KHATTUSHILI III contains his justification for usurping* the throne from a nephew and his thanks to the goddess Ishtar for being his guide and protector. This indicated to the people that it was the gods who wanted him to serve as king. These royal inscriptions, as well as several thousand clay tablets found in the palace archives, were written in a cuneiform script. However, the Hittites also developed their own form of hieroglyphics, which they used on seal inscriptions and monumental reliefs* that were carved on rock faces. The Luwians and the Lycians, who lived in southern and southwestern Anatolia, also left inscriptions. They cut their inscriptions into the faces of rocks. Some are primarily artistic, showing a king engaged in some activity, with an inscription that is merely an identification. Others include long texts giving a context for the art. Luwian inscriptions use a form of Hittite hieroglyphics. Lycian inscriptions—written with a Greeklike alphabet—were carved into rock tombs and consist mainly of burial instructions and prayers. The most important Lycian inscription is the pillar of Xanthus, dating to 400 B.C., which details the military adventures of the Xanthian dynasty. The Levant. In the ancient Near East, the Levant was a crossroads. Everyone traveling by land between Mesopotamia or Iran and Egypt passed through this region, which lies on the eastern border of the Mediterranean Sea. Some of these travelers liked what they saw and stayed. Consequently, inscriptions in every imaginable script appear in virtually every language spoken by these settlers: Luwian, Aramaic, Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, Egyptian, Akkadian, Canaanite, Greek, and Latin. Very early inscriptions in Syria were used to dedicate statues, temples, and palaces. They contained the name of the king and his ancestors, assurances of his approval by the gods, and lists of his civic and military achievements. They also included colorful curses on anyone foolish enough to harm the monument. One such statue is that of Idrimi, king of the city of ALALAKH, in Syria. It is 41 inches tall and dates from the second millennium B.C. In this statue, Idrimi sits on a throne with his left hand in his lap and his right hand over his heart. His expression is serious. The inscription is written in Akkadian cuneiform, but the language reflects Hurrian and West Semitic influences. The 104 lines of inscription are carved into the figure itself. They are written in the first person: 'Thirty years I was king. My achievements I have inscribed on my statue." Idrimi asks people to read this record of his life's work and "let them continually bless me." It includes the requisite curse: "Whoever alters . . . [this statue], 5

Iran may the storm god, lord of heaven and earth, and the great gods annihilate his name and his seed from his land." (See also Papyrus; Scribes; Semitic Languages; Writing.)

IRAN

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

The Treasure ofZiwiye In A,D. 1947, antiquities dealers reported that a treasure of artifacts had been recovered from an iron Age site in Ziwiye, in northwestern Iran, Hundreds of these objects were sold, and scholars published papers based on their conclusions about the artifacts. However, these conclusions were invalid because no one knew the actual place from which the objects had come. Archaeologists eventually investigated a site in Ziwiye and found nothing resembling the treasure that was said to have come from there. The artifacts themselves may be extraordinary, but much of their value to scholars has been lost.

6

L

ocated in southern Asia, south of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea, present-day Iran corresponds roughly to the same region as ancient Iran. It is bordered on the west by Iraq (ancient MESOPOTAMIA) and Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, and on the south by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Iran is known for the diversity of its cultures, both in ancient and in modern times. Geography. The majority of Iran is made up of the huge central Iranian Plateau and its surrounding mountain ranges, the Elburz Mountains to the north and the Zagros Mountains to the west. The central plateau contains two large deserts, the Dasht-i-Lut and the Dasht-i-KavIr. Iran is divided into three main climatic regions. In the south, the coast is hot; the plateau is dry and has milder temperatures; the mountains, particularly the high regions of the northern Elburz, are much colder. Most of Iran receives little rainfall. Human History. The availability of water and access to it have greatly determined the patterns of human habitation in Iran. Populations historically congregated at the edges of the region, in the mountains, and along the coasts, though later the oases* became populated as well. Humans have lived in present-day Iran for many millennia*. The earliest evidence of human habitation, dating from around 10,000 B.C., has been found on the Iranian Plateau. From excavations at old farm sites in the Zagros Mountains, archaeologists* have determined that people were domesticating animals at least as early as 7000 B.C. Archaeologists know far more about human development in southwestern Iran, or present-day Khuzestan, a region that receives more rainfall than much of the rest of the country. Located next to ancient Mesopotamia, the region's development was linked to that of Mesopotamia. Beginning in about 4000 B.C., cultural influences from southern Mesopotamia began to strongly influence local development in southwestern Iran, creating the Proto-Elamite culture. The descendants of the Proto-Elamite people, the Elamites, later dominated the region until 640 B.C. By the end of the third millennium B.C.*, Elam stretched from the borders of Mesopotamia in the south to the Caspian Sea in the north and included the great Iranian deserts. For much of its history, Elamite civilization was centered on the city of Susa (present-day Sush). However, evidence suggests that during the third and into the second millenia B.C., if not earlier, Susa was its own kingdom. Throughout their history, the Elamites were conquered at various times and controlled by the Babylonians and Sumerians, among others. Much less is known about the cultures that thrived in northern Iran. What is known is that a tribe called the Manneans was among several

Iran

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture r

steppe large semiaridgrassy plain few trees

with

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to agreater power

See map on inside covers.

different groups who had built cities andestablished distinct cultures there. The Manneans also controlled trade routes leading to thenorth and eastof Iran. Starting around B.C., 1000 a newARYANS group entered called the Iran. The Aryan tribes wereanomadic* peoplewhomigrated fromthesteppes* ofCENTRAL ASIA intoIranand India. Between B.C., the two 800s and im-600s portant Aryan tribes cameto settle MEDES inIran, andthe thePersians. The Medes settled in the northwest, aregion that became Media.ThePersians settled on the southern plateau, which they named Parsamash (presentday Pars). By theB.C., 600s the Medeshad becomethedominant tribe and controlled an empire stretching from IndiatoAnatolia.ThePersians were their vassals*. All that changed when the GREAT Persian CYRUS THE (ruledking 559-529 B.C.) cameto power.Herebelled against hisgrandfather, the Median kingAstyages, and established Persiaas anindependent state. He successfully conquered most of the surrounding kingdoms, including Babylonia,and created PERSIAN the EMPIRE.With help from hissons, Cyrus expanded the empire to include Egyptandeastern landsinCentral Asia. Cyrus's dynasty later became knownas theAchaemenid dynasty. In 331 B.C.,the Persian empire GREAT was ALEXANDER THE conquered by (ruled 336-323 B.C.). When Alexander died, control of thecore of thePersian empire passed to his general SeleucusI, whofoundedtheSeleucid dynasty, which ruled IranB.C., to the when 260s theParthians took over. Religion. The Elamitesand the Persiansdifferent had religious beliefs. The Elamites, like other ancient Near Eastern peoples, worshiped many

7

Iraq * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * deity god or goddess

* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

Trade. For much of its history, Iran served as the crossroads for the ancient Near East and central and south Asia. Various ancient Iranian kingdoms were involved in international trade throughout the region by the end of the fourth millennium B.C. (the years between 4000 and 3001 B.C.). Lapis lazuli* was very popular all over the ancient Near East and could be found only in what is now northeastern Afghanistan. Sumerian traders traveled through the Zagros Mountains of Iran to obtain lapis lazuli. In the third millennium B.C., the Proto-Elamites and Elamite kingdoms controlled areas with large supplies of tin, an essential product to the peoples of the Bronze Age. Later the Manneans to the north controlled the routes into the Ural Mountains, where copper and precious gems were mined and animal fur was obtained. (See also Darius I and Darius III; Elam and the Elamites; Parthia; Persepolis; Persian Wars; Satraps; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

Iraq

See Mesopotamia.

Iron

See Metals and Metalworking.

Iron Age

IRRIGATION

8

gods and goddesses. Elamite religious cults* played an important role in society, and religious rituals included regular public feasts and OFFERINGS of animal blood to the gods. The Persians practiced a religion called Zoroastrianism. This religion was named for Zoroaster, a prophet* who lived during the 600s B.C. and taught that there was only one god, AHURA MAZDA. At first, Ahura Mazda was the only deity* and was worshiped as a sun god, the creator of all things, and called Wise Lord. Later he was seen as the chief god among others.

See Chronology.

rrigation is the process of supplying WATER to land for AGRICULTURE. NatI ural irrigation depends on normal rainfall and flooding to irrigate land.

Artificial irrigation uses human-made systems to irrigate land that would not otherwise get water. Irrigation by means of ditches, channels, CANALS, basins, and other methods was critical to successful agriculture and thus to the growth of cities. In the ancient Near East, civilizations grew because natural and artificial irrigation allowed people to establish settled communities and live off the land. Developing and managing irrigation

Irrigation contributed to social organization as societies defined their rights and responsibilities for water and land use.

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall

* alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar material deposited by running water * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* dike embankment used to confine or control the flow of water * sluice human-made channel or passage to direct water flow * regulator gate or valve to control amount of water passing through a channel

Early Irrigation. Although cities were established along RIVERS, the earliest attempts at irrigation occurred away from the great rivers. Farming itself began in hill country or on plains where rainfall sustained crops—a method known as dry farming*. At first, the land near the NILE RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESOPOTAMIA was difficult to irrigate. The rivers, especially during flooding, were too large or too destructive for early societies to control. Consequently, the first attempts at irrigation took place where smaller streams spread out during flooding. These regions of streams, called alluvial* plains, or floodplains, were natural places to extend farming beyond a reliance on rainfall. Archaeological* site surveys reveal ancient systems of irrigation and field patterns, even in areas that are now barren. Artificial watering methods were developed in the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Valleys before 5000 B.C., long before the great settlement of southern Mesopotamia. Large-Scale Irrigation. There are two basic ways to extend the reach of a river. The first is to draw water away from the banks of the river by means of channels. Each channel waters a specific area. Such channels run roughly perpendicular from the stream out to the intended area. The other way to extend the fertile area is to cut a channel parallel to the river, widening the river's floodplain. Although details of the earliest irrigation plans are unknown, site surveys suggest that networks of channels and small canals were the early means of large-scale irrigation. As the population grew in Mesopotamia, so did the need for irrigation. In the north, the people were able to rely on rainfall, but in the south, the lands were dry and the people there depended on large-scale irrigation. Most of this effort was directed at the Euphrates River because it was easier to control than the Tigris. The Euphrates also tended to split into branches in the floodplain, which was helpful for irrigation. By about 2500 B.C., larger and more permanent canals and channels began to replace smaller or temporary irrigation systems in Mesopotamia. Building and maintaining canal systems became important political concerns to developing societies. Some scholars believe that the need to construct, control, and administer waterworks directly led to the growth of larger kingdoms. Others disagree, noting that the actual control of the irrigation devices usually remained in the hands of local authorities. Mesopotamians used irrigation to carry out four important tasks necessary for growing crops and avoiding harmful FLOODS. These four tasks were supply, storage, drainage, and protection from unwanted water. Canals, channels, basins, dikes*, and other water management systems performed these roles. Whether waterways ran out in small branches from the river or in larger courses parallel to the main stream, control devices were necessary. A sluice* diverted water to the intended area and could be as simple as a hole in the side of a channel blocked with a board when not in use. Regulators* held water back until it reached a great enough level to flow freely through sluices. Early regulators were as simple

9

Irrigation

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

as piles of brush or reeds, but large, permanent structures of baked brick were constructed as well. Water supply was critical in the late autumn when planting occurred, but the Tigris and the Euphrates were at their lowest then. It was essential for the ancient Mesopotamians to distribute water efficiently and fairly to ensure that everyone got the water necessary for newly planted crops to grow. Rotating the irrigation of fields was the solution. Good timing and division of water were necessary for effective irrigation. Location of crops depended on the irrigation system. Such plants as date palms do best with moist roots, and vegetables need daily watering. Cereal crops, such as wheat, require less frequent watering. Therefore, orchards and vegetable gardens were close to the waterways, while the cereal fields were farther away. The channels served to get water to the more distant cereal crops whenever necessary. Maintenance of the irrigation channels was important to supply. Slow-flowing water left much of its silt in the channel. Silt, reeds, brush, and other debris clogged waterways further, slowing water flow and leading to evaporation. Other problems included salt buildup in the water and leaks. These problems necessitated constant maintenance of irrigation systems, which was the responsibility of officials and workers at the local or village level. In the case of large-scale projects, such as those constructed during the reign of SARGON I (ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), the upkeep depended on cooperation between city-states*. Storing the water from annual floods was difficult. Around each field was a low bank to hold water in the fields. These earthen dikes not only prolonged floods, but also held water to be used during the ten-day to two-week interval between irrigations later in the year. Ancient Near Eastern people also built narrow basins alongside canals, but their purpose is not clear. The basins varied in size, but none was large enough to retain water through the Mesopotamian dry season. Perhaps these small reservoirs were for other crops growing nearby that needed to be watered more frequently than the cereal fields. Draining excess water from the relatively flat land was another important task. If water remained on the land for too long, it would pull up salt from the ground below. This process, called salinization, ruined the fields. One way Mesopotamian farmers tried to avoid salinity was to let fields lie fallow* for a season, but they were often forced to abandon land. Other drainage strategies remain unknown. Protection against floods was a feature of Mesopotamian irrigation as well. In times of high water, the same sluices and regulators that diverted water to the fields were opened to allow as much water as possible to run off the land. Natural Irrigation. In contrast to the hard work of large-scale artificial irrigation in Mesopotamia, Egypt depended mostly on natural irrigation, which consisted largely of working with the natural flow and drainage patterns of the Nile flood. The timing of the annual flood in Egypt was better suited to farming than it was in Mesopotamia. The flood ended in September, just before planting season. The floodplain itself was not flat but slightly rounded outward, allowing water to drain to its edges, carrying away harmful salts. Although marshy areas at the edges of the floodplain

10

Irrigation

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases * delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

became salty, elsewhere the fields remained free of salt. Egyptians built channels to extend the reach of the floodwater, allowing it to flow into natural depressions or basins. Irrigation efforts in Egypt consisted primarily of maintaining the Nile banks, the channels through which the water flowed, and dikes that surrounded natural basins. The favorable timing of the flood made the constant labor of irrigation less necessary in Egypt than in Mesopotamia. In Upper Egypt, canals crossed the west side of the Nile Valley. They may have had a role in irrigation, probably directing the natural flood into basins. They could also have helped conserve water for irrigation in years when the Nile did not have a large flood. During the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), a large royal project took place in the Faiyum Depression, a lake and oasis* west of the Nile near the delta*, which is fed by a branch of the Nile called the Bahr Yusuf. Its purpose was to drain the marshes, resulting in the development of more farmland, which would mean more food and wealth. In the Ptolemaic period (305-30 B.C.), the Bahr Yusuf was redirected to fill a valley, creating a reservoir called Lake Moeris. The waters from the lake were used to water a second summer crop. Intensive Artificial Irrigation. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and elsewhere around the Mediterranean, some plants required water daily. Hand-drawn water was the only answer for them. Private GARDENS such as those in Egypt and pleasure gardens such as the HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON used wells or ponds as sources. For large-scale agriculture, however, only high-value crops justified the cost and effort of carrying water by hand. Orchards, vineyards, and vegetable gardens were placed as close to water as possible. Combining certain crops also eased the task of irrigation. For example, fruit trees were grown beneath date palms, and vines were trained on trellises to form leafy shelters. This shading reduced water loss through evaporation. Ancient Syria subsisted on dry farming. Most agriculture in the rest of the Levant*, however, depended on intensive artificial irrigation from springs and wells. JERICHO, one of the earliest urban sites, was near a perennial spring. JERUSALEM, Gibeon, and MEGIDDO used natural springs for their water supplies and developed wells and cisterns, or underground tanks, to conserve them. Protecting the water supply against attackers was crucial to a city. Defenders built increasingly complex systems of camouflage, tunnels, and shafts to protect the water supply. At Megiddo, a shaft went straight down, then joined a tunnel that came from a spring. The tunnel was pitched slightly downward to allow water from the spring to form an underground pool. A similar tunnel discovered in A.D. 1838 near Jerusalem was 1,750 feet long. Another ancient Near Eastern irrigation technique that used tunnels was the qanat system. This system involved using underground mountain water sources—the water was channeled through a series of tunnels. The qanat system originated in Oman in the late second millennium B.C.* It was used in Iran in the early first millennium B.C., and its use spread to the rest of the ancient Near East shortly thereafter. The qanat system is still used in regions with an arid climate. (See also Climate; Floods.) 11

Isaiah

ISAIAH lived ca. 700s B.C. Jewish prophet * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * prophecy message from a deity; also, the prediction of future events

exile person forced to live away from his or her homeland for a long period of time

ISHTAR

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

12

saiah (eye»ZAY»uh) was a priest and prophet* in the kingdom of JuIIdah. Around 742 B.C., he was called to prophecy* when he had a vision

in which he saw the god YAWEH and angels in a heavenly temple. Isaiah then began to urge the people of Judah to observe the worship of Yahweh. Isaiah also criticized social injustice. Isaiah made his prophecies at a time when Judah was at risk of attack by foreign powers, especially Assyria. Believing that the threat was a warning from Yahweh, Isaiah advised the rulers of Judah to show their faith in Yahweh because that, and not their attempts to thwart Assyria by entering into foreign alliances, would deliver their people. Between about 740 and 700 B.C., Isaiah, or one of his followers, wrote the first 39 chapters of the Book of Isaiah, which is included in the Hebrew BIBLE. During the captivity of the Jews in Babylon between 587 and 539 B.C., later writers added several chapters, which they also attributed to Isaiah. Modern scholars attribute chapters 40 through 55 to a "second Isaiah/' and chapters 56 through 66 to a "third Isaiah/' The authors of the later chapters wrote to inspire hope in the Jewish exiles*, who had been removed to Babylon when the Babylonians conquered Judah. The authors claimed that Yahweh would help the Jews and looked to the rise of the Persians as a sign of Yahweh's favor. This proved correct when the Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return home to Judah. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Oracles and Prophecy.)

I

shtar was the most important goddess in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. She was known as Ishtar by the Akkadians; as Inanna, which means "lady of heaven," by the Sumerians; and as Astarte in Syria. Although best known as a goddess of LOVE and fertility, Ishtar was also revered as a fierce goddess of war, especially by the Assyrians. Near Eastern myths reveal different aspects of Ishtar's personality, ancestry, and life. In some, she is the daughter of the sky god ANU or the moon god Nanna; in others, she is the daughter of either ENLIL or EA. In Babylonian mythology, Ishtar is the wife and sister of Tammuz, known as Dumuzi by the Sumerians. In other myths, she has no spouse, and Tammuz is her lover. One popular myth about Ishtar tells of her yearly descent into the netherworld, a realm ruled by her sister Ereshkigal. Ishtar went there in search of Tammuz, who had been forced into the netherworld. His return from the netherworld and reunion with Ishtar became associated with fertility and were linked to the seasons and to the agricultural cycles. Another well-known myth, embedded in the Epic of Gilgamesh, tells how Ishtar offers herself in marriage to the mortal hero GILGAMESH. However, he refuses, insulting her. She then unleashes the fierce Bull of Heaven against him, but Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu manage to kill the bull. Ishtar's most important center of worship was at the city-state* of URUK, which contained a shrine dedicated to her known as E-anna (House of Heaven). Her equivalents were the Greek goddess Aphrodite and the Roman goddess Venus. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses.)

Israel and Judah

iSIS * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

See '(color plate 10, vol. 1.

ISRAEL AND JUDAH

Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

I

sis (EYE^suhs), widely worshiped throughout the Near East, was one of the most important goddesses of ancient Egypt. Isis was viewed as a protector, especially of pregnant women, infants, and children, and as a great magician. Egyptians also believed that she had the power to control their fates and fortunes. Symbolically, Isis was considered the mother of the Egyptian king. To reflect this role, her name was always written with a hieroglyphic* sign that represented a throne. In art and architecture, Isis usually was portrayed wearing the throne symbol on her head or wearing a crown of cow horns with a sun disk between them. Isis was believed to be the sister and wife of OSIRIS, the king of the Egyptian gods. According to Egyptian mythology, Osiris's brother SETH murdered Osiris to take over his position as king of the gods. Seth scattered pieces of Osiris's body throughout Egypt, but Isis found them and put him back together again. Then Isis became pregnant by Osiris and gave birth to a son named HORUS. She raised Horus in secret in the marshes of the Nile Delta, so that he might grow up to avenge the death of Osiris and take the throne from Seth. Isis guarded Horus closely and used her magic to protect him from such dangers as scorpions, spiders, and crocodiles. When Horus became an adult, Isis helped him fight for his rightful inheritance. She convinced the other gods to support him, and Horus became the new king of the gods. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

of Israel and Judah were founded by the Israelite peoTheplekingdoms in the highlands of CANAAN. The kingdoms, which had once been parts of a larger unified kingdom of Israel, were both later overcome by more powerful Near Eastern empires. Because many events in Jewish history occurred in Israel and Judah, modern Jews consider these regions their Holy Land. Christians and Muslims, whose religions are derived in various ways from Judaism and who have their own connections with the regions, also consider several sites there sacred.

Origins of the Kingdoms. There are few sources for the early history of the Israelites outside the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism. However, historians debate the reliability of the Bible as a source of history because much of it was composed many centuries after the events it describes and because of the lack of other supporting sources. Moreover, the editors who compiled the Bible may have been attempting to strengthen national and religious unity by emphasizing the shared past of the Israelite people. The Israelites were a Semitic* people who settled in the highlands of Canaan sometime during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500-1200 B.C.). According to the Bible, they called themselves the children of Israel, or Israelites, after their ancestor Jacob, whom their god YAHWEH had renamed Israel. The Bible also notes that on occasion, outsiders referred to the Israelites as "Hebrews/' which remains a common synonym for them. The Israelites were divided into 12 tribes, each named for one of Jacob's sons

13

Israel and Judah

* famine severelack of food due to failed crops * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god,Yahweh

14

or grandsons (other tribes not attached to Jacob's descendants arealso mentioned in theBible). These tribes livedin Canaanforseveral generations until a famine* forced them to leave. They went toEgypt,where they eventually became slaves untilaMOSES leader freed them named and led them back to Canaan—the Promised Land*. After returning to Canaan,the Israelites gradually expanded their territory. They established the kingdomIsrael of and amassed great wealth under their kings DAVID SOLOMON. and After Solomon's death, however, tensions grew between the northern and southern tribes in the kingdom. Ultimately, around B.C.925 Israelwas split intotwo smallerkingdoms— Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Although thepeople remained united in the worship of Yahweh and in their shared religiousand historical traditions, the kingdoms fought over territoryforabout 50years. No other source recovered to date from the time in which David and Solomon were said to have lived mentions either of the twokings or the

Israel and Judah * stela stoneslab or pillar that has been carved or engraved andservesas a monument; pi.stelae * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

ca. 925B.C.

^^^m

Independent kingdoms of Israel and judah are established.

722 B.C.

BBBB

Assyria conquers Israel

Bfg?BBH

Nebuchadnezzar II occupies Jerusalem.

597 B.C.

500 b>C.

539 B.C. judah becomes a Persian province.

^^^^5|

330 B.C. Judah falls under Macedonian control

^^^^^B 160B.C.

50 b.c

^^^^Bl

^^^^?1

Maccabean revolt erupts in Judah.

63 B.C. Judah falls to Romans

A.D.135 Romans destroy Jerusalem and force Judeans into exile.

empire they created. The earliest knownreference to David occurs on a recently excavated fragment of a victory stela* written by an Aramaean king in the B.C. 800sThe near lack of historical evidence about David and Solomon suggests to some scholars that their achievements may ha been more modest than described in the Bible. A few other scholars even question whether the united monarchy existed. Relying on archaeological* evidence, they suggest that the kingdoms may have emerged separately—Israel around B.C. and 900 Judah B.C. around800

History of Israel. Israel was the larger and the more populated of th two kingdoms. It consisted of 10 of the 12 tribes: Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun. Centered in the region around Mount Ephraim and the Sea of Galilee, Israel possessed good agricultural land, and its people produced grain, wine, and olive oil for export and local use. Israel also controlled major northsouth and east-west trade routes and had many contacts with ancient Near Eastern powers. These economic advantages led to rapid population growth. In 886 B.C., Omri became king of Israel.The first Israelite kingto be mentioned in sources outside the Bible, Omri established a new capital called Samaria, a city that eventually gave its name to the whole kingdom During his reign, Omri engaged in several conflicts with the Moabites, neighbors and enemies of the Israelites. He reconquered lands that had previously been lost whenIsrael split into two kingdoms. Omri was succeeded by ARAB (ruledca. 875-854 B.C.),whoDAMASCUS, foughtan against increasingly powerful city-state* B.C., inSyria. however, In 853 Ahab joinedforces with the king of Damascus and with other nearby kingdoms to fight an invading armyofAssyriansled SHALMANESER by their king, III. They won that battle, but the small states of the Levant* could not ho back the Assyrian empire for long. The Assyrians continued to seize more of Syria and Israel until B.C., when 722 they captured Samariaand brought the kingdom ofIsrael to an end. Assyrian policy called for the relocation of captured populations to minimize the possibility of revolts. TheAssyrians shifted large numbers of Israelites into other parts of theAssyrian empire, where they gradually merged with other peoples and disappeared from history. As a result, the Israelites came to be called the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. The Assyrians settled people from Mesopotamia in Samaria.Later a cult of Yahweh arose there among a groupSAMARITANS. knownas History of Judah. The kingdom of Judah consisted of the tribesof Judah and Benjamin and their land. It was smaller andless fertile than its northern neighbor, but JERUSALEM, it includedthe city that had been the capital of the united Israel. Founded by King David, Jerusalem was the site of the Temple of Solomon, the Israelites' religious center. From the late 900s toB.C., the Judah 700s achieved periods of stability under the kings Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah(Azariah). The kingdom was later forced to acknowledgethe dominance B.C., Assyria ofbe- in the 700s coming itsvassal*. After theAssyrian empire's collapse B.C., in the late 600s the Babylonian empire expanded westward. B.C., Babylonian In 597

15

Israelites

* sack to loot a captured

Israelites

See Hebrews and Israelites.

I

vory, a rare and expensive material recovered from the tusks of elephants and hippopotamuses, was used for decorative arts throughout the ancient NearEast. Most elephant ivory was imported from India, although there were elephants SYRIAfrominabout B.C.to3000 about 800 B.C., when they became extinct due to hunting. Hippopotamuses lived in and near the NileRiver inEgypt and also in the Levant*. Ivory was used to make luxury items, such as finely carved cosmetics Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea containers, perfumejars, and combs. The carvings contained the images (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), of gods, animals, or plants. Other objects made from ivory included small the West Bank, and Jordan statues of people and animals, ivory dolls, ornamental panels for chair backs, and headboards for beds. Carved ivory also appeared on chair legs and as the decorative tops of bedposts. A large number of ivory objects were excavated from tombs and See colorplate1, palaces in the Levant, especially UGARIT, MEGIDDO, SAMARIA. at and The obvol.4. jects include boxes with hinged or pivoting lids and several plaques depicting hunting and conquest scenes. The carvings on these objects

IVORY

*

city

armies underNEBUCHADNEZZAR King II occupied Jerusalemandforcedthe Judeans to submit to their rule. Ten yearslater, Judah rebelled, and Babylonia responded by destroying Jerusalem and the temple. The Babylonians dissolved the kingdom of Judah, made the region a Babylonian province, and forced many Jews (as the Judeans became known) into exile in Babylonia. In 539B.C., the Babylonians were conquered by the Persians, whose leaderCYRUS THE GREAT allowedthe Jewsto return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Theformer territory of Judah became a Persian province calledYehud, which theGreeks called Judaea. Judah remained a part of the Persian empire for several hundred years. Generally, this was a peaceful time. In 330B.C., Judah became part of the Macedonian empire, when ALEXANDERGREAT THE overthrew the Persian empire. After Alexander's death, Judah was ruled by hissuccessors—first by the Ptolemies and later by the Seleucids. When the Seleucids prohibited the practice of Judaism, the Judeans, led by Judas Maccabeus, revolted After B.C. in the 160s Maccabean Revolt, Judah enjoyed abrief period of independence. In 63B.C., the region came under the control of Rome. The Jews revolted against Roman A.D. rule 66, in and the Romans sacked* Jerusalem and destroyed the second temple shortly thereafter. Another Jewish uprising occurred between 132 and 135, ending with the destruction of Jerusalem. The Romans forced the Jews of Judah into exile in gions of the Roman Empire and gave Judah the name Syria-Palestina. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

16

Jericho

* artisan skilled craftsperson

JEREMIAH lived ca. 650-570 B.C. Jewish prophet * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insight

JERICHO * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

reflect styles and images prevalent in Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Hittite art. In Egypt during the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a technique known as cloisonne was popular among ivory carvers. In this technique, carvers made small hollows in the ivory and filled them with stones. This technique was also used in the Levant by the Phoenicians and Syrians after 1000 B.C. This is evident from the large numbers of Syrian and Phoenician ivory carvings found at Assyrian palaces. In Assyria, artisans* also connected flat pieces of wax-coated ivory with hinges to make writing boards.

B

orn to a family of priests, Jeremiah (jer»uh«MY»uh) was a prophet* and social critic in Judah during the turbulent period when the Babylonians captured JERUSALEM and took many Jews to BABYLON. His deeds and words are preserved in the Book of Jeremiah in the Hebrew BIBLE. Around 627 B.C., Jeremiah emerged as a prophet. His messages were chiefly criticisms of the Jews' religious and social faults. Sometime after 609 B.C., Jeremiah delivered a sermon in which he attacked the Jews for emphasizing worship in the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. This temple was the religious center of the Jews, and Jeremiah felt that Jews relied on worshiping there rather than truly observing their god Yahweh's religious laws. This made him unpopular, and his popularity did not improve when Babylonia seized Jerusalem in 597 B.C. Jeremiah wrote that Babylonia's domination of Judah was Yahweh's will, and he counseled the people to surrender and to submit quietly. He believed that the Jews would earn the chance to regain their homeland by obeying Yahweh's will. Jeremiah was eventually imprisoned for attempting to desert Jerusalem. However, he was freed by the Babylonians who appointed Gedaliah, their governor in Judah, to look after him. When Gedaliah was assassinated, a group of Jews who feared that the Babylonians would come to avenge his death took Jeremiah to Egypt. According to legend, Jeremiah annoyed his fellow Jews so much with his unpopular views that they stoned him to death in about 570 B.C. (See also Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Oracles and Prophecy.)

J

ericho (JER»i*koh) is an ancient town located in the Palestinian West Bank. Settled as early as 9000 B.C., it is perhaps the oldest permanent settlement in the world. Artifacts* found at the site have enabled archaeologists* to learn more about the development of the first settlements and civilizations in the Near East. Beginnings of Urban Civilization. Jericho may have first served as a camp to nomadic* hunters who stopped there because it was located near the Jordan River and a spring, both of which provided water in an otherwise arid region near the Dead Sea. Between 9000 and 8000 B.C., people began to establish permanent settlements in Jericho. They built 17

Jerusalem * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * cult formal religious worship

^Didthe Walls Come Tumbling Down? According to the Book of Joshua in the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites captured Jericho with trumpet blasts and a loud war cry that made the city's defensive walls collapse. Modern scholars debate whether the Israelites conquered Jericho militarily or took over the city gradually and peacefully. During the A.D. 1950s, Kathleen Kenyon of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem excavated the site and found no evidence of a city wall from what is believed to be Joshua's time, about 1200 B,C However, erosion has left almost no trace of Jericho from that ^period. Is the Joshua story an exag: gerated account of a real battle? t Archaeology cannot yet answer ^that question.

JERUSALEM archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

18

round, one-room houses with mud bricks*. For protection, they surrounded the town with a 5-foot-thick stone wall that included a watchtower about 30 feet high. By around 7500 B.C., about 2,000 people were living in Jericho and practicing AGRICULTURE. Researchers have found cultivated grain in Jericho, evidence that the people there might have been among the earliest farmers. They grew wheat and barley and may have been the first to build IRRIGATION channels to water their crops. Moreover, tools made from obsidian* found in the ruins show that Jericho had established trade with places as far away as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the source of the obsidian. Around 7000 B.C., the people of Jericho began building rectangular houses centered on courtyards that contained fireplaces. Bodies buried beneath these houses suggest that the people practiced ancestor worship. Archaeologists have also found collections of human skulls, suggesting the presence of an ancestor cult*. The facial features of the skulls were reconstructed in plaster with seashells for eyes. Between 6000 and 3000 B.C., Jericho was abandoned periodically for reasons not yet known. Thereafter, it once again became a permanent settlement. Its people traded salt, which they collected from the nearby Dead Sea, for goods from Anatolia, SYRIA, and Egypt. Using this wealth, the town rebuilt its walls. Then, sometime after 2300 B.C., the AMORITES— nomadic peoples from Syria—settled in the region. New Inhabitants. By around 1900 B.C., Jericho had again become fortified city, this time occupied by the Canaanites. Furnishings and tools found in tombs from this period have provided archaeologists with information about Canaanite life. Around 1550 B.C., Jericho was destroyed by a fire that may have been caused by an earthquake or an attack. Jericho's history after that time is not as well known as its earlier history because erosion wore away the ruins before archaeologists could study them. Historians do know, however, that the Israelites probably gained control of Jericho and other parts of Canaan around 1200 B.C. Jericho was the site of later settlements, notably during the 600s B.C., when it was part of the kingdom of Judah. Later powers that occupied the region during the ancient period included Persia and Rome. (See also Israel and Judah; Hebrews and Israelites.)

T

he city of Jerusalem is located amid rocky hills about 25 miles from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Its most important role in the ancient world was as the capital of the united Israelite monarchy, later of the Judean state, and as the center of the religion known as Judaism. Today it is the capital of the modern nation of Israel. The name Jerusalem appears to have come from Canaanite words possibly meaning "[the god] Shalem is its founder/' or "the foundation of Shalem." Texts from the city of UGARIT in Syria mention Shalem as a god of night. The Canaanite City. Much of what is known about Jerusalem's early history comes from the work of teams led by archaeologists* Kathleen

Jerusalem

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3).

Focus of Three Faiths Jerusalem is a holy city for three of the modern religions that originated in the Near East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. To jews, Jerusalem symbolizes their continued identity over thousands of years. It was the capital of their ancient state and the site of their most sacred temple. Christians honor Jerusalem as the site of Christ's teachings and miracles and of his death, burial, and resurrection. Muslims believe that the prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, began a journey to heaven from a rock on the Temple Mount. The mosque, or Muslim house of worship, built there in the A.D. 680s, is one of the oldest surviving Islamic buildings.

Kenyon and Yigal Shiloh in the middle to late A.D. 1900s. Shiloh uncovered the oldest known traces of human occupation at Jerusalem at sites on a hill called Ophel. Those traces consist of pits dug in the late fourth millennium B.C.* and pottery from the third millennium B.C.* During the 1700s B.C., Jerusalem became a fortified city ringed by a stone wall up to ten feet thick. By the 1300s B.C., the Canaanites, whose culture extended across much of the Levant*, occupied Jerusalem. Evidence of this has been found in several Egyptian texts that mention Jerusalem. During the 1000s B.C., people called the Jebusites, members of a Canaanite culture group, occupied Jerusalem. However, little is known about them, and few artifacts* of their residence in Jerusalem have survived. Biblical Jerusalem. The Hebrew BIBLE describes Jerusalem during the reigns of DAVID and his son SOLOMON, kings of the unified kingdom of Israel. However, no other surviving text from the period mentions the two kings or their kingdom, although a later inscription found at Tel Dan mentions the "House" (dynasty) of David. According to the Bible, in the late 1000s B.C., the Israelites were united under David. One of David's greatest successes as king was the capture of Jerusalem from the Jebusites around 1000 B.C. David wisely incorporated Jerusalem into his kingdom and made it his capital. The city had a spring to provide water, its hilltop location gave it some protection against attack, and it lay along the main north-south trade route between Phoenicia and Egypt. David captured Jerusalem for the Israelites, but his son Solomon gave the city its most impressive and important features. Solomon expanded the administrative functions of the Israelite state and created new royal institutions in Jerusalem, including a court and the Temple of Solomon, constructed in the Phoenician style. The Temple of Solomon, also known as the First Temple, stood on the Temple Mount. The structure is known from descriptions in the biblical Books of Kings, Chronicles, and Ezekiel. No direct archaeological evidence of it exists, but researchers have found buildings at other Phoenician-Canaanite sites that resemble the biblical descriptions. Solomon borrowed the basic design of his temple from his Phoenician neighbors and adapted it to the worship of the Hebrew god YAHWEH. For example, Phoenician temples featured thrones on which stood statues of the deities. Reflecting the invisible spirit of Yahweh, the throne in Solomon's temple was empty, except for an ark—a box of acacia wood, which contained the tablets of the Covenant. The Israelites not only accepted the new structure, they willingly paid for it with increased taxes. As a highly visible, impressive monument in the capital, the temple became the focus of religious life, which was closely linked to national identity. This royal state religion was a departure from the traditions of worship outside Jerusalem. Over the years, tension would occasionally develop between those who wanted the temple to be at the center of religious life and those who resisted the authority of the temple priests. During the rule of Solomon's son Rehoboam, the kingdom of Israel broke up into two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah, including 19

Jewelry

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

JEWELRY * deity god or goddess * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

Jerusalem, in the south. In the centuries that followed, the Temple of Solomon was the center of Jewish religious movements and reforms. In the late 700s B.C., the Assyrians attacked Israel and Judah, but Jerusalem's thick city wall enabled it to survive an Assyrian siege*. By 597 B.C., however, the Babylonians had occupied Judah, including Jerusalem. When the Judeans (people of Judah) rebelled ten years later, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its temple. Exile, Return, and Exile Again. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the Babylonians carried many Judeans off to exile in Babylonia. Around 538 B.C., CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia conquered the Babylonians and permitted the Jews, as the Judeans later became known, to return to Jerusalem. There the governor Nehemiah and the scribe* and prophet* Ezra tried to rebuild civic and religious institutions. They also rebuilt the temple at a somewhat smaller scale. During this time of resettlement and rebuilding, Jerusalem took on additional importance to the Jews. It became the symbol of a people who had suffered but whom Yahweh was now lifting to a new level of glory. Yet, Jerusalem was smaller than it had been before the Babylonian exile. The city did not regain its importance until the 100s B.C., when King Herod rebuilt the temple and built a lavish palace and other structures there. The Jews who resettled Jerusalem may have dreamed of creating a new and greater kingdom of Israel, but in the centuries that followed, Jerusalem passed into the hands of a series of outside powers: first the PERSIAN EMPIRE, then the SELEUCID EMPIRE, and finally the Roman Empire. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the second temple in A.D. 70 and took many Jewish captives to Rome. The Jews who remained in Jerusalem revolted against Rome in 132 but were defeated by the Roman emperor Hadrian in 135. After this defeat, Hadrian ordered that the Jews could no longer live in Jerusalem, so they were forced into a second, much longer, exile. Hadrian renamed the city Aelia Capitolina. (See also Canaan; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

I

n the ancient Near East, jewelry was—as it is now—a sign of status. Be cause jewelry was expensive, it was generally worn only by royalty and the elite. However, jewelry was used for more than personal beautification. Ancient Near Eastern peoples adorned the statues of gods and goddesses with bracelets, rings, necklaces, and other items. People wore jewelry bearing images of their deities* to show their devotion. They also wore amulets* to protect themselves from evil spirits or to enlist the aid and support of favorable ones. The rareness of the material, the beauty of the design, and the artisan's skill also made jewelry a valuable gift for weddings or royal exchanges. Finally, jewelry was an investment as well as a currency. Materials for Jewelry. Many materials were used to make jewelry in ancient times. The base of much jewelry was gold and, less commonly,

20

Jewelry

* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * faience decorated object made of quartz and other materials that includes a glaze * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C. * artisan skilled craftsperson * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Buried Treasure Archaeologist Leonard Woolley led the excavation at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, which dates from about 2900 B.C. Among his finds was the magnificent tomb of Queen Pu-abi, whose body was adorned with jewelry that required great skill to create. Covering her upper body was a garment of gold, silver, and beads made from blue, red, white, and multicolored stones. Near her head were three diadems, two of which were decorated with delicate leaves made of faience attached to a gold band. Necklaces of semiprecious stones circled her neck. She wore amulets made of gold and lapis lazuli. Even the horses buried with her were decorated with jewelry.

silver or copper. Gold is an easy metal to work with—when heated; it can be molded into any shape or thickness. It also lasts and does not tarnish as do silver and copper. The Egyptians favored gold for symbolic reasons; its yellow color and long-lasting quality reminded Egyptians of the sun and the sun god Amun-Ra. Jewelry was decorated with many semiprecious stones. Among the most popular GEMS were lapis lazuli*, carnelian, turquoise, agate, and obsidian*, but many others were used as well. Valuable natural materials, such as ivory and bone, seashells, ostrich eggshells, and amber were also set in jewelry. Manufactured products such as faience* were used, too, because they were less expensive and could be sold to common people. Around 1400 B.C., craft workers in the Levant* developed great skill in making faience and, later, glass. This skill supported a lively export trade in many goods. The Development of Jewelry. The earliest jewelry was simple. Finds from the seventh millennium B.C.* in MESOPOTAMIA have yielded jewelry made of bones or shells strung together. Over the years, artisans* perfected their craft and produced magnificent jewelry for rulers and people of wealth. Records from as early as 2100 B.C. in Mesopotamia reveal the practices of jewelers' workshops. One text describes a workshop divided into eight different specialists: metalworkers, goldsmiths, stonecutters, blacksmiths, leather workers, felt workers, carpenters, and reed workers. Some of the jewelry produced by artisans in the ancient world was placed in tombs as part of burial practices. This is evident from the excavations of the Sumerian royal tombs at UR, dating from about 2600 B.C. There archaeologists* found a queen's jewelry, including gold earrings and necklaces. They also found chokers strung with beads in a variety of shapes made of gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The jewels found in the tomb of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN further reveal the skill and talent of ancient crafts workers—and the great wealth of the rulers. Such excavations are still under way at many sites. The royal tombs of the Assyrian queens in the city of KOLKHU were discovered only in the A.D. 1980s. Archaeologists uncovered large quantities of jewelry there. The intricate designs of the pieces—which include delicate gold flowers and tiny grapes made of lapis lazuli—show that Assyrian goldsmiths were highly skilled workers. Types of Jewelry. Common items in ancient Near Eastern jewelry included diadems (ornamental crowns or headdresses), necklaces, pectoral (chest) ornaments, bracelets, armlets, and rings. Ancient peoples wore diadems around the head, across the forehead. In Mesopotamia, archaeologists found one royal diadem made of lapis beads with carved gold animals, fruit, and flowers and another with large interlocking rings that extended down and over the forehead. In Egypt, they have excavated a diadem in gold and copper with a carving of a papyrus nest for two ibises, a bird linked to Thoth, the god of learning, and another with 15 flowers inlaid with carnelian and faience. In King Tutankhamen's tomb, archaeologists found a gold diadem with a snake in the front and back and details in carnelian, obsidian, and colored glass. A Sumerian queen's 21

Jewelry

gold, lapis, and carnelian headdress hadtall stemmed flowers on thetop, with leaves, hoops, and other shapes covering theforehead anddangling all around.In Egypt,one ofTHUTMOSE the queens IIIof wore aheaddress of flower-shaped gold disks that coveredthehair likea wig and extended down past the shoulders. Men and women wore earrings, usually madeforpierced ears. Most were large and long. The earrings contained gold filigree,carvings with stone inlays, or dangling beads.In the Levant, earrings were shaped like birds, beans, pomegranate buds, andlotus flowers. Beaded necklacesof precious stones were also worn throughoutthe region. They ranged from simple chokerstomultistrand necklaces of stones and beads in many shapes andcolors, interrupted bycarved gold. Egyptian jewelry included thewesekh, acollar thatcovered theentire breastbone and waswornby men andwomen.Itconsistedofmany rows of stone orfaience beadsin geometric floral or patterns. 22

Judaism and Jews

* ankh cross with a loop at the top; Egyptian symbol of life * scarab representation of the dung beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians

See [ color plate 8, vol. 4.

lews

Egyptian and Mesopotamian men and women also wore pectorals on the upper chest (the location of the pectoral muscles). One Egyptian example shows two large birds, two snakes, two ankhs*, and a scarab*, all inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, feldspar, lapis, garnet, and carnelian. Another contains papyrus plants, two lionlike animals, defeated enemies, and the god HORUS. A third, of gold, silver, and stones, has flowers, fish, snakes, and a scarab with large wings. Men and women wore bracelets at the wrists and armlets on the upper arms. They were decorated with lion heads, trees, and winged creatures. A frequent and useful feature was the metal hinge, which served a decorative purpose as well as a practical one. An armlet with hinges fit snugly around the upper arm, whereas a bangle-type bracelet was large and could get past the elbow. An Egyptian statue shows a woman wearing 11 bracelets on one arm and 12 on the other. Rings, worn on many fingers, were common. They might be of carved gold, silver, bronze, or iron; plain or engraved or with stone settings. Sometimes attached to the band was a gold wire, at the end of which a precious stone dangled. Many Egyptian rings contained a stone scarab, some of which swiveled, and the other side was carved. This allowed the ring also to be used as a SEAL. (See also Faience; Metals and Metalworking.)

See Judaism and Jews.

Jezebel

See Ahab.

Judah

See Israel and Judah.

JUDAISM AND JEWS * monotheistic referring to the belief in only one god * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * prophecy message from a deity; also, the prediction of future events

J

udaism—the religion of the Jews—is a monotheistic* faith that developed over hundreds of years among the ancient Israelites. The religion is centered on the worship of YAHWEH, the god also known as EL, a Semitic* term that means god. Many ancient texts deal with the legends, history, laws, prophecies*, and teachings of Judaism, but the sacred book of the religion is the Hebrew BIBLE. The name Jew comes from the Old French word Jiu, which referred to the people of Judah, the ancient name of their homeland. The ancient Jews were united by their religious beliefs and by their strong tradition of religious education and customs. For a time, they had lived together in Israel—a land with which they identified deeply. However, conquest and deportation* caused the Jewish population to spread out across the Near Eastern landscape. Separated from old institutions such as the Temple of Solomon, the place of worship in their holy city of 23

Judaism and Jews * deportation forced movement of individuals or groups of people from one place to another

JERUSALEM, they interacted with other people and absorbed new influences. Their religion developed further as a result of political and social changes.

* patriarch male leader of a family or tribe

Origins of Judaism. Jews trace their history to the patriarch* Abraham (also called Abram), who lived in Ur of the Chaldees (a city and district in ancient Sumer). According to the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh made a covenant, or solemn agreement, with Abraham. Yahweh promised him the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) and many descendants. (These descendants called themselves the children of Israel after Abraham's grandson Jacob, whom Yahweh had renamed Israel.) The Israelites then lived in Canaan for several generations, until a famine* forced them to leave. Thereafter, they went to Egypt, where they eventually became enslaved. Another important figure in Judaism was MOSES, a leader who brought the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and back into Canaan. This journey, known as the Exodus, lasted 40 years. During the Exodus, Moses gave the Israelites a new understanding of Yahweh. A key element of this new understanding was the renewal of the Covenant. The Israelites vowed to follow Yahweh's laws so that the promises he made to them, the ones he promised Abraham, might be fulfilled. The covenant meant that they were a "chosen people" who had a special relationship with Yahweh. It also made them responsible for living in accordance with Yahweh's will as interpreted in laws and rules, such as the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which Yahweh had revealed to Moses during the Exodus.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

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Conflict, Reform, and Change. When the Israelites arrived in Canaan, Moses was not allowed to enter the Promised Land because he had not followed one of Yahweh's orders exactly. Nevertheless, his followers entered Canaan, and there they eventually founded the kingdom of Israel, which endured in various forms for more than 400 years. King DAVID established Israel's capital at Jerusalem. SOLOMON, his son and successor, built a magnificent temple, which was the center of the Israelite religion, in Jerusalem. Solomon placed the ARK OF THE COVENANT—a sacred chest made of acacia wood and gold—in the temple. The ark contained tablets of the covenant between Yahweh and the Israelites from the time of the Exodus. Religion and the government were closely linked in Israel. The state cult*, which centered on institutions such as the Temple of Solomon, was headed by the king. He had supreme authority over the cult and performed duties such as offering animal sacrifices and ordering the people to religious meetings. Kings, administrators, and the urban priesthood worked to make temple rituals the focus of the religion. The state cult helped fuse the Israelites' religious and national identity. Some Israelites resisted the trend toward centralized authority. They criticized royal laws and policies and emphasized the importance of moral purity, justice, and individual worship that was not based on participating in functions of the state cult. Another trend influenced Israelite religious life during the period of the monarchy: the attraction to other gods and cults, such as the fertility

Judaism and Jews * prophet one who claims to have received divinemessages or insights

cults of the Canaanites. Soon Israelites began toworship deities other than Yahweh,and prophets* begantocriticize them falling for from away the sole worship of Yahweh. They claimed thatYahweh would punish those who continued to worship foreign gods. The prophets'words became part of theBibleand sometimes inspired such reformsas the destruction of shrinesto other gods. The Exile. In about B.C., 925 Israel separated intotwo kingdoms—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Although thekingdoms achieved some stability at first, they were botheventually overcomebyother Near Eastern empires.The peopleof the kingdomofIsrael disappeared fromhistoryafter they were conqueredand deported by B.C. theAssyrians in 722 Nevertheless, Judaism continued todevelop with theJudeans (the people of Judah, who later became knownJews), as after even theBabylonians conquered Judah, destroyed Jerusalemand thetemple,forced and many Jews into exilein Babyloniain the B.C.early 500s The period of Babylonian exileisknownas the Diaspora, aswere all subsequent periods when Jews lived scattered outside ofIsrael, even to this day. The exiled Jews considered their plightatestoftheir faithin Yahweh. They developedabeliefinfuture a when Yahweh would restore Israel to itsformer glory. While they were in exile, theJews hadalso developed areliance on rituals and rules about prayeranddietary lawstokeep themselves purein Yahweh's eyes. This bodyofpractices became associated with their identity as Jews. Thus, the Babylonian exile changed Judaism fromalocal

25

Judaism and Jews faith, tied to its place of origin, into a universal or world religion based on following a code of laws.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

The Issue of Intermarriage Judaism is not just a religion but also an ethnic and national heritage or identity. After their return from the exile, Jewish leaders in Judah took steps to preserve that identity. They discouraged marriages between descendants of returned exiles and descendants of people who had not been exiled. The scribe Ezra, to whom the Persians had given considerable power in Judah, set up a court that examined marriages and dissolved those that did not meet his standards. Not all Jews appreciated Ezra's high standards* The marriage court made him unpopular. As a result, the Persians took away Ezra's authority.

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

26

After the Exile. In 538 B.C., after the Persian empire had conquered Babylonia, the Persian emperor CYRUS THE GREAT allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and Judah, which had become part of Persian territory. The Persians called this province Yehud, which was known in Greek as Judaea. The Jews who returned to Jerusalem focused on building the second temple and on organizing and publishing the traditional texts dealing with Jewish law, which became established as the constitution within their province. Two important figures in Judaism during the 400s B.C. were Nehemiah, a leader and Persian official who helped rebuild Jerusalem, and Ezra, a scribe* and priest. Both men felt that Jews in Judah had fallen away from traditional worship and set about to reform and reorganize the people. Nehemiah issued many reforms and worked to strengthen the Jews' observance of religious laws. Ezra brought together the most important traditional writings in the TORAH, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. In doing this, Ezra made the law a central fixture of Judaism and linked observance of the laws with preserving Jewish identity. As a result of his efforts, Ezra is considered responsible for reestablishing Judaism after the exile. Another important development after the exile was in the role of the scribe. Scribes had always been important as transmitters of the Israelite religion, but with the new emphasis on the law brought by Ezra, they became the recognized experts on religious and other issues. The issue of who was a Jew also became important after the exile. Jews who had returned from Babylonia to Jerusalem considered themselves more faithful to Yahweh and more observant than those who had not been forced to leave Judah. This feeling caused a rift between Jews who had returned and those who had not been exiled. As a result, Jewish leaders, scribes, and priests, such as Ezra and Nehemiah, tried to prevent these ''pure" Jews from mixing with other cultures, including Jews who had remained in Judah. By this time, Jews' experiences had led them to believe that Yahweh directed the destinies of all nations and peoples, which meant that Judaism was now completely monotheistic. They also believed in the immortality of the human soul, punishment after death for those who chose sin, and a heavenly reward for those who chose righteousness. Judaism During the Hellenistic Period. Around 330 B.C., the Macedonian army of ALEXANDER THE GREAT overthrew the Persian empire and Judah passed into Alexander's control. After Alexander's death, his successors, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria and Mesopotamia, fought over Judah and the other territories that Alexander had conquered. During the Hellenistic* period, as many as a million Jews may have lived in each of the four major sites of the Diaspora: Babylonia, Egypt, SYRIA, and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Alexandria, a Greek city in Egypt, became a center of Jewish learning, and the Jews there adopted the Greek language. During the Diaspora, the emphasis on education and

Judaism and Jews

* sect group of people with a common leadership who share a distinctive set of religious views and opinions

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* exile person forced to live away from his or her homeland for a long period of time

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

the transmission of knowledge helped preserve and spread the Jewish traditions and beliefs. Jewish culture itself developed in new directions, producing rival schools of thought and sects*. The Jews also absorbed aspects of the local cultures into their religion. For example, a common Mesopotamian belief in healing through magic was adopted by the Jews of Babylon. The Persian religion known as Zoroastrianism and Egyptian beliefs shared some common features with Judaism, especially the idea that the immortal human soul receives punishment or reward based on a person's actions in life. The Israelites originally spoke Hebrew, a Semitic language. In the second half of the first millennium B.C.*, Hebrew, like some other Near Eastern languages, was replaced in daily life by another Semitic language, Aramaic, the language of the ARAMAEANS. The exiles* who returned from Babylonia brought Aramaic with them. The Jews continued to use Hebrew as a literary and scholarly language, but by the Hellenistic period, they were speaking Aramaic and Greek. Jerusalem and the Jews enjoyed a brief period of independence in the 100s B.C., but in 63 B.C., they came under the control of yet another foreign power—Rome. When the Jews revolted against Roman rule, the Romans destroyed the second temple and Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Jerusalem had been partially rebuilt and repopulated when the Jews revolted again in 132. After this revolt, the Romans dispersed the Jewish inhabitants of Judah to other regions of the Roman Empire and renamed Judah SyriaPalestina. Jewish religion and culture remained alive, however, in this second exilic period. Further Developments. After the destruction of the second temple, synagogues—places of assembly and worship—became important centers of Jewish life. Synagogues date back to the 200s B.C. and possibly as far as the 580s B.C., when the Temple of Solomon was destroyed. The earliest synagogues may have been homes that were used for religious instruction. In the first century A.D., synagogues existed in the Levant*, Rome, Greece, Egypt, Babylon, and Asia Minor. Synagogues remain as places of worship by Jews today. After the destruction of the second temple, Judaism was further changed with the emergence of rabbis as religious leaders. Rabbis were spiritual guides and teachers who organized around separate houses of worship or synagogues. They devoted themselves to studying the scripture, or sacred writings, and teaching it to their communities. They were considered interpreters of Jewish law. Rabbis took on even greater importance after A.D. 135, when the Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem. This began what is referred to as Rabbinic Judaism, when the rabbis and their centers of learning were looked to for religious leadership. The rabbis emphasized the study of the sacred writings of Judaism, prayer, and faithfulness over centralized worship in a temple. This reemphasized the idea that had emerged during the Babylonian exile that Judaism could be practiced anywhere. The rabbis arranged and set an order for Jewish laws during the first centuries A.D. in a compilation of ancient sacred teachings known as the Talmud. The Talmud contains explanations of and commentaries on the 27

Kalkhu laws that Yahweh told to Moses. Talmudic schools were established where scholars could study the Talmud. Between the A.D. 500s and 900, scholars at these schools devoted themselves to retrieving and arranging the Hebrew scriptures and recording them in Hebrew. This version of the Bible, known as the Masoretic text, was carefully transcribed when it was compiled, and was first printed in the late 1400s. Today rabbis and scholars around the world consider the Masoretic text to be the authentic Hebrew Bible. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Monotheism; Mosaic Law; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

KALKHU archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

KARKAMISH * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

28

k

alkhu (KAL»hoo), present-day Nimrud, was a city located on the anks of the TIGRIS RIVER in northern MESOPOTAMIA. Kalkhu was established in the 1200s B.C. and during the reign of ASHURNASIRPAL II (ca. 883-859 B.C.), became the capital of the Assyrian empire. Archaeologists* have found temples dedicated to the city god Ninurta and another to Nabu, the god of writing. They have also found the Northwest Palace built by Ashurnasirpal, which contained stone sculptures describing important events in the king's reign. The palace was guarded by stone statues of lions and bulls. In addition, archaeologists have discovered the "tombs of the queens/' where important women in the Assyrian empire were buried. Among the many objects found in the tombs are golden jewelry and pottery and alabaster containers. One of the most important buildings found at Kalkhu was built in the mid 800s B.C., during the reign of SHALMANESER III. The building was an arsenal (military structure) and contained items of tribute* that the Assyrians received from their vanquished enemies and vassal* states. Objects found there include ivory carvings, figurines, tools, jars, and furniture panels. In 721 B.C., King SARGON II moved Assyria's capital to Khorsabad. Thereafter, Kalkhu became a provincial* capital. In the late 600s B.C., the city was destroyed by the invading armies of the MEDES. A small village remained until the 100s B.C., when the site was finally abandoned. (See also Cities and City-States.)

K

arkamish (KAHR»kuh»mish), also known as Carchemish, was a Hittite city-state* on the west bank of the upper EUPHRATES RIVER, near the border of present-day Turkey and Syria. It was inhabited from the Neolithic period* but flourished during the Neo-Hittite period. Karkamish first appears in written records dating from the 2500s B.C. Its location made it an important part of the trading network of the ancient Near East. Caravans from ancient SYRIA, MESOPOTAMIA, and ANATOLIA all crossed the Euphrates near Karkamish. The city was known as a trading center for wood, which was shipped down the river to be sold to desert peoples who had little access to this rare and useful material. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the city was ruled by the Hittite king's governor.

Kassites

* hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphics, to represent words or ideas

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

KARNAK

See map on inside covers.

KASSITES dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Karkamish contained buildings that attested to its prosperity, including a temple dedicated to the storm god TESHUB, a gatehouse, and the King's Gate. Much of the architecture and sculpture is inscribed in Luwian hieroglyphics* with details of rulers' successes and blessings from the gods. These blessings could not protect the region from the mighty Assyrians, however. TIGLATH-PILESER III and SARGON II conquered several Neo-Hittite cities including Karkamish in 717 B.C. Karkamish remained a province of the Assyrian empire until Assyria fell in 612 B.C. In 605 B.C., Karkamish was the site of the final battle between the Babylonians and the Egyptians. The Babylonians, under NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, prevailed and drove the Egyptians out of Syria. Thereafter, Karkamish disappeared from history. (See also Hittites; Neo-Hittites.)

L

ocated near the ancient city of THEBES in Lower Egypt, Karnak was among the most important religious sites in ancient Egypt. The site began as a small shrine but developed into a massive temple complex over a period of 2,000 years. Karnak was home to AMUN, the chief god of Thebes. Begun by Sesostris I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, the temple was enlarged by many later kings, each eager to show his devotion to the god. It evolved into a huge T-shaped structure surrounded by four walls enclosing more than seven acres. Within the walls, six monumental pylons, or gateways, lead from the west to the main temple, which was set near the center. Four more pylons lead to the temple from the south. One of the temple's most striking features is a hall with 134 columns carved to look like huge papyrus plants. The columns are laid out in 16 rows with up to 9 columns in each row. The complex also contains many smaller temples, chapels, and a sacred lake. In ancient times, the high priest washed and purified himself in the waters of the sacred lake each morning before entering Amun's temple and worshiping the god. It was here that pharaohs prayed to Amun for victory. Two other brick-walled enclosures comprise the rest of the ruins at Karnak. To the north of the enclosure of Amun is the enclosure of Montu, the original local god of the Theban area. To the south is the enclosure of Mut, another god of Thebes. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Palaces and Temples.)

T

he Kassites, a tribal people of unknown origin, began arriving in MESOPOTAMIA by way of the Zagros Mountains around 1800 B.C. They lived in the countryside surrounding the cities of Babylonia and worked as farm laborers, construction workers, and soldiers. Shortly after 1595 B.C., when Hittite king Murshili I raided Babylon and weakened the ruling dynasty* there, the Kassites seized power. They ruled Babylonia for about 400 years—the longest-ruling dynasty in the ancient Near East. During Kassite rule, there were political stability, economic prosperity, and achievements in culture and literature. The Kassites also undertook 29

Khabiru

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Khabiru

KHATTI * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

30

public building projects, encouraged trade, and improved international relations. The Kassites brought about a lasting period of political unification in Babylonia. The ruling classes also adopted traditional philosophy, according to which the ruler was responsible for the land and was to ensure the basics of life for all. The Kassites assimilated* Babylonian culture and integrated themselves into mainstream society. They worshiped the Babylonian gods as well as two of their own—Shuqamuna and Shumaliya—who were sometimes called the gods of the king. The Kassites also favored the Sumerian god Enlil, and they adopted the language of Babylonia. Consequently, little is known about the native Kassite language and customs. During the Kassite period, Babylonia engaged in trade with Egypt, Afghanistan, and the peoples of the Aegean. Babylonian textiles, horses, and chariots and imported lapis lazuli* were traded for gold, precious stones, and varieties of wood. The Kassites invented a type of boundary stone called the kudumi, which recorded areas of land given by the king to people he favored. These stones were inscribed with writing about the land and its recipient and were elaborately carved with images of the gods who witnessed its being given by the king. The Kassites also brought horse breeding, horse riding, and new technology in chariot making to Babylonia, and they invented molded bricks to form figures in relief*. In addition to the ruling dynasty in Babylon, Kassite tribal groups inhabited regions east of the Tigris River. These tribes remained there long after the Kassite dynasty lost power around 1158 B.C., when they were attacked by Elamites.

See Hebrews and Israelites.

T

hroughout the history of the ancient Near East, the term Khatti (HAT»ti) was used to refer to different groups or states in different periods. Before the 1600s B.C., the term referred to the indigenous* peoples who inhabited ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) before the arrival of the HITTITES. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the term referred to the Hittite kingdom with its capital at KHATTUSHA (present-day Bogzkoy). During the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 B.C.), Khatti referred to north Syria probably because that region contained several NEO-HITTITE settlements, such as KARKAMISH. The indigenous people of Khatti, sometimes called the Proto-Khattians, spoke Hattic, a language that has not been deciphered*. Consequently, the land and people of Khatti will remain a mystery until scholars are able to read the Hattic tablets. However, historians know that they were skilled metalworkers from evidence (sophisticated metal objects) excavated at tombs in northeastern Anatolia. After the arrival of the Hittites, the people of Khatti were absorbed into the Hittite state, and their history became intertwined with that of the Hittites.

KHATTUSHA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory See map in Hittites (vol. 2).

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

KHATTUSHILI I ruled ca. 1650-1620 B.C. Hittite king

T

Khattushili I

he ancient city of Khattusha (HAT»tu»sa) was located in northcentral ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). It was the capital of the empire of the HITTITES. Known today as Bogazkoy, the site was first settled shortly before 2000 B.C. and became the empire's capital around 1650 B.C. Khattusha was located at a great distance from a group of city-states* near the Euphrates River and seemed an unlikely place for a capital. However, the site had practical and strategic advantages because it was situated on a hill at the junction of two smaller rivers. This gave the city's inhabitants access to water and a means of transportation. Moreover, the city fulfilled the Hittites' need for a strategic location from which they could safely wage war. Khattusha reached the peak of its power around the 1300s B.C. At that time, it covered an area of more than 400 acres. The city had a population of about 20,000 and was protected by a wall and a moat. Seven gateways, including the famous King's Gate, Lion Gate, and Sphinx Gate, led into Khattusha. The city also contained 30 temples, administrative and royal buildings, and an audience hall. Around 1200 B.C., there was unrest on all sides of the Hittite empire and dissent within. Enemies from the north captured and burned Khattusha. Not all was lost, however. Archaeologists* have found more than 10,000 cuneiform* tablets in the ruins at Khattusha. They offer valuable and detailed information about Hittite history and culture.

K

hattushili I (hat«too«SEE*li) was the founder of the Hittite Old Kingdom. He made the city of KHATTUSHA—atop a hill and at considerable distance from other major Hittite cities—the kingdom's capital. Surrounded by a tall, thick wall, Khattusha was well defended from invaders and an excellent location for launching military campaigns. Khattushili concentrated on extending the Hittite kingdom. He decided to take over powerful cities on the trade routes because they would ensure a steady supply of metals, such as tin, to his empire. His aim was to conquer all the regions south of Khattusha so that he would have access to the Mediterranean Sea. From there, he planned to sail to northern SYRIA, a region that could bring the HITTITES great wealth because most trade routes met there. Khattushili decided to attack the powerful Syrian cities of ALALAKH and Halab (present-day Aleppo). He carried out this plan and conquered Alalakh, robbing Halab of an outlet to the sea. Then instead of moving on to Halab, he turned west toward Arzawa, a powerful state in western Anatolia bordering on the Aegean Sea. After the success of this campaign, he turned his attention back to Halab. However, the Halab campaign was again postponed when HURRIANS attacked the Hittites from the east. It took Khattushili more than a year to push them back across the Euphrates River. He attempted one more attack on Halab but was unable to conquer the city. Some historians believe that Khattushili may have been killed during this attempt, but no one is certain how he died. During most of his reign, Khattushili was away from his kingdom. In his absence, the kingdom experienced civil strife, and his three rebellious

31

Khattushili III sons competed for power. In retaliation, Khattushili disowned them and named his grandson Murshili I his successor. Murshili successfully conquered Halab, realizing Khattushili's plans.

KHATTUSHILI III ruled ca. 1275-1250 B.C. Hittite king

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

32

K

hattushili III (hat»too»SEE»li), ruler of the HITTITES for 25 years, was an accomplished soldier and an expert in diplomacy and peacemaking. He was a younger son of Murshili II. When his father died in about 1306 B.C., Khattushili's older brother, Muwattalli II, became king, and Khattushili was appointed governor of a region in northeastern ANATOLIA. There he repelled the Gasga people who invaded from the region of the Pontic Mountains. He also recovered Hittite territory that had been previously lost, including the capital, KHATTUSHA. When King Muwattalli II died around 1282 B.C., his son Urkhi-Teshub became king, taking the name Murshili III. Khattushili continued his military campaigns in the north, but he resented his nephew, who began to undermine Khattushili's power. Finally, after seven years, Khattushili assembled an army and marched against Murshili. He overthrew the king and exiled him. Knowledge of the events of Khattushili's reign comes from his autobiography, entitled Apology, a document written largely to justify the new king's actions and his right to rule. His rule was generally one of peace and prosperity. However, the growing power of Assyria and of the Kassites in Babylonia had become a problem. Khattushili used his powers of persuasion to work out agreements with both empires. With Babylonia, he signed a treaty by which each party would help the other in times of war or crisis. Khattushili had in mind a Hittite-Babylonia force in case Assyria did not remain friendly. In light of Assyria's growing power, Khattushili forged good relations with the Egyptian king RAMSES II, with whom his father had previously waged war. A peace treaty with Egypt was signed around 1258 B.C.— a significant diplomatic feat. The treaty was originally inscribed on two silver tablets (one tablet for each party). Although these tablets are lost, archaeologists* have unearthed an Akkadian language cuneiform* copy on clay from Khattusha. They have also recovered hieroglyphic* Egyptian copies that were carved on stelae* at the KARNAK temple and at Ramses' mortuary temple. The treaty marked the beginning of a national and personal friendship. For example, the Egyptians sent medicine for Khattushili's eye disease and offered the king other medical advice as well. Around 1245 B.C., Khattushili arranged a dynastic marriage between one of his daughters and Ramses II. Khattushili spent the last years of his reign securing the throne for his son Tudkhaliya IV against threats from other family members, including descendants of his nephew Murshili III. In his autobiography, Khattushili credited the goddess ISHTAR with all his success. Years earlier, she had said: "Hand him over to me and let him be my priest, then he will live." Khattushili was thus ordained a priest of Ishtar and remained devoted to her: "In times of fear the goddess, My Lady, never abandoned me [She] shielded me in every way, favored me." Khattushili was more than 70 years old when he died.

Kliufu

KHEPAT * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

KHUFU ruled ca. 2585-2560 B.C. Egyptian king

sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi sarcophagi

K

hepat (HE«pat), the Queen of Heaven, was the chief goddess of the HURRIANS and companion of the storm god TESHUB. In art, Khepat is usually represented as standing on a lion or on a leopard as well as seated on a throne. A member of the Human pantheon*, Khepat was also the city goddess of Halab (present-day Aleppo). Along with Teshub and ISHTAR, she formed the triad of gods worshiped at the city of ALALAKH. In the 1300s B.C., when the Human pantheon was incorporated into the Hittite state religion, Khepat became identified with the Hittite sun goddess of Arinna, the traditional protector of the king and queen. In mythology, Khepat appears in the Kumarbi Cycle, which tells the story of KUMARBI'S attempt to destroy his son Teshub and keep him from power. In the end, the stronger and wiser gods prevail, and Teshub and Khepat keep their thrones in heaven.

K

hufu (KOOfoo), also known as Cheops, ruled ancient Egypt during the peaceful and prosperous Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). He is remembered mainly as the builder of the Great Pyramid at GIZA. Khufu succeeded his father, Sneferu, who founded the Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2625-2500 B.C.). He reigned for about 25 years and was succeeded by his sons, Redjedef and Khafre. After Khufu ascended the throne around the age of 25, he ordered his overseer of royal works to begin building the Great Pyramid as his tomb. He chose Giza as the site for the pyramid, and construction continued throughout his reign. When finished, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the largest of all of Egypt's pyramids. It is still the largest stone structure in the world, covering more than 570,500 square feet and rising to a height of about 1,500 feet. Located nearby are three smaller pyramids, one each for Khufu's mother and his two principal queens, the mothers of Khufu's sons and successors. In addition, Khufu ordered the Great Sphinx to be carved out of a large stone outcropping nearby. In this massive statue, the king's head is carved atop the body of a lion. Khufu also ordered the building of a ship that is known today as the Royal Ship of Khufu. The ship imitates the papyrus craft that Egyptians believed transported the sun god Amun-Ra across the heavens. When Khufu died, his mummified body may have been transported on the Royal Ship from his palace at MEMPHIS to the burial site in a funeral procession. His attendants carried his coffin through a temple at the base of the pyramid and then climbed through a cavernous gallery to the king's burial chamber high inside the pyramid. The location of the chamber reflects the belief that after death, the king would rise to the sky and become one with Ra. The attendants placed the king's mummy in a stone sarcophagus* and closed off the chamber with huge boulders. Notwithstanding these precautions, robbers later found their way into the burial chamber and stole its contents. In order for Khufu to have built his Great Pyramid, he must have had the state's resources completely under his control. This indicates the power of Egyptian kings during the Old Kingdom period. Building the 33

King Lists * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

I

KINGLISTS * second millennium B.C. years 2000 to 1001 B.C.

from

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from the

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

34

Great Pyramid alsois evidenceof acomplexand efficient government bureaucracy* at that(See time. also Egyptand the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

n the ancient Near East, king lists were texts thatcontained thenames of kings and detailsof eachruler'saccomplishmentsandexploits as well as important events in the history of anempire. Fewking lists have survived to modern times, and those thathave provide only afragmentary picture of ancient history. Nonetheless, king lists have greatly aided modern historiansin establishing CHRONOLOGY a forancient Near Eastern history and determining the originsofkingshipinthat region. theMesopotamia!!

King Lists. Several king lists from MESOPO-ancient TAMIA have helped historians piece togetherthehistory ofkingdoms in that region. Among the oldest is the Sumerian king list. Composed in the early second millennium B.C.*,the listispreservedinseveral versions on cuneiform* tablets.It servedas the basisforlater king lists developed by the Babylonians,and at leastone version BABYof thelist wasused in LON as lateas the B.C. 300s In its oldestform, the Sumerian king list describeshowkingshipwas established in theKISH. cityof It also liststhe dynasties* thatruled citystates* in Mesopotamiaand tracesthe transferofpower fromonecityto another.Later versionsof the Sumerian king list extend back toeven earlier times, attempting to reach backto the originsofhuman life.These versions name semidivine kings whoreigned forvery long periods at the beginning of Sumerian civilization. Much of the early history presentedin theSumerian king listismore myth thanfact, portraying an idealized viewof theestablishmentof Sumerian civilization. It isalso highly biased, ignoring some citiesand dynastiesand focusingon others,URUK such and asfirst the the dy-city of nasty of LAGASH. Thisispossibly becausethe scribes* whocreated theking list were trying to justify the dominanceof aparticular cityand itskingship over other cities. The Babylonian king lists tracethe chronologyofBabylon fromthe time ofKing HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.)through theperiod of the KASSITES to the time when Assyrians dominated theregion B.C.). (ca. 1200s These lists were based on year lists, which identified each year by a unique name based on important events, suchas theaccessionof a new king to the throne. Although there aregaps in thesurviving king lists, historians have been able to piece together achronology bycomparing the lists with other Babylonian texts andchronicles and toAssyrian king lists that cover the same periods. The most important Assyrian king list dates B.C. from Prothe 700s duced by royal scribes,it wasINSCRIPTIONS, basedon texts, and the socalled Synchronistic History. This chronicle listedthekings Assyria of and Babylonia in a comparable sequence over hundredsofyears. TheAssyrian list tracesthe kingsof Assyria from about B.C.until B.C. 1700 The the 700s

Kings * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* demigod partly divine being

list suggests that Assyria had been an independent state from the beginning, but that is historically untrue. Egyptian King Lists. The earliest surviving Egyptian king list is a text known as the Palermo Stone. Compiled from earlier sources in about 2400 B.C., it originally contained the names of all the kings from the earliest periods of Egyptian history and summarized the significant events in each year of their reigns. The Palermo Stone became an important source for later Egyptian king lists and texts and was used as a type of calendar to date events in Egyptian history. Among the most important of these later Egyptian king lists is the Turin Canon of Kings, a fragmentary papyrus, which lists the names of kings from earliest times to the reign of RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.). Considered the most detailed and reliable Egyptian king list, the Turin Canon not only lists the kings but also the years, months, and days of each of their reigns. It further divides Egyptian history into three major periods, a system that later historians adopted and labeled the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom periods. Another important feature of the Turin Canon was that it listed gods and demigods* as the earliest rulers of Egypt, thus supporting the idea that the kingship was a divine institution. The Turin Canon and other king lists served as sources for Manetho, a Greco-Egyptian writer of the 200s B.C., who compiled a complete chronology of Egyptian history up to his time. Other King Lists. The HITTITES do not appear to have had an interest in long-range chronologies or king lists. However, the rulers of Persia and CANAAN did create such lists to record their history and to provide a basis for their kingship. An important source for late Mesopotamian history is a king list produced in Egypt during the time of the Roman Empire. Called Ptolemy's Canon, it was written in Greek by the astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It lists kings from 747 B.C. through the period of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and the empires of ALEXANDER THE GREAT and his successors. (See also History and Historiography; Kings; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

KINGS secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

T

hroughout ancient times, kingship was the predominant institution of government in the Near East. Kings filled both sacred and secular* roles. Although their power and prestige changed from time to time and place to place, they remained at the center of government and society.

The Rise of Kingship. Kingship emerged in the ancient Near East when strong leaders began to gain power and authority over cities and states. Their authority came from the military power they held and from the belief that they were chosen by the gods to rule. According to the traditions of most Near Eastern societies, the roots of kingship stretched back to the beginning of time, when gods ruled the earth. Kings were the chosen successors of the gods, and in some cases, 35

Kings

particularly in ancient Egypt, they were considered divine themselves. The link between kingsand godswasoften reflectedinofficial kings'titles and their roles and responsibilities.

Egyptian Royal Titularies

Egyptian kings hadseveral royal titRoles and Responsibilities. Some scholars suggest that kings were ularies, or titles. Amongthese were originally chosen as temporary leaders, especially during times of war or names of gods, which symbolized emergency.Aswarfare became more common during theearly third millenthe king as the earthly embodiment nium B.C.*, however, kingships became permanent. As kingships developed of a particular god. The first titulary in the ancient Near East, kings gained increasing power. They becameabof Egyptian king Amenemhet HI, for solute monarchs who reigned with seemingly unlimited power. Nevertheexample, was The Horus:Great of Might. Sometimes, the titles might less, most citizens stillhad certain basic rights,and it was theresponsibility include a throne name,such as the of kings to guard these rightsand toserveandprotect their people. King of Upper and Lower Egypt, N Ancient Near Eastern kingshad many rolesandresponsibilities fulto maatre, and a birth name,such as fill. Amonga king's most important roleswas to act as thechief priest of the Son ofRa: Amenemhet. The the state religion or national deity*.Aspriest,theking stoodat the point throne name and birth nameusually appeared inside a cartouche— of contact between the realmof the godsandthatofhumans.Heserved a hieroglyphic symbol that indicates as both a symbol of divine poweron earthand amediator betweenhuthat the person named is an Egyptmans and the gods. ian ruler and symbolizes the king's In fulfilling his roleas the chief priest,akinghadseveral practical reauthority over the entire world.

* third millennium B.C. years to 2001 B.C. * deity god or goddess

See

colorplate4,

vol.1.

36

from

sponsibilities, including building andmaintaining temples, performing religious rites and ceremonies, attending religious festivals,andsupporting the worshipof the gods.Theperformance ofthese duties directly affected the society, bringing either prosperity orhardship, depending on favor of orcaused displeasureto the 3000whether the king had gained the gods. A king might also serveas the chief justice for hissociety. Considered the source of all laws (throughthe divine inspirationof thegods),aking made and enforced laws and servedas the foundationofmorality. Although a king rarely dispensed justice himself,heservedas theultimate legal authority of the state, bound onlyby thehigher authorityof thegods.

Kings Legitimacy from the Gods Kings often expressed their relationship to the gods in prayers and official texts. The Hittite king Muwattalli II addressed his patron: 0 storm-god of lightning, my lord!.,. [You] took me from [my] mother and raised me. You made me a priest for the sun goddess ofArinna and for all the gods and installed me in kingship for the Land ofKhatti. In this prayer, Muwattalli not only expresses gratitude toward the god but also justifies the legitimacy of his rule by saying that the storm god installed him as king.

* scepter ceremonial baton or staff carried by a ruler to show his authority * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

Hierarchy of Rulers All kings of the ancient Near East were not equal in status or power. The rulers of large kingdoms and empires had much more power and prestige than the kings of smaller states. These differences created a hierarchy of kingship. The Great Kings of Egypt, Babylonia, As-j syria, and Khatti were considered the most superior. Next came the rulers of smaller kingdoms and states, many of whom were subordinate to the Great Kings. The lowest levels of the kingship hierarchy consisted of the rulers of local citystates. These relationships were reflected in the administration of empires as well as in the titles and powers of different rulers.

The king was head of the government. As the most superior of officials, kings had overall responsibility for running the government. In practice, however, kings generally wielded their authority through a host of appointed officials. This was especially true in large empires, where the king could not possibly personally oversee all aspects of government. The foremost role of a Near Eastern king was that of military leader and protector of the kingdom. As commander of the armies, the king was responsible for the organization, maintenance, and direction of the troops. Although these tasks were delegated generally to subordinates, the king was ultimately responsible for military decisions. Some kings, such as NARAM-SIN, ASHURNASIRPAL II, and SHALMANESER III, actually led troops into battle and distinguished themselves as warriors. SARGON II was killed defending his kingdom against an invasion of nomadic Cimmerians. Symbols of Power and Kingship. The power and authority of kings was represented by various titles and visual symbols. Among the most obvious symbols of kingship was a king's titulary, or titles. While these differed from society to society, they often included references to the king's relationship to the gods, the territory he controlled, and terms of honor and respect. The title Great King applied only to the rulers of the greatest states, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and the Hittite kingdom of KHATTI. Other symbols of kingship included crowns, scepters*, thrones, and palaces. In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh* wore several crowns, each representing the regions of Egypt. Scepters, such as a mace, generally served as symbols of authority. Thrones represented the social differences between the king and his subjects. Royal palaces, designed and decorated to awe visitors, also served as powerful symbols of kingship. Such symbols of kingship were bestowed on kings during important and elaborate ceremonies, such as the king's accession to the throne and his coronation. It was also during these ceremonies that the power and authority of the gods were transferred to the king. Succession to the Throne. In most cases, kingship was a hereditary institution in the ancient Near East, usually passed from the king to a male relative. This was often a son, but kings sometimes chose other male relatives to succeed them, including brothers, nephews, brothersin-law, and sons-in-law. When there was no male heir, a woman might rise to the throne, as in the case of Nefrusobek of the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt. She took the royal titles and reigned as king. Sometimes, to avoid disputes over succession, kings established a co-regency, in which they ruled alongside a chosen successor to help establish that individual's legitimacy and gain support for him. Women rulers were rare in the ancient Near East. Although women from royal families usually played only a minor role in governing, some gained a great deal of power or became the head of a religious cult*. Others ruled as regents*, wielding authority on behalf of heirs too young to rule themselves. For instance HATSHEPSUT was regent for her stepson, but she soon seized power, declaring herself to be pharaoh by an oracle* for AMUN. (See also Ahab; Ahmose; Akhenaten; Artaxerxes I, II, and III; 37

Kish regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch \s too young or unable to rule oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

KlSH * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

See map in Sumer (vol. 4).

KNOSSOS * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. * colonnade row of regularly spaced columns or pillars

38

Ashurbanipal; Cambyses II; Cyrus the Great; Darius I and Darius III; Djoser; Dynasties; Esarhaddon; Government; Hammurabi; Khattushili I; Khattushili III; Nabonidus; Nabopolassar; Nebuchadnezzar II; Necho II; Pharaohs; Ptolemy I; Ramses II; Ramses III; Sargon I; Sennacherib; Sety I; Shalmaneser V; Shamshi-Adad I; Shulgi; Shuppiluliuma I; Taharqa; Thutmose III; Tiglath-pileser III; Tutankhamen; Ur-Nammu; Wars and Warfare; Xerxes; Zimri-Lim.)

K

ish, located in present-day Iraq, just east of BABYLON, was an ancient Mesopotamian city-state*, inhabited as early as the fourth millennium B.C.* The city declined in importance later but remained occupied until the A.D. 600s. Kish was important throughout Mesopotamian history. According to Sumerian texts, it was the seat of the first Sumerian kings. The title King of Kish was a high-ranking one, and some Mesopotamian kings took this title to make others acknowledge their supremacy. The excavations at Kish have yielded the remains of many structures, including two of the earliest-known Mesopotamian palaces. The two palaces, which testify to the importance of the king of Kish, were separated from the rest of the city by solid defensive walls. In one of the palaces, the main wing contained long corridors that formed a double enclosure around the royal rooms and courts. The city also contained two ziggurats* and two temples, probably dedicated to the god Zababa and the goddess ISHTAR, patron gods of the city. King HAMMURABI and his son SAMSU-ILUNA both ordered reconstruction of the Zababa temple in the 1700s B.C., making it stronger and more elaborate. An inscription on the temple announced that Samsu-iluna was the god ENLIL'S "favorite king/' and that the god ordered him to rebuild a temple worthy of Zababa and Ishtar. The cemeteries at Kish have yielded POTTERY, SEALS, and sophisticated metal objects, such as chariots and carts. The number of tombs and the valuable objects buried in them indicate that Kish had a large, wealthy population.

K

nossos (NAHS^suhs) was the chief city of CRETE during the second millennium B.C.* Its ruins lie about five miles inland from the present-day city of Heraklion, located on Crete's north coast. The site of Knossos was first occupied by a Neolithic period* culture from Anatolia (present-day Turkey) before the year 6000 B.C. New immigrants arrived at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, in about 3000 B.C. Around 2000 B.C., an early palace with a large, rectangular central court was built at Knossos, but it was destroyed by an EARTHQUAKE around 1700 B.C. A second, more magnificent palace was constructed on the ruins of the first, with staircases, colonnades*, and walls decorated with colorful frescoes*. The palace also had an elaborate drainage system, built with clay pipes, and rooms with large urns that may have been used to store oil, grains, and other foods.

Rush and Meroe * fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

KUMARBI * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

KUSH AND MERGE

The palace is considered the most magnificent artifact of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION. Evidence suggests that power over Knossos may have shifted from the Minoans to the Mycenaeans from mainland Greece during the 1400s B.C. Palaces in Crete were destroyed by fires of unknown origin around 1400 B.C. After the destruction of its palace, Knossos was no longer a major city, but it remained in existence as a small town under Mycenaean control. Excavation of the site of Knossos was begun in the late A.D. 1800s by the English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans. Evans worked at excavating Knossos for more than 30 years. The main building he unearthed was huge, and its features are astounding. The palace appears to have been three stories high and to have contained several dozen rooms arranged around a courtyard. Evans reconstructed many parts, some in ways that modern archaeologists believe are incorrect. (See also Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

K

umarbi was known as the father of the gods in the pantheon* of the HURRIANS, peoples who dominated northern SYRIA and MESOPOTAMIA in the 1400s B.C. He was the central figure in a series of mythological narratives known as the Kumarbi Cycle. In the late 1400s B.C., the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) translated the Kumarbi Cycle from Human into their own language, inscribing it on clay tablets. These tablets were later found at KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittite empire. The Kumarbi Cycle was apparently recited aloud for the entertainment and education of the Hittite people. The stories served to help the Hittites understand the personalities of their gods so that they could behave in a manner that would please the deities and ensure their continued blessing. The narratives in this work, including such stories as Heavenly Kingship and the Song of Ullikummi, describe the battles for power among the gods, including Kumarbi's struggles to achieve and then retain his control over other deities. In these stories, Kumarbi dethrones ANU from his position as king of the heavens by biting off his genitals, just as Kronos did to Uranos in Greek mythology. In revenge, Anu causes Kumarbi to give birth to the storm god TESHUB and two other gods. Teshub quickly overpowers Kumarbi and banishes him. Kumarbi seeks revenge by fathering a monster, named Ullikummi, who temporarily dethrones Teshub. This monster grows out of the ocean until his head reaches the heavens, threatening all the gods. At first, Teshub is unsuccessful in his battle against Ullikummi. Eventually, however, he descends into the ocean in his chariot and defeats Kumarbi and his monstrous son in a great battle.

T

he kingdom of Kush was located in Upper Nubia (present-day northern central Sudan). Around 2000 B.C., Egyptian armies began to move south into Nubia, conquering the land. The Egyptians valued Kush because it was located along trade routes that ran to the Red Sea. Along these routes, merchant caravans carried ivory, gold, emeralds, and slaves.

39

Kush and Meroe

*

Meroe(MER»uh«wee), located RIVER, on the became NILE east bank of the the kingdom's most prosperous city. During the early yearsof Egyptian control, Kushwasgovernedby an Egyptian viceroy*and other officials, including Nubians.TheEgyptians viceroy one who governs a country or province as a monarch's representative; wanted to spread their culture, while KushitesattemptedtopreserveNuroyally appointed official bian culture. Both succeeded. Kushites used Egyptian hieroglyphics*but hieroglyphics system of writing that had their own spoken language. They worshiped Egyptian gods, suchas uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, AMUN, but continued to worship theirowngodsaswell. They built pyrato represent words orideas mids as tombs, but not in the Egyptian style. By the 900s B.C., Egyptian control over Kushhad greatly weakened. An independent kingdomof Kush developed B.C., with around its 850 capital at Napata.Byaround B.C.,the 725 Kushites had regained control of the land, conquered Egypt,and reigned over Egypt duringitsTwentyFifth Dynasty. However,the Kushitesdid not rule Egypt for long. By around 657 B.C., they were drivenout byinvading Assyrians (conquerors from northern Mesopotamia). Nevertheless, Kushremained independent. Soonafterfleeing Egypt,the Kushites moved their capital from Napata to Meroe,farther south. Meroe had many natural advantages.Thesmall amountofrainit received annuallywas enoughto grow grassforraising animals such as Nubian horses, which were famous throughouttheancient East Near for their strength. The region alsohad sandstone forbuilding materialand clay, from which the Kushites made distinctive whiteandblack pottery. The city also had iron ore for arobust smelting* industryandtimberto smelt to heat ore for the purpose of extracting pure material fuel it. Allthis enabled Meroetoprosper. The citizens who prospered in Meroe built temples, palaces, homes, and tombs. The areaof Meroe wherethe rulers lived containedtwolarge palaces, audience halls, living quartersfor the staff, palace and aRoman-

40

Labor and Laborers

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

LABOR AND LABORERS nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See (color plate 12,' vol. 2.

indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

style bath connected by channels to a nearby well. A temple dedicated to Amun was typical of the combination of Egyptian and Nubian influences that dominated the culture. The walls of the temple were covered with Egyptian-style reliefs* of such Egyptian gods as Amun, OSIRIS, Isis, and HORUS. However, the faces of the sculptures look Nubian rather than Egyptian. Meroe continued to prosper for many years. Yet, its location along important trade routes and its rich iron ore deposits and gold and emerald mines attracted conquerors. In the A.D. 200s, Axum, a city in the highlands of northern Ethiopia, began to dominate the region. The final collapse of Meroe came when Axum invaded and conquered the city in the A.D. 300s. (See also Nubia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

I

n ancient times, the advancement from hunting and gathering to farming and herding allowed formerly nomadic* people to stay in one place over long periods of time. This shift to living in villages and later, in towns and cities concentrated the population and allowed for the development of new kinds of labor. People needed to perform different tasks in order for society to function. In the ancient Near East, the great advances in ART, ARCHITECTURE, and AGRICULTURE could not have occurred without the work of thousands of organized laborers. Whether laborers were involved in building monuments or in growing food on the ruler's land, they were probably employed, for at least part of the year, by a temple or a palace. Types of Laborers. The types of laborers in the ancient Near East can be divided into free, forced, semifree, and slave. The number of people in each category depended on the society and time period in which they worked. Free laborers probably existed in all societies to some degree, but they were the rarest type of workers in each society. These workers were paid wages, in either grain or silver, for their work. They probably were at the highest skill levels and had some freedom to choose for whom they worked and when they worked. Forced laborers were free people who were required to give the palace or the temple a certain amount of their time each year. This was the earliest form of TAXATION; instead of taking money, the government demanded the people's time. Forced laborers were given rations of food and wool in exchange for their work. Almost all working members of a society were required to participate in forced labor. In the most general sense, semifree labor included people who went into debt and had to work for the palace or temple to pay off their debt. They were also paid in rations, not wages. Slaves were people who could be bought and sold. They were usually foreign-born captives, although they could also be indigenous*. Slaves generally worked inside households, which allowed their owners to keep an eye on them. Whatever their status, most workers were paid in the same "currency": wool and grain. There was also often little difference in the 41

Labor and Laborers

* thresh to crush grain plants so that the seeds or grains are separated from the stalks and husks * artisan skilled craftsperson * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

Payment for Work Done The Hittite laws from the second millennium B.C (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.) were among the most detailed in the Near East Law 158 describes the wages paid an unskilled laborer; If a man hires himself out for the harvest (on the understanding) that he will bind the sheaves, (that) the bound (sheaves) will get on the wagon, (that) he will bring it into the barn, and (that) they will dear the threshing floorf his wages for three months shall be 30 parisu [390 gallons] of barley. 11 a woman hires herself out for the harvest, her wages for two months shall be 12 parisu [156 gallons] of barley. This law reflects the fact that women in the ancient Near East were not paid the s#me wages as men.

amount laborers were paid, although wages, which were paid by the day, were worth more than monthly rations. Most of the laborers in the ancient Near East were PEASANTS who worked in agriculture. They also performed most of the manual labor and might find themselves working as carpenters, miners, tanners, bricklayers, or millers. If the crops did not need to be sowed, weeded, harvested, or threshed*, then a laborer might repair the irrigation system or help build a new one. Generally, labor was highly specialized only among the most advanced artists and artisans*, such as metalworkers and stone carvers and those in the "intellectual" sphere, such as scribes*, physicians, and diviners*. Mesopotamia. Most of the labor records from ancient Mesopotamia come from the palaces and the temples. The state was the largest employer, and the system of forced labor enabled the state to construct enormous public works projects such as the IRRIGATION system. This system was probably built by thousands of workers, both forced and semifree. After it was built, the state continued to employ manual laborers to maintain and repair the canals. Large numbers of workers were also involved in the construction of buildings, including palaces, temples, and ziggurats*. When building a new capital city or rebuilding an old one, the state employed thousands of workers to construct city walls, gates, administrative buildings, and living quarters. Generally, in early Mesopotamian society, if women and children were recorded as workers, it meant that they were semifree labor and among the poorest members of society. They were commonly put to work preparing and weaving cloth. For instance, during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), there is evidence of a textile factory that employed 6,000 workers, mostly women and children. Women were also employed to grind grain. In addition to these tasks, records of the time reveal that women also had to clear canals, tow boats, and gather and carry reeds. Egypt. In ancient Egypt, the majority of organized labor was controlled by the state, although there were private landowners who hired or bought laborers. The greatest task for which labor was employed apart from farming was to build tombs for the kings and members of their households. Most of the laborers who helped build the great Egyptian monuments such as the PYRAMIDS at GIZA were peasants. They were used as forced labor by the government during the seasons between planting and harvesting, when there was less farmwork to be done. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women seem to have had some flexibility when it came to work. In addition to farming and the traditional household tasks, they worked as millers, bakers, spinners, weavers, musicians, and dancers. Some even held high offices. Anatolia. The HITTITE empire of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was made up of large cities dominated by government, where specialized labor thrived, and small villages, where labor was more a communal activity. As in the rest of the Near East, people were required to provide the

42

Labor and Laborers

government with their labor fora portionof the year. Verylittle evidence of independent enterprise exists. The Hittites had veryspecific laws governing laborand payment,and unlike many other Near Eastern societies, someofthose laws favoredthe worker. For example,if a worker was injured, the responsible party was required to take care of the worker while he recoveredand to pay the physician'sfees and an additionalfee oncethe worker recovered. Wages were paid to workers either in silveror in grain. Wages were fixedforcertain forms of labor. Most occupations were male dominated, but there isevidence that women servedas weavers, farmworkers, cooks, innkeepers, millers, musicians, singers, dancers,and medical workers. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan

The Levant. As was true elsewherein the Near East,the rulersof the Levant* usedforced labor.InUGARIT, the city men of were forcedto spend a portion of each year in service to both Ugarit's king and hisHittite overlord. According to the BIBLE, Hebrew King Solomon employed 30,000 Israelitesforfour months each year for forcedAfter labor. around B.C., 1100 the majority of laborers were free, although they still paid taxesin the form of work.The Israelites, particularlythe religious leaders, disliked forced labor. This has caused historiansto speculate that forced laborwas 43

Lagash imposed only on non-Israelites such as Canaanites. However, this was probably not true because during the reigns of Solomon and DAVID, at least, forced labor probably included Israelites as well. (See also Land Use and Ownership; Markets; Mining; Nomads and Nomadism; Palaces and Temples; Servants; Slaves and Slavery; Work.)

LAGASH city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. reservoir place where water is collected and stored for future use cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

Lamps

LAND USE

AND OWNERSHIP * domestication adaptation for human use

44

L

agash (LA»gash) was a city-state* of ancient Sumer, a region located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in southern MESOPOTAMIA. Archaeological* discoveries indicate that Lagash was inhabited as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, but it did not flourish until around 2400 B.C. Lagash was known for its building projects. The city's inhabitants built irrigation works to bring water from the surrounding rivers and even built reservoirs* to preserve the valuable water supply. These works were sophisticated for the time and included devices that controlled the water's direction and flow. The people of Lagash believed that water was provided by deities, such as their patron god, Ningirsu. They built a temple complex called the Bagara to honor him. Another oval temple complex was dedicated to the goddess ISHTAR (Inanna). There also was a temple dedicated to the high god ENLIL. Lagash was also well known for its warfare. Royal INSCRIPTIONS and cuneiform* tablets provide accounts of wars between Lagash and other city-states in Sumer, especially UR and UMMA. One of the most famous monuments found at Lagash is a stela* known as the Stela of the Vultures, which celebrates the military victory of Lagash over Umma. Around 2300 B.C., Lagash fell to SARGON I, the king of Akkad, a citystate in central Mesopotamia. However, around 2100 B.C., Lagash revived and prospered under the leadership of its governor, GUDEA, who restored peace and prosperity during his rule. Sculptors in Lagash created many statues of Gudea with cuneiform inscriptions proclaiming his achievements. (See also Sumer and the Sumerians.)

See Furnishings and Furniture.

I

n the ancient Near East, humans began taming wild land when they began farming. They chose areas where there was enough water and where they could easily turn the soil. AGRICULTURE was closely followed by the domestication* of animals and herding. Therefore, early humans settled near lands that also served as good pastures for their animals. The earliest societies were probably organized as simple, communal villages, where the people grew food to feed themselves. As society became more complex, the purpose and organization of farming and herding changed. People began to gather around the regions

Land Use and Ownership where farming was most successful. The settlements became large, leading to the growth of towns and cities. Soon not all people grew their own food. Grain, the most basic food, became a source of wealth, and ownership of land became important. For these reasons, ancient Near Eastern peoples began to draw boundaries around their property, and land was bought, sold, and held, with some people acquiring more than others.

The Life of an Egyptian Farmer Many school texts in ancient Egypt described the everyday We of a farmer. The descriptions were often; satirical and poked fun at the farmer. They were written to encourage students to stay in school. In one of these texts, a farmer goes through a series of unfortunate experiences. First, his oxen are eaten by jackals, and he has to sell his clothes to buy a new team. Then as\ he plants his crop, all the seeds are eaten by a snake He replants the crop, using borrowed seeds. Still, it seems that at the harvest, he has no grain* He and his wife are beaten up, and their children are taken away in chains.

Land Use. Water and the control of it have been key to the use of land. Humans began to control the water supply to their crops before 5000 B.C. This first occurred along the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESOPOTAMIA and along the NILE RIVER in Egypt. As agriculture developed and advanced, cities came into being. The existence and stability of cities, in turn, provided farmers with the protection to move into uncharted territory and therefore to increase their lands. Cities also provided large, centrally controlled workforces that could carry out huge public improvement projects such as irrigation and canal systems. Still, most land in the ancient Near East was left wild because it was either unsuited for farming or was too far away from where people lived. This wild land was used by herders to graze their animals. The largest amount of farmland was used for growing grain. People used small plots of land for private gardens and vegetable plots. Land was also used for planting a relatively small number of orchards. Landownership. Most of the information about landownership in the ancient Near East comes from excavations of tax records at the great temples and palaces. However, scholars have found that it is difficult to tell the difference between a palace's tax records (which would mean someone else owned the land) and its rental records (which would mean the palace owned the land). In addition, these excavations have yielded almost no information on the lands owned by small farmers. Notwithstanding, scholars believe that most ancient Near Eastern societies had private land ownership. This was probably even true in Egypt, where historians once believed that the rulers owned everything. In most societies, there were many types of landowners—peasant farmers, large landowners, and rulers and priests. The rulers and priests generally owned more land than most others. Therefore, they required more people to work the land. They used two main methods to gather labor. One was forced labor, in which PEASANTS were required to work for the palace or temple as a form of TAXATION. Another was semifree labor, in which individuals gave themselves and their labor to the palace or temple for a period of time (perhaps their entire lives) to repay a debt or because they could not support themselves. Slave labor was less common than previously thought. Occasionally, the palaces and temples might even hire free laborers. As with the temples and palaces, large landowners employed semifree and slave laborers to work their fields. (Forced laborers were generally only used on state lands.) Peasant farmers worked on land that they owned or on land owned by someone else. The latter form of farming is called sharecropping. In this system, the peasant retained a portion of the crop, and a portion went to the landowner. If the farmer provided all the 45

Land Use and Ownership tools, animals, and seed, he received two-thirds of the crop, and the landowner received one-third.

* levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Mesopotamia. The Sumerians and Babylonians of southern Mesopotamia used the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to cultivate their crops. However, they had to devise a system to control the floodwaters because they came in when the crops were planted. The Mesopotamians built an elaborate system of levees* and canals to control and save the floodwaters and to divert water from the rivers in the dry months. Soon Mesopotamian farmers became expert in preventing flood damage to their crops and were often the most productive in the region. From 5000 to 1595 B.C., more northern Mesopotamians owned land than did southern Mesopotamians. Moreover, land management practices differed between Akkad in the north and Sumer in the south. Mesopotamians bought and sold land until the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), when land sales seem to have ended abruptly. Many scholars believe that this was simply because land sales were not reported during that period. After the Third Dynasty of Ur, however, the sale of land began again (or began to be reported again). When the Kassites controlled the region, between about 1595 and 1158 B.C., the king began to award grants of land as gifts. The boundaries of such land grants were marked by stone monuments called kudurrus. In Egypt. The Nile River was the source of agriculture in Egypt. Unlike the flooding in Mesopotamia, the Nile floods were predictable. Each year, the waters spread over the plains, depositing a thick layer of rich silt* on the land. After the waters subsided, the Egyptians could plant their crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet until the harvest, about three months later. They planted their grains at the edge of the floodplain and used other lands for gardens and orchards. Lands that did not drain properly were used as pasture. Modern scholars agree that private individuals owned some land and that land was consistently cheap. However, public institutions (the state and the temples) owned the majority of land. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women could own land and rent it out to tenants. Syria and the Levant. Using dry farming*, the people of ancient SYRIA and the Levant* cultivated such crops as barley and planted orchards. By the second millennium B.C.*, Levantine farmers began to manipulate the region's hilly land by building terraces. In ancient EBLA, the palace owned most of the land and could give gifts of land to loyal subjects. The Canaanites and Israelites believed that all land belonged to god, who then allocated it among various families or clans. By the late 700s B.C., however, landowners began to buy enormous amounts of land, leaving many peasants poor and landless. Canaanite and Israelite kings also owned large amounts of land, which they often gave as a reward to high officials. Anatolia. Most land in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was owned as small farms or was used for herding. Palaces and temples also owned a

46

Languages good deal of land, but they were not nearly as powerful as those in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Anatolian farmers and herders were organized into villages. In free villages, farmers owned the land, the village owned it communally, or the villagers sharecropped palace lands. In another type of village, people worked the land belonging to the king or a landowner. In a third type of village, the people worked for and belonged to state institutions, including palaces, temples, or royal tombs. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Canals; Cereal Grains; Environmental Change; Irrigation; Slaves and Slavery.)

LANGUAGES dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * third millennium B.C. years between 3000 and 2001 B.C.

T

he people of the ancient Near East spoke hundreds of languages and dialects* over a period of several thousand years. Even during a short period of time, a region's population could include speakers of many languages, and people were generally aware of the multitude of tongues used by other peoples. For example, an inscription of the Babylonian king HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.) mentions the people of lands to the east "whose land is far and whose tongue is confused/' Sometimes, however, one particular language became commonly spoken in large regions, perhaps because it was brought by a conquering kingdom. A language that is widely used for communication among speakers of different languages is called a lingua franca. In the modern world, English is a lingua franca. Several languages served the same function in the ancient Near East. These languages—used for trade, diplomacy*, or literature—spread across large areas, replacing other tongues or becoming a region's second language. Language experts called linguists have divided the world's ancient and modern languages into several large categories called families. A few languages, however, bear no relation to the recognized families, and their origins remain a mystery. Major Language Families. Most of the ancient Near Eastern languages belong to one of two major language groups. The first is the Afro-Asiatic family, which is also called the Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic family. The other is the Indo-European family. Many important languages of the ancient and modern Near East belong to the Afro-Asiatic family. This large family can be divided into Semitic* languages and Hamitic languages. The Semitic subfamily includes the dominant languages spoken in MESOPOTAMIA, the Levant*, and Arabia since at least the middle of the third millennium B.C.* At various times, a Semitic language served as a lingua franca for the whole region; Akkadian was the lingua franca during the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), Aramaic from around 700 B.C. to around A.D. 600, and Arabic since then. The Semitic subfamily of languages can be further divided into East Semitic and West Semitic languages. The Old Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian dialects for the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia, and perhaps the Eblaite language of Syria belong to the East Semitic group. The 47

Languages

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

48

West Semitic group includesthe languagesofEthiopia,Arabia,and the Levant. The Phoenician and Hebrew tonguesareWest Semitic, as isAramaic, whichwas an official language PERSIANofEMPIRE. the Some of the Hebrew BIBLEwas writtenin Aramaic. Archaeologists* have found Aramaic textsfrom EgypttoAfghanistan. The Hamitic subfamilies include ancient Egyptian, Berber,Cushitic, and Chadic. The ancient Egyptian language, which existed different in forms over at least 4,000 years,can besubdivided intoLate Egyptian,demotic Egyptian, and Coptic. Thelanguages of the Berber,Cushitic, and Chadic subfamilies include many modern languages anddialects spoken by millions of people. TheINDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGESare thoughtto have originated in the region north of theBlack Sea. Most modern European languages,and some of western and central Asia,belong tothis family. Peopleinvarious parts of the ancient Near East spoke languages belongingtothree IndoEuropean branches, or subfamilies: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian,andGreek. The Anatolian subfamilyis one of the oldest Indo-European language groups in the NearEast. Theselanguages—nowextinct—werespoken in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) SYRIA and at least northern asearly as the second millennium B.C. Hittite—thelanguage ofHITTITES—is the ancient a well-known exampleofthis subfamily. Other Anatolian languages include Luwian, Palaic, Lydian, Lycian, Pisidian, Sidetic,andCarian. The Indo-Iranian subfamilyoflanguages includes Avestan, thesacred language of Zoroastrianism,and OldPersian. These languagesareknown to have been spoken IRAN during in and afterfirst the millennium B.C. (years from 1000 B.C.) to 1They arerelated tosome of theancient and

Languages

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Aramaic: Then and Now The Aramaic language, once the lingua franca of the ancient world, has been in use for thousands of years. The first textual evidence of the Aramaic language, known as Old Aramaic, dates from the 800s B.C. Today modern Aramaic can be subdivided into four branches: Western Aramaic, spoken in three Syrian villages; Central Aramaic, spoken in southeastern Turkey; Eastern Aramaic, spoken in various dialects in and near Kurdistan; and NeoMandaic, which is spoken by a small group of people in western Iran.

modern tongues of India and Pakistan, many of which also belong to the Indo-Iranian subfamily. Greek, which survives today in modern form, has existed in written form since the 1400s B.C. Greek dialects were spoken in western Anatolia and on the islands of the AEGEAN SEA as well as in Greece. The far-ranging conquests of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the 300s B.C. spread the Greek language throughout the Mediterranean region and western Asia and made Greek the lingua franca of the Hellenistic* era. Languages Outside Major Families. Some ancient Near Eastern languages, including several important ones, do not fall into either the Indo-European or the Afro-Asiatic language family. Linguists are still working to interpret these languages fully and to determine to which family they belong. Many of these languages survive in a large body of texts, whereas there is only fragmentary evidence for others, increasing the difficulty for the linguists who wish to study them. The SUMERIAN LANGUAGE is the oldest language in the world for which written texts survive. The earliest documents in this language date from before 3000 B.C. Sumerian, the language of the rulers of southern Mesopotamia, was spoken along with Akkadian and other languages during the third millennium B.C. Akkadian became the official tongue after the conquests of SARGON I of Akkad (2334-2278 B.C.). However, rulers decided to continue to use Sumerian as a written language for scholarly, literary, and religious texts in the same way that Europeans during the Middle Ages used Latin long after they had stopped speaking it. The language of the Elamites is another tongue with no known ties to other ancient or modern languages. Although Elam was located in southwestern Iran near Mesopotamia, its language—which existed in various forms from around 3500 B.C. to the 300s B.C.—developed independently. Some ancient Near Eastern languages are known only from names or references in other languages. The language of the KASSITES falls into this category. The Kassites occupied Babylonia from the mid-1500s B.C. until the mid-1100s B.C., but they adopted the Sumerian and Babylonian languages. Their original tongue appears to bear no relation to any other language. The HURRIANS came to northern and eastern Mesopotamia in the late third millennium B.C. Although speakers of the Assyrian and Hittite languages borrowed many words from Human, the Human language itself has only one known relative, the language of URARTU, a kingdom north of Assyria. The Human and Urartian languages appear to belong to a small language group unrelated to all others. In fact, they may have been closely linked dialects of the same parent language. Although Hittite belongs to the Anatolian subfamily of Indo-European languages, modern linguists have realized that Hittite texts also contain words or passages in a different language—Hattic. Hattic was spoken by the people who lived in the city of KHATTUSHA before the Hittites made it their capital. The Hittites preserved some traces of Hattic in their religious rituals. Deciphering Lost Languages. Modern Western scholars have learned the languages of the ancient Near East in three ways. Some languages, 49

Lapis Lazuli

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning

hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

LAPIS LAZULI * inlay fine layer of a substance set into wood, metal, or other material as a form of decoration

* entrepot intermediary center of trade, usually on a caravan or sea route

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

50

including Hebrew and Greek, have been used and studied in Europe since ancient times. Such languages as Arabic and Persian survived and are spoken today. Some languages became extinct, but scholars are sometimes able to decipher* these languages if they were preserved in texts on materials durable enough to survive the passing of centuries. Many decipherers of ancient languages owe their success to bilingual inscriptions, a term referring to documents that contain the same text in two languages. If one of the languages is known, it can be used as a starting point for a researcher to identify words in the unknown text. Often the first words to be identified are names or terms repeated throughout the text. Deciphering from bilinguals is not simply a matter of substituting new words for known words one by one. Sentence structure and other elements of grammar may differ greatly between the two languages, making the text difficult to interpret. One of the most famous of all bilingual archaeological texts is the ROSETTA STONE, which provided the key to the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian language in the early A.D. 1800s. The stone contains inscriptions in the Greek language and script, everyday Egyptian from the Hellenistic period in the demotic script, and ancient Egyptian, written in hieroglyphics*. Another famous text used by modern scholars to understand ancient languages is the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, a trilingual inscription written in the Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite languages. (See also Decipherment; Hamitic Languages; Semitic Languages.)

L

apis lazuli is a rare, semiprecious stone of deep blue color, sometimes speckled with gold-colored minerals. Greatly prized in the ancient Near East, lapis lazuli was used in making beads, cylinder SEALS, inlays*, JEWELRY, and other decorative objects. The main sources of the stone lay in CENTRAL ASIA, just outside the Near East, and the demand for lapis lazuli helped stimulate interregional trade. Ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians believed that lapis lazuli had the power to protect against evil. The stone became popular for jewelry, and trade in lapis lazuli became well established by about 4000 B.C. The main sources of lapis lazuli were in Badakhshan, a mountainous region of Afghanistan far to the northeast of Mesopotamia. A number of sites in eastern IRAN served as entrepots* where the stone was processed and prepared for distribution to areas throughout the Near East. By about 3500 B.C., an interregional trading network based on lapis lazuli extended from India in the east to Egypt in the west and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south. Lapis lazuli was especially prized by Mesopotamian rulers, including the Sumerians, and artifacts* from royal cemeteries at UR demonstrate its use in elite Mesopotamian life. It was often used in combination with gold and carnelian, especially in Sumerian jewelry. Even some Mesopotamian myths mention the importance of lapis lazuli. Wealthy Egyptians also greatly valued the stone for its rarity and beauty, and the finest Egyptian jewelry often contained lapis lazuli. Much of the lapis lazuli that reached Egypt before 3000 B.C. came through the city of UGARIT

Law See color plate 5, vol. 1.

LAW

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

in northern SYKIA. Although lapis lazuli never became very popular among the HITTITES, a number of Hittite texts contain references to the beautiful blue stone.

T

he people of the ancient Near East believed that laws were established by their gods. The king was chosen by the gods as their representative, and he was responsible for communicating the gods' laws to the people and ensuring that they were obeyed. In turn, the people put their faith in the king to protect the weak from the strong and to ensure that they were pleasing the gods. In this capacity, the king served as the supreme legal authority of the land. Although the king had the most authority, he was not the only source of laws and legal decision making in the ancient Near East. In many societies, the male head of household—usually the father—had a number of legal rights and did not have to defer to the state or the temple for approval of his judgments. After the family, the next legal authority was the village council or town assembly. At this level, legal decisions were based on custom or tradition, not laws. The final level of the law was the state and its law codes. These codes, however, were not strict rules to be followed. Rather, they were suggestions to the judges on how to decide different types of cases. Even as law codes became more complex, many legal matters, such as that of inheritance, were left up to local customs, because a large segment of the population was illiterate and therefore unable to consult the codes. Throughout the ancient Near East, many legal transactions took place between people using contracts as a means to document events such as land sales or marriage or divorce agreements. In the Levant* and Mesopotamia, the contract was witnessed and often impressed with seals or fingernail marks. The contract could then be referred to in case of a dispute.

Judicial System. The court systems throughout the ancient Near East shared several characteristics. Trials were usually led by a group of judges. For minor crimes and disputes, such as those over property rights or inheritance, the judges were village or city elders. More serious crimes, such as murder or treason, were referred to a higher court, where decisions were made by state judges appointed by the king. Usually, the final judge was the king himself. Evidence presented at trials often consisted of the testimony of the witnesses and participants, who testified under oath. If the defendant was convicted at the end of the trial, punishment was usually immediate. Depending on the nature of the crime, the types of punishment included fines, beatings, mutilation, banishment, terms of forced labor, or death. Certain societies punished not only the criminals but also their families or communities, especially in cases of treason. Mesopotamia. Evidence of laws from the ancient Near East survives in the form of law codes, contracts, and court decisions. Historians know more about the law in ancient Mesopotamia than in other Near Eastern lands

51

Law

Jh\s copy of the Code of Hammurabi from the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal was excavated at the site of the ancient city of Nineveh. The original code, dating from the 1750s B.C., contained 282 laws and was written by Hammurabi, king of Babylon. The Code of Hammurabi is one of the best-known artifacts of Mesopotamia and perhaps the most famous legal code of antiquity.

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* vizier minister of state

52

because the clay tablets on which Mesopotamians wrote have survived very well. Not only are there records of the numerous law codes from Mesopotamia, but reports of court cases and texts for training judges also exist. In Mesopotamia, the earliest codes of law were the Sumerian codes of kings SHULGI (ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C.) and Lipit-Ishtar (ruled ca. 1930 B.C.) and the laws of ESHNUNNA (ca. 1800 B.C.). One of the most famous legal codes of the ancient world was the Code of Hammurabi. This code, set by Babylonian king HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.), was by faj^the most extensive of the preserved Mesopotamian codes. It was also more severe in its punishments than earlier codes, stating that for some crimes, the perpetrators should be punished by having the same crimes inflicted on themselves. Other Mesopotamian law documents include records of court cases that summarized the events during the case, the final decision, and sometimes a statement quoting an important participant in the trial. In Babylonia during the first millennium B.C.*, trial records also included quotes of dialogues between the parties agreeing to the terms of the deal. Initially, only one copy of a case was written. In a lawsuit, it was given to the winning party for safekeeping. A contract or sale document was given to the party who was paying the money. In Neo-Babylonian times (612-539 B.C.), a copy was often made for each party. In the most serious court cases in Mesopotamia, the oaths of those on trial were often combined with a test called an ordeal. One form of ordeal involved swearing an oath to the river god and then jumping into a river. If oath takers were telling the truth, they would survive; if they were not, they would die, because of the river god's knowledge of the truth. Matters of inheritance in Mesopotamia were based on custom rather than a code. Usually, the majority of an estate went to the oldest son, and the rest of it was divided among younger sons. In Sumer, women were also able to inherit from their fathers if there were no sons. Egypt. With the exception of some contracts and legal documents, very little evidence of the legal system in ancient Egypt exists. Historians believe that the law was based on local traditions and oral history, not on set legal codes. However, by the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), there were certain national laws, particularly in areas where the state had a concern, such as in the runaway of a forced laborer. Egyptian judicial cases were judged by members of the community, including members of the royal administration and ordinary people. Until the Late Period (664-332 B.C.), Egyptian courts were not permanent institutions, and unlike the situation in the rest of the Near East, the king almost never presided over a case himself. For state trials, there were two high courts, one for northern Egypt and one for southern Egypt, each led by a vizier*. The viziers presided over a tribunal (court of justice) made up of royal officials and possibly priests. National inheritance laws in Egypt probably developed because the elite members of society owned land in different areas and did not want to be subject to many laws that depended on different local traditions. The general law of the New Kingdom was that people could leave their goods and property to whomever they pleased. When a person died

Law without a will, the child who took responsibility for the deceased's burial would inherit the deceased's property. * scribal referring to people of a learned class who served as writers, editors, or teachers

To Catch a Thief A sort of police force called the Medjay operated during the New Kingdom period in Egypt ^fter an offense was reported, the Medjay began pursuing suspects. Once a suspected criminal was in custody, the Medfay sometimes used such methods as torture to obtain a con-} fession. One document from Egypt tells the story of a tomb robber who\ was being questioned under torture: *He was then examined again with the stick, the birch, and the screw. He would not confess anything beyond what he had said/'

* magistrate person empowered by the state to administer and enforce the law

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Hittites. Knowledge of the law the HITTITES comes mostly from their law codes, although there are a few scribal* records and some stories involving legal issues in Hittite literature. Even though no contracts from Hittite culture survive, scholars know that these documents were used because they are referred to in other texts. The Hittite law codes were unusual in that when a new law was recorded, that law contained the old law it replaced. Moreover, unlike other ancient Near Eastern laws, Hittite laws tended to include statements of what is, as well as what is not, permitted. As a result, historians know that the Old Hittite Laws (ca. 1650 B.C.) had different penalties, depending on whether the victims and criminals were slaves or freemen. The most important difference between the Old Hittite Laws and the New Hittite Laws (ca. 1350-1200 B.C.) was that the later laws took into account a larger variety of legal situations. The court system of the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1650-1500 B.C.) consisted of the royal court, where the king was judge, and local courts run by magistrates*, who were the elite of the kingdom. These magistrates were chosen by the king and sent to the various districts of the realm. By around 1500 B.C., local elders also served as judges, along with representatives of the king and the district governor. Hittite punishments were quite lenient compared with those of other societies of the time. Most punishments were in the form of fines. The amount of a fine was only intended to repay the victim, not punish the criminal. In fact, in many cases, the Old Hittite Laws replaced CAPITAL PUNISHMENT with fines or animal sacrifice. However, when the criminal was a slave, capital punishment or mutilation was still used. Scholars do not know much about inheritance laws among the Hittites, but it appears that sons inherited the family property. Women could not inherit property directly from their fathers. The Levant. Archaeologists* have found some letters and scribal records from the Levant, but the greatest source of knowledge of the law in the Levant is the Hebrew BIBLE. Most of the Israelite codes are recorded as divine revelations that were given to the people during the period the Israelites spent in the desert after leaving Egypt. Among these are the most famous laws in the Western world—the TEN COMMANDMENTS—which set basic boundaries for how people should behave. The oldest code in the Bible is the Covenant Code, from the Book of Exodus. It covers issues of slavery, theft, and crimes punishable by death. According to the Bible, among the ancient Israelites, a father's land was divided among his sons, but the oldest son received a double portion. If a man had no male heirs, a daughter could receive an inheritance. However, she had to marry within her tribe so that property belonging to that tribe would not pass to others. Apart from biblical law, no actual law codes from this region have been found. Nevertheless, letters, contracts, court declarations, and inscriptions have been discovered in both Phoenician and Canaanite ruins. 53

Lebanon Persia. Most of the information about ancient Persia comes from Greek writers and historians. There is almost no direct knowledge of Persian law codes and court procedures. However, it is known that Persian law was based on faithfulness to the Persian god AHURA MAZDA and to the king. In the court system of Persia, judges were appointed for life by the king. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, they judged all types of disputes. Another report says that judges traveled through the countryside judging cases. As in other societies, the king had the final word. According to Persian law, women did not have the right to inherit. Persian men married more than one wife and also married relatives to ensure that they would have several descendants and that wealth remained within the family. (See also Divorce; Mosaic Law; Property and Property Rights; Slaves and Slavery.)

Lebanon

See Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.

Leprosy

See Medicine.

Levant, The

LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

See Canaan; Israel andjudah; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Syria.

A

fter writing was invented in about 3300 B.C., the people of the ancient Near East were able to keep records and accounts of business transactions. Over time, as the frequency and uses of writing increased, people needed to store their documents. This resulted in the creation of libraries where texts and documents were kept for reference and archives where records and historical documents were preserved. In Mesopotamia and other places where the cuneiform* script was used, texts were written on clay tablets as well as on wooden boards covered with wax. Unfortunately, very few of these boards have survived. Consequently, our knowledge of Mesopotamian archives and libraries depends almost exclusively on the recovery of clay tablets. In Egypt, there are even fewer surviving records from both libraries and archives because papyrus*, the writing material the Egyptians used, was destroyed more easily than cuneiform tablets. Most of the surviving papyri were recovered from tombs. Libraries. Libraries in the ancient Near East could be found in temples, palaces, and schools and at the homes of priests. Libraries began as places for storing texts, such as lists of words, samples of different scripts,

54

Libraries and Archives

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

One of the most impressive libraries of the ancient Near East was located in the palace of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. Ashurbanipal's goal was to collect the most important scholarly and religious texts. Dating from the 600s B.C., this dictionary of synonyms, inscribed on a tablet made of baked clay, was part of Ashurbanipal's collection.

and practice documents for students to copy. When ancient Near Eastern peoples began to write down and copy LITERATURE around 2500 B.C., libraries became places to store such texts as OMENS, medical knowledge, ASTROLOGY, MYTHOLOGY, magical spells, and wisdom literature, such as the teachings of a father to his son. In Mesopotamia, temple libraries existed in the Assyrian capitals of Nineveh, Nimrud, and Dur-Sharrukin. All these temples housed important literature and were dedicated to Nabu, the god of scribes*. Palaces in Mesopotamia often did not have libraries at all. One major exception to this was King ASHURBANIPAL'S library at Nineveh dating from the 600s B.C. The king personally oversaw the collection and sent scribes to Babylonia to confiscate or copy religious and scholarly texts. By the time Assurbanipal's library was complete, it had at least 1,500 tablets containing the most important literature of the day. Although there is little archaeological* information available about libraries in ancient Egypt, literary evidence suggests that Egyptians had libraries dating back to the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.) Later texts indicate that members of Egyptian royalty were interested in libraries, suggesting that palace libraries were perhaps more common in Egypt than in Mesopotamia. The most information about Egyptian libraries in Egypt comes from the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Roman era. The most famous library of the ancient world, that in Alexandria, was established in the 200s B.C. Although no trace of this library remains, it was reputed to hold a copy of every known scroll of ancient times in its collection. The library's holdings are believed to have exceeded 400,000 scrolls. Archives. In ancient times, administrative and business records such as contracts, reports, letters, and ledgers were stored in archives. Today archives also contain old documents that are no longer used but are historically important. In the ancient Near East, archives contained documents that were still in use or that were needed for reference. Administrative and institutional documents were stored at official archives. Temple archives in Mesopotamia were considered official even though a temple only stored those records that were directly related to its own business. Palaces, on the other hand, not only had archives relating to the business of the palace, such as lists of personnel and what they were paid, but also those relating to the business of the country, such as international treaties. In Mesopotamia, even people of modest means had private archives that contained contracts, land use or sale documents, and records of lawsuits. The archives of merchants or traders probably contained business ledgers as well as lists of goods and their sale prices. In ancient Egypt, more temple archives have survived than any other kind. However, historians believe that the state also kept extensive records, particularly with regard to military matters. Private household archives from ancient Egypt have been found as well. It is known that archival material was used in court cases throughout ancient Egyptian history. Documents could be binding over many generations, and the courts would refer back to documents created hundreds of years before. 55

Libyans

Library Rivalry According to legend, parchmentwriting material made from the skin of sheep or goats—became widely used because of a rivalry between libraries. In the 100s B.C, the librar at the city of Pergamum in Anatolia was said to be almost as magnificent as the one in Alexandria in Egypt The Egyptians wanted their library to be the best and refused toj supply papyrus—the chief writing material of the time—to Pergamum, Because the scribes of Pergamum could no longer write on papyrus, they turned to using parchment instead. Parchment eventually replaced papyrus as a writing material.

LIBYANS * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

56

Storage and Retrieval of Texts. Large libraries and archives had to organize all their documents for easy access. Labels were used to identify collections of tablets that were kept in baskets, boxes, or trays. Throughout the ancient Near East, both papyri and cuneiform tablets were stored in three main ways: in containers such as clay jars, wooden or reed boxes, or leather bags; on open shelves; and in niches built into walls. Cuneiform tablets were organized by shape, size, and the layout of their text. Initially, library texts were not very long, and there was no great need to catalog the documents. Later when scribes began to write reference works as long as 100 tablets, the catalogs recorded their incipits—the first words or lines of each tablet. This system enabled people to find the tablet they needed. After 600 B.C., scribes used ink to write identifying information on the edge of a tablet in Aramaic, the common language of the time. In ancient Egypt, different types of documents were written on papyrus rolls of various heights. This made it easy to catalog and identify them. In addition, papyri commonly began with a date, which could immediately be seen when one opened a scroll. Such papyri were organized by date. Libraries in Egypt from the Greco-Roman period (332 B.C.-A.D. 642) contained lists of texts on the walls. Some scholars believe that these were an inventory of the library's contents and that such lists were used in many Egyptian libraries from long before the Greco-Roman period. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Clay Tablets; Cuneiform; Hieroglyphics; Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)

I

n ancient times, the Libyans (LI»bee»uhnz) were a partially nomadic* people who lived in the desert lands west of Egypt. Although Egypt had seized control of other neighboring lands, such as NUBIA and KUSH to the south, it was not interested in controlling the Libyans' land. This was because Libya did not contain valuable raw materials or lie on any important trade routes. However, the Egyptians wanted to prevent the Libyans from entering Egypt. Over the centuries, Libyans had migrated to Egypt in search of a better life. As the Libyan population increased in Egypt, especially as a result of several mass migrations, their power increased as well. Many of them lived like Egyptians and worshiped Egyptian gods, but they continued to honor their Libyan chiefs. The Egyptians employed captured Libyans as professional soldiers, or mercenaries. As payment for their service, the Egyptians gave the Libyan soldiers land. This increased the Libyans' power and wealth. The Libyans also married into the Egyptian royal family, thus extending and cementing their influence. Meanwhile, Libyans outside of Egypt had strong kings and armies. RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.) recognized this potential threat and built forts along Egypt's western borders. However, this was not sufficient protection. The Libyan armies made repeated attacks. Egypt managed to repel these incursions, but the attacks left the Egyptian government in

Lions

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Life Expectancy

LIONS * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head griffin imaginary creature with a lion's body and an eagle's head and wings

disarray. After a series of weakened kings and high priests, Egypt was ripe for infiltration and takeover. The Libyan rule of Egypt began at the time of the Twenty-second Dynasty (ca. 945-712 B.C.), when Shoshenq I took the throne. Until that time, Thebes had been the royal residence, but Shoshenq ruled from Tanis, in the Nile Delta, which had long been a Libyan stronghold. Shoshenq gave the military considerable power to maintain order. Under his rule, the Egyptian economy prospered. Both Libyans and Egyptians received positions in government, which kept the kingdom unified. His son even married the daughter of his Egyptian predecessor. Shoshenq is best known for his invasion of the Levant*, which increased his kingdom's prestige and wealth. Many scholars identify Shoshenq with an Egyptian king in the Hebrew Bible named Shishaq, who plundered Jerusalem around 925 B.C. However, this cohesiveness and prosperity did not last. Over the next 200 years, the kingdom was divided by civil wars fought among several rival dynasties. No single ruler was strong enough to unite the various parties into a cooperative group working toward a common goal. By this time, the Libyan dynasties were ripe for takeover. Around 750 B.C., Nubians from the area of present-day Sudan and southern Egypt seized control of Egypt, initiating the kingdom's Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

See Health.

I

n ancient times, lions roamed wild throughout the Near East. These great beasts were eventually exterminated in most areas, but in parts of the Levant* and MESOPOTAMIA, they continued to live in remote areas until as late as the early A.D. 1900s. As civilization developed in the ancient Near East, lions increasingly became a danger and nuisance to the people. In many regions, lion hunting became a necessity to prevent attacks on humans and their flocks and herds. Lion hunting was a popular activity of royalty, and the walls of Assyrian palaces contain many reliefs* of kings hunting the beasts from CHARIOTS or on foot. Although the earliest royal lion hunts took place in the wild, the Assyrians later kept lions in enclosures, where they were bred to be hunted by the king within a royal park. The strength, power, and majestic appearance of lions made them a popular subject in Near Eastern art and literature. Images of lions appeared in many paintings, and lion sculptures were often placed in or near palaces and temples. Lions were also portrayed as protective guardian animals on city gates. In art, lions were often combined with parts of humans or other animals to produce a variety of demons and monsters, including sphinxes*, griffins*, and dragons. In literature, lions often symbolized strength and aggression. In Egypt, the lion was symbolic of the king. 57

Lisht

See color plate 2, vol. 3.

LISHT

See map in Pyramids (vol. 4).

* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber

Literacy

LITERATURE * illiterate unable to read or write

58

Lions also served as powerful symbols in religion and mythology. A number of gods and goddesses who served as protectors—such as the Sumerian god Ningirsu, the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, the Syrian goddess Atargatis, and the Phrygian goddess Cybele—were associated with lions. The Egyptian goddess Hathor could take the form of Sekhmet, a lioness, when she was angry. (See also Animals in Art; Cats; Hunting.)

L

isht, also called al-Lisht, is the modern name of a site in northern Egypt where a field of PYRAMIDS is located. These pyramids were built around 1900 B.C., during the reigns of King Amenemhet I and his son and successor, King Senwosret I. During his reign, Amenemhet moved Egypt's capital and royal residence from THEBES to a newly built city called Itjtawy, which was located between MEMPHIS and the Faiyum Depression, near the west bank of the Nile. The royal residence at Itjtawy became a model for later royal residences, and the city retained its importance as capital throughout the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.). Although Itjtawy has never been found, it is certain that its main cemetery was located at Lisht. The tomb complexes of Amenemhet and Senwosret at Lisht each included a pyramid, a temple, and a number of monuments. Many smaller pyramids and mastabas* were also built at Lisht for high-ranking government officials and members of the royal family. In addition, there were numerous cemeteries containing the graves of common people. Lisht was first explored in A.D. 1884 by an expedition of the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology. From 1906 through 1934, the site was explored by expeditions sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

See Education; Writing.

B

efore WRITING was invented, people learned the history, MYTHOLOGY, religious rituals, and songs of their cultures through oral tradition; that is, they memorized what they heard from their elders. The invention of writing meant that information could be transcribed for future generations to read as literature. However, most of the population in the ancient Near East was illiterate*, so the oral tradition remained the most common way for stories and rituals to pass from one generation to the next. Consequently, most ancient literature was written with the understanding that it would be read aloud. The literature of the ancient Near East can be divided into two main styles of writing: poetry and prose. Poetry includes HYMNS, songs, myths,

Literature * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * annals record of events arranged chronologically by year

* deity god or goddess

Title and Author Works of poetry and prose Jn the ancient Near East did not generally have titles, Instead, they were known by their inciplts—the first few words of tharflrst line. What modem historians call the fpfc of G%om£s& was known in the second millennium B.C. as "Surpassing Other Kings" and in thefirstmilien nium as "He Who Saw Everything." Moreover, the authors of these ancient literary works remain unknown, The fpfc of Gilgamesh may be an exception, however, A tablet found in the library of Assyrian Wng Ashurbanipal attributes its composl tion to Sin-teqe-unninni, an exorcis

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * exorcism removal of evil spirits through specific rituals, incantations, and ceremonies

PSALMS, love poems, and magical incantations*. Prose writing includes stories, law codes, royal INSCRIPTIONS, histories, and annals*. Some types of literature were written in both poetry and prose. Occasionally, an elevated or lyrical prose bridged the two styles. Poetry. Most literature in Mesopotamia until the end of the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) was written in Sumerian, although the language was no longer spoken. Much of this literature was in the form of poetry, although its principles still largely escape modern researchers. Among the earliest pieces of poetry recorded were incantations and short hymns. Hymns were written to deities*, composed for kings to celebrate special occasions in their reigns, or written for specific rituals and ceremonies. In Sumerian literature, there are also narrative poems—poems that tell stories—that contain myths about various gods. For example, Enki and the World Order tells the story of the creation of the universe and how it is divided between the gods. During the time of the Old Babylonian empire, new types of poems became popular. Poetic petitions were prayers addressed and written as letters to the gods. There were also debate poems, which presented arguments between characters representing opposites, such as summer and winter. In these poems, the characters praise themselves and insult each other. Poetry written in the Sumerian language does not rhyme nor does it have a set rhythm. Various sections of poems are repeated, as are words or phrases. For example: King am I, warrior from the womb am I, Shulgi am I, mighty male from birth am I, Lion fierce of eye, born to be a dragon am I, King of the four comers of the universe am I. Beginning around 2300 B.C., poems were written in Akkadian, a Semitic* language, but it was not until the 1700s B.C. that Akkadian poetry truly began to flower. Among the greatest poems written in Akkadian is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was based on a series of earlier Sumerian poems. The Akkadians also wrote love songs and a great number of exorcism* rituals. As with the Mesopotamians, hymns and poetry were by far the most common forms of Egyptian literature. Around the end of the Old Kingdom period, a type of protest literature developed. These texts, which criticized mainstream government, took several forms in poetry and could also be written in prose. Egyptians also excelled at love poetry: Of graceful step when she treads the earth, She has seized my heart in her embrace! She causes the neck of every male To turn about at the site of her; Happy the one whom she embraces! The best-known literature from the ancient Near East is the Hebrew BIBLE, which contains a great deal of poetry and prose. The most famous 59

Literature * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* secular nonreligious; connected everyday life * edict pronouncement of the government that has the force of law

Israelite poems are in theBible, among them the "Song of Solomon" and the Psalms.From elsewherein theLevant*,atUgarit, comesa great dealof narrative poetry. The most famous CYCLE, Ugaritic BAAL poetryis the which is a seriesof stories about BAAL.the Despite god the differencesbetween Hebrew and Ugaritic poetry, they used many of the same phrases, and both used repetition within and between phrases. In Anatolia, the Hittites wrote songs with a straightforward, strong rhythmic structure and refrain, a a line that is repeated throughout. Most Hittite mythology texts were used for rituals and probably werenot told as stories. Prose. Among the earliest prose pieces in Mesopotamia were the Sumerian KING LISTS. These were part historical and part fictional lists of the leaders in Sumer's history. Other types of early Sumerian prose included stories and riddles, law codes, and royal inscriptions. The Akkadians contributed to prose by composing works on religious issues written as essays, or as discussions. These could sometimes be written in the form of dialoguesor monologues, of such aDialogue Man as with His God. Comic stories, such as Poor Nippur from Man The were als preserved in prose. The Assyrians developed royal inscriptions, which detailed a king's accomplishments, into annals CHRONICLES—accounts and of past events. Like Egyptian poetry, Egyptian prose paid attention to the secular* world. Tomb inscriptions, especially biographies, influenced all types of Egyptian literature. Ultimately, these texts developed into fictional narrative stories. One of the most popularwasStory The ofSinuhe, whichis about a man's escapefrom Egypt and his struggle to come to terms with his past and learn the advantages of returning home. Other types of Egyptian prose included myths and rules of conduct, or "teaching" texts in which a superiorfigure, such as a king, shares his views. Egyptians also excelled in writing short stories. Hittite prose concentrated more on historical writing, which included edicts*, narratives, and annals. Among the earliest Hittite edicts is the EdictofKhattushili [I],from around B.C.In it, King 1620 Khattushili I presents his chosen heir to the dignitaries of his realm.Edict The of Telipinu, written around B.C.,is a1500 more general discussion of how an effective state should be organized.A remarkable text Apology is theof Khattushili III, from aroundB.C., in1250 whicha king justifieshis moveto take over the throne. Perhaps the most interesting Hittite prose pieces are the historical narratives that tell the stories of a king's reign. These stories can be very descriptive and dramatic. For example, early Hittite prose frequently used similes such as 'Then his mother bellowed like an ox." The Hittites also exaggerated the activities of their kings. In one story, the king describes his role in the universe: Who rulesall the lands(withhishand)? Is it not I whofixed hold (in theirplaces)therivers,the mountains and sea? theI set the mountaininsucha way thatitdoes not move; I set the sea such in a way thatit doesnotoverflow!

60

Love The Canaanites and other peoples of the Levant also produced prose, including royal inscriptions and letters, but because they wrote on easily perishable materials, much less has survived there than in the rest of the Near East. (See also Book of the Dead; Books and Manuscripts; Gilgamesh; Proverbs; Ten Commandments; Torah.)

LOVE * deity god or goddess * erotic related to sexual excitement or pleasure

I

n the ancient Near East, people saw love as a force underlying the divine and social orders. Love linked not only men and women but also worshipers and deities*, parents and children, and rulers and subjects. People did not distinguish between the emotion of love and the sexual or physical expressions of love. Rather, both were seen as part of the same force, and even relationships that were not sexual, such as the union between gods and their worshipers, could be described in terms that in other contexts referred to physical or erotic* love. In the Sumerian language, the verb for love could be used for a person, a thing, or an idea. The Akkadians also used their word for love, rdmu, in various contexts. Gods could love other gods, people, animals, heaven, kingship, life, prayer, and sacrifice. People could love gods, other people, places, and ideas. Even animals were thought to be able to love their offspring and their owners. The ancient Israelites used the same word to describe love for their god Yahweh, other people, objects, and ideas. Parents, however, were "honored" rather than "loved." The Egyptian word for love, mry, was usually directed from the higher being to the lower. A god or a king might love people, but people held their gods and rulers in awe. The Egyptians used the same word for both the emotional and physical aspects of love. They also used it to mean wishing, wanting, or preferring. Aspects of love appear in the poetry of the ancient Near East. Many Mesopotamian love poems are addressed not to human lovers but to gods and kings, although the language of attraction, sexual union, and marriage appears in them. Some poems, however, speak of passionate love between people. Topics include a woman advising her suitor how to win her parents' consent to their marriage and a description of the marriage ceremony. Egyptian love poetry focuses on courtship and the world of happy young lovers. The poems praise romantic and erotic love, but historians do not know how such feelings ranked with social and financial considerations when people planned MARRIAGES. Romantic love was also a prominent feature in Egyptian tomb paintings. They often portrayed couples in tender poses—holding hands, in an embrace, or with one's arm resting on the other's neck or shoulder. The best-known Hebrew love poetry appears in the Bible in "The Song of Songs," also called "The Song of Solomon." The poem is filled with themes such as the praise of love, the courting of the beloved, and the separation of lovers. Some scholars have interpreted the song as a symbolic account of the soul's relationship with Yahweh. (See also Family and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Marriage.)

61

Lunar Theory

LUNAR THEORY

LUWIANS second millennium B.C. years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

62

P

eople of the ancient Near East looked to the moon as a way to measure time. Astronomers watched the cycle of the moon's phases, the changes in its position in the sky, and how long it was visible on any given day. From their observations, ancient astronomers were able to develop lunar theory, a mathematical description of the moon's movements that attempted to predict its appearance, position, and phases. One of the earliest known studies of the moon used to develop lunar theory is in a series of Babylonian tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil. The earliest surviving examples were written in the 1200s B.C. The fourteenth tablet in this series contains mathematical formulas that calculate the length of time the moon can be seen on any day of any month. Although very basic, these formulas are thought to be the first use of mathematics to understand and predict astronomical patterns. The evolution of lunar theory was reflected by changes made to the Babylonian CALENDAR. The Babylonians' months, which were either 29 or 30 days long, were based on the phases of the moon. However, their year was based on the behavior of the sun. Since the 12 lunar months did not agree with the 365 solar days, the Babylonians added an extra month to the year periodically. By the 300s B.C., the addition of lunar months became standardized. This marked the high point of the development and use of lunar theory as a mathematical model of the behavior of the moon. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers.)

T

he Luwians (LOOee«uhnz) were a group of peoples who settled throughout ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the early second millennium B.C.* Their place of origin is unknown, but historians believe it may have been the area of southern Russia just north of the Black Sea. The Luwians probably moved into the Anatolian region sometime before 2000 B.C. Thereafter, they moved into northern SYRIA as well. Throughout the second millennium B.C.*, part of southern and western Anatolia was referred to as Luwiya. However, this name probably did not refer to a specific state or kingdom. Instead, it referred to the common language spoken by the peoples of the region. The Luwian language, which has been preserved in cuneiform* and hieroglyphic* INSCRIPTIONS in Anatolia and Syria, later became the language of the Neo-Hittite states. The Luwians assimilated* many aspects of Hittite culture, which they preserved for centuries after the Hittite empire collapsed around 1200 B.C. The Luwians formed Neo-Hittite states in southern Anatolia and northern Syria that survived until the Assyrians conquered them around 700 B.C. Traces of the Luwians remained after the Assyrian conquest. For instance, the languages of the Lycians, another Anatolian people, may have descended from the Luwian language, and Luwian personal names survived to the time of the Roman Empire. (See also Languages; Lycia and the Lycians; Neo-Hittites.)

Lycia and the Lyciaiis

LUXOR See map on inside covers.

sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head

* obelisk four-sided pillar that tapers as it rises and ends in a pyramid

LYCIA AND THE LYCIANS * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

L

uxor (LUHK»sawr) is the name of the modern town nearest the ancient Egyptian city of THEBES. Located on the east bank of the Nile River in central Egypt, Luxor is best known for the ruins of the Great Temple of Amun. Thebes was the capital of Egypt first during the Eleventh Dynasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.) and again during the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). In about 1375 B.C., King Amenhotep III built the magnificent temple for AMUN, the king of the gods, on the city's southern edge. After the temple was built, the city developed around it and became famous. After Egypt's capital moved from Thebes to northern Egypt, Luxor remained an important religious center. Luxor was the site of a long religious festival called Opet, which was celebrated when the Nile River flooded. Statues of Amun and his family were carried on sacred golden boats from their shrines at the Great Temple of Amun at KARNAK, a little more than one mile to the north of Luxor, to the Great Temple of Amun at Luxor. The statues were accompanied by a procession of Theban people. The route lay along an avenue lined with sphinxes*. The festival lasted about three weeks, at the end of which the statues were carried back to Karnak along the same route. Amenhotep's original temple consisted of a large open court surrounded by columns. Beyond the court were many halls and chambers. One of the most striking features of the temple is a majestic row of 14 pillars, 52 feet high, and carved to look like the buds of papyrus plants. Around 1250 B.C., King RAMSES II added an outer court surrounding the original temple. It was decorated with colossal statues of Ramses and 74 columns carved in the shape of papyrus buds. The court also had a pylon (gateway building) covered with scenes portraying a famous battle Ramses fought against the Hittites in Syria. In front of the pylon were huge images of Ramses and a pair of red granite obelisks*, each approximately 82 feet tall. One of the obelisks still stands in front of the ruins of the temple. The other was moved to Paris, France, in A.D. 1836. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and Temples.)

L

ycia (LI»shee»uh) was an ancient region located in southwestern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Because of its location, Lycia was greatly influenced by the peoples across the sea and to the east and west. Nevertheless, it was able to maintain its independence for many centuries. History of Lycia. The Lycians, an Indo-European people, were descendants of the Lukka people, who were related to the HITTITES. Their origins are difficult to trace because the Lukka people were nomads* who left little evidence of their culture. Although Lycia is depicted at the time of the Trojan War (ca. 1100 B.C.) in Homer's Iliad, the earliest traces of Lycian culture are remains of buildings that date to the late 700s B.C. These remains were found in the Lycian city of Xanthus.

63

Lycia and the Lycians

* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor * dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from

the

See map in Anatolia (vol.

diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with kingdoms, states, or nations

* deity god or goddess

64

fgn

Lycia remained independent until B.C., around whenit540 was conqueredby the Persian GREAT. CYRUS THE king Around B.C., Lycia 516 was made a partof a satrapy* PERSIAN of theEMPIRE. During this time, a ruling dynasty*, supported byPersia, arosein Xanthusand controlled Lyciafor about 100 years. In the mid-400s B.C.,Lycia becamea memberof the Delian League, a group of cities allied to the Greek city of Athens. Athenian influence in Lycia grew quite strong, but ended when the Peloponnesian Wars between the cities of Athensand Sparta began. B.C., Lycia By was the 420s again a satrapyof Persia.By the B.C.,early there 300s was general unrestin Lycia, and a new Lycian leader, Perikles, emerged. Perikles' ambitions were in conflict with thoseof the Persian B.C., rulers, the Lyand in 367 cians took part in failed a rebellionof the satrapies against Persia. In 334B.C., ALEXANDER GREAT MACEDONIA THE of invaded Lycia. Macedonia controlledLycia PTOLEMY until I ofEgyptB.C. Lycia invaded it in 309 was conquered by the Seleucid emperor B.C., Antiochus but III in 197 seven years later,the Romans defeatedhim and took Lycia. During the lateB.C., 100sseveralLycian cities came together form to the Lycian League. This body made decisions about war, sent diplomats* to other lands, and elected judges to establish and oversee the laws of the land.After many diplomatic missions fromthe league, Rome granted Lycia independenceB.C. in 168 However, B.C., Lycia shortly after was100 invaded by Mithridates VI, the king of Pontus, in northern Anatolia. Rome retook Lycia in B.C.42 A.D. and,43, in combinedit withthe neighboring territory of Pamphylia toform a Roman province. Rome controlled Lycia for the next 300 years. Language and Culture. The Lycian language was derived from the Luwian language,but muchof it remainsa mysteryto scholars. Lycian religion also camefrom LUWIANS the and other earlier civilizations in Anatolia. However,by the B.C.,300s a strong Greek influence led to many local deities* beingidentified with Greek godsand goddesses.The main Lycian goddess, calledEnimahanahi (motherof the gods) became linkedto the

Lydia and the Lydians * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

LYDIA AND THE LYDIANS * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

Greek goddess Leto, and she and her children Apollo and Artemis became Lycia's national gods. Lycia was known for its many oracles*. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, Lycia was noted for its fine wine, perfumes, and timber from its famous groves of Cyprus and cedar trees. The Lycians themselves had a reputation as people who appreciated order and respected the law. Despite the strong influence of the Greeks and Romans, the Lycians preserved many of their traditional customs. This was particularly true in areas farther from the main cities and harbor towns that had the most contact with foreigners and foreign cultures. (See also Religion; Satraps; Seleucid Empire.)

L

ydia (LI«dee»uh) was a small kingdom in western ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) that flourished between the early 600s and the mid-500s B.C. Although Lydia survived for only a brief time, it achieved fame throughout the ancient world for its legendary wealth. In fact, the name of its last ruler, King Croesus, came to symbolize fabulous riches. History. During the third millennium B.C.*, Lydia was greatly influenced by TROY and other states bordering the AEGEAN SEA. In the second millennium B.C.* (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), the HITTITES of Anatolia and the Mycenaeans of Greece had a major impact on the region. With the collapse of the Hittite empire in the 1200s B.C., however, the Phrygians became the dominant influence over Lydia. According to tradition, two ruling dynasties* controlled Lydia before the 600s B.C. The second of these, the Herakleid dynasty, lasted about 500 years. Lydia's rise to power began in about 680 B.C., when a ruler named Gyges came to the throne. Gyges allied with Egypt and Assyria and expanded his kingdom by warring with Greek cities on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. During his reign, Lydia faced attacks by the Cimmerians, warriors from eastern Anatolia. The Cimmerians captured the Lydian capital of SARDIS in 652 B.C., and for the next few decades, Lydia faced threats from these invaders. By 626 B.C., Gyges' successor Ardys, with the help of Assyria, defeated the Cimmerians and regained Sardis. Lydia reached the height of its power under King Alyattes, who ruled from about 607 to 560 B.C. Alyattes brought many regions in western Anatolia—including a number of Greek city-states* in Ionia—under Lydian rule. He also countered threats from the MEDES, who had begun to push into the region from the east. The last and most famous Lydian king was Croesus, who succeeded Alyattes around 560 B.C. Croesus was known to the Greeks because of his wealth and the rich OFFERINGS he made at Greek temples. Despite his respect for Greek gods and religion, Croesus launched attacks on Greek cities in Ionia. By 547 B.C., he had brought much of coastal western Anatolia under his control. Croesus planned to expand Lydian power to the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. However, he had to abandon this goal because of growing threats from the Persians, who had replaced the Medes as the major 65

Lydia and the Lydians

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surroundinga fortressor city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

66

threat in the east. Croesus formed alliances with Egypt,Babylonia,and the Greek city-stateof Sparta,and setPERSIAN out toEMPIRE. attack the In 547 B.C., Croesus and his army foughtan indecisive battle withthe Persian leader CYRUS GREAT. THE He then returned to Sardis to raise alarger army and wait for reinforcements fromhis allies. However, Cyrus surprised Croesusby pursuinghim and attacking Sardis, after fell which a short siege*. This defeat marked the end of the Lydian kingdom. Lydia and the rest of Anatolia became part of the Persian empire. ThePersians eventually madeSardisthe western capitaloftheir empire. Economy and Culture.Lydia wasfamous in the ancient world for developing thefirst gold and silver coins for use as currency. It wasalso famed for establishing the earliest retail MERCHANTS tradein which sold small quantities of goods directlyto consumers. Lydia's wealth came fromits fertile landand depositsof gold, silver, and other metals. Its supply of precious metals contributed to the development of coins as a medium of exchange. The widespreaduse of such currency inLydia influenced the Persians and the Greeks. With the use of coins as currency, retail tradewas easily established. Thiswas a change from the traditional systemin which goods reachedaconsumer onlyafter they had passed through many middlemen. Amongthe products for which the Lydians were famed were carpets, golden cloth, reddye, and COSMETICS. Lydian healing ointments were sold in Anatolia, Greece, Italy, and NorthAfrica in distinctively shaped vases called lydions. Lydian culturewas essentially Anatolian, withastrong blendofeastern Greek culture. Thereis little evidenceof influence from other regions of the Near East. Lydian architecture, known primarily fromthe ruinsofSardis, included massive fortsand large impressive burial mounds, many ofwhich contained stone chambersand entrance halls. Littleisknownof the Lydian languageor religion, except thatthe INDO-EUROPEAN people spoke an LANGUAGE relatedto such languages suchas Hittite, Luwian, and Lycian. Few texts have survived, and there is no evidence that the Lydians had sophisticated literature suchas epics*or drama.

Macedonia * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

MACEDONIA * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

See map in Alexander the Great (vol.1).

* republic government in which citizens elect officials to represent them and govern according to law

Cybele was a major Lydian goddess, but little is known about other Lydian gods and cults*. Lydian religion borrowed heavily from the Greeks. This is evident from many carved images and INSCRIPTIONS that bear the names of Greek deities. At the same time, a number of Greek and Roman myths and legends may have a basis in Lydian MYTHOLOGY. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Economy and Trade; Greece and the Greeks; Money; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Phrygia and the Phrygians.)

M

acedonia (ma*suh«DOH>nee«uh) was an ancient kingdom in northeastern Greece. The region contains fertile plains, swift rivers, and rugged mountains, which isolated Macedonia from its neighbors. Macedonia played an important role in the later history of the ancient Near East as the home of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who created an empire that included much of the Near East as well as parts of India and CENTRAL ASIA. The Macedonians spoke a dialect* of the Greek language and adopted Greek religious beliefs. According to ancient Greek MYTHOLOGY, the Macedonians were descended from one of the sons of the god Zeus. Around 650 B.C., King Perdikkas I began to expand Macedonia's territories. For the next 300 years, his descendants continued to strengthen and expand the kingdom, bringing Macedonia into periodic conflict with Athens, Sparta, Illyria, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, and other neighboring kingdoms and city-states*. In 338 B.C., King Philip II of Macedonia defeated an alliance of Greek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea. This victory left Macedonia in control of Greece. Philip's son Alexander the Great built on Philip's successes when he defeated the Persians and created the largest empire in the ancient world. By the time of Alexander's death in 323 B.C., the Macedonian empire stretched from Greece in the west to India in the east. Included in the empire were ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq), IRAN, Egypt, SYRIA, and the Levant*. After Alexander's death, the empire was divided into provinces, each controlled by one of his generals. During the next 20 years, when the generals fought for control of the entire empire, Macedonia and Greece were ruled by General Antipater and his son Cassander. After Cassander's death in 297 B.C., Macedonia endured 20 years of civil war and attacks by the Galatians, invaders from the north. This period of strife ended in 276 B.C., when military leader Antigonus Gonatas drove back the Galatians and was proclaimed king by the Macedonian army. The Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia for about 100 years. Between 215 and 148 B.C., Macedonia fought a series of conflicts known as the Macedonian Wars with the Roman Empire. Roman victories in the first two wars greatly reduced Macedonian territory and power. In 168 B.C., during the third war, the Romans defeated King Perseus and divided Macedonia into four separate republics*. Twenty years later, the Romans reunited these republics and made Macedonia a province of their empire. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Seleucid Empire.) 67

Magic

MAGIC

A Purification Spell A Mesopotamian text called Shurpu, which means buming, describes rituals to cleanse people of misdeeds and i harmful influences* One spell re" quires the person to burn a clump of| wool while reciting this text: Just as this feelf of wo/ is plucked

apart and thrown into the tire, [and just as] the firegod consumes it a&ogether, just as it w§ not return to its sheep, will not be i&acf for f fce cbthing of god or king: May ... the sickness that is in my body, flesh, and veins, bepbdted apart like this flock of wool, andrmy the Rregadon this very day consume it dtog&het May the ban go away, and may I [again] see the lightl

* incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead

68

T

he people of the ancient Near East believed that the world was filled with supernatural beings and unseen powers that caused things to happen. Magic was the people's attempt to control or influence those beings and powers. Magical practices included ritual ceremonies, spells or incantations*, and everyday acts such as the wearing of protective charms called amulets*. All cultures, however, drew a clear distinction between white magic, the helpful or protective practices that were accepted in society, and black magic, which was considered destructive and was not tolerated. Both magic and religion were expressions of humanity's relationship to the supernatural world of GODS, DEMONS, and spirits. Magic also had a practical aspect. The people who used it hoped to acquire some benefit— anything from quieting a crying baby to winning another's love to curing an illness. Types and Uses of Magic. Magic is based on the idea that everything in the universe is somehow connected to everything else. A magician is a person who understands and can manipulate those connections. This concept of interconnection is clear in analogic magic, one of the most popular forms of magic. It drew on the analogies, or likenesses, among things and was used to drive evils, such as sickness or impurity, out of people. Among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), for example, an object, such as a piece of wax, was shaped in a form representational of evil. A spoken incantation then established the magical connection between the evil and the object representing it. Destroying the object—for example, by melting the wax—then removed the evil. The Hittites also used contact magic, in which touching certain objects removed evil from a person and transferred it to an object. For example, people might pass between nets or thornbushes to rid themselves of evil. Many magical practices in the ancient Near East were protective. People used spells and charms to keep themselves and their homes from harm. For example, in the Babylonian city-state* of NIPPUR, people buried bowls inscribed with incantations under the corners of their houses to drive away the demons that might harm the household. A stela* found in Egypt from the 300s B.C. contains magical spells seeking the protection of the god HORUS against dangerous demons and wild animals. Some magic was directed at a specific demon, spirit, or ghost that was believed to be troubling the living. For instance, texts from ancient Mesopotamia give many examples of rituals against Lamashtu, a female demon who attacked pregnant women and babies. Other Mesopotamian magic rituals dealt with such problems as angry ghosts and the harmful WITCHCRAFT performed by human sorcerers. Magic was closely associated with medicine. A healing treatment could include incantations, spells, rituals, and herbal potions. In Egypt, for example, the oldest known texts dealing with health care contain both medical and magical remedies. According to these texts, magic was the only treatment for the bites of snakes and scorpions. Many surviving descriptions of Egyptian magic deal with funerary* rituals. Spells performed during the burial ceremony transformed a dead

Maps person into a spirit. Egyptians also relied on spells astheir defense against demons and the roaming dead. The Canaanites in the Levant* practiced therapeutic, or healing, magic. They recited incantations to the gods to prevent and heal snakebites. A textfromthe SyrianUGARIT city-state contains of a spell thatcalls on the god BAALto drivethe illnessout ofsick a person. Officially, the Israelites disapproved of magical practices,but in everydaylife, people wore amulets and buried protective charms in tombs. Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, and Aramaic texts show t people throughout the Levant used magic to try to connect with the supernatural world. For instance, some Canaaniteand Israelite refer texts to the practice of necromancy,form a of magicin whichthe spiritsof the dead were evoked. The dead were thought to possess knowledgedenied to the living, including knowledge of the future. Among the Israelites, necromancy was practiced only when other methods of divination*failed because their official religion disapprovedof the practice of calling on the dead.If caught,the offender could receive harsh punishment.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan * divination art or practice of foretelling the future

MAPS Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and westernAsia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in B.C. 323

Roles of Magicians. In all ancient Near Eastern cultures, the magician who worked within the public realmof religionand socially acceptable behavior wasdifferent fromthe wizard, sorcerer, orwitch whoperformed magic forharmful purposes. Magicians often interacted with priests and healers. In Mesopotamia, magical experts ashipu called sharedthe responsibility for providing health care with physicians. Aphysician might use a magical spell to increasethe effect of his medications, while ashipu an might own a library of handbooks on medicine and medical treatment. Ashipu also performed other actsof magic, such ascasting spells orexorcising—driving away—demons, for private clients. In addition, some ashipu advised kingsand servedin temples. The profession ashipu was of generally handed down from generationto generation within family. a The most important magician in the Hittite kingdom wasoften a "Wise Woman/' She was an incantation priestessand performed rituals and spells. The Wise Woman worked alone or with other incantationspecialists such as physiciansand fortune-tellers. (See also Amulets and Charms; Omens; Oracles and Prophecy.)

H

aps are used to show locationsin all or partof an area.Thepeople of the ancient Near East producedthe oldest known maps, most of which coveredfairly small areasand had practical uses. By the Hellenistic* period, however, mapmakers (cartographers) in the Near East were trying to envision the entire world and were laying the foundations of modern cartography,or mapmaking. The First Maps. The first knownMESOPOTAMIA. maps come from One of the oldest, datingfrom CLAYabout TABLET B.C.,isfrom a2300 the ruins of the city ofNuzi.The map shows several settlements aswell aswaterways 69

Maps

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

and hills.The writingon the MEASUREMENTS map—theof plots of land— offers a clue that the Nuzimap and others likeit may have been records of land ownership. These records may have been usedby tax collectors or other officials. The Babylonians drew maps,or plans,of houses, temples, towns,and cities. One example,a clay tablet from about B.C., features 1500 a plan of the cityNIPPUR. of The map shows GATES the city in the wall, wall, theand the moat protecting the wall, as well as a park, several canals, temples, and the nearby Euphrates River. Such plans mayhave had military or engineering uses. The Babylonians also drew mapsofmore distant regions, such as larger areas, districts,and towns. Very few maps have survived from ancient Egypt. One example is a drawing on papyrus* from aboutB.C., 1300 which showsthe central area of inner the Wadi Hammamat. It contains a sketch ofsome stonequarriesand gold mines east of the Nile River and shows a road leading to the mines, atemple, and a small number of houses. Some fragmentsof the map also contain topographical details. The Egyptians also created maps to mark the locations and boundariesof the fields alongtheafter Nilethe yearlyfloods. Ancient mapmakers were mostly concerned with fairly small areas— properties and cities. A district map might cover no more thanhalf a dozen or so small towns, with roadsand canals.One exceptionis asmall Babylonian clay tablet, from around B.C., 500 which presents an image of the world. However, this map probably reflects the cartographer'svision of the universe more than geographical knowledge.

The Dawn of Scientific Cartography. Beginning around B.C., 6 the Greeks speculated about the shapeof the world. first, At Greek philosophers, like the Babylonians, picturedthe earthas a floatingdisk. Later, during the 500s B.C.,the philosophers Anaximanderand Hecataeus from the Greek city of Miletusin Anatolia (present-day Turkey) produced geographic writings and world maps based on this image. However, HERODOTUS, a well-traveled Greek historian who knew something ofgeography, claimed that their ideas were wrong.Byaround B.C., the350 correct view of the earth as a sphere had been established, B.C., and by 300 geography and mapmaking had become more scientific. During the 200s B.C.,the mathematician and philosopher Eratosthenes of Gyrene (present-day Libya), workingin the Egyptian cityof Alexandria, calculated the size of the earth and drewaworld map.In the A.D. 100s, another mapmaker who workedin Alexandriawas Claudius Ptolemaius, better known as Ptolemy. Ptolemy was the most important figure in the laterera of ancient mapmaking. Hiseight-volume Guide to Geography was the most complete and learned workof its sortin the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean worlds. However, Ptolemywas wrong about many details. For example, he thought that t Ocean was enclosed by land like a vast lake. Notwithstanding hismistakes, he set down someof the basic principlesof scientific mapmaking, such as methods for portraying the curved surfaceof the earthon flat maps. Later mapmakersin Europeand the Near East based their workon Ptolemy's.(Seealso Astronomy and Astronomers; Geography; Scienc and Technology.) 70

Mari

MARDUK * deity god or goddess * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* cult formal religious worship

MARI * entrepot Intermediary center of trade, usually on a caravan or sea route * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * diplomatic relating to the practice of conducting peaceful negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

K

nown as the lord of the gods and father of mankind, Marduk became the national deity* of Babylonia after the 1200s B.C. As the chief god of the Babylonian pantheon*, his power and prestige were unrivaled. His main temples in BABYLON—the Esagila, meaning "House with Lifted Head/' and a ziggurat* called the Etemenanki, meaning "House of Foundation of Heaven and Earth"—were considered the center of the universe. Their splendor was known throughout the ancient Near East. According to Babylonian MYTHOLOGY, Marduk was the son of the god EA (or Enki) and brother of the goddess ISHTAR. Considered a god of wisdom, healing, and magic, Marduk also was associated with fertility. Over time, Marduk took over the traits and functions of other gods, making his nature and character increasingly complex. In art, he was depicted carrying a triangular spade or hoe, suggesting that he may have originally been an agricultural deity. In the 2100s B.C., Marduk became the patron* god of Babylon. Thereafter, his rise to prominence was linked to the rising political power of Babylon, especially under King HAMMURABI, and to its transformation from a city-state* into the capital of an empire. The main story of Marduk and his rise is found in the Babylonian CREATION MYTH, Enuma Elish. The myth describes how Marduk saves the gods from a monster named Tiamat, creates the heavens and earth, brings order to the universe, and proposes the creation of humans. As a reward for his efforts, the gods give Marduk many of their powers and promote him to supreme deity, displacing the god ENLIL. The myth also lists Marduk's many names, essentially investing in him the power of other gods. The cult* of Marduk gradually spread beyond Babylonia, especially during the Kassite period (ca. 1595-1158 B.C.). Marduk was adopted by the Assyrians, who honored him as a great god. However, during the reign of the Assyrian king SENNACHERIB (ruled 704-681 B.C.), some of Marduk's functions, traits, and rituals were transferred to the Assyrian national god, ASHUR. During the time of the Chaldean empire (626-539 B.C.) of NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, Marduk was referred to as Bel, meaning "lord." Following the Macedonian conquest, Marduk (Bel) became equated with the Greek deity Zeus. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

A

t the height of its power, Mari was one of the wealthiest cities in MESOPOTAMIA. Located on the banks of the EUPHRATES RIVER near important caravan routes, the city gained its wealth and importance as an entrepot*. The ruins of the city, a site known as Tell Hariri, have yielded remarkable artifacts*, including a magnificent palace and thousands of CLAY TABLETS, which contain records of the economic, administrative, and diplomatic* affairs of the city. Founded in the beginning of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari quickly rose to prominence as a trading center. The city gained immense wealth from taxes on the trade goods that passed through it. One of its most important trading partners was the city-state* of EBLA in northern SYRIA. In the latter part of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari was ruled by Akkadian governors, who launched enormous building projects, including the 71

Markets * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MARKETS

construction of a magnificent new royal palace and an expansion of the city's sacred temple area. Around 1800 B.C., Mari and its surrounding territory came under the control of a succession of dynasties* of AMORITES. Around 1760 B.C., King HAMMURABI of BABYLON conquered and destroyed the city. By this time, Mari was no longer a great trading center, so the city was left deserted and used only as a cemetery. The archaeological* discoveries at the site of ancient Mari are some of the most significant in the Near East. The Great Palace is one of the bestpreserved and richest palaces of the period before 1000 B.C. The thousands of tablets found there have provided invaluable information about Mari and revealed much about culture and society in Mesopotamia during the third and second millennia B.C. (See also Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Palaces and Temples; Trade Routes.)

T

he term market has two distinct meanings. In one sense, a market is the physical location where goods are bought and sold and commercial transactions take place. This is more commonly known as a marketplace. The second meaning of the term is the mechanism by which goods or services are made available and by which the values of those goods or services are determined. For example, the term labor market refers to the overall demand for labor and the price at which that labor will be hired. Historians have debated whether marketplaces in the modern sense of the word existed in the ancient Near East. However, there is little doubt that market forces of demand and supply did operate, especially to determine the value of goods and, in many instances, services.

Marketplaces. There is almost no evidence that ancient Near Eastern civilizations earmarked specific physical locations to serve as marketplaces. The physical remains of ancient cities offer little help, because marketplaces would probably have been open spaces with no special features to distinguish them from ordinary squares or courtyards. Although the Sumerian and Akkadian languages contained words for "open space" or "square," there is no indication that such places were centers of commercial activity. The Greek historian HERODOTUS tells a story in which a Persian king says that towns in Persia did not set aside special places where people could cheat each other as did the Greeks in their agoras, or marketplaces. Some economists and historians believe that this remark implied that the Persians did not have markets. However, others believe that it implied that they did not cheat as much as did the Greeks. In Egypt, some tomb paintings depict market scenes. For instance in the Deir el-Medineh tomb of Ipuy, women on the banks of the Nile River are shown selling goods to a man in a boat in exchange for grain. These traders, however, were not independent MERCHANTS, but were employed by other citizens or temples to sell surplus goods. Egypt never developed a prominent merchant class, and the existence of marketplaces is no more strongly attested in Egyptian sources than it is in Mesopotamian sources. 72

Markets

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* commodity article of trade

cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, whichtakes its name from the distinctive wedge-shapedsignspressed into clay tablets

Market Forces. The lack of evidence of marketplaces does not mean that marketforces did not operate in the ancient Near East. Perhaps the most obvious indication that markets existed isfact the that prices for different goods varied over time. Documents from the Sumerian citystate* of UMMA list the prices of various goods, mostof whichdid change. This suggests that some market forces, such as supply and demand, did operate to alter the values of goods and that these values changed according to changing market conditions. The forces existed and operated especially because households needed markets to obtain what they could not themselves produce. Virtually no household is totally self-sufficient, so it must go outside itself to obtain those things it lacks. When it does so, it must have some idea of the availability and cost of those things it needs. The market is the mechanism by which it obtains this information. Unfortunately, it isdifficult to trace the market valuefor many commodities* in the ancientNear East because the written records are incomplete. For example, no information about labor markets in the Near East before about 2100 B.C. has survived. The market value for land presents similar difficulties. There is no mention of landsalesor pricesin Mesopotamia before 2000 B.C. Beginning around B.C., 1800 wealthy households began to acquire large tracts of land, but there is no evidence that the pe ple were motivated by economic concerns. Kings occasionally listed the prices of certain staple goods, such as barley, dates, oil, wine, wool, and copper, in their royal inscriptions as a way of boasting about their prosperous reigns. Sometimes pricesfor such staples were set in Babylonian and Hittite law codes. A most unusual source of information about market prices, the Babylonian astronomical diaries, were written monthly in cuneiform* on clay tablets between the sixth andfirst centuries B.C. The tablets list not only the daily positions of the moon, planets, andstars, but they also contain information about the weather, the water level of the Euphrates River, historical events of the period, and the market prices of the same six staple commodities— barley, dates, wool, and three spices. Consequently, scholars studying these diaries are able to see how historical events such as the death of a king or a foreign conquestaffected thealso (See market. Economy and Trade; Money.) 73

Marriage

MARRIAGE

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

74

T

he basic unit of most ancient Near Eastern societieswas thefamily. The foundation of thefamilywasmarriage,theformally recognized union of a man and awoman CHILDREN. forproducing Although theinstitution of marriagewas sharedbymost Near Eastern societies,thelaws and customs surrounding marriage took various forms.

Making Marriages. Many modern societies view marriage as achoice made by two individuals and based onlove and companionship. In the ancient NearEast, marriages werenot alwaysamatterofpersonal choice, nor were they always basedon love. Royalandnoble families,forexample, often arranged marriages asmatters ofstate, toseal alliances or maintain the balanceof power.Forexample, Nabopolassar Assyria of gave his son in marriageto the granddaughter ofMedian king Cyaxares to seal an alliance between the twokingdoms. Marriagewas the businessof two MESOPOTAMIA, families. In fathers arranged the marriagesoftheir children. Girls were marriedasteenagers to men about ten years older. After selectingabridefor hisson,afather paid the girl'sfamily abrideprice—acertain amountofmoney, goods, or property. She was then considered thechosen bride of the groom'sfamily. From herfather, the bride receivedanequal amountofmoneyorgoods as a dowry, which she tookas her contributionto themarriage. Marriage contracts between families described these arrangements indetail.A man whosewife did not bear children could takeasecond wife. Among the Canaanitesand Israelitesof theLevant*,fathers arranged some marriages. Others were arranged byindividuals in the community who acted as matchmakers. Some men, however, chose wives without

Marriage

Remember:Words in small capital letters have separate entries, and the index at the end of this volume will guide you to more information on many topics.

the consent of their parents or even in defiance of their wishes. Just as in Mesopotamia, marriage agreements included a bride price from the family of the groom and a dowry from the bride's family. Such payments could consist of money, livestock, slaves, land, or goods. Marriage was generally monogamous, or limited to one spouse, although royal and noble men often had more than one wife. Polygamy, or the practice of taking multiple wives, was common among the Persians. Men took multiple wives to have many children, and the Persian king encouraged a high birthrate by giving prizes to the heads of the largest families. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) also practiced polygamy, although it was less common there than in Persia and may have occurred mostly within the royal family. Hittite marriage contracts were usually arranged by the parents of the couple to be wed and required a bride price and a dowry. Historians know little about the marriage practices of the ancient Egyptians. Men might have married in their 20s or 30s, while women were usually somewhat younger. Although parents might have arranged many marriages, Egyptian women had considerable freedom, and historians doubt they were forced to marry against their wishes. Poems and artworks show that ancient Egyptians hoped for marriages that included affection, harmony, and physical attraction. The Egyptians did not require marriage contracts, but parents negotiated settlements to ensure the financial well-being of married daughters, who usually brought various goods to their new households. Sometimes the husband or his family paid the bride a "sum for becoming a wife." Wedding Ceremonies. The Egyptians may not have had any requirement for registering a marriage or conducting a standard ceremony. Families may have held a feast when a couple set up house together. Records from Mesopotamia suggest that wedding ceremonies often lasted five to seven days. During the ceremony, the groom removed the bride's veil. According to some ancient texts, the bride had "best men" responsible for protecting and guarding her until the wedding night. In Israel, marriages began with an engagement that could last several months. The second stage of marriage was marked by seven days of celebration, with singing, dancing, and wine drinking. The couple, adorned in special clothing and jewelry, stood under a canopy and declared, "You shall be my wife" and "You shall be my husband." Several ancient texts hint that the Persians celebrated marriages in group ceremonies. One account says, "Seats were placed in several rows for a number of bridegrooms. After they toasted each other's health, the brides came in and seated themselves, each one near her future husband. The bridegrooms took them by the hand and kissed them." Hittite weddings could be elaborate and costly. Sometimes men who had promised to pay for religious festivals had to ask priests or other temple authorities to delay the festivals until they had recovered from the expense of a wedding. As in Mesopotamia, Hittite bride's wore veils until the moment the wedding was complete. This act is repeated at many weddings today, thousands of years later. (See also Divorce; Family and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Love; Women, Role of.) 75

Mathematics

MATHEMATICS

' papyrus writing material madeby pressing together thin strips of the stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

^LA athematics is the science ofnumbers and therelationships among / ^ Ithem. The people of the ancient Near East were familiar with arithmetic, which includes counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. The operations of arithmetic later developed intoalgebra and geometry—morespecifically,formulas. Ancient mathematicians also studied and practiced metrology, the science ofmeasurement, to determine the relationships between the various units oflength, area, volume, and weight. Modern scholars know about Mesopotamian and Egyptian mathematicsfrom TABLETS CLAY surviving and papyri* as well from as aninnercient Hebrew documents that were written by rabbis. Mesopotamia. More than 1,000 mathematical tablets dating from the Old Babylonian and the Seleucid periods have been recoveredinMesopotamia. According to these tablets, Babylonian mathematicians used the sexagesimal system (counting by sixties) more often than they did the decimal system (counting by tens). Thiswasprobably becausethe basesixty system included a large numberfactors—1, of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,10,12,15, 20, and 30. Remnantsof the base-sixty systemarepreserved today, especially in the way we telltime—60 seconds to aminute, 60minutes to an hour—and in measuringacircle—360°is 6times60.

76

Mathematics

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

Mathematical Text A Babylonian text contained the following problem; / found a stone but did not weigh it; I added one-seventh and added one»efeventh. I weighed it: 1 mina. What was the original (weight) of the stone? The answer; The original (weight) of the stone was 2fy mina, 8 sheqelsf 221/2 barleycorns. The student places the stone on a scale against one mina. Then he balances the scale by adding two known weights to the side of the stone, He then determines the : weight of the stone by adding the ± two known weights and subtracting \ *- that amount from one mina.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Babylonian mathematics also used a place-value system, that is, a limited number of symbols whose value is determined by its position within the number. The higher values were placed on the left and the lower values on the right. For each place a number moved to the left, its value was multiplied by 60, and for each place it moved to the right, the value was divided by 60. Addition, subtraction, and multiplication were performed in the sexagesimal system. However, there was no division. Instead, numbers were multiplied by their reciprocal. A reciprocal of a number, n, is 1 divided by n or I/H, except when n equals zero. There was no special sign for the number zero until the first millennium B.C.* Before then, some mathematicians left blank spaces or used signs that indicated spaces between words to represent zero. Mathematical texts written in the cuneiform* script can be divided into three main categories—table texts, coefficient lists, and problem texts. The table texts dealt mostly with multiplication and reciprocals (for division). They also contained information on squares and cubes, square roots and cube roots, exponential tables, logarithms, and meteorological lists and tables. The coefficient lists contained fixed values for categories of items, such as geometric shapes, to help solve mathematical problems. Problem texts contained anywhere between one and several hundred problems, some of which were accompanied by drawings. The algebraic and geometric problem texts generally contained problems relating to areas, not volumes. These problems were solved using linear and quadratic equations. The solution to most problems in geometry was algebraic because the purpose was to find length, width, and volume. For instance, a problem might contain references to brick works, the excavations of canals, and the construction of walls, dams, and ramps. Babylonian mathematicians also possessed considerable knowledge of geometric shapes and formulas. For instance, to solve problems on rightangled triangles, they used a concept similar to the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) more than 1,000 years before the Greek mathematician Pythagoras was born. They used n = 3 in measurements dealing with circles, although a coefficient list from Susa in southwestern Iran suggested a more precise value of n = 3 Vs. Mathematicians now know that n is approximately 3.14159. Babylonian texts did not include proofs or detail the steps in the formulation of theorems. Consequently, scribes* performed the steps leading to the solution without explaining them. Egypt. Because Egyptian mathematicians recorded their work on papyrus, fewer documents have survived there than in Mesopotamia. These texts, unlike their Mesopotamian counterparts, show the method of instruction and even prove that the correct answer was reached. One of the most important Egyptian texts is the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which contains calculations with fractions and applies this knowledge to practical problems. This document provided a value of n = 3.16, which was calculated by drawing a circle within a square. Another wellknown text is the Papyrus Anastasi I, a document that contains the calculations required for digging a lake, building a ramp, and transporting an obelisk—information that a scribe was required to know. 77

Measurement Using the decimal system, Egyptian mathematicians manipulated whole numbers and fractions. They performed operations in multiplication by repeatedly doubling a number and adding the results and they performed division using reciprocals. As in Mesopotamia, geometry consisted of formulas—but no proofs—that were calculated using arithmetic operations. Egyptian trigonometry (study of the properties of triangles) was not very developed—the measurement of slope was assumed to be 45°, and right angles, 90°. The Egyptians also used fractions, usually written with a numerator of one, to solve problems.

* Talmud collection of recorded interpretations and teachings of hundreds of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500

MEASUREMENT

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Ancient Israel. Knowledge about mathematics of ancient Israel is confined to one biblical reference describing the diameter of King SOLOMON'S pool as 10 cubits wide and the circumference, 30 cubits, yielding n = 3. In A.D. 150, Rabbi Nehemiah gave the value n = 3l/7, but the Talmud* later restored the value of n to 3. Around the 200s, the Jews began to apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the length of the diagonal of a square or rectangle. This is apparent from the Mishnah (a code of oral law, religious laments, and teachings), which describes a variety of geometric patterns that a gardener or farmer might or might not use when planting different types of seeds. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Education; Measurement; Numbers and Numerals; Record Keeping; Science and Technology.)

A

s governments and temple administrations became more centralized and domestic and international trade relations became more complex, the peoples of the ancient Near East began to develop standardized measures and notation systems. These developments enabled them to maintain a record of goods produced, distributed, and traded. Early Development of Numbers and Units of Measurement. Beginning around 8000 B.C., clay tokens came into use in the ancient Near East as a form of RECORD KEEPING. The tokens were geometrically shaped objects that represented items and their quantities. This method of record keeping remained in use for more than 5,000 years and became the main accounting system in palaces, temples, and markets. Tokens gave rise to the earliest known system of WRITING and the invention of MATHEMATICS. Once the ancient Near Eastern people became familiar with arithmetic, they began to practice metrology, which is the science of measurement. This enabled them to determine and evaluate the relationships between the various units of length, area, volume, and weight. In Mesopotamia, scribes* learned metrology from lists or tables. During their training, scribes were often required to memorize these tables, which contained the ratios between the different units of measurement. Sometimes, they consulted the tables to perform simple calculations involving ratios. Length. In Mesopotamia, the basic unit of length was the cubit, which means forearm, or the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle

78

Measurement finger. Other units of length included reeds, rods, ropes, stages, the distance marched between two rest stops that were two hours apart, and the fingerbreadth, or the width of the thumb. In Egypt, length was measured in palms (of a hand), royal cubits, fingerbreadths, and the skd, which was the measure of the slope of a pyramid. The few wooden, stone, and metal measuring devices that have survived in Mesopotamia and Egypt measure cubits or parts of cubits. From these devices, it is apparent that the length of a cubit varied greatly. In ancient Israel, there were two basic measures—the "sad measure/' which was a little less than a full measure, and the ''smiling measure/' which was larger than a full measure. The basic unit of length was the fingerbreadth, which ranged from about 3/4 to 1 inch. Other units of measure were the handbreadth—the width of a clenched fist—and the reed, which is mentioned in the Hebrew BIBLE. Area. In Mesopotamia, area was most often measured by the sar, or garden plot. Other measures included dikes (of land), holes, and barleycorns, which referred to seeds of barley and were the smallest measure of area. In both Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, land areas were measured as irregular quadrilaterals, their area being the product of the average of opposite sides. In Israel, area measures were based on two systems. One was based on squaring standard units of length, such as square fingerbreadth, square handbreadth, and square cubit. The other was used for larger measures, such as large surface units or to measure a space needed to plant certain quantities of produce. The two systems were compatible, and scribes could easily convert the measures from one to the other.

* Talmud collection of recorded interpretations and teachings of hundreds of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

See color plate 3, vol. 2.

Volume. In Mesopotamia, the units that measured volume were the same as those that measured area, including sar, dike, hole, and barleycorn. Bricks were counted in units of sar, where 1 sar was equal to 720 bricks. The Jewish Talmud* refers to several systems of volume that used different terms for the same measure. Weight. The basic units of weight in ancient Mesopotamia were the mina (1.1 Ibs.) and the sheqel (0.3 oz.). The smallest unit was the barleycorn. The Egyptian system of weights was based on a unit called the kite, which ranged from 4.5 to 29.9 grams. During Hellenistic* and Roman times, the common units of weight throughout the Near East were the sheqel, mina, and talent. They came to be used as units of currency because they sometimes described the weights of gold and silver. Measures of Capacity. Mesopotamians measured the volume of barley and oil in units called sila, which was the basic small capacity unit equal to about 1 liter. Other units of measurement included ninda, the amount of grain (or flour) used to make 1 flatcake; gur (78 gallons); granary, which was sometimes called king's measure, normal, or correct measure; and greater measures. Throughout ancient times, the Mesopotamians devised measures relevant to their needs, such as sacks, standard pots, and ass-loads. 79

Meat

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

In both Mesopotamia and Egypt, wooden and metal baskets were used for capacity measures. No wooden measures have survived, however. By the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, bevel-rimmed bowls and conical cups were used as measures in Mesopotamia. The bevel-rimmed bowls, which constitute up to 80 percent of the pottery excavated in that region, all measured the same approximate volume. They were probably used to measure corn or flour for daily rations. In ancient Israel, the Bible and the Talmud list units to measure large amounts of liquids or dry goods. Rabbis devised many smaller measures based on the bulk of an egg. Most units were based on the capacity of utensils, human measurements, and objects in nature. Problems with Ancient Measurements. Historians face many challenges in analyzing the values and systems of ancient measures. One of the main problems is the lack of evidence. Archaeologists have excavated many ancient weights, but few measures of length have survived. Reliable measures of volume are scarcer still. Another difficulty is that most ancient weights and measures do not contain inscriptions or markings to indicate what unit of measure they represent. Determining the measures of volume in the ancient Near East is particularly difficult because the only vessels that have survived are jars or pots marked with their intended capacities. However, these were simple storage jars and not the original vessels used to set standards of volume. They contain no markings to indicate how full the vessel should be when it contained the amount of liquid marked on the jar. Documents that discuss various units of measurement have provided historians with some clues that have helped them better understand ancient measures. However, even knowing how ancient measures related to each other has been of little help in determining their modern equivalents. Some ancient documents relate Near Eastern measures with units from Greek and Roman cultures, but these too are of limited value since the values of many Greek and Roman measures are themselves not well known. In addition, the accuracy of the measurements found in these ancient documents are often quite doubtful. (See also Money; Pyramids; Calendars.)

Meat

MEDES * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

80

See Food and Drink.

T

he Medes were a people of northwestern IRAN who spoke an INDOEUROPEAN LANGUAGE and inhabited a plateau region that became known as Media. Together with the Persians, their neighbors and rivals, they left a lasting heritage that greatly influenced the culture of Iran. Because no written documents of the Medes have been excavated, knowledge of these people is based on other archaeological* evidence and the writings of people who came in contact with them. Several Median sites in Iran have been excavated by archaeologists, including the religious center of Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, which contained a large

Medes

fortified palace.TheMedesfirstappearinwrittenB.C. sources in the mid-800s in the records of the Assyrian SHALMANESER king III.TheGreek historian HERODOTUS also wrote abouttheMedes B.C. in the400s

See map in Babylonia and the Babylonians (vol. 1).

* first millennium B.C. years from

1000

tO 1 B.C.

* indigenous referring to the inhabitants of a region

original

* vassal individual orstate thatswears loyalty and obedience to agreater power

Migration into Iran. TheMedes migrated intonorthwestern Iran as early as the 1600s B.C. They probably came fromthearea north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, crossing the CAUCASUS mountains re- of the gion and settling in the Zagros Mountainsofnorthwestern Iran. Most of these early Median settlers were farmerswholivedinsmall villagesand sheepherders who tended their flocksonmountain slopes.A related group of Indo-European speakers,thePersians, entered Iran aroundthe same time as the Medesandsettledinsouthern Iran. By the first millennium B.C.*,the Medeshadgained control ofmost of the eastern Zagros Mountain regionand hadbeguntopush westward through the mountains andtowardthebordersofMesopotamia.As they moved west, they mixed with indigenous* groupsbutalsometwith resistance from some local populations, URARTU, wholooked Assyria, to and ELAMAND THE ELAMITES for help in holding back the invaders. Until the 700s B.C., the Medes consistedofmany independent tribes, each led by achieftainandcharacterizedbygreat diversity inculture and social and political organization. By thetimefirst they appearinwritten records in theB.C., 700s the Medeshadbecome Assyrian vassals*. At the time, the Assyrians werethedominant forceinIranand one ofmajor the powers in the ancient Near East.Soon, however,theMedes begantogrow more powerful and started tobuild towns andfortresses.In the mid700sB.C. Assyrian TIGLATH-PILESER king IIIreported hisconquest Zakruti, of the "city of the mighty Medes/'which mayindicate growing Median power in the region. Kingdom of the Medes. Sometime B.C., the invarious the700sindependent tribes ofMedes unitedform to asingle Median kingdom, which

81

Medes

See colorplate7, vol. 2.

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture satrapy portionof aPersian-controlled territory under the rule of asatrap, or provincial governor

ca. 725B.C. Kingdom of Medes founded by Deioces.

775 »,cj ca. 675B.C. Phraortes succeeds Deioces.

675 »,c

653-625 B.C. Scythians dominate Medes.

575 B.C 625 B.C. Scythians forced out of Media; Cyaxares becomes king.

475 n,cJ

612B.C. i Cyaxaresand Babylonians capture Nineveh.

375 e,c,i 550 B.C. | Media becomes satrapy of Persian empire.

275 «x! 330 B.C. Alexander the Great occupies Media.

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became thefirst Iranian state.The early historyofthis kingdomis reported by the Greek historian Herodotus. Some scholars think that Herodotus's version of the foundingof the Median kingdommay be based more on myth than fact, andthey argue thatthereis nowrittenor archaeological evidenceofsuchastateatthat time. According to Herodotus,the kingdomof theMedeswasfoundedas early as 725 B.C. by a king named Deioces,whoestablishedtheMedian capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan)andruledtheMedes forseveral decades until about B.C. Deioces 675 wassucceeded by his sonPhraortes, who ruled for 22years. Phraortes conqueredthePersiansand led the Medes in an unsuccessful revolt against their Assyrian overlords. He was killed while fightingthe Assyrians B.C. in 653 After Phraortes died, the kingdomwasoverrunby theScythians,nomadic* warriorswho had entered western from IrantheCaucasus region. The Scythians dominated the Medes B.C., when until Phraortes' 625 son Cyaxares took the throne and forced themout ofMedia. Cyaxares greatly expanded Median power and strengthened hisarmybycreating separate units of spearmen, CAVALRY. archers, and Faced with a continued threat from Assyria,Cyaxares formed an alliance with the Babyloniansbymarryinghisgranddaughter to the son of KingNABOPOLASSAR,who later ruled NEBUCHADNEZZAR Babylonia asII. In 612B.C., Cyaxaresand his Babylonian allies attackedandcaptured the Assyrian capital NINEVEH. of This victory ended Assyrianleft rule the and Medes and Babyloniansas the twodominant powersinMesopotamia. Thereafter, the Medesand Babylonians dividedtheAssyrian empirebetween them. TheMedes tookthe northern andeastern partsof theempire, including mostof Iran, northern Mesopotamia, ANATOLIA.and parts of They extended their power westward inAnatolia until they encountered the Lydians.Abattle betweentheMedes B.C. andLydians endedinina585 draw, after which the two groups formedanalliance. Aroundthesame time, Cyaxares' son Astyages took overtheMedian throne.Heruledfor 35 years, but little isknown abouthisreign. The Medes and Persians. After theAssyrian conquest, relations between the Medesand Babylonians remained friendlyforawhile. Soon, however, hostilities arose as both groups claimedthesame lands.As their relations with the Medes soured, theBabylonians encouraged and supported uprisingsby the Persians,whowere vassalsof theMedes. In 550B.C., the Persian GREAT CYRUS THE led king successful a revolt against Astyages, who wastaken prisoner. Cyrus marched toEcbatana, which he took with no resistance when theMedian nobility accepted him as their king. Cyrus quickly took controlof therestof theMedian kingdom,and Media became asatrapy* PERSIAN of the growing EMPIRE. On several occasions, the Medes tried unsuccessfullytorevolt against their Persian overlords.Still, relations betweenthe twogroups were good, and the Medes enjoyedaprivileged position undertheAfter Persians. the Persians, the Medes were the most important people in thePersian empire, and they exerted a strong cultural influence.Forexample,thePersians adopted Median court ceremonies andmoved thePersian royal court to Ecbatana each summer. Other elements ofMedian culture,

Medicine including religious practices, were blended with Persian traditions and became the foundation of the later culture of Iran.

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

MEDICINE

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Later History. In 330 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA conquered the Persian empire and occupied Media. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., northern Media was ruled by a Persian general named Atropates, who founded an independent kingdom called Atropatene. Southern Media became a province of the SELEUCID EMPIRE. This area remained a Seleucid province for about 150 years, during which time it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic* culture. In the centuries that followed, the Medes gradually lost their distinctive character, though various Median traditions blended with those of other groups to form a single Iranian culture. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Lydia and the Lydians; Migration and Deportation; Scythia and the Scythians.)

M

edicine in the ancient Near East was a blend of religious rituals, folk remedies, and customs, all based on observation and results. Basic ideas of health and medical practice were different from those of modern medicine because Near Eastern cultures did not differentiate between medicine and RELIGION. Illness, disease, accidents, and other misfortunes were considered the work of the gods. Near Eastern peoples believed that such ailments were usually a punishment from the gods, who had been offended. Consequently, medical treatment consisted of pleading with gods to restore the patient's health and attempting to expel the evil from the body. Physicians mixed their treatments with religion and MAGIC and made determined efforts to cure their patients. Life in the ancient Near East was challenging for physicians. Limited knowledge, uncertain food supplies, lack of food preservation, unsafe water supplies, and poor sanitation contributed greatly to human suffering. Common infectious diseases included tuberculosis (which attacks the lungs and is spread by coughing), pneumonic and bubonic plague (which are spread by fleas and rodents), typhus (a disease carried by parasites, such as lice), and smallpox. Leprosy, which affects the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes, was another disease that afflicted Near Eastern peoples. Mesopotamia. In the 400s B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS erroneously claimed that Mesopotamians had "no regular doctors." In fact, medical workers were known in the region as early as the third millennium B.C.*, and they recorded their treatments. The most important Mesopotamian sources are medical texts describing treatments and remedies for different problems. The earliest of these from the city-state* of UR date from about 2000 B.C. and are written in Sumerian. Other texts date from later periods, such as those from the Neo-Assyrian library of ASHURBANIPAL (ruled 668-627 B.C.). These and other texts show that although their practices included magic and OMENS, Mesopotamian doctors recognized natural causes of such ills as overexposure to heat or cold, eating too much, drinking alcohol, and eating spoiled food. 83

Medicine * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect

In this Egyptian relief, female druggists squeeze an animal skin filled with herbs to make herbal medicine. Because the Egyptians believed that supernatural forces caused illnesses, treatments such as these were administered to repel the evil force that was believed to have entered the body and caused the illness. Sometimes a magical incantation was spoken while treatment was administered.

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Two kinds of physicians, asu and ashipu, treated the sick. Although both used incantations* to heal their patients, it is generally believed that the asu worked more with medicines and may have been the more practical in his methods, and the ashipu with spirits. However, both relied on magic. Little is known about their training or whether they worked in organized groups. An asu treated such ailments as broken bones, wounds, boils, and infections. He might use herbs for both internal and external illnesses. Women were allowed to train to become an asu. An ashipu, a type of exorcist, diagnosed supernatural causes of problems and prescribed ritual treatments. He had other religious roles, such as cleansing temples, but his chief role was to interpret symptoms. Sometimes an ashipu might work with an asu on a problematic case. Women were not permitted to become an ashipu, and the profession passed from father to son. Because Mesopotamians believed that sins caused illnesses, they first tried to find out what a patient might have done to offend the gods. Physicians examined a patient and asked for a description of the symptoms. They took the person's temperature and pulse, noted skin conditions, swellings, and even the colors of bodily fluids. All these findings were recorded, and over time, the records became the basis of treatments and prescriptions. Many of the medical texts excavated in the Near East are descriptions of symptoms and catalogs of remedies, most of which begin with omens. For instance, what a physician saw on the way to a patient's house was considered an omen—a white pig meant the patient would live; a black pig meant death.

Medicine Mesopotamian healers also experimented with medicinal treatments. For instance, prescriptions included herbal treatments with instructions for the best time to collect the herbs and the method of preparation. Other medicines included salt, potassium nitrate, milk, snake skins, thyme, fir, figs, dates, and turtle shells. These materials were used as ointments for external use or as powders for dissolving in drinks. One Assyrian document lists more than 400 plants, fruits, and other substances, about half of which have medicinal value. Mesopotamian physicians treated a variety of ills. Eye problems were common, perhaps because of vitamin deficiencies, but no treatments for blindness existed. Ear problems are also recorded in medical texts, but they contain no word for deafness. There is little evidence for dentistry, but texts show that toothaches were common, and various medicines were prescribed for the pain. Skin problems were treated with ointments and lotions. Midwives took care of women's health and CHILDBIRTH, but physicians treated children. Some surgery may have existed, but there is little mention of it. Diseases of the stomach and intestines were serious and common. Contaminated water, spoiled food, and parasites led to many digestive ailments. However, because Mesopotamians did not dissect human bodies, they knew little of the workings of internal organs. Some scientists regard early attempts to deal with digestive illnesses as the basis of human medical efforts. Medical knowledge did not advance much because illnesses were mainly thought to be caused by supernatural elements. Moreover, medical texts gradually became sacred documents, and physicians tended to follow old treatments and not experiment with new methods and procedures.

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* apprentice individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field * embalming treating a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

Egypt. Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians also believed in the supernatural cause of illness. Nonetheless, their approach to medicine was systematic. More than a dozen important documents have been found describing Egyptian medical practices. These medical papyri* date from the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 2100-1600 B.C.) but may have been copied from earlier sources. They include descriptions of illnesses, treatments, case studies, and magical chants. Although magical treatments were part of medicine, Egyptian physicians developed orderly approaches to treating injuries. Most Egyptian healers came from highly educated groups of scribes* and priests and were palace or temple officials. Some were affiliated with the army, civil service, or local villages. From the earliest times, physicians seem to have divided into specialties, but it is not clear how well these titles relate to modern ideas of specialization. Physicians trained as apprentices*. Women may have been healers, though rarely. Egyptians learned about the body from studying slaughtered animals and from treatment of wounds at battlefields and work sites. The practice of embalming* seems not to have added much knowledge. Egyptians knew about pulse, for example, but not that blood circulates. Arteries, veins, tendons, and nerves were considered to be tubes connecting the heart, limbs, and lower digestive system. Most ancient Egyptian medical texts focus on the treatments offered to members of the elite classes, and there is little evidence of any health 85

Medicine parasitic referring to a disease caused by a parasite, an organism that lives inside another organism and is often harmful to the host organism epidemic spread of a particular disease within a population

A Life Saved Although many ancient medical practices and rituals seem simplistic by modern standards, the ancients often accurately diagnosed and treated medical problems, In the biblical Book of 2 Kings^ a child collapsed in the field, perhaps of sunstroke, apparently ;dead The prophet Etisha arrived and he went up, and lay upon the cMtf, put hi$ mouth upon his mouth, and his eyes upon his eyes, and his hands upon his hands; and as he stretched himself upon him, the flesh of the child became warn. Then he got up again, gnd walked once to and to in the house, and went up, and stretched himself upon him; the child sneezed seven times, and the child opened his eyes, jpWs vivid account of artificial resusci- -\ ftation was recorded in the 800$ B.C

care of peasants. Conditions were probably miserable, with many forms of parasitic* disease, pest-borne illness, and epidemics* caused by poor nutrition and sanitation. Even the homes of the elite had open garbage dumps nearby. Bread was the main food, and the sand in it wore down teeth, causing frequent dental problems. Egyptian medicine contributed significantly to the treatment of physical injuries. Doctors closely followed an established procedure. First, they examined the patient and described the wounds. Next, they decided whether to treat the patient. The recognition that some problems were beyond their knowledge demonstrates a rational approach to medical problems. If a physician decided to treat the patient, he recorded his proposed treatment in logical steps. Medical records also show other comments, including definitions of words and explanations of unusual procedures. One of the most noted papyri describes 69 cases, including treatments for wounds to the skull, broken jaws, injuries to the throat and neck, and broken shoulders, vertebrae, breastbone, and ribs. Egyptians made many compounds for medicinal purposes. One written source records 600 such compounds made from substances native to the Nile River valley. Most medicines came from plants, but animals, including insects, and mineral substances were used as well. These drugs helped expel illness from the body. Some medicines had no use other than their magical or religious association—yellow drugs for jaundice, or turquoise, the color of the god HATHOR, for charms for protection. Although simple by modern standards, Egyptian medical practice was the best in the ancient Near East. Such treatments as applying honey as a salve, using stitches and tapes to close wounds, and cauterizing (burning or searing the skin with a hot needle to seal and prevent infection) probably originated in Egypt. Egypt's greatest medical gift to the ages was the procedure followed by physicians. Examining carefully before deciding whether to treat, using simple treatments first before moving to complex ones, proceeding with care and caution, and recording results carefully were great achievements. These careful procedures indicate a thoughtful and systematic approach to medicine. Iran. Few ancient medical texts have survived in Iran; therefore, the Iranians' health care practices are difficult to determine. However, evidence unearthed at excavations suggests that the same conditions prevailed in Iran as elsewhere in the ancient Near East. A Zoroastrian sacred text mentions three types of healing specialists: herbalists, surgeons, and incantation priests. Historians believe that Persian rulers favored early Greek and Egyptian methods. For instance, his interest in public health may have caused DARIUS I to support medical efforts in Egypt and elsewhere. Anatolia. Just as in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the people of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) believed that illnesses were a punishment from the gods. The best-known residents of Anatolia, the HITTITES, borrowed ideas and texts from Mesopotamia. Many Hittite physicians were likely trained by Assyrians, while unorganized folk healers probably treated most common people. Anatolian physicians treated disorders of the eyes, throat, mouth, and digestive system with medicines made from

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Mediterranean Islands plants and minerals. Accounts of plagues and illnesses affecting kings are recorded in Hittite texts. For instance, the Plague Prayers ofMurshili II mention an epidemic that lasted 20 years, causing great damage to the kingdom and its economy. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The Levant. Many gods in Syria and the Levant* were divinities of disease and healing. Early texts from UGARIT identify EL, the supreme god, with healing. The Phoenician god Eshmun was also a god of healing (and perhaps the same as the Greek healing god Asclepius). Temples may have provided health care. Texts from the 1300s B.C. mention epidemics and physicians in the ancient Canaanite royal court. Israelites also viewed disease as divine punishment for sins. Poor sanitation, ineffectual waste removal, and contaminated water caused most diseases. Insect-borne diseases were probably a significant problem as well, although incense and other aromatic substances may have helped repel insects. Other ailments included intestinal diseases caused by tapeworms and whipworms. Although most treatment was left to the gods, physicians frequently isolated their patients. In the Hebrew BIBLE, the Book of Numbers directs physicians to "put out both male and female, putting them outside the camp, that they may not defile the camp." The Book of Leviticus discusses snakebites. Summary. In most of the ancient Near East, illness was a part of divine will and beyond human control. Omens and rituals played an important role in medicine. Despite poor sanitation and a lack of thorough medical knowledge, ancient Near Eastern physicians made medicines of local materials and recognized that some diseases were contagious and infectious. (See also Amulets and Charms; Famine; Health; Priests and Priestesses.)

Mediterranean Islands

MEDITERRANEAN SEA, TRADE ON * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

See Crete; Cyprus; Rhodes; Sardinia; Them.

I

n ancient times, the Mediterranean Sea became a natural marine high way for the expanding civilizations of the Near East. Trade encouraged growth, advanced technology, spread and shared cultures, developed economic systems, and furthered relations between empires. Equipment and Techniques. Because most Near Eastern civilizations developed along rivers, SHIPS AND BOATS were early features of life. Excavations on the island of CRETE show that seacraft were built there as early as 5000 B.C. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, both the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians were sailing large river boats. By 2600 B.C., sea trade was well established in the region, and early sailors navigated lengthy routes. 87

Mediterranean Sea, Trade on In the earliest times, navigation probably consisted of hugging the shore and memorizing landmarks along the way. Nevertheless, voyages well out of sight of land took place as well, sometimes without navigational instruments. Sailors then depended on the sun and stars and on journals from earlier voyages. Although the oldest preserved journal dates only from the 400s B.C., such journals were probably in use long before that time. The Mediterranean Sea offered some advantages to shipping. Its wind patterns were consistent, making it easy for sailors to tell the difference between a cold north wind and a warmer southerly one. Sailors identified eight distinct winds and plotted them on a device called a wind rose, which was in common use in the region in the 600s B.C. Ancient sailors also detected ocean currents in the sea, which they learned to use to their advantage. These currents generally run from the Nile Delta northward to Crete, making possible much Egyptian shipping on the Mediterranean.

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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Trade. The region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea and its islands was well settled by the fourth millennium B.C. As cultures expanded, they came in contact with each other, leading to trade and the exchange of cultural ideas. For instance, artworks found in Crete and Egypt show ships from both countries, and Cretan textile patterns appear in Egyptian cloth. Trade on the Mediterranean developed rapidly because of the desire for materials not available locally. To this end, Egyptian ships pushed northward to Crete and eastward to SYRIA and CYPRUS to obtain such goods as timber, aromatic spices, wine, olive oil, tin, and copper. This type of exchange was typical of trade on the Mediterranean, with states exchanging what they had much of for things they wanted or needed. Syria was a center of trade because it was midway between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although much of the trade there was controlled by the state, private enterprise developed as well. Small-scale trade in textiles, foodstuffs, and personal goods such as sandals occurred. Many of the merchants acted on behalf of their governments as well, and these contacts furthered political communication. Cyprus was another center of Mediterranean trade. Archaeological* records show that Cyprus had more contact with the ancient Near East than any other island. Moreover, because Cyprus remained neutral in international power struggles, the island was able to preserve its trading fortune. Many nations sought copper from Cyprus, and the island augmented its wealth from that trade. The HARBORS at SIDON and TYRE were established by the Phoenicians, who also built the greatest trading empire in the region during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). In fact, their empire was almost entirely built on commerce. Phoenician sailors and their "round boats" carried metal, glass, textiles, and dyes to customers throughout the region. In order to expand their trading activities and find sources for raw materials, the Phoenicians established many colonies throughout the Mediterranean region from the Red Sea to Spain. The most famous of these was Carthage, which was founded in 814 B.C. in North Africa. Carthage itself became the center of a great commercial empire until its defeat by Rome in the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.).

Megiddo The Greeksfollowed the exampleset by the Phoeniciansand also established trading colonies on the Mediterranean.B.C., Between750 and 550 Greek settlers established coloniesin Italy, Sicily, southern France,and Libya. These colonies brought great wealth (See also to the Greeks. Aegean Sea; Clothing; Economy and Trade; Maps; Naval Power; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Textiles.)

A

n important town in theLevant*, Megiddo (mi»GI»doh) occupied a strategic location where two main military and trade routes crossed. One of these was a widely used transportation route between Egyptand Mesopotamia. The other connected Phoenician cities on the Mediterranean coast to Jerusalem and other towns in the Jordan River valley. Because of its location, Megiddowas a targetof numerous conflicts between * Levant lands bordering the eastern kingdoms and groups strugglingfor controlof the Levant. shores of the MediterraneanSea Megiddo wasfirst settled around B.C., and7000 the first town ap(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), peared about 3,000 years later. B.C., By Megiddo 2000 had becomea the West Bank, and Jordan walled city containing a palace and several temples. The original inhabitants of this city were Canaanites. B.C., Inthe about Egyptian 1479 king THUTMOSE III captured Megiddoand made itmajor a trading center. The See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3). Canaanites later recaptured the city, but the Israelites gained control of it sometime around925 SOLOMON B.C.King ofIsrael began building Megiddo into amajor politicaland military AHAB comcenter,and King pleted the work begunby Solomon. B.C.,the By the Israelite 800s cityhad massive walls and an impressive water supply with underground wells * siege long and persistent effort to force that could withstand a lengthy siege*. a surrender by surrounding a fortressor The Assyrians conquered Megiddo B.C. and inbuilt 732 a new city city with armed troops, cutting it offthere. When the Persians captured Megiddo, the citywas in decline. It was from supplies and aid finally abandoned ALEXANDER GREAT after THEconquered the region in 332 B.C. Becausethe Hebrew BIBLE mentions that several significant battles were fought near Megiddo, many people believe that the final battle of

MEGIDDO

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Melukkha earth's history (as described in the Christian New Testament Book of Revelation), known as Armageddon (meaning "hill of Megiddo"), would be fought there too. (See also Hebrews and Israelites.)

MELUKKHA * maritime related to the sea or shipping * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

MEMPHIS * deity god or goddess

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M

elukkha (me»LUK«ka) was a maritime* state that engaged in trade with Mesopotamian kingdoms and city-states*, including Akkad, Sumer, Ur, and Babylon, from about 2300 to 2000 B.C. Although it is clear from ancient texts that Melukkha was a coastal state and that trade between it and the Near East was by sea, its exact location is unknown. Most scholars believe that it was located in the Indus River valley region of India and Pakistan and that it was probably part of the Harappan civilization. The Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus River valley between about 2500 and 1600 B.C. It is noted mainly for its town planning, building technology, and writing system, which remains to be deciphered*. The Harappan economy was based on agriculture and trade, and it is likely that the Harappans were the first to grow rice. The civilization collapsed after 1600 B.C., perhaps due to environmental change and invasions by tribes of ARYANS. Melukkha was known in the Near East as the source of exotic items, including gold, tin, ivory, and a black wood thought to be ebony. It was also a source of lapis lazuli and carnelian—semi-precious stones used in JEWELRY—and peacocks. Though ancient sources list these products as trade items from Melukkha, it is not known whether they were native to that region or obtained by Melukkhan traders from other places. Melukkha never came under the rule of any of the ancient Near Eastern kingdoms. However, it appears that some people from Melukkha, most likely traders, settled in Sumer and were assimilated* into that society. (See also Economy and Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Shipping Routes; Trade Routes.)

O

ne of the most important and longest-occupied cities in ancient Egypt, Memphis was located on the west bank of the NILE RIVER near the head of the Nile Delta. The city was first settled around 3000 B.C., when King Menes united the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt and chose Memphis as his capital, probably because of its strategic location. Known originally as White Fortress—because of its whitewashed walls—Memphis became an important religious and ceremonial site. Its principal god, Ptah, was a major creator deity*, and the great temple of Ptah became a focal point of the city. Memphis was also the center of court ceremonies, including the crowning of the king. The city had many palaces, temples, markets, and manufacturing zones, as well as large private estates and other residential areas. Memphis was the capital of Egypt until about 2100 B.C., when the capital moved to THEBES in Upper Egypt. Nevertheless, Memphis remained an

Merchants

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

MERCHANTS

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* third millennium B.C. years between 3000 and 2001 B.C.

important political, economic, and religious center. It served as the administrative center of Lower Egypt until about 1075 B.C. In the 700s B.C., Memphis was taken during a siege* by the Assyrians. In about 690 B.C., Egyptian king TAHARQA regained control of Memphis but was ousted around 667 B.C. Shortly thereafter, the Persians gained control of Memphis. In the late 300s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Egypt, and Memphis remained a major city with a large Greek population. When Memphis came under Roman rule in 30 B.C., it was still considered a strategic and important city. Today all that remains of ancient Memphis is a vast complex of cemeteries, tombs, and monuments stretching for miles along the west bank of the Nile River. These include the famous PYRAMIDS at Saqqara and GIZA. (See also Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

O

ne of the most important consequences of the establishment of cities in the ancient Near East was the development of large-scale trade and commerce. Although the royal courts and temples organized most economic activities in ancient times, merchants were still needed to handle business transactions. As time passed, the role of the merchant expanded as private individuals and families gradually assumed more responsibility for long-distance trade.

The Earliest Merchants. It is clear that regular long-distance trade existed between MESOPOTAMIA and other parts of the Near East as early as 2700 B.C. Texts from Mesopotamia mention individuals called tamkaru, an Akkadian word meaning "merchant." Historians are unsure whether early tamkaru worked exclusively for the state or whether they engaged in private business as well. They also do not know whether the tamkaru traveled themselves or if they traded with travelers. Business records from the Sumerian city-state* of UMMA detail the nature of transactions made on behalf of the state and temple. The state produced surplus goods, particularly wool and grain, and traded these with other city-states for goods not available locally. Merchants were given a certain amount of these surplus goods as well as silver to trade. After acquiring goods either in other lands or in Mesopotamian markets, the merchants returned to Umma. There they distributed the goods as directed by the state officials for whom they undertook the trade missions. How merchants were paid is not entirely clear. They may have earned a fixed amount of income in foodstuffs such as barley. During and after the third millennium B.C.*, merchants in the ancient Near East traveled to foreign lands. Dilmun, present-day Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, was one of the most important Mesopotamian trading partners, even though it was not a source of goods. Rather, merchants in Dilmun acted as brokers for goods that were sent there on their way to other places as far away as India. Egyptian merchants traveled to the land of Punt, which may have been in the present-day Sudan or Ethiopia or in Southern Arabia. Punt was a source of exotic animals, spices, gold, and slaves. 91

Merchants

Assyrian Merchant Communities. ByB.C., theAssyrlate the 1900s ians, who ruledfrom the northern Mesopotamian ASHUR, rosecity to of prominence and assumed a central role in Near Eastern trade. Scholars have gained their most detailed knowledge of merchant activities in the ancient NearEastfrom the extensive economic recordsof the Assyrians. Beginning in the earlyB.C., 1800s theAssyrians established merchant communities called karuin southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The most importantkarumwas locatedat the cityof Kanesh,and records suggest that smaller karu were attached to settlements throughout Anatolia. Thekaru answered to theAssyrian rulersAshur, in who determined what goods they could bring into Anatolia and what they would receive in return. Sincethe karu were many hundredsof miles away from Ashur, the merchants handled many of their affairs. own In this sense, they were independent settlements, headed by the most important Assyrian merchants operating in the region and dealing with matters of local politics and law.Eachkarum negotiated its own trade treaties with local Anatolian city-states. These treaties spelled out the types of goods they were allowed to deal in, the amount of taxes to be paid to officials, local and the rights of the merchants who lived in the communities. The trading houses located inkaru the wererun by membersof prominent Assyrian merchantfamilies. The heads of the families remained in Ashur, where they organized the trading missions between Assyria and Anatolia. The goods involved were primarily tin, obtained from regions in present-day northwestern Iran andAfghanistan, and fine woolen textiles from southern Mesopotamia. Merchants collected these goods Ashur in and, two times a year, loaded CARAVANS them on for donkey the six-to eight-week trip north to Anatolia. They hired agents to manage the caravans and to ensure that they arrived safely at their destination. The tin and textiles were traded for goldand silveror for local products suchas copper that were then traded elsewherefor precious metals. 92

Mesopotamia

Your Money for My Ufej Merchants who traveled abroad faced so many dangers that local kings felt compelled to sign treaties guaranteeing their protection. In the 1200s B.C, the Hittite city-state of Karkamish and the Syrian city of Ugarit signed such an agreement According to the treaty, if a merchant from one city was killed in the other, the latter city would pay three times the value of the merchant and three times the value of any goods that were taken from htm. However, this only applied if the killers were caught. If they were j not caught, the city had to pay three times the value of the merchant and the normal value of the stolen goods.

* domestication adaptation for human use

Meroe

MESOPOTAMIA

To finance their trading missions, merchants often organized groups of investors who contributed sums of silver. In return, investors were guaranteed a 100 percent return on their investment. They also received one-third of the profits earned from the trip. The merchant kept onethird for himself, and the remaining one-third may have been set aside to finance future trips. The merchants assumed all the risks involved with the trip, including payment of taxes to states through which their caravans passed and the loss of goods or human life due to accidents, bandits, or wild animals. The men who were hired to lead the caravans bore the brunt of these hazards, but such a position could be the stepping-stone to greater wealth. A caravan leader with a solid record and a good relationship with a trading firm might be entrusted with more responsibilities. These added responsibilities would enable him to earn the capital needed to become an independent merchant. Later Merchant Activities. Internal political problems in Anatolia led to the collapse of the karu system by about 1750 B.C. However, Assyrian and Babylonian merchants continued to trade with city-states throughout the Near East. Beginning in about 1000 B.C., Phoenician merchants, who specialized in dyes and other goods, conducted much of the sea trade between Egypt and other civilizations along the Mediterranean coast. References from Hebrew sources also suggest that foreign merchants were common in CANAAN after about 1000 B.C. The domestication* of CAMELS around this same time led to an increase in the number of Arab merchants, who established trade routes through the desert between Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the rise of the PERSIAN EMPIRE in the 500s B.C., more of the Near East was united under one rule than ever before, widening the scope of trading and merchant activity. By this time, Near Eastern merchants were making more contacts with cultures in the West such as Greece. These contacts increased after ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Persia in the 320s B.C. Near Eastern merchants maintained a busy trade with the West until the fall of Rome shortly before A.D. 500. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Money; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Taxation; Trade Routes.)

See Rush and Meroe.

T

he term Mesopotamia was derived from a Greek word meaning "between the rivers/' an apt description for a land that lay mainly between the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in present-day Iraq. Mesopotamia was a cradle of early civilizations in the Near East—the home of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and others. Because these groups spread beyond the land "between the rivers," the term often includes 93

Mesopotamia * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

areas surroundingtheANATOLIA rivers SYRIA, in nearby (present-day Turkey), and IRAN.The influence of Mesopotamian civilizations spread throughout the ancientNear East, reachingas far as Egypt in the westand the IndusRiver valleyof present-day Indiain the east.

LANDAND PEOPLE The landscape of what was once Mesopotamia ranges from high mountains to rolling countryside to broad level plains. Much of the region receives relatively little rainfall or only seasonal rains, with the more mountainous regions in the northeast receiving more rain than the areas in the south. However, the region is watered by a number of rivers and streams, and many areasareAGRICULTURE, well suitedtoespeciallythe floodplains of the Tigrisand Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamialay at the eastern end of a broadarc of fertile FERTILE land known CRESCENT, as the which curves to the west through the Levant* into Egypt. An important geographicfeatureof Mesopotamiawas its openness. There were few natural boundariesor defensesto isolateand protectit from surroundingareas and peoples. Throughout history, Mesopotamia experienced periodic wavesof invasionsand migrationsof people, most of whom settled in the region and became assimilated* to the populations already living there.

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Mesopotamia

The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same Despite the conquests, invasions, and political changes that Mesopo- \ tamia experienced during its thousands of years of history, Mesopotamian civilization remained remarkably uniform. It also had a great capacity to restore itself ] after major disasters. One of the reasons for this stability in the face of change may have been the unchanging nature of the small agricultural communities that remain the basic unit of Mesopotamian society. These communities provided a framework within which most people worked and lived. They remained stable and unchanged over! generations and centuries despite disruption by flood, war, and famine.

* urbanization formation and growth of cities * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions * hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * domestication adaptation for human use * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

The first civilizations in Mesopotamia arose in the fertile areas of the region when people developed IRRIGATION to harness the waters of the rivers and to increase the productivity of the land. An abundance of food led to increased populations and urbanization*, and the need to manage farmlands and urban populations led to the formation of GOVERNMENTS and bureaucracies*. These included organized states with boundaries and political institutions, religious and political leaders to direct society, a hierarchy* of social classes, a specialization of labor, and the development of arts and intellectual ideas. Ancient Mesopotamia contained many ETHNIC AND LANGUAGE GROUPS. Besides the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, there were Akkadians, AMORITES, ARAMAEANS, KASSITES, and HURRIANS. The Sumerians—among the earliest of these groups—spoke a unique language and developed a distinct and highly influential culture. Many of the other peoples of Mesopotamia spoke Semitic* languages, but some also spoke INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. Mesopotamians ranged from nomads* to settled farmers and city dwellers. The various groups in Mesopotamia often intermingled and adopted certain aspects of other cultures, including religious beliefs.

OVERVIEW OF MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY The history of ancient Mesopotamia included remarkable achievements, from the development of agriculture and the domestication* of animals by about 9000 B.C. to the rise of empires that began around 2300 B.C. Mesopotamia's history was marked by conflicts between states, invasions, conquests, and the rise and fall of governments and societies. Origins of Mesopotamia!! Cities. By the early fourth millennium B.C.*, large agricultural settlements in Mesopotamia had begun to act as religious, administrative, and economic centers for the people of surrounding areas. Among the earliest of these emerging centers was URUK in southern Mesopotamia, an area known first as Sumer, and later as southern Babylonia. The main institution at Uruk and similar centers was the temple, which regulated all aspects of society and economy. It was through the temples that writing, government, judicial and economic systems, official art, and other elements of civilization first developed. The economy of these centers was based primarily on agriculture, herding, and trade. Through trade and the contacts it created with other areas, the urban culture of southern Mesopotamia gradually spread to other parts of the region. By about 2800 B.C., disputes began to occur among urban centers, especially over water rights and territorial boundaries. The resulting unrest transformed these centers into fully developed cities, as people in rural areas migrated to them. Many rivalries existed between the cities of southern Mesopotamia as each sought to gain an advantage over its neighbors or to expand its territory. Before long, many of these cities had gained control of large areas of surrounding territory, forming city-states*, such as KISH, LAGASH, UMMA, and UR, that were ruled by kings. Despite political differences, these Sumerian city-states shared the same language, religious beliefs, and customs. 95

Mesopotamia

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

ca. 3000s B.C. Large, urban settlements have emerged.

Rise of Early Empires. Around B.C., 2350 the king of Umma seized several city-statesand became rulerof all of Sumer. Soon after,he was defeated and replaced SARGON byI, a ruler from Akkad (a region north of Sumer in northern Babylonia),who established firstthe centralized state in Mesopotamia. Sargon and his successors, including his grandson NARAM-SIN, launched programsof territorial expansion, spreading their control as far as partsof Syria, Iran,and Anatolia. Their conquests transformed the "land of SumerandAkkad;; intoatrue empire. The Akkadian empire lasted nearly200 years.The periodwasdominated by rivalry between southern Babylonia, which waspeopled with non-Semitic Sumerians, and northern Babylonia, which wasinhabited by Semitic-speaking Akkadians.At the same time, however, the cultureof the two groups began to merge. After a period of declineand invasionby the Gutians,apeople from the northeast, Babyloniawas reunitedB.C. by about under UR2112 NAMMU, who foundeda new dynasty* knownas the Third Dynasty of Ur. SHULGI, perhaps the most important rulerof this dynasty, expanded the territory of the kingdom and launched a series ofpolitical, administrative, and economicreforms that transformed it into ahighly centralized state with a governing bureaucracy.The periodof the Third Dynasty of Ur is known as the Neo-Sumerian period.

3000B.CJ

2750B cj

250OB.C,

225OB.C,

ca. 2800s B.C. City-states are formed.

ca. 2350-2193 B.C. Akkadian empire is formed.

ca. 2112-2004 B.C. Babyloniais reunited under the Third Dynasty of Ur.

2000 BXL-

1750BC

1SOOBC

1250BC

ca. 2000 B.C. Amorite leaders begin to come to power.

ca. 1595 B.C. Kassites take control of Babylonia.

ca. 1500 B.C. Kingdom of Mitanni is formed.

100OBC ca. 1200s B.C. Northern Mesopotamia falls to theAssyrians.

96

The Age of the Amorites. Weakened byinternal rebellions, raids by the Elamites, and migrations of nomadic peoples called Amorites,the Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed around B.C. This2004 resultedin the reemergence of independent states, manyof which gradually fell under the control of two rival powers: the city-states of Isin and Larsa.For nearly 250 years, Larsaand Isin viedfor supremacy ofBabylonia. In the 1760s B.C.,an AmoriteBABYLON ruler ofHAMthenamed city of MURABI united southern Mesopotamiaand established a powerful new empire that dominated the region. One of Hammurabi's best-known achievements was his system of laws known as the Codeof Hammurabi. Meanwhile, in northern Mesopotamia, a newkingdom had arisen. It was centered on the ASHUR city ofand ruled by an Amorite leader named SHAMSHI-ADADI. This kingdom became the foundation of the state of Assyria, which playedmajor a rolein later Mesopotamian history. The Dark Age and the Kingdom of Mitanni. Following raids by the Hittite king MurshiliI B.C., in about Babylonia 1595wasoverrun by theKassites, who established various small independent kingdoms there. Little is known about the Kassites and their cultureand first of the 200 years of their rule in Babylonia,a period referredto as the Dark Age. More is known about theKassites from their contacts, shortly after 1400 B.C., with the later kingsofEgypt's Eighteenth Dynasty. Kassite The period was relativelypeaceful, exceptfor periodic conflicts with Ashur. Kassite rule came to an end around B.C., when 1158 the Elamites raidedand looted Babylon, taking many of its monuments to their capital Susa of in southwestern Iran. In the years that followed, Babylon and other cities in the region regained much of their independence under local rulers.

aser

Mesopotamia

The Many Facesof Mesopotamian Religion Different regions in ancient Mesopotamia shared thesame religious beliefs. However, because ofvariations in their history, they developed independent religious practices and ideasas wellas different ways to represent divine powers. Thiswas most evident in the names of deities, or gods and goddesses. A complete list of Mesopotamian deities would include more than 3,000 different names. They were not all different deities, however. Many of the gods and goddesses were actually the same, but they were known by different names.Even in neighboring cities, for example, the same deity might be worshiped under different names. Although there were many faces to Mesopotamian religion,re- j ligious belief was much more similar than it would seem.

* diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations among or between kingdoms, states, or nations * cult formal religious worship

As centralized rulein Mesopotamia declined B.C., after a group 1500 of people known as the Hurrians from northwestern Iran establisheda number of small states in northern Mesopotamia aswellas in Syriaand Anatolia. Around this time, a powerful Human state called Mitanni arose in the north. Mitanni extended its authority over many neighboring kingdoms, eventually controlling a region that extended from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to Iran in the east. The Rise of Assyria. While the Kassites controlled Babylonia, the region ofAssyria in northern Mesopotamia emergedon the international scene. In the 1300s B.C.,the city-stateof Ashur expandeditsborders and became a territorial state.The Assyrians conquered parts ofMitanniand divided up other areas in the north between themselves and the Hittites in Anatolia, with whom conflicts frequently arose. During B.C.,the 1200s northern Mesopotamia fell entirely under Assyrian rule. Beginning in the early 1100s B.C., Aramaean nomads began migrating into Mesopotamiafrom north Syria. They raided many cities Assyria in and Babylonia but were unable to gain a foothold in the cities and thus settled primarilyin rural areas.One of the main contributions Ara- of the maeans was their language, Aramaic, which eventually offibecamethe cial language of diplomacy*and trade throughout Mesopotamia. Assyria entered a period of decline in theB.C.1000s that lasted until the 900sB.C., when Assyrian power was again on the rise. Over the next 300 years, the Neo-Assyrian empire reached itsgreatest extent under such rulersas SARGON ESARHADDON, II, ASHURBANIPAL. and The Assyrians created a large, centralized state, and their aggressive military might made them the undisputed mastersof the ancient Near East.

The Fall of Assyria and Babylonia. Formany years, theAssyria let Babylonia keep its independence. The regionhad many cult* centers dedicated to gods also worshipedAssyria. in Babyloniawasalso revered 97

Mesopotamia

Hellenistic referring to theGreekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death ofAlexander the Greatin B.C. 323 autonomous self-governing

ca. 1100s B.C. Aramaeans enter Mesopotamia.

for its ancient culture. However, beginning B.C., Assyria faced in the 700s periodic problems with Babyloniaand had to putdown several rebellions there. Assyrian power began to decline B.C.,inwhile the 600s thepowerof Babylonia began to increase under theleadershipof theChaldeans,apeople from the coastal areas nearthe Persian Gulf.TheBabylonians rebelled in 626 B.C. andforcedtheAssyriansout ofBabylonia. Later theBabylonians joinedforces withthe MedesofIranandbegan attacking Assyrian provinces.In the late B.C.,the 600s Assyrianempire collapsed as aresult of repeated attacks by these invaders. Although some army units continued to fight, the Assyrian empirehad effectively ended,and itslands weredivided among the victors. Babylonia then experiencedabrief periodofpeaceandprosperity. Babylonian rulers, especially NEBUCHADNEZZAR II,launched spectacular building programsand restored culturalandreligious for- institutions long gotten. Trade and commerce flourished, andBabylon becamethelargest and most magnificent city in the ancient world. This period wasshortlived, however.B.C., In 539 Babyloniawasconquered by thePersians, who madethe regiona province PERSIAN of theEMPIRE.

1500B.C]

900sB.C. 11O D B C

900 Bc

Assyrians defeat Aramaeans and establish Neo-Assyrian empire.

626 B.C. Chaldeans take control of Babylonia.

700 B c

late 600s B.C. Medes and Babylonians conquer Assyria.

500 Bc

539 B.C. 300 cB

100BC

AD

100

Persians conquer Babylonia.

331 B.C. Alexander the Great seizes Mesopotamia.

mid-1OOs B.C. Parthians control Mesopotamia.

AD

300

A.D. 100S Romans conquer Mesopotamia.

98

Mesopotamia Under the Persians, Greeks, and the height of their power,the Persians ruledall ofMesopotamiaaswell as other partsof theNearEast. Babylonia, known as thebreadbasket of the Persian empire, remainedaprosperous land, Assyria but sank into poverty and obscurity. Although controlled Persia by through satraps, or provincial governors, Babyloniaand other partsofMesopotamiaremained relatively unchanged intheir culture, society, andreligion. The Persians controlled Mesopotamia ALEXANDER B.C., whenuntil 330 THEGREAT conquered the Persian empire. Under SELEU-Alexander and the CIDEMPIRE thatwas created after his death, Mesopotamia experienced great changes. Although Mesopotamian cities generally kept theirold systems of local government,the Hellenistic* culture introducedby the Seleucids brought Greek ideas, language, customs,andreligious beliefs to the region. Mesopotamia also prospered greatly under theSeleucids. In the mid-lOOs B.C., Mesopotamiawasconqueredby theParthians, an originally nomadic people who hadconquered neighboring Iran in the mid-200s B.C. Little changedin the region undertheParthians,who generally allowed local governmentstoremain autonomous*. Hellenistic culture continuedtoflourish, blending GreekandIranian ideas. After the 30s B.C., Parthiahad to compete withtheRomansfordominance in Mesopotamia. Soon the Romans gained increasing advantage in the region, and in A.D. the100s, Mesopotamiawasconqueredby the Romans and madea provinceof thealso Roman (SeeAkkad Empire. and the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of; Archaeology and Archaeologists; Architecture;Art, Artisans, andArtists; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea a Chaldeans; Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Elam the Elamites; Geography; Hellenistic World; Parthia;Sumer and Sumerians.)

Messengers

MESSENGERS

* diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with foreign kingdoms, states, or nations

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

M

essengers provided an important means of COMMUNICATION in the ancient Near East, particularly over long distances. By carrying written or oral messages from one place to another, they served a basic function within every society. They became the principal means by which states conducted international business. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, "neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night" could stop royal messengers as they carried messages between places. There were three classes of messengers in the ancient Near East. The first was simply an individual—a servant, slave, or even a child—who traveled within a city carrying messages between households or businesses. The second class of messengers was composed of individuals who traveled long distances but only delivered a message and received the reply. The third, and most important class of messengers, was made up of individuals who delivered messages and had the authority to negotiate with the recipient, usually the ruler of another kingdom or state. Such messengers could negotiate treaties, trade relations, and other political, economic, or social matters. This last group of messengers served as ambassadors and diplomats* between states. Only trustworthy, loyal, and fast individuals were chosen as messengers. They came from all classes in society, from slaves to royalty. Women served as messengers, too, most often carrying messages for other women. A royal messenger serving as an ambassador might be a trusted servant, a soldier or military officer, a member of the royal family, or a vassal* king traveling on behalf of another ruler. When communications involved personal matters or sensitive negotiations, a ruler might choose a member of the royal family to carry the message. Royal messengers were skilled and intelligent individuals. They needed to know their own rulers and to understand the nature and terms of the negotiations taking place. They also had to know the culture and customs of the country where a message was to be delivered, as well as the personality of the ruler receiving the message. In learning the customs, politics, and news of the places they visited, messengers became the state's main link to its neighbors and the world. Royal messengers and their staff generally stayed at the palaces of the recipient rulers or in the homes of local individuals responsible for foreign relations. The messengers received normal rations of food and drink. In special instances, they might dine with the king or receive special gifts. Long-distance messengers might travel by boat, by horse-drawn wagon, or on horseback. However, most traveled by foot, either walking or running, depending on distance and the urgency involved. As kingdoms expanded, systems of roads were constructed to make travel and communication easier. Many roads had rest stops for messengers set up at certain intervals. During the 2000s B.C., King SHULGI of UR described how he "enlarged the footpaths, straightened the highways [and] established rest houses/' Later, the Persians and Romans both became famous for their extensive and well-organized systems of roads and messengers. Although being a messenger was an important job, it was also difficult and dangerous work. Messengers generally had to travel on bad roads in all kinds of weather and faced threats from robbers as well as enemies in hostile states. (See also Transportation and Travel.)

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Metals and Metalworkiiig

METALS AND METALWORKING * artisan skilled craftsperson * ore mineral or rock containing a high concentration of one or more metals

A^ etals have fascinated humans for thousands of years. Early arti/ ^ Isans* fashioned the first objects out of metal more than 9,000 years ago. However, it was not until some 7,500 years ago, with the invention of metallurgy—the science of extracting metal from ore* and creating useful objects from it—that metal came to be widely used for TOOLS, weapons, decorations, and currency. The art and science of metalworking probably began in the ancient Near East, and the civilizations there were at the forefront of metallurgy for thousands of years.

METALLURGY To produce useful metal objects, one must learn how to separate metals from ore, melt metal, work with it in a liquid form, and change its properties through heating and other processes. These skills are known as metallurgy, and their discovery was a turning point for humanity. Native Metals and Ores. Most metals are embedded in rocky minerals called ores, from which they must be extracted before they can be used. However, small quantities of some metals occur naturally as pure nuggets already separated from ore. These so-called "native" metals— such as gold, silver, and copper—result from the action of water passing over and through the ore-bearing rock formations. Such metals can be easily collected with a minimum of effort. The oldest metal objects found in the Near East—a pin and a needle of native copper dating from between 7500 and 7000 B.C.—were found in ANATOLIA. Native metals can be worked in their natural state by hammering them into the desired shape. Because such metals make up only a small fraction of the metals contained in the earth, however, only a limited number of objects can be made from them. Moreover, hammering makes metals brittle and the shapes and uses of objects produced in this manner are limited. To produce a larger variety of metal items, it is necessary to apply the basic techniques of metallurgy. Melting and Smelting. The most basic metallurgical technique is heating metal until it becomes soft or melts into a liquid. By pouring the liquid into a mold and letting the molten metal cool, early peoples discovered that they could create metal objects of any desired shape. Working copper in this way also made it less brittle. Evidence suggests that by about 7000 B.C. early metalworkers in the Near East learned how to change the nature of metals by heating them. The first metal to be worked in this way was copper. Another basic metallurgical technique is smelting, a process by which an ore is heated together with another substance that combines chemically with the nonmetal in the ore and separates it from the metal. The earliest evidence of copper smelting in the ancient Near East—a lump of slag, a waste product of the smelting process, dating from about 5500 B.C.— comes from Anatolia. However, lumps of copper ore have been found at various sites in MESOPOTAMIA dating from about the same period, suggesting that the smelting process may have been known there as well. By 3000 B.C., copper smelting technology had become widely known

100

Metals and Metalworking throughout the Near East. The process was essential to the growth and further development of metalworking in the region. Alloying. As early artisans in the Near East worked with various types of metals, they eventually discovered that some metals could be combined by melting them together, a process known as alloying. Alloying enabled metalworkers to change the properties of metals and produce metals that were stronger and more durable. One of the first alloys used in the Near East, and the most important, was bronze, a mixture of copper and tin. The production of bronze and its use in making weapons, tools, and other objects was so important that historians call the period from about 3000 to 1200 B.C. the Bronze Age.

METALS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

The Copper-Silver Dispute An ancient Sumerian text called The Dispute Between Copper and Silver contains an interesting "dialogue" between copper and silver. Copper \ mocks silver for its uselessness, say-I ing that it has a place only in the palace: "If there were no palace, you would have no station; gone would be your dwelling place," Even in the home silver is "buried away in its darkest spots/' while copper is widely used every day. The "dispute" goes on to mention the use of capper tools for planting.] crops, harvesting grain, and cuttin wood. Because of copper's great usefulness, the text concludes of sit- j ver: "That's why nobody pays any attention to you!"

The people of the ancient Near East used precious metals—gold and silver—as well as common metals—copper, tin, and iron. In addition, they produced alloys, such as bronze, that were used extensively. A later invention was steel, an alloy of iron and carbon. Copper. The first metal to be used throughout the ancient world was copper. This was largely because native copper and copper ores are abundant throughout the Near East. Large copper deposits existed in Anatolia, in northern IRAN and Mesopotamia, on the island of CYPRUS, in parts of the Levant* and SYRIA, in the deserts of eastern Egypt, and on the OMAN PENINSULA of Arabia. Archaeologists* have discovered evidence of copper metallurgy in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant dating from between 5500 and 3500 B.C. This technology appeared later in Mesopotamia. The earliest copper objects there were made from metal mined in Iran and brought to Mesopotamia by traders. After about 3000 B.C., the Sumerians began to import copper from the land of Magan (present-day Oman) because it was cheaper to import copper from Magan by ship through the Persian Gulf than through overland trade from Iran. Bronze and Tin. The earliest bronze objects appeared around 3000 B.C. By about 1900 B.C., tin bronze (copper and tin) had replaced arsenical bronze (copper and arsenic) in much of the Near East. The Egyptians, however, continued the use of arsenical bronze because arsenic forms a silvery surface on copper that can be polished to a mirrorlike finish. Bronze was used to make domestic utensils, furniture, lamps, sculpture, arms, armor, coins, tools, and implements. Scholars are uncertain about the origins of the tin that was used to make the earliest tin-bronze alloys. Native tin may have been used for some early bronze work, but deposits of the metal were much too small to have supported a widespread bronze industry. Anatolia contains some tin ores, but there is little evidence to suggest that ancient peoples either knew about or mined them. The best current evidence of ancient sources of tin points to eastern Iran and areas in present-day Afghanistan, which contain large quantities of native tin and tin ores. 101

Metals and Metalworking

See colorplate3, vol.4.

Gold and Silver. The major sources ofgold in the region were eastern Anatolia, eastern Iran,Afghanistan,and Egypt. Becausegold couldbeeasily bent or drawn out,it was impracticalfortoolsorweapons.It wasalmost exclusively used JEWELRY for and luxury items, as well as for decorations in temples, palaces, and other official buildings. Although gold wasbeing worked in Egypt, Anatolia,and Mesopotamia before B.C.,its use 3000 did not become widespread until later. Silver was used widely throughoutthe ancient B.C. Near Eastprior to 3000 Among the most important sources of silver were Iran, Afghanistan, and Anatolia. This precious metal, like gold, wasused mainlyforjewelryand luxury items. Silverwas also accepted in Mesopotamiaas amediumof exchange, or type of currency,and some societiesin the Near Eastusedanatural alloy of silverand gold, knownaselectrum,formaking coins. Iron. Although iron was found everywhere in the ancient world, it was the last metal to be widely used in the ancient Near East. Theoldest piece of ironwork foundin the Near East comes from Mesopotamiaand dates from about 5000 B.C.Fewer than25 iron objects have been discovered that datefrom between 3000B.C. andAlmost 2000 all of these came from the gravesof wealthy individuals, temples,or collectionsoftreasure, suggesting that they were rare and valuable items. Increasing numbers of iron objects were produced in the Near Eastbetween about 2000 andB.C., 1200 but these were probably by-products of copper smelting. It was not until after B.C. that 1500iron wasproduced in any quantity, and it was not usedfortools and weapons B.C. until the 1200s TheHITTITES are considered the earliest ironworkersof the ancientNear East, and some historians credit their rise as amilitary power to the early use of iron weapons.

102

Metals and Metalworking By about 1100 B.C., metalworkers in the Near East had mastered the techniques for producing steel from iron, and by 900 B.C., ironworking had spread throughout the region. Although bronze continued to be used widely for hundreds of years after that time, the period after about 1200 B.C. and until 500 B.C. is known as the Iron Age.

METALWORKING The Lame Smith One of the common characters in myths and folktales around the world is the blacksmith. In stories from the Near East and the Mediterranean world, the smith is typically tame. For example, the Creek smith god Hephaestus and his Roman counterpart Vulcan were always depicted as lame. This may reflect a reality of life for early metalsmiths, who often worked with bronze ores that contained arsenic. \ While working with arsenic over a period of time, ancient smiths absorbed the dangerous substance into their skin. This could easily have led to chronic arsenic poisoning, which causes decay of the muscles, loss of reflexes, and eventually lameness.

* cult formal religious worship

The term metalworking refers to the ability to make useful objects out of metal. This ability dramatically transformed ancient society, and because of the advantages of metal items, ancient metalworkers became important members of ancient Near Eastern societies. Metalworkers. Those who mastered the arts of melting, smelting, and casting metals such as copper or tin were called smiths. Although highly valued for their skills, they had the lowest social status among metalworkers. For example, an ancient Egyptian text described coppersmiths in unflattering terms, saying that their ''fingers are like crocodile scales'' and their flesh "stinks more than fish eggs." Those who worked metal and created metal objects, considered metalworkers, were more highly respected. The most highly esteemed members of the metalworking profession were jewelers and goldsmiths. These artisans typically worked in royal workshops making personal items for the wealthy and powerful. They also created cult* objects and official items such as metal SEALS. Metalworking Techniques. Near Eastern metalworkers used two basic techniques: casting and hammering. Casting involved pouring molten metal into molds of various shapes and allowing the metal to cool and harden. Ancient Near Eastern artisans used a complex type of casting called the lost-wax method. Here an artisan made a wax model of the desired object and covered it with clay. When the clay hardened into a mold, it was heated until the wax ran out through a hole on the bottom. Molten metal was then poured into the mold through the same hole. When the metal cooled the mold was broken, leaving a metal reproduction of the original wax model. This method was used for making small objects as well as larger works such as statues. Hammering, which involved pounding metal into a desired shape, produced one-of-a-kind objects. Artisans used one of five methods of hammering: raising, sinking, repousse, chasing, and punching. In raising, the metal was hammered into shape from the outside, while in sinking it was hammered into a depression cut into wood or another material. In repousse, the design was hammered into sheet metal from the back to form a raised pattern. In chasing, a reverse of repousse, the metal was hammered from the front to produce a sunken design. Punching involved hammering holes into a piece of metal. It was often used for artistic decoration and to cut INSCRIPTIONS into metal objects. Another more specialized type of metalworking skill was gilding, in which an artisan applied a thin layer of gold to the surface of an object. Gilding was used for only the most valuable or sacred objects. 103

Midas Local Metalworking Traditions. Archaeologists have uncovered metal artifacts that demonstrate the great skill of ancient metalworkers and the differences in metalworking traditions. For example, copper axes and weapons from Iran feature elaborate decorations, often including animal forms. The wide distribution of such objects indicates that they were traded throughout the region. Some of the most interesting and impressive metalwork of the ancient Near East was produced in the kingdom of URARTU from about 650 to 600 B.C. Urartu had especially gifted bronze workers who created highly decorated bronze objects such as belts, plates, bells, plaques, and statues. Other Urartian treasures include bronze statuettes covered in gold leaf and inlaid with precious stones. While the Urartian culture was particularly gifted in the arts of metalworking, they were not unique. Metalworking played a key role in the advancement of Near Eastern civilization, and metalworking skills were essential to every society that made its mark on the region. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Jewelry; Mining; Money; Science and Technology; Weapons and Armor.)

Midas

MIGRATION AND DEPORTATION famine severe lack of food due to failed crops drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

See Phrygia and the Phrygians.

I

n the ancient Near East, people often migrated for economic reasons: to search for better agricultural or grazing land or to escape famine* or drought*. They also migrated for political reasons: to escape oppression or to flee from invaders. Sometimes they were forcibly removed from their homelands and taken elsewhere. This occurred when one state conquered another. Such involuntary movement from one place to another, known as deportation, was much less common than other types of migration.

MIGRATION Most migration in the ancient Near East occurred as people wandered in search of better land for farming or grazing livestock. Some of this migration was seasonal and generally involved small numbers of people and had only a minor impact on settled communities or societies. More permanent migrations involving thousands of people also occurred. These great migratory movements caused profound political, economic, and social changes throughout the ancient Near East. Pastoral Nomadism. From as early as 8000 B.C., ancient Near Eastern societies contained both farmers and herders. Over time, the herders developed a lifestyle known as pastoral nomadism, which was quite different

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Migration and Deportation

Opposing Lifestyles In ancient times, many nomads j mistrusted farmers and the city life, white farmers and city dwellers distrusted the nomads. A let- \ ter written in Syria by one Yaminite leader to another around 1770 B.C. expresses perhaps a common view about the opposing viewpoints of city j life and the nomadic existence: You foofc forward to eating, drinking and sleeping, but not to accompanying me? Sitting or sleeping will not redden you [from the sun]. As for me, if I keep myself Inside just one day, until I leave the city walls behind to renew my vigor, my vitality ebbs away.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

from that of farmers. They had no fixed residence and wandered from place to place. They were also pastoralists, which means that their lifestyle was based on the breeding and herding of animals. Some scholars believe that pastoral nomadism arose in the Near East as human populations increased and fertile lands became increasingly scarce. To conserve land for crops, herders had to move away from communities to graze their herds, leading to the nomadic lifestyle. Drought, famine, and other problems sometimes forced even farmers to take up a nomadic pastoral lifestyle because they could no longer support themselves by raising crops. They often returned to farming when agricultural conditions improved. Similarly, pastoral nomads often settled in communities, perhaps to farm or because they needed a home from which to manage their herds over a large area. Such changes back and forth between nomadism and farming occurred in ancient times, contributing to the migrations of people throughout the Near East. Large-Scale Migrations. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, political instability, war, and other factors also caused large-scale migrations. However, these were very different from pastoral nomadism because they involved larger numbers of people. Often these people were from different ethnic backgrounds, worshiped different gods, and spoke different languages than those of the inhabitants of the lands to which they migrated. The people in these types of migrations were usually seen as invaders, even if their purpose was not to conquer but to escape some problem or disaster in their homelands. The movement of such groups often caused great upheaval, leading to changes in government, the rise of new states, the disappearance of old traditions, and the emergence of new cultural and religious ideas. One of the earliest large-scale migrations known from ancient sources involved the Gutians. This pastoral nomadic group from the Zagros Mountains region of western IRAN migrated to MESOPOTAMIA sometime before the 2100s B.C. and possibly contributed to the collapse of the Akkadian empire. The best-documented series of migrations in the ancient Near East were probably those of the AMORITES, a nomadic people who migrated from northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA to central and southern Mesopotamia beginning in about 2000 B.C. Although the Amorites attacked some areas, their migration was largely peaceful. Records from the city-state* of MARI indicate that it tried unsuccessfully to control the Amorites and their migration. Other city-states probably attempted to do the same. Eventually, however, the Amorites took over many areas and established small, independent kingdoms. They were absorbed into the local populations and assimilated* many local customs, beliefs, and institutions. Among the most famous Amorite rulers were HAMMURABI and SHAMSHI-ADAD I. By about 1600 B.C., the Amorites were being forced westward by migrations of KASSITES, a pastoral nomadic group that probably originated in the Zagros Mountains. Around 1595 B.C., the Kassites seized power in Babylonia and established various small kingdoms. Another group of people known as the HURRIANS, who had moved from northwestern Iran, settled in northern Mesopotamia and founded a number of states there, including the powerful Mitanni. 105

Migration and Deportation

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

In about 1200 B.C., Egypt was invaded both by land and by sea by groups historians call the SEA PEOPLES. These peoples were not one group but various tribes, including the PHILISTINES. After Egyptian king RAMSES III drove the Sea Peoples out of Egypt, they appear to have settled in the Levant* and in Syria. During the following century, many cities including KARKAMISH and UGARIT in Syria, and KHATTUSHA, the capital of the HmrrES in Anatolia were violently destroyed. Many scholars believe that these widespread destructions resulted from the migrations of Sea Peoples into these regions. Around 1100 B.C., another nomadic group known as the ARAMAEANS began migrating into the settled areas of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia. Scholars believe that the Aramaeans came from the desert fringes of Syria, although there is no evidence of them before about 1300 B.C. The Aramaeans captured various city-states in Syria, and their growing power eventually brought them into conflict with the Assyrians. Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I spoke of crossing the EUPHRATES RIVER many times to chase them away. Around 926 B.C., the Aramaeans had established a large state called Bit-Adini. Aramaean culture gradually spread throughout Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Aramaic language became the common language of government and business in many parts of the Near East. Another series of migrations had a great impact on the later history of the Near East. Around 1500 B.C., a nomadic people called the ARYANS began migrating from CENTRAL ASIA to Iran. The two most important Aryan tribes were the MEDES and the Persians. The Medes settled in northwestern Iran, established a kingdom in the 700s B.C., and played an important role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire in the following century. The Persians settled in southern Iran, and by the late 500s B.C., the PERSIAN EMPIRE had become the mightiest empire in the Near East.

DEPORTATION * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

106

At various times in the ancient Near East, rulers forcibly moved groups of people from one place to another. Such forced migration, or deportation, generally was done for political purposes. Rulers deported people from a conquered territory to limit the possibility of rebellion, to improve their ability to control the area, and to punish rebellion or refusal to pay tribute*. Deportation not only broke up any unified opposition but also created forced labor that could be used to build monuments or work in farm colonies. Most deportations in the Near East were carried out by the Assyrians. Around 1235 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I deported several Babylonians into Assyria as retaliation for an attack by the Kassites. In the 800s B.C., King ASHURNASIRPAL II began a military conquest in the Levant to gain control of various trade routes. He ordered the deportation of Phoenicians and Aramaeans from their homelands. In the 700s B.C., after conquering Syria, King TIGLATH-PILESER III launched mass deportations that removed at least 80,000 people from the area. He then brought people from other parts of his empire to replace them. SARGON II forced an even larger number of people to move in 707 B.C. After conquering Babylon, he deported more than 100,000 Aramaeans

Mining and Chaldeans to SAMARIA, the former capital of Israel, and other distant regions and moved in others to replace those deported. Earlier, in 722 B.C., the Assyrians had moved large numbers of people from Israel to northern Mesopotamia. The Assyrians were not the only ones to use deportation, however. The Babylonians used the tactic against the Jews around 587 B.C., when the kingdom of Judah rebelled against Babylonian control. After destroying the city of JERUSALEM, the Babylonians deported a large part of the Jewish population to Babylonia, where they were enslaved. When the Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylonia in 538 B.C., he freed the Jews and permitted them to return to their homeland. However, many chose to stay in their new home. The Hittites also deported people from conquered territory and resettled them in Hittite lands. These people became slaves and provided labor for the state. (See also Drought; Famine; Labor and Laborers; Nomads and Nomadism; Slaves and Slavery; Wars and Warfare.)

MINING * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

M

ining is the recovery of metal or metal-bearing minerals called ores from deposits in the earth. Archaeologists* have uncovered evidence of metal use in the ancient Near East from at least 7000 B.C. However, the earliest metal artifacts* were probably made from metals found above ground, such as gold, silver, or copper taken from streambeds. The actual mining of metals and metallic ores probably did not develop until around 5000 B.C. Because of the usefulness of metal for making tools, weapons, and other objects, mining became an important economic activity in the ancient Near East.

THE MINING PROCESS Most metals are embedded in ores that contain varying amounts of metal. Ore deposits are typically located in mountains or beneath the earth's surface, and recovery of the ores often requires a great deal of effort. To reach ore deposits, workers usually must cut shafts or tunnels into the rock and then dig out the ore. The earliest miners did this with picks and hammers made of stone. The ore is then transported to workshops where the metal is removed through various techniques. Mining and the recovery of metal from ore involve complex processes. They require the technical expertise to locate and recognize ore deposits, the organizational ability to assemble a large workforce to extract ores from the earth, and the technology to separate metal from ore so that it can be worked to produce useful items.

MINING IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Very little is known about early mining in the ancient Near East. Many regions, including MESOPOTAMIA, SYRIA, and Egypt, have few mineral deposits. Extensive mineral deposits were found in ANATOLIA (present-day 107

Mining Turkey), and studies in that region have produced significant information about ancient mining activities. That information, combined with knowledge about trade and metalworking in the Near East, has provided an overview of mining and the metals recovered.

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

* artisan skilled craftsperson

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Copper. The first metal mined extensively in the ancient Near East was copper. Large deposits of copper were found in a belt that extended across Anatolia into northern Assyria and IRAN. The earliest evidence of copper mining in these regions dates to the early fifth millennium B.C.* At a site called Tepe Ghabristan in northern Iran, archaeologists discovered the remains of a copper workshop from about 4500 B.C. Equipment found at the site included a deep bowl containing pieces of copper ore and a furnace for smelting, a process by which an ore is heated together with another substance that combines chemically with the nonmetal in the ore and separates it from the metal. The fact that artisans* were smelting copper at this site suggests that copper probably was mined in the area at the time. Archaeologists have also discovered evidence of copper metalworking in the Levant*, dating from as early as 3500 B.C. The copper ore for this industry probably came from deposits in present-day Jordan, although some may have also come from sites in southern Israel. The Egyptians were mining copper in the SINAI PENINSULA as early as 3000 B.C. In Mesopotamia, there is little evidence of copper metalworking before about 2000 B.C., probably because the area had few deposits of ore. The copper used in the region in early times probably came from mines in Iran. CYPRUS and parts of the OMAN PENINSULA contained significant deposits of copper. After 3000 B.C., the Mesopotamians began to import copper from the mines of Oman instead of from Iran. Tin. The metal tin is often contained in a mineral ore called cassiterite, which can be found in streambeds or on plains where it has been deposited by running water. When tin is combined with copper by melting the two metals together—a process known as alloying—the result is bronze, a much harder and more useful metal than either copper or tin. The appearance of bronze items in Anatolia indicates that people in that region were using tin by the early third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.) Bronze items dating from about 2500 B.C. have been found in cities as far apart as TROY and UR. Although tin is currently mined in southeastern Turkey, there is little evidence that tin mining occurred there in ancient times. The most likely source of ancient tin was presentday Afghanistan. Tin from mines there was traded over much of the Near East. MERCHANTS brought much of this tin to such cities as ASHUR and MARI, where it was shipped to various places in Anatolia and the Levant. Iron. Bronze was the most important metal in the ancient Near East from about 3500 B.C. to 1200 B.C., when it was replaced by iron. Although remains of iron objects dating from as early as about 5000 B.C. have been found in the Near East, these were probably by-products of copper smelting, because some copper ores contain small amounts of iron. Iron was not produced in significant quantities until after 1500 B.C., and it was not used for tools or weapons for another 300 years.

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Life in the Mines Ancient texts and other evidence provide a glimpse of the difficult conditions that ancient miners often had to endure. Remains of mining sites in eastern Egypt reveal tha miners not only had to travel across the harsh desert to the mines, but they also had to carry their own food with them from home. Egyptian records show that mining for turquoise in the desert of the Sinai peninsula took place in winter at al titudes where the cold was intense and water was scarce. Copper and gold mining took place in the same region during the blistering heat of the summer. According to Greek sources, water was rationed, and many Egyptian miners died under such harsh conditions.

MINOAN CIVILIZATION * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

* domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

The most abundant metal on earth, iron makes up nearly 6 percent of the earth's crust. Deposits of iron ore as well as meteoric iron existed in almost every part of the ancient world. Yet iron mining and metalworking were slow to develop. The primary reason is that ironworking requires more advanced techniques than were available in the earlier periods of ancient Near Eastern history. Once these techniques were developed, however, iron became very important because it provided a stronger, cheaper, and more practical alternative to bronze. Because of the importance and abundance of iron, evidence of iron mining and metalworking have been found in many areas of the ancient Near East. Other Metals. The people of the ancient Near East also mined lead, silver, and gold. Evidence indicates that lead ores were being smelted to produce metallic lead as early 3500 B.C. and perhaps earlier. This suggests that lead mining existed at that time as well. The Egyptians were mining gold by about 2700 B.C., with most mining activity taking place in the desert east of the NILE RIVER and in the region of Nubia south of Egypt. Silver mines were located in many places in the ancient Near East. Most of the silver in ancient Egyptian jewelry came from mines in Anatolia, Cyprus, and CRETE. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Science and Technology; Tools; Weapons and Armor.)

I

n A.D. 1900, English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans made an amazing discovery on the island of CRETE in the Mediterranean Sea. He uncovered the ruins of a unique and distinctive culture dating from about 3000 to 1000 B.C. He called this culture the Minoan civilization, named after King Minos, a legendary king of Crete in Greek MYTHOLOGY. Despite many discoveries since Evans, the Minoan civilization remains a mystery and a matter of disagreement among modern historians. Experts generally agree, however, that the Minoans were a mostly peaceful and sophisticated people who developed extensive trading networks and created beautiful POTTERY, JEWELRY, WALL PAINTINGS, and SCULPTURE. Geography and Early Settlements. Crete is located south of Greece at the edge of the AEGEAN SEA. Apart from CYPRUS, it is the largest island in the eastern Mediterranean. With a mild climate, abundant resources, and an excellent location for sea trade, it is not surprising that a great civilization arose on the island in ancient times. The earliest inhabitants of Crete probably arrived on the island around 6000 B.C., but their exact origins are unknown. Continuous migration over the next 3,000 years led to the introduction of domesticated* plants and animals from the ancient Near East, and this contributed to the development of a flourishing agricultural economy. By about 3000 B.C., the people of Crete had become successful farmers, herders, and traders, and their settlements were scattered throughout the island. They exported wine, wool, textiles, timber, and olive oil and 109

Minoan Civilization * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-daySyria, Lebanon,and Israel), the WestBank,andJordan

fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also,a painting done in this manner * city-state independentstate consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

hieroglyphic referring to a systemof writing thatuses pictorial characters,or hieroglyphs, to represent wordsideas or

110

imported metals andjewels. Long-distance trade ANATOwas strong with LIA (present-dayTurkey)and the Levant*. Cretan society at this time consisted of various socialclasses, and political power beganto centralizein several of the largest settlements. The Rise of Minoan Power. ByB.C., aboutthe2000 Minoans began to construct palaces at a number of major towns. Among the most important of these were KNOSSOS, at Phaistos,and Mallia. Built aroundan open central courtyard, Minoan palaces were multistory buildings witha maze of rooms andbeautiful frescoes*, baths,and running water. Each palace was centrally located in a town. Thepalaces became important focal points of Minoan societyand servedas the seatsofgovernment, administration, and centers of trade and as sites where food products, raw materials, and manufactured goods were collected and redistributed. It is possible that the palaces became the centers ofsmall citystates*, which competed with each otherfortrade. Because of extensive trade and an abundance of resources, Minoans of all social classes were well off. Many scholars believe thatwealthwas spread more evenly throughout Minoan society than in anyother culture of the NearEast. Peace and prosperity allowed the Minoansto devote more time to enjoying life, which explains their remarkable achievements in the arts. During this period, the Cretans used a hieroglyphic* writing system that has not been decoded and interpreted. In the early EARTHQUAKES 1700s B.C., damaged some Minoan palaces, but they were rebuilt. Byabout B.C., the 1600 Minoan civilization had reached its peak, and its influence extended beyond Crete.TheMinoans

Miiioan Civilization King Minos and the Minotaur In Greek mythology, King Minos of Crete was the son of Zeus. Minos once angered Poseidon by not sacrificing a white bull to the god. To punish Minos, Poseidon made his wife, Pasiphae, fall in love with the bull, and she bore a creature with a bull's head and a man's body called the Minotaur. Minos kept the Minotaur in an enormous labyrinth, or maze, beneath his palace. To avenge the death of his son at the hand of the king of Athens, Minos made the Athenians give him seven young men and seven young women each year. He locked these youths in the labyrinth, where they died of starvation or were killed and eaten by the Minotaur: One of these: youths, the Greek hero Theseus, later killed the Minotaur. Although the story of the Minotaur is only a myth, there may once have been a real king of Crete named Minos.

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

possibly colonized—and certainly influenced—many islands in the Aegean Sea, including THERA. It is also likely that, through trade, the Minoans and other Near Eastern peoples influenced each other. Minoan goods have been found as far away as Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA, and there are wall paintings in Egypt depicting Minoan traders. The Minoans of this period used a simple script that modern scholars call Linear A, which has not been deciphered*. The Collapse of Minoan Power. Around 1500 B.C., many Minoan palaces on Crete were again destroyed, probably because of a volcanic explosion on Thera. Although they were rebuilt and were as beautiful and elaborate as before, the size and number of settlements outside the palaces declined. Within the next 100 years, all the palaces—with the exception of the one at Knossos—ceased to be important political or trading centers. At the same time, Crete was being increasingly dominated by MYCENAE AND THE MYCENAEANS, who brought a warrior-based culture from mainland Greece. Certain Cretan burial practices and artistic themes from this period reflect Mycenaean influence, as does the adoption of a new writing system—Linear B—used to write the Mycenaean Greek dialect*. Around 1400 B.C., the palace of Knossos was destroyed by fire, perhaps a result of a Mycenaean invasion or natural catastrophe. The destruction of Knossos marked the collapse of Minoan power, although regional Minoan cultures continued to flourish for some time on various parts of Crete. When Minoan power collapsed, the center of culture in the Aegean region passed to the mainland of Greece and the Mycenaeans. Religion, Politics, and the Arts. A unique feature of Minoan civilization was the absence of great temples such as those found elsewhere throughout the ancient Near East. Minoan religious rites took place in the palaces, in sacred caves, and on mountaintops. Minoan religious beliefs focused on nature worship, female goddesses, and fertility cults*, and sacred symbols included doves, trees, bulls, and snakes. Strangely, no individual leader is named on any artifact* created by the Minoans, and archeologists have found no evidence of any type of warrior class before Mycenaean influence took hold. This has led many scholars to believe that the Minoans were ruled by their religious leaders. Scholars cannot agree whether these rulers were priest-kings, priestessqueens, or both. It is certain from studying Minoan art, however, that women played prominent roles in religious ceremonies. Minoan civilization is probably most famous for its artwork. Delicately shaped pottery pieces were decorated with scenes of animals and plants and used a beautiful style of light on dark. Frescoes were brightly painted and depicted both religious and secular* scenes. Some showed magical gardens full of animals. In later periods, art became increasingly realistic, and by the 1400s B.C., artists were creating a sense of depth in wall murals through the use of relief*. One of the most interesting features of Minoan art is the pictures of "bull leaping/' Painted on vases and frescoes, these pictures show young men and women leaping over the horns of bulls. Scholars are uncertain 111

Money whether "bull leaping" was a sport or a religious ceremony, although most believe it was connectedalso to (See fertility Animals rituals. in Art; Architecture; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on.)

MONEY * mint to make coins; place where coins are made

* commodity

article of trade

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

C

oins and paper currency have been used for so long that most people today consider them the only acceptable forms of money However, thefirst coins werenot minted* B.C.,and after until700 paper money has only been in existence for a few hundred years. This does not mean, however, that money did not exist in ancient times. Different items served Near Eastern societies as money, including precious metals, such as silver and gold, and grain. Defining Money. To understand how grain and other items served as money, it is important to consider the technical definition of money. Most economists consider money to be anything that can be used as a means of exchange, aform of payment,and a standardfor accounting. The first definition is probably the broadest. Money is anything used to obtain an item one desires. Even items traded in barter can function as a form of money, because each party gives the other some item in exchange for another item. Althoughthe second definition seems first at glance the same as thefirst, thereis difference. a Asform a of payment, money is anything used to settle a debt or obligation that does not necessarily involve receiving something in return, such as taxes. Farmers in ancient Egypt gave the state a portion of their harvest as tax. The third definition considers money to be any commodity* usedas a measure of value against other commodities.The valueof items MESOPOin ancient TAMIA was expressedas fixed a amountof silver or grain. Thus, a particular piece of cloth might be valued at so many shekels of silver or a certain number of bushels of grain. Goods could be and were purchased with things other than silver or grain. However, the value of the goods acquired and the value of the goods given were both calculated in termsof either silver or grain. This ensured that both parties received itemsof equal worth regardlessof the items they exchanged. Early Money.Before the rise of cities andcity-states*, barter was the basis for economic activity. People acquired goods fromone anotherby trading items that they judgedto be of roughly similar value. However, barter was too cumbersome, especiallyin complex urban economies.To regulate economic activity, ancient peoples fixed standardsof value,and the commodities used to set such standards functioned as money Records from the ancient NearEast indicate that silver and grain were used as money in nearly every society. Both shared qualities that made them ideal for this use. They had value, could be storedfor long periods without losing their value, and were interchangeablefor similar items. Thatis, one shekel of silver was the sameas any other,as was one bushelof grain. The choice of silverand grainas money stemmed from their abundance. Because ancient Near Eastern societies AGRICULTURE, were based on

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Monotheism

They Were Coins, but Were They Money? By about 400 B.C., many Near East ern societies were minting coins, but not all of them were used as currency in the states that produced them. For example, King Nectanebo I minted the first Egyptian coins shortly after 400 B.C., but these were used to pay Greek mercenary soldiers, not circulated as local currency. The relative lack of small coins in ancient Greece suggests that they were not used in everyday transactions. Most coins found in hoards, even as late as the Roman era, are also of high denominations, indicating that coins were not widely used forj simple transactions.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MONOTHEISM * doctrine principle, theory, or belief presented for acceptance * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

grain was not only essential for life but also easily available. Silver was also quite abundant, which explains why it was used as money more often than gold. Around 1600 B.C., an increase in Egyptian gold production led to a temporary increase in its use as money. When gold production decreased after about 1200 B.C., so did its popularity as a form of money. Other metals occasionally served as money as well. Copper, for example, was the most common form of money in Mesopotamia in the 700s B.C.. Silver money often took the form of rings or coils. To pay for an item, one broke off a piece of silver whose value was equal to that of the item acquired. Archaeologists* have found hoards of silver, including ingots (bars) in Near Eastern sites, but these are too large to have been used in everyday transactions. The absence of smaller pieces of silver suggests that ingots were used as a store of value or a standard against which smaller pieces of silver were measured. Coinage. The earliest coins were minted around 650 B.C. in the kingdom of Lydia in present-day Turkey. The Lydians invented coins to guarantee that a certain amount of precious metal had a fixed value. Pieces broken from a ring or coil had to be weighed to determine their value, but coins of the same type supposedly contained the same amount of silver, making weighing unnecessary. However, because people often shaved off bits of coins, they reduced the coins' true worth, making the promise of standard value worthless; when such coins were used for payment, they were always weighed. Despite their convenience, coins only slowly replaced other forms of money. This was partly because many people believed that the system used for thousands of years was still quite useful and that coins offered little advantage over traditional forms of money. Moreover, they believed that a shortage of precious metals could be disastrous for a society that relied solely on coinage. However, in flexible monetary systems, grains or other forms of money could be used when silver or gold ran short. The use of coins only became widespread after the PERSIAN EMPIRE conquered much of the Near East in the 500s B.C. (See also Economy and Trade; Merchants; Taxation.)

M

onotheism is the belief in only one god. This doctrine* is most closely associated with the three great modern religions that originally developed in the Near East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Most of the cultures in the ancient Near East practiced polytheism, the belief in many gods. However, a number of Near Eastern religious traditions in ancient times also developed monotheistic tendencies. Early Monotheism. One of the earliest examples of monotheistic beliefs appeared in Egypt during the reign of Amenhotep IV in the mid1300s B.C. The Egyptian pantheon* at that time contained many gods, including the sun god ATEN. Amenhotep singled out Aten for worship and proclaimed that he was the only true god. Amenhotep renamed himself AKHENATEN, which means "he who is effective for Aten," and forbade the

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Moon * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

worship of other gods. This displeased the priests of other cults* and many Egyptians, and after his death, the cult of Aten disappeared. Other tendencies toward monotheism occurred in MESOPOTAMIA during the first millennium B.C.* In Babylonia, the ancient god MARDUK rose to great prominence and became head of that region's pantheon. He also took over the characteristics and functions of many other gods, making him far superior to them. A similar tendency toward unifying many gods into one deity occurred in Assyria with the god ASHUR. Though not truly monotheistic, these religious beliefs were moving in that direction. A more authentic type of monotheism developed in Persia in the 600s B.C. with the rise of a new religion called Zoroastrianism. This religion was founded by Zoroaster, a prophet* who taught that there was only one true god—AHURA MAZDA, the Wise Lord, who represents all that is good. Opposing him are the evil spirits led by AHRIMAN, the spirit of darkness and lies. Zoroastrianism shares many aspects with Judaism and Christianity, including the belief that at the end of time, all souls will be judged and those only found worthy will enter paradise. Israelite Monotheism. The ancient Israelites did not originally practice a pure form of monotheism. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, they worshiped their god YAHWEH in various manifestations of the Canaanite god EL. After MOSES led the Israelites out of Egypt, they entered into a special covenant, or agreement, with the god Yahweh. Even then, however, Yahweh was not seen as the only god but rather as the supreme god. When the Israelites settled in CANAAN, some of them began to worship other local gods, such as BAAL. Eventually, however, they came to see Yahweh as not only their supreme god but as the only true god and the creator of the universe. The Israelites saw themselves as the "chosen people" who were given the land of Canaan because they believed in and obeyed Yahweh. Later they hoped that this unique god would recall his covenant and bring them back from their exile in Babylon. Their belief in the "oneness" of Yahweh marked a dramatic break with the polytheism of other ancient Near Eastern religions. Israelite monotheism, Judaism, formed the basis of the monotheistic beliefs of both Christianity and Islam, which arose centuries later. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses; Judaism and Jews; Religion; Theology.)

Moon

MOSAIC LAW 114

See Lunar Theory.

T

he Mosaic Law is a set of legal provisions contained in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—four of the five books of the TORAH, one of the three parts of the Hebrew BIBLE. At the core of the Mosaic Law are the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which according to tradition, were given to MOSES by YAHWEH during a meeting on Mount Sinai. Like earlier law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, the Mosaic Law includes

Mosaic Law

* tabernacle portable place of worship that the Israelites carried with them during their journey through the wilderness and into the Promised Land * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god, Yahweh

* pagan one who believes in more than one god

legislation for criminal and civil punishments. The Mosaic Law also deals with personal matters (health, grooming, marriage, and sexual relations) as well as religious matters (construction of the ark and tabernacle*), which were rarely included in other Semitic* laws. The Mosaic Law became the basis of Jewish practices and remains so today. Origin and Nature of Mosaic Law. According to the Bible, Moses freed the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and led them through the desert to the Promised Land*—CANAAN. During the journey, Moses received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh. The commandments were basic prohibitions on actions such as murder, theft, worship of other gods, and adultery. As the Israelites continued their journey to Canaan, it became clear that the Ten Commandments did not address many issues. Through Moses, Yahweh then began to issue additional laws to cover the gaps in the commandments. Ultimately, the body of laws grew quite large and was set down in the Torah, or the Pentateuch. In ancient times, the Mosaic Law served as a way to distinguish the Israelites from the pagans* who lived among them. After the exilic period, the laws were interpreted differently. They forbade Israelites from marrying or interacting with non-Israelites, emphasizing that the Israelites are a special people chosen by Yahweh. At its heart, the Mosaic Law is the formal expression of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and their god Yahweh. An important subset of the Mosaic Law concerns the Israelites' diet. These laws prescribe what types of animals Israelites can and cannot eat. For instance, they may not eat animals that do not ruminate (chew their cud) and do not have split hooves (such as pigs and horses) or consume the products of such animals. The laws also forbid Israelites to eat fish without fins and scales (such as shrimp, crabs, and lobster), animals that creep, carnivorous birds, or the blood of any animal. Certain portions of acceptable animals are also prohibited. During the Passover festival, Israelites may not eat bread containing yeast. The laws warn Israelites to avoid wearing garments woven from different fibers (for example wool and linen), urge men and women not to dress in each other's clothing, tell them to have tassels on the four corners of their garments, and instruct them on grooming their hair. Some laws instruct the Israelites on building their homes and holy constructions. When building homes, Israelites are required to build a wall around the roof to prevent people from falling to the ground and polluting the house with blood. The laws provide exact specifications for the construction of the tabernacle and the ark—two major components in the worship service. The tabernacle was to be constructed with offerings given by Israelites, such as gold, oil to feed lamps, and fine linen. The ark—a cabinet that, according to some passages, held the original Ten Commandments, which symbolized the covenant (agreement) between Yahweh and the Israelites—was to be constructed of acacia wood according to the specifications provided by the Mosaic Law. When Was the Mosaic Law Written? Scholars disagree on whether the Mosaic Law was handed down during the time of Moses or written 115

Moses later. Many of the individual laws mentioned in the Torah were not relevant to the Israelites' situation at the time of their journey from Egypt to the Promised Land. For example, laws about ownership of land or different types of crops are clearly meant for a settled agricultural society, and laws about kingship and temple rituals presume an urban society. Many scholars feel that such laws were added much later, perhaps hundreds of years after the settlement of Canaan. A few even argue that none of the laws originated during the time of Moses. Historians have isolated what they believe are discrete compilations or codes within the Torah in addition to the Ten Commandments—which appear in Exodus, Chapter 20, and Deuteronomy, Chapter 5—such as the Holiness Code (Leviticus, Chapters 17-26), the Book of Covenants (Exodus, Chapters 20-23), and the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy, Chapters 12-26). They believe that these codes may have come from separate periods of Israel's history. Regardless of its origin, the Mosaic Law remains the most important part of the Hebrew Bible for followers of Judaism. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law.)

MOSES ca. 1200s B.C. Israelite leader * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god, Yahweh * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

nomad referring to one who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

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f\^ ccording to Jewish tradition, Moses freed the ancient Israelites from /iLslavery in Egypt and led them to the Promised Land* of CANAAN. The Hebrew BIBLE says that it was Moses who received the TEN COMMANDMENTS from the god YAHWEH on Mount Sinai and brought them to the Israelites. Moses was also believed to be the author of the TORAH, or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The Book of Exodus claims that Moses was the child of Israelite slaves in Egypt (the Egyptians referred to the Israelites as Hebrews). When the pharaoh* ordered all newborn Israelite males to be killed to control the Israelite population, Moses' mother set her child adrift in a basket on the NILE RIVER. He was found by the pharaoh's daughter and raised in the royal court. One day when Moses was touring a region where the Israelites were working, he saw an overseer beat an Israelite slave. Moses killed the overseer, but his deed was discovered and he had to flee to the land of Midian (in the Sinai and northwestern Arabia). There he met and married Zipporah, the daughter of a nomad* chieftain. Later when he was tending his sheep, he came to a burning bush, from which the voice of Yahweh told him to return to Egypt and free his people. Moses returned to Egypt and demanded that the pharaoh release the Israelites, but the pharaoh refused. Under Yahweh's instruction, Moses brought down a series of ten plagues (disastrous events) on Egypt, the last one resulting in the death of every firstborn Egyptian male. The pharaoh let the Israelites leave, but he soon tried to bring them back. His army followed the Israelites across the RED SEA, where Yahweh had miraculously parted the waters. After the Israelites had passed, the waters flooded the Egyptian army and destroyed it. For the next 40 years, Moses guided the Israelites on their journey from Egypt to Canaan. During this period, Moses received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh and assumed the role of lawgiver and judge for the Israelites. Once near the Promised Land,

Mummies

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MUMMIES * embalm to treat a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

See color plate 9, vol.3.

Yahweh refused Moses entry because he had failed to follow precisely one of his directives. Moses died on Mount Nebo in Moab (in present-day Jordan), just outside Canaan, but his burial place has not been found. Modern historians disagree about which parts of the story are based in fact and which are fictional. Some believe the story is historically accurate but combines the deeds of several people and presents them as the work of one man. Others accept it as a historical event, often setting Moses and the journey to Canaan (the Exodus) during the reign of Ramses II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.). Some claim that the story is entirely fictional because there is no certain evidence of the Exodus or Moses in the historical and archaeological* record. Nevertheless, Moses is considered a symbol of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and their god, Yahweh. (See also Ark of the Covenant; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

A

mummy is a dead body that has been dried both inside and out, embalmed*, and wrapped in cloth for preservation. Preserving dead bodies in this way before burial was common in ancient Egypt because the ancient Egyptians believed in the AFTERLIFE, or life after death, including the continued existence of the physical body. Men, women, and children were mummified, as were certain animals that were considered sacred, such as CATS, bulls, and crocodiles. Thousands of mummies from ancient Egypt have been recovered from PYRAMIDS, tombs, and graves, and many are on display at museums throughout the world. Development of Mummification. The first Egyptian mummies may have come about accidentally, when Egyptians buried the dead in the desert sands, which naturally dried out and preserved the bodies. In fact, some Egyptologists* believe that the natural preservation of dead bodies in this way spurred the Egyptian belief in the afterlife. In turn, this belief led to a search for ways to preserve the bodies of the dead. As early as 3000 B.C., the Egyptians had developed many techniques to preserve dead bodies. The techniques reached their peak toward the end of the New Kingdom period, around 1080 B.C. By that time, they were so successful that today we can look at a mummy, such as the wellpreserved mummy of TUTANKHAMEN, and get a good idea of what the person looked like several thousand years ago. The process of mummification took several months to complete. The process was very expensive, and only royalty and other wealthy individuals could afford it. Bodies of the poor, in contrast, were simply wrapped in cloth and buried in the desert a few days or weeks after they died. The Mummification Process. The mummification process began with the removal of the dead person's lungs, stomach, and intestines through an incision on the left side of the body. The organs were then covered with a natural drying agent—a salt called natron—until they dried out. Then the organs were wrapped in linen and stored in jars that 117

Mummies

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers * scarab representation of the dung beetle, heldassacredby Egyptians

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Egyptologistscall canopic jars.The lidsonjars thewere shaped likethe heads of gods, which was believedto help protectthe organs contained within.Later the jars were buried withthe dead person. Next, the heart was removed from the body, dried out, wrapped in linen, and replaced in the body. Sometimes the heart wassewn intoplace in the chest cavity. The Egyptians returned the heart to thebody because they believed it was the seatof intelligence.Thebrain,on the other hand, was considered insignificantto the body.It wascrudely removed witha long hooked rod inserted into the skull through the nostrils and discarded. Then resin wasinjected intothe skull with funnel a toprevent the head from collapsing. Once the internal organs and brain were removed, the blood and other fluids were drained from the body. Thenthe bodyfilled was and

Music and Musical Instruments

Learning from Mummies Archaeologists, historians, and anthropologists have learned a great deal about ancient Egyptians by studying mummies. For example, by examining the body wrapped within the strips of cloth, these scientists have learned about the diseases that afflicted ancient Egyptians j and how those diseases were treated. From X rays of mummy bones, they have been able to estimate the average height and life span of ancient Egyptians. They have even inferred ties of kinship in royal families from examining the similarities and dissimilarities in the appearance of kings who were mummified.

MUSIC AND

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life * deity god or goddess

covered with natron until it dried out completely. After a few weeks, the natron was removed and the body was carefully cleaned and rubbed with scented oils. It was also packed with resin-soaked linen and bags of fragrant materials, such as myrrh and cinnamon. At this time, the eyes were replaced with artificial eyes made of glass. The last step in the process was wrapping the body in about 400 yards of linen strips. First, the head was wrapped, followed by each individual finger and toe. This was followed by the hands, feet, legs, and arms. The arms were then crossed over the chest. Finally, the entire body was wrapped. A mask was placed over the head and shoulders before the last layer of wrappings. The linen was soaked in fragrant resins before it was wrapped around the body. This helped mask the odor of decay. In addition, when the resin dried, it made the wrappings stiff so that the cloth held the body's shape even after the body started to decompose. Sometimes the body was padded with sawdust, sand, or clay to help preserve its shape. The Egyptians often painted facial features on the outer layer of wrappings to make the mummy look more lifelike. In addition, up to 100 amulets* were placed among the wrappings, including a scarab* over the heart, to protect the mummy after burial. Sacred writings were also wrapped with the body to guide the deceased in the afterlife. (See also Book of the Dead; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

M

usic was important to the cultures of the ancient Near East, particularly during temple rituals, funeral rites, and religious and royal festivals and ceremonies. Little is known about the role of music in the daily life of the people. However, ancient texts and artifacts* indicate that music provided a form of entertainment at important family events and gatherings, particularly among the upper classes of society. In both religious and secular* events, music was performed for its own sake as well as an accompaniment to DANCE. Occasions for Music. Temple rituals throughout the ancient Near East often included music. The music served to honor and please the gods, some of whom were linked to music and specific musical instruments. In ancient Egypt, for example, several deities*, including HATHOR and OSIRIS, were closely associated with music. When HYMNS were sung in praise of the gods at temple rituals, the singers were usually accompanied by musical instruments. Music also accompanied daily rituals and other religious activities. Each culture, of course, had its own forms of religious music as well as instruments used to perform it. Although little is known about secular music, it is certain that most Near Eastern peoples enjoyed music. Mothers no doubt sang lullabies to their young children, and men and women probably sang work songs while laboring in the fields. Musical entertainment was a part of royal feasts, processions, and other celebrations, while ordinary families enjoyed music at family gatherings and on special occasions. Sometimes music was performed on serious or dangerous occasions, such as during

119

Music and Musical

Instruments eclipses or childbirth. Music even played apart in military activities, with musicians accompanying armies while they marched. Ancient Hittite texts mention a number of military battle songs. Musical Performers. Both men and women sang and played musical instruments in the ancient Near East. Temples employed professional musicians to performin orchestras, choral groups,and assolo performers. These musicians sometimes functioned aspriests. In ancientEgypt andMESOPOTAMIA,female musicians in religious cults* often were of high rank. Sometimes the wives of priests might serveasmusicians in the same cults as their husbands. Temple musicians occupied a high social rank.In ancient Egypt, individuals who held the title "great one of the musical troupe" were responsible for training performers, overseeing musical practice,and ensuring that performances in temple activities went well. Some temples inMesopotamia established their own schools to train musicians. Musical troupes, or groups, were sometimes attached to secular institutions, such as the palacesof kings.On special royal occasions, hundreds of musicians might singand play instruments.As in temples, palacemusicians and singers were organizedby rank, with such titlesas"master of singers" or "superintendentofperformers." Secular troupes also consisted of both men and women. Some of the musicians who performed insecular events were professionals. Others, however, were amateurswhoperformed music only occasionally. Among the Hittites, singers were distinguished by the language in which they specialized.

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* first millennium B.C. years tO 1 B.C.

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from

1000

Musical Instruments. Musicians playedavarietyofinstruments.Although the specific design of these instruments might vary from one region to another, they fell under four basic categories: stringed instruments (chordophones), wind instruments (aerophones), drums (membranophones), and other percussion instruments (idiophones). The two most common types of stringed instruments werethe lyre and the harp.Lyres varied in size, shape, and number ofstrings. Some lyres were small, handheld instruments that could beplayed while sitting, standing, or walking. Larger lyres couldbeplayed onlyby twostanding musicians. Harps were smaller than lyres,but they also variedinsize and shape. They could be played by sitting or standing musicians holding the instruments in either a vertical or a horizontal position.Another stringed instrument, the lute, developed much later thaneither the harp or lyre. Lutes alsodiffered in size, shape,and numberof strings.Allthree stringed instruments were madeof wood, sometimes covered with precious materials such as silverand gold. Wind instruments—flutes, trumpets,andhorns—were madeofreed, wood, bone, and metal. Like stringed instruments, they varied size inand shape. The earliestflutes contained one or two pipes, but by the firstmillenniumB.C.*, a typeofflute with several pipes, knownas the panpipe, was introducedfrom the West. Some flutes had reeds like present-day clarinets and oboes. Flutists generally accompanied singersand dancers. Trumpets and animal horns, because of their loud sounds, were used more often in military contexts and grand processionals and tosignal

Mycenae and the Mycenaeans Lost Sound of Music Very little is known about the "sounds'' of ancient Near Eastern music. Some surviving texts include; information on musical notation, scales, and musical theory. However, it is difficult to know what this means in terms of present-day musical ideas. Even less understood is the tempo and rhythm of ancient musical works. It is obvious that some music was fast and other music slow and that some music was considered sad while other music was joyful or associated with some other emotion. However, without more information, the true sounds and rhythms of ancient Near Eastern music are lost to the ears of present-day humans.

MYCENAE AND THE MYCENAEANS

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style See map on inside covers.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

public announcements. The ram's horn, or shofar, is mentioned often in the Hebrew BIBLE in connection with wars and religious rituals. Drums ranged from small hand drums to giant kettle drums. Smaller drums were an indispensable accompaniment to dancing at banquets and festivals. Small to medium-sized drums also were played in military contexts, such as while troops were marching. Larger drums often played an important role in temple rituals. In Mesopotamia, for example, large kettledrums were often beaten at temples during eclipses of the moon. Drums are a type of percussion instrument, an instrument that produces sound when a stick, hand, or other object strikes another surface. Other percussion instruments used in the ancient Near East included bells, rattles, cymbals, and "clappers/' Made from wood, metal, clay, shell, or bone, these instruments provided background accompaniment to other instruments during religious and secular events. One of the most characteristic percussion instruments of ancient Egypt was the sistrum, a type of rattle whose soft sound resembled that of a breeze blowing through papyrus reeds. Egyptians believed that the sistrum attracted the attention of the gods and helped ward off evil. (See also Entertainment; Family and Social Life; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and Temples; Rituals and Sacrifice; Women, Role of.)

M

ycenae (my»SEE»nee), the most important city-state* in Late Bronze Age Greece (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), was located in the Peloponnese, the peninsula that forms the southern part of mainland Greece. According to legend, the city of Mycenae was founded by Perseus, a hero in Greek MYTHOLOGY. Legends about the Mycenaeans (my»suh»NEE«uhnz) have been preserved in Homer's great epics*, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Whether Homer's stories were based on historical fact or were fictional, is still disputed, but many scholars believe that elements of the stories are true. History. Greece, including the Peloponnese, was settled as early as 6000 B.C., and by 3000 B.C., the people there began to build multistory houses and to use SEALS to identify ownership of goods. Some scholars believe that beginning around 2000 B.C., the Mycenaeans invaded the region and settled there. The Mycenaeans came from the north of Greece and spoke an INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE. They were more advanced at pottery making, building, and metalworking than the people they displaced. However, this theory is disputed by other scholars, who believe that the Mycenaeans were the original inhabitants of the area. Notwithstanding their origin, the Mycenaeans were a warlike tribe and set up competing city-states. The city of Mycenae quickly became the most powerful of these. Other major Mycenaean cities included Pylos, Tiryns, Thebes, and Orchomenus. The Mycenaeans fortified the cities with enormous walls to protect them during an attack. Many of the cities also contained magnificent palaces, which were organized around large halls. The entire society, like that of the Minoans, was "palace based/' The Mycenaean economy was based on the export of such items as wine, grain, POTTERY, and olive oil. Historians and archaeologists* believe that 121

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and the

Searchingfor Agamemnon

Mycenaeans

the Mycenaean trade network stretched throughout theMediterranean because remnants of Mycenaean pottery have been found throughout the region. From around B.C. 1400 untilB.C., 1100 the Mycenaeans colonizedthe islands of AEGEAN the SEA. This period marked the height ofMycenaean power in the region. In fact, it wasduring this period thatthefamous battle of Troy is believed to have taken place. Sometime between 1250and 1180B.C., the Mycenaean king, Agamemnonled acoalitionofGreek armies against the kingdomof Troy ANATOLIA in western (present-day Turkey) and ultimately destroyed thatcity.B.C., Around Mycenae 1100 was destroyed. It is not known whetherthedestructionwascausedby fire or an enemy attack.

Hehirfch Schfiemann was a German merchant who became wealthy in the Indigo trade in the mid-l 800s. When he was In his 40s, he gave it all tip tosearch for the sites described in Homer's epics. He first uncovered the city ofTroy in Relations With Other Aegean Powers.Although theMycena northwestern Turkey. In 1876, focused greatly on military conquest, they also established important Schliemann moved to Greece, looktrade relationships with other empires. Tradewiththeislandsof the Cyjpg for King Agamemnon's home, He thought that he had found what clades and with CRETE probably existed B.C.asearly as3000 he was looking for when he discovFrom about 1600B.C., to 1400 therewasobviouslyagreat deal ofconered some prehistoric tombs at tact between the Mycenaeans and theMinoans. The twosocieties were : Mycenae* One ofthese tombs, probably in competition for the Mediterranean trade, but itseems that which Schliemann thought was the warfare between them until (possibly) theMycelocation of Agamemnon's burial site there was no ongoing contained a goldenmask that he naean destruction of the KNOSSOS palaceon at Crete B.C.around 1400 thoughtwas Agamemnon's. AlThereafter, the city ofKnossos remainedinMycenaean control. During though Schliemann was mistaken, this period, the Mycenaeans also established colonies on theislandsof he had opened a new understandthe Cycladesand Dodecanese, CYPRUS,Sicily,northern MACEDOGreece, ing of ancient Greece to later arNIA, and partsofAsia Minorand Italy. Being more warlike than the Michaeologists,

noans, they also raided the Egyptian andHittite coasts.

Culture. Although the Mycenaeans built several cities, most continued to live in small villagesin the countryside. Thiswasunlikethecaseof the great civilizations, suchasEgyptandMesopotamia,in theNear East.The 122

Mythology

fresco method of painting in which color Is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as It dries; also, a painting done in this manner Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

MYTHOLOGY

Mycenaeans borrowed their WRITING, pottery, ARCHITECTURE, and palace culture from the Minoans. They used a script called Linear B, which was based on the Minoan script, Linear A, and was an early written form of the Greek language. They built huge palaces with beautiful frescoes* and halls with large columns. Mycenaean pottery, which is similar to Minoan pottery, was known and copied throughout the ancient Near East, particularly in the Levant*. Unlike the Minoans, however, the Mycenaeans buried their kings in a tholos, or large tomb lined with rock and capped with a false dome. Dead leaders were buried with magnificent grave goods, such as golden masks, jewelry, game boards made of ivory, and several weapons. Many modern scholars, while impressed with the Mycenaean culture, feel that it did not compare with the culture of the Minoans, from whom they borrowed so much. One scholar even goes so far as to call Mycenaean culture "rather dull/' The Fall of Mycenae. The Mycenaean civilization began to decline after 1200 B.C. The city of Mycenae was destroyed around 1100 B.C., and the cities of Tyrins and Pylos were destroyed shortly thereafter. Other settlements on the Peloponnese were also abandoned around the same period. Most scholars believe that massive invasions and immigrations of the Dorian people were responsible for this. However, it is possible that the abandonment of the smaller sites was caused by the invasions of the SEA PEOPLES, who also invaded Egypt and perhaps the Levant around the same time. Finally, it is possible that environmental factors such as prolonged drought* or earthquakes or internal revolutions brought down the Mycenaean civilization. Notwithstanding the cause, the city of Mycenae and the Mycenaean civilization lost power in the region. Thereafter, Mycenae was only a village and did not again flourish until several centuries later. Around the 400s B.C., Mycenae reemerged as an independent city-state but soon declined in importance. Later, for a short time during the Hellenistic* period, Mycenae again became an important city, but by A.D. 160, the city had been abandoned and was in ruins. Modern Discoveries. Remnants of the Mycenaean civilization were excavated in 1876 by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. Schliemann's archaeological work, as well as the research conducted by later scholars, yielded fortification systems, bronze armor and weapons, precious grave offerings, and thousands of pottery fragments. Little remains of the city today, except its main entrance. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Minoan Civilization; Troy.)

M

ythology is a medium through which a culture expresses its most deeply held values. Myths put into words a culture's vision of its history, its place in the universe, and its relationship with its deities*. Many types of myths exist in the records of the ancient Near East. Some are CREATION MYTHS, which tell how the world came into being.

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Mythology * deity god orgoddess

Other myths recount the originofcivilization,the shapeof the cosmos, the actions and relationshipsof the gods,the foundingofstatesorkingships, or the interactionsof peopleand gods. Role of Mythology. Mythology existed long before writing was invented, and its original purposewas to help people make senseof the world around them. For example, many cultures havea myth thatexplains the change of seasonsas periodsofgrowthfruitfulness and alternating with timesof decayand barrenness. fact, Inthe Sumerian, Babylonian, Greek, and Roman myths explaining seasonal change feature all agoddess offruitfulness who must spend some time every yearin the kingdom of death, resultingin winter. Such similarities, which also exist among other myths, suggest that regionsof the ancient East Near may have shared a common heritageof beliefs, stories,and images largelybecause of their common climatic conditions. After the inventionof writing, myths became LIT-subject a of written ERATURE. Mythologywas woven fromthe same material asreligious belief-

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Mythology the gods of the stories were the same gods people worshiped in temples and in daily life.

* decipher to decode and Interpret the meaning * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* cosmic pertaining to the whole universe

Mesopotamia. Several myths dating from the 2500s B.C. have survived from ancient Sumer, but they are difficult to decipher* or interpret. Some Akkadian myths recorded during the second millennium B.C.* have also survived. From ancient Babylon, the most notable example of mythmaking is Enuma Elish, a creation myth. Its author wove together old mythical themes into a tale of conflict among several gods, explaining how MARDUK, the city god of Babylon, rose to power and became the chief god of Babylonia. Another Babylonian myth, the Erra Myth, is a dialogue between Erra (Nergal), the god of the underworld, and his lieutenant, Ishum. It dates from around 1000 B.C., when invasions by the ARAMAEANS disrupted life in Babylonia. The Erra Myth explains the turmoil in Babylonian society as the punishment for the noise produced on earth by humanity, which was out of control. The Sumerian Enki and Ninmakh and the Babylonian Epic ofAtrakhasis describe the creation of the human race from clay and divine blood. Other Sumerian and Akkadian myths deal with the adventures of legendary heroes such as GILGAMESH, Enmerkar, and Lugalbanda, who were later considered gods. Egypt. Myths were important in the religion of ancient Egypt. However, they existed more as spoken, not written, literature. Consequently, surviving Egyptian texts include relatively few myths, fragments of which lie embedded in incantations* and spells. It may be that the ancient Egyptian cults* guarded their myths as secrets or mysteries. Still, most people would have known the central myths about their major deities. A good example of the Egyptians not recording their myths is the story of Isis and OSIRIS, possibly the best known of Egypt's myths. Countless Egyptian texts and artworks refer to both Isis and Osiris, but no surviving Egyptian document tells the whole story. The myth only survives in a version told by the Greek writer Plutarch in the A.D. 100s. According to Plutarch, the myth centers around three events: the murder of Osiris by his brother SETH; the birth of Osiris's son HORUS and his protection by his mother, Isis; and the conflict between Horus and Seth. A key element of the myth is the cutting up of Osiris's body into pieces, which were buried at locations throughout Egypt. The Levant. The ancient Israelites and their neighbors, the Canaanites, shared a great many myths. Elements of their shared beliefs are found in the Canaanite myths that scholars call the BAAL CYCLE. These stories describe the activities of the storm god BAAL and his role in establishing the cosmic*, human, and natural orders. His battles against Sea (Yamm) and Death (Mot) are echoed in the Hebrew BIBLE. The Israelites also used imagery similar to that in the Baal cycle in their mythmaking, even after they officially ceased to worship Baal, EL, and the other Canaanite gods in favor of their national god, YAHWEH. 125

Nabonidus

Myths That Heal In the ancient Near East, myths were seen as having the power to heal and drive away evil A magician dealing with someone suffering from evil causes might call on a| myth that described the victory of good over evil This n[iyth would help drive the evil away* For example, learning how a toothache came to be (a worm refusing any other food but gumtissue)allowed j a healer to banish it In ancient Egypt, when people were sick, part] of their medical treatment included j listening to mythical stories. This i assured them of their place in the universe, enabling them to get well \ and to continue to live as part of the cosmic order.

NABONIDUS ruled 556-539 B.C. Babylonian king * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * regency form of government in which a regent rules in place of the rightful ruler, who is absent, too young, or otherwise unable to rule * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * deity god or goddess

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Other elements of Canaanite myths focus on relations between humans and deities in days long past. For instance, Aqhat tells how the goddess ANAT killed a young man and how his sister avenged his death. Keret tells how El helped a king acquire a bride and overcome illness. The priests and kings of Israel who developed Israelite mythology used old, familiar mythic stories and images, but they added new details to make them their own. One example is the Hebrew Bible's image of Eden, or paradise, which features elements common to both Ugaritic and Mesopotamian myths. The Israelites' greatest story revolves around their central myth about how they were chosen by Yahweh from among their more powerful neighbors. Iran. All known ancient Iranian myths come from after the 600s B.C., when the religion Zoroastrianism was founded. As a result, it is difficult to determine which myths include elements from the time before Zoroaster and which were Zoroastrian creations. However, historians believe that Zoroastrian mythology was the first to mention a savior who would save the world from evil in the days of the world's end. Anatolia. The HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) blended mythological elements from the Hurrians and Mesopotamians with their own beliefs. For example, a major Hittite god, KUMARBI, was a Hurrian deity. Tales about Kumarbi refer to the Human weather god TESHUB and to EA, the Babylonian god of wisdom. One distinctively Hittite set of myths concerned gods who disappeared from the earth. In each version of this story, the deity's absence brought suffering on earth until someone found the vanished deity. The deity then returned to earth and resumed his duties. (See also Epic Literature; Literature; Religion.)

N

abonidus (nab»uh«NY*duhs) was the last indigenous* king of Babylonia. For much of his reign, he lived in Arabia, leaving his son Belshazzar as head of a regency* in BABYLON. Nabonidus also introduced several religious reforms centered on the worship of the moon god Sin, which challenged the superiority of MARDUK, the national god of Babylonia and angered the Babylonians. Nabonidus was the son of a Babylonian prince and Adad-guppi, a woman from Haran, an important religious center in northern Mesopotamia. Adad-guppi had an avid devotion to Sin, the patron* god of Haran, which might explain her son's support of that deity*. Though not a direct member of the Babylonian royal family, Nabonidus came to the throne in 556 B.C., after the assassination of King Labashi-Marduk. Scholars believe that Nabonidus may have taken part in the conspiracy, but that he did not expect to become king. As king, Nabonidus led successful military campaigns to Cilicia in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). He also began to focus religious attention on Sin. He rebuilt the Temple of Sin in Haran and installed his daughter as high priestess of Sin at the city of UR.

Nabopolassar

See map in Babylonia and the Babylonians (vol. 1).

NABOPOLASSAR ruled 626-605 B.C. Babylonian king

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

In 553 B.C., Nabonidus left on a military campaign to Lebanon and then to Arabia. During his absence, the Persians under CYRUS THE GREAT began to threaten Babylonia. This growing threat forced Nabonidus to return to Babylon. Thereafter, he continued to carry out his religious reforms with greater fervor, leading to increasing opposition from his subjects. In 539 B.C., the Persians attacked Babylonia and captured Babylon without a fight. Because of their hostility toward Nabonidus, the Babylonians welcomed the Persians as liberators. The capture of Babylon ended the Babylonian empire, which was incorporated into the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The fate of Nabonidus, however, is disputed. Some historians say that the Persians sent him into exile in Carmania, a Persian province in southeastern IRAN. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

N

abopolassar (nab»uh»puh«LAS»uhr) was the first ruler of the NeoBabylonian empire and the founder of the so-called "Chaldean" dynasty. During his reign, the Babylonians captured and destroyed a number of important Assyrian cities, including ASHUR, NINEVEH, and KALKHU, and played a leading role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire. Nabopolassar seized the throne of Babylon after the death of King ASHURBANIPAL in 627 B.C. At first, Nabopolassar encountered resistance from Babylonians as well as the Assyrians. After many years of fighting, however, he finally secured firm control over Babylonia. Nabopolassar then began working to extend his power into surrounding areas while defending Babylonia from the Assyrians. In 616 B.C., Nabopolassar began to advance into Assyria and gained limited control of some Assyrian provinces. Around the same time, a new power was growing in the region—the MEDES of IRAN. In 614 B.C., the Medes, led by King Cyaxares, attacked and raided the Assyrian city of Nineveh. Nabopolassar marched into Assyria as well and met Cyaxares at Ashur after that city had fallen to the Medes. The two rulers signed a treaty forming an alliance that they secured with the marriage of Nabopolassar's son to Cyaxares' granddaughter. The Medes and Babylonians together launched devastating attacks against Assyria and took control of several cities there. The fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. marked the end of the Assyrian empire, although the Assyrians made a few unsuccessful attempts at recovery over the next few years. According to the treaty between Nabopolassar and Cyaxares, the Medes gained control of northern MESOPOTAMIA, leaving the Babylonians in control of the rest of the region. After the Assyrian conquest, Nabopolassar turned his attention to the Levant*, which had been seized by the Egyptians. In 605 B.C., an aging Nabopolassar sent his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR II to fight the Egyptians. The Babylonians won a decisive victory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in SYRIA. Shortly thereafter, Nabopolassar died, and Nebuchadnezzar raced home from Syria to claim the throne. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans.) 127

Names, Personal

[NAMES, PERSONAL * deity god or goddess * assimilation adoption of the beliefs and customs of a society * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * matriarchal society in which women hold the dominant position

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

r

Asiatic referring to people who come from the Levant, the lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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D

epending on how the people of a particular culture select names, a personal name may be a link to an individual's ancestors, ethnic heritage, or deities*. Ancient Near Eastern texts contain thousands of names. Historians have looked through these texts to examine how change in a region, such as conquest, assimilation*, or changes in religious beliefs, might be reflected in its personal names. Customs of Naming. The peoples of the ancient Near East followed a variety of practices in giving personal names. Patriarchal cultures, in which people traced their descent and social status from their father's families, often used patronymics, names based on the father's name. Semitic* cultures generally used personal names followed by a patronym, except when the identity of the father was unclear, such as with slaves. In that case, the mother's name was used. Matriarchal* societies, such as that of the Lycians of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) took their names from their mothers. The people of ancient MESOPOTAMIA named their babies soon after birth. Some children were named for their grandfathers or for their dead relatives whom the new babies were thought to replace. Adults sometimes took or were given new names to reflect events in their lives. Scholars know of one case where the name of a Babylonian governor was changed to a Greek name by a Seleucid king. Slaves might receive a name that emphasized dependence on their owner, such as / look at her eyes. Mesopotamian scribes* and scholars signed their works with names that identified them as descendants of famous scribes of earlier generations. The use of ancestral names or occupations for "last names" came into use in Mesopotamia during the middle of the first millennium B.C.* The Akkadian people had the unique custom of giving names that seemed to reflect the newborn baby's feelings, such as My god has mercy upon me. The Sumerians used names consisting of a sentence or phrase, such as Servant of [king's name]. Theophoric names, personal names that included the name of a deity, were also common in many cultures. In Elam, people bore names that included the names of their gods. For example, Manzat, the name of an Elamite goddess, appeared in male and female names. These personal names usually took the form of sentences, such as God [name] loves me or God [name] may protect me. When the sentences became too long to be easily used as names, people shortened them until only the name of the god remained. The religious society of the ancient Egyptians was reflected in their use of theophoric names. For example, the personal name Sebekhotpe meant "[The god] Sebek is satisfied." When people from other ethnic backgrounds settled in Egypt, they often took Egyptian names. People of foreign origin were well aware of the power of names to identify them as outsiders or members of the community. For such people, taking an Egyptian name was an important step in being accepted by Egyptian society. For example, one royal official from the 1100s B.C. bore both the Asiatic* name Benazu and the Egyptian name Ramessesemperre. During the Ptolemaic period (305-30 B.C.), however, it was considered a crime punishable by death for an Egyptian to take a Greek

Naram-Siii name without permission. This was largely because the Greek-speaking Ptolemies were trying to keep the Egyptians separate from themselves. Nicknames were also common throughout the history of the ancient Near East. Usually, a nickname was given by abbreviating a long name.

* linguistic related to language

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * migration movement of individuals or peoples from one place to another

NARAM-SIN ruled ca. 2254-2218 B.C. King of Akkad

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * divinity state or quality of being a god

Clues to the Past. Many personal names from the ancient Near East appear in texts. Some are the names of kings or generals whose deeds were recorded. Others are the names of ordinary people found on population registers, tax rolls, property deeds, and other documents. The structure and content of names often reflect the ethnic or linguistic* roots of the people who bore those names. The study of the origins and uses of personal names is called onomastics, and it is useful to historians interested in tracing the movements of peoples and the spread of languages. Researchers investigating population changes toward the end of the third millennium B.C.* in Babylonia believe that there was a migration* of West Semitic peoples (Amorites) into Babylonia. They base this conclusion on the presence of West Semitic names in Babylonian texts, because no such names appear in texts from earlier periods in the same region. Another example of onomastics concerns the spread of Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans from Syria, across much of the Near East during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). Historians have found a high percentage of Aramaic personal names in Mesopotamia, even among non-Aramaean royal families. In these cases, studying personal names provides historians with a means to see the influences one culture had on another.

O

ne of the greatest kings of Akkad, Naram-Sin (nah»RAHM«seen) ruled for more than 35 years. The Akkadian empire reached its height of power under Naram-Sin, who changed the nature of kingship by claiming the titles of a god. After his death, the empire experienced a swift, irreversible decline. The grandson of SARGON I, Naram-Sin took the throne on the death of his father, King Manishtushu. He inherited a secure kingdom, which he enlarged by launching military expeditions to SYRIA, ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), Elam, and Magan (Arabia). Most of his military campaigns were successful, and the Akkadian empire reached its greatest extent. When his power threatened some Sumerian city-states*, which feared for their own independence, Naram-Sin quelled any rebellions that erupted. Naram-Sin unified the administration of Akkad and appointed members of the royal family to powerful positions in the empire. He encouraged growth in trade and began an extensive building program, constructing temples, fortifications*, and monuments commemorating his military victories and achievements. At some point during his reign, Naram-Sin began using titles usually reserved for the gods. This was the first time in Mesopotamian history that a king had claimed divinity* during his own lifetime. The practice continued under a few later kings in MESOPOTAMIA, but the idea of divine kingship never became as firmly established as in ancient Egypt. 129

Natural Disasters In the centuries after his death, Naram-Sin became the subject of many legends. Although most honor him for his military victories, some criticize him as a misfortunate ruler who caused rebellion and invasion because of his pride and unwise decisions. (See also Akkad and the Akkadian Empire; Dynasties; Kings.)

Natural Disasters

NAVAL POWER

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * third millennium B.C years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* maritime related to the sea or shipping

See [color plate 12,] vol. 4.

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See Disasters, Natural.

T

he major waterways of the ancient Near East—including the Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, RED SEA, NILE RIVER, TIGRIS RIVER, and EUPHRATES RIVER—all served as highways for commerce and conquest. In the early history of the region, naval power was relatively unimportant. Over time, however, developments in ships and weaponry made navies more significant. The first naval vessels in the ancient Near East were cargo ships, which were used to transport SOLDIERS to the scene of battle. When necessary, troops fought from the ships, standing on the decks and shooting arrows or throwing spears at the enemy. The earliest known depiction of a naval battle, dating from about 3100 B.C., is found on a carved ivory knife handle from Egypt that shows two rows of ships—one Egyptian and one, perhaps, Sumerian—with dead men floating between them. Another early reference to a naval battle dates from the 2200s B.C., when King Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad sent a naval force to conquer the islands and coasts of the Persian Gulf. Yet another reference dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 21122004 B.C.), when an enemy fleet of 240 ships threatened the city of KISH, located on the Euphrates River. Texts also mention an attack by the Egyptians on the coast of CANAAN in the Levant* during the late third millennium B.C.* Most powerful states in the ancient Near East eventually developed navies. Even the HITTITES, who were not naturally a seagoing people, assembled a navy when necessary. One of their greatest naval successes was the conquest of the island of CYPRUS in the 1300s B.C. During the same period, the Minoans of CRETE and Mycenaeans of Greece had the strongest navies in the eastern Mediterranean region. During the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), the Phoenicians were best known for their maritime* skills. In Egypt during the New Kingdom (1539-1075 B.C.), the navy in Egypt was a separate entity. Egyptian naval forces at this time had officers of various ranks and titles, as well as different classes of ships. The naval officers who sailed the ships were professional sailors. However, the men who served as combat troops and rowers were still land soldiers. In the 1200s B.C., one of the most famous battles in the history of the Near East took place between the Egyptians and the SEA PEOPLES. The Egyptian victory was depicted on a temple wall. By the 800s B.C., the first true warships appeared. Developed by the Greeks, these ships, propelled by oars and sails, had large, spearlike rams attached to the bow, or front, of the ship near the waterline. These rams

Nebuchadnezzar II

were designed to damagethehulls,orbodies,ofenemy ships, causing them to sink.BytheB.C., 700s theEgyptians hadbegun tobuild naval ships with rams, and the Phoenicianshadadoptedthedesign B.C.by the600s With the developmentandimprovementofsuch rams, naval vessels became formidableweaponsofwar. During the years between 1000 B.C., and naval 1 power became increasingly important in theNear Eastand theeastern Mediterranean region. The Persians,who dominatedtheNear East from B.C., atemleast 500 ployed sailorsfrom Phoenicia, Greece,andEgypt. B.C., Inthethe400s Greeks began to achieve naval superiority with Athenian triremes— oar-powered warships thatwere fastandeasytomaneuver—thathad crews of up to 200rowers. Byabout B.C., the 300use ofsuch ships allowed the Greeks to overcome both thePersiansand thePhoeniciansand to become the dominant naval powerin theentire also (See Armies; region. Ships and Boats; Wars andWarfare.)

NEBUCHADNEZZAR II ruled 605-562 B.C. Babylonian king

T

he greatest kingof the so-called "Chaldean" dynasty* ofancient BABYLON, Nebuchadnezzar (neb»yuh*kuhd»NEZ»uhr) II isknown for his military prowessand hisrolein thehistoryof theIsraelites. He also is credited with transforming Babylon intoone of thegreatestand most magnificent citiesof theancient Near East. The oldestsonNABOPOLASSAR, ofKing thefounder of thedynasty, Nebuchadnezzarbeganamilitary career at ayoung age andbecame known as a capable leaderand administrator. B.C., Inhe607 led theBabylonian troops in northernAssyriaandlater commandedthemilitary expeditions againstthe Egyptians SYRIAand in theLevant*.

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Necho II * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

NECHO II ruled 610-595 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh 132

Two years later, Nebuchadnezzar led his forces to an impressive victory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in Syria. This victory gave Babylonia control over Syria. Nebuchadnezzar then began to pursue the Egyptians toward Egypt. After receiving the news of his father's death in Babylon, however, he returned home to claim the throne. Soon after he secured power in Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar resumed his campaigns. In 604 B.C., he led his forces into the Levant and subdued local states there, including the kingdom of Judah. Gradually, he consolidated his control over the Levant, although pockets of resistance remained. In 601 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar clashed again with the Egyptians near the borders of Egypt. This time, however, the Babylonians suffered great losses and were forced to retreat. The kingdom of Judah, an ally of Egypt, took this opportunity to rebel, and it stopped paying tribute* to the Babylonians. Nebuchadnezzar remained in Babylon for a few years to strengthen his forces. In 597 B.C., he crushed the revolt in Judah. When the Judeans revolted again, Nebuchadnezzar's response was swift and fierce. He destroyed much of the city of JERUSALEM, including its great temple, and took many Judeans into captivity in Babylonia. Thereafter, Nebuchadnezzar had full control of the Levant. He continued to extend Babylonian power in other areas. After a 13year siege of TYRE, he gained control of that Phoenician city-state*. He also gained control of former Assyrian provinces in northern Mesopotamia but failed in his later attempts to invade and conquer Egypt. Nevertheless, Nebuchadnezzar had established Babylonia as the foremost power in the Near East, and the empire reached its greatest extent since the days of King HAMMURABI more than 1,000 years earlier. Nebuchadnezzar also launched extensive building projects, especially in Babylon. He built and repaired shrines and temples and constructed massive fortifications*, defensive walls, and lavish palaces. Many scholars credit him with building the famous HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON, considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. After his death in 562 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk, the first of several ineffective rulers. Despite Nebuchadnezzar's military successes and the magnificence of Babylon, his successors inherited a politically unstable empire, which began to decline. Within 25 years, during the reign of King NABONIDUS, the Babylonian empire fell to the Persians. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

N

echo II was the second pharaoh* of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, which ruled Egypt between the reigns of Ethiopian and Persian kings. During his reign, Necho II tried unsuccessfully to expand the territorial boundaries of Egypt and to promote Egyptian trade. Necho came to the throne on the death of his father, Psamtik I, the founder of the dynasty*. Like his father, Necho worked hard to keep Egypt independent of foreign rule and helped the Assyrians as their empire collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes. In 609 B.C.,

Nefertiti * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

NEFERTITI lived ca. 1370-1336 B.C. Egyptian queen * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * cult formal religious worship

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * deity god or goddess

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

Necho invaded SYRIA to stop further Babylonian expansion there. Despite early successes, the Egyptians suffered defeat in the city-state* of KARKAMISH in 605 B.C. at the hands of the Babylonian leader NEBUCHADNEZZAR II. Thereafter, Necho was forced to withdraw from Syria and abandon any hope of expanding Egyptian power into the Levant*. Necho also launched efforts to expand Egyptian trade and commerce. He maintained fleets of ships on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas. To promote Egypt's position as an intermediary in trade, Necho began building a canal between the Nile Delta and the Red Sea. However, technical difficulties forced the Egyptians to abandon that project. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, Necho then sought another way to promote Egyptian trade. He sent an expedition of Phoenician sailors to find a sea route around Africa. The expedition was successful, but the route was impractical for trade purposes. At his death in 595 B.C., Necho II was succeeded by his son Psamtik II. (See also Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Trade Routes.)

O

ne of the best-known queens of ancient Egypt, Nefertiti was the chief wife of the pharaoh* AKHENATEN. She supported the religious reforms initiated by her husband and may have served as co-ruler during his reign. It is not known who Nefertiti;s parents were or even where she came from. Some historians believe she may have been a princess from Mitanni, a kingdom in upper MESOPOTAMIA. Nefertiti's husband, originally called Amenhotep IV, came to the throne around 1353 B.C. After a few years, he initiated revolutionary religious reforms that caused great turmoil in Egypt. Mainly, he cast aside Egypt's chief god, AMUN, and established a new cult* of ATEN, a sun god. Amenhotep also built a new capital dedicated to Aten, called AKHETATEN, and changed his own name to Akhenaten. Nefertiti played an important role in the new cult of Aten. In ancient Egyptian art, she is shown making offerings to the god, a privilege that was generally reserved for kings. Nefertiti's name also appears on stelae* alongside her husband's name and the name of Aten. These stelae were the focus of household worship, and they suggest that Nefertiti was worshiped as a deity* along with Akhenaten and Aten. Ancient Egyptian art from early in Akhenaten's reign shows Nefertiti wearing the same headdress as that worn by earlier queens. Later she wore a tall blue crown that became unique to her. In the last years of Akhenaten's reign, Nefertiti is shown wearing crowns normally reserved for kings, leading some historians to believe that she may have served as co-ruler. They also believe that she may have ruled as king for a brief time after Akhenaten's death around 1336 B.C. Nefertiti was not Akhenaten's only wife, but little is known about his other wives. Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters, two of whom later became queens of Egypt. Nefertiti is depicted in art and statues more frequently than any other Egyptian queen. She appears in many bas-reliefs* and artworks in the

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Neo-Hittites

* bust statue of a subject's and shoulders

head, neck,

NEO-HITTITES 134

templesKARNAK at AMARNA. and The mostfamous representation of the queen is alife-sized painted bust* in which she iswearing herunique blue crown. (Seealso Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

T

he Hittite empire ANATOLIA in (present-day Turkey) fell shortly after 1200B.C., when invaders destroyed KHATTUSHA. its capital, The Hittite peoples then begantoform independent kingdoms KHATTI, southeast of their homeland. These kingdoms, and the people who inhabited them, are known as the Neo-Hittites,or new Hittites.Fornearly500 years,the

Neo-Hittites Neo-Hittites preserved the language and traditions of the Hittite empire before they were finally absorbed into the Assyrian empire.

HISTORY By 1200 B.C., a group known as the SEA PEOPLES may have advanced into Anatolia from the north and west. This migration put tremendous pressure on the Hittite empire there. Taking advantage of the situation, hostile armies from the north—perhaps the Hittites' old enemies, the Kashka people—possibly attacked Khattusha and burned it to the ground in about 1190 B.C.

* city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

Inscription of Azatiwada in the A,D. 1940s, archaeologists excavating the site of ancient Azatiwadiya in southern Turkey found bilingual inscriptions in Phoenician and in Luwian hieroglyphics. These inscriptions were commissioned by the Neo-Hittite ruler Azatiwada, who ruled in the 700s B.C. The inscriptions celebrate Azatiwada \ as the founder of Azatiwadiya. The complete Phoenician version has survived and is the longest Phoenician document known to scholars. The accompanying Luwian text has aided scholars in the study of the Luwian language and in deciphering the hieroglyphic script

New States and New Threats. As the Hittite empire disintegrated, many of its inhabitants migrated to southeastern Anatolia and northern SYRIA. They regrouped around old TRADE ROUTES and river crossings and established small independent city-states*. The westernmost of these states were grouped into a kingdom called Tabal. To the east, along the western bank of the EUPHRATES RIVER, lay the states of Melid and Kummukh. South of Kummukh in Syria lay KARKAMISH, the most important Neo-Hittite city-state. Several smaller Neo-Hittite lands lay south of Karkamish. Between about 1190 and 1110 B.C., the Neo-Hittites strengthened their control on the trade routes that ran through Anatolia. They also established new city-states in the Levant*. Around 1100 B.C., a nomadic* people known as the ARAMAEANS began to move into Syria, perhaps from east of the Euphrates River. The Aramaeans conquered some of the existing Neo-Hittite city-states and stopped Neo-Hittite expansion in the south. Notwithstanding their conquests, it was not the Aramaeans but the Assyrians who posed the greatest threat to the Neo-Hittites. The Assyrians. Around 1110 B.C., King Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria crossed the Euphrates River and attacked Melid and Karkamish. These kingdoms became vassals* of Assyria and paid tribute*, but they were not absorbed into the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians allowed the local NeoHittite kings to retain control in exchange for their loyalty. The Assyrians were not strong enough to advance as far as Tabal, which remained free of Assyrian influence for several hundred years. Finally, in the 840s B.C., the Assyrian king SHALMANESER III attacked Tabal, destroyed many of its cities, and forced the kingdom to pay tribute. By about this same time, a number of hill peoples north of Assyria had established a powerful new kingdom there, called URARTU. Thereafter, Melid, Karkamish, and many other Neo-Hittite states severed their alliances with Assyria and joined forces with Urartu. Around 745 B.C., King TIGLATH-PILESER III of Assyria launched the first of several campaigns to regain the lands lost to Urartu. During the next 30 years, the Assyrians conquered Tabal, Karkamish, Melid, and finally, Kummukh. The conquerors dealt harshly with the Neo-Hittites; they destroyed their cities, sold much of the population into slavery, and made the former kingdoms provinces of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians were resettled in the newly conquered Neo-Hittite states, which remained under Assyrian control until the Assyrian empire

135

Neo-Hittites collapsed some 100 years later. Although some of the remote Neo-Hittite states in the west and north regained a degree of independence, the Assyrian conquest marked the end of the Neo-Hittite period.

CULTURE Many historians consider the period following the collapse of the Hittite empire as the Anatolian Dark Ages. Nevertheless, the Neo-Hittites preserved much of the culture and traditions of the empire during that period, making contributions of their own.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

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Language and Religion. The Hittites spoke two main LANGUAGES: Nesite, which was spoken in Khattusha and central Anatolia, and Luwian, which was spoken in the west and south. The Neo-Hittites abandoned the Nesite language but continued to use Luwian for official writings, such as INSCRIPTIONS, and for everyday texts, such as letters and contracts. Unlike Nesite, which was written in cuneiform*, the Luwian language used a type of HIEROGLYPHICS, in which pictures represented words and syllables. Many Luwian inscriptions have been found by archaeologists*, providing a significant amount of information about Neo-Hittite life and culture. The Neo-Hittites retained many of the religious traditions of the Hittites. They worshiped the storm god TESHUB, the sun goddess KHEPAT, and ISHTAR, the goddess of love and war. In the north, religious traditions were similar to those in Khattusha, while Syrian traditions prevailed in the south. In the kingdom of Karkamish, for example, the Syrian goddess Kubaba was the city's main deity for hundreds of years. Like the Hittites, the Neo-Hittites incorporated foreign gods into their religious system. For instance, the rulers of the state of Hamath worshiped the Semitic* goddess Baalat in addition to traditional Hittite deities. One new religious development among the Neo-Hittites was the belief in an AFTERLIFE for humans. Architecture and Art. Neo-Hittite cities were centered on a high citadel, or fortress, containing palaces and temples. The surrounding town consisted of residences and other public buildings. Most buildings were constructed of mud brick* and heavy wooden beams. The bases of the buildings were covered with carved stone. Massive walls and towers to protect against enemy attack surrounded both the city and the citadel. Neo-Hittite art consists largely of SCULPTURE from temples and public buildings and relief* carvings on walls, gates, and doors. These artworks usually portray religious, military, and mythological themes. Some freestanding sculptures have also been found, most of which are figures of deities or funeral monuments to dead leaders. While Neo-Hittite art has various distinct features, many of its elements can be traced back to the art of the Hittite empire. It also seems likely that early Neo-Hittite art influenced the art of both the Assyrians and the Aramaeans. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and CityStates; Indo-European Languages; Luwians; Religion.)

NILE RIVER

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol. 2).

Puzzling Behavior of the Nile The behavior of the Nile puzzled the people of ancient Egypt as well, as ancient Creeks and Romans. The Nile overflowed its banks each sunrxl mer, no matter how little rain fell in \ Egypt, Explanations for this were many and varied. For example, Thales, a Greek philosopher, suggested that strong winds blowing south from the Nile Delta in summer held back the waters of the river, causing floods upstream. Another ancient Greek, Oenopides of Chios, thought that heat stored in the ground dried up underground water in winter, causing the river to recede. It was not until the 10Os B.C \ that the correct explanation was of-j fered fay a Greek astronomer and mapmaker named Eratosthenes. He 3 was the first to learn about the heavy rains at the headwaters of the Nile.

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Nile River

he Nile River of Africa is the longest river in the world, covering a distance of more than 4,000 miles. Beginning near the equator, the river flows northward through northeastern Africa and passes through Egypt before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River was extremely important to ancient Egypt. Without the Nile, Egypt would be nothing but desert, because the region receives very little rainfall. The Nile has provided Egypt with fertile land since ancient times, allowing one of the greatest civilizations of the ancient world to develop. The ancient Egyptians were well aware of their dependence on the Nile River. Their name for Egypt, kemet, means "black land/' and refers to the rich, black soil carried and deposited by the river. In fact, because of the river's importance to Egyptian civilization, the ancient Greek historian HERODOTUS wrote that Egypt was "the gift of the Nile." Geography of the Nile. The Nile River consists of three major waterways: the Blue Nile and the Atbara River, which originate in the highlands of ancient Nubia (present-day Ethiopia), and the White Nile, which originates in Lake Victoria in present-day Uganda. The Blue Nile and White Nile join in the present-day Sudan to form one river. The Atbara River joins that river about 200 miles farther downstream. Before the Nile River flows into Egypt it passes through six rapids called the Nile Cataracts. These cataracts occur where the river flows between steep cliffs, causing the current to become swift and rough. The Sixth Cataract is downstream from the present-day city of Khartoum in the Sudan. The First Cataract is hundreds of miles farther north at a place known in ancient times as Elephantine. This cataract was the traditional southern boundary of ancient Egypt and served as a natural barrier to outsiders trying to enter Egypt from the south. North of the First Cataract, the river forms three fertile regions that have been intensively farmed and heavily populated since ancient times: the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta, and the Faiyum Depression. The Nile Valley consists of a long, narrow strip of land running along both sides of the river from the First Cataract to the head of the Nile Delta near the ancient city of MEMPHIS. In ancient times, the Nile Valley ranged between 1 and 13 miles in width. Barren desert stretched outward for hundreds of miles on both sides of the valley. The Nile Delta was formed of soil deposited by the river as it flowed into the Mediterranean Sea. In ancient times, the delta began north of Memphis, where the river fanned out into several branches. The Nile Delta covers an area stretching about 100 miles from north to south and about 150 miles from east to west. The entire delta has a very low elevation, enabling the land there to remain wet long after floodwaters recede. Many areas within the delta remain swampy year-round. Because of its great size and abundant water supply, the Nile Delta has always had more fertile land than the Nile Valley. Southwest of Memphis, the Faiyum Depression—a broad, low-lying area—is fed by the Bahr Yusuf, a branch of the Nile River. Since ancient times, this region has contained a lake whose level rises and falls with that of the Nile. Surrounding this lake is an area of fertile land where, 137

Nile River in ancient times, the Egyptians built CANALS and systems of IRRIGATION to use the water of the Faiyum Depression and expand the area of fertile farmland.

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

* levee embankment or earthen wall that helps prevent flooding

Impact on Agriculture. Ancient Egypt was dependent on the Nile River for AGRICULTURE, which was based on the flood patterns of the river. Egyptians also marked the season by the different phases of the Nile. The Nile flooded in a more or less predictable pattern. Each year in late June, the Nile began to rise because of heavy rains in the highlands of Ethiopia and farther south. The river continued to rise gradually, and by August, it overflowed its banks. The floodwaters spread slowly over the narrow plain on both sides of the river, depositing a thick layer of rich black silt* on the land and soaking into the soil. After the floodwaters subsided, Egyptians could plant crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet long enough for the crops to grow for harvest about three months later. The flooding of the Nile River irrigated the land naturally. Natural levees* formed along the banks of the river because more silt was deposited there than in the outlying floodplain. Ancient Egyptians built homes and other structures on these areas of higher ground and cultivated DATE PALMS and other trees on these natural ridges. Around 3000 B.C., Egypt's rulers began to build irrigation systems to bring more land under cultivation and increase production. Projects included repairing and reinforcing the natural levees, building artificial levees around fields to contain floodwaters, and maintaining channels to control the flow of water. Impact on Transportation, Government, and Society. The Nile was a convenient means of transportation in ancient Egypt because of its natural features. North of the First Cataract, the Nile flows slowly and smoothly all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the northflowing current of the river is matched by highly reliable south-blowing winds. Consequently, ancient boats and barges could float north with the current and sail south with the wind. Transportation along the Nile was easy, quick, and cheap, and the river served as the major highway of Egypt. The ease of transportation on the Nile promoted trade, which became an important part of the economy of ancient Egypt. The narrow width of the Nile Valley and the fact that the river runs the full length of Egypt enabled Egyptian rulers to extend their control over the entire realm. By about 3000 B.C., this had led to the establishment of a strong centralized government in Egypt. Because people clustered along the Nile, the rulers found it relatively easy to control the population and keep Egypt united. Although the Nile's flood patterns were quite regular, abnormal FLOODS caused serious problems in ancient Egypt. Unusually low floods caused food shortages and FAMINE, while high floods damaged crops and destroyed villages. Such fluctuations in Nile flooding may account for the periodic declines in the power of Egypt's central government, as people lost faith in the ability of their leaders to please the gods and guarantee prosperity. (See also Climate; Egypt and the Egyptians; Environmental Change; Euphrates River; Geography; Nubia and the Nubians; Rivers; Tigris River.)

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NINEVEH * sixth millennium B.C.years from 6000 to 5001 B.C. * second millennium B.C.years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * cult formal religious worship

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Nineveh

he last great capital of the Assyrian empire, Nineveh was also the oldest and most populous city in ancientAssyria. Located in northern MESOPOTAMIA on the east RIVER, bank TIGRIS theof the citywas continuously inhabited from as early as the sixth millennium B.C.* A.D. until the 1500s. Attracted byfertile land and a strategic location,early peoples established a settlement at Nineveh. During theUruk period (ca. B.C.),4000-3000 the city developed muchlike those in southern Mesopotamia. In the second millenniumB.C.*, Nineveh became famous as the main center for the cult* of the goddess ISHTAR. In the B.C., 800s Nineveh underwent significant expansion. King ASHURNASIRPALII (ruled 883-859 B.C.)and his successors builtand repaired palaces and temples there. However, Nineveh did not reach it height of power and prestige untilthe SENNACHERIB B.C., 600s whenKing made it the new capital of the Assyrian empire.

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Nippur

See map in Assyria and the Assyrians (vol.1).

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

NIPPUR * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * deity god or goddess * cult formal religious worship * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

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Sennacherib transformed Nineveh into a magnificent city. He constructed an enormous, lavishly decorated palace, enlarged the city square, and built impressive avenues. He also created acres of parks and open spaces, including a great wildlife park with exotic plants and animals. Sennacherib also built canals and aqueducts to bring water from mountain streams many miles away. The pace of construction in Nineveh slowed during the reigns of ESARHADDON and ASHURBANIPAL, although both kings continued to build new structures and modify existing ones. Ashurbanipal is noted for the library he established at Nineveh, which contained thousands of CLAY TABLETS on many subjects, and for the magnificent bas-reliefs* that decorated the walls of his royal palace. Nineveh became a symbol of the power, prestige, and wealth of the Assyrians, but it was short-lived. In 612 B.C., the Babylonians and MEDES attacked and sacked Nineveh during the last stages of their conquest of Assyria. The city survived but sank into obscurity. Parts of it continued to be inhabited for another 1,000 years, until they were absorbed into the city of Mosul. The ruins of ancient Nineveh consist of several mounds, the main one of which is known as Tell Kuyunjik. Excavated in the A.D. 1800s, these ruins have yielded evidence from many periods in the city's history. Among the most famous artifacts* recovered there are more than 20,000 tablets from Ashurbanipal's library and bas-reliefs from his palace. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and City-States; Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Libraries and Archives; Palaces and Temples; Sculpture.)

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n ancient city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Nippur (ni»POOR) was the site of the main temple of ENLIL, the supreme god of the Mesopotamian pantheon*. Nippur was occupied as early as the 5000s B.C. The city's religious importance dates from about 2100 B.C., when King UrNammu of UR constructed a temple dedicated to Enlil called the Ekur. The city also contained temples to other deities*, including the goddess Inanna. As the center for the cult* of Enlil, Nippur played an important role in Sumerian and Babylonian religion and politics. For instance, according to Sumerian tradition, the roots of kingship came from Enlil. Thus, Nippur was considered the seat of kingly power, and kings sought legitimacy through official recognition from the priests of Enlil. Yet Nippur never became a political capital, and no king or dynasty* from that city ever dominated Mesopotamia. Nippur grew into a large city, attracting people from throughout the region because of its religious significance. The city also became a center of learning, with an academy for training scribes*, founded by King SHULGI. Around the 1700s B.C., Nippur began to experience periods of prosperity and decline. The city was nearly abandoned several times but experienced a rebirth each time. The final period of decline began in the A.D. 200s, which led to the city's complete abandonment several centuries later. (See also Cities and City-States; Palaces and Temples; Religion; Sumer and the Sumerians; Ziggurats.)

Nomads and Nomadism

NlTOKRIS ruled ca. 2100s B.C. Egyptian queen * famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

NOMADS AND NOMADISM

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itokris was one of just a few queens of ancient Egypt to serve as the ruler of her country and not just as the wife of a king. She was the sister of King Merenre II of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2350-2170 B.C.). When Merenre was killed at the hands of his subjects, who blamed him for the famine* Egypt suffered during his reign, Nitokris took over the throne. Much of what is known of Nitokris's reign comes from the writings of later historians Manetho and HERODOTUS. Manetho claimed that Nitokris built the third pyramid at GIZA, but later historians have discovered that the monument preceded her reign. Nitokris is best known for avenging the death of her brother. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, she had a huge underground room constructed and connected by a hidden pipe to the NILE RIVER. She then invited all those she believed responsible for killing her brother to a banquet. While they feasted in the chamber, Nitokris opened the pipe and water flooded the room, drowning everyone present. She then committed suicide. Nitokris was the last person in her family to rule Egypt, so with her death, a dynasty* ended. Two other women named Nitokris are known from ancient times. One, as described by Herodotus, was a queen of BABYLON, who may have ruled during the 500s B.C. and been responsible for the construction of many public works. The other was an Egyptian princess who was named the wife of the god AMUN by her father, King Psamtik I, around 650 B.C. (See also Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

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he term nomad refers to people who travel from place to place in search of food and pasture. Most nomads are pastoralists, which means that their lifestyle is based on breeding and herding livestock. They live such a life because of the need to find new pastures in which to graze their herds of SHEEP, GOATS, CATTLE, or other animals. Nomads and nomadism existed throughout the ancient Near East, and they played an important role in shaping the history and culture of the region.

NOMADISM IN THE NEAR EAST Pastoral nomadism probably arose in the Near East sometime after 9000 B.C., when AGRICULTURE began to develop. Despite the differences between nomadism and farming, modern scholars believe that the two lifestyles may always have been intertwined and that they probably developed together rather than independently.

* domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

Origins of Nomadism. The earliest agricultural settlements in the Near East consisted of farmers who tilled the soil and individuals who cared for domesticated* animals. At first, the animals probably grazed in pastures close to the fields and villages. Some animals, especially goats, which grazed on crops as well as pasture, probably did a great deal of damage to land that was valuable for crops as well. The practice of herding animals in lands away from farming communities probably began for the purpose of conserving nearby land for 141

Nomads and Nomadism crops. Moving herds to and from distant pastures becamethe main task of individuals andfamilies who specializedin tendingthe animals. Over time, these people developeda nomadic lifestyle separate from thatof agriculturists and their communities. By about 3500 B.C., the largest agricultural settlementsin the Near East had developed into the first cities.The urban populations needed wool, milk, hides, and meat. The nomadic peoples and their herds supplied these animal products in exchange for manufactured goods from cities. By aboutB.C., 2300nomadism had becomefeasible a alternativeto agriculturalism. Pastoralists and agriculturists remained in contact with each other andoften moved between the two lifestyles. Farmers turned to nomadic pastoralism when raising crops became difficult or impossible becauseDROUGHTS of or other problems. Likewise, some nomads practiced HUNTING, trading, andfarming in addition to herding animals. The relationship between nomads and sedentists (people who live in one place) wasoften mutually beneficial, but this did not prevent the occasional outbreak of hostilities between the two groups. Sedentists sometimes waged war against nomads, and nomads frequently raided settled communities. The interaction of these two groups played major a rolein the politics and economy of the ancient Near East.

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Nomads and Nomadism

Frozen in Time Archaeological work has shown that nomadic lifestyles have remained much the same for thousands of years. For example, in 1973, American archaeologist Frank Hole studied an ancient nomadic campsite in southwestern Iran with the help of local nomads. Based on their modern practices, one of Hole's nomadic assistants was able to determine the size and arrangement of the site, the season in which it was occupied, and whether a tent site belonged to a leader or an average person* He also told Hole where to dig to uncover the locations of the fireplace and ash dumps of the ancient site. The assistant's accurate assessment of the site suggests that the layout of nomadic campsites has remained the same for nearly 9,000 years.

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * lingua franca language that is widely used for communication among speakers of different languages * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Notable Nomadic Groups. Among the earliest nomads mentioned in Near Eastern texts were the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains of IRAN. The Gutians are credited with destroying the Akkadian empire of MESOPOTAMIA in the 2100s B.C. Like many other nomadic groups that lived close to urban civilization, they became absorbed into settled societies and adopted many of the traditions and customs of the people they conquered. The nomads most often mentioned in Mesopotamian texts are the AMORITES, a group of peoples from northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA, who spoke a Semitic* language. Shortly before 2000 B.C., the kings of UR considered the Amorites a threat and built a wall to protect their kingdom. Yet records also indicate that many Amorites settled in Mesopotamian communities. After the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur in about 1950 B.C., the Amorites took control of several Mesopotamian cities. One Amorite leader, SHAMSHI-ADAD I, established a kingdom that included almost all of northern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian king HAMMURABI is also believed to have descended from the Amorites. Another important group of nomadic people were the ARAMAEANS of Syria. First mentioned in texts from the late 1100s B.C., the Aramaeans established many small states west of the Assyrian empire. The Aramaeans and Assyrians clashed frequently until the Aramaean states were finally defeated by Assyria in the early 700s B.C. Nevertheless, Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans, became the lingua franca* of the Assyrian empire. It remained in widespread use throughout the ancient Near East for more than 1,000 years, even following the introduction of Greek by Alexander the Great and his successors. Yet another nomadic group, the Arabs, first appeared in written records around 850 B.C. Arabs controlled important TRADE ROUTES through the Arabian peninsula on which CARAVANS carried luxury goods, such as frankincense and myrhh*, from southern Arabia to the Near East. Fearing that Assyrian expansion would disrupt trade, the Arabs often allied themselves with other groups in campaigns against Assyria. At the same time, Arab rulers paid tribute* to Assyrian kings who, in turn, relied on the Arabs to ensure the flow of goods through their lands. The Arabs played an important role in Assyrian campaigns against Egypt in the mid-600s B.C. Arab leaders provided King ESARHADDON with CAMELS and supplies to invade Egypt through the deserts. Still, the Assyrians continued to raid Arab territories to weaken the tribes, extract tribute from them, and ensure their loyalty and cooperation. Around the 500s B.C., two nomadic groups from southern Russia caused much destruction in the ancient Near East region. These were the Cimmerians and the Scythians. The Cimmerians were warriors who invaded the kingdom of URARTU and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the 700s and 600s B.C. The Scythians, were warrior horsemen who invaded Assyria, Syria, the Levant*, and Egypt in the 600s B.C. Their attacks contributed to the fall of the Assyrian empire and Urartu in the 600s and 500s B.C. Yet another tribe of nomadic people who had a strong impact on the ancient Near East were the Parthians, a horse-riding tribe who were originally from CENTRAL ASIA. The Parthians seized Iran during the 200s B.C. and Mesopotamia during the 100s B.C.

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Nomads and Nomadism

fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

Nomads and Politics. The relationship between nomads and sedentists ranged from distrust and hostility to trust and cooperation. The leaders of Near Eastern kingdoms considered nomads a threat because they were suspicious of any group whose movements they could not control. Not only did their wandering make nomads a security problem, but it also made them difficult to tax. On the other hand, nomads played an important part in the trade and economy of Near Eastern states. Expert animal breeders, they supplied donkeys to MERCHANTS, farmers, and soldiers. Nomads also hired themselves out as shepherds to farming communities. Nomadic herds were often allowed to graze on fallow* fields, where their wastes fertilized the soil. Nomads controlled trade routes between Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant. This was especially true after the domestication of the camel, which was better adapted to desert conditions than the donkey. Their knowledge of safe routes through deserts and other wilderness areas made nomads invaluable to merchants.

NOMADIC LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

Because ancient nomads did not live in settled communities, historians have found it difficult to reconstruct their history and culture. Nevertheless, by studying artifacts* and written records and by looking at the life of present-day nomadic peoples, they have been able to piece together a picture of ancient nomadic lifestyle and culture. Migration. The most prominent feature of ancient nomadism was the nomads' migration between winter and summer grazing lands. The climate of the Near East made such movement necessary. From November to March or April, the rainy season brought abundant water to many areas, allowing herds to graze on lands that could not support crops as well as near desert oases*. During the dry season, from April to October, these areas could no longer support enough vegetation to graze large herds of animals, forcing the nomads to drive their herds to other pasturelands. There were two basic types of nomadic migration: vertical and horizontal. Vertical migration involved movement from lowland grazing areas in the rainy season to highland pastures in the dry season. This pattern was typical of nomads who lived near mountains, such as in northern Iran, southeastern Anatolia, and northern Syria. In horizontal migration, nomads grazed their herds in desert areas or grasslands in the rainy season and moved closer to agricultural zones during the dry season. Horizontal migration was common among groups who inhabited the fringes of desert regions in the Levant and the SINAI PENINSULA. Lifestyle and Culture. Nomads made their living by trading animal products. They also relied on hunting, gathering, and trade with agriculturists for grains, fruits, and other goods to supply other needs. Nomadic people sometimes raided agricultural settlements to obtain the goods they needed. Usually, however, they enjoyed peaceful relations with their settled neighbors, and the two groups learned to rely on and benefit from each other's special skills.

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Nubia and the Nubians

* clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest * hierarchical referring to a society or institution divided into groups with higher and lower ranks

NUBIA AND THE NUBIANS arable suitable for

growing crops

Most nomadic groups were organized into tribes whose membersbelonged to various clans*. Each group claimed descent fromacommonancestor. Politically, they ranged in organization from small, decentralized groups to large chiefdoms. In small groups, most individuals held equal status, while larger groups were more also (See hierarchical*. Animals, Domestication of; Arabia and the Arabs; Economy and Trade; Family and SocialLife; Land Use and Ownership.)

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ubia was theArabic name for the region that comprises presentday southern Egyptand northern SUDAN.The ancient Greeksand Romans called the region Aethiopia. During their long history, the Nubians were periodically involved inaffairs the of Egypt and the Mediterranean world. Nubia also became the homeland of agreat civilization, the oldest inAfrica southofEgypt. Land and Early History. Physically, Nubia wasprimarily desert and not arable* exceptfor narrow strips NILE RIVER. along theHowever, the region was rich in gold and other valuable minerals. Moreover, theNile provided an important trade route between Egyptand the Africa. restof Nubia's minerals and trade goods brought the region great wealth. 145

Nubia and the Nubians

See map on inside covers.

Early farmers raised cropsin seasonallydry channelsof the River Nile and established the earliest permanent settlement in the region by about 5000B.C. By about B.C.,3800 the peopleof Nubiahad established several trading centers along the Nile.IVORY, Gold,shells, copper, semiprecious stones, INCENSE, and other luxury goods were traded northward Egypt to in exchange for Egyptianmanufactured goodsand agricultural products. First Nubian Kingdom. Sometime B.C., aaround small king3500 dom emerged in northern Nubia, a region that later became knownas Lower Nubia. The Egyptians called this first Nubian kingdomTa Sety (land of the bow), a name thatreflectedthe fameof Nubian archers. This early kingdomwas greatly influencedby Egypt.The kingsof Ta Sety modeled themselves after Egyptian rulers, a tradition continued by later Nubian kings.Like Egyptian kings, Nubian rulers built large tombs and monuments for themselves, and they were buried with many objects of wealth. At this time, the Nubian economywas basedon a mix of herding and farming, while contact with Egypt focused on a regular trade in luxury items and manufactured goods. Nubia was prosperous between aboutB.C., 3500 butand this pe3100 riod was followed by a shadowy period of nearly 1,000 years about which little is known. During this time, northern Nubia lost much of its population, and the distinctive culture of the region disappeared suddenly. It is possible that Egyptian raids may have caused the decline in northern Nubia. AroundB.C., 2300a new Nubian culture appeared,and Nubia again began to prosper. This culture was noted for the importance it placed on CATTLE raising, POTTERY, itsfine and increased trade with Egypt. Egyptian Rule and the Rise of B.C., Kush. the EgypAround 2000 tians conqueredLower Nubia, but the Nubians there managed to retain their cultural identity. The Egyptians built a series forts of alongthe Nile River in Nubia to protect trade and guard against a kingdom in southern Nubia (Upper Nubia) calledKush.The kingdomKush, of whichremained independent of Egyptian rule, was developing into major a power that began to rivalEgypt and its dominance of the Nile. Egypt controlledLower Nubia until B.C., about whenthe 1700 Egyptian government collapsed due to internal strife. Taking advantage of the situation in Egypt,Kush took controlLower of Nubia. The capital Kush of at this time was the city of Kerma, locatedon the Nile between Upperand

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Nubia and the Nubians

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * deity god or goddess * hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire * cult formal religious worship

Opposing Views of the Nubians The Nubian people did not develop a written language of their own urv til quite late In their history. There* fore, most of what we know about them today comes from the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, each of whom had biased views. The Egyptians viewed the Nubians as culturally inferior to themselves. Consequently, early Egyptian scholars dismissed Nubian civilization as a crude copy of the Egyptian civilization. The Greeks and Romans viewed the Nubians a a morally and culturally superior people beloved by the gods. The Greek historian Herodotus even believed that Nubia was the source rather than a copy of the Egyptian civilization.

Lower Nubia. Kerma soon became an urban center with large temples, manufacturing sites, and huge tombs. Its people included metalworkers and potters, whose goods were exported throughout Egypt. By 1540 B.C., strong kings had reunited Egypt, regained control of Nubia, and extended their rule farther south to include Kush. Egypt also made a determined effort to "Egyptianize" Nubia and the Nubians, which led to their adoption of Egyptian culture. Nubian customs and artifacts* became almost indistinguishable from those of Egypt, and wealthy Nubians adopted Egyptian deities* and their system of writing, called hieroglyphics*. The Egyptian rulers built great temple complexes in Nubia that became important centers of religion, politics, culture, and economy. The best known is the famous temple complex at ABU SIMBEL. The Empire of Kush. Little is known about the history of Nubia and the Nubians in the years between 1100 and 800 B.C. By the end of this period, a new kingdom had emerged in Upper Nubia, centered at the city of Napata on the Nile River. This kingdom, which arose from the earlier kingdom of Kush, soon developed into a great empire. As the new empire of Kush expanded and gained power, the Egyptians experienced another period of political upheaval, during which northern Egypt fell to the LIBYANS. Taking advantage of this situation, the new rulers of Kush extended their control into Egypt as far north as the city of THEBES. Controlling Thebes, the old imperial* capital of Egypt, was an accomplishment. The city was the center of the cult* of AMUN, the state god of Egypt and later of Kush. Around 760 B.C., a Kushite king named Piye gained control of all of Egypt and united it with Nubia to form one of ancient Africa's greatest states. Piye and his successors ruled Egypt for about 100 years, a period known as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Kings of this so-called ''Ethiopian" dynasty led Egypt through its last era of great achievements, which included a massive building program under King TAHARQA. Around 660 B.C., invaders from Assyria advanced into Egypt and drove out the last Nubian king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. However, Kush remained a powerful state in Nubia for another 1,000 years. The Rise of Meroe and the Fall of Kush. By about 300 B.C., the capital of Kush had moved to Meroe, a city on the right bank of the Nile several hundred miles south of Napata. Meroe and Kush developed a culture that reflected Egyptian traditions as well as Greek, Roman, and African ideas. Nubian art and architecture became distinct and original, and Nubians used their own language and writing instead of Egyptian hieroglyphics. During this period, Egypt faced a succession of foreign rulers: the Persians, the Macedonians, and the Romans. The Nubians tried to help the Egyptians revolt against foreign rule, but they came under Roman rule themselves in about 20 B.C. In the A.D. 200s, Meroe came into conflict with Axum, a kingdom in Ethiopia. Around 350, invaders from the west known as the Noba overran most of Kush, ending the Kushite state. (See also Dynasties; Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kush and Meroe; Trade Routes.) 147

Numbers and Numerals

NUMBERS AND NUMERALS

* commodity article of trade

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

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umbers are units of quantity and the basis of counting. As ele ments of mathematical systems, they enable people to perform simple arithmetic and complex mathematical operations. Numerals are the symbols used for writing numbers. In ancient times, the peoples of the Near East developed systems for counting and expressing numbers—a necessary step toward the growth of mathematics, engineering, and astronomy. Counting and Writing Numbers. Even before writing was invented, Near Eastern peoples counted with small objects called tokens. Each token represented one of a particular type of item, such as a sheep. A clay packet found in the ruins of the Mesopotamian city of URUK contained six egg-shaped tokens, each representing a jar of oil. Scholars believe that before 3000 B.C., the people of the ancient Near East did not have a conception of numbers independent of the commodities* they counted. The signs included both the commodity and the measurement. In other words, abstract numbers such as one, two, or three, referring to any set of items was unknown. Once people began to write, they developed images for numerals. Some experts believe that the written symbols were imitations of the counting marks that people had made earlier by pressing tokens into wet clay. For instance, a CLAY TABLET found at Godin Tepe, IRAN, expresses the idea "33 jars of oil" with an egg-shaped symbol for a jar of oil preceded by three circles (three tens) and three wedges (three ones)—much easier than collecting and storing 33 tokens. The Egyptians developed a decimal system based on multiples of ten. They used distinctive symbols for 1, 10, 100, and 1,000. To write a number, they wrote down each symbol as many times as it appeared in the number. The numeral for 48, for example, was written with four symbols for 10 and eight symbols for 1. The Sumerians also wrote numerals by adding as many symbols as necessary. Their counting system alternated between units of ten steps and units of sixty steps. Number sequences ran from 1 to 60, 61 to 600, and 601 to 3,600. They used the number 3,600 to indicate any very large but indefinite number, as we might say "a zillion/' The Babylonians, who dominated Mesopotamia during the second millennium B.C.*, developed new methods of counting and writing numbers. Like the Sumerians, their counting system was sexagesimal, or based on units of 60. They had symbols for every number between 1 and 10 as well as symbols for 20, 30, 40, and 50. To write numbers of 60 and above, they developed a place-value method. Instead of repeating symbols as many times as necessary to reach a given total, they assigned a value to each position, or place, in the numeral. For example, the symbol for 1 could also represent 60 or 3,600, depending on its position within the numeral. Modern number systems also use place value—a single numeral represents units of one, a numeral to the left of it represents units of 10, and so on. By the 300s B.C., the Babylonians began to use a special sign for zero. Today, much of the world uses a decimal system that expresses numbers with the numerals 1 through 9. Called Arabic numerals, they originated in southern India before A.D. 500. Shortly thereafter, the Indians

Nazi began using the zero as a multiplier and placeholder. The Arabians adopted the Indian numeral system in the 700s or 800s, and through Spain, introduced it to the European world.

* deity god or goddess * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Nuzi * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

Mystical Meanings of Numbers. Numbers also held religious and magical significance in the Near East. Mesopotamians regarded seven as a powerful number, and many magical spells or ritual actions were repeated seven times. They used numerals to write the names of their gods in shorthand—EA, for example, was 40 and ENLIL was 50. Numerals could also represent deities* and heavenly bodies—the number 15 stood for both the goddess ISHTAR and the planet Venus. Numerals were also used by scribes* to indicate colors or the cardinal points of the compass, or to convey messages intended only for other scribes. Near Eastern peoples also gave mystical significance to numbers in a system called alphabetic numeration, where each letter of the alphabet corresponded to a number. In the Hebrew method, aleph, the first letter, equaled one. Beth, the second letter, equaled two, and so on. Jewish religious scholars used this method to find what they believed were hidden meanings in biblical texts. For example, they claimed that when the Hebrew BIBLE said that 318 men accompanied Abraham it really meant that his servant Eliezer accompanied him, because the numerical value of Eliezer's name was 318. During the 200s and 100s B.C., Greek letters were similarly used on the SEALS of certain officials and tax officers of the SELEUCID EMPIRE to indicate the year the seals were issued. (See also Mathematics.)

N

uzi (NOOzee) was a town in northeastern MESOPOTAMIA. During the period of the Akkadian empire, the town was called Gasur. In the second millennium B.C.*, when the town was controlled by the HURRIANS, it was renamed Nuzi. The town reached its height of prosperity in the 1500s B.C., when it was an administrative center in the kingdom of Mitanni. By the 1200s B.C., the Assyrians had attacked and destroyed Nuzi. Inhabited by the Hurrians, KASSITES, Assyrians, and Babylonians, Nuzi was an ordinary town. Its economy was based on AGRICULTURE and trade. Nuzi's population consisted of a mix of rich and poor residents, including farmers, merchants, craftspeople, and slaves. The town was governed by provincial* officials of regional kingdoms. At its height, the city's population was estimated at 1,600. Despite its small size, Nuzi possessed all the characteristics of major Mesopotamian cities, including defensive walls, temples and government buildings, outlying settlements, and surrounding agricultural lands. The town had several neighborhoods housing various classes of people. Archaeologists* began to excavate the ruins of Nuzi in the early A.D. 1900s. The ruins and artifacts* they found—including temples dedicated to ISHTAR (goddess of love, fertility, and war) and TESHUB (storm god), government buildings, canals and IRRIGATION systems, homes, and public 149

Obsidian

and private documents—have provided one of the most complete pictures of the economy and societyof a typical provincial townin ancient Mesopotamia. (Seealso Walled Cities.)

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

O

OBSIDIAN

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, other object made by humans

or

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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bsidian (uhb»SI«dee»uhn)is a natural, glasslike rock formedby the rapid cooling of volcanic lava. Slightly harder than window glass, it generally is blackin color. However,the presenceof certain minerals in the rock can produce red, brown, and green varietiesof obsidian. Obsidian is a brittle rock that chips easily, creating smooth surfaces bordered by extremely sharp edges. Since prehistoric time, humans have used sharp-edged pieces of obsidian to TOOLS make andcutting weapons. They sometimes used theJEWELRY rocktoand make decorative ornaments as well. Some ancient cultures, such as that of the Greeks, made mirrors from obsidian by polishing its smooth, glassy surfaces. In the ancient NearEast, one of the most important sources of the rock was in central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). AsB.C., early in-as about 6000 habitants of the settlement HUYUK £ATALused of local sources of obsidian to make tools and weapons. In fact, archaeological* evidence suggests that much of that community's prosperity centered on an obsidian trade with other regions. Obsidian was an important item of trade, and archaeologists have uncovered extensive trade networks over which the rock was carried. Obsidianartifacts* SYRIA found and in theLevant*,for example, can be traced to sourcesin central Anatolia. Others IRAN incan southwestern be traced to sourcesCAUCASUS in the region nearthe Blackand Caspian Seas. It is unclear whether obsidianwas carriedby tradersor was passed from village to village through exchanges of goods. In either case, obsidian

Offerings rock and tools made from obsidian reached areas far from the sources. (See also Caravans; Economy and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking; Trade Routes; Weapons and Armor.)

OFFERINGS

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Food of the Gods The gods of the ancient Near East had to eat just like humans did, so offerings of food and drink were common in religious rituals and cer emonies. In some places and time periods, meals were regularly served to the gods in temples, often twice a day, in the morning and evening. Such offerings included bread, cakes, beer, wine, fish cakes, meats, and all sorts of fruits and vegetables tn order to supply these offerings on a regular basis, temples often had their own gardens, wineries, and herds of livestock. They also relied on regular contributions from the people in the community.

consecrate to declare sacred or holy by means of a religious rite Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

P

eople in the ancient Near East gave offerings to gods, rulers, temple officials, dead ancestors, and spirits, such as the ghosts of loved ones. These offerings might consist of food or other necessities of daily life, luxury items, or an animal or human sacrifice. Caring for the Gods. A scholar who studied ancient MESOPOTAMIA coined the phrase "care and feeding of the gods" to describe the temple rituals of ancient Mesopotamia. The phrase can also be applied to religious rituals performed throughout the Near East. These rituals, which included making offerings of food and drink to the gods, were believed to be vitally important. Without them, the city-state* or kingdom might lose the favor of the gods, resulting in disaster for the society. During major festivals, the responsibility of making offerings to the gods fell largely on the king. This formal activity emphasized his duties as ruler and his obligation to maintain a good relationship between the gods and his land and people. Kings made such offerings in special ceremonies, using stone bowls and other containers to present offerings of food and drink. Offerings were also an important part of daily religious worship. Temple priests prepared and offered meals and drinks to the gods each day, generally in the form of a banquet. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, offerings included cooked meat, fish, bread, grains, fruits and vegetables, flour mixed with oil, honey, wine, and milk. Offerings might also include images, INCENSE, CLOTHING, COSMETICS, PERFUMES, and decorative objects. The daily offerings were intended for the gods, but the priests and worshipers who presented them partook from the food once it was consecrated*. In Israel, however, the offerings were burned and converted into smoke, which then reached YAHWEH in heaven. Throughout the ancient world, blood offerings were an essential part of worship. Such offerings involved the sacrifice of animals, where the blood was drained and offered to the gods. Although rare, human sacrifice was also performed to atone for sins or to avert major disasters. Evidence suggests that the Phoenicians sacrificed children at the city-state of CARTHAGE in North Africa as did other Canaanites in the Levant*. There is also evidence of human sacrifice dating from the earliest periods in Egypt and Mesopotamia, especially in royal burial sites. Offerings to the Dead. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), people believed that it was important to make offerings to the spirits of the dead. Called funerary offerings, they consisted of things the spirit would need for the afterlife. The spirits of dead kings might receive offerings of delicious meat dishes and baked goods as well as fine clothing, furniture, perfumes, and other luxury items. Ordinary people might receive cold water, hot broth, beer, flour, oil, wine, honey,

151

Olives

k

See colorplate7, vol. 1.

and occasionally the ribs of a sacrificed animal. These offerings were made to please the dead and to make their existence afterlife in the more comfortable. If the spirits failed to receive the offerings due them, they could return as troublesome ghosts to botheralso the After(See living. life; Book of the Dead; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Sacrifice.)

O

ne of the firstfruits cultivatedby peoplesof the ancient Near East, the olive was well suited toCLIMATE the types andofsoil foundin many parts of the region. Olive groves thrive in cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers, which are typical of the eastern Mediterranean region. They also require little rainfall and flourish in sandy, rocky, well-drained soil. Because the olive is so well adapted to the region's land and climate, it became one of the most important crops of the ancient Near East. The oldest evidence of olivesin theNear East comes fromthe Levant* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea and dates to about 3700 B.C. Olive trees were also nativeto southeastern (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), ANATOLIA (present-dayTurkey) and the Mediterranean SYRIA. coast of the West Bank, and Jordan Around 3000 B.C.,the cultivationof olives spreadto many regionsin the Near East.Local growers began to plant olive groves with cuttings taken from wild olive trees. Becauseit takes several years after plantingfor an olive tree to bearfruit, olives were not grownsatisfy to immediate needs for food. In many places, olives and olive oil, obtained by pressing the ripe fruit, became important trade goods. Olives and olive oil had many usesand werean important partof the diet, partly because they can be easily preserved. When stored in brine (saltwater), olives keepfor long periodsand can be transported across great distances. Oliveoil was used fuel asCOSMETICS asa well as to make and religious rituals. Is* anoint tobless by applying oil or someandPERFUME. The oil was also usedin political raelite and Hittite kings were anointed* with oliveoil as a signof their other substance

OLIVES

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Rit

Omens authority. Priests, too, were anointed with olive oil, and it was used in purification ceremonies and as a part of animal sacrifices. (See also Agriculture; Food and Drink; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

OMAN PENINSULA * oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases See map in Arabia and the Arabs (vol.1).

commodity article of trade archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

OMENS * divination art or practice of foretelling the future * astrologer person believed to be able to foretell earthly events by studying the motions of heavenly bodies

T

he Oman peninsula in southeastern Arabia was an important center of trade in the ancient Near East. Although much of the peninsula is desert, it also contains oases*, mountains, and a plateau, which have enough water to support AGRICULTURE. The Omani Mountains contain large deposits of copper and two kinds of black stone—diorite and olivine-gabbro—which were popular for use in ancient SCULPTURE. Hunting, gathering, and fishing societies existed on the Oman Peninsula for thousands of years. By about 3000 B.C., permanent agricultural settlements had begun to emerge in the region. Around the same time, local inhabitants began to mine copper in the mountains. Around the 2500s B.C., cities in MESOPOTAMIA began to import copper from Oman, a land they called Magan. This is evident in texts found in the city of Akkad that mention that ships from Magan docked at its harbors. Early relations between Akkad and Magan were peaceful, but the two regions later went to war. Around 2250 B.C., an Akkadian fleet crossed the Persian Gulf to attack Magan, and texts mention a later campaign as well. By about 2100 B.C., trade had resumed between Mesopotamia and Magan. Commodities* included copper, black stone, IVORY, and semiprecious stones. The last two items probably came to Magan from MELUKKHA (in India), and archaeological* evidence suggests close trade links between the Oman peninsula and the Harappan civilization of western India. Shortly after 2000 B.C., for reasons that remain unclear, trade links between Mesopotamia, Magan, and Melukkha broke down. Thereafter, their names came to refer to distant places. Evidence also suggests that Oman was independent throughout most of its early history. (See also Arabia and the Arabs; Metals and Metalworking; Trade Routes.)

A

n omen is a natural phenomenon or other occurrence that is believed to be a sign that a good or bad event is to happen in the future. Reading omens is a form of divination*. Many texts from the ancient Near East refer to omens, and everyone from kings to peasants and slaves took the observation and interpretation of omens very seriously. Priests, diviners, and astrologers* were responsible for explaining omens. Belief in omens emerged from the notion that gods created and operated the universe in a meaningful way. People who knew how to read the patterns in natural phenomena could peer into the supernatural secrets of the gods. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the bam, Akkadian for examiner, asked the gods for omens and interpreted them. Most of the baru mentioned in the records worked for the crown; they were either palace scholars or were attached to a branch of local government or the army. One of the barn's standard methods of divination was extispicy, or reading omens in the liver and intestines of a sacrificial animal, usually a 153

Oracles and Prophecy

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

ORACLES ANDPROPHECY

154

sheep. Archaeologists* have found clay models of livers with notes describing and locatingfeatures important in divination. These models have been found not only in Mesopotamia but also in Anatolia and Canaan, where extispicywas also practiced. Such practices produced "solicited" omens, or omens requestedby individuals at a particular timefind to the answersspecific to questions.Diviners also found omens in such things as the movementof a dropof water placed in a dish of oil (lecanomancy) or the patterns in a cloud of INCENSE smoke (libanomancy).Usually,the client askedfor a yes or no answer to a question. If the omen was unclear, the diviner could repeat the process. A diviner might also provide advice on how to avoid a bad outcome foretold by the omen. Not all omenswere solicited. Any abnormal or unusual event, such as the birth of a deformed animal or an earthquake,was seenas an omen, often signaling looming evil or danger. Such unsolicited omens usuallydiffered in their significance.For example,an untimely thunderstorm might be interpreted as an omen affecting a city or district.A larger event, such as an eclipse of the sun or a large earthquake, was an omen of national importance, perhaps signaling an invasion or the death of a king. Divine messages might also DREAMS come or to peoplein trances. Among the most common unsolicited omens were astral omens, which dealt with such events as eclipses, meteor showers,and the movements of the planets and stars. In ancient times, astronomers closely watched heavenly objects in the sky,and the observation of astral phenomena led to the development of astrology, the belief that the move ments of heavenly bodies correspond to events on earth. Over the course of time, omens were gathered and organized into handbooks, which people used as aids in interpreting divine signs. Omen handbooksfrom Mesopotamia contain long listsof divine signs written in a specificformat: "If thisis the sign: thisis what will happen/' Many of these signs dealt with situationsin everyday life—for example:"If a man washes himself with water in the corridor of the house: he will become old." The use of such books becamean important partof lifetodaily discover and control the supernatural also forces (See Astrology of the gods. and Astrologers; Oracles and Prophecy.)

I

n the ancient Near RELIGION East, MAGIC andwere two closely related expressions of the relations between people and the supernatural world. Both were concerned with obtaining certain types of knowledge: those that interpreted the will of the gods and foresaw the future. Many Near Eastern peoples believed that with the right methods and the aid of a trained priest, magician, or other practitioner, they could uncover the hidden knowledge that was all around them, waiting to be revealed. Oracles, which are communications from the godsin answerto questions, and prophecies, which are messages from the gods thatmay predict

Oracles and Prophecy the future, were two avenues by which supernatural or divine knowledge reached humans. The term oracle also refers to people who deliver the communications from the gods and who operate within the religious, royal, or social structures of society. They included priests or priestesses at temples and shrines. Prophets, in contrast, believed they were called—or commanded—to prophecy by their gods. They were driven by strong feelings to share their prophecies, which could be unexpected or even unwelcome. Like oracles, many prophets also worked for the temple or state, although some prophets appeared outside these establishments, driven by the urgency of their messages.

DIVINATION AND ORACLES Many ancient Near Eastern societies practiced divination, or the technique of interpreting signs to tell the future. Oracles often served as diviners because they could respond to people's questions about the future or about the meaning of certain occurrences.

plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

Types of Divination. Diviners in the ancient Near East helped explain the meaning of signs, including OMENS, or indications of coming events, either good or bad, and DREAMS. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, diviners looked for omens using ASTROLOGY, in which the movements of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars were thought to correspond to events or conditions in earthly life. Almost all cultures practiced divination through dreams. People regarded dreams as a channel through which the gods or dead ancestors communicated with individuals in the living world. However, the person who received the dream could not be the one who interpreted it; the process required separate individuals. Kings could receive divine commands through dreams. People sometimes slept in temples in the hope that the gods would appear in their dreams to give advice, a practice called incubation. Hittite texts contain descriptions of dreams along with omens and oracles. For example, one text describes how King Murshili II asked the gods to send a dream that would explain why his people were dying of a plague*. The Israelites also believed that dreams could contain communications from their god, YAHWEH. Oracular Process. An omen or a dream could appear on its own, but an oracle could be heard only when someone posed a specific question to the gods ab^ut the future or the meaning of events or things. Records of consultations with oracles provide the best documentation for Egyptian divination. According to these records, the general procedure was to present a prepared question that could be answered yes or no. The process of presenting the question was called "reaching the god." The subjects of questions varied widely and included such matters as nominations for offices and accusations of theft. The methods of acquiring the answer also differed from place to place. The Hittites relied on oracles to predict the success of almost all important undertakings in public and private life. Hittite texts contain 155

Oracles and Prophecy references to oracular inquiries about such matters as the course of a military campaign and illnesses in the royal family.

PROPHETS AND PROPHECIES * deity god or goddess

The Prophecy ofNeferti Composed during the reign of King \ Amenemhet 1 of the Twelfth Dynasty, The Prophecy of Nefertpsrais the king and celebrates his success in ending a chaotic period in Egypt-J ian history* Set fictitiously in the court of Fourth Dynasty king Sneferu, Neferti, a skilled scribe, sage, and priest, predicts the future. He foretells calamities for Egypt until a king from the south—Ameny {Amenemhet Intakes the two crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt and establishes stability and joy

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Prophecy in the ancient Near East was associated mainly with Israel, although prophets lived in other places as well. A prophet believed that a deity* had chosen him to communicate important information to an individual or a community. The prophet could obtain that information from his or her deity or from other supernatural beings—in the case of the Jewish prophet Zechariah, an angel—through a dream, a vision, or ecstasy. Prophets are described as inspired, sometimes even frenzied by the urgency with which divine messages are conveyed. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran. Texts unearthed at the Mesopotamian city of MARI include prophecies from the reign of ZIMRI-LIM, around 1760 B.C. Prophets claimed to be speaking for the god Dagan, who at the time had a broad regional appeal. Some of the prophecies deal with the safety of the king and military affairs, while others relate to the temple. Men and women could be prophets, but their message was conveyed to the king through intermediaries, such as the queen or governors. Very little evidence exists for prophecy in ancient Egypt. Several narratives dating back to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate periods (ca. 2675-1980 B.C.) contain prophecies, but they are all set after the predicted event had occurred. Although these documents contain messages and predictions, they do not attribute their statements to the gods. In IRAN, the religion called Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet Zoroaster around 600 B.C. Zoroaster spoke out against the priests and religious practices of his time and declared that the god AHURA MAZDA had revealed sacred truths to him. In Israel. The largest surviving collection of prophetic writings and stories about prophets is in the Hebrew BIBLE. The prophets of the Israelites received messages from Yahweh in dreams, in trances, or while awake. Among the best-known biblical prophets are ISAIAH, JEREMIAH, and Ezekiel, who left records of their utterances, while others, such as Elijah and Elishah, are known mostly through stories that involved them. There were also women prophets, such as Miriam, Huldah, and Deborah. Like Zoroaster, some of the prophets of ISRAEL AND JUDAH criticized the religious establishments of their eras for wandering from the path of true and righteous worship. They claimed to be speaking for Yahweh and often began their prophecies with the words "Thus says the Lord." The Israelite prophets may have answered a divine call, but they also fulfilled earthly functions. They advised kings on matters of foreign policy and directed their oracles at enemy nations. In the biblical Book of 2 Kings, prophets are even credited with initiating revolutions and appointing rival kings to the throne. They also analyzed and criticized royal actions from the point of view of the common people, helping to keep

Palaces and Temples kingly power within limits. The prophets, like all diviners and oracles, gave expression to the universal belief that the affairs of this world were linked to higher levels of existence. (See also Witchcraft.)

OSIRIS deity god or goddess

See [color plate 10, vol. 1.

* cult formal religious worship

Painting

PALACES AND TEMPLES * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

O

ne of the most important deities* of ancient Egypt, Osiris (oh»SY«ruhs) was the god of the dead, lord of the underworld, and protector of the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. He was also associated with rebirth, which was linked to human resurrection and the annual cycles of vegetation and flooding of the Nile River. Osiris and Isis, his sister and wife, played a central role in the bestknown Egyptian myth. Osiris was king of Egypt until he was killed by his evil brother SETH, who wanted to take the throne. Osiris was brought back to life by Isis, who gave birth to their son HORUS. Osiris then went to live in Duat, the Egyptian underworld. When Horus grew up he fought Seth and became king, and Isis joined Osiris in Duat. Some scholars believe that this myth was created to explain the death of an Egyptian king, who was considered a god, and to pave the way for the rightful successor. The Egyptians believed that their king was the "living god" Horus. When the king died, he was reborn as Osiris in Duat, and his son became Horus and thus the legitimate heir. The oldest and most important cult* center of Osiris was at ABYDOS. Because of his connection with death and kingship, Osiris was often depicted as a mummy wearing a crown and carrying a royal scepter, or staff. Although originally associated only with Egyptian kings, the myth of Osiris was later seen to offer the promise of resurrection for all people. The cult of Osiris became very popular and even spread beyond Egypt to the Greek and Roman worlds. (See also Amun; Cults; Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

See Art, Artisans, and Artists; Pottery; Wall Paintings.

P

alaces and temples were by far the most important buildings constructed in the ancient Near East. Ranging from modest structures to the largest and most magnificent ones, these buildings were the homes of kings and gods. They were the major centers of power in Near Eastern societies. Palaces and temples not only played crucial roles in the politics, GOVERNMENT, economy, and RELIGION of societies, but they also served as powerful symbols of both earthly and heavenly kingdoms. Because of their importance, palaces and temples were built to last. While many ancient buildings vanished into dust over the course of millennia*, the remains of a number of palaces and temples have survived, providing archaeologists* with evidence to reconstruct the history of ancient Near Eastern cultures. These structures provide information about ancient ARCHITECTURE and building techniques, and the artworks found 157

Palaces and Temples within them have helped increase our knowledge of ancient ART, ARTISANS, AND ARTISTS. Moreoever, the LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES excavated at these sites provide firsthand knowledge of ancient Near Easterners' political and business activities as well as their religious beliefs.

PALACES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST The palaces of the ancient Near East were the residences of kings and their families, as well as the centers of royal administration and government. The dual functionality was reflected in their layout and design, and a specific palace architecture was developed to meet the special needs and demands of these functions.

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

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Functions of Palaces. As the home of a king, the palace was equipped with kitchens, storage areas, dining areas, and living quarters. The size and level of comfort of these facilities varied according to the wealth of the ruler and his family. While the residences of some local rulers could be modest, the palaces of kings were large, magnificent structures. Decoration and artwork provided enjoyment for the king and served as symbols of his wealth and power. WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* depicted the king as a great warrior, protector, and builder. Palaces also served as the center of government and often contained large complexes of official rooms to serve the needs of the state. One of the most important official rooms was the throne room, where the king presided over the royal court and exercised his power. Palaces might also contain other ceremonial rooms, as well as workshops, treasuries, storerooms, and workrooms for scribes* and other members of the government bureaucracy*. Because the king played a central role in religion, palaces were often connected to temples and shrines. History of Palaces. Palaces did not always exist in the ancient Near East. In very early periods, the homes of local rulers were probably much like those of other people, though larger. However, as civilizations developed and the power of rulers grew, their residences became larger and more impressive. With the rise of large territorial states, the wealth, power, and responsibilities of kings expanded greatly. The size and splendor of their residences grew as well, becoming the first true palaces. Over the centuries, palaces became larger and more complex to meet the requirements of growing kingdoms and empires. This was especially evident in the palaces of great kings in imperial* capitals. Mesopotamian Palaces. The first true palaces in Mesopotamia were built in the early third millennium B.C.*, when large secular* buildings that were clearly different from temples and other official structures appeared. Among the earliest palaces of this period were ones built in the Sumerian cities of KISH and ERIDU. A classic example of an early Mesopotamian palace is the Babylonian Palace of the Governors at ESHNUNNA. Connected to a large temple complex, this building had an outer

Palaces and Temples

* citadel fortified place or stronghold that commands a city

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

* facade front of a building; also, any side of a building that is given special architectural treatment

Ninurta, a war god, was worshiped by ancient Mesopotamians. His principal cult center was the temple Eshumesha at Nippur, built during the first half of the second millennium B.C. From excavations at the ancient site of Nippur, archaeologists have obtained a great deal of information about the temple's activities, including the kind of staff it employed. This chart provides a list of some of the workers, whose responsibilities fell into three categories—religious, administrative, and domestic. While religious workers attended to the needs of the god, administrative and domestic workers oversaw the managerial aspects and upkeep of the temple. Some of these workers were considered specialists and worked at the temple on long-term appointments. Workers whose jobs did not require a high level of skill and training were probably replaced regularly.

courtyard for public affairs, an inner courtyard for more private functions, and a throne room used as an audience hall by the king. One of the best-preserved Mesopotamian palaces is the palace at MARI, which dates from the 1700s B.C. Much larger than the Palace of the Governors, it had more than 260 rooms on the ground floor and covered an area of more than five acres. The palace at Mari clearly reflected the dual function of Near Eastern palaces, with lavish and extensive living quarters for the king and his family, as well as a large complex of official areas. The official areas on the ground level of the palace included a richly decorated royal courtyard, a large throne room, a temple, ceremonial rooms, and storerooms for food and other goods. The second floor of the palace contained offices from which the king, officials, and bureaucrats governed the state. Among the largest Mesopotamian palaces were those of the Assyrians. Assyrian palaces have a design similar to that of the Palace of the Governors at Eshnunna, but they are much more extensive. The largest is the citadel* of SARGON II, built between 717 and 707 B.C. This palace had two outer courtyards, an enormous throne room, and living quarters. Assyrian palaces were usually single-story buildings, but there is some evidence that the king carried out religious ceremonies on the roof. The inner walls of rooms in the palace were covered with stone reliefs* showing scenes of the court, religious symbols, hunting scenes, and records of the king's military campaigns. The most magnificent palace of the Neo-Babylonian period (612-539 B.C.) was the Southern Citadel of BABYLON. In fact, King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II called it ''the marvel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining residence, the dwelling of majesty/' This great palace had a series of five courtyards, numerous reception rooms, a large throne room, and the other areas typical of large palaces. Its facade* was covered with glazed

STAFF OF THE Tg^ic AT NIPPUR Religious Staff high-priest lamentation-priest purification-priest high-priestess naditu [cloistered] priestess diviner snake charmer

Administrative Staff house suervisor treasurer accountant scribe overseer of the oil pressers

Domestic Staff miller cow herder oif-presser water-carrier fuel-carrier mat-maker weaver stonecarver (copper)-smith courtyard-sweeper barber guard

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Palaces and Temples ceramic bricks depicting lions and trees.In one cornerof the buildingwas an unusual arrangementof rooms identifiedby some scholars as site of the fabled HANGING BABYLON. GARDENS OF

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

160

Egyptian Palaces.Little has been preserved from the earliest palaces of ancient Egypt. Evidence suggests,however, thatthe architectural style of these palaces probably originatedin northern Egypt, perhaps influenced by Mesopotamia. When northern and southern Egypt were united at about 2000 B.C., the architectural stylewas adopted throughout the kingdom. The basicform of Egyptian palaceswas a mud brick* enclosure wall, within which were numerous buildings. The enclosure wallhad an elaborate pattern of recesses and projections on the facade that formed niches. These niches were plastered, painted white, and decorated with colored patterns and designs. The high walls of the palace enclosure dominated the skyline and were visible from great distances. The royal residences and buildings within the enclosure wall were built of brick as well. They included columned halls, reception areas, courtyards, private living quarters, artists' workshops, and areas for administration, storage, and other activities. The importance of the palace—and its symbolic role as the seat ofkingship—was reflectedin the term pharaoh ("great house"), which became the title of Egyptian kings during andafter the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. B.C.). 1539-1292 One of the most significant and best-preserved Egyptian palaces is the palace of Amenhotep THEBES. III atThis palace, situated next to a vast artificial lake, contained an extensive complexof buildings focusingon a series of rooms organized around columned hallsand open assembly areas. The structure was one story, but the halls were higher than the surrounding rooms, and their upper walls contained windows to let in air and light. In addition to official rooms, the palace contained apartmentsfor the pharaoh and for royal women different of ranks. Many of the interior

Palaces and Temples

Palatial Living Ancient Near Eastern rulers spared no expense in building, decorating, \ and maintaining their palaces. These buildings were not only the homes of the most important individuals in society and the seats of government, but they were also powerful symbols of the prosperity and prestige of the state. The luxury of palaces was an obvious ben fit to the ruler and his family. Yet the size and beauty of structures were meant to inspire awe in citizens—and perhaps fear in enemies because of the great power and wealth the buildings represented.

* diplomatic relating to the practice of conducting peaceful negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * deity god or goddess

* cult formal religious worship

walls and floors of the palace were decorated with brightly colored paintings related primarily to the world of nature. The ceilings of the public halls also had decorations, but they were more formal, often consisting of sacred symbols and designs. In ancient Egypt, a palace also served as an administrative center for high officials acting on behalf of the king. For instance, during the 1700s B.C., a palace at Avaris in the Nile Delta was used by an Egyptian official of the Thirteenth Dynasty. Bearing the title "overseer of foreign lands/' this official used the palace to conduct diplomatic* relations with the Minoans from CRETE and the Canaanites and other Semitic* peoples from the Levant* and SYRIA. Palaces in Other Regions. Palaces also were built by other groups in the ancient Near East, including the Hittites of Anatolia, the rulers of ancient Canaan and Israel, and the Persians. Although these structures different somewhat in layout and design, they all contained the same basic features and served the same purposes as Mesopotamian and Egyptian temples. A distinctive feature of palaces in Syria was a "half-timbered" construction, which consisted of a stone foundation with the walls above built of wooden beams and plaster. A number of Hittite palaces were built on fortified hill sites. The Persians often reoccupied the palaces of the rulers they conquered as they extended their empire.

TEMPLES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Temples in the ancient Near East were residences of the gods—the places where deities* lived and where humans served them. Temples also became important economic and social institutions. They controlled vast agricultural lands and other resources, providing products and work for members of the 'community. As centers of religious ritual and economic activity, temples also helped bring order and stability to the society and contributed materially and spiritually to its prosperity. Functions of Temples. Unlike churches, mosques, and synagogues of today, most of the temples of the ancient Near East were not places where ordinary people went to worship. Because they were thought to be the actual residences of the gods, temples were sacred sites and entrance was restricted to the king and the priests of the temple. In Near Eastern societies, the king was considered the chief priest of the state religion, and he was responsible for building and maintaining temples, performing religious rites and ceremonies, and supporting worship of the gods. How well he performed his duties was thought to have a significant impact on society, bringing prosperity or hardship to the kingdom because of the favor or displeasure of the gods. The day-to-day functioning of the temple was in the hands of the priests and other temple workers. The priests performed daily rituals involved with taking care of all the needs of the gods, whose presence in the temple was represented by statues and cult* images. To serve the gods properly, temples were equipped like households, with kitchens, tables (in the form of altars), receptions rooms, living and 161

Palaces and Temples

* hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks

Temples to the Sun Cod in ancient Egypt, a special type of temple was dedicated to the worship of the sun god Ra. These solar temples were very different in design from the temples dedicated to the other gods. They consisted of an enormous open courtyard that had an altar in the center for making animal sacrifices. As early as th Fifth Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.), solar temples were built in connection with pyramid complexes. A thousand years later, the growing dominance of Amun, the god of the sun-disk, under pharaoh Akhenaten led to the construction of huge solar temples that were among the largest temples ever built in ancient Egypt.

sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

162

sleeping quarters, and storage rooms. The operation of the temple "household" required a large staff of priests, craftspeople, scribes, and servants, many of whom lived within the temple or in surrounding buildings. Temple staffs, including priests, were organized according to a hierarchy* of roles and responsibilities. In many ways, the large staffs that administered the affairs of temples were very similar to the palace bureaucracies that ran the government of the states. Maintaining the temple and its staff required not only a complex administrative apparatus but also enormous economic resources. Some of the resources needed for the temple came as offerings and gifts from the king and worshipers. However, temples also controlled land, large herds of livestock, and workshops for the manufacture of various goods. Control of such resources brought great wealth to the temples and their administrators, making temples among the most important economic institutions of society and their administrators among the wealthiest. History of Temples. Temples were built in the Near East long before the first palaces. The earliest known remains of temples in Mesopotamia date from before 5000 B.C., although some archaeologists have discovered wall decorations and statues several thousand years older that may suggest the existence of temples at a much earlier time. In Egypt, the earliest evidence for sanctuaries* dates from only about 3000 B.C. The earliest temples were small, simple shrines. Nevertheless, their design and structure show certain elements that remained basic features of temples throughout ancient times, including altars and niches for god statues and cult images. Over time, temples increased in size and complexity, but they always kept various features that were unique and that distinguished them from palaces, their earthly counterparts. Mesopotamia!! Temples. Temples throughout Mesopotamia, no matter what their size, had several elements that distinguished them as sacred buildings. The most sacred part of a temple was the inner sanctuary, a large room where the statue of the deity stood in an alcove set in one of the building's short walls. An offering table stood nearby. One or more rooms, perhaps used for religious purposes or for storage, flanked the inner sanctuary along the temple's long walls. Often a staircase led to the roof, where some rituals were performed. The layout of the temple's sacred spaces generally followed a pattern that remained relatively unchanged over time. In addition to sacred spaces, temple complexes had courtyards and rooms designed for use by the priests in their daily life. Large complexes also had surrounding buildings with living and working areas for temple staff. The entire complex might be surrounded by a wall. Many Mesopotamian temples were build on platforms approached by sets of stairs. Shortly before 2000 B.C., this design feature had developed into platforms consisting of several raised terraces with a temple on top. Known as a ziggurat, this type of structure was a distinctive feature of Mesopotamian temple architecture and was found in nearly every important city. One of the latest and tallest, the ziggurat at Babylon, was built by King Nebuchadnezzar II and is believed to have risen nearly 300 feet high.

Palaces and Temples

me Temple of Soloi One of the most famous temples o the ancient Near East—and perhaps the most mysterious—was the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Built in the 900s B.C., during the reign of King Solomon, the temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in the 500s B.C. Nothing of this fabled temple has survived to the present day except descriptions of it in the Hebrew Bible. Modem archaeologists have the skills to excavate the site of the temple—known as the Temple Mount—but they cannot do so because of religious tensions and opposition from Jews Muslims, and Christians, all of whom claim the site as a holy place. Excavations of other temples have helped confirm that the biblical descriptions are probably accurate and that the Temple of Solomon was rather modest in size. Though no trace of the temple exists, it remains a powerful symbol < Jewish faith.

See color plate 9, vol. 1.

Egyptian Temples. Most early temples in Egypt were of rather modest size and made from simple materials. Like Egyptian palaces, these temples often had enclosure walls decorated with niches. The focus of each temple was a shrine to its god located in the enclosure. Some temples were built on platforms filled with clean sand, which may have symbolized the purity of creation. The walls and doorways often were decorated with elaborate scenes, either painted or carved in relief. In later centuries, the Egyptians built enormous temple complexes, such as the great temple at KARNAK dedicated to the god AMUN. These temple complexes featured massive enclosure walls surrounding the temple, storehouses, residences for priests, and other buildings. The temples themselves were long buildings that featured a series of large courtyards surrounded by columned halls. The inner sanctuary, which held the statue of the god, was set apart from the other temple areas by a surrounding corridor. It also had a raised floor and a separate roof, forming a virtual temple within a temple. While early temples were built primarily of mud brick, later temples were often built of stone. Some temples were even carved out of rock, such as the great temples of ABU SIMBEL. Temples continued to be colorfully decorated with both realistic scenes and symbolic designs. Most of the elements of temple design, including building materials and the placement of a temple on its site, had various symbolic meanings. Temples in Other Regions. Temples in other areas of the Near East, such as Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant, served functions similar to those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Their basic architectural elements were similar as well, although certain design and decorative elements reflected regional differences. One of the characteristic features of Hittite temples was an elaborate gateway that contained small chambers on each side for gatekeepers and attendants. A distinctive feature of some Levantine temples, called bench temples, was a series of low mud brick benches around the walls of the sanctuary and near the central altar. This bench was not for seating but was used for presenting offerings. With the rise of small nation-states in Canaan after 1200 B.C., temple architecture increasingly reflected local religious differences. Several temples in Israel, for example, had open courtyards containing sacrificial altars. Sometimes a staircase at the front of a temple led to an open porch whose roof was supported by two columns. The porch led into the large main chamber and behind that was the "holy of holies/' a small chamber at the back of the temple that contained the cult statue. Only high priests were allowed to enter this chamber. The most famous temple of the region, the fabled Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, no longer exists. The close association between that temple and the royal palace of King Solomon—which was part of a huge templepalace complex—reflected the close connection between temple and state that existed throughout the ancient Near East. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Bas-Reliefs; Cults; Economy and Trade; Gods and Goddesses; Land Use and Ownership; Priests and Priestesses; Property and Property Rights; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Ziggurats.) 163

Palestine Palestine

PAPYRUS Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Ancient Medical Knowledge One of the oldest known medical works is a collection : of Egyptian medical texts that were \ recorded on a papyrus roll around 1550 B.C Named after the German \- scholar George Ebers, who acquired \ the document in the late A.CX 1800s, \ the Ebers Papyrus contains hundreds of magical spells and folk remedies for various health problems, ranging from toenail pain to crocodile bites* It also contains an ; amazingly accurate description of human blood vessels and the func* l tioning of the heart. In addition to :;ft$ medical advice, the Ebers Papyrus * contains directions for getting rid of I such household pests as scorpions, F- rats, and flies.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

164

See Canaan; Philistines.

P

apyrus was the main writing material of ancient Egypt. Manufactured as early as 3000 B.C., it remained in use for some 4,000 years. By about 2000 B.C., the use of papyrus had also spread to Syria and parts of the Levant*, and much later, found its way to ancient Greece and Rome. Papyrus is a paperlike material made from the stems of the papyrus plant, a reed that grew widely in marshes and swamps in Egypt. Although stronger than paper, papyrus cannot survive rough handling, dampness, or fire. As a result, very few ancient papyri still exist. Most of those that survive were excavated at BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS in the desert regions bordering the Nile River in Egypt, where the dry climate helped preserve them from decay. A number of ancient papyri have also been found in the desert regions of the Levant and Mesopotamia.

Manufacture of Papyrus. The basic method of making papyrus remained unchanged for thousands of years. It required a great deal of skill, and the production of the material generally was left in the hands of specialized craftsmen, most of whom worked for the government. After the papyrus reeds were harvested, the long stems of the plant were cut into shorter pieces. The rough outer coating of these pieces was then removed, and the soft fiberlike material inside was cut or torn into long strips about an inch wide. A dozen or more of these strips were laid side by side, to form a layer. A second layer of strips was placed perpendicular to and over the first layer. The two layers were then covered with a cloth and pounded with a wooden mallet until they merged into a single sheet. This sheet was pressed under a heavy weight and left to dry. Dried sheets were often polished—perhaps by rubbing them with a smooth stone—to create a smooth finish. Finally, the edges of the sheets were trimmed. Several sheets of papyrus (20 was a standard number) were joined together to form a roll. To make this roll, the sheets were placed end-to-end, with each sheet overlapping the next by about half an inch. The overlapping edges were sealed with a starch paste. After drying, the pasted sheets were rolled up and tied with strings of papyrus fibers. Manufacturers almost always made rolls rather than separate sheets. If a single sheet of papyrus was required, it was cut from a roll. Use of Papyrus. Papyrus was used for writing many types of documents, from personal letters to government records, religious documents, and literary works. In ancient Egypt, scribes* usually wrote on complete rolls of papyrus rather than on separate sheets, which were used for letters. The rolls came in various heights, and rolls of different sizes were used for different types of documents. Typically, the more important the document, the taller the roll. Except for very important documents, most rolls were less than 16 inches in height, and many were less than 8 inches high.

Papyrus This painted relief from Egypt's Fifth Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.) depicts men gathering papyrus plants. Harvested papyrus stems were used to make not only writing material, but also baskets, rope, and even boats.

Most literary works and government documents took up a complete roll of papyrus. If a work was too long to fit on a standard roll (about 15 feet), additional sheets were pasted together to make the roll longer. One ancient Egyptian document that records temple donations during the reign of Ramses III was a papyrus roll 141 feet long. If a work was too short to fill a standard roll, excess sheets were cut off. In the case of school texts and private copies of literary works, several works were often written on one roll. Completed papyri were rolled and retied with papyrus strings. Such rolls often were sealed with a small amount of clay, which might be marked with identifying SEALS. Completed single sheets of papyrus were folded to form a small package and then tied and sealed. The contents of the roll—or the address in the case of a letter—were written on the outside. Sets of completed papyrus rolls were tied together and stored in boxes, baskets, pots, or bags, and the containers were labeled to indicate their contents. In some temples and government buildings, specific rooms were set aside for the storage of papyrus rolls. Papyrus was relatively expensive, costing about one-fifth of a skilled worker's monthly wages. It was also in short supply during the seasons of the year when papyrus plants were not yet ready for harvest. Because of cost and seasonal shortages, it was common practice to recycle papyrus by washing off old text and writing new text on it.

bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* commodity article of trade * monopolize to control exclusively or dominate a particular type of business * Middle Ages period between ancient and modern times in western Europe, generally considered to be from the A.D. 500s to the 1500s

Importance of Papyrus. Nearly all ancient Egyptian documents were written on papyrus. Many scholars think that the invention of this writing material accompanied the development of bureaucracy* in Egypt, which necessitated the maintenance of extensive government records. Papyrus was a more convenient and flexible writing material than the CLAY TABLETS used in ancient Mesopotamia, although it was not as durable. By about 2000 B.C., papyrus had become an important export commodity* in Egypt, and its manufacture was monopolized* by the royalty. Light in weight, easily transported, and conveniently stored, it remained the most important writing material in the Mediterranean world until the Middle Ages*, when it was replaced by parchment and vellum, which were made from animal skins. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Egypt and the Egyptians; Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)

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Parthia

PARTHIA * satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar • Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. r

aristocracy privileged upper class

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

See map in Persian Empire (vol. 3).

PATRIARCHS AND MATRIARCHS OF ISRAEL

P

arthia (PAHR»thee*uh) was the ancient name for the region that corresponds to present-day northeastern Iran. The term also is used to refer to the Parthian empire, which flourished there between 247 B.C. and A.D. 224. The empire served as a link between the Near East and the Far East and a bridge between the ancient world and the world of Islam. Nothing is known about Parthia before the 550s B.C. except that the Parthians were members of horse-riding tribes from CENTRAL ASIA and that Parthia was a satrapy* of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. In 330 B.C., when the Persian empire was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Parthia became a satrapy of his Macedonian empire. When Alexander died in 323 B.C., it became a satrapy of the succeeding SELEUCID EMPIRE. In 247 B.C., a Parthian satrap named Arsaces I revolted against the Seleucids and founded the Parthian empire and the Arsacid dynasty. Although he was not Parthian, Arsaces spoke the Parthian dialect* and adopted the region's Hellenistic* culture. Later kings expanded the empire, and by 124 B.C., it included all of Iran and territory from MESOPOTAMIA to India. The empire was divided into provinces and ruled by a small aristocracy*. The Parthian king was the supreme ruler, but the outlying provinces had a considerable degree of independence. The empire prospered and expanded during the reigns of Mithradates I (ruled 171-138 B.C.) and Artabanus II (ruled 128-124 B.C.). Artabanus was succeeded by Mithradates II, also known as Mithradates the Great. During his reign, Parthia was attacked repeatedly by Armenians from the northeast and Scythians from the northwest. Mithradates defeated both groups and further expanded the empire. When he died in 88 B.C., rival dynasties* struggled to take control of the empire until 70 B.C., when Phraates III took over the throne and restored stability. Beginning in 54 B.C., the Romans launched repeated attacks against Parthia for about 200 years, weakening the empire. Finally, in A.D. 224, the Parthians were overthrown by the Persians of the Sasanian dynasty, and the Parthian empire ended. Because of the Parthians' location and large territory, they controlled most of the trade routes between Asia and the Mediterranean. They used the wealth they gained from this trade to implement and fund their extensive building programs. In both their buildings and their artworks, the Parthians showed an interesting blend of Asian and Greek influences. (See also Iran; Scythia and the Scythians.)

T

he patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel are considered the most influential ancestors of the Israelites. These men and women whose stories are told in the Hebrew BIBLE include Abraham and his wife, Sarah; their son Isaac and his wife, Rebecca; Isaac's son Jacob and his wives, Rachel and Leah; and Jacob's son Joseph. The stories of the patriarchs and matriarchs explain the origins of the Israelites and why they were selected as their god YAHWEH'S "chosen people."

Abraham and Sarah. The first patriarch, Abraham (also known as Abram), lived in Ur of the Chaldees (city and district in Mesopotamia). According to the Bible, Yahweh commanded Abraham to leave Ur and

166

Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel travel to CANAAN. In return for Abraham's obedience, Yahweh promised him that his descendants would inherit Canaan—the Promised Land. Abraham believed Yahweh's promise of an heir, but his wife, Sarah, was doubtful. Childless, she believed that she was too old to have children. To fulfill Yahweh's promise, Sarah urged Abraham to father a child by her slave, Hagar, whom she could claim as her own. Sarah herself later gave birth to a son, Isaac, and forced Hagar and her son Ishmael to leave the household. In Islamic tradition, Ishmael is considered the father of the Arabs. Abraham is thus revered as an ancestor by Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. One important story about Abraham concerns the potential sacrifice of Isaac. While Isaac was still a boy, Yahweh commanded Abraham to prove his obedience by sacrificing Isaac. At the last moment, however, Yahweh gave Abraham a ram to sacrifice in Isaac's place. This story reemphasizes Abraham's faith in Yahweh, who rewards him by promising him future power and glory. Isaac &nd Rebecca. When Sarah died, her death was a terrible blow to Isaac. To relieve his son's grief, Abraham sent a messenger to Mesopotamia to find Isaac a wife. The messenger left it up to God to choose the proper wife for Isaac: Rebecca. After 20 years of marriage, Rebecca gave birth to twins named Esau and Jacob. Yahweh tells Rebecca that both of her sons will establish great nations, but that the older son (Esau) will serve the younger one (Jacob). When her sons became young men, Jacob secured the right of firstborn from Esau, and Rebecca tricked Isaac, who had gone blind, into giving his blessing to Jacob instead of to Esau because she believed that Jacob would make the better leader. When Esau realized he had been deceived, he became angry, and Jacob was forced to flee for his life. During this journey, Yahweh appeared to Jacob and confirmed the promise originally made to Abraham, that Jacob would have numerous descendants who would possess much land.

concubine mistress to a married man

Jacob, Rachel, and Leah. Jacob went to live with his uncle Laban in Upper Mesopotamia, where he fell in love with Rachel, Laban's younger daughter. To win her as his wife, Jacob worked for Laban for seven years. At the wedding ceremony, Laban substituted his older daughter Leah for Rachel. Jacob was also given Rachel but then worked another seven years to deserve her. Jacob had 13 children by his two wives and their two servants, Zilpah and Bilhah, who became his concubines*. After many years in Upper Mesopotamia, Jacob returned to Canaan with his family. On the way, he had a physical struggle with a divine being—either Yahweh or an angel— after which his name was changed to Israel. This name was later used for the nation of Israel. Once back in Canaan, Jacob made up with Esau. Jacob's sons were ancestors to the 12 tribes into which the Israelite people were later divided. Joseph. Joseph was the son of Jacob and Rachel. Joseph was also his father's favorite son. When Jacob gave him a splendid "coat of many colors," 167

Peasants

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

PEASANTS * illiterate unable to read or write

Joseph's brothers became jealous and sold him as a slave to a group of traveling merchants, who took him to Egypt. After many episodes in Egypt, Joseph gained the pharaoh's* favor by interpreting the ruler's dreams. Joseph warned that the dreams referred to a coming famine* and advised the pharaoh to store the grain from a preceding period of good harvests. This advice saved Egypt from the famine and earned Joseph the pharaoh's gratitude and an important position in the kingdom. The same famine drove Joseph's brothers to Egypt in search of food. They met Joseph but did not recognize him because more than 20 years had passed since they sold him. He recognized them, however. Joseph finally revealed himself to his brothers and forgave them. He then invited them all to settle in Egypt, where the family grew, becoming the Israelites. After many generations, the Israelites (known to the Egyptians as the Hebrews), who had become slaves, left Egypt under the leadership of MOSES. They eventually resettled in Canaan and established the nation of Israel. History and Meaning of the Stories. Scholars debate whether the patriarchs and matriarchs are actual historical figures. Those who do believe that they are place their origins in Upper Mesopotamia during the second millennium B.C.* Some scholars argue that the patriarchs and matriarchs symbolize the earliest people who accepted Yahweh. From a religious standpoint, the stories reinforce the early Israelite belief that they were a "chosen people" and that the blessing and protection of Israel and its people depends on obedience to and faith in their god, Yahweh. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Monotheism; Religion; Theology.)

P

easants were free laborers—agricultural laborers, craftspeople, and herders—who worked outside urban centers. They comprised the majority of the population of the ancient Near East and played a crucial role in AGRICULTURE, the basis of every economy. Despite their importance to the prosperity of early civilizations, scholars know very little about peasants. They were illiterate* and could not keep records of their lives. The literate classes did not write about peasants except for administrative purposes, such as recording taxes collected from them. Consequently, much of the information scholars possess about peasants is based on inferences from other sources. Peasant Work. Most peasants in the ancient Near East were tenant farmers, who toiled in fields owned by temples, kings, or other members of the ruling class. They were paid with rations, which consisted of a portion of the crops they harvested, or products from the animals they tended. Most peasants worked under overseers, who managed the land for its owner and often had complete control over the peasants. Peasants' duties were not limited to working the fields. Under a system of forced labor known as corvee, peasants had to perform work for

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Perfumes * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

the state for one or two months each year. In the Hittite kingdom of KHATTI, this could include building public works, such as fortifications*, temples, or roads. In addition to these duties, peasants in Egypt were required to perform military service as well. The role of the peasant in ancient Mesopotamian society changed over time. From about 3500 to 2000 B.C., most peasants worked for the temples, receiving rations in return. In the early second millennium B.C.*, lands were held by private individuals who paid the peasants in rations. Some peasants traveled and hired themselves out as workers or sold themselves into slavery. By the late second millennium B.C., when the economies of Mesopotamia began to disintegrate, peasants who could no longer handle their burden and lack of rights went to live on royal land. Ancient Near Eastern peasants who worked as farmers and those who worked as herders depended on each other for survival. In order for crops to grow, farmers needed the herders to bring their animals, such as oxen, to the fields to plow them. Peasant Life. The life of a peasant in the ancient Near East was difficult. Between the long hours tending crops and the corvee system, peasants had little free time. They rested on the occasional festival day, at which time the landlord might give them extra food or a jar of beer or wine. Most peasants struggled to survive on the food and produce they received as wages. Some peasant households owned poultry and goats that helped meet some of their food needs. Peasants in Egypt typically lived in tiny mud huts clustered together in villages that often lacked fresh water or sanitation. Despite their poverty, peasants were taxed regularly and faced being beaten if they failed to pay the tax. After suffering years of poor living conditions, some peasants abandoned the land and their families and moved to cities. Others formed outlaw bands and roamed the countryside assaulting travelers and isolated villages. (See also Land Use and Ownership; Labor and Laborers; Taxation.)

PERFUMES * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * incense fragrant spice or resin burned as an offering

H

ow fragrant your perfumes, more fragrant than all other spices/' wrote the author of the Song of Songs in the Hebrew BIBLE. Many ancient texts reveal an appreciation for perfumes, fragrant substances worn for personal adornment or used to beautify the air. Ingredients in perfumes, especially frankincense and myrrh*, became major trade items in the ancient Near East. Perfumes originated in the ancient Near East after people there had formed the custom of burning incense* at religious and healing rituals. Kings began to use fragrant woods in the construction of their palaces. Eventually, people started using aromatic spices and other fragrances in everyday life, although such delights were very costly. Ancient perfumes generally consisted of plant oils or animal fats to which aromatic substances were added. Sometimes they combined ingredients such as roses, myrtle, sandalwood, cinnamon, blue water lilies and

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Persepolis hennaflowers (especiallyinEgypt),andhyacinth saffron and (prized by the Israelites)to create distinctive scents. Perfumes were usedinrituals,asmedicinal treatments,and incosmetics. The Egyptians used aromatic creams MUMMIES andfor oils toprepare entombment. They also wore scented cones of fat onwigs forspecial occasions. As the warmthoftheir bodies meltedthefat, the perfumespread. InMESOPOTAMIA, perfumeswere oftenmade bywomen andwere used in medicine, magic, rituals, andcosmetics.Forinstance, herbalists sold scented medical resinsandperfumed cosmetic creams.Theancients created a variety ofjars and spoonsforstoringandhandling perfumes, scented body creams, bath oils,andother fragrances.Such containersare among the finest decorative objectsofalso (See theCosancient world. metics; Economy and Trade; Hair; Incense.)

PERSEPOLIS

See map inPersian Empire (vol. 3).

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T

he city of Persepolis(puhr«SE»puh«lis),also known Parsa, as was the capital of PERSIAN the EMPIREunder theAchaemenid dynasty. Thecity was founded around B.C., by518 Persian king Darius I toreplace theformer Persian capitalofPasargadae.It wascompletedbyDarius;successor, s XERXES. Other Persian kings also made additionsto thecity, butmost of it was built by DariusandXerxesoveraperiodofnearly60years. Because Persepolis waslocated in aremote, mountainous region,it was not convenient for theroyaltytoreside there. Persian kingsandtheir families probably only lived there in thespring. Much of theadministration of the empire wascarried out inother cities. Thus,it islikely that Persepolis wasmainly aceremonial center where coronations, royal burials, and other important ceremonies took place.

Persian Empire

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

PERSIAN EMPIRE

The city was built on a huge stone terrace almost 50 feet high and measuring about 1,400 feet from north to south and 1,000 feet from east to west. Two stone staircases led from the plain to a single gatehouse at the top of the terrace. Palaces, audience halls, and other structures were constructed atop the terrace. The largest structure was the audience hall of Darius and the 100-column throne hall of Xerxes. Both were located in the center of the terrace, dividing it into two halves. The northern half of the terrace was devoted to the military. The southern half contained the palaces of Darius and Xerxes, living quarters of the royal family, and the state treasury building, where most of the empire's wealth was stored. All the buildings and other structures, including the staircases, were extensively decorated with bas-reliefs* and inscriptions. Around 330 B.C., Persepolis was captured and partially burned by ALEXANDER THE GREAT. The city then became a provincial* capital in the Macedonian empire, but it declined in importance during the succeeding SELEUCID EMPIRE. Today Persepolis lies in ruins, and the remains of the royal palaces and other colossal structures are the only evidence of its former grandeur.

T

he Persian empire flourished in the ancient Near East from 550 to 330 B.C. The empire began in ancient IRAN and came to include a vast territory stretching from Greece to India. It was the largest empire of the time, and its extent was unsurpassed until the advent of the Roman Empire, which reached its peak many centuries later. The Persian empire was a model for later empires because it demonstrated how a centralized government could bring together different peoples and cultures.

HISTORY * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

People of Indo-European origin began to settle in Iran more than 1,000 years before the Persian empire was founded. The empire itself can be divided into two periods: the period of the first Persian empire, from 550 to 522 B.C., and the period of the Achaemenid dynasty*, from 521 to 330 B.C. Early History of the Persians in Iran. Around 1200 B.C., people who spoke Indo-European languages began arriving in northeastern Iran from the CAUCASUS region between the Caspian and Black Seas. By the 900s B.C., two groups, the Persians and the MEDES, had gained control of most of Iran. The Medes lived in northern Iran, which was called Media, and the Persians lived in southern Iran, which was called Persia. Around 700 B.C., according to later traditions, the Persians were ruled by a king named Achaemenes. His descendants, known as the Achaemenid family, later became the royal family of the Persian empire. Achaemenes divided his kingdom between two of his sons, who later formed the two branches of the Achaemenid family. Each branch produced a line of Persian kings. The first line included*CYRUS THE GREAT, founder of the first Persian empire. The second line of kings began with Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, founder of the Achaemenid 171

Persian Empire

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomad person who travels fromplace to place to find food and pasture

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dynasty. Aroundthe same time, accordingtoHERODOTUS, Greek historian the Medes were unifiedbytheir king DeiokesandformedtheKingdom of Media. By the late B.C.,600s the Medeshad conquered Persia andmade it a vassal*. The First Persian Empire. B.C., In Persia the500s wasruledby aking named Cambyses I, who was among the earliest Achaemenid kings. When Cambyses died B.C.,inhis559 son, CyrusII,later known asCyrus the Great, took overasrulerofPersia. Cyrus II wasvery ambitious and set out to gain power and improve the position of thePersians inIran. He also negotiated an alliance with the Babylonians against theMedes. In 550B.C., he led a revolt againstthe Medes with help fromtheBabylonians. The Medes were defeated,and the Persians took controlof the Median kingdom, markingthe beginningof first the Persian empire. Cyrus immediately began to increasethe territoryof hisempire.He attacked Lydiaand captured B.C. SARDIS, itsThen capital, in he 547led his army in capturing all the Greek city-states* along thewestern coastof ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). B.C.,heIn turned 540on hisformer Babylonian alliesand captured BABYLONthe following year. This conquest gave Cyrus control of all the land westofIrantoEgypt. B.C. Cyrus died in 529 while trying todefeat atribeofnomads*inCentral Asia,althoughthe exact circumstances are in dispute. Cyrus's successor,CAMBYSES his son II,launchedasuccessful attack against Egyptand established Persian NILEforts RIVER. along Then thehe mounted unsuccessful attacks CARTHAGE, against Nubia,andAmon, an oasis in the Egyptian desert. B.C., hearing In 522 of anuprisinginIran,

Persian Empire Cambyses set out to return home to regain control of his kingdom. However, he died on the way, and one of his generals, later known as Darius I, went on to Iran to end the revolt. It took Darius and his troops more than a year to gain control. In 521 B.C., Darius succeeded to the throne.

Life in Iran Before the Persians The Persians were not the first people to settle in Iran. Archaeologists have found sites in Iran that were settled at least 5,000 years before the Persians arrived. One site, Ali Kosh, has more than 20 feet of accumulated deposits* Deposits from the lowest layer, which dates back to 7500 B.C., show that the earliest inhabitants gathered wild plants, cultivated wheat and barley, and herded goats and sheep. Deposits from higher layers are more recent, dating from about 6500 B.C. They show that by this time the inhabitants were living in well-built houses, making baskets and pottery, and taking part in a farreaching trade network.

* satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The Achaemenid Dynasty. Although Darius was from the Achaemenid family, he did not belong to the branch that had produced the first line of Persian kings. He was from the second branch of the family, which became known as the Achaemenid dynasty. It was during the reign of this dynasty that the Persian empire grew to its largest extent. Darius undertook an expansionist policy and gained control of large sections of northern India, as well as land previously controlled by the Scythians to the west and north of the Black Sea. He led his troops into Europe as far as the Danube River, although he failed to conquer any new lands there. Darius also invaded Greece, but he was defeated in the battle at Marathon in 490 B.C. Darius planned to return to Greece with a much larger force, but a revolt in Egypt and Darius's own death in 486 B.C. prevented him from carrying out his plan. Darius was succeeded by his son XERXES, who quickly put down the revolt in Egypt. Xerxes also ended a revolt in Babylonia in 482 B.C. Unlike Cyrus and Darius, who had ruled foreign lands with tolerance, Xerxes ruthlessly imposed his will. He next turned his attention to Greece, conquering northern Greece after the battle at Thermopylae in 480 B.C. He then led his troops to Athens, where they burned down the Acropolis. Shortly thereafter, Xerxes returned to Iran. His troops were later defeated by the Greeks in the battle of Plataea, and with that defeat, the Persian invasion of Greece came to an end. In the later years of his rule, Xerxes lost interest in foreign conquests and focused on domestic problems. He was assassinated in 465 B.C. The death of Xerxes marked a turning point in the history of the Achaemenid dynasty. The kings who followed Xerxes —Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, and Darius II—were weak and struggled to retain control of the empire. Their reigns were plagued by rebellions, including one in Egypt that took five years to bring under control. Xerxes II was assassinated in a court intrigue after ruling for less than two months. Darius II was faced with several rebellions, including one by the Medes. In 404 B.C., Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius II. During his 45-year reign, Persia fought a 13-year war with the Greek city-state of Sparta. In the peace treaty that was signed at the end of the war, Greece gave up its claims in Anatolia to the Persians. Also during Artaxerxes' reign, Egypt revolted against Persia. The Egyptians were successful, and Egypt regained its independence. Artaxerxes tried to regain control of Egypt but failed. In 370 B.C., several satraps* mounted an unsuccessful revolt against him. Although these uprisings were put down, the Persian state was weakened, and Artaxerxes was assassinated in 359 B.C. Artaxerxes III took over the throne on the death of Artaxerxes II. He ordered the deaths of many of his relatives, whom he feared might challenge his rule, but revolts continued. He tried to regain control of Egypt, but without success, encouraging rebellions in other parts of the empire, including the Levant*. In 343 B.C., Artaxerxes led another attack on

173

Persian Empire

The Storyof the FakeBardiya Accordingto Darius the Great, in 521B.C,when KingCambyses was fightinginEgypt he was informed thathisbrother Bardiya had led a revoltandseizedthe throne Iran. in Cambysesdied before he could return homeand reclaim the throne, but as he lay dying, he revealed to his troopsthatthe Bardiya who had seizedthethrone was fake. Apa parently,Cambyses knew that the realBardiyawas not on the throne becausehe had already had thereal Bardiyakilled. Ironically, Cambyses had arrangedhis brother's death becausehefearedhe would try to seizethethrone while Cambyses wasaway*

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Persepolisfalls to Alexander the Great, and the Persian empire ends.

Egypt. This time he wassuccessful although the Egyptian king escaped to Nubia, where he established an independent B.C.,kingdom. ArtaxIn 338 erxes III was poisoned by an administrator named Bagoas. After Artaxerxes' death, Bagoas attempted to become the power behind the Persian throne and appointed an Achaemenid prince named Arses king. However,Arsesfailed to be a puppet king, and he was was killed and replaced on the throne by Darius III, who hadBagoas put to death. 336B.C., Darius suppressed a rebellion in Egypt. However, Persian success was short-lived, and the end of the Persian empire was near. In 334B.C., ALEXANDER GREAT MACEDONIA THE of launched an attack on the Persian empire with an army of 40,000 troops. Four years later, the Persian capital PERSEPOLIS of fell to Alexander,and the Persian empire came to an end. Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was murdered whilefleeingfrom Alexander.

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF PERSIAN EMPIRE THE

The Persian empire was ruled by a supreme king who was assisted by a royal court and a large bureaucracy*. The empire was divided satrapies, each ruled by a satrap. Both the military and law were important elements of the empire.

The Central Government. The king was at the center of the Pe empire. His traditional title was "king of kings" because he ruled as th supreme authority. The king also was considered divine. The royal court was composed of wealthy landowners, high-ranking militaryofficers, priests, government officials, and the wives and relatives of the king. The king and his court usually resided at Susa, but moved Ecbatana in the summer and Persepolis in the spring. On occasion, court moved to Babylon. A smaller version of the court traveled with the king when he visited distant provinces. The government's work was carried out by a large bureaucracy. Most government workers were scribes*, the majority of whom worked at the royal treasuries. The bureaucracy was highly organized, and all government workers were managed by a hierarchy* officials of headed by the king.

Satrapies and Satraps. The number of satrapies into w pire was divided and their boundaries varied over time. There were just 20 satrapies at the beginning of the reign of Darius the Great. As the empire grew, the number increased. first, At the satraps were appointed by the king, oftenfrom among his relatives. In the later years of the empire, a number of satraps inherited their positions. Although many satraps were very powerful, they were watched officials by from the king's court, known as the "king's eyes."

The Military. The Persian army was responsible for conquering and re taining thefar-flung lands that comprised the empire. Troops were tioned permanently at strategic locations throughout the empire t

Persian Empire

down rebellions and protect trade routes.At thebeginningof the empire, the army wascomposed onlyofPersian soldierswhowere drafted to fight for the king.Laterit wascomposedofhired professional soldiers. During wartime, soldiers were draftedthroughouttheempire.

* scribe person of alearned class who served as a writer, editor,orteacher * hierarchy division ofsociety or an institution into groups with higher lower ranks

* tribute payment made by asmaller or weaker party to amore powerfulone, often under the threat offorce

Law. The Persians were notedfortheir justice.One oftheir greatest achievements was the formulation andimplementation of aunified code of laws that appliedtoeveryonein theempire. This systemof laws made an important contribution totheir ability torule their vast empire for more than two centuries. DariustheGreat,inparticular, cameto be known as a great lawgiverandlegal reformer.Hereformedthe taxlaws of the empire and instituted a tax onagricultural produce, which variedacandcording to thesize of the harvest. Economy. Agriculture was themain sourceofwealthin thePersianempire. Landholdingsvaried insize, fromplots toosmalltosupport more than a single individual toestates ownedbywealthy familiesandworked by hundreds ofpeasant farmers.Muchof theproduce fromfarming went to the central government fortaxes, rents, andtribute*. Therefore,the government took an active role inboosting agricultural productivity. It invested state resources inbuilding irrigation works, improving crops, and developing better farming techniques. Another sourceofroyal wealthwastrade.Thegovernment took steps to promote this sector of theeconomy. Itsponsored voyagestoseeknew trading partners, encouraged thedevelopment ofports on thePersian Gulf, standardized weights andmeasures,anddevelopedandcirculated coins. The government also built andmaintained asuperior systemof roads that linked Persia with itsmajor trade partners.Theroads also served vital administrativeandmilitary purposes. 175

Persian Empire

PERSIAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE Society and culture were as varied as the peoples who had been brought together under Persian rule. The tolerance of most kings allowed this variety to flourish. The society and culture of the Persians themselves were based on Iranian traditions. However, the Persians were greatly influenced by the peoples who became part of the empire. * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

* deity god or goddess * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

imperial Imports The royal architecture of the Persian empire was created from the most expensive materials and by the most highly skilled workers in the empire. This is clear from a descrip tion of the construction of the palace at Susa that was written by Darius the Great It lists timber from Lebanon, Candara, and Carmania; gold from Sardis and Bactria; lapis lazuli and carnelian from Sogdiana turquoise from Chorasmia; silver and ebony from Egypt; ornamenta tion from Ionia; ivoiy from Ethiopia Sind, and Arachosia; stonecutters from Ionia and Sardis; goldsmiths from Media and Egypt; woodworkers from Sardinia and Egypt; and brickworkersfrom Babylonia.

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Language. The Persians spoke a dialect* of Iranian called Old Persian. The language was first written when Darius the Great ordered that a script be invented so that he could leave a lasting record of his rise to power on the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. However, Old Persian was never the language of the administration of the empire. Instead, the language most widely used for administrative purposes was Aramaic. The adoption of a single language as the official language of the empire no doubt contributed to the empire's success. Many other languages were spoken throughout the empire, including Elamite, another language that was used for administrative purposes. Religion. The earliest Persians to enter Iran worshiped many deities*. These deities were associated with fundamental aspects of nature and daily life and with basic concepts such as truth and justice. Traditional rituals included sacrificing animals, drinking alcoholic beverages, and using fire. Around 600 B.C., a great Iranian religious prophet* and teacher named Zoroaster emerged in northeastern Iran. Zoroaster's teachings stressed moral behavior and truthfulness. He taught that the only true god was AHURA MAZDA, the traditional Persian god of goodness, and demoted the other traditional deities to demons. A new religion, called Zoroastrianism, which was based on Zoroaster's teachings, emerged and became the religion of the Achaemenid dynasty. Art and Architecture. Some of the finest examples of art and architecture in the Persian empire were created for the kings. The most extensive building programs, such as the building of the capital city of Persepolis, were carried out primarily by Darius the Great and Xerxes. Persepolis is considered one of the great artistic achievements of the ancient world. It is praised for its well-proportioned ground plan, rich architectural ornamentation, and magnificent bas-reliefs*. Persian kings brought together artists, architects, craftspeople, and materials from all over the empire to create their magnificent buildings, monuments, and artworks. Although the finished products are distinctly Persian, almost every detail can be traced to a foreign source. One of the few exceptions is the columned hall, an Iranian invention dating to the first millennium B.C.* The Persians themselves were especially skilled in metalworking, jewelry making, seal cutting, and pottery making. Their gold work is especially noteworthy for its fine quality. (See also Artaxerxes I, II, and III; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Darius I and Darius HI; Elam and the Elamites; Lydia and the Lydians; Susa and Susiana; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

PERSIAN WARS city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory

strait narrow channel that connects two bodies of water

T

Persian Wars

he Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the PERSIAN EMPIRE and Greece that took place between 492 and 449 B.C. In these wars, an alliance of small Greek city-states* defended their homelands against conquest by the Persians. The ultimate victory of the Greeks humiliated the Persians and helped ensure the survival of Greek culture and traditions.

Background of the Wars. During the mid-500s B.C., the Persian kings CYRUS THE GREAT and his son CAMBYSES II began extending Persian rule westward toward the AEGEAN SEA. After defeating the Lydians in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in 547 B.C., the Persians gradually conquered several small Greek city-states in Ionia, a region in western Anatolia. In 499 B.C., the Ionian Greeks began to rebel against Persian rule. They received some support— a small fleet — from the city-states of Athens (located on the Greek mainland) and Eretria (located on the island of Euboea). The Greek fleet attacked the city of SARDIS, the main Persian stronghold in Anatolia, but the Persian satrap* there defended the city until more Persian troops arrived and forced the Greeks to retreat. Although the Ionian Revolt gained strength the following year, the Persians ultimately triumphed. The Ionian Revolt had important consequences for mainland Greece. The Persian king, DARIUS I, was angered by the Athenians' participation in the revolt. He planned to punish the Greeks and extend his empire by invading the Greek mainland. History of the Wars. In 492 B.C., Darius sent a large army and a fleet of 600 ships to attack Greece. However, the invasion faltered when part of the Persian fleet was wrecked by a storm off the Greek coast. Two years later, Darius assembled a stronger fleet and launched another invasion. This time, the Persians reached the coastal plain of Marathon and started to advance toward Athens, about 25 miles to the southwest. The Athenians asked Sparta for help, but before the Spartans could arrive, the Athenians seized an opportunity to attack and won a stunning victory over the Persians. After losing more than 6,000 men in this defeat, the disgraced Persians returned home. Ten years passed before the Persians were prepared to invade again. In 480 B.C., King XERXES, Darius's son and successor, arrived in Greece with a large army and navy. The Persians began marching to Athens, but a small Greek force led by King Leonidas of Sparta held them for two days at a narrow mountain pass called Thermopylae. Xerxes and his army found another route through the mountains and circled back to attack the Spartans from behind. Realizing what was happening, Leonidas sent most of his men away, but those who remained fought until their deaths. The Persians then moved on to Athens, which they captured and burned without a fight because the Athenians had abandoned the city while the Persians were delayed at Thermopylae. Meanwhile, the Greeks decided that their best chance against the Persians was at sea. Some Persian ships had already been destroyed in a storm, and the Greek naval commander Themistocles devised a plan to defeat the rest of the fleet. Pretending to retreat, Themistocles lured the Persian navy into a narrow strait* off the island of Salamis, near Athens. When the Persians 177

Pharaohs entered the strait, the Greek fleet attacked, destroying and capturing many enemy ships. Xerxes, who was watching from a hilltop, saw the remnants of his mighty fleet sail away in defeat. Xerxes returned to Persia after the defeat at Salamis, but he left a military force in Greece to continue the Persian conquest. These troops invaded and devastated the region of Attica in eastern Greece, but when a Greek army began advancing against them, the Persians withdrew northward into the neighboring region of Boetia. In 479 B.C., Greeks forces defeated the Persians in Boeotia at the battle of Plataea. The same year, the Greeks also defeated a Persian fleet at Mycale, off the coast of Anatolia. The Greek victories at Plataea and Mycale ended the threat of a Persian invasion of mainland Greece, but the wars continued in Anatolia for another 30 years. In 478 B.C., a number of Greek city-states formed an alliance called the Delian League to defend themselves against further Persian threats. Led by the Athenians, the league also launched an attack on the Persians in Ionia to regain independence for the Greek city-states there. Between 478 and 449 B.C., the Greeks waged war almost continuously against the Persians in Anatolia. By the end of that period, they had strengthened Greek power in Ionia and prevented any further Persian attempts at conquest in the Aegean. Hostilities between the Greeks and Persians finally ended in 449 B.C., when the two sides signed the Peace of Callias, which marked the formal end to the Persian Wars. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Lydia and the Lydians; Wars and Warfare.)

PHARAOHS

P

araohs were the KINGS of ancient Egypt. The wordpharaoh, which means ''great house" in Egyptian, originally referred to the royal palace. Starting in the late Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 1300s B.C.), the term was used as a synonym for the Egyptian king. Since then, the word pharaoh has come to mean any ancient Egyptian king. The discussion below refers to ancient Egyptian kings in general, whether or not they were called pharaohs in their own times. Learning About the Pharaohs. A great deal of information about Egyptian pharaohs comes from numerous monuments and other structures built and inscribed with facts about their lives and reigns. Because of Egypt's dry climate, many of these structures are amazingly well preserved. Other sources of information are the KING LISTS, chronological lists of Egypt's pharaohs. In the 200s B.C., these lists served as sources for a Greco-Egyptian priest named Manetho, who used them to compile a complete chronology of Egyptian rulers up to his time. Although neither complete nor accurate, the lists are still considered the best sources of information about the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. In addition to reading about the pharaohs in these sources, scholars have actually seen some of the pharaohs. Because the ancient Egyptians believed in life after death, they preserved the bodies of many ancients, especially pharaohs, as MUMMIES. The bodies of some of the pharaohs are

178

Pharaohs

The Sed-Festival One of the earliest known royal festivals in ancient Egypt was the Sec/festival, The purpose of this festival was to reaffirm the pharaoh's divine power. It was supposed to occur 30 years after the pharaoh took the throne and then at various times after that The festival lasted several weeks, during which the pharaoh, priests, and high government officials visited and honored one another and the pharaoh offered gifts to the gods. A number of importan rituals also took place during the festival, the most important of which was a symbolic reenactment of the pharaoh's coronation.

* vizier minister of state * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * artisan skilled craftsperson

See [ color plate 2, vol. 4.

so well preserved that scholars have been able to compare the pharaohs' facial features to help settle disputes about whether or not they were related to each other. One of the best-preserved bodies is that of the pharaoh TUTANKHAMEN, who ruled Egypt in the 1300s B.C. The Pharaoh's Role. The pharaoh was the absolute ruler of ancient Egypt. In principle, this meant that he owned and controlled everything in Egypt, including the land, its resources, and its people. Although the power and reputation of the pharaohs changed over time, the idea of the nature of kingship remained relatively the same throughout ancient Egypt's long history. This stability of the pharaoh's role helped preserve the unity of Egypt and promote its great civilization. As absolute ruler, the pharaoh governed by royal decree. This meant that, in theory, all commands originated with him and were carried out, without question, by his appointed officials. The pharaoh's chief aid and the government's highest-ranking official was the vizier*, who reported directly to him. As the "owner" of Egypt, the pharaoh was entitled to most of its wealth. This entered the royal treasury primarily in the form of agricultural produce, which was paid to the pharaoh as taxes and rents. He also had the right to draft soldiers for his military campaigns and laborers for his building projects. In addition, the pharaoh received tribute* from foreign lands Egypt had conquered. All this wealth supported the pharaoh and his family in grand style. Some pharaohs kept an entire community of artisans* busy creating palaces for this world and tombs for the next, both for themselves and for their families. The role of pharaoh was traditionally reserved for men. Although a QUEEN might have held a great deal of power, normally only a king could be pharaoh. Of ancient Egypt's 300 or so pharaohs, only 4 were women. Through a combination of personality, circumstances, and luck, they were able to break the mold and play a man's role in society. One of the most famous female pharaohs was HATSHEPSUT, who was co-ruler of Egypt with her stepson, THUTMOSE III. Hatshepsut named herself pharaoh while Thutmose was still a boy. She later took on the traditional titles of the pharaoh and exercised absolute power. Although she was portrayed in art and architecture wearing pharaonic dress, including the ceremonial false beard that symbolized the king's power, it is not known whether she dressed as a man in real life. Egyptians and the Pharoah. Ancient Egyptians held several important beliefs about the pharaoh that supported his role as absolute ruler. The Egyptians believed the pharaoh was both all-knowing and all-powerful. Being all-knowing, the pharaoh was a supremely wise ruler. He was the source of all laws and the essence of moral behavior. Being all-powerful, the pharaoh was the trusted protector of the Egyptian people. It was said that he could defeat any foe by crushing thousands of enemy soldiers on the battlefield and that the snake on his crown could spit flames at his enemies. Without the pharaoh, the ancient Egyptians believed, there would be chaos instead of order on earth. He also said to be a shepherd to his people, who ensured the well-being of his subjects and protected all, rich and poor. 179

Pharaohs

* coronation act or ceremony of crowning a leader

Co-regencies

The transition from a pharaoh to his successor was not always smooth. To avoid potential conflicts over succession, some pharaohs named their successors as co-regents, that is, as co-rulers. Although both were called pharaoh, the younger of the two pharaohs usually served as a ju nior partner until the older pharaoh died. Often the younger pharaoh was assigned more strenuous duties, such as leading military cam* paigns, while the older pharaoh stayed at the royal palace and managed the affairs of state.

prostrate to stretch oneself out, with face on the ground, usually in submission or respect

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

180

Probably the most important belief the ancient Egyptians held about the pharaoh was the belief that he was divine. This meant that he was a representative of the gods and that he was godlike himself. A pharaoh received his divine power at his coronation*, and it was reaffirmed through other ceremonies, most importantly the Serf-festival. The pharaoh's divine status was supported by the belief that the first pharaoh appeared at the beginning of time, when gods ruled the earth. Other myths established the pharaoh's relationship with the gods. He was believed to embody the falcon god HORUS and to be the son of the sun god Amun-Ra. After death, the pharaoh was identified with OSIRIS, who was god of the dead and father of Horus. Although the pharaoh was considered a godlike representative of the gods, he was not believed to be a god. However, after he died, he was believed to rise to the kingdom of the gods and live among them. For this reason, many of the later pharaohs were worshiped as gods after they died. Some pharaohs also built gigantic, elaborately decorated PYRAMIDS as tombs for themselves and filled them with riches so that they would be properly outfitted for their AFTERLIFE among the gods. Many of these pyramids still stand in Egypt. The largest, the Great Pyramid at GIZA, was built by a pharaoh named KHUFU, around 2585 B.C. Because the pharaoh was believed to be divine, he had absolute power and was shown great respect. For example, all people approaching the pharaoh had to prostrate* themselves before him. The pharaoh's divine status also made him the high priest of ancient Egypt. In this role, it was his job to serve the gods on behalf of the Egyptian people. He did this by building new temples and maintaining old ones and by observing daily rituals in the worship of the gods. These acts ensured that the gods would look favorably on the Egyptian people and bring them peace and prosperity. Evidence suggests that sometimes the divinity of a particular pharaoh was questioned. For example, if there were a series of poor harvests or if Egypt was successfully attacked by an enemy, the people sometimes lost faith in the pharaoh. Some pharaohs were removed or even assassinated for this reason. How the Pharaoh Was Chosen. The role of pharaoh was hereditary, and most pharaohs were succeeded by their oldest son. Many pharaohs had several wives, but only one was the chief wife, or queen. Ideally, the oldest son of the chief wife was the pharaoh's successor. This type of succession was paralleled by ancient Egypt's most widespread myth, that of Osiris. In the myth, Osiris dies and is succeeded as king of the gods by his son Horus. When a succession of pharaohs came from the same royal family, they formed a dynasty*. A new dynasty began when a pharaoh died without a suitable heir and the throne was taken over by a rival family or seized by a foreign conqueror. Ancient Egypt was ruled by more than 30 different dynasties in its 3,000-year history. Sometimes, to help ensure the continuity of a dynasty, a pharaoh married a member of his own family, such as his sister or niece. Such marriages were common among Egyptian pharaohs but not among the rest of the Egyptian people.

Philistines

delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

PHILISTINES

See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3).

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Symbols of the Pharaoh. In the ancient Egyptian system of writing called HIEROGLYPHICS, symbols were used to represent people and things. The main symbol used to represent the pharaoh was a double crown. This combined the white crown of Upper Egypt (the Nile River valley south of the delta*) with the red crown that represented Lower Egypt (the delta region). Thus, it symbolized the pharaoh's control over the entire realm. This was important because Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt had a long history of rivalry and independence. Other symbols used to represent the pharaoh were the scepter, or royal staff, and the throne. Both symbolized the pharaoh's authority and power. In addition, the pharaoh's name and title were always written inside an oval, called a cartouche, that symbolized the pharaoh's rule over the entire world. In art, the pharaoh was portrayed in ways that represented his position between the people and the gods. In scenes with ordinary people, the pharaoh was shown as young, strong, and larger than life size to indicate his superior position. In scenes with the gods, the pharaoh was shown kneeling before the gods to reflect his inferior position or standing face-to-face or side by side with the gods to show his godlike status. (See also Ahmose; Akhenaten; Cleopatra; Djoser; Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Government; Necho II; Nefertiti; Nitokris; Ptolemy I; Ramses II; Ramses III; Sety I.)

T

he Philistines (FMuh^steenz) were a people of eastern Mediterranean origin who settled in the Levant (present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan) around 1200 B.C. Perhaps best known as enemies of the ancient Israelites, the Philistines were portrayed negatively in the Hebrew BIBLE. Partly as a result, the word Philistine came to mean "uncultured" or "uncouth." In fact, they were a diverse and creative people who flourished in the land of CANAAN for 600 years.

Origins. Historians are uncertain about the origins of the Philistines. Most believe they were one of a group of tribes known as the SEA PEOPLES, who invaded Egypt during the reign of Ramses III (ruled ca. 1187-1156 B.C.). Some evidence suggests that they may have come from an island in the AEGEAN SEA—possibly the island of CRETE—and were forced eastward because of disruptions within their civilization. The Hebrew Bible says that the Philistines were descended from the Caphtorites, who some scholars believe referred to Cretans. After unsuccessful attempts to invade Egypt in about 1190 B.C., the Philistines settled in Canaan in the Levant. They came to the region primarily as hostile invaders, destroying the Canaanite towns and cities that lay in their path and establishing their own. It is also possible that Egypt sent the Philistines to Canaan to serve as mercenaries* in fortified, Egyptian-controlled towns. After settling in Canaan, the Philistines founded many towns and five major cities in the region, including Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron. These cities eventually developed into small city-states* and

181

Philistines * confederacy group ofcities orstates joined together for a purpose; an alliance

formed a confederacy* thatwaslater calledthePentapolis. The entire region under Philistine control became known asPhilistia, and the Philistines becamemajor a politicalandcommercial power. Philistines and Israelites.Soon thePhilistines began to expand into surroundingareas,which brought them intoconflict with their neighbors, the Israelites.Fromabout 1150 B.C.,the toPhilistines the900s were the main enemies of theIsraelites, and theHebrew Biblecontains a number of stories aboutthestruggles between them. By the early 1000s B.C., the Philistineshadgained control over much of Israel. Although they sufferedsetbacks at thehands of theIsraelite hero Samson, they soon regained theadvantageandheldmilitary a superiority that lasted several decades. Conflict erupted periodically during this time. Onewell-known biblical story concernsPhilistine a victory overthe Israelitesand their COVENANT, THE capture OFARK of which the held the sacred tabletsofCOMMANDMENTS the TEN MOSES had that brought toCanaan centuries earlier. Although the Philistines initially hadgreater military success than the Israelites, the tables eventually turned. B.C., Inthe theearly 900s Philistinessufferedanumberofsignificant defeats at thehands King of DAVID of the Israelites. According to theHebrew Bible, infirst David's encounter with the Philistines, hekilledagiant Philistine warrior named Goliath. Despite Israelite victories,thecity-statesofPhilistia survived and remained independent, but theconfederation collapsed.The Philistines ceased to be amajor military threat.B.C., In when themid-900s Israelite territorywas divided into twoseparate kingdoms—ISRAEL JUDAH—the AND

182

Philistines Philistines reasserted their commercial power and began to regain some of their political might. For about the next 300 years, the Philistines engaged in periodic struggles with Israel and Judah.

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

Later History. In the 700s B.C., some Philistine cities experienced great economic growth and prosperity. However, this era also marked the beginning of the end of the Philistines, who could not withstand the power of the Assyrians and Babylonians as they each expanded into the Levant. By 700 B.C., the Assyrians had conquered many Philistine cities and made them their vassals*. The Assyrians demanded tribute* and forcibly moved some of the inhabitants of Philistia to other parts of the Assyrian empire and settled other people in their place. Despite the loss of their independence, some Philistine cities continued to prosper during the period of Assyrian dominance. The city of Ekron, for example, remained important and became wealthier than ever. Assyrian rule also established new economic and political systems and exposed Philistia to new ideas that undermined Philistine culture and society. Around 600 B.C., the Babylonian ruler NEBUCHADNEZZAR II conquered all of Philistia and incorporated it into his empire. The Babylonians destroyed any remnant of the Philistine culture and independence that had remained after the Assyrian conquest. Like the Assyrians, they forcibly moved huge numbers of Philistines to other areas of their empire. The Babylonian conquest largely destroyed what was left of a separate and unique Philistine culture. Some cities in Philistia flourished in later periods under Persian, Greco-Macedonian, and Roman rule. However, their heritage was no longer Philistine. In later centuries, the Greek historian HERODOTUS and other travelers called the region Palaistium, a name based on accounts by descendants of the Philistines. In A.D. 135, the Romans incorporated Philistia, Judah, and Syria into a single province called Syria-Palestina. Later the region became known simply as Palestine. Economic Life and Towns. The Philistines were manufacturers, traders, and farmers. Among their most important crops were grapes, OLIVES, and grains, with which they made WINE, olive oil, and flour. Despite a healthy system of AGRICULTURE, the Philistines based their economy on manufacturing and trade. The city of Ashdod manufactured a purple-dyed cloth that was prized by royalty throughout the Near East. Ashdod also had one of the largest POTTERY workshops in the Levant. At the height of its power, the city of Ekron was the largest producer of olive oil in the Near East. The Philistines were best known for their metalwork, which included iron axes and plows as well as bronze armor and weapons. The Philistines were an urban people, and most of the population of Philistia lived in towns and cities. Divided into separate zones—a manufacturing zone, a central area with temples and public buildings, and residential areas— the cities were surrounded by mud brick* walls. Houses consisted of central courtyards encircled by kitchens, living quarters, and storerooms. Philistine towns had sophisticated drainage systems and public garbage dumps outside their walls. 183

Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

deity god or goddess

* dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

PHOENICIA AND THE PHOENICIANS * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * maritime related to the sea or shipping * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

184

Culture and Religion. The culture of the Philistines originally reflected their Aegean origins. For example, Mycenaean-style pottery has been found at the earliest Philistine sites. Initially, the Philistines also remained faithful to the deities* of the Aegean world, especially the Great Goddess. However, by the late 1000s B.C., outside influences had greatly influenced the Philistines, and they began to adopt many of the local customs of other groups. They adopted various Canaanite gods, such as Dagon, and practiced burial customs that reflected Canaanite and some Egyptian influences. A royal inscription from Ekron shows that by the 600s B.C., they were speaking a Phoenician-like dialect* and writing in a Hebrew-like script. By incorporating cultural influences from different times and places, the Philistines gradually developed a new and distinct culture that was quite different from that of their Aegean ancestors. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

(fl»NEE»shuh) was the name given by the ancient Greeks to Poenicia the coastal region of the eastern Mediterranean that included part of

CANAAN in the Levant*. The Canaanite inhabitants of this region, known to the Greeks as the Phoenicians (fi»NEE»shuhnz), spoke a Semitic* language and were among the greatest maritime* traders of the first millennium B.C.* Although the Phoenicians shared a common culture, they never formed a unified state. Instead, Phoenicia consisted of a series of independent city-states*, including BYBLOS, SIDON, and TYRE. The independent Phoenician city-states were frequently threatened by the various empires that arose around them. Still, the Phoenicians dominated sea trade in the region and exerted influence on their neighbors. They also became great colonizers, establishing colonies in North Africa, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), CYPRUS, and distant Spain. One of the greatest of these colonies was CARTHAGE in North Africa, which became one of the chief commercial and maritime powers in the western Mediterranean region and a powerful rival of ancient Rome. History. Ancient Phoenicia consisted of a narrow coastal strip that included parts of present-day Lebanon, southern SYRIA, and northern Israel. Archaeological* evidence has revealed that humans lived in this region as early as 10,000 B.C., and by 4000 B.C., the people of the region were producing distinctive POTTERY and copper metalwork. Little is known about the early history of the region. Evidence shows that Byblos had commercial contacts with Egypt as early as the 2600s B.C. In fact, the earliest known image of the region's inhabitants appears on a sculpture in an Egyptian tomb dating from the early 2500s B.C. In about 2150 B.C., the AMORITES invaded the region and destroyed Byblos. Amorite control lasted several hundred years, during which time the region continued to maintain close contact with Egypt. In the 1700s B.C., the HYKSOS from western Asia invaded Phoenicia, ending Amorite rule there. The Hyksos controlled the region until the

Phoenicia and the Phoenicians 1500sB.C. Thereafter, Egypt conquered almostall of Canaanand dominated the areafor a few hundred years. However, B.C., Egyptby the 1100s ian power in Canaan had mostly disappeared. The late 1200s and early B.C. were 1100s a timeof great changeand upheaval throughout the ancientNear East. Many societies collapsed, people migrated in large numbers, and centersof manufacturingand trade were destroyed or abandoned. On the Mediterranean coast, these changes may have been caused PEOPLES, in part who SEA byare thebelieved to have invaded the region and destroyed many coastal city-states. Following these upheavals, however, the Phoenician city-states experienced a period of renewal, great prosperity,and expansion. Many scholars date the rise of Phoenician civilizationto this period. Early in thefirst millennium B.C., the Phoenicians beganto surpass other ancient peoples in maritime trade. As their wealth increased, the Phoenicians began to establish colonies in other areas of the Mediterranean. The drive for colonization resulted primarily froma searchfor sources of raw materials. The Phoenicians also sought to establish ports andSHIPPING ROUTES that would enable them to expand their control over Mediterranean trade.Fearless sailors,the Phoenicians carefully guarded the secretsofTRADE their ROUTES,and they became the undisputed masters of the seas. The Phoenician city-states were fully independentat the beginningof the first millennium B.C., but this independence did not last long. Beginning in the B.C., 800sPhoenicia was dominated in varying degree by empires to the east. The first of these empires to threaten Phoenicia was

185

Phoenicia

and the

Phoenicians

Assyria. Betweenthe mid-800sandB.C., thethe600s Assyrians launched military campaigns on cities along the Mediterranean coast. Although the Assyrians did not attackthe Phoenician cities, they made them vassals*.As * vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to a greater powerlong as the Phoenicians paid tribute*and taxes, Assyrian rulewasmild, * tribute payment made by a smaller or and the city-states were mostly independent. weaker party to a more powerful one, In the late 600s B.C.,the Babylonians gained control ofPhoenicia and often under the threat of force continued theAssyrian policyof collecting tributeand taxes while allow* Hellenistic referring to the Greeking substantial independence. Less than 100years later,the Persiansdeinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean stroyed the Neo-Babylonian empire,and Phoenicia becameaprovinceof world and westernAsia during the three thePERSIAN EMPIRE.The Phoenician city-states prospered under the Percenturies after the death of Alexander sians, who encouraged trade and commercial activities. the Great in 323B.C. The prosperity and peace enjoyedby the Phoenician city-stateswas interruptedfrom timeto timeby local uprisings against Persian rule, especially in the 300s B.C. These rebellions were often encouraged by the Egyptians andGreeks,who sought greater influencein the region. Although the uprisings were quelled, they made itdifficult more for thePersians to control the region and helped pave the way for itsconquest by ca. 3000 B.C. the Macedonians GREAT ALEXANDER under inB.C. THE 332 Residentsof Byblos During the Hellenistic* period, Macedonian kingdoms competedfor engage in trade with Egypt. control of Phoenicia.In the B.C.,100s the regionSELEUbecame part of the 3000B.C. CIDEMPIRE. Seleucid rule continued B.C., until when 64 the Romans conquered Phoenicia and incorporated it into their empire. Phoenicia ca. 2150 B.C. remained under Roman rulefor several centuries, during which time the I Amorites invadeCanaan and destroy Byblos. remnants of traditional Phoenician culture disappeared. 2500B.C ca. 1700-1500 B.C. Hyksos control Canaan.

2000B.C. ca. 1500-1100 B.C. Egyptians dominate Canaan.

^^^^^^3

ca. 11OOs B.C. Phoenicians establish trading empire in the Mediterranean.

1000B.C.

ca. 800-600 B.C. Phoeniciafalls under control ofAssyrians and Babylonians.

500 B.C. 500sB.C. Phoenicia becomes Persian province.

1 B.C.

64 B.C. Romans conquer Phoenicia.

186

Trade and Manufacturing. The Phoenicians became agreat maritime trading people largely becauseofgeography. Confinedto anarrow coastal strip and with little farmland, they looked to the sea fortheir livelihood. As earlyas the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000to 2001B.C.), the local people were cutting timber from mountainsin the interior and exporting HARBORS from it the of their cities along the coast. By the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 B.C.), to their 1001 activities includedmanufacturing, and they became well known throughout the ancientNearEastfor their glassmaking, metalwork, carved wood andIVORY,and dyed cloth. Some experts believe that the Phoenicians invented glassblowing around 100 B.C. They were perhapsTEXTILES, most famous particufor their larly a purple-dyed cloth they manufactured.Thepurpledye forthis cloth, which was produced froma typeof shellfish,wasmore valuable thangold and thus became associated with royalty.By the timeof the Roman Empire, the use of the dye wasrestrictedto the most elite membersofsociety. The earliest records provide evidence thatthe Phoenicians were very successful MERCHANTSand traders. ByB.C., the 900s they had established colonies all along the southern Mediterranean coast,and in thecenturies that followed, they ventured farther, settingup coloniesin many parts of the western Mediterranean region. Some evidence suggests that the Phoenicians also exploredthe Atlantic coastof Europe as far asBritain and perhaps sailed aroundthe continent Africa. of In addition to their colonies in the Mediterranean, they established trading centers in important citiesof the Near East. Foreign merchantsat

Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, other object made by humans

or

* deity god or goddess * pantheon all the gods of a culture

particular

"Long Before the Titanic in A.D. 1999, Robert Ballard, the man who located the wreck of theTitanic, found the oldest shipwrecks ever discovered—two 2,500-year* old Phoenician sailing ships conr taining cargoes of wine. The two | vessels, probably bound for Egypt \ or Cartilage from the ancient city \ Tyre, sank about 30 miles off the ; coast of present-day Israel.Amaz• ingly, the ships were largelyundamaged, and the jugs holding the wine were still stacked together and intact* This was because the ships \ sank in deep water, where high wa\ ter pressure, cold, and lack of sun'-. light helped preservethevessels I and their cargoes.

these centers conducted business under special arrangements between local and Phoenician authorities. In this manner, the Phoenicians controlled virtually all maritime trade in the Mediterranean, and many nations transported their goods in Phoenician ships. Notsurprisingly, the Phoenicians made many advances in shipbuilding, including building ships that could make longer voyages. Culture and Religion. The Phoenicians were influenced by many the great civilizations that surrounded them. Thereis evidence Egyptof ian cultural and religious influences startingatB.C., around and 2500 other evidence shows HITTITES, thattheAssyrians,and Mycenaeans of Greece all influenced Phoenician art and culture. Very little Phoenician art or architecture has survivedto the present day. Amongthefinest surviving artifacts*are trade items such jewelry, as metalworks, small ivory carved objects, and glassworks. Manyof these objects show a blendingof designsand styles borrowed from other cultures yet combined to createa distinct new form. art Highly prizedas trade items, such works were found throughoutthe ancient Near Eastand thus influenced the design of works created by skilled craftspeople in other societiesas well. Little is known of the Phoenician religion except that there were many deities*, most of whom were associated with individual cities rather than with a national pantheon*. Basic religious beliefs seemto have been of shared, however, even though the specific local deities differed. Although the "chief deity in all Phoenician cities was a god, the most important deity was usually a fertility goddess. Called BaalatGubla in Byblos,she was named TanitinTyreand was knownAstarte as (or Ashtart) in Sidon. The names of many Phoenician gods includedtheBaal title ("thelord"), such as Baal Shamem ("lord of the sky"). Historians are uncertain whether these were the actual names of the godsor merely titles usedto refer to them and to their functions. Scholars also know very little about Phoenician religious ritualsor the priesthood.Rulers were probably considered to be earthly representatives of the gods, and in some cases, kingsand queens servedas high priests and priestesses. The Phoenicians cremated and buried the dead, and there 187

of

Phoenicia and the Phoenicians * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

See color plate 1, vol. 1.

188

is evidence that they practiced child sacrifice. Phoenician religious cults* and practices spread as a result of colonization, and temples dedicated to Phoenician deities sprang up in various parts of the Mediterranean world. One of the greatest cultural legacies of the Phoenicians is their system of WRITING. The Phoenicians spoke a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. Initially, the Phoenicians probably wrote in cuneiform*. However, by about 1400 B.C. they had developed an alphabetic system of writing consisting of 22 letters representing consonants but not vowels. This system of writing was eventually adopted by most of the societies in the western Mediterranean region. The Assyrians also used the Phoenician ALPHABET to write the Aramaic language, which led to its introduction into all the areas controlled by Assyria. Ultimately, the Phoenician writing system was adopted and modified by the Greeks and then the Romans, whose alphabet became the basis for most of the modern European alphabets in use today. (See also Economy and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Naval Power; Ships and Boats; Taxation.)

ARCHITECTURE ANDTOMBS

Plate 1 During the New Kingdom period, Egyptian tombs typically featured decorated burial chambers.This burial chamber from Thebes belonged to an official during the Twentieth Dynasty (ca. 1190-1075 B.C.) and depicts figures from Egyptian mythology. Anubis, the god of cemeteries and embalming, is depicted on the walls to the left and right. Among the figures on the back wall are the falcon of the sky god Horus,and Osiris, god of the dead, who is shown seated.

Plate 2 The architectural design and decoration of Persian palaces were aimed to reveal the power and majesty of the ruler.The palace at Susa was built by King Darius I (ruled 521-486 B.C.), who made the city one of his capitals. Among the palace's magnificent features were large halls that were decorated with glazed bricks, depicting images such as the one above of a lion with horns, wings, and an eagle's feet.

Plate 3 During the Neo-Babylonian period (612-539 B.C.), the walls of the inner city of Babylon were broken by eight gates. Most impressive was the huge gate dedicated to the goddess Ishtar, a reconstruction of which is shown here.The Ishtar Gate, which had 50-foot-high foundation walls, was built of brick and ornamented with blue tiles and colored figures of bulls and dragons. It opened on a wide avenue called the Processional Way, which was also decorated with colored figures of lions.

Plate 4 The mortuary temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian female king Hatshepsut (ruled ca. 14721458 B.C.)is a unique structure in New Kingdom architecture.The temple, built near Thebes, was partially cut out ofcliffs. Measuring 250 by 700 feet, the temple contains several courtyards, terraces, and a hypostyle (columned hall) carved with reliefs that reflect Egyptian religious beliefs.

Plate 6 The great hypostyle, or columned hall, at the Egyptian temple of Amun at Karnak (near Thebes) was constructed by Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sety I (ca. 1294-1279 B.c.)The hall features 134 columns that were carved to look like papyrus plants with either closed or opened buds.The columns are organized in 16 rows, with up to 9 columns in each row.The temple itself is a T-shaped structure surrounded by four walls enclosing more than seven acres.

Plate 7 Sculpted guardian figures were often a part of gates in the ancient Near East. Dating from the 700s B.C., this relief from Sargon IPs palace at Khorsabad shares features with the other Assyrian guardian figures.They were often sculpted with the body of a bull (sometimes a lion) and the head of a human and were crowned with a divine tiara with horns.

Plate 8 Dating from the early third millennium B.C., this clay model of a round house was found at Mari in Syria. It contains foursmall rooms surrounding a square central room.The central room contains a hearth and built-in benches and is connectedby passages to the surrounding rooms. One of the outer rooms is covered by a roof with a chimney. Some scholars believe that this model, which measures about two feet in diameter, represents a shrine or a fort rather than ahouse.

Plate 10 As a formerly nomadic people, the Persians did not have a strong architectural tradition. Consequently, they adopted and adapted from other great powers of the ancient Near EastThis 10-foot-high capital, or top section of a column, which dates from theAchaemenid period (538331 B.C.), shows influences from other cultures.The spiral scrolls underneath the bulls reflect a technique used in Greek columns, and the use of floral images was inspired by Egyptian capitals. The main part of the capitalconsists of the front sections of two bulls that are placed

Plate 13 This clay model of a house may come from western Syria and date from the third millennium B.C. Typically,housesin Syriaand the Levant were built of sun-dried mud bricks on two or threelayers of stone foundations.Theyalso had one or more upper floors. This 16/4-inch-tall model might have beenusedas an offering.

Plate14

This building is a reconstructed version of the ziggurat at Ur, built by King Ur-Nammu around 2100 B.C. It represents the earliest true ziggurat known and consisted of three platforms stacked on top of each other and topped by a temple. The base of Ur-Nammu's ziggurat is believed to have measured210 by 160 feet,and the completed building mayhave been nearly 50 feet high. Earlier Sumerian ziggurats, built before 3000 B.C., consisted of a single large platform on top of which sat a temple.

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief Jack M. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 4 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS An Imprint of The Gale Group NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT

Phrygia and the Phrygians

P

hrygia(FRI«jee»uh)was a landin ANATOLIA west-central (present-day Turkey). The Phrygians werean important powerin the after region the fall of the HITTITESin theB.C.At 1100s first, the Phrygians were part of an alliance of Anatolian peoples. Eventually, however, Phrygia emerged as a kingdom, and its most famous ruler was a semilegendaryking named Midas.After the kingdomof Phrygia collapsed B.C.,as- shortly after700 pects of Phrygian culture survivedfor many centuries.

PHRYGIA AND THEPHRYGIANS

See map in Anatolia

(vol.1).

Origins and Early History. Phrygia took itsname from thePhryges, a people who migrated into central Anatolia B.C., in sometime the 1100s after thefall of the Hittite empire.The ancient Greeks believed thatthe Phrygians came MACEDONIA from and Thrace, north of Greece. This belief is supportedby the fact thatthe Phrygian INDO-EUROPEAN language is an LANGUAGE relatedto Greekor Thracian. After leaving their homeland, the Phrygians movedfrom Anatolia's BlackSeacoast south alongtheSangarios River into the centerof Anatolia. Between 1100and B.C.,900 various Anatolian peoples competedfor territory and power in the absenceof a strong central government suchas that of the Hittites. Although the Phrygians had not formed anorganized state during this period, by B.C., thetheir 700skingdom had been established. It was centered on a city named Gordium, located60miles southwest ofAnkara,the capitalof present-day Turkey. The Kingdom of Midas. The Phrygian kingdom achieved itspeak of greatness underKing Midas, who took the B.C. throne Notaround 738 many details are known about Midas. Some ancient historians claimed that he married a Greek princess and dedicated his throne to theGreek sun god Apollo. He may have founded Ankaraand another settlement called Midaeion (Midas City). Under Midas's rule, the Phrygians controlled most of west-central Anatolia, and they had considerable influence over Syrian and Anatolian states to the east and southeast. Midas tried several times to stir other rulers intorebellion against the Assyrians,but around B.C.,709 he soughtan alliance SARGON II with King of Assyria. Bythat time, perhaps, Midashad begun fearagreater to threat than Assyria—the Cimmerians, warlike horsemen from southern Russia who had migrated south through CAUCASUS theand were rampaging across Anatolia. Around B.C., the 696Cimmerians conquered Phrygia, burned Gordium,and—according to one ancientsource—droveMidas to commit suicide by drinking the blood of a bull. The Cimmerians eventually withdrew, and the Phrygians rebuilt Gordium around B.C.600 Bythat time, powerin Anatolia shiftedto the Lydians, whose homelandwas westof Phrygia. After B.C.,the mid-500s Anatolia came underthe domination PERSIAN ofEMPIRE. the The Phrygians, however, remained a distinctive ethnicgroup within theAnatolian population. Phrygian Culture. The Phrygians were known fortheir skills inweaving, wood carving, and metalwork. In addition tobronze (analloy ofcopper and tin), the Phrygians knew how to make brass (analloy ofcopper

1

Phrygia and the Phrygians

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

2

and zinc). Infact, the bright yellow colorof brassmay have given riseto the legend of Midas's golden touch. Phrygia's economy, like thatof other Near Eastern societies,was based on agriculture. As late as the B.C.,400s the Phrygians were saidto have moreflocks and herdsandlarger harvests thanany other peoplein the region. Longbefore that time, they had earned a reputation for horsemanship. A few of their artworks—includinga small square of ivory carved with the imageof a riderand a miniature bronze chariotand horses from a child's tomb—reveal how they used horses. Archaeologists* workingat Gordium A.D. in 1900s the late uncovered a large citadel—afortified clusterof buildings—that dates fromthe time of Midas. It contained roomsfor foodand textile production, storage, and eating. Some archaeologists believe that the citadelmay representa centralized palace economy in which all raw foods came to the palace to be prepared and distributed to the people.

Pigs Midas's Resting Place Burial tumuli are mounds of earth covering separate graves. Burial tumuli found at Cordium served to mark the location of and to protect the one-room wooden tombs beneath them. The largest of the 85 tumuli found there is called the Midas Mound, which stands 174 feet high and measures 984 feet in diameter. Although the occupant of the tomb is a short man who died in his early 60s, archaelogists are unsure whether he is King Midas or another member of Phrygian royalty.

Physicians

PIGS * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The citadel also provides information about Phrygian art. For example, the floor of one room is tiled with designs of colored pebbles and is probably one of the earliest mosaic floors of the ancient world. Other types of Phrygian art reflect a fondness for unusual shapes and tiny geometric patterns. The Phrygians also produced POTTERY with exaggerated spouts and handles and in the shape of animals. Some pieces were painted with lively pictures of animals, mythological scenes, or soldiers, in addition to the geometric patterns. Little is known about the Phrygians' religion other than that they worshiped a mother goddess called Matar or Cybele. Many statues of her, most dating from several centuries after Midas's time, have been found at Gordium. The Phrygians used a version of the Greek alphabet that had been developed in the 700s B.C. This fact, together with Greek influences in art and the stories of Midas's Greek wife and his devotion to a Greek god, suggests that Phrygia had close contact with Greek culture during the 700s B.C. (See also Lydia and the Lydians.)

See Medicine.

W

ild pigs were found throughout well-watered regions in the ancient Near East. First domesticated* in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) between 8500 and 8000 B.C., pigs were being raised in MESOPOTAMIA and SYRIA by at least 6000 B.C. and in the Levant* within another thousand years. Interestingly, the domestication of pigs was widespread during the early development of Near Eastern societies but declined steadily with the growth of cities. As early societies were established, people raised pigs in abundance, probably because they reproduce more quickly than such animals as GOATS and SHEEP. However, pigs thrive only in specific environments, preferably wetlands, areas with abundant rainfall, and forests. Yet AGRICULTURE required the clearing of forests and draining of marshes to create fields. Thus, as agricultural settlements grew larger to support cities, the environment was changed in ways that made it much more difficult to raise pigs. By about 1500 B.C., the number of pigs in the ancient Near East had declined substantially. Although pigs can be an important source of meat, the consumption of pork was not very widespread in the Near East. A number of cultures developed taboos against eating pigs or even using them for sacrifices. The Hebrew BIBLE, for example, declared pigs to be unclean and unfit to eat, and such taboos generally were practiced throughout the Levant, except among the PHILISTINES. Even in societies where the consumption of pigs was not prohibited, few people ate them after about 1200 B.C. One reason may be that pigs, like humans, feed on grain. Because of competition with humans for grain resources, the domestication of pigs may have been discouraged in favor of animals that ate grasses, such as sheep and 3

Planets CATTLE. An exception to this trend occurred in the Egyptian city of AMARNA, where pigs became a basic foodstuff of the working class after about 1500 B.C. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Food and Drink.)

PLANETS

POETRY

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style * deity god or goddess

4

I

n ancient times, astronomers were primarily concerned with the SUN, moon, and STARS, in part because these bodies exhibited regular movements that could be used to tell time. However, these early observers also noted the existence of other heavenly bodies—the planets—whose seemingly irregular movements distinguished them from other objects in the sky. Because the stars do not revolve around the sun, their position in the night sky is fixed in relation to the earth. Thus, each star seems to rise and set at the same place on the horizon on the same date each year. However, since planets revolve around the sun, their observed position changes from one night to the next. This motion led the ancient Greeks to call themplanetes, or "wanderers." Ancient astronomers were familiar with the five planets that can be seen with the naked eye: Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn. The earliest recorded astronomical observations were compiled in Babylonia during the 1600s B.C. and tracked the movement of Venus, the brightest and most important planet to early astronomers. Venus is a Roman name, but the planet was first associated with the Mesopotamian goddess ISHTAR and later with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Over time, astronomers were able to note and predict the movements of these five planets and their relation to the fixed stars. This eventually led to the development of the ZODIAC, which divided the sky into 12 equal parts, or houses. The positions of the planets among the stars were believed to influence events on earth. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers.)

L

ike other forms of LITERATURE in the ancient Near East, poetry developed from the traditions of presenting literature orally before an audience. The influence of these traditions is reflected in the literary devices used in poems, such as repetition of lines, standard descriptions or phrases, and simple plots and characters. These techniques helped make it easier for oral storytellers and those listening to a poem to remember the basic story. At the same time, most poetry also contained rich and unusual imagery and words that made poetic language distinct and separate from the common spoken language. Poems were usually recited before an audience, and the storyteller added new details at each performance. Rather than simply being spoken, poems were generally sung or chanted in a rhythmic manner, often accompanied by musical instruments and sometimes by the clapping of hands. When poems were written down, they were recorded by scribes*, who probably recalled them from memory and thus introduced new variations into the works. These texts became standardized versions of the poems, which were passed down relatively unchanged through the centuries.

Polygamy Brains Over Brawn One of the main themes in Sumerian epic poetry is that a weaker or less important person can win over a stronger or more important one because of luck or intelligence. For example, in the epic Gilgamesh and Khuwawa, Gilgamesh defeats Khuwawa, a fearsome guardian of the forest, by tricking him into giving away his seven coats of protective splendor. The moral of such stories is that wisdom and cunning are better and more effective than force. This lesson also appears in the Iliad, by the Greek poet Homer. The Greeks capture the city of Troy by hiding men inside a giant wooden horse given to the Trojans as a gift.

* consort companion or partner of a monarch, sometimes but not always a spouse * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * prophetic relating to or containing a prediction

POLYGAMY

* concubine mistress to a married man

The earliest known examples of ancient Near Eastern poetry are Sumerian works dating from around 2500 B.C. Most of these barely understood early works are mythological epics* that focus on the deeds of deities* and rulers. They point out their bravery, intelligence, leadership, and dealings with foreign rulers and deities. The best-known versions of these epics, dating from around 2000 B.C., are about Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and GILGAMESH, semilegendary rulers of ancient URUK. Another great early work, attributed to a priestess, Enkheduanna, was written in praise of the goddess Inanna (Ishtar). Most of the Sumerian epics available to modern scholars are copies written during later periods (ca. 1700-1600 B.C.). The earliest material is very brief and often difficult to understand. However, it contains the seed of what scholars later recognized as mythological epic poetry. Another typical form of early Mesopotamian poetry consisted of royal HYMNS that celebrated existing rulers and hymns dedicated to particular gods. Hymns to the gods generally played an important role in temple rituals and ceremonies. Love poetry was also quite widespread in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. There were three basic types of love poems. The first told of the love between two deities. A second type dealt with the love between a ruler and his consort*. The least common type of love poetry involved love between ordinary people. Many of these same types of poetry were popular outside Mesopotamia, and other types flourished as well. In the Levant*, poems intended to teach a moral lesson were common. They addressed subjects such as aging, death, female virtue, and the creative process. The poetry of ancient Israel included prophetic* poems, love poems, and PROVERBS. The best-known Israelite poems are the PSALMS of the Hebrew BIBLE. Interestingly, the ancient Israelites had almost no tradition of epic poetry similar to that of Mesopotamia. In ancient Egypt, the main forms of poetic expression were hymns to the gods and love poetry. (See also Creation Myths; Entertainment; Epic Literature.)

P

olygamy (puh»LI»guh«mee) is the practice of having more than one spouse at the same time. When a woman has more than one husband it is called polyandry. The marriage of a man to more than one woman is called polygyny, and this is the only type of polygamy known to have existed in the ancient Near East. Most ancient Near Eastern societies allowed men to enter into polygamous marriages, but even where such unions were possible, they were not common. Although rich and powerful men could afford to maintain many wives, most humble folk could not. Persian, Hittite, and Egyptian kings often had several wives. Their lofty status entitled them to many wives as well as concubines*, along with other privileges and pleasures. Other instances of polygamy were concerned chiefly with the production of CHILDREN and heirs. The Greek historian HERODOTUS reported that polygamy existed in the PERSIAN EMPIRE and that the Persians encouraged it to promote population growth. Some Persian men with more than one wife had as many as a dozen children. 5

Population Movements In MESOPOTAMIA, men whose wives had not borne sons could take second wives, although the first wife's status in the household and community remained higher. Sometimes a childless wife adopted a second woman as a sister and let that woman also marry her husband. A man could also take a second wife if his first wife was ill and unable to perform her marital duties. The man still had to support the first wife and could not divorce her, although she could voluntarily leave his house. In ancient Egypt, a man was free to take a second wife as long as he maintained and supported his first wife and her children properly. However, the first wife did not have to tolerate another wife and could divorce her husband. According to Egyptian records, some second wives had much lower social status than first wives did, perhaps because few men could afford two wives of equal status. Among the Israelites, the ideal marriage was monogamous (having only one spouse at a time). However, a number of figures in the Hebrew BIBLE, including several of the patriarchs and some early kings, had numerous wives. (See also Divorce; Family and Social Life; Marriage.)

Population Movements

POTTERY archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

6

See Migration and Deportation.

P

ottery—objects made of hardened clay—provides the primary evidence of ancient Near Eastern cultures and is also one of the most useful records of past civilizations. Unlike wood or TEXTILES, pottery does not deteriorate or change form over long periods of time. Even if broken into pieces, called shards or potsherds, pottery lasts for a long time. Pottery can tell archaeologists* and historians a great deal about the people who created it and the culture in which it appeared.

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY The art and technology of making hardened objects of clay by means of heat or fire is known as ceramics. Clay, the basic ingredient in ceramics, was abundant in the river valleys of the ancient Near East. In such regions as MESOPOTAMIA, which lacked adequate sources of timber and STONE, clay became an important building material. Ancient builders made clay BRICKS by mixing clay with straw or animal manure, shaping it in molds, and placing the molds in the sun so that the bricks would dry and harden. Pottery was invented when humans learned how to fire clay in a kiln to make it hard and durable. Potters could then make cups, plates, containers, and other items from clay. Evidence suggests that the first pottery was made in the Near East by at least 8000 B.C. By the fourth millennium B.C.*, pottery was being produced in large quantities to supply the needs of people in towns and cities throughout the region. The demand for pottery led to the appearance of craft specialists—full-time potters skilled at making various types and sizes of objects.

Pottery * artisan skilled craftsperson

Gender Roles Archaeologists are unsure whether most potters were men or women in the ancient Near East Based on studies of modern-day potters in the region, it is likely that most of those who worked with potter's wheels were men. Women and chil dren, on the other hand, probably made most handmade pottery. Thi division of labor may reflect the responsibilities of men and women in the ancient world. Because the production of handmade pottery did not require full-time attention, it could be completed when other household chores—which were performed by women and children—were not pressing.

See color plate 9, vol. 4.

Making Pottery. Clay is found in various textures and consistencies. In making pottery, ancient artisans* first had to choose the proper type of clay for the object they planned to make. Delicate, thin-walled objects, such as cups and plates, were made from fine-textured clay. To make sturdier items, such as storage jars and cooking pots, artisans used coarser clay. Potters could make clay stiffer by adding sand, crushed shells, ash, or vegetable matter, such as the dry husks, or outer coverings, of grains and grasses. These materials also helped prevent the clay from shrinking and cracking during the baking process. Ancient potters shaped clay into objects using various techniques, all of which are still used today. In a technique known as coil building, a potter used ropelike pieces of clay, generally placed in spiral-shaped patterns, to form the base and sides of an object. The surface of the clay was then smoothed or flattened, either by hand or with a simple tool. Another technique, known as molding, involved placing wet clay in a preformed mold made of wood, stone, hardened clay, or metal. The clay thus took on the shape of the mold. A third technique, called throwing, required the use of a device known as a potter's wheel. As the wheel rotated, a potter shaped the moist clay by hand or used simple tools to form the desired shape. Once the clay was formed into the desired shape, the object was set aside to dry. Then it was placed in a kiln and baked slowly at high temperatures. The earliest kilns were simply open fires on which dried pots were placed. The pots were covered with a layer of brush, straw, or manure, which both protected the pottery and served as a source of fuel for the fire. Later kilns were walled, circular chambers made of fire-hardened brick. Beneath the kiln was a pit into which the potter fed fuel for the fire. Holes in the floor of the kiln allowed the heat and gases from the fire below to rise into the chamber containing the pottery. A layer of potsherds resting on top of the pottery formed the roof of the kiln. Kilns such as this were used throughout the ancient Near East, and they are still found in many parts of the region. Decorating Pottery. Ancient potters decorated pottery in many ways. Before the object began to dry, patterns could be pressed or carved into the clay with tools. Wet clay could also be trimmed with bits of clay added to the surface. In the Near East, such additions often took the shape of animal heads or other natural objects. When a pot was partially dry, a potter could use tools to incise, or cut, lines or figures into its surface. Partially dried pots could also be rubbed with a smooth, hard object such as a pebble to create a glossy finish with markings. This technique, known as burnishing, also helped compact the clay, making it less likely that liquids would be able to seep through the walls of the finished pot. Before an object was fired in a kiln, potters could coat the surface with slip—a watery solution of fine clay, water, and natural coloring agents. After firing, the slip produced a red or black finish, with the final color depending on how the pottery was fired. Other forms of decoration— including paint and glaze, a transparent coating—could also be added to pottery, generally after firing in a kiln. 7

Pottery

CERAMIC ANALYSIS Pottery techniques,forms, materials, and decoration canindicate how an object was used by the society that produced it. Therelative abundance of certain types of pottery in various regions can also provide information about the lifestyles of the people. The analysis of pottery by experts, known as ceramic analysis, can thus supply important evidence of the cultural, economic, political, social, and technological dimensions of ancient societies, as well as the changes and developments that took place from one time period to another. Archaeologists call the various types and forms of ceramics used at a particular time and place an assemblage. Assemblagesprovidea snapshot of certain aspects of a culture.For example,a large concentration ofsimilar undecorated pots at an archaeological site probably indicates anurban center with a steady demand for plainand inexpensive pottery. Whenarchaeologists have identified different assemblages in aparticular area, they analyze them on the basis of various classifications, or typologies.

8

Pottery

"Form Follows Function Archaeologists can learn much about an ancient society by studying its pottery, but they can also learn about pottery from various cultural sources* For example, texts from ancient Mesopotamia have provided important clues to the uses of the variously shaped vessels found at many archaeological sites. The symbols used in early Mesopotamian writing to indicate different liquids correspond to the types of vessels used to store those liquids. For example, the symbol for beer looks like an upright jug with a straight spout Beer was a popular drink in Mesopotamia, and remains of this type of pot are commonly found in the region.

* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

* urbanization formation and growth of cities

These typologies group the objects according to similarities in size, shape, style, decoration, type of clay, method of manufacture, and other features. Grouping and comparing pottery in this way helps scholars establish relative dates for objects found at different sites and allows them to determine various factors about the objects and the societies that produced them. Using ceramic analysis, archaeologists can learn a great deal about different topics. For example, plotting discoveries of pottery on maps helps archaeologists determine the location of ancient settlements. Collections of potsherds at sites can help archaeologists trace the rise and development of urban centers, and the appearance of foreign pottery types at a site may suggest trade relationships with other cultures. Studying the composition of the clays in pottery can tell archaeologists whether an object was made from local clay or was an import, made of clay from a more distant source. Examining how a piece of pottery was fired may provide information about the types of fuel used in ancient kilns; this, in turn, can reveal something about the vegetation available for fuel in the area.

CERAMIC TRADITIONS IN THE NEAR EAST Humans may have discovered the process of firing clay from the early practice of heating limestone to produce plaster. Fired clay pottery first appeared in SYRIA around 8000 B.C., and evidence of it in western IRAN dates from at least 7500 B.C. However, pottery did not become widespread in the ancient Near East until after 7000 B.C. Mesopotamia!! Pottery. Shortly after 7000 B.C., people in northern Mesopotamia began producing hand-formed clay pots in kilns. Because the clay they used was mixed with large amounts of vegetable matter, it produced a very coarse type of pottery. Over time, the Mesopotamians developed advanced technology, using finer clays and applying slips and other, more elaborate decorations. The early use of kilns in Mesopotamia suggests that pottery making had already become a specialized skill. Just before 6000 B.C., potters began to decorate their work with geometric designs and naturalistic figures, such as horned animals. The early sixth millennium* B.C. marked a high point of Mesopotamian pottery, with detailed and beautifully painted pottery of all types. Much of the pottery produced at this time constituted luxury items created by skilled artisans for export and trade. Early pottery in southern Mesopotamia varied greatly in quality. The best-preserved pieces are often warped and show other evidence that they were fired at excessive temperatures. Archaeologists have also unearthed many soft and easily broken pieces, which indicate too little heat during firing. Some scholars believe that these variations indicate that potters were experimenting with firing techniques and ways to achieve the best temperatures in kilns. The introduction of a fast potter's wheel in southern Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium B.C. allowed artisans to mass produce pottery to meet the demands of a society experiencing increased urbanization*.

9

Pottery

The Potter's Oracle Predicting the future in the ancient world was the domain of specialized prophets and oracles—priests or priestesses through whom a god was believed to speak. However, one Egyptian text, called The Potter's Oracle, suggests that even a humble potter could speak for the gods. In the text, a potter defends himself after the pots he had molded—an act forbidden for religious reasons—were destroyed. H< then predicts frightful times for Egypt at the hands of enemies. He also predicts that nature will suffer, the sun will become dark, and the Nile River will cease to flow. Though Amenhotep, the ruling king, was unhappy with the potter's predictions, he placed the tex in the sacred chambers of his tombj

faience decorated object made of quartz and other materials that includes a glaze

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

See (color plate 13,1 V vol. 2.

10

Painted decoration largely disappeared at this time so that pottery could be produced faster and more cheaply. Although the fast potter's wheel was used in northern Mesopotamia after 4000 B.C., pottery in the region differed greatly from that of the south. While undecorated and mass-produced objects dominated southern Mesopotamian pottery potters in the north still exhibited a great deal of innovation. When a glassmaking industry developed in the north in the 1300s B.C., potters quickly mastered glazing techniques, which provided decoration and produced a watertight seal over the clay. Glazed pottery largely replaced more expensive stone and glass containers for storing valuable liquids such as PERFUMES. Egyptian Pottery. In Egypt, most pottery was plain and practical, generally lacking in decoration or interesting forms. Yet the Egyptians knew the basic pottery techniques used by other ancient cultures, and some Egyptian works feature burnished, incised, and painted decorations. During certain periods, Egyptian potters typically produced works of a single color—such as yellow, red, black, or blue—that had geometric patterns, animal figures, and scenes from the Nile River. Among the animal figures decorating this pottery were hippopotamuses, crocodiles, sheep, and goats. The potter's wheel was first used in Egypt in about 2400 B.C. Before this time, potters used rotating platforms that they turned with one hand while shaping clay with the other. Mold-made pottery flourished between about 1500 and 1200 B.C., and these works show a great deal of creativity and playfulness. They include animal shapes, bottles shaped like nursing mothers, and women holding pets or playing musical instruments. By this time, faience* and a blue-painted pottery had become popular in major cities such as MEMPHIS. After about 500 B.C., pottery in Egypt showed increasing signs of Greek influence. The conquest of Egypt by ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the late 300s B.C. led to the dominance of Greek pottery styles. This pattern of increased Greek influence was repeated throughout the Near East as Alexander's armies conquered the entire region from ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey) to the frontiers of India. Pottery in the Levant and Syria. The earliest pottery in the Levant*, which appeared around 6000 B.C., was quite crude. Made from coarse clay and fired at low temperatures, it was decorated with simple geometric designs made from slip applied to the surface before firing. After 4000 B.C., new pottery forms were introduced in the region, and the craftsmanship improved. New types of decoration included geometric designs and hand-cut patterns. Some pieces were made on a rotating platform that was turned by hand, much like a potter's wheel. By the late fouth millennium B.C., distinct ceramic traditions had emerged in Syria and the Levant, including red and gray burnished pottery and redpainted pottery. By this time, the wheel had also come into use. The period between 2000 and 1500 B.C. marked a high point of urban culture in the Levant, and the pottery of this time reflected the wealth and sophistication of the people in CANAAN. There is also evidence of

Prayer

See color plate 5, vol. 3.

PRAYER * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * deity god or goddess

* archeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * lamentation expression of grief; act of grieving * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead * plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

much influence from other cultures, and pottery from CYPRUS and other Mediterranean civilizations was introduced around this time. After about 1500 B.C., pottery in the region reflected a significant decline in creativity, with few new forms. However, imports increased dramatically, especially those from Cyprus, CRETE, Greece, and Egypt. Around 1200 B.C., new cultural traditions began to appear in Syria and the Levant, perhaps because of the movement of the SEA PEOPLES into the region. The PHILISTINES (believed to be one of the Sea Peoples) produced pottery with beautiful geometric and bird designs similar to Late Bronze Age Greek works from RHODES and Cyprus. In Phoenicia, potters created delicate pottery featuring a red finish and burnished surface. Archaeologists have established rough dates for Phoenician expansion and colonization by tracing the appearance of their distinctive pottery in various places throughout the Mediterranean region. After about 500 B.C., much of the local pottery in the Levant imitated imported designs from areas to the east and west. Imported pottery from Greece began to increase greatly at that time as well, and Greek designs eventually replaced the local styles in most places. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Clay Tablets; Economy and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking; Wheel.)

D

efined as a verbal act of worship to one god or to a pantheon*, prayer played an important role in the RELIGIONS of the ancient Near East. Because ancient Near Eastern peoples considered their deities* powerful, mysterious, and unpredictable beings, their prayers praised the gods and showered attention on them. People also prayed to the gods to ask for protection against misfortune and evil, to apologize, to request help, to complain about injustices, and to give thanks for good deeds. Modern scholars know very little about the everyday prayers spoken by ordinary individuals in ancient times. The Book of Psalms in the Hebrew BIBLE is an example of a religious text that records prayers intended to be spoken by priests and individuals. These prayers were probably meant to be recited with the help of an expert in ritual. They follow a basic form and contain general terms, suggesting that they could be used in a wide range of circumstances. Most of the ancient prayers discovered by archeologists* have been either those recited by priests or diviners on specific occasions or group prayers intended to be spoken by an entire community. An example of a communal prayer was found in ancient UGARIT. It was meant to be recited by the people to the storm god BAAL during times of danger from attack. It begins, "O Baal, drive away the mighty one from our gates, the warrior from our walls/' An Egyptian prayer, meant to be recited by a temple priest during the morning ritual, begins: "I worship your majesty with the chosen words, with the prayers that enhance your prestige/' Ancient prayer took many forms, including HYMNS, incantations*, letters, and magic spells. In MESOPOTAMIA, the prayers recited in ancient Sumer and Akkad included many lamentations*, which were poetic responses to real or imaginary disasters, such as the destruction of temples 11

Pregnancy A Plague Prayer Among the most famous Hittite prayers are the Plague Prayers of Murshili II, in which King Murshili expresses the responsibility that he feels toward his land and people. The king prays to the gods: Storm-god of Khatti, my lord, and you gods of Khatti, my lords. ... [T]he land of Khatti has been afflicted very badly by the plague. In my father's days, in my brother's days, people died, and also since I became a priest of the gods, now, also in my days, people are dying And while people are dying in the heart of the land of Khatti, the plague has not at all been taken out of the land of Khatti. But I cannot overcome the worry of my heart and I can no longer overcome the anguish of my self.

PREGNANCY

* fertility ability to become pregnant and bear children or to father children

* incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect

12

and cities or the death of a king. By the end of the third millennium B.C.*, a type of prayer called the letter-prayer had emerged in Sumer. These prayers, written on CLAY TABLETS and placed before a god in a temple, were a form of private communication between worshipers and the gods. Letterprayers opened with an elaborate greeting that emphasized the divine qualities that would best serve the needs of the worshiper, such as healing qualities, wisdom, or forgiveness. Among the most important types of Egyptian prayers were funerary* prayers, which were expressions of mourning as well as magical formulas that would help the dead reach the AFTERLIFE. The Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD contains collections of such prayers. The prayers of the HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) were similar in form and content to Mesopotamian prayers. Occasionally, the Hittites added elements typical of their own culture or in reaction to specific events. Some prayers became masterpieces of Hittite LITERATURE, such as the prayer crafted by King Murshili II when plagues* were devastating the empire. Ritual was a crucial part of worship. To gain the attention of the gods, prayers had to be recited while the person praying performed specific ritual movements. The typical gesture of prayer in Mesopotamia was lifting the hand to the mouth. In Egypt, priests recited prayers while standing with their arms at their sides. Like the Mesopotamians, it seems that the Hittites raised their hands when praying, although they sometimes kneeled, as did the Israelites. (See also Death and Burial; Gods and Goddesses; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

I

n the ancient Near East, people considered pregnancy a natural part of the cycle of life, one that humans shared with animals. They also regarded pregnancy as a special condition of females that might be treated with MEDICINE, MAGIC, religious ritual, or all three. The main purpose of MARRIAGE in the Near East was to produce and raise CHILDREN who could help their parents with work, enter into advantageous marriages, support parents in their old age, perform funeral rituals for deceased parents, and inherit property. Childless people became objects of pity and sometimes of scorn. To avoid such a fate, women sometimes sought medical or magical aids to improve their fertility*. The HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) performed fertility rituals for men and women, and texts from ancient Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA describe treatments thought to remedy female infertility. Pregnancy was a time of potential—and of mystery. Magical incantations* from ancient Mesopotamia describe the unborn child as a ship with an unknown cargo, sailing across a dark sea to the world of the living. The Egyptians and Babylonians devised tests to determine whether a woman was pregnant and, if so, whether the child would be a boy or a girl. Certain tests for pregnancy that involved the use of various herbs might have had some basis in scientific fact. However, many tests were based purely on superstition, such as the Babylonian belief that a pregnant woman was carrying a boy if she always stepped to the right, a girl if she stepped to the left.

Priests and Priestesses

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES

Women facing the difficulties of pregnancy and CHILDBIRTH often sought magical and supernatural aid. Mesopotamian women, for example, wore amulets* during pregnancy to protect them from the demon Lamashtu, who preyed on mothers and infants. They might also ask for aid from goddesses such as Nintu, the Lady of Birth, who was occasionally portrayed holding a baby. Even in social and economic environments that encouraged large families, women sometimes wanted to avoid pregnancy. The same Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts that describe infertility remedies also list contraceptive treatments — such as herbal potions to be drunk or applied to the body—that were meant to prevent pregnancy or cause an abortion. Breast-feeding gave women at least partial control over the spacing of children, as women are somewhat less likely to become pregnant when nursing a child. For instance, because they generally breast-fed children for about three years, Egyptian women reduced their chances of conceiving another child during that time. (See also Amulets and Charms; Family and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Women, Role of.)

TTJeligion was a very important aspect of life in the ancient Near East, fV^and priests and priestesses played a crucial role in society. The duty of all humans was to serve the gods, and kings served as the primary link between the world of the gods and the world of humans. Although rulers were the chief priests of their societies, they could not be present at every religious function or ceremony. Consequently, religious duties were often delegated to priests and priestesses. Qualifications for Priesthood. Throughout the ancient Near East, priests and priestesses came primarily from the elite, often including individuals of royal descent, particularly for the chief positions at large temples. At its higher levels, the priesthood was often a hereditary position! passed down from generation to generation. In MESOPOTAMIA, priestly positions were inherited, and this practice was even more widespread in Egypt. Among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the chief priests of major temples came from royal families, while village priests were not of the nobility and had a lower social status. Most priests in ancient Israel also inherited their positions. The main qualification to become a priest or priestess was that individuals be ''pure/' This generally meant that they had no visible imperfections, such as marks on the skin or skin diseases, or any physical deformities. An individual not only had to be pure to enter the priesthood, but that purity had to be maintained afterward as well. Each society had its own rules about maintaining both physical and symbolic or ritual purity. To remain pure, priests had to wash themselves several times each day. This process was often carried out in a sacred lake or in special washbasins at the entrances to temples. The maintenance of purity also usually required wearing special clothing and eating specific foods while

13

Priests and Priestesses

chaste not participating in sexual relations; virtuous or pure

* divination art or practice of foretelling the future * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

deity god or goddess

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

14

serving the gods. In Egypt, temple priests shaved their heads and dressed in white linen. Mesopotamian priests also wore special clothing and often had shaved heads. They sometimes performed their duties in the nude, as did the Elamite priests of IRAN. For the Hittites, impurity on the part of a priest was punishable by death. Their great concern for ritual purity is evident in Instructions for Temple Personnel, an ancient Hittite text about religious administration. In general, priests and priestesses did not have to remain chaste*. In Egypt, however, they had to refrain from sexual relations while serving in the temple, but otherwise they could marry and, often, have children. Sometimes priests and priestesses married each other. Priests had to obey various moral rules to maintain their ritual purity and serve in temples. An ancient Egyptian INSCRIPTION lists some of these rules: "Do not come in sin, do not enter in impurity, do not utter falsehood in his house, do not covet things, do not slander, do not accept bribes, do not be partial as between a poor man and a great... do not reveal what you have seen in the mysteries of the temple/' Role and Organization of the Priesthood. The primary role of priests was to attend to the needs of the gods by properly conducting religious rituals and ceremonies. The basic daily ritual in temples was the "care and feeding" of the gods, who were represented by statues. The temple was considered the home of the gods, and priests cleaned, dressed, fed, and entertained these statues as if they were living beings. Providing for such needs kept the gods healthy and happy and helped ensure that they would favor their subjects. In addition to their role in temple rituals, priests and priestesses also took part in various public religious ceremonies. Priests performed a variety of roles beyond attending to the needs of the gods and performing religious rituals. They served as teachers, scientists, doctors, psychologists, and judges. Some priests were considered magicians, and others practiced divination* by interpreting DREAMS and OMENS from the gods. Sometimes the individuals who served as musicians, cooks, and administrators in temples were members of the priestly class as well. Temple scribes* responsible for learning, performing, and passing down sacred texts and rituals were among the most important members of the priesthood. In most Near Eastern societies, priestesses held positions that were similar to those held by priests. They were also organized in the same ways as the men. Often, but not always, priestesses served goddesses while priests served gods. Those priestesses who served a male deity*— often called a "bride of the god"—sometimes had more power than the highest male priest serving the same god. In ancient BABYLON, for example, priestesses of the god MARDUK had great power. Some women who were attached to the family of the Sumerian sun god Shamash could marry, but they were not allowed to have children. Elamite priests and priestesses were equals. In some regions of the Near East, some priestesses served as prostitutes, and the money they made went to the gods or goddesses they served. Israel was unique in that women were not permitted to serve in priestly functions, but they could be prophets* for Yahweh.

Priests and Priestesses Dating from the 400s B.C., this Phoenician sculpture from Carthage depicts a priestess with open arms. Priestesses and priests in the ancient Near East held similar roles in society. They generally had to meet the same requirements and performed the same religious duties.

Every ancient Near Eastern society had various classes of priests, from village priests to the high priests of great city temples. Some priests served major deities, while others served lesser ones. The priesthood was also organized according to priestly duties and responsibilities, such as performing daily rituals, keeping track of temple records, performing music, singing HYMNS, and serving in other specialized roles. Various priestly titles signified rank, responsibilities, and the god or goddess served. Ancient Egypt had a highly organized priesthood. There were two main classes of priests and priestesses: the ''servants of god/' or prophets; and the "pure ones," or waab priests. The "servants of god" included the highest priestly ranks, while the "pure ones" were individuals of lesser rank. Most Egyptian temples had between 10 and 25 priests; larger temples had many more, however. Egyptian priests were divided into four groups, called phyle, made up mostly of waab priests. Each phyle was usually led by a "servant of god," or prophet. The phyles served at the temple on a rotating basis: One phyle served for one month while the other three phyles were off duty. Until about the 1500s B.C., Egypt had no full-time, professional priesthood. Scribes from the upper classes of society performed priestly service as a part-time job. Among this elite, priesthood was a normal part of people's 15

Property and Property Rights

On Becoming a Priest An autobiography written around 850 B.C. describes how the author entered the priesthood of Horus: / was introduced into the [temple] to sanctify the mysterious image of the god who is in Thebes, to satisfy him with his offerings. I... had rid myself from all that was evil in me, had exchanged evil with purity, and had loosened clothes and ointments according to the purification of Horus and Seth. I entered the presence of the god... while I was afraid and in awe of him. The king praised me; he made my position. He appointed me in the steps of my father.

PROPERTY AND PROPERTY RIGHTS

16

lives and not a separate profession. Moreover, individuals often served several temples at different ranks all at the same time. For example, a man who served as a prophet in one temple might also be a waab priest in another. The Egyptian priesthood included many priestly titles, such as "father of the god,;/ "provost of the mysteries/' and "lector priest/' Lector priests, who read sacred texts, were sometimes called magicians. Some priests were called "scribes of the sacred book" in the "House of Life," which was essentially a library and school connected to the temple. This is where most of the science, history, and literature of Egyptian society was kept. The structure of the priesthood was less complex in other areas of the Near East. In ancient Sumer, many temples were organized around the en, a priest or priestess considered the spouse of a god or goddess. Apart from the en, the highest figure in most temples was the sanga (bookkeeper), who performed both administrative and religious duties for the temple. At some small temples, the bookkeeper was the only temple worker. Among the Hittites, the highest religious official was the sanga, followed by a priest known as the "anointed." One of the most important priestesses was known as the "mother of the god." These priests and priestesses performed most of the actual OFFERINGS to the gods and were the ones who approached the gods most directly. Other temple personnel included musicians, singers, cooks, and administrators. Among the Israelites, the biblical Priestly Code gave priests more power than in many other areas of the Near East. According to the Priestly Code, all law was regarded as religious law and could be enforced by priests. This meant that, in addition to all their other duties, Israelite priests served as judges, physicians, and even state administrators for the society. (See also Death and Burial; Gods and Goddesses; Occupations; Palaces and Temples; Prayer; Rituals and Sacrifice; Scribes; Women, Role of.)

I

n ancient times, both private individuals and public institutions, such as the palace or the temple, could own property in the Near East. Within each Near Eastern culture, however, a web of laws and customs determined the kinds of property different individuals could hold and what they could do with it. Women, for example, could not own property in their own names in some cultures. Slaves, who were themselves considered a form of property, could sometimes own property. Property consisted of real estate (land and buildings), movable property (money and possessions), and human property, or slaves. Another category included nonphysical things, such as offices and occupations that could be passed from a father to his oldest son, water rights that gave landowners a share in the water from nearby streams or canals, and businesses. A slave's labor was also a form of property. For instance, a document excavated in Egypt states that a specific number of people owned a slave together and that each owner was entitled to the slave's labor for a certain number of days each year. This labor was property that the slave owner had the right to resell. In MESOPOTAMIA and Egypt, where agricultural societies developed early, ownership of farmland was an important element of the social order.

Proverbs

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * dowry money or property that a woman brings to the man she marries * will document in which one dictates the division of one's property after death * disinherit to exclude someone from a share in an estate

A Woman's Place In Mesopotamia, during the period of the Old Babylonian empire (ca, 1900-1600 B.C.). there appeared a social and economic practice by which families with daughters and no sons could keep wealth within the family. Rich young women became naditus. These women were sent to live in special communities maintained by donations from their families. There they led lives of devotion to the gods but were forbidden to marry, preventing the wealth from being given away as a dowry. The naditus maintained control of their property, engaged fully in business activities, made profits, and could dispose of property as they wished.

Prophecy

PROVERBS

Although much land belonged to powerful individuals (kings and high priests) or to state institutions (palaces and temples), some land was privately owned in every society. Such privately owned property was passed from one generation to the next by means of one of several methods. Nomadic* peoples generally divided a father's property equally among his sons. However, equal division of farmland spelled disaster, for within a few generations, a farm would be reduced to many plots, each too small to support a family. For ancient Mesopotamians, the solution was shared ownership of property by extended families rather than by individuals. After about 2000 B.C., as Mesopotamian society grew more centralized, land laws placed increasing emphasis on individual ownership. The state found it easier to deal with one owner than with a group of brothers, uncles, and cousins. Primogeniture, in which the oldest son inherited the land, was another solution to the problem of land division. This type of inheritance was customary in Egypt, although sometimes both sons and daughters could own and inherit land. The Israelites divided their land among sons but gave the oldest son a double share. Every society was concerned with keeping family property within the family, which was defined by the father's bloodline. For this reason, sons usually inherited land and most other property. A daughter's share of the estate was her dowry*, which she took to her marriage. The dowry then became part of her husband's family's property. In the case of DIVORCE, however, a portion of that property might be returned to the wife or her family. The family that lost property in the form of a daughter's dowry might expect to regain the loss when sons married and brought their wives' dowries into the family's estate. Customs and laws were not the only factors that shaped the handing down of property from one generation to the next. A will* from ancient Egypt reveals a woman disinheriting* some of her children for not taking proper care of her. In another will, a man disinherits a female relative because she failed to nurse him when he was ill. Although the general pattern of property transfer reflected the needs and values of the larger society, individuals could still express their personal preferences and family feelings through the disposal of their property. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Family and Social Life; Land Use and Ownership; Law; Women, Role of.)

See Oracles and Prophecy.

P

roverbs are short, sometimes witty, often educational sayings meant to express some common truth or useful thought. Proverbs created primarily to educate were among the earliest forms of LITERATURE in the ancient Near East. A type of instructional text classified as wisdom literature, proverbs record observations about the nature of reality and provide simple instructions and rules of behavior based on experience and thought 17

Psalms

pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

PSALMS

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* canonical included in the canon, the officially recognized books of the Bible

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about the meanings of life. Proverbs provided valuable advice to everyone from kings to ordinary people. Among the earliest proverbs were so-called "wisdom of events/' sayings about simple factual situations based on observations of occurrences in nature and society. Later proverbs taught lessons by describing an action and its result. For example, the lesson of the Egyptian proverb "You beat my back; your teachings entered my ear" was probably that one should appreciate a strict instructor. Some proverbs used ridiculous situations to make their point, as in the Sumerian proverb "Would you pay cash for a pig's squeal?" Many ancient Near Eastern proverbs were written in the form of a father (or teacher) speaking to his son (or student). It is not surprising, then, that the lessons taught often involved such subjects as respect for one's elders and the gods, the value of modesty and caution, the importance of financial responsibility, and the avoidance of the "wrong" types of people. The earliest known proverbs of this type were Egyptian sayings in which a pharaoh* gave advice to his son. The subject matter of these proverbs was essentially directed toward preparing Egyptian princes and their high officials for later responsibilities in government. The most famous proverbs are found in the Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew BIBLE. These biblical proverbs—intended to help individuals make sensible choices in their lives—deal with a range of sacred and secular* themes that have universal appeal. Some portions of the Book of Proverbs share similarities with earlier works of wisdom literature, including an ancient Egyptian text called The Instruction ofAmenemope. Ancient Sumer, Babylonia, Egypt, and Assyria also had collections of proverbs. The oldest Mesopotamian proverbs are contained in a work called Instructions ofShuruppak. Another collection—Sayings ofAhiqar— probably put together in Assyria in the 600s B.C., deals with themes similar to earlier proverbs, such as devotion and submission to the gods, the value of discipline, and respect for superiors. This collection is remarkable for its fablelike comparisons involving animals. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Education; Religion.)

P

salms are ancient Hebrew songs that address or call on the god YAHWEH. The word psalm originally came from a Greek translation of the Hebrew word mizmor, which literally means "song accompanied by a stringed instrument/' This indicates that psalms were used as HYMNS, or religious songs, in ancient Israel. Many psalms are pleas or songs of praise, thanksgiving, and mourning. It is also clear that some psalms were chanted or used as prayers. Some psalms were written for specific religious occasions, such as the Sabbath, the day of worship and rest. The majority of psalms were written in terms that made them suitable for various occasions. Most psalms were written during the first millennium B.C.* and were later adopted for use in the Jewish and Christian religions, in which they continue to play an important role. The best-known psalms are the 150 canonical* psalms that appear in the Book of Psalms in the Hebrew BIBLE. The canonical psalms were said

Ptolemy I

* sect group of people with a common leadership who share a distinctive set of religious views and opinion

PTOLEMY I ruled 305-282 B.C. King of Egypt

* coronation act or ceremony of crowing a leader * Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

to have been written by King DAVID, who took the throne of Israel just after 1000 B.C. However, scholars no longer think that David wrote many, if any, of these psalms. Instead, they believe that the psalms were written by a number of people. In fact, some scholars believe that Psalm 104 borrowed phrases and ideas from an Egyptian hymn written in the 1340s B.C. called the Hymn to Aten. Besides the canonical psalms, the Psalms of Solomon is also well known. These 18 psalms were said to have been written by King SOLOMON of Israel, David's son and successor. Although Solomon's psalms are similar to many of the canonical psalms in their subjects and forms, they are not included in the Bible. Other psalms are recorded in the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were composed by members of a Jewish sect* between 200 B.C. and A.D. 100. These scrolls were recovered in the A.D. 1940s and 1950s from caves bordering the Dead Sea, between present-day Israel and Jordan. Hymns found in the Dead Sea Scrolls borrow phrases from the canonical psalms, indicating that the writers of later Jewish hymns based their work on ancient Hebrew psalms. Psalms continued to be produced in medieval times by European and Middle Eastern Jews. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Religion.)

P

tolemy I (TAH»luh«mee) was a highly decorated general under ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA. He went on to become one of the most famous kings of Egypt. He also founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, a long line of rulers from the Ptolemy family that governed Egypt for almost 300 years and led it through its last great period of empire and grandeur. Born into a Macedonian noble family around 366 B.C., Ptolemy probably started his career at an early age as a page in the royal court. When Alexander took the throne in 336 B.C., Ptolemy became his bodyguard. He was later promoted to the position of general in command of the navy and proved to be one of Alexander's most capable officers. When Alexander died in 323 B.C., Ptolemy convinced Alexander's other generals to divide up the empire with him. Each former general became a governor of a different province. Ptolemy governed Egypt until 305 B.C., when he named himself king of Egypt. His coronation* marked the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemy worked hard to make Egypt a great Hellenistic* power. Using diplomacy* as well as military might, he first stabilized and then expanded his kingdom. Under his rule, Egypt became the supreme NAVAL POWER in the Mediterranean. Although he brought Hellenistic culture to Egypt, especially to its royal court, he won the loyalty of the Egyptian people by adopting their religion, building temples to the Egyptian gods, and restoring the temples of their earlier kings. In addition, Ptolemy introduced coins to Egypt, founded a famous library at the city of Alexandria, and wrote a history of Alexander the Great, which is now lost. After he died in 282 B.C., Ptolemy was designated a god by the Egyptian people. 19

Pyramids Ptolemy's first few successors were strong and able kings who maintained the overseas holdings and wealth of the empire. However, later Ptolemaic rulers were both weak and corrupt. By 200 B.C., they had lost many of the empire's overseas lands and faced revolts by the Egyptian people. The last rulers of the dynasty were Ptolemy XV and his mother, the famous Egyptian queen CLEOPATRA. Their rule and the Ptolemaic dynasty both came to an end in 30 B.C., when the Romans conquered Egypt. (See also Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs; Seleucid Empire.)

PYRAMIDS

Pyramid Robbery From the very beginning of the pyramid age, many pyramids were broken into and robbed of their valuable contents. This often occurred soon after a king's body was entombed. As a result, builders of later pyramids introduced architectural features to prevent robbers from gaining easy access to the tombs' interiors. These features included passages with dead ends, large granite rock plugs for entranceways, and hidden trapdoors. Despite these attempts to block robbers' efforts, the pyramids continued to be robbed of their treasures, leading later Egyptian kings to abandon pyramids altogether and to adopt less obvious rock-cut tombs for burial.

20

T

he pyramids are tombs that were built for Egyptian kings between about 2650 and 1650 B.C. Most of the pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), which is why that period is sometimes referred to as the pyramid age. In addition to many smaller pyramids, 35 major pyramids still stand in Egypt today. The most famous are three giant pyramids at GIZA, on the west bank of the NILE RIVER, not far from Cairo. These three pyramids are among the best-known monuments of ancient Egypt. The biggest of the three, called the Great Pyramid, is the largest all-stone structure ever built. Because of their preservation and significance, the pyramids are one of the most important sources of information about ancient Egypt. How the Pyramids Originated. Because the ancient Egyptians believed in an AFTERLIFE (life after death), they tried to protect the bodies of the dead by burying them in tombs. These tombs could hold provisions and guides to help the soul in the afterlife. Before the pyramids, tombs of kings and other important people took the form of mastabas. These were long, low rectangular structures with a gently curving roof and slightly sloping sides or with a flat roof and sides that had numerous false doors. These moundlike structures, often made of sand and rubble, covered a pit in the ground in which the dead body was placed. Over time, mastabas became bigger and more solidly built. The sides were covered in bricks and arranged in steps to make the tomb stronger and more durable. The shape of the mastabas and pyramids had religious significance for the ancient Egyptians. The mastabas symbolized the creation of the world, which the ancient Egyptians believed occurred when a hill emerged from the waters of chaos. Scholars also believe that the sloped sides of the mastabas and pyramids represented the rays of the sun, reflecting the Egyptians' relationship with the sun god AMUN. Egyptians believed that the sun god was the king of the gods and that he had created the universe. Builders of the Pyramids. The first pyramid in ancient Egypt was built for King DJOSER (ruled ca. 2630-2611 B.C.) by his chief architect, Imhotep. The pyramid started out as a mastaba, but Imhotep enlarged it and then added five layers of rocks and bricks above the first, each layer somewhat smaller than the one below. The result was a six-stepped pyramid rising more than 200 feet and covering almost 150,000 square feet at the base.

Pyramids Most ofDjoser's successors followedhisleadandbuilt pyramids for themselves. Someof the earliest pyramids were never completed,perhaps because the kings died prematurely. Inthose cases, theworkers apparently abandoned the building site andbegan work on a newpyramid for the dead king's successor. The first true pyramid—with straight sides insteadof steps—wasbuilt by KingSneferu (ruledca. 2625-2585 B.C.). Sneferualso builttwoother large pyramids aswellas twosmaller pyramids, makinghim themost productive builder in ancient times.One Sneferu's of pyramidsiscalledthe Bent Pyramid because its sides aresteeper at thebottom than at thetop. Some scholars believe that followingthecollapseof oneSneferu's of earlier steep-sided pyramids, the architects correctedtheangleof theslope. Sneferu's son and successor, KHUFU King (ruled 2585-2560 B.C.), was probably the most famous pyramid builderofancient times.Hebuiltthe Great Pyramid at Giza, which towered more thanfeet 480in theair. Not far from the GreatPyramid, Khufu built three smaller pyramids astombs for his mother and two principal queens. Khufu'sson andsuccessor, King Khafre, also built a huge pyramidatGiza.Heintendedit tomatchhis father's pyramid in height, but itturned out to beslightly Khafre smaller. was succeeded by his sonMenkaure, whobuilt the thirdlargest pyramid at Giza. Although considerably smaller thantheother two,it isstill very impressive. After about 2500 B.C., kings continued tobuild pyramidsbut on a smaller scale.Larger pyramids were built once again starting around 1900B.C., but they werelesssolidly constructed thanearlier pyramidshad been. Instead of being builtofsolid stone, they were builtof mudbricks* and had stone outer walls.Thelast pyramids builtforEgyptian kings were constructed duringthe Second Intermediate period (ca. B.C.), 1630-1539 but none of these has survived intact. After thistime, most Egyptian kings were buried in tombscut into cliffs. rock Structure of the Pyramids. Most pyramids were built with asquare base andfour triangular sides thatsloped inward form to apeakat the top. Inside they usually contained severalrooms—burialchambersfor members of the royalfamilyand areas forstoring provisions needed for the afterlife. The most important room was thecentral chamber, where the king's body wasplaced. In the earliest pyramids, this chamberwas located deep underground at the bottom of ashaft.By thetimeofKing Khufu, however, the king's burial chamber wasplaced high up in the * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and pyramid. The later positionreflected thebelief that theking became one baked in the sun with the sun god after his death. Theinside wallsof thepyramids were * relief sculpture in which material is cut decorated with paintings and reliefs*. away to show figures raised from the Most pyramids were surroundedby alarge complexofother strucbackground tures. Mostoften, these includedachapeland funerary* a temple, which * funerary having to do withfunerals or were joined by a passageway,and asmall pyramid, whichmayhave been with the handling of the dead intended for the dead king's soul.Theinteriorsof allthese structures were elaborately decorated aswell. In addition, acovered trench waslocated on one or more sides of the pyramid. This trench contained funerary the boats that the king would use tomeet the sungod. Usually, thewhole complex was surroundedby alarge brick wall. 21

Pyramids

* quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

22

How the Pyramids Were Built. Building the pyramids required sion, planning, organization, and skills. Their construction reflects strong central governments and powerful kings who had control over both people and resources. The exact position of a pyramid may have been determinedbyastronomical observations, and the site wasleveled with precision. Forexample, the 13-acre base of the Great Pyramid is only about half an inch higher on one side than on the opposite MEASUREside.Allother typesof MENT also were made with incredible accuracy. Quarrying* the limestone blocks usedforbuildingthe pyramidswas a major undertaking. Stones werenot just broken offand dragged away randomly. Instead, each stone block wasmarked in the quarry, cut to the exact shape desired, and then removed. As aresult, the massive stoneblocks fit tightly together without any gaps. For the Great Pyramid, more than 2 million stone blocks, weighing an average of 2.5 tons, were quarried in this way. Although most of the limestone quarries were relatively closeto the building sites, moving the huge stone blocks still required great planning andeffort. Paths were leveled,and rollersand heavy sleds were used to make dragging the stone blocks easier. Some stones, such as the granite that was used for columns and chambers inside the pyramids, came from as far away as 500 miles. These stones had to be carried down the Nile River by ship or barge. After the stone blocks were transported to the building site, they were carefully fitted into place.The stones were lifted intoplacebymeansof giant ramps, which were built against the sides of the growing pyramid, and levers, which made it easier to move the blocks up the ramps and

Queens into their settings. One of the most impressive achievements in the construction of the pyramids was the positioning of 40-ton granite blocks almost 200 feet high in the roof of the king's burial chamber inside the Great Pyramid. In the 400s B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS wrote that more than 100,000 workers labored for up to 20 years to build each pyramid. However, modern historians believe that as few as 20,000 laborers may have been involved and that construction may have been completed in as few as 6 years. However, this is still a very large workforce, especially considering that the laborers were provided with housing, food, and medical care while they worked on the pyramids. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs.)

Qanat

QUEENS diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

* concubine mistress to a married man * harem section of a household designated for women

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

See Irrigation.

T

he highest-ranking women of the ancient Near East were queens. These women were either the principal wives or the mothers of KINGS. Although these royal women were necessary for the continuation of kingships and they sometimes had considerable responsibility and influence, queens rarely played a direct role in the GOVERNMENT of their land. Very few of them ruled in their own right. Many queens did, however, fulfill important duties in diplomacy* and religion, and some have emerged from the pages of history as forceful and distinctive women.

Sumer. Little is really known about many of the earliest rulers of Sumer beyond their names—and even less is known about their wives. The tomb of Pu-abi, the wife of a king of UR, dating to around 2600 B.C., provides an exception. Buried in a tomb next to that of the king, she lay on a bed wearing jewelry made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli*, and carnelian. Also buried nearby were a wooden wardrobe, two ox-drawn wagons, and the bodies of 59 attendants and soldiers, all sacrificed to accompany the king and his wife in their AFTERLIFE. Assyria. In the Assyrian empire of northern MESOPOTAMIA, the king's wives and concubines*, along with their young children, lived in a harem* ruled by the queen mother (mother of the king). This arrangement gave the queen mother tremendous power in the royal household. It also led to much plotting and competition, as various women tried to get their sons named heir to the throne. An Assyrian king's wife possessed estates occupied by large households. A female official called a shakintu administered her household, which also included a scribe*, a cook, and makers of sweets. The identities of the Assyrian queens are, for the most part, unknown. Few of them appear in sculptures or texts. Even when their names remain, their origins 23

Queens are not always clear, although it seems that some Assyrian kings married women from Assyrian and foreign noble families.

'The Buried Queens of Kalkhu Modern archaeologists have found the tombs of several Assyrian queens in the palace at Kalkhu (present-day Nimrud). It was the Assyrians7 custom to send their dead into the afterlife with the finest items their family could afford. The royal " family was especially expected to spend lavishly on grave goods. The queens' graves at Kalkhu contained some of the finest known examples of Mesopotamian metalwork and jewelry, including heavy gold cuffs inlaid with semiprecious stones and decorated with images of stars and figures—finery that told of a queen's high status, living or dead.

* deity god or goddess * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

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Egypt. The status of royal women in Egypt depended on their relationship to the king, as revealed in such titles as "king's daughter," "king's wife," "king's mother," and "king's sister." Kings in Egypt were believed to be descended from the gods and to have divine aspects themselves. Egyptian tradition also associated queenship with the divine. Consequently, queens were frequently portrayed wearing or carrying symbols associated with such goddesses as HATHOR, the universal mother goddess of ancient Egypt. By the 1500s B.C., if not earlier, Egyptian kings had begun taking two or more wives. One wife was identified as the principal wife, although it is not clear how the king chose her. A principal wife could be of royal or nonroyal birth. Some kings married their sisters, half sisters, or daughters and had children with them, a tradition that may have developed to mirror the relationships among Egyptian deities*, who also intermarried. After Egypt became a leading power in the ancient Near East, its kings sometimes married foreign princesses. In some cases, defeated rulers may have sent their daughters to the Egyptian kings as signs of submission. Other marriages to foreign women may have been diplomatic alliances. Egyptian queens and queen mothers owned independent estates run by officials who only served the royal women. As partners of the divine kings, the royal women occupied an important place in rituals, but they did not have any officially recognized political positions. Still, some of them managed to attain considerable power. Ahmose Nefertari, mother of Amenhotep I, was so highly honored that a cult* worshiped her for centuries after her death. Tiy, the nonroyal principal wife of Amenhotep III, appears in sculpture on an equal scale with her husband rather than on the usual, smaller scale. A few Egyptian queens, including NITOKRIS, HATSHEPSUT, and CLEOPATRA, even ruled Egypt in their own names. Anatolia. Among the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), royal women had significant status and responsibilities. In the Hittite kingdom of KHATTI, the king maintained a harem of numerous women, but only one woman held the title of queen. In addition to bearing the king's highest-ranking children, including the son who would inherit the throne, the queen was responsible for supervising much of the king's household. Groups of officials helped her oversee the complex administration of the royal establishment. Some Hittite queens were also involved in diplomatic communication with other states and in governing the empire. Queen Pudukhepa, wife of KHATTUSHILI HI, wrote letters to the Egyptian court and appeared on royal SEALS with her husband and her son. Many of the queens of Khatti were foreigners whose marriages to Hittite kings were arranged by diplomats to seal alliances or reflect relationships between states. In the same way, Hittite princesses were given in marriage to foreign kings or princes.

Queens

The mostpowerful royal woman inKhatti held the title and position of Tawananna,after the nameof first the Hittite queen.The queenbecame Tawananna after the death of the previousTawananna,who was usually the queen mother. The Tawananna had much influence in the empire, even if her husband died and a new king cameto the throne. Hittite history records several power struggles between widowed queens and their sons or stepsons.King MurshiliII, for example, removed Babyhis lonian stepmotherfrom her position asTawananna. Israel. The queen mother was the most powerful woman in the Israelite kingdom. Her titlewas gebirah, meaning ''mighty lady/'Shewore a crown, and her throne could be set alongside that of the king,her son. Among the Israelites and Judeans, who sometimes worshiped agoddess named Asherah,the wifeof YAHWEH, the god the queen mother played an important role in Asherah's cult. The queen mother's duties werenot simply religious. Passages from the Hebrew BIBLE show that her positionwas thatof adviserto the king, and her political role may have been even greater than those passages suggest. She was most likely also involvedin the administrationof the harem and the femaleworkers within the palace.Theking's wife,in contrast,had less of a public role. Althoughshe may havehad some influenceon the king or the court, she had no official position or responsibilities — until 25

Ra her son became king and she became queen mother in her turn. (See also Athaliah; Nefertiti; Semiramis; Valley of the Queens; Women, Role of.)

Ra

See Amun.

R

amses II (RAM»seez) was one of the most celebrated Egyptian kings. His unusually long reign of nearly 70 years was a time of prosperity and stability in Egypt, marked by an extraordinary number of monumental building projects that included some of the most famous structures of the ancient world. Ramses was the son of the dynamic pharaoh* SETY I. Although Sety reigned for less than 15 years, he not only led several military campaigns to secure Egyptian control over CANAAN, but he also built lavish temples to the main Egyptian gods. Ramses actively participated in many of these ventures, and Sety eventually named him heir to the throne. Ramses was in his 20s when Sety died, leaving the young pharaoh a large kingdom to run and many temples and buildings to complete. After burying his father in a huge underground tomb in the elaborate cemetery known as the VALLEY OF THE KINGS near THEBES, Ramses turned his attention to matters of state. He speeded completion of Sety's temple at the Egyptian city of ABYDOS and drew up plans for his new capital, PiRamsese, on the delta* of the NILE RIVER. To finance these works, he increased production of gold from mines in the kingdom of Nubia. Ramses next set out to strengthen Egypt's military position in Canaan. In the fourth year of his reign, he conquered the Syrian kingdom of Amurru, which had been controlled by the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey). He then attempted to retake the nearby city of Qadesh, which had been seized by the Hittites during the reign of the Egyptian king AKHENATEN, around 100 years earlier. However, the Hittites laid a trap for Ramses that nearly destroyed the Egyptian army. Only his bold action and the welltimed arrival of reinforcements allowed him to fight the Hittites to a draw. For several years, the two powers clashed in Canaan before finally signing a peace treaty. Ramses also acknowledged KHATTUSHILI III as the rightful Hittite ruler and later married two of his daughters. At home, Ramses' construction projects spread along the length of the Nile. His capital featured a magnificent palace and temples and was linked with the Nile to create a port for ships from the Mediterranean Sea. At KARNAK, he completed the great columned hall that was begun by Seti. He also finished the huge temple of Abydos and his own colossal temple, called the Ramesseum, in the city of Thebes. At ABU SIMBEL in Nubia, he built two spectacular temples, one for himself and the sun god, the other for his queen, Nefertari, and the goddess HATHOR. Ramses outlived several of his sons, and his successor, Merneptah, was at least 60 years old when he came to the throne. Merneptah ruled i

RAMSES II ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C. King of Egypt pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

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Record Keeping for ten years and was followed by a series of undistinguished kings until RAMSES III inherited the throne in the 1180s B.C. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians; Palaces and Temples.)

RAMSES III ruled ca. 1187-1156 B.C. King of Egypt

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

RECORD KEEPING city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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he reign of Ramses III (RAM^seez), second ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt, was marked by a series of invasions that he successfully fought off and by internal difficulties. At the time he assumed power, Egypt had just recovered from a series of civil wars. Within five years of becoming king, Ramses faced an invasion by tribes from Libya, which lies just west of Egypt. He defeated the LIBYANS and their allies, whom he brought back to Egypt as slaves. Two years later, however, a dangerous coalition of invaders known as the SEA PEOPLES began to threaten Ramses' kingdom. Perhaps originating in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea Peoples advanced against Egypt by both land and sea. However, Egypt crushed their land army in the Levant* and destroyed their fleet by drawing it into the narrow channels of the NILE RIVER delta*. Some of the defeated Sea Peoples settled on the Levantine coast and eventually forced Egypt to abandon the territory it controlled in that region. Despite these military successes, Ramses' later years were plagued with internal problems. Difficulty in the delivery of food rations led to the first recorded strike by workers at the royal tombs in the ancient city of THEBES. Then one of Ramses' wives plotted to kill him and put her son on the throne. This plan was foiled, but Ramses died soon afterward and was succeeded as king by his son Ramses IV. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

T

he oldest known communication code before the invention of WRITING emerged in the ancient Near East around 8000 B.C. It was a form of record keeping that used small clay objects called tokens to represent the items being recorded. This simple method of accounting remained in use for more than 5,000 years and was directly related to two of the major milestones in Near Eastern civilization: the beginning of AGRICULTURE and the growth of city-states*. The token system of record keeping also opened the way to new forms of communication. It gave rise to the earliest known system of writing and led to the invention of abstract numerals, which became the basis of all MATHEMATICS. Tokens and Their Use. Archaeologists* have found record-keeping tokens in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and the Levant*, but the greatest numbers of them were found in MESOPOTAMIA and IRAN. Ranging in color from brownish-pink to green and black, the tokens are small, handmade objects of baked clay that measure up to one inch across. The first tokens consisted of simple geometric shapes, such as cones, spheres, disks, and cylinders. A few were shaped like objects, such as oil 27

Record Keeping jars and animals.Each token shape representeda particular item.For instance, a cone and a sphere each represented different measuresof grain. Tokens added an element of abstractionto the simpleact of counting. By using tokens, people could not only count things without actually handling or even looking at them, but they could add and subtract numbers of things as well.Tokens also providedapermanent, mobile record of counting calculations and transactions. The token system represented a great leap forwardin record keeping, but it had some drawbacks. The counters conveyed only simple economic quantities, and they provided no information about thequality of goods or the kinds of transactions involved. Moreover, large numbersof tokens weredifficult to store and keep together. To keep the tokens together, people developed the idea of placing groups of them inside hollow clay balls, which served as atype of envelope. Once a ball was sealed, however, the tokens wereno longer visible and could not be counted. Tosolve this problem, record keepers devised a system of markingthe clay envelopes. They SEALS,pressed the tokens, like on the outersurface of the envelopes whilethe claywas soft. still The resulting impressions represented the tokens inside the balls, just as the tokens themselves stoodforreal items. Why Keep Records? Human communication evolved to keep pace with other cultural developments. The token system appeared at about

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Record Keeping

* bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

the same time that people began farming. Once their survival started to depend on harvesting and storing grains and other crops, people needed a way to count and keep records of their goods. Although a single family did not need to keep such records, larger units of society did. Record keeping may therefore be related to the development of new and more complex political and social structures, such as an urban economy and an elite class that oversaw the distribution of goods. Between about 4000 and 3500 B.C., complex tokens appeared, although the simple ones remained in use. The complex tokens featured more realistic forms, such as miniature tools, fruit, and people. Markings also began to appear on tokens at around this time. The new variety and complexity of tokens was probably related to the growth of city-states. This resulted in an increase in workshops and products, a varied urban economy, and centralized institutions, such as palace and temple bureaucracies*, all of which needed accurate and detailed accounting. Record keeping became the glue that held the increasingly complex states of the Near East together. It allowed those in power to know how much grain a farmer produced or how many animals he owned—and therefore how much he should be taxed. Scribes* used the token system to record gifts given to temples, the number of people who lived in a district or city, and the amount of grain sent from one district to another. This method of accounting became the key to controlling the goods themselves. Archaeologists have found tokens in tombs of wealthy individuals, which suggests that counting and record keeping were the privilege of an elite segment of society and a sign of authority. From Record Keeping to Writing. During the next 400 years, accountants went from placing the tokens inside hollow clay balls to drawing diagrams of the tokens on CLAY TABLETS. The illustrations were scratched into the tablets and ranged from realistic to abstract drawings of the objects they represented. Soon scribes began to use a stylus—a reed with a triangular-shaped tip—to press the shape of the symbol into the surface of the clay. Once the principle of communicating by these symbols and pictures was established, people applied it to things other than tokens, such as personal names, words, and phrases. This marked the beginning of CUNEIFORM writing, which developed in Sumer before 3000 B.C. The invention of writing allowed for more extensive record keeping in the ancient Near East. Scribes in the city-state of URUK, where writing may have been invented, kept records of transactions and inventories for the temple there, which had vast economic interests. This type of record keeping, for both the government and the temple, was one of the main duties of many scribes in the ancient Near East. Additionally, they gathered and recorded information for tax collection purposes. Writing as a method of record keeping was also important to private individuals who engaged in trade. Writing allowed them to maintain cuneiform records of their business transactions in the form of contracts, bills of sale, letters of credit, and debt statements. These records were crucial because they could be referred to if a dispute arose between the two parties concerning their agreement after it had taken place.

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Red Sea From Record Keeping to Mathematics. In addition to paving the way for writing, the token system also led to the invention of abstract numerals and thus to the development of mathematics. The record keeping of prehistoric cultures suggests that people did not possess knowledge of abstract numbers. In other words, they had no concept of "sixness" aside from six actual things possessed or being counted. To represent six oil jars, for example, the token system used six tokens, not one token for oil jar and another representing the number 6. Around the time that the practice of impressing or scratching symbols into clay envelopes or tablets was developing into the earliest form of writing, a new kind of symbol came into use: abstract numbers. A numeral stood for a number as an idea apart from any particular object. For example, a tablet from ancient Iran records 33 jars of oil—but not as 33 repetitions of the token symbol for jar of oil. Instead, the symbols are a single jar of oil sign accompanied by three circles, each representing ten, and three wedges, each representing one, for a total of 33. Over time, the symbols for numerals became even more abstract, and people began combining and manipulating them in new ways. In this manner, the ancient counting technology that the farmers had used for simple record keeping gave rise to mathematics. The Near Eastern practice of the use of clay as a medium for recording transactions has allowed modern scholars and archaeologists to see records made thousands of years ago. Because baked clay is durable, records have survived—often in archives—allowing historians to track the evolution of record keeping from a token-based system to the invention and continued use of writing and mathematics. (See also Communication; Libraries and Archives; Numbers and Numerals.)

RED SEA

See map in Arabia and the Arabs (vol.1).

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he Red Sea is a narrow body of water that separates the western shore of Arabia from the eastern shore of North Africa. Its northernmost point lies some 100 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea, and at its southern end, it connects to the Arabian Sea by way of the Gulf of Aden. The Red Sea stretches about 1,200 miles from north to south, but its widest point is no more than about 190 miles across. Parts of the sea are quite deep, dropping to nearly 10,000 feet below sea level. Although the water of the sea is generally colored a brilliant bluish green, the sea sometimes turns red when a particular type of algae dies. This phenomenon is believed to be the source of its name. The sea has been an important waterway for thousands of years. It is the subject of some of the earliest recorded references to large bodies of water. By around 2000 B.C., Egyptian ships had begun to use the Red Sea as a major trade route, despite the fact that it is difficult to navigate. Egyptian navigators had probably compiled accurate charts of the sea by about 1500 B.C. Queen HATSHEPSUT sailed on the sea at that time, and it is unlikely she would have risked the journey if its currents and other dangers were not well known. Around 600 B.C., Phoenician ships traveled through the Red Sea as part of a journey in which they circumnavigated (sailed entirely around)

Religion

* pharaoh ruler of ancient Egypt

RELIGION deity god or goddess archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

Africa. In 497 B.C., the Persian king DARIUS I recut a canal begun by the pharaoh* NECHO II that joined the Red Sea and the NILE RIVER, anticipating the present-day Suez Canal by nearly 2,400 years. Because of a misinterpretation of the Hebrew BIBLE, the Red Sea is frequently thought to be the sea that YAHWEH parted during the Israelites' flight from slavery in Egypt to Canaan. The Bible, as it was written in ancient Hebrew, stated that the Israelites crossed the ''Sea of Reeds/' which could refer to three separate bodies of water. The misinterpretation occurred in the 200s B.C., when Greek writers translated all three bodies of water as simply the Red Sea. This mistake was carried into later Latin and English translations, each culture adding its own nuances. Modern scholars have restored the translation to its original wording and do not believe that the sea mentioned in the Bible refers to the Red Sea. (See also Economy and Trade; Shipping Routes; Ships and Boats; Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

RR

eligion is the belief in and worship of one or more deities*. Historians know about the religions of the ancient Near East from archaeological* remains of temples and tombs, from religious artifacts* such as statues and amulets*, and from ancient religious writings such as myths and HYMNS. Although these sources reveal a great deal about the state cults* of ancient Near Eastern religions, far less is known about the religious practices of the common people. Religions of the ancient Near East shared certain basic features. Most were polytheistic, meaning that they were based on the worship of many deities. Each pantheon* usually included a chief god and a number of other gods and goddesses, each responsible for different aspects of the universe or human existence. As regions became large states as a result of unification or conquest, local pantheons, which often had similar gods, merged to form larger national pantheons. Religion was not a separate facet of life in the ancient Near East but an essential part of both governments and economies. Priests were often beneficiaries of kings and governors, and many temples were involved in commerce and trade. Religious practice also included MAGIC and MEDICINE—all three were seen as ways to influence the supernatural world for the benefit of humankind. Mesopotamia. Some of the most important deities in ancient Sumer and Akkad were ANU, ENLIL, Enki (EA), Inanna (ISHTAR), Utu (Shamash), and ADAD. Anu, the god of heaven, presided over the other gods. Enlil was the god of the atmosphere and winds, whom Sumerians believed separated heaven and earth. Enki (Ea) was the god of water and the protector of humanity. Inanna (Ishtar), the goddess of love, was the most important goddess in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. Utu (Shamash) was the sun god and the god of justice. Adad was the storm god, responsible for rain and thunder. Each city and city-state* in ancient Mesopotamia had a main temple for its patron* deity and smaller temples for lesser deities. The gods were

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Religion * sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

* incense fragrant spice or resin burned as an offering

Feeding the Gods A common feature of ancient Near Eastern religions was the offering of food to statues of the gods* Obviously, the statues did not actually eat the food. Instead, the food was eaten by the temple's staff and thei families. For temples with very Ian staffs, this could be an enormous amount of food. An ancient text from Mesopotamia lists the follow* ing daily food offering at one major temple: 40 sheep, 3 bulk, 8 Iambs, 70 birds and ducks, 4 wild boars, 3 ostrich eggs, dates, figs, raisins, 54 containers of beer and wine, and more than 1,000 pounds of bread.

* incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

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represented by statues, which were kept in the sanctuaries* of the temples. The temples were equipped like palaces, with a kitchen for preparing the deity's meals, a reception suite for receiving visitors, and bedrooms for the deity's divine family and servants. PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES carried out the many tasks involved in worshiping the deity at the temple. The chief priest managed the temple and its practical affairs, while a priestess served as the spouse of the deity. Several priests performed the daily rituals, which included offering the deity two daily meals, music, and burning incense*. On certain occasions, the statue was taken out of the temple so that the deity could meet with the gods of other cities or attend public festivals, during which the common people could make offerings. The practices of the Mesopotamian priests and people reflected their belief that their survival depended on their ability to honor the gods and fulfill their needs. Egypt. Major deities of the Egyptian pantheon included Ra, AMUN, HATHOR, HORUS, Isis, and OSIRIS. Amun was the creator god of THEBES, who later became the chief god of Egypt. Hathor was goddess of women and dance. Horus was god of the sky and of kingship. He was identified with the Egyptian king, who was considered a living manifestation of the god. Isis was the mother of Horus and the goddess of magic. Osiris was the father of Horus and the god of the netherworld, or the world of the dead. Although temples were built for worshiping one god, the god was not the only divine being there. Usually, temples housed divine families of father, mother, and son. Statues representing these family members were kept in the temple's sanctuary. In principle, only the king was allowed to approach directly and worship the deities, because he was considered a god or a son of a god. In practice, however, most of the temple responsibilities fell to priests and priestesses acting on the king's behalf. Each day, the temple priests bathed the statues, and dressed and perfumed them. They offered the gods food and drink and entertained them with songs and dance. On special occasions, they performed additional rituals, which might include the recitation of prayers and incantations* to gain the deities' attention and favor. The Egyptians feared that the gods would become angry if not worshiped properly, and then Egypt would be destroyed. During the frequent religious festivals, statues of the deities were carried outside the temples and through the streets of the city in a procession. On these occasions, the common people could ask questions of the deities, and priests would convey the deities' responses. Although the common people were barred from entering the temples, during and after the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), they were allowed to set up a statue or stela* outside a temple to establish a link between themselves and the deity within. Some families also had altars in their homes, where they prayed and made offerings. The religion of ancient Egypt had a number of unique features. The Egyptian king was believed to be Horus, hence divine. After his death, he was Osiris and was worshiped as a god. The ancient Egyptians also had a strong belief in the AFTERLIFE, which greatly influenced their religious practices. Bodies of the dead were preserved as MUMMIES and buried in tombs,

Religion

and their descendants regularly brought them offeringsoffoodtomeet their needs in the afterlife. Towardthe end ofancient Egypt's civilization, certain animals, includingbulls, cats, andsnakes, were increasingly worshiped as gods. Manyofthese sacred animals were also mummified and buried in tombs.

See [colorplate13' vol. 1.

* dynasty succession ofrulers from the same family or group * prophet one who claims tohave received divinemessages or insights * monotheistic referring to thebelief in only one god

Iran. The Elamites, early inhabitants IRAN,worshiped ofancient many different deities.Kirishawasgoddessof the sky andmother of theother Elamite deities. Khumbanwas god ofstormsandruled overtheheavens. Napirisha was god ofwisdom andruled overtheearth.Ishushinak— originally the city god ofSusa—becamethemost importantgod of the Elamites and wasresponsiblefortheir peaceandsecurity. In Elam, the king was the chief priest. Next inrank was the high priest, who always accompanied theking, even intimesofwar. Other priests served the deities intheir city temples and ingroves thatwerebelieved to be sacred. Musicwasalways partofworship, as was the fire use of and alcoholic beverages. However,themost important partofworship was the sacrificeofanimals, most often rams. During some religious festivals, greatfeasts were heldfor thepublic, during which large numbers of rams were sacrificed and thenroasted andshared among thepeople in attendance. After the Elamite kingdom ended B.C.,in Iranians the600sbeganto worship other deities, including Mithra,god of the sun and of war; AHURA MAZDA,god of goodness; AHRIMAN, and god ofAfter evil. the Achaemenid dynasty* took over B.C.,the Iran state in 522 religion ofIran was based on the teachings of theprophet* Zoroaster,whotaught that Ahura Mazda was the only true god. Inthis monotheistic* religion, 33

Religion called Zoroastrianism, animal sacrifice was condemned, and an offering of flour and wine to Ahura Mazda became the most important aspect of worship. Later Ahura Mazda was seen as the chief god among others.

Gods Galore In the ancient Near East, each communrty had its own local pantheon containing many deities. As a result as kingdoms, regions, and nations developed, they had an astonishing number of deities, At one time, scribes in ancient Sumer attempted \ to list Sumerian and other deities* The list they produced contained a total of 3,600 gods and goddesses. Of course, only a small fraction of these deities were actually worshiped in any one place at a given time.

* hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

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Anatolia. The HITTITES of ancient Anatolia (present-day Turkey) had a very complex pantheon because they adopted many gods and goddesses from other Near Eastern peoples. Most of these deities came from the HURRIANS who heavily influenced the Hittites around the 1400s B.C. The Hurrian pantheon was headed by the storm god TESHUB, who ruled the heavens, and his wife, the sun goddess KHEPAT. Among the other gods worshiped by the Hurrians were KUMARBI, god of fertility and grain, and Shimegi, god of the moon. Many deities had their own temples, where they were represented by statues. Worship at outdoor sites, such as groves, was common. The highest-ranking priest was the king, whose most important duty as head of state was performing religious rituals. The state paid a hierarchy* of other religious personnel, including many types of priests, who were involved in worshiping the deities or managing the temples. The people of Anatolia also celebrated numerous religious festivals throughout the year, some lasting more than a month. The festivals involved processions of the king and statues of the deities, feasts, and entertainment, such as gymnastics and mock battles. The common people could attend the festivals, as well as pray to deities on their own. Syria and the Levant. Some of the most important deities of Syria and the Levant* included EL, BAAL, and ANAT. In the religion of the Syrian city UGARIT, El was considered the creator of earth and the father of humanity. He presided over the other gods. In the Canaanite and Phoenician religions, Baal was the storm god and god of war. Anat was Baal's sister and guardian of the king. In the countryside, deities were worshiped at thousands of outdoor sites that were believed to be sacred. In the cities, temples were built as places of worship and homes for the deities. The deities were represented in the temples by statues kept in the sanctuaries. Although kings were not usually priests, they played an important religious role because they had the power to appoint priests. The chief priest managed the temple, and additional priests were responsible for the daily sacrifices, hymns, and other aspects of worship. The main role of women in the temples was as wives or mistresses of temple gods. Common people could come to the temple to pray to the deities or seek an oracle*. They could also pray in the privacy of their own homes. Another important god in ancient times was YAHWEH, the Hebrew deity associated with storms and thunder, who became the national deity of Israel and Judah. Yahweh came to be worshiped as the one and only god of the Israelites, and their religion, which eventually led to Judaism, was one of the first major religions to be based on monotheism. (See also Ashur (deity); Aten; Cults; Gods and Goddesses; Israel and the Israelites; Marduk; Monotheism; Mythology; Oracles and Prophecy; Palaces and Temples; Priests and Priestesses; Psalms; Rituals and Sacrifice; Seth; Theology; Witchcraft.)

RHODES * maritime related to the sea or shipping

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

confederacy group of cities or states joined together for a purpose; an alliance

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* sack to loot a captured city

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Rhodes

he largest island of the Dodecanese (Greek for ''twelve islands''), Rhodes is located in the AEGEAN SEA near the southwestern coast of present-day Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA). According to Greek mythology, the island was named for Rhodos, the daughter of the goddess Aphrodite and wife of the sun god Helios. Some believe that Rhodes got its name from the Phoenician word for snake, erod, because the island was known to have many snakes. Rhodes prospered in ancient times as one of the major maritime* and trading powers of the eastern Mediterranean. Throughout its history, the island earned its living from the sea and from trade, and it developed a powerful navy to defend its TRADE ROUTES in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. By the late 200s B.C., the island had become one of the most important NAVAL POWERS in the region. Its navy played a significant role in keeping the region free of pirates. Among the early inhabitants of Rhodes were Minoans from CRETE, who may have established a colony there before 1500 B.C. Between about 1200 and 1000 B.C., a people from mainland Greece known as the Dorians settled on the island and established three city-states*: Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus. These city-states became very prosperous from trade, and by the 500s B.C., they had established colonies in Anatolia, Sicily, and northeastern Spain. After the PERSIAN WARS in the early 400s B.C., Rhodes became a member of the Delian League, a group of Greek city states allied against the PERSIAN EMPIRE. It remained in the league until the late 400s B.C., when the Peloponnesian Wars broke out between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta. Around 408 B.C., the three major city-states of Rhodes united in a confederacy*, whose capital was a newly founded city also called Rhodes. Dominated by Caria on the Anatolian mainland in the mid-300s B.C., island of Rhodes was occupied by ALEXANDER THE GREAT in about 332 B.C. It regained its independence after Alexander's death in 323 B.C. and entered the period of its greatest power, prosperity, and cultural achievements. During the Hellenistic* period, Rhodes was home to a famous school of Greek philosophy. More famous, however, was a gigantic statue of the god Helios that stood at the entrance to the harbor of the capital city. Known as the Colossus of Rhodes, this immense statue was built in the early 300s B.C. to celebrate a victory over Demetrius I, ruler of the Macedonians, who had laid siege* to the city. The statue, destroyed by an earthquake in 227 B.C., is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Between 215 and 148 B.C., Rhodes became involved in a series of conflicts between Macedonia and the Roman Empire. At first, Rhodes cooperated with the Romans against the Macedonian king Philip V and the Seleucid king Antiochus III, but it later withdrew much of its support for the Romans. In turn, the Romans shifted their support of Rhodes to the Aegean island of Delos, which became a tax-free port. This caused Rhodes to lose much of its trade, wealth, and power in the Mediterranean. The Romans conquered the island and sacked* its capital in the middle of the first century B.C. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Minoan Civilization.) 35

Rituals and Sacrifice

RITUALS AND SACRIFICE * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

Substitute Kings of Mesopotamia In ancient Mesopotamia, an eclipse \ or other heavenly event was a terrible omen, or sign, that meant that the king would soon die a violent death. To protect their ruler, Mesopotamians chose a substitute king who dressed in royal robes and played the part of the king. If this substitute king did not die of natural causes within a certain period of time, he was killed. One substitute king of Isin actually continued to rule after the real king died. Some historians believe that King Esarhaddon used the substitute king ritual at least seven times during his reign.

* atonement repayment for an offense or injury * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

36

A

ritual is a series of formal actions and words that have special meaning when performed and spoken. Usually found within the context of religious worship, rituals also accompany important secular* events, such as birth, passage into adulthood, MARRIAGE, and death. Sacrifices are ritual OFFERINGS of food, drink, and animals to the gods. Rituals and sacrifices played an important role in RELIGION throughout the ancient Near East.

Rituals. Most rituals in the ancient Near East were connected to religious beliefs. In ancient temples throughout the region, PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES enacted various rituals as part of daily worship. Most of these rituals involved taking care of the needs of the gods, whose presence on earth was represented by statues. The priests fed, clothed, washed, and entertained these statues just as if they were alive. Priests also performed special monthly and yearly rituals, which were among the only times that the statue of a god was seen in public. Other important rituals included those that accompanied the construction of temples. Religious rituals generally involved PRAYER, offerings, and purification ceremonies, all of which played a crucial role in gaining the attention of the gods and in preparing people to honor and serve them. Purification, which often involved washing oneself with water, had a very significant purpose and meaning in religious rituals. Anything connected to the gods had to be pure. Not only was dirt an impurity but so were physical deformities and illegal or immoral acts. Ritual purification symbolized the removal of all impurities, making humans worthy of serving and connecting with their gods. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, priests ritually washed their hands before approaching the gods in the temples. During the Roman period, Jews purified themselves through immersion in a special ritual bath called a miqveh. In addition to prayers and offerings, rituals often involved specific movements of the body, sometimes in a repetitive manner. Prayer was generally accompanied by such ritual movements as raising the hands to the mouth or standing with the arms at the sides. Ritual movements performed during Hittite religious ceremonies often included running and kneeling. Among the Israelites, the word for worship literally meant ''to bow down" or "to bend over/' and during worship, people often expressed their submission to god by lying flat on their stomachs with their faces touching the ground. Ancient Near Eastern societies also practiced many rituals that were not connected directly to religious worship. In Mesopotamia, for example, people were concerned about ignorance of the gods' rules. Through such ignorance, people could offend the gods, which could result in dire consequences. To protect themselves from committing a sin of ignorance, Mesopotamians performed general rituals of atonement* that would cover or correct any sin that they might have committed knowingly or otherwise. The ancient HITTITES also had rituals for correcting mistakes caused by ignorance of the gods' rules. The people of the ancient Near East also performed rituals to ask for assistance from the gods, such as protection in battle and help in combating evil or seeking guidance from oracles*. Many situations in daily life,

Rituals and Sacrifice such as marriage, childbirth, and illness, called for rituals as well. Death rituals were also very important, especially in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians performed various rituals to prepare the dead for the AFTERLIFE, and Egyptian funeral ceremonies consisted of several ritual activities.

* deity god or goddess

* consecrate to declare sacred or holy by means of a religious rite

* underworld world of the dead * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

See [color plate 12/ vol. 1.

Sacrifice. Sacrifices in the ancient Near East often served simply as food for the gods. This was not their only purpose, however. They might also have been intended as a gift for the gods — often a form of thanks for divine help— or as a means of honoring the deities*. Sacrifices might also have been performed to get the attention of the gods, to earn their goodwill, or to ask a favor. Sacrifices consisted of offerings such as grain, wine, oil, and other items of food or drink. The daily offerings were intended for the gods, but priests and worshipers who presented them partook from the food once it was consecrated*. In fact, ritual offerings were an important source of food for temple staff. Ritually slaughtered animals were also a common sacrifice in the ancient Near East. The animals most commonly sacrificed included lambs, SHEEP, and GOATS, although bulls, CATTLE, dogs, and other animals were sometimes offered as sacrifices as well. In ancient Greece, for example, dogs were sacrificed to the goddess Hecate because it was believed that she traveled with dogs through the underworld*. In SYRIA during the second millennium B.C.*, donkeys were sacrificed at the conclusion of treatymaking ceremonies. Eating meat was relatively rare in the ancient Near East and a blood sacrifice — an offering of a ritually slaughtered animal—was usually followed by a feast. Among the Elamites of southwestern IRAN, rams were the most common sacrificial animal, and the most important sacrificial feast was one for the "Lady of the City." During the Israelite sacrificial feast called zebah shelamim, the person offering the blood sacrifice would invite family members to the temple to share the rare treat of a meal with meat. Israelites were allowed to sacrifice ruminants, that is, animals that

This bronze plate was made for the Elamite king Shilkhak-lnshushinak, who ruled during the 1150s B.C. It depicts a sacrificial ceremony called "rising of the sun." Two naked priests are shown squatting, one about to pour water over the hands of the other as part of the purification ceremonies that took place at the beginning of the day. Also shown on the plate are a table for offerings, temples, and a holy grove.

37

Rivers chew their cud, such as goats, sheep, and cattle. Nonruminants, such as pigs and camels, were forbidden as sacrificial animals; hence, they could not be eaten. Although human sacrifice was rare, there is evidence that a few adults may have been sacrificed at UR in Mesopotamia and also in Egypt. Other evidence suggests that child sacrifice was performed in ancient CARTHAGE, Phoenicia, and Israel. The Hebrew BIBLE contains a story about the leader Abraham and the near-sacrifice of his son Isaac. Some biblical scholars believe that this story signifies the end of child sacrifice among the ancient Israelites. (See also Death and Burial; Feasts and Festivals; Oracles and Prophecy; Palaces and Temples.)

RIVERS

See map on inside covers.

hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

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T

he history of civilization in the Near East is intimately connected to the rivers that flow through the region. The rise of complex urban societies in the region was possible only because of the development of large-scale AGRICULTURE. This development would not have been possible without the reliable sources of WATER provided by such rivers as the Nile and the Euphrates. In the dry Near East, rivers supplied water not only for IRRIGATION but also for drinking, bathing, watering livestock, and the many other needs of a growing population. Rivers also served as principal routes for travel and trade and for connecting cities and kingdoms across long distances. The Main Rivers. The three most important rivers in the Near East are the Nile, the Euphrates, and the Tigris. It was on the banks of these rivers that the greatest early civilizations of the region arose. The Nile River rises near the equator, flows northward through northeastern Africa, and passes through Egypt before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. In late summer, the river floods, covering the area along its banks with water containing rich sediments. The water recedes after six to ten weeks, leaving a narrow strip of fertile land amidst the barren Egyptian desert. Long before the rise of complex civilizations, small bands of people exploited the fertile soil near the Nile for growing crops and raising livestock. By about 3000 B.C., the earliest kings of Egypt united the people living along the Nile into a single country. The regular flooding ensured the prosperity of the land that formed the basis for the wealth of ancient Egypt. The Nile also served as the highway of ancient Egypt, connecting the northern and southern sections of the country. Because the distances between these two regions was great, the river served as a means of transportation and communication between them and helped unify the kingdom politically. The Nile's importance to transportation is reflected in the Egyptian language. The hieroglyphic* sign for north was a ship with its sail folded down, while the sign for south was a boat with its sail full of wind. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers originate in present-day Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA) and flow southeastward through modern Iraq (ancient MESOPOTAMIA) until they reach the Persian Gulf. Because the regions along

Roads

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* tributary river that flows Into another river * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

ROADS

the northern reaches of the rivers receive enough rainfall, small-scale farming and livestock and early civilizations were able to thrive. In the south, the early peoples were dependent on the river's annual floods. The earliest civilizations of Mesopotamia arose on the banks of the southern Euphrates. These included Sumer, Akkad, and later Babylonia, all of which constructed canal networks to store and use the water more efficiently. Early peoples did not establish settlements along the Tigris until the third millennium B.C. (3000-2001 B.C.), because that river runs a steep and swift course that is prone to cause devastating floods. However, by the second millennium B.C.*, several important kingdoms, such as Assyria and Mitanni, had emerged along the banks of the Tigris. These kingdoms also made use of canals to tap the Tigris waters. The Tigris and Euphrates were just as important to travel in Mesopotamia as the Nile was in Egypt. The rivers connected Mesopotamia to kingdoms in Anatolia and SYRIA, and the major TRADE ROUTES of the region closely followed the rivers. The Assyrians in particular carried on a major trade with cities in Anatolia that were located along the rivers. Other Important Rivers. In addition to the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, the Near East contains a few other important rivers. Two other major rivers in Iraq are the Diyala and the Khabur. The Diyala, a tributary* of the Tigris River, was the site of many early settlements, including the city-state* of ESHNUNNA. The area around the Khabur River, in northern Mesopotamia, was heavily settled in the late third and early second millennia B.C. However, the number of settlements along the river declined after about 1500 B.C. This may have been because the region was unsuited to intensive agriculture and because it lay between kingdoms that often engaged in combat. In the Levant* and IRAN, the climate is very dry, and few rivers run throughout the year. Besides the Jordan River in Canaan and the Karun River in Iran, most other rivers in those regions flow only during the rainy season. Turkey contains several large rivers, but dangerous rapids make almost all of them unsuited to navigation. The Turkish river that was perhaps the most famous in ancient times was the Meander, which contained many bends along its wandering route through the Turkish countryside, giving rise to the English term meander, meaning "to wander/' (See also Euphrates River; Geography; Nile River; Shipping Routes; Tigris River; Transportation and Travel.)

I

n the ancient Near East, roads were land routes that were cleared, marked, and maintained. Where roads existed, they often offered the best and fastest route of travel for traders and merchants, messengers, armies, and ordinary individuals. They also shaped settlement patterns, because towns and cities developed along roads or where roads crossed. However, only well-organized societies could afford the resources to build and maintain roads. Consequently, as ancient states grew into large and powerful empires, their road-building activities expanded. 39

Roads

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Economy and Trade (vol.2).

* provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

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Road Building. In MESOPOTAMIA, most roads were several feet across, and some were wide enough to allow wagons and chariots to pass. The streets in the city of BABYLON varied from 9 to 18 feet in width, while a major route through NINEVEH was nearly 90 feet wide. Some of these ancient roads were paved with a foundation layer of bricks held in place by asphalt and topped by a layer of larger limestone slabs. In the Levant*, remnants of cobbled streets, or streets paved with round or irregular stones, have been excavated by archaeologists*. They have also found a road leading to the gate of the city of MEGIDDO consisting of a layer of hard plaster atop a base layer of crushed stone. Archaeologists have found no evidence of road signs but have found some roads with markers along the way to keep travelers from losing their way. Cairns, or rocks that have been piled up, lined some Egyptian roads. The Israelites may have used the same method to mark their roads. Obstacles to Road Building. Although most longer roads were unpaved, they had to be planned, measured, and leveled so that their surfaces would be clear and smooth. The Hebrew BIBLE contains references to Israelite road builders smoothing and leveling the roadways. Road building in Egypt also consisted mostly of scraping a smooth surface. Some roads required more effort, however. In many regions in the ancient Near East, road builders had to deal with obstacles such as forests and mountains. Building a road wide, smooth, and level enough to carry heavy wagonloads of timber out of mountain ranges usually required workers to use pickaxes to clear a path. In other regions, such as the plains of southern Mesopotamia, road builders had to contend with swamps and marshes. They also had to build roads and bridges to cross canals, streams, and rivers. Floods often washed away wooden bridges, which had to be replaced. This duty, like most aspects of road maintenance, was the responsibility of the local people, who were supervised by provincial* governors or local leaders. Imperial Roads. The most ambitious road system of the ancient Near East was that of the Neo-Assyrian empire, which dominated northern Mesopotamia and some surrounding regions from 911 to 609 B.C. The Assyrians created history's first huge, well-administered, and highly centralized empire. Because controlling such a territory required rapid communication between the capital and outlying centers and speedy troop movement, the Assyrians built a large network of roads stretching throughout their empire. The imperial* government controlled the entire road network to ensure that roads existed where needed and were kept in good repair. Major highways were called royal roads and were measured with great precision so that distances would be accurately known. Segments of the royal roads close to capital cities were paved with stone slabs and lined with stone markers or stelae*, a practice that the Romans would later adopt in their own empire. Road stations were built along the royal roads to serve as stopping places for couriers, marching troops, and civilian travelers.

Rosetta Stone Less than a century after the fall of the Assyrian empire, the Persians came to dominate the ancient Near East for the next several hundred years. They took over the Assyrian system of royal roads and extended the network to stretch across their empire. The most famous Persian royal road linked the city of SARDIS in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) with Susa, the Persian capital in IRAN. This road was approximately 1,600 miles long, and it took three months to travel it from end to end. The Greek traveler and historian HERODOTUS wrote that he was much impressed by this Persian road, with its stations, inns, swift messenger service, and ferryboats across rivers. (See also Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

ROSETTA STONE * basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface * decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of

T

he Rosetta Stone is a slab of black basalt* bearing INSCRIPTIONS that helped scholars decipher* the ancient form of Egyptian writing known as HIEROGLYPHICS. The inscriptions appear in three different scripts: Egyptian hieroglyphics, Greek, and demotic—a popular form of cursive script that was widely used to write the Egyptian language by the 600s B.C. The efforts of those who studied the Rosetta Stone unlocked the secrets of hieroglyphic writing and provided the basis for the decipherment of thousands of hieroglyphic texts. Discovery and Early Study. The Rosetta Stone was inscribed in 196 B.C. by priests in the Egyptian city of MEMPHIS. The inscription lists the many benefits bestowed on Egypt by King Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who reigned from 205 to 180 B.C. The stone was discovered by members of Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in A.D. 1799. However, the British claimed the stone after the French army in Egypt surrendered to the British shortly thereafter. Around 1814, the English physicist Thomas Young made the first breakthrough in deciphering the inscriptions. He made a major discovery when he proved that certain hieroglyphs enclosed by oval circles, known as cartouches, indicated the proper name of King Ptolemy. Young's discovery proved other scholars' assumptions that similar cartouches in other inscriptions were royal names. Furthermore, by noting the direction in which animal and bird characters in the hieroglyphs faced, Young determined the direction in which the hieroglyphic script was to be read. Despite Young's pioneering work, he was unable to fully decipher the hieroglyphs. That feat was accomplished a few years later by the French scholar Jean-Francois Champollion. Champollion's Triumph. It is fitting that Champollion was the one to break the code of the Rosetta Stone. As a boy, he was fascinated by hieroglyphics, and he studied ancient languages in the hope that one day he would be able to decipher the Egyptian characters found in so many inscriptions and tomb paintings. Champollion built on the work of previous scholars, especially that of Young. Working from Young's discovery that the cartouches on the 41

Rosetta Stone

stone contained the name of Ptolemy, Champollion studied cartouches in other inscriptions. On another monument, he found an inscription in two languages that contained a cartouche bearing the name of CLEOPATRA. He determined that the hieroglyphs in the cartouches were not symbols that stood for ideas or words, as many scholars of the time believed, but instead phonetic elements. Thatis, they represented consonants and syllables that recorded the sounds of the names in the cartouches. In 1822, Champollion published his first paper about the stone. In it, he explained his theory and examined many other names from the same period of Egyptian history. However, many scholars maintained that the phonetic elements in the cartouches were only used for Greek and Roman names and that they had no direct equivalent in hieroglyphic Egyptian. In an 1824 paper, Champollion successfully demonstrated that Egyptian words and names could also be written phonetically in the hieroglyphic script. Champollion also made other important discoveries in his work with the stone. He realized that the Egyptians used different types of hieroglyphic signs. Some were phonetic, some were determinatives (signs following words that placed them in certain categories—for example,proper 42

Sahara Desert names, animals, and so on), and some were logograms (signs that conveyed a complete word rather than its pronunciation). He also determined that the Greek inscription had been recorded first, and the hieroglyphic text was a translation from the Greek. Over time, he compiled a full list of hieroglyphic signs and their Greek equivalents. (See also Alphabets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Writing.)

Sacrifice

SAHARA DESERT

See map in Geography (vol. 2).

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

See Rituals and Sacrifice.

T

he Sahara is the largest desert in the world, covering almost all of northern Africa. Its name comes from the Arabic word sahra', which means "desert/' The desert stretches 3,000 miles from east to west and between 800 and 1,200 miles from north to south. Bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara stretches east to the Red Sea and west to the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, the Sahara is bordered by the Sahel, a region that stretches from Senegal to southern SUDAN. The landscape of the Sahara includes huge plateaus covered with gravel, called serirs or regs; mountains; and areas below sea level, called chotts and day as. Almost one-fourth of the Sahara is made up of enormous sand dunes and sand seas called ergs. The ergs contain huge sand mountains called draa, which can rise to a height of 1,000 feet. Several rivers run through the Sahara. The largest of these is the Nile, which runs along the eastern edge of the desert. In the southwest, the Niger River wanders into the Sahara, and in the south, several rivers empty into Lake Chad. However, the most significant sources of water in the Sahara are not rivers and lakes but wadis, which are the beds of seasonal rivers. Although these riverbeds are normally dry, they run with water, often violently, after a rainstorm or the seasonal melting of highland snow and ice. The desert, which has existed for more than 5 million years, experienced greater variations in climate in prehistoric times than it does today. However, the grazing of CATTLE during the last 7,000 years has ended these variations and made the region arid. There is evidence that in late prehistory, the Sahara was narrower than it is today and had more water holes and oases*. Consequently, for a short period after the rainy season, large tracts of the desert became pastureland. The growth of the Sahara is most apparent in the south, where it borders the Sahel. The Sahara began to take over the northern Sahel in ancient times, and the process continues today. This is largely due to overpopulation and excessive farming in the area. The sands of the Sahara continue to expand southward, taking in as much as five miles in years when the region experiences severe droughts*. There are two main climate zones in the Sahara: the northern drysubtropical zone and the southern dry-tropical zone. In both zones, the winters can be cold and the summers extremely hot. The hottest temperature ever recorded in the Sahara is 136° Fahrenheit. The change in desert 43

Samaria

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

* indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

SAMARIA

See map in Israel and judah (vol. 3).

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

44

temperatures from day into night can also be extreme, with nighttime temperatures sometimes dropping to near freezing. During the rainy season, the northern sections of the desert average about three inches of rain, while the south receives about five inches per year. Plant life in the Sahara is sparse, but shrubs and grasses do grow there, as do trees in some of the highland areas. Not surprisingly, the region supports few animals. Among the animals that have learned to survive the desert are gerbils, hares, hedgehogs, lizards, hyenas, gazelles, and in the past, elephants. More than 300 different species of birds live in or migrate through the Sahara. Humans have lived in the Sahara from at least 9000 B.C. Among the people who lived there, the earliest were probably nomadic* hunters, who later became cattle herders. However, by around 1250 B.C., most of the inhabitants from the interior of the Sahara had migrated elsewhere. The most famous civilizations of the ancient Saharan world emerged along the banks of the Nile River, where early refugees from the Sahara came to live alongside the indigenous* people of the Nile Valley. The cultures that developed among the descendants of these people became the Egyptian and Nubian civilizations. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Geography; Libyans; Nile River; Nubia and the Nubians.)

S

amaria was the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel from the early 800s B.C. until the late 700s B.C. Samaria was established by King Omri of Israel, who moved the capital from Tirzah. Before that time, according to the Hebrew Bible, JERUSALEM was the capital of a united Israel and Judah. The people of Jerusalem in Judah felt threatened by Samaria's position as a political and cultural center. This is evident from sections of the Bible in which Samaria and its people are described in a negative light. The city of Samaria, which also gave its name to the surrounding region, was located about 35 miles north of Jerusalem. It occupied an important strategic site—overlooking the main trade routes between Egypt, Judah, Phoenicia, and southern SYRIA. To make the new capital a royal city, Kings Omri and his son and successor, AHAB, built city walls, a palace, public buildings, storerooms, and large courtyards. When Ahab married a Phoenician princess named Jezebel, Samaria came under the influence of Phoenician religion and culture. In fact, Jezebel brought the worship of the Phoenician god BAAL to Israel, and Ahab built a temple to Baal in Samaria. Although this association with Phoenicia helped make Israel a major power, it also brought Ahab under much criticism from prophets* who felt Israel was moving away from the worship of the Israelite god YAHWEH. As a result, Omri's dynasty* was overthrown by Jehu in 842 B.C. King Jehu ended the alliance with Phoenicia, and Israel's power subsequently declined. By the late 700s B.C., the Assyrians had emerged as a major power, and they were expanding their territory. In 722 B.C., Samaria and Israel were conquered by the Assyrians, and many Israelites were sent into captivity in other Assyrian provinces. The Assyrians resettled Israel with peoples

Samaritans from southern Babylonia and Syria. According to their own traditions, the Samaritans believe that they are the descendants of those Israelites who were not sent into captivity. According to Jewish tradition, however, the Samaritans descended from the Israelites who remained behind but intermarried with the people who were resettled in the region from elsewhere in the Assyrian empire. After the Assyrian conquest, Israel continued to be occupied by the various empires that took control of the ancient Near East. After the Assyrians came the short-lived Neo-Babylonian empire. After the Babylonians, Israel and Samaria were occupied by the Persians, the Macedonians under the Ptolemies and Seleucids, and finally the Romans. During these successive occupations, the city of Samaria remained an important administrative site. (See also Canaan; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Samaritans.)

SAMARITANS * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

sect group of people with a common leadership who share a distinctive set of religious views and opinions

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he Samaritans are a small sect who separated from traditional Judaism. Their name is derived from the region of SAMARIA in presentday Israel and the West Bank, where they have lived since at least the middle of the first millennium B.C.* The history of the Samaritans as a religious group is as unique as it is disputed. The Samaritans, the Jews, and modern historians each have different versions of the Samaritans' origins. The Samaritan tradition says that they separated from the rest of the Jewish community when the priest Eli settled the group near Shiloh. They also believe that they are the direct descendants of those Israelites who were not deported after the Assyrian conquest of Israel and who remained faithful in their worship of YAHWEH. Jewish history, on the other hand, says that the Samaritans were the descendants of the Israelites who were not deported by the Assyrians but had intermarried with the foreigners who were resettled in the region. Some modern historians believe that the Samaritans were a northern Israelite Judaic sect* who split from traditional Judaism much later, possibly as late as 150 B.C. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, the Samaritans came into conflict with the Jews in the 530s B.C. In 587 B.C., the Babylonians destroyed JERUSALEM and the Temple of Solomon, the religious center of the Jews. Many Jews were exiled to Babylon, where they maintained a strong Jewish community. When the Persians conquered Babylonia, they allowed those Jews to return to Jerusalem in 538 B.C. to rebuild the temple. The Samaritans wanted to help them, but the Jews refused their offer because they did not consider the Samaritans Jewish. In the 300s B.C., the Samaritans built their own temple on Mount Gerizim in Samaria. Over the centuries, Samaritans established colonies in DAMASCUS, Egypt, Athens, Rome, Corinth, Delos, and Syracuse. Today the Samaritans are a small sect of about 600 people who live in two communities in Israel and the West Bank. Their main religious text is the TORAH (or Pentateuch). Unlike Jews, they do not recognize the other books of the Hebrew Bible as sacred texts. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.) 45

Samsu-iluiia

SAMSU-ILUNA ruled ca. 1749-1712 B.C. King of Babylon * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

SARDINIA * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

* basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

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amsu-iluna (SAM»su*i«LOO»nuh) was the son of King HAMMURABI, whom he succeeded to the Babylonian throne. When he came to power, Babylonia was master of southern MESOPOTAMIA. Shortly thereafter, city-states* on the kingdom's northern and southern frontiers began to revolt, forcing Samsu-iluna to spend much of his reign suppressing these rebellions. In about 1740 B.C., Samsu-iluna defeated the KASSITES on Babylonia's northeastern frontier. The following year, several city-states in southern Mesopotamia banded together under the leadership of Rim-Sin, king of the city of Larsa. Samsu-iluna put down this revolt by changing the course of the EUPHRATES RIVER to deny water to Rim-Sin. By 1738 B.C., a new dynasty* named Sealand had established itself in southern Mesopotamia. Samsu-iluna twice attacked the Sealanders without success. Meanwhile, the city of ESHNUNNA rebelled but was reconquered in 1730 B.C. Because of the constant threats to his rule, Samsu-iluna built many fortresses along Babylonia's borders. Still, by the end of his reign, Babylonia had lost the entire southern portion of its empire. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

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he second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, Sardinia is located west of Italy and north of Tunisia. Its closest neighbor is the island of Corsica, which lies seven miles to the north. Sardinia has been inhabited longer than any other Mediterranean island except CYPRUS. Not much is known about the Sardinians. Some scholars believe that these people were the Sherden, or Shardanu, one of the mysterious SEA PEOPLES who attacked Egypt and the Levant* in the 1100s B.C. Others believe that the Sherden were not indigenous* Sardinians but simply Phoenicians who had settled on Sardinia. Whoever the Sardinians were, there is archaeological* evidence that they were involved in obsidian* trade as early as the sixth millennium B.C.* Other evidence suggests that early Sardinian society consisted of small groups who supported themselves through agriculture. The island was also an important source of various metals, including silver and copper, and the site of several metalworking industries. During the late fifth millennium B.C., Sardinians began to settle more widely, and there are indications that they had contact with the Balkans in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Although they expanded their trade in the early fourth millennium B.C., it appears to have stopped by the early third millennium B.C. However, by about 1400 B.C., the island had again become an important part of the commercial life of the Mediterranean and the ancient Near East. Phoenician traders arrived on Sardinia around 1000 B.C., and by about 700 B.C., they had established permanent settlements along the coast of the island. Around 200 years later, the Carthaginians, themselves Phoenician colonists from northern Africa, began to settle the interior of the island. In 238 B.C., the Romans took over Sardinia and made it a province of their growing empire. Sardinia remained part of the Roman Empire for the next 700 years and was one of Rome's main suppliers of grain.

Sardis

The most famous ancient remainsonSardiniaare the island's7,000 stone towers. Callednuraghi, these towers were madeofbasalt* blocks and were built between 1500 B.C.For and years, 500 many archaeologists believed that thenuraghi were used onlyasdefense fortifications*.However, they have recently discovered that nuraghi the mayhave been used as homes, either on a permanent basisorspecifically intimes ofdanger. (See also Mediterranean Sea, Trade on.)

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SARDIS

* tributary river river

that flows

into another

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

ardis was the capitalof the kingdomANATOLIA ofLydia inwestern (present-dayTurkey). After the Persians conqueredtheLydiansin 546B.C., Sardis becamethe western PERSIAN capital EMPIRE. of the Italso marked the westernend of the Persian royal road thatledeastto thePersian capitalofSusa. Sardis was located on the Hermos River (present-day Gediz), which flows west into AEGEAN the SEA.The river provided Sardis with one of its major resources—gold.The Pactolus River,atributary* of theHermos, carriedflakes of gold down from Mount Tmolus, into Sardis. Archaeologists*have traced human habitation atSardis back toaround 1500B.C. The city's history after B.C.isabout better 680known, however. This is when the Mermnad dynasty* came topower inLydia. Under the Mermnads,Sardis became the capitalof the Lydian empire. Although Sardis was capturedby theCimmerians—warriors fromsouthern Russia— 47

Sargon I

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid * satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

SARGON I ruled ca. 2334-2278 B.C. King of Akkad * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See map in Akkad and the Akkadians (vol.1).

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during the early Mermnad reign, the Lydians had regained the city by 626 B.C. The Persians conquered Sardis when they overcame Croesus, the last Mermnad king, in a siege* at Sardis. As part of the Persian empire, Sardis became the capital of a satrapy*. In the early 400s B.C., Sardis played a part in the PERSIAN WARS between the Persians and the Greeks. The Greeks seized and burned part of the city in 498 B.C. Sardis was then rebuilt and remained part of Persian territory until 334 B.C., when its people surrendered to ALEXANDER THE GREAT, conqueror of the Persian empire. (See also Lydia and the Lydians; Roads.)

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argon I of Akkad created Mesopotamia's first large, organized state. During his 56-year reign, Sargon conquered southern Mesopotamia and parts of Syria, Anatolia (present-day Turkey), and Elam (present-day western Iran). The Akkadian empire that Sargon founded served as a model for later Mesopotamian rulers building their own kingdoms.

Sargon's Rise to Power. Almost no records from the late third millennium B.C.* mention Sargon, so his birth and early life are known mostly through legends written many centuries later. The most famous story says that, shortly after his birth, Sargon was set adrift in a basket on the EUPHRATES RIVER. He was found and raised by a gardener and later rose to an influential position in the court of King Ur-Zababa of the Sumerian city-state* of KISH. Around 2350 B.C., Ur-Zababa was killed or dethroned by Lugalzagesi, king of the city-state of UMMA. Sargon took the throne and became lugal—king— of Kish after attacking Lugalzagesi's capital at URUK in about 2334 B.C. It might have been around this time that he took the name Sargon—in Akkadian (Sharrum-kin) it means "the true king"—to convince his subjects that he was the legitimate ruler. The Growth of Akkad. During his reign, Sargon expanded the empire across the Near East. He captured several cities first conquered by Lugalzagesi before turning to the east and defeating the Elamites. He then extended the empire to the north and west, taking the city-states of MARI and EBLA. Some inscriptions indicate that he pushed the borders of the empire into present-day Lebanon and the Taurus Mountains of southeastern Turkey. Sargon adopted several new policies to deal with the lands he conquered. After defeating a city, he would destroy its walls to ensure that his rivals could not use it as a fortress. If the local city officials swore loyalty to him, Sargon allowed them to keep their positions. If not, he brought in his own subjects to rule. In this way, he ensured that power remained centrally controlled by Akkad. To retain military control of his empire, Sargon established the world's first permanent army. He also set up military outposts throughout the kingdom. As a reward to his troops (and to ensure their loyalty), he seized or bought large tracts of land and distributed them among the SOLDIERS. Sargon also established a wide-ranging trade network. MERCHANTS came from as far away as the OMAN PENINSULA, Afghanistan, and India, to Akkad, the capital city Sargon founded.

Sargon II

patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

SARGON II ruled 721-705 B.C. King of Assyria dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory sack to loot a captured city

See

^ color plate 7, jb vol.3.

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

Sargon, however, did not completely do away with the old traditions of the places he conquered. For example, he made his daughter Enkheduanna a high priestess of the patron* god in the city of UR. In this way, Sargon showed that he recognized and accepted the power of the existing local deities and beliefs. By the end of Sargon's reign, many of the areas he conquered had begun to rebel against Akkadian control. As a result, Sargon's successors had to spend much time and energy struggling to maintain control over the empire he had built. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Elam and the Elamites.)

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ne of Assyria's greatest kings, Sargon II ruled the Assyrian empire during the last century of its history. The son of TIGLATH-PILESER III and the brother of SHALMANESER V, Sargon consolidated the conquests of his predecessors, extended Assyrian power, and founded the last great Assyrian dynasty*. He also built a new capital city at Khorsabad. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser on the throne in 721 B.C., either because the king died or was overthrown in a revolt. Sargon faced several problems during the early years of his reign. The most pressing threats were from the kingdom of URARTU in the north, the rebellious Chaldeans and ARAMAEANS in Babylonia to the south, and the regions of SYRIA and the Levant* in the west. Although these territories and peoples had been conquered earlier by his father, it was up to Sargon II to consolidate his conquests, improve imperial* administration, and increase the stability of the empire. During the first year of his reign, Sargon moved against Syria and the Levant. He completed a siege* of SAMARIA and destroyed that northern Israelite kingdom, deporting many of its inhabitants. Having secured control and stability in the Levant, Sargon opened a harbor near the SINAI PENINSULA and established a commercial settlement to facilitate trade with Egypt. In 717 B.C., he incorporated the Syrian city-state* of KARKAMISH as a province of the Assyrian empire. Three years later, Sargon began to deal with the problems in Urartu by raiding that kingdom. Despite the difficult mountainous terrain, his troops defeated the Urartians, forced King Rusa of Urartu and his armies to flee the capital, and sacked* the city of Musasir and its temples. This victory removed much of the threat from Urartu and allowed Sargon to concentrate his energies on Babylonia. In Babylonia, Sargon faced problems with the rebellious Chaldeans. Their leader, Marduk-apla-iddina II, had earlier joined forces with the Elamites and become king of Babylonia in 721 B.C. Sargon seized control of the TIGRIS RIVER, driving a wedge between the Chaldeans and the Elamites. He then gained the support of cities in northern Babylonia, overthrew the Chaldean leader, and named himself king of BABYLON. To further ensure the stability of the region, Sargon deported thousands of Chaldeans and Aramaeans from the region. Meanwhile, Marduk-apla-iddina fled farther south and agreed to pay tribute* to Assyria in exchange for control of his tribal territory there. With these conquests behind him, Sargon looked toward ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), where the Cimmerians had begun to wield great 49

Satraps power. When Sargon led his armies into that region, the Cimmerians moved into interior Anatolia ahead of the Assyrian advance. Thereafter, Sargon's main enemy in the region became the Phrygians, led by King Midas. Perhaps threatened by the Cimmerians, the Phrygians proposed a peace settlement with Sargon, who decided to meet King Midas in person. During this trip, Sargon was killed in battle, probably while fighting the Cimmerians. His death ended the Assyrian hope of extending power into Anatolia. Furthermore, Sargon's body could not be found after the battle and given a proper burial, which was a terrible blow to Assyrian morale. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans.)

SATRAPS

* provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

Scarabs

SCHOOLS 50

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he term satraps refers to governors appointed by the king during the PERSIAN EMPIRE (ca. 550-330 B.C.). The regions that satraps governed— satrapies—were the largest administrative units of the empire. The organization of the Persian empire into satrapies was initiated in the 500s B.C. by CYRUS THE GREAT and was completed later in that century by DARIUS I. The number of satrapies during Darius's reign varied between 20 and 28. Satraps were generally members of the royal family or of the noble classes, and the position was sometimes inherited. They had extensive powers and ruled almost as local kings. As head of the provincial* administration, a satrap was responsible for collecting taxes, defending the satrapy, and providing troops for the Persian army and navy. Satraps also served as the supreme judges and law enforcers of their provinces. The satraps were directly responsible to the king and governed on his behalf. Periodic inspections by various royal officials—known as the king's "eyes and ears"—helped ensure that the satraps remained loyal and were fulfilling their responsibilities. This system of inspections also prevented satraps from gaining too much power. After the mid-400s B.C., the authority of the Persian empire began to weaken. During this time, the satraps enjoyed a great deal of independence. When ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire in the 330s B.C., he kept the system of satrapies but reformed it by replacing Persian satraps with Macedonian officials and by limiting their powers. (See also Government.)

See Seals.

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chools in the ancient Near East helped students prepare for a useful, respected, and financially comfortable future, just as schools do today. Unlike the modem world, however, the ancient Near East had no concept of schooling for all. Although some boys from humble backgrounds attended school, the students were generally male children of

Schools * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* apprenticeship system of training in which an individual learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

the elite, privileged classes, who would go on to serve the state as scribes*, priests, or other skilled professionals. Schools were concerned chiefly with improving the reading and writing skills of their students. Other kinds of education—including apprenticeship* training in practical fields, such as building and crafts—took place outside the schools. The best-documented schools were in MESOPOTAMIA and Egypt. There is also some evidence of formal training of scribes among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and among the Israelites. Literary texts found in the city of Bogazkoy suggest that scribal schools existed in Anatolia as early as the second millennium B.C.* In the kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH, young boys were trained in scribal schools, but girls remained at home with their mothers, who taught them to become good wives and housekeepers. Mesopotamia. In the remains of ancient Mesopotamian cities such as UR and NIPPUR, archaeologists* have identified several rooms as schools because they contain cuneiform* tablets. Called tablet houses, these schools taught reading and writing (including how to prepare clay tablets), LITERATURE, MATHEMATICS, and music. Students learned by copying documents, lists, and literary works in Sumerian and Akkadian. Sumerian was the language of religion, literature, and education even after it passed out of everyday use. In fact, this is one of the main reasons such a great number of Sumerian texts have survived. An experienced scribe, called an expert or professor, headed a school and could physically punish a student for tardiness or bad behavior. Advanced students, or ''big brothers/' assisted the teacher. The youngest students were called sons of the tablet house. Students did not live at the schools but attended them each day, bringing their midday meal from home. The scribal academies reached their greatest importance during the first half of the second millennium B.C. After that time, they died out, and students began to study in scholars' homes or in smaller schools that were attached to temples or governmental offices. Egypt. The first organized schools, called chambers or departments of instruction, appeared in Egypt in the late third millennium B.C.* The teachers were local scribes, officials of the civil administration, and priests. When a boy approached the age of ten, his parents might decide to send him to elementary school, which was usually open to the air and attached to a temple or palace. There he would learn to read and write by studying literary classics. When the boy was a partly trained scribe in his teens, he chose how to continue his education, selecting the appropriate school for a career in the military, the civil government, or the priesthood. The advanced phase of his education could last as long as 12 years. In addition to continued language and literary study, the student was exposed to mathematics, accounting, geometry, surveying, and simple engineering. At a temple school, or House of Life, a student not only studied religious and magical texts but also learned to manage temple lands and personnel. The Houses of Life were Egypt's intellectual centers, where future physicians, astronomers, and magicians were also educated. Some scribes 51

Science and Technology were chosen to be educated at a site outside Egypt, where they would study such LANGUAGES as Akkadian, Hittite, or Canaanite, which then enabled them to participate in and contribute to Egypt's increasing foreign relations. (See also Education; Scribes; Writing.)

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * apprenticeship system of training in which an individual learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field

Mapping the Ancient World The ancient Babylonians pioneered | the technology of mapmaking, ere* ating detailed maps on different scales. They range from local maps of fields to the earliest map ol the world. Most local maps were survey maps used to show the size of a field, probably for tax purposes. Larger maps often depicted disti of the country and individual cities Some of these maps were amazingly accurate, A map of the city of Nippur drawn sometime in the second millennium e,c. was nearly as precise as that drawn by an American archaeological team thousands of years later,

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he physical remains of cultures of the ancient Near East testify to the scientific and technological knowledge of these early civilizations. The PYRAMIDS of Egypt, the CANALS of Mesopotamia, and the astronomical records of Babylonia and Assyria are just a few products of that knowledge. Although these cultures left an extensive written record of their scientific knowledge, archaeologists* and historians have also gained much information from artifacts* and ruins. Foundations of Ancient Science. Both ancient Egyptian and Mesopo tamian texts deal with matters of science. Scribes* in both societies carefully observed the world around them and made detailed records and lists of what they saw. In Mesopotamia, these included catalogs of different types of plants, animals, stones and minerals, and parts of the body. These lists formed the main body of knowledge on which ancient scholars based their scientific theories and practices. In Egypt, the experiments were based on observations. The results of these investigations were recorded and later consulted and revised in the light of new information. Unlike modern scientific enterprise, the goal of these inquiries was not the advancement of knowledge for its own sake. For instance, the Egyptians believed that the gods created a perfect balance in nature, called maat Their science was an attempt to understand maat by observing and understanding the world. When scientific knowledge disagreed with religious belief, religion prevailed. Science was generally the province of scribes, who preserved and passed along their knowledge. However, they were only interested in the pure sciences, such as MATHEMATICS and astronomy, and the natural sciences, such as zoology and botany. Many of the innovations that profoundly changed civilization, such as metalworking and ARCHITECTURE, are almost completely absent from the scribal records. Such knowledge was transmitted by skilled crafts workers through apprenticeships* and not by scribes on their tablets. This was partly because scribes were solely interested in sciences that could only be mastered by scholarly study. Mathematics and Astronomy. CLAY TABLETS from Mesopotamia dating to about 2200 B.C. contain the earliest references to instruction in mathematics. However, the Mesopotamians clearly developed mathematical principles at a much earlier date. Mesopotamian mathematics employed a sexagesimal system, that is, one based on the number 60. This system formed the basis of the modern system of timekeeping, which divides each hour into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. It was also adapted to geometry, in which circles are divided into 360° (6 x 60). Hieroglyphic INSCRIPTIONS indicate that well before 2000 B.C., Egyptian mathematicians employed the decimal (base 10) system that is commonly used today. They were also well versed in the use of fractions.

Science and Technology The mastery of mathematics facilitatedthe advancementof thescience of astronomy. Byapplying mathematical knowledgetotheir observations of the heavens, ancient astronomers were able tocalculate the movements STARS of PLANETS, and predict the appearance ofeclipses, and precisely time the changing of the seasons. This knowledgewasessential for planning religiousand agricultural CALENDARS activities. Theearliest and clocks also owe their invention to theastronomical observationsof the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians.

* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading temple on the top * hydraulic having to do with the movement of fluids under pressure

Building Technology. There can be nodoubt that both theEgyptians and the Mesopotamians mastered practical architecture, surveying,and various forms of engineering. TheSumerians were clearly familiar with the dome, the arch, and other architectural techniques. They also built massive ziggurats*of sun-dried brickand constructed firstthe large to WALLED a CITIES.The extensive canal system ofsouthern Mesopotamia also shows theirskill in hydraulic* engineering. The pyramids and impressive temple complexes bear witness to the architectural and engineering prowess of theEgyptians. However, both societiesleft later generations withthe enduring mysteryof howsuch monumental structures were constructed.InMesopotamia, some illustrations of tax collectors surveying fieldsaswellasland survey records have survived. However, these only provide clues to themethods involved and do not contain any detailed description of theprocesses they illustrate. Neither the Egyptians nor the Mesopotamians committed thisknowledge to writing, and modern scholars canonly guessat theskillsemployed to create these ancient wonders. Other Technologies. Metalworking was one of themost important technological developmentsof the ancient Near East.Theabilitytowork

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Scribes with metal and shape it into tools, weapons, and other objects was developed before 3000 B.C. Alloying, the process of combining two or more metals to create a new metal that is superior to the original metals, was invented shortly thereafter. The first practical alloy was bronze, a mixture of copper and one of several other metals, most commonly tin. By 1000 B.C., metalworkers had mastered ironworking. MEDICINE was another field pioneered by Near Easterners. In Egypt, medicine was a prestigious profession, and the ranks included specialists, such as dentists and surgeons. Knowledge of the body was crude, but doctors were quite skilled at healing fractures, treating wounds, and performing some operations. Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians were aware of the medicinal properties of many plants, from which they created a variety of drugs, potions, and ointments. Their ability to combine natural elements to form new substances indicates a knowledge of basic chemistry that was also applied to the creation of PERFUME, glass, and even imitation gemstones. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Glass and Glassmaking; Irrigation; Metals and Metalworking; Mining; Textiles; Wheel; Wood and Woodworking.)

SCRIBES * illiterate unable to read or write

* apprentice individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field

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n the ancient Near East, scribes were educated individuals specially trained in the art of writing. Because most people were illiterate*, scribes served an essential function in society and were highly respected. Their main responsibility was to write documents for governments, temples, and individuals. Scribes also recorded business transactions and taxes and copied literary and religious texts. Scribal Education. Most surviving information about scribal EDUCATION comes from Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although scribal education differed in some ways from culture to culture, the training of scribes in all ancient societies generally shared many common features. Scribal education was largely restricted to males and to the upper classes of society. While there are some records of female scribes, these were exceptional cases. Sons from poorer families rarely received scribal education, reflecting the social and economic realities of the ancient world. The scribal profession was considered a proper calling for members of the elite, while most poor families simply could not afford to educate their children. For those who could, a scribal education offered a path to greater wealth and social status. Many ancient texts praise the virtues of the scribal profession compared to the difficult life of those in most other occupations. Students began their education around age six in Mesopotamia and a few years later in Egypt. Formal scribal schools appeared in UR and other Mesopotamian cities as early as 3000 B.C. However, shortly after 2000 B.C., this system of education broke down, and students began to receive scribal training from individual masters. In Egypt, the pattern was reversed. Young scribes originally were trained as apprentices*, either by their fathers or by trained officials, and the state had a great deal of control over scribal education. After about 2100 B.C., however, local officials

Scribes Scribal Titles and Dutic Official scribes employed by the state or temple generally had titles that reflected either the material on \ which they wrote or some aspect of their duties. Among the titles of Sumerian and Akkadian scribes are the following: field scribe, inscriber of stone, military scribe, scribe of the property of the temple, judge's scribe, and scribe of the naditu (cloistered) women. In Egypt, the word for scribe, zakhau, meant "one who uses the brush," not only to write but also to draw and paint Thus, a "scribe of contours" referred to a draftsman skilled at drawing outlines on walls, whereas a "column scribe" was skilled at painting columns or pillars.

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

A Month at School Scribal students in Mesopotamia generally attended classes \ each day from sunrise to sunset. Scholars have discovered little information about vacations or time off. One ancient Sumerian school text, however, contains writing in which a pupil explains his monthly schedule: The reckoning of my monthly stay in the tablet house is [as follows]: My days of freedom are three per month, Its festivals are three days per month. Within it, twenty-four days per month [Is the time of] my living in the tablet house. They are long days.

took over the education of scribes, and scribal SCHOOLS emerged in many towns and cities. In both Mesopotamia and Egypt, scribal schools were attached to palaces and temples. Standard courses of study for scribes in Mesopotamia and Egypt included language, LITERATURE, and MATHEMATICS. Mesopotamian students also studied music, while Egyptian students could take advanced courses in specialized subjects after completing their basic education. Scribal training began with learning the meanings of the symbols of the writing system and mastering vocabulary lists. Students later progressed to copying passages written by instructors, taking dictation, and writing material from memory. Advanced students learned technical vocabulary associated with various disciplines and professions. These students also learned how to prepare writing tools and materials. After they had completed their education, scribes either entered private practice or served in official state positions. The Scribe's Tools. Because pencils and paper were unknown in ancient times, scribes used materials readily available to them. Mesopotamian scribes used a reed tool called a stylus to press wedge-shaped CUNEIFORM characters into soft clay tablets. Mistakes were rubbed out by hand while the clay was still soft. Writing boards made of wood or ivory covered with wax also served as notepads as well as student practice tablets. Scribes wrote on the boards by impressing or scratching characters into the wax. The wax could be melted or removed, allowing the board to be used repeatedly. In Egypt, scribes generally wrote on papyrus*, using a reed brush and ink made from natural substances, such as charcoal or red ocher (impure iron used as pigment). Scribes mixed dried cakes of ink with water to produce liquid ink that was handled much like present-day watercolors. Erasures were made by washing away the mistake with a damp rag, and a smooth pebble or special tool of wood or ivory was used to polish the writing surface and make it smooth. After 1200 B.C., scribes in Syria, the Levant*, and Mesopotamia scratched inscriptions in clay or stone with a stylus or wrote on papyrus or prepared animal skins with a brush and ink. Often these scribes, as well as those in Egypt, made notes or recorded less important documents with a brush and ink on pieces of broken pottery called ostraca or on plaster-coated wooden writing boards. Scribal Duties. Scribes worked for the state, the temple, and private enterprise, and they played a crucial role in many aspects of society. When engaged in business and legal activities, they wrote all contracts, bills of sale, loans, and other documents. Occasionally, they served as witnesses to these documents. Duties of scribes employed by the state included surveying land and estimating the production of farmers' fields. This latter duty was very important because taxes—generally paid in grain or other produce—were based on estimated crop yields. Scribes collected and recorded the taxes as well. Scribes also served as secretaries to kings and other high officials, recording state correspondence, including laws and treaties. They also supervised the activities of public workers and the operation of certain 55

Sculpture public institutions, such as granaries. Scribes who knew more than one language acted as interpreters and translators. Many scribes worked for temples, where they served primarily as administrators. Their responsibilities included receiving and recording religious offerings, classifying temple records, and supervising the construction of temples, tombs, and shrines. They also copied texts and occasionally wrote HYMNS and other religious works. Using their skills, scribes helped preserve knowledge of specialized fields such as astrology, astronomy, MEDICINE, and MAGIC. Some scribes even wrote literature and POETRY, although this was more common in Mesopotamia than in Egypt, where most surviving works deal with religion and funeral practices. (See also Alphabets; Books and Manuscripts; Clay Tablets; Hieroglyphics; Inscriptions; Libraries and Archives; Record Keeping; Writing.)

SCULPTURE stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background f

canon set of approved standards or criteria

* literate able to read and write * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* artisan skilled craftsperson * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

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n the ancient Near East, sculpture, with its stylized* poses, faces, and themes, whether carved in relief* or in the round, served mainly political, social, and religious functions. Sculpture was not displayed in museums. Instead, most sculpture appeared in temples, palaces, tombs, or on such structures as city GATES. The subject and method of representation of ancient Near Eastern sculpture were in accordance with artistic canons* set by a society's elite. Images were idealized in sculpture—they showed their subjects the way society expected them to be, rather than as they really were. For example, the face on a statue of a king might be emotionless and stern to show that the king was strict but fair. Whether the king himself actually possessed those qualities or even looked like the statue was irrelevant. Rather, sculpture was meant to convey the values of the ruling classes and to reinforce the existing order of society. Thus, kings were usually portrayed in a regal manner, gods were pictured bestowing blessings on the ruler and the country, and workers were shown dutifully performing their tasks. The size of the subjects also represented how important they were in relation to the other subjects portrayed, not their actual sizes. Mesopotamia!! Sculpture. Idealized figures and themes were common in Mesopotamian sculpture, but differences existed among the cultures that occupied the region. Before the emergence of the earliest literate* city-states* in Mesopotamia (ca. 3300 B.C.), the most common sculptures produced throughout the Near East were small figurines of nude women, made of clay, bone, ivory, or stone. Such figurines, usually associated with fertility, remained popular even into the Roman period. During the period from 3300 to 2900 B.C., when the Sumerians and their neighbors, the Elamites of Iran, were forming the first literate urban cultures, artisans* produced sculptures depicting kings, priests, heroes, goddesses, worshipers, workers, and domestic and wild animals. During the third millennium B.C.*, relief sculpture in Mesopotamia consisted of scenes with members of royalty and gods. Statues in Sumer were usually figures of men and women, most of whom are shown

Sculpture

See color plate 7, vol.3.

dressed intufted skirts. These statues were small because stonehad to be imported into southern Mesopotamia. Many ofthese figures have clasped hands, a sign of respectto the LIONS, gods. Bulls animals andsacred to the Mesopotamians, were also commonly sculpted figures. With the riseof the Akkadian empire around B.C.,larger 2300 pieces of stone became available, and larger statues gained popularity.Ablack stone calleddiorite—possiblyimported fromanislandin thePersian Gulf called Magan(in present-dayOman)—became favorite a material. Statues of gods were commonin Mesopotamia after B.C., and 2000they typically are shown wearing miters (headdresses) withone ormore pairsofhorns. The horns symbolized the divinity of thegods. Lifelike lionstatuesin baked clay were also common. They servedasguardiansof thetemples and palaces. After 1000B.C.,Assyrian powerwas on the rise and sculpture there was intended to convey that messageto theviewer.Theinterior wallsof Assyrian palaces were covered with reliefs. Some depicted theking with his gods or displayed hisbravery incombat with wild animals and on the battlefield. Thereliefs also depictedthe mightof theAssyrian armyand the terror it inspired through itscruelty andviolence. Thepalace entrances were guarded by colossal figures ofwinged bulls with human heads, winged gods, and heroes. These guardian figureswere attachedto the walls, but they were carved in such high reliefthat they appearto be stepping out to confront theviewer. Reliefs also figured prominently in Babylonianartduring firstthe millennium B.C.(years from 1000 B.C.). toFor1example, inB.C., the 500s the Ishtar Gatein Babylonwasconstructedandcontained reliefsofbulls 57

Sculpture and dragons. Reliefs of lions lined the walls on either side of the main processional road leading from the gate.

Egyptian Puzzle Sculptures Egyptian sculpture often included hieroglyphic symbols, and sometimes the symbols were arranged to form puns. By using hieroglyphs in this manner, sculptors created works that could be interpreted in different ways. A good example is a statue of the sculptor Senenrnut, who is shown kneeling and offering an image of the cobra goddess Renenutet to the god Montu. Several elements' of the offering are also hieroglyphs. When viewed from the front, they spell out one of the names of the former ruler Hapshetsut—suggesting that Senenmut wanted to affirm his loyalty to her rather than express devotion to Montu.

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi * fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

Egyptian Sculpture. Art in Egypt was created in accordance with canons set by members of the elite. As a result, people, gods, animals, and other subjects were portrayed in the same manner whether painted or sculpted. The ancient Egyptians carved reliefs on stelae*, sarcophagi*, and tomb and temple walls. These carvings showed scenes of royalty, the gods, and daily life. The earliest examples of Egyptian sculpture are clay and stone figurines from the late fifth millennium B.C.* From the late fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.), many qualities in Egyptian sculpture became standardized, emphasizing certain features over others. In nearly all Egyptian reliefs, the king and the gods are usually much taller than anyone else in the scene. The king is usually shown as youthful and vigorous, without the signs of old age seen in statues of other nobles. In statues where the figures are standing, a man's left foot is placed ahead of his right foot as if he is striding forward; women usually stand with their feet together. Other statues might show people seated, kneeling, or squatting on their heels. At several points in Egyptian history, artisans were permitted to vary the representations. During the 1900s B.C., kings were depicted more realistically—they might show signs of aging. During the 1400s B.C., naturalism in the representation of the king and royal family became almost caricature. A form of sculpture common during the New Kingdom (ca. 15391075 B.C.) was the standard-bearing statue, which often showed the king holding a religious object. Later, during the Third Intermediate period (ca. 1075-606 B.C.), block statues—sculptures featuring seated figures who seem to emerge from the block of stone—were common. After about 1000 B.C., images of local officials presenting small statues of gods became popular. This reflects the fact that, by that time, most areas of Egypt were ruled locally, not controlled by the pharaohs*. Egyptian sculpture was not limited to human and divine subjects, however. The pillars at the temple of LUXOR, constructed around 1375 B.C., were sculpted in the shape of the buds of the papyrus plant. Also, one of the most famous Egyptian statues is that of the Great Sphinx* located near the PYRAMIDS at GIZA, dating to the 2500s B.C.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head

ee color plate 12 oL

* deity god or goddess

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Anatolia. Very few sculpted works from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) before the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.) are known. Early Anatolian of humans and animals a large breasts, buttocks, and thighs that were probably fertility images. Much more sculpture, in the form of reliefs, is known from the period of the Hittite empire (ca. 1400-1200 B.C.). Figures carved in very high relief—gods, lions, sphinxes—guarded the entrances to palaces. One of the best known examples of Hittite sculpture comes from reliefs carved in the rock at Yazilikaya, near ancient KHATTUSHA. The reliefs in these chambers portray the Hittite gods and goddesses, and the chief deities* are shown standing on animals that represent them. Rock reliefs are quite common throughout Anatolia, both in the Hittite and Neo-Hittite periods.

Scythia and the Scythians * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface

See

color plate 4, vol 1.

hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

SCYTHIA AND

HE SCYTHIANS nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

Syria and the Levant. As in Anatolia, few freestanding sculptures from Syria and the Levant* have survived. During the fourth millennium B.C., ivory was used, although limestone and basalt* were also sometimes used. The art of the Levant borrowed from other ancient Near Eastern regions. Sculpture in Syria before 2000 B.C. shows strong Mesopotamian influences, featuring people worshiping gods or carrying OFFERINGS. After 2000 B.C., Egyptian artistic traditions became dominant, and statues of kings, local rulers, and national gods appear with more regularity. Perhaps the most characteristic sculptures of the Levant were bronze statues of gods and goddesses to which offerings were made. Images included both male and female gods dressed in a variety of costumes, as well as figures of bulls representing the storm god BAAL. The rarity of sculpture in Israel may be due in part to the religion of the Israelites, which forbade images of their god and any other living things. Iran. From the late fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) through the middle of the first millennium B.C., Iranian art, especially in the southwest in Elam, strongly resembled that of its western neighbor, Mesopotamia. However, when the Persians, who were newcomers to Iran, formed their empire in the 500s B.C., they borrowed styles from regions throughout the ancient Near East. For example, a guardian figure carved for the site of Cyrus the Great's palace has four wings in the Assyrian fashion and wears an Egyptian crown, an Elamite robe, and a Persian beard. A statue of Persian king Darius I discovered at the city of SUSA shows him wearing a Greek-style garment and standing in a pose typical of Egyptian sculpture. The type of stone used and the Egyptian hieroglyphics* carved on the base suggest that the statue of Darius was manufactured in Egypt and later sent to Susa. Perhaps the most famous example of Persian sculpture is the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION—a relief and inscription carved into a mountainside in western Iran. The relief celebrates Darius's victory over rebels and depicts the Persian god AHURA MAZDA holding out the ring of kingship toward Darius. Other famous reliefs are found on the walls of the palaces at PERSEPOLIS, a city founded by Darius. (See also Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Human Form in Art.)

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nomadic* people of CENTRAL ASIA, the Scythians (S>thee«uhnz) migrated to present-day southern Russia in the 700s and 600s B.C. There they founded a powerful empire called Scythia (SMheemh). Located north of the Black Sea and centered on the Crimean peninsula, Scythia flourished from the 700s to the 300s B.C. During this time, the Scythians often came into conflict with the peoples of the ancient Near East.

HISTORY Much of what is known about the history of Scythia and the Scythians comes from the ancient Greek historian HERODOTUS, who visited Scythia 59

Scythia and the Scythians * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Legendary Origins According to the Greek historian Herodotus, two ancient legends explained the mysterious origin of the Scythians. Both stories claimed that the Royal Scyths were descended from a man named Skythes. in one story, Skythes was a son of Targitaos, the first man (whose father was the god Zeus and mother was the daughter of a river in Central Asia), Skythes had two older brothers, but only he had the power to touch four golden objects that had fallen from the sky. In the other leg- \ end, Skythes and his brothers were the sons of the great hero Hercules, j Because only Skythes could success fully handle his father's great bow, it was he who became the ancestor \ of the Royal Scyths.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

60

in the 400s B.C. Modern archaeologists* have also discovered clues to Scythian history from various BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS they have excavated in regions once inhabited by the Scythians. Migration and Settlement of Scythia. The origin of the Scythians is a subject of controversy. Most scholars believe that they arrived in Central Asia early in the second millennium B.C.*, probably from the east. From that time until the 700s B.C., little is known about their activities. Large-scale migrations of Central Asian peoples probably began around 800 B.C. in response to events in China, where the Chinese emperor drove warlike peoples from the borders of his empire. This set in motion a chain reaction as, one after another, nomadic tribes moved westward and pushed other groups before them. In the late 700s B.C., a people known as the Massagetae attacked the Scythians, forcing them westward into the region around the Black and Caspian Seas that had been controlled by the Cimmerians. In a series of wars that lasted about 30 years, the Scythians drove the Cimmerians into ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and established themselves in the territories that became Scythia. From their centers north of the Black Sea, the Scythians then began pushing south through the CAUCASUS region, which brought them into contact with both the Assyrian empire and the kingdom of URARTU. In the late 700s B.C., the Scythians allied with the Cimmerians against King SARGON II of Assyria. Rise of Scythian Power. Numerous conflicts erupted between Scythia, Assyria, and Urartu in the early 600s B.C. However, in 673 B.C., Assyrian king ESARHADDON arranged a marriage between his daughter and Bartatua, the Scythian king, to form an alliance with Scythia against Urartu and the MEDES of IRAN. Scythia reached the height of its power by about 630 B.C. Taking advantage of a decline in Assyrian power at that time, the Scythians launched devastating invasions of SYRIA and the Levant* and plundered* these regions. They even led raids into Egypt. The savagery of Scythian raids in the Levant made a great impact on the ancient Judeans, and images of these campaigns appeared in the visions of Jewish prophets,* such as ISAIAH and JEREMIAH. In the late 600s B.C., the Assyrians were attacked by the allied forces of the Medes and Babylonians. At first, the Scythians helped Assyria defend itself, but they soon switched sides and joined in the attack against their former ally. These attacks led to the collapse of the Assyrian empire. The Scythians also played a role in the fall of Urartu in the early 500s B.C. After the collapse of Assyria and Urartu, the Scythians began to experience trouble from the Medes, whose power was increasing. Attacks by the Medes in the early 500s B.C. forced most Scythians out of Assyrian territory and back into the Caucasus and Scythia, which remained the core of their empire. Blocked from further expansion in the south, the Scythians launched raids westward into Europe in the 500s B.C., reaching as far as present-day Austria and Poland.

Scythia

See map on inside covers.

and the

Scythians

Decline and Fall of Scythia.By B.C., thethe late Scythians 500s began to lose someof their power. B.C.,Still, they in 512 were able torepel an attack by the Persians DARIUS under I.During B.C.,thethe Scythians 400s remained a relatively strong military power. Their power increased again in the next century, reachingapeak duringthereign King Ateas, of who expanded Scythian power intothe Balkan B.C., King region ofEurope. In 339 Ateas was killedin battle while fightingthearmies King of Philip II of MACEDONIA,the ALEXANDER father GREAT. ofTHE Although the Scythians managed to resist another attackby theMacedonians several years later, their power had begun todecline dramatically. During the B.C., 200sthe Scythians lost mostoftheir territory inRussia to a people known as theSarmatians.TheScythian kingdomwas confined to part of the Crimean peninsulaand anarrow coastal strip along the Black Sea.The Scythians maintainedagradually weakening presence in these regions A.D. until200s, the when they disappeared fromthehistorical record.

PEOPLE AND CULTURE A group of closely related nomadic tribes,theScythians spoke anIndoIranian language related toPersian, but they had nosystem ofwriting. Some evidence suggests that,different at timesintheir history, they intermingled with other Central Asianpeoples, suchas theMongolsand the Huns. Some aspectsofScythian culture were similar tothose of theCimmerians, another nomadic peopleofCentral Asia.However,theScythians also developedadistinct cultureoftheir own. Horsemanship and Warfare. Feared andrespectedfortheir skillin warfare, the Scythians were famousin theancient worldfortheir horsemanship. They were among theearliest peoples tomaster theskillof horseback riding, and they applied that skillto the art ofwar. Mounted archersformedthe coreofScythian military forces, and themobility of Scythianwarriors astonished their neighborsandopponents. The Scythians were also knownfortheir ferocity. They sometimes scalped and beheaded enemies killedinbattleandcarvedout theskulls for use as drinking cups. Scythian armies were made upfreemen of who shared in the loot taken from defeated opponents. They received food and clothing fortheir servicebut nowages. Some evidence suggests that Scythian women mayhave fought alongsidethemen. Economy, Government, and Society.Scythian society and economy were basedon the CATTLE AGRICULTURE, grazing andofon which included the cultivation ofwheat. True nomads, most Scythians followed their herds of cattlein seasonal migrations across thevast grasslands of southernRussia, travelinginhorse-drawn wagons. As they conquered newterritories, some Scythians settled downto farm, and permanent settlements developed near cultivated lands. Many Scythian settlements were heavily fortified,including that Kamenka of on the DnieperRiver inpresent-day Russia,whichwasestablishedin the 400sB.C. and which becamethecenterof aScythian kingdom. 61

Scythia and the Scythians

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

artisan skilled craftsperson

city-state Independent state consisting of a city and Its surrounding territory

deity god or goddess

62

Scythian society was headed by a group of powerful and wealthy tribal chieftains known as the Royal Scyths. This group of chieftains came from the warrior tribes of Scythian society. Other tribes were subject to their rule. The Royal Scyths were led by a king, and the kingship passed from father to son. Territories under the control of the Royal Scyths frequently paid tribute* to the king. The Scythians practiced polygamy, and it was a common custom for sons to inherit the wives of their fathers when they died. However, the favorite wife of a man generally was killed and buried along with her husband, in a ceremony that was often very elaborate. Kings and other men of high rank often were buried in large tombs with several rooms filled with food, wine, clothing, jewels, and spectacular gold and silver objects. Sometimes, horses and servants were sacrificed and buried as well as part of funeral rituals. Metalworking and Art. Many of the objects found in Scythian tombs reveal that the Scythians were highly skilled metalworkers. This is also evident from Scythian swords and various iron and bronze weaponry and other implements discovered by archaeologists. In addition to their metalwork, the Scythians produced decorative objects from a variety of other materials, many of which display superb skill and workmanship. Artifacts* from Scythian tombs include items made of wood, leather, bone, felt, and other textiles. Scythian wall hangings and rugs often featured intricate and colorful designs. Pictorial representations of Scythian men show them wearing very distinctive CLOTHING that included tight trousers, high boots, and hooded jackets. Women may have worn long robes and headdresses with veils. Many garments had colorful, embroidered designs. Scythian art is essentially realistic in its representation of people, animals, and objects. Much of the art features real and imaginary animals, alone or in combat. Scythian art shows strong Greek influences, and some artworks may actually have been made by Greek artisans*. Some scholars believe that pieces from the golden age of Scythian art, which occurred in the 300s B.C., were created by Scythian artists trained in Macedonia and the Greek city-state* of Athens. The quality of Scythian art from that period was unsurpassed in Central Asia. Most Scythian decorative objects were small in size, which was typical of a nomadic people who moved about frequently. Religion. The Scythians worshiped many gods. However, they did not build temples or establish elaborate systems of ritual and worship. One of their chief deities* was the fire goddess Tabiti. Often depicted in art with wild animals, she may also have been worshiped as a fertility or mother goddess. Another important deity was the god Papoeus, whom ancient Greek historians associated with their god Zeus. The Scythians also had gods of the earth, sun, and moon, as well as a god of war to whom they sacrificed humans captured in battle. (See also Armies; Assyria and the Assyrians; Burial Sites and Tombs; Metals and Metalworking; Nomads and Nomadism; Persian Empire.)

Sea Peoples

SEA PEOPLES relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, often for a foreign country

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ncient Egyptian reliefs* depict in spectacular detail an attempted invasion of Egypt by an alliance of peoples in the eighth year of the reign of Ramses III (ca. 1187-1156 B.C.). The reliefs show two dramatic battles. One battle shows the Egyptian army defeating the invaders on land, while the other shows them destroying the enemy navy. In the latter battle, Ramses is depicted standing on the shore leading his archers as they rain arrows on the enemy ships. Although these are some of the most detailed battle scenes known from ancient Egypt, the identity of the invaders remains mysterious. For convenience they are generally called the "Sea Peoples/' a term coined by the French Egyptologist* Gaston Maspero in A.D. 1873. The texts accompanying these reliefs appear to state that the invaders, before attacking Egypt, had defeated the Hittites, who had dominated ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and SYRIA during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.). In fact, many archaeological* sites in this region show signs of destruction (such as burning) that date to about 1200 B.C. Moreover, some of the Sea Peoples' names, as given by the Egyptians, sound like tribal or place-names from farther west in the Mediterranean. For instance, the Denyen mentioned in the Ramses reliefs have been identified with the Danaoi, a name used for the Greek warriors who fought at TROY; the Shekelesh have been linked with the island of Sicily; and the Shardana with SARDINIA. Using such comparisons, many archaeologists concluded that Ramses was describing a massive migration of "barbarian" peoples from the Mediterranean, who had marched through Anatolia and the Levant*, destroying everything in their path. Best known of all the Sea Peoples are the Peleset, the leaders of the attempted invasion. They appear to be the PHILISTINES, who, according to the Hebrew BIBLE and Assyrian texts, inhabited the coastal regions of the southern Levant during the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 B.C.). In fact, the Iron Age pottery from these cities is a locally made version of the Mycenaean (Late Bronze Age) pottery of Greece— a fact that appears to reinforce the theory of the Sea Peoples' migration from the Mediterranean. In recent years, archaeologists have begun to exercise more caution about the idea of a large-scale Sea Peoples invasion. It is possible that some scholars who were seeking a convenient explanation for the collapse of Late Bronze Age civilization in the Eastern Mediterranean may have exaggerated the whole episode. In reexamining the records, modern archaeologists have found that Ramses described the Philistines and their allies as "Asiatics," a term that the Egyptians had always used to refer to the peoples of the Levant. Moreover, Ramses claimed to have destroyed the towns and orchards of the Philistines and conquered their land. All of this would be very unlikely if the Philistines had just arrived from the Mediterranean. Moreover, no records describe the Philistines as a seafaring people. Many Egyptian sources show that other Sea Peoples, including the Lukka and the Shardana, were present in the region even before Ramses III came to the throne. According to the Amarna letters, the Lukka, a people well known as sea-raiders from Lycia, in southwestern Anatolia, were already raiding the coasts of Cyprus in the mid-1300s B.C. The Shardana, who almost certainly had some connection with Sardinia, were friendly mercenaries* in Phoenicia. These early Sea Peoples had allied with the 63

Seals

pharaoh

king

of

ancient

SEALS 64

Egypt

Libyans in their war with pharaoh* MerneptahB.C. in the Conlate 1200s sequently, they were present in the region much earlier than the time of Ramses III. In light of the limited evidence, there remainsa controversy overthe Sea Peoplesand their origins.One new viewisthatthe Philistinesmay already have been present in the Levant when they attempted to invade the bordersof Egypt.Tohelp them launcha seaattack they took assisthe tance of alliesand mercenaries fromthe Mediterranean. However, their invasion failed, and Ramses claims that he captured the invaders, resettling them as mercenariesin Egypt.As for the destroyed cities throughout the Near East aroundB.C., 1200 scholars believe there could have been many causes, including local wars and rebellions. They arealso increasingly considering earthquakes, rather than a SeaPeoples invasion, as the cause of some Late BronzeAgedestruction also in(See the Lycia region. and the Lycians; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

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seal is a device with an engravedor raised design, symbol,orword that is used to makea unique markon other materials. Sealsaretypically used tocertify that a document is authenticor has been approved by some authority. They are also sometimes usedto physically closeor seal an object, such as an envelope. In the ancient world, seals were extremely important. Avarietyof people ownedand used seals, from kings and courtofficials to priests,scribes*, craftsmen,and even servants. Both

Seals * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

men and women owned seals, although it was rarer for women to own them. Seals also had an importance apart from their official functions — they were used as charms or amulets*. Some seals were kept in a family for generations, and some people collected them because of their beauty and value. Many thousands of seals have survived because they were generally small, hard, and durable objects manufactured in large numbers. Because seals were used so often in ancient times, many thousands of seal impressions on CLAY TABLETS as well as on other clay objects have also survived. However, there are only about half a dozen examples of ancient seal impressions where the original seals have also been recovered.

USES OF SEALS Seals had several uses in the ancient Near East. In a practical sense, they served to authenticate documents and to seal rooms or objects, such as jars, restricting access to their contents. They also served a spiritual purpose when used as charms and as religious OFFERINGS. Seals as Security. By 5000 B.C., people in the Near East were using seals to restrict access to rooms or objects. For example, they secured doors by tying a rope around the handle and impressing a seal into a lump of clay surrounding a knot in the rope. Seals were used in the same way to securely close jars, pots, or other objects. Because each seal was unique, its impression could serve to identify the sealer personally, or the authority he represented. More importantly, the presence of the seal impression on the clay served to show that the contents sealed had not been tampered with. Seal impressions were also set on the clay balls (bullae) that contained the tokens used in early RECORD KEEPING. * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

See color plate 5, vol. 2.

Seals as Authentication. Soon, sealed bullae and tokens gave way to the use of clay tablets and cuneiform* writing. In the late fourth millennium B.C.*, seals were mainly used to certify documents inscribed on clay tablets. They were created to make a recognizable mark that could be associated with a particular person or an office. The presence of seals on a document assured anyone who looked at it that the owners of the seals had approved its contents. Sealing practices—what types of documents were sealed and by whom they were sealed—varied greatly throughout the ancient Near East. Nevertheless, the most commonly sealed items were receipts and legal documents. When goods were sold, the buyer might place his seal on a document to acknowledge that he had received the items listed in the document. When ownership of property was legally transferred to another person, the original owner sealed the document to indicate that she was willingly giving up her right of ownership to the receiving party. Loans were sealed by the borrower or by a third person who guaranteed payment of the loan if the borrower did not repay it on time. If a legal agreement involved obligations by several parties (such as a marriage or the division of shared property), each affixed their seals to it. Occasionally, the scribe who 65

Seals

Killer Seats According to an ancient text, there were two Akkadian kings who were| killed with cylinder seals. Although there is no way to verily this story, modern scholars believe that the irb strument of death was not the seal itseli Ancient Near Easterners often j wore seals like jewelry, and these particular kings might have been killed by large pins that were used to attach seals to their wearers' garments.

* deity god or goddess

recorded the transaction also sealed the documents. Many types of transactions required the presence of witnesses, any or all of whom might seal the document. Their seal impressions were intended to serve as a visual reminder of the fact that they had witnessed the agreement should they be called to court to testify. Sealed documents were placed in a clay envelope. The outside of the envelope contained either all or part of the text of the document inside, as well as the seals of the parties involved. If a dispute over the document arose, the envelope was broken, and it was taken to a judge along with the document inside. Witnesses were required to be present to answer any questions, after which the judge made his ruling. By about 500 B.C., envelopes were generally no longer used. Instead, copies of the document were made and one was given to each party. A similar system is used today for contracts and other legal agreements. Religious Uses. Seals, often made from the same types of stones used for amulets and charms, were considered to have magical or special powers. Many people wore them as charms, much as a person today might wear a religious medal. Many ancient tombs contain seals that belonged to their inhabitants, emphasizing their importance and suggesting that seals were considered valuable to a person in the AFTERLIFE. Such seals might be inscribed with a prayer, typically intended to ensure long life or health for the seal owner or the king. Unlike other images on seals, prayers were not usually carved in reverse writing so that they could be read when impressed onto a surface. Instead, they were carved so that they could be read by looking at the seal itself. Known as votive (devotional) seals, they were often presented as temple offerings to local deities*. By presenting the seal, the owner aimed to ensure that the prayer would be offered to the god forever.

TYPES OF SEALS The two basic types of seals are the stamp seal and the cylinder seal, and both types were used throughout the ancient Near East. The type of seal a particular culture preferred depended on how its people planned to use it as well as on their system of WRITING. See (colorplate 14,' vol. 2.

66

Stamp Seals. A stamp seal has a flat or slightly convex surface into which a design is carved. When pressed into a soft material, such as clay or wax, it leaves a reverse impression of the carved design. The earliest examples of ancient Near Eastern stamp seals—by far the oldest type of seal—were found in present-day northern Iraq (ancient MESOPOTAMIA) and date to about 5500 B.C. The images carved on these early stamp seals were simple patterns of fine, closely placed lines. By about 4500 B.C., simple compositions of animal and human figures were carved into stamp seals. The seals themselves came in a variety of shapes including hands, feet, crescents, and geometric patterns, such as circles or squares. Stamp seals were used in southern Mesopotamia until about 3300 B.C., after which they were largely replaced by cylinder seals.

Seals

* Levant lands bordering theeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, andIsrael), theWest Bank, and Jordan * papyrus writing material made by pressing together thinstrips of the stem of the papyrus plant;pi. papyri

Cylinder Seals. As its name implies, acylinder seal is acylindershaped object containing acarved impression.Theimageiscarved along the curvedface of the cylinder. Although more challenging to the engraver, a cylinder sealhas aunique capability — whenrolled acrossthe face of a document,itleavesacontinuous impression thatrepeats itself after eachfull rotation. In thismanner, theseal cancover the entire width of a document, rather than justoccupying asmall spaceon it. Moreover, engraverscan fitmore imagesorcharactersoncylinder seals, making them more elaborate thanstamp seals. Thiswasparticularlyadvantageous for cultures thatusedacuneiform systemofwriting, inpart because cylinder sealshad more roomfor INSCRIPTIONS long cuneiform than did stamp seals. The earliest evidenceofcylinderIRAN seals dating comes from asite in inner to about 3700 B.C. Shortly thereafter, EGYPT they and appear in the inLevant*, where they seem tohave been used only todecorate clay vessels.In general, most societies that hadadopted thecuneiform writing system preferred cylinder sealstostamp seals.Asalphabetic scripts writtenon prepared animal skins orpapyrus* began toreplace cuneiform around 1000B.C., cylinder seals gradually fellout ofuse. OnlyinMesopotamia, where the AssyriansandBabylonians retained thecuneiform system,did cylinder seals remainin use afterthis time. Cylinder seals, aswell asstone stamp seals, wereno longer producedorused duringtheearly yearsof the SELEUCID EMPIRE (312-64 B.C.),when Greek-style engraved metal finger rings came intowidespread use. Although cylinder seals hadbecome the dominant formthroughout much of the NearEast,severalcultures —suchas the Anatolians —

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Seals * scarab representation of the dung beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians * Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

artisan skilled craftsperson

An Early Writing Before the development of writing, people in the ancient Near East used smal^ hollow balls of clay called bultae to record economic transactions. These clay balls contained small tokens that were marked and had specific shapes for j representing units of goods. After the tokens were enclosed within the bufla, cylinder seals were rolled across the soft clay. Other tokens were then pressed into the surface of the bulla. This told anyone handling a bulla that it was secure, 1 many tokens were inside, and what they represented.

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continued to prefer stamp seals. In Egypt, cylinder seals were replaced by the scarab* seal—originally an amulet—shortly after 2000 B.C. When Egypt was under Hellenistic* and Roman rule (305 B.C.-A.D. 642), stone stamp seals were replaced by engraved metal finger rings that bore the owner's personal stamp.

SEAL MAKING AND SEAL IMAGERY Seals were made from many different materials, including clay, wood, IVORY, bone, and metal. Most often, however, they were made from STONE. The thousands of seals recovered from archaeological* sites in the Near East give some insight into how seals were made and the range of images they bore. So far, however, archaeologists have uncovered few clues as to why a certain image was chosen for a particular seal. Seal Making. The fact that so many seals share similar styles and imagery suggests that many of them were made in workshops that produced standard designs. Like other artisans*, seal cutters may have occasionally traveled from place to place to practice their craft. Seal cutters used different tools depending on the material being carved. For softer stones such as limestone, they used stone chips or copper tools; by around 2000 B.C., bronze tools had also come into use. One specialized seal-cutting instrument was the bow drill, which consisted of a bow similar to that used by archers. The bowstring was wrapped around thin posts, or spindles, which had drill bits mounted on their cutting ends. By moving the bow back and forth, the spindles rotated horizontally, enabling the drill bits to cut into the stone, which was placed on a flat surface. By using a bow drill, the seal cutter could make several cuts in the seal simultaneously. Early Mesopotamian seals were made mostly from dark green or gray stones, such as steatite or serpentine. White, pink, and green limestones and calcites were also popular materials. LAPIS LAZULI became popular around 2500 B.C. because of its beautiful deep blue color and associated magical properties. During the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.), hard stones of green and red jasper or striped agate were favorites. From about 2100 to 1600 B.C., the most common material used was a hard gray stone called hematite, which is found in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. While these types of stones were the most popular in ancient times, many others were also used. Seal Images. Early seal images on Mesopotamian cylinder seals might include scenes of food or textile production. Between 2900 and 2400 B.C., combat and banquet scenes dominated seal imagery. Gods first appeared on seals after about 2400 B.C. They were sometimes depicted in scenes showing the building of structures or in presentation scenes, where a minor deity is seen introducing the king to a god or goddess seated on a throne. The latter image remained popular for many years and was modified over time. After 2000 B.C., the person on the seal might be shown being presented to a deified* king rather than to a god or goddess. The

Seleucid Empire * deified transformed into a god or goddess

* erotic related to sexual excitement or pleasure

SELEUCID EMPIRE Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

* cede to yield or surrender, usually by treaty

See map in Alexander the Great (vol. 1).

presentation scene was eventually replaced during the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) by images of standing deities accompanied by different divine symbols. In Anatolia, seals contained many of the same images found in Mesopotamia, as well as images of local gods, animals, and hunting and banquet scenes. Persian seals also show hunting scenes as well as scenes of court life, human and animal figures, and abstract designs. In Egypt, a collection of large scarab seals, made from about 1400 to 1350 B.C., celebrated important events in the reign of King AMENHOTEP III. After about 1800 B.C., heart scarabs, which were used as amulets for the dead, appeared. They contained an inscription from the BOOK OF THE DEAD, in structing the heart of the deceased how to behave after death. Erotic* scenes were also found on ancient Near Eastern seals. Some scholars have suggested that these seals refer to the Mesopotamian New Year's festival in which the king and the high priestess engaged in ritual sexual intercourse—the "sacred marriage" ceremony—to ensure the fertility of the kingdom in the coming year. Generally, however, it is difficult for scholars to determine why a particular image was chosen for a seal. (See also Amulets and Charms; Art, Artisans, and Artists.)

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tretching from western ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to the border of present-day India, the Seleucid empire was an important center of the Hellenistic* world. From 312 to 64 B.C., the empire sought to blend Greek-style culture and traditions with older native Near Eastern traditions. It dominated commerce and trade throughout the region. The Seleucid empire was formed from the remains of the vast empire of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., a power struggle erupted among his Macedonian generals for control of his empire. One of these men, Seleucus, gained control of Babylonia and founded the Seleucid empire. He then consolidated his power and expanded Seleucid territory. By the end of his rule in 281 B.C., the empire stretched from present-day India in the east to SYRIA, Anatolia, and southern Thrace, east of Greece, in the west. Although Seleucid kings ruled the largest empire in the ancient Near East, their power did not go unchallenged. In the 200s B.C., the Seleucids competed with Egypt—primarily for control of Syria—in a series of conflicts known as the Syrian Wars. They also faced internal struggles, including uprisings in Judah. Beginning in the 200s B.C., the size and power of the empire declined steadily as outlying regions gained independence or were ceded* to other Hellenistic rulers. In the east, the Parthians first seized Iran from the Seleucids around 260 B.C. and later, in the 140s B.C., all of southern Mesopotamia. Continual warfare eventually weakened the empire, and the remaining Syrian portion of the kingdom was finally conquered by the Romans in 64 B.C. The Seleucids blended Hellenistic culture with Near Eastern, but Greekspeaking nobles tended to dominate the ruling classes. Initially, the Seleucids were tolerant of the indigenous cultures and generally allowed the local people to maintain their own traditions, customs, and religious beliefs. 69

Semiramis Later, when the Romans began to enter the Near East, they became less tolerant and forcefully imposed Hellenistic culture on the Near Easterners. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Parthia; Ptolemy I.)

SEMIRAMIS lived 800s B.C. Legendary queen of Assyria

* regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch is too young or unable to rule * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

SEMITES nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia

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emiramis (si»MIR»uh*mis) was a mythical Assyrian queen celebrated for her great wisdom and beauty. She is said to have conquered many lands and is also credited with founding the city of BABYLON. According to legend, she had a lengthy and prosperous reign. At her death, she was believed to have left earth in the form of a dove. Thereafter, she was worshiped as a goddess, with many of the same characteristics as the goddess ISHTAR. The legend of Semiramis was shaped primarily by the Greek historians HERODOTUS and Diodorus Siculus. Although the story of Semiramis is legend, her character was probably based on a historical figure named Shammu-ramat. The wife of Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V, Shammu-ramat served briefly as regent* after the death of her husband in about 811 B.C. She ruled Assyria for four years until her son, Adad-nirari III, was old enough to take the throne. A stone stela* dedicated to Shammu-ramat from the city of ASHUR and INSCRIPTIONS at the city of Nimrud provide evidence of her reign. The fact that Shammu-ramat wielded considerable power was perhaps a factor in the development of the legend of Semiramis, because women rarely played such a major role in any Mesopotamian government. The first known mention of Semiramis was by Herodotus in the 400s B.C. About 300 years later, Diodorus Siculus wrote about her in his history of the world and created an entire legend about her. The legend of Semiramis inspired a number of later writers and composers, including the French writer Voltaire, who wrote a play called Semiramis (1748), and the Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini, whose opera Semiramide (1823) was based on the legendary queen. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Mythology; Queens.)

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he term Semites refers to members of any of a number of groups in the ancient Near East, including the Akkadians, Arabs, Amorites, Aramaeans, Canaanites, Israelites (Hebrews), and Phoenicians. No one knows their exact origins, but the most common theory is that the Semites were nomadic* tribesmen who, over the millennia*, migrated to and settled most of Mesopotamia, Syria, and the Levant*.

Mesopotamia. Scholars have speculated on who the first Semites in Mesopotamia were and whether they were indigenous*. There is evidence that during the third millennium B.C.*, there were Semitic groups with a common culture living in Mesopotamia. Some of these people lived in the city of EBLA in Syria, others in the kingdom of MARI on the northern Euphrates River, and still others in the city-state* of KISH located on the southern Euphrates. In fact, the Sumerian KING LIST records Semitic names

Semites * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

for the early rulers of Kish. Semites may have even lived in Assyria to the north and along the banks of the Diyala River to the east. With the exception of the Sumerians, ancient Mesopotamia was dominated by Semitic people. The most famous of the early Semitic tribes were the Akkadians in southern Mesopotamia. Led by King SARGON I, they invaded northern Mesopotamia and northern Syria around 2350 B.C. and established the Akkadian empire, which lasted about 200 years. By about 2000 B.C., another Semitic group, the AMORITES from northern Syria, had settled throughout Mesopotamia. During the next 200 years, they assumed power over much of Syria and Mesopotamia, founding several small kingdoms and city-states. In Mesopotamia, Akkadian-speaking dynasties ruled Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south until the coming of the Medes and Persians from Iran. Syria and the Levant. Throughout their histories, Syria and the Levant have been dominated by Semitic peoples. Ancient Ebla, which thrived between 2400 and 2250 B.C., was a powerful Syrian Semitic kingdom. Following the destruction of Ebla by the Akkadians and the collapse of the Akkadian empire, the Amorites rose to power in Syria and migrated into Mesopotamia. By around 1200 B.C., the Aramaeans, members of nomadic tribes that lived on the edges of Syria, had started forming small kingdoms in Syria and began taking over more territories and coming into conflict with the Assyrians. In terms of the spread of language, the Aramaeans may have had the farthest-reaching influence in the ancient Near East. By 600 B.C., Aramaic was accepted as the common language of the Neo-Assyrian empire, and later, it became the official language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Almost all the tribes of CANAAN were Semitic, including the Phoenicians, the Moabites, and the Israelites (the PHILISTINES, however, were not Semites). No one knows the specific origins of the Israelites. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, their ancestor, Abraham, migrated to Canaan from Mesopotamia. His descendants then traveled to Egypt, where they remained enslaved until MOSES led them to freedom. They then returned to Canaan, the Promised Land. No one knows whether this biblical version of events is historically true. However, most historians believe that the Israelites entered Canaan around 1200 B.C.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Egypt. Egypt had less Semitic influence in ancient times than either Mesopotamia or the Levant. There is some evidence, however, of a very early Semitic presence in Egypt. Similarities between Levantine and Egyptian pottery and tools dating from the fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) suggest that Semites may have entered Egypt. During the 1800s B.C., Canaanites began to travel to Egypt for trade, many eventually settling down in the eastern Nile Delta, where they became a powerful presence. In the 1630s B.C., the HYKSOS invaded Egypt and established a dynasty* there. Some historians believe the Hyksos were Amorites who came from the Levant. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Arabia and the Arabs; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Ethnic and Language Groups; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Semitic Languages.) 71

Semitic Languages

SEMITIC LANGUAGES * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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ome languages spoken in North Africa and the Near East belong to the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. This family, also known as the Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic languages, consists of five branches, the largest of which contains the Semitic languages. Language experts divide Semitic languages into two subbranches: East Semitic and West Semitic. These subbranches include such languages as Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaean, Hebrew, Phoenician, and Ugaritic. In ancient times, Semitic languages were spoken by the members of various nomadic* tribes that spread across the region. Over time, these languages were adopted by the peoples they came into contact with or conquered in regions such as Mesopotamia and the Levant*. East Semitic Languages. The various dialects* of Akkadian were the most widely spoken of the East Semitic languages. The first written evidence of Akkadian dates to the 2500s B.C. Use of the old Akkadian dialect expanded with the formation of the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.). Thereafter, Akkadian dialects became the lingua franca—a language that is widely used for communication among speakers of different languages— in the ancient Near East. After the third millennium B.C.*, there were two distinct Akkadian dialects: Assyrian and Babylonian. Some scholars consider Eblaite an East Semitic language related to Akkadian. Eblaite tablets dating back to the 2300s B.C. were discovered in the A.D. 1970s at the site of the ancient city-state* of EBLA in SYRIA. West Semitic Languages. The languages that belong to the West Semitic subbranch can be divided into Central Semitic and South Semitic languages. Central Semitic includes the Northwest Semitic (Amorite, Canaanite, Aramaic) and North Arabian languages. Amorite is one of the oldest known West Semitic languages. It was spoken in present-day northern Syria. The language spread into Mesopotamia with the Amorite invasions beginning in the 2100s B.C. However, no Amorite texts have been found—the language is only known from personal names—and its place within Semitic languages has been debated. The oldest examples of Canaanite date from around 1400 B.C. Later examples of Canaanite include the Moabite, Phoenician, and Hebrew languages. So far, archaeologists* have found only one major example of Moabite writing, which they believe was written around 850 B.C. The Canaanite aleph-beth (a writing system that contains symbols for consonants but not for vowels) was also adopted by many cultures of the ancient Near East and formed the basis for the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman alphabets and, therefore, the modern European alphabets. The oldest evidence of Phoenician writing is usually dated around 1000 B.C. Because Phoenicians were among the most powerful traders in the Mediterranean, several Phoenician words were adopted by the Greeks, the Romans, the Akkadians, and the Egyptians. Hebrew is the best-known Canaanite language, and its development can be divided into four stages. The first is called Classical Hebrew or Biblical Hebrew, which is the language of the Hebrew BIBLE. Classical Hebrew was spoken by the Israelites and Judeans until the 500s B.C., when it began

Sennacherib to be replaced in everyday life by Aramaic. Hebrew was still used for religious rituals, however. The next stage of the Hebrew language was Rabbinic (or Mishnaic) Hebrew, which was used for writing. Its name is taken from the Mishna, a book of the oral traditions and laws of Judaism, written in the A.D. 100s. The third stage is called Medieval Hebrew, which lasted from about the A.D. 500s to the 1200s. The final stage is Modern Hebrew, which is the national language of present-day Israel. Aramaic is one of the most important of the ancient Semitic languages. The first written evidence of Aramaic comes from Syria and dates to the 800s B.C. Within the next 100 years, when the Assyrians conquered Syria, they encountered the Syrian version of the simple 22-letter alephbeth that was first developed by the Canaanites. The Assyrians adopted the script, along with Aramaic, the language of Syria, and both spread throughout the Assyrian empire, becoming second in use only to Assyrian. By the 500s B.C., Aramaean had been accepted as the lingua franca of the ancient Near East. It became the official language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and was the main language of the Jews from the 500s B.C. Some parts of the Hebrew Bible are written in Aramaic. Another major Central Semitic language is Arabic, a North Arabian language that scholars believe originated in the Syrian and northern Arabian deserts. The earliest Arabic writings date to the 500s B.C. This early Arabic is called Old Northern Arabic. The next period in the development of the language produced Classical Arabic. This is the language of the Muslim holy book, the Koran, which was written in the A.D. 600s. Modern Arabic dialects are spoken today throughout the Near East and North Africa. The two main divisions of the South Semitic languages are South Arabian and Ethiopian. South Arabian was spoken in the region that comprised present-day Yemen and Oman. The oldest writing in South Arabian is from the 700s B.C. The oldest evidence of an Ethiopian Semitic language, called Geez, dates from around the A.D. 300s. Some modern languages of the region, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, belong to the Ethiopian subbranch of the Semitic language family. Amharic is an official language of Ethiopia, and Tigrinya is one of the official languages of Eritrea. (See also Alphabets; Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Semites; Ugarit.)

SENNACHERIB ruled 704-681 B.C. King of Assyria Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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he son and successor of King SARGON II, Sennacherib (suh»NAK«er«ib) ruled Assyria for almost a quarter of a century. His reign is noted primarily for numerous military campaigns to put down uprisings and consolidate power in Babylonia and the Levant*. Yet Sennacherib's most enduring accomplishment was rebuilding the ancient city of NINEVEH. Throughout his reign, Sennacherib was plagued by political instability in Babylonia, caused largely by the growing power of the ARAMAEANS and Chaldeans and by the interference of the Elamites of Iran. At one point, he placed his eldest son on the Babylonian throne, but the Elamites captured and killed him. Infuriated at the death of his son, Sennacherib finally defeated his enemies in 689 B.C. and destroyed the city of BABYLON. During his campaign to put down uprisings in the Levant, he destroyed many 73

Servants * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

SERVANTS

Instructions for Hittite Servants In Hittite Anatolia, servants working in the palaces and temples were expected to follow spe cif ic instructions that were inscribed i on tablets. One such tablet reads: When a servant 1$ to stand before his master, he is bathed and clothed In dean [garments]; he either gives him his food, or he gives him his bevewge. And because he, his master, mis [and] drinks, he is relaxed in spirit and feels one with him. But if he [the servant] is ever remiss, [if] he is inattentive, his mind is alien to him.

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cities in the region. After a long siege* of the city of JERUSALEM, Sennacherib also forced King Hezekiah of Judah to pay tribute* to Assyria. During his reign, Sennacherib moved the capital of Assyria from DurSharrukin to Nineveh. He enlarged and beautified the city, widened and paved the streets, built aqueducts and canals, and constructed a magnificent new palace and imposing city walls. Toward the end of his reign, Sennacherib chose his son ESARHADDON as his heir. This decision angered Esarhaddon's older brothers, who led a conspiracy against their father that led to his assassination in 681 B.C. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Elam and the Elamites; Kings.)

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exts and artworks from the ancient Near East contain many references to servants, the men and women who waited on banquet guests, cleaned temples, and performed all the many tasks of elite estates. It is unclear whether the servants were free and working for pay, semifree, unfree and bound to their employers, or perhaps even enslaved. Although the terms servant and slave mean very different things in the modern world, it is not always easy for historians to draw a clear distinction between them in the context of the Near East. Egyptian texts, for example, mention many groups of people whose freedom was limited to some degree: dependents, forced laborers, workers, servants, royal servants, prisoners of war, and slaves. However, these texts generally do not provide exact definitions for such classifications. Even when descriptions exist, they do not always reflect the servants' title. For example, the label "royal servant" referred not to a high-ranking servant of the king but to an Egyptian who had become a foreign slave. Undoubtedly, many of the individuals called servants in texts from Egypt and other places were hired workers, while others were actually slaves. Their identification as servants had more to do with the work they did than with their precise legal status. In Egypt, the term also referred to people who had given up their rights, probably due to personal and economic constraints or legal problems. Whatever their status, servants played an important role in the everyday life of ancient Near Eastern societies and performed several functions that were indispensable in both public and private life. Servants in Public Life. Documents from ancient Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA contain references to servants' roles in the smooth operation of such institutions as palaces and temples. Some of these individuals were officials or administrators, servants in the same sense that people who work for the government today are called civil servants. For example, The Story ofSinuhe is an account of a palace servant who fled from Eygpt to the Levant* for fear of getting involved in a revolt. Sinuhe could also be described as a courtier (member of the royal court). In ancient times, Egyptian society consisted of a large number of people who were dependent workers performing tasks on land owned by the king or the state. Most of their work was agricultural, but sometimes they

Servants

Levant lands bordering theeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, andIsrael), theWest Bank, and Jordan

performedforced laborofothersorts,suchasbuildingthepyramids or serving as soldiers. Although they werenotentirely free,these workers were distinguishedfrom slaves. Mesopotamia, like Egypt,had aclassofpeople whosefellstatus somewhere between free workersandslaves. These dependent workers, who were notfree to leave theirjobsbutsometimes escaped, provided much of the agricultural labor neededtosustain society. Asimilar class ofbound workers also existed in ancient Israel. Babylonian society includeda group known astemple servants, bound toservicein the cities'temples. Although they could notleave their jobs, they could marry, have families, and leave property totheir heirs. Servants in Private Life. Throughout theancient Near East, the comfortable, even luxurious, livesof therichandnoble dependedon the labor of servants. Some performed personal services, acting asmaids or attendants to membersof thehousehold. Others workedatsuch tasks as cooking, baking, brewing beer, laundering, cleaning, manufacturing textiles, and sewing. On acountry estate, servants labored fields, ingardens, and workshops. 75

Seth scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

SETH * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

SETY I ruled ca. 1294-1279 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

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Many servants had highly specialized duties. Individuals with the proper training served as scribes*, healers, midwives, musicians, or dancers. However, it is unclear whether such individuals were paid employees, bound workers who received some pay, or slaves. (See also Labor and Laborers; Slaves and Slavery.)

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eth was the Egyptian god of chaos, storms, and war. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, he was also associated with foreigners and foreign aggression. In art, Seth was most often depicted with a human body and an animal-like head resembling that of an anteater, with square ears and a long, almost beaklike snout. Most archaeologists* believe that Seth's head was not based on a real animal but was a mythical creation. Seth was the son of the sky goddess Nut. He was the brother of OSIRIS, the king of the gods, and Isis, the mother goddess. According to Egyptian mythology, Seth is believed to have killed Osiris in order to become king. After Osiris died, Isis, who was Osiris's wife, bore him a son named HORUS. Horus then battled Seth many times to avenge his father's death and ultimately triumphed over Seth. Despite Seth;s reputation for evil, he was worshiped by many Egyptians. The center of the cult* devoted to him was at Naqada, a city near THEBES. He was also worshiped as a predominant god in northeastern Egypt. The HYKSOS, who invaded Egypt from SYRIA or the Levant* adopted the worship of Seth when they established their dynasty* at Avaris in northern Egypt in the 1600s B.C. This may have been because Seth closely resembled the Canaanite god BAAL. Seth's name was adopted by pharaohs* such as Seth Peribsen of the Second Dynasty and Sety I and Sethnakhte of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties. However, by the time of the Twenty-first Dynasty (ca. 1075-945 B.C.), Seth's position in the pantheon* changed, and he came to be considered an evil and dangerous figure. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Mythology; Religion.)

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he son of Ramses I, Sety I ruled Egypt alongside his father, who also founded the Nineteenth Dynasty. Because he began his reign as a coregent, his succession to the throne was secure. Sometimes considered the greatest king of his dynasty*, Sety was named after the god SETH. Sety was a successful military leader. During his reign, he fought the Libyans and the HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and maintained Egypt's domination of the Levant*. For a brief period, he ruled the city of Qadesh in southern SYRIA. Notwithstanding his military abilities, Sety is better known for his domestic policies. He secured Egypt's frontiers, established mines and quarries, and repaired many temples and sacred places. He also continued work on the monuments at Karnak that were begun by his father. His

Shalmaneser V Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

SHALMANESER III ruled 858-823 B.C. King of Assyria * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

SHALMANESER V ruled 726-722 B.C. King of Assyria Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

own tomb is one of the largest and most beautiful in the VALLEY OF THE KINGS. Sety's mortuary temple at ABYDOS is considered his greatest memorial. It is decorated with many WALL PAINTINGS and reliefs* that are considered among the finest examples of ancient Egyptian art. Although Sety's reign lasted only about 14 years, he left behind a stable and healthy kingdom. He was succeeded by his son RAMSES II. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs; Ramses II.)

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he son of King ASHURBANIPAL II, Shalmaneser HI (shal«man»E»ser) took the throne of Assyria when the empire's power was on the rise. He continued his father's efforts to expand Assyrian rule in the Near East and to gain control over vital trade routes in the region. In 858 B.C., Shalmaneser defeated the city-state* of KARKAMISH near the Syrian border and conquered several other small states in the area. Five years later, he launched a major campaign against the united forces of the cities of DAMASCUS and Hamath and against the kingdom of Israel. Although he claimed victory at the battle of Qarqar, the outcome was indecisive. Other campaigns in the region followed, but no significant territorial gains were made. Shalmaneser had greater success elsewhere. In 841 B.C., he marched armies to the Mediterranean coast and forced the Israelite city of SAMARIA and the Phoenician cities of TYRE and SIDON to pay him tribute*. By 832 B.C., he had invaded and conquered Cilicia in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and made that region an Assyrian province. During his reign, Shalmaneser also concluded a number of building projects begun by his father. This included construction of a new capital at KALKHU (present-day Nimrud), with massive city walls, a magnificent palace, and several temples. One of the best-known artifacts* from his reign is the Black Obelisk, a monument excavated at Nimrud that contains various scenes of the king receiving tribute and INSCRIPTIONS describing the extent of his empire. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Hebrews and Israelites; Kings.)

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he son of King TIGLATH-PILESER HI, Shalmaneser V (shal»man»E»ser) took the throne of Assyria after the death of his father in 726 B.C. He also ruled as king of Babylonia, which was controlled by Assyria at that time. Shalmaneser ruled for only five years, and little is known about him or his reign. There are no known royal INSCRIPTIONS from his reign, and the Babylonian Chronicle makes little mention of his activities. Shalmaneser is mentioned, however, in the Hebrew BIBLE in the Book of 2 Kings. The text tells how he marched Assyrian troops into the Levant* to put down a rebellion led by King Hoshea of Israel. He also attacked the Phoenician city of TYRE and began a long siege* of the city of SAMARIA, the capital of Israel. Shalmaneser died before the siege of Samaria ended, 77

Shamshi-Adad I * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

SHAMSHI-ADAD I ruled ca. 1830-1776 B.C. First king of Assyria

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

SHEEP * domesticated adapted or tamed for human use * fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

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and his successor, SARGON II, claimed credit for the capture of the city. Nevertheless, the military campaigns of Shalmaneser led to the end of the northern kingdom of Israel, which became a province of Assyria. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians.)

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hamshi-Adad I (SHAM*shi»A«dad) was an Amorite ruler who gained control of a number of cities and states in northern MESOPOTAMIA. A contemporary of King HAMMURABI of Babylon, Shamshi-Adad achieved enormous prestige. In about 1836 B.C., Shamshi-Adad succeeded his father and brother as king of Ekallatum, a city located on the TIGRIS RIVER in northern Mesopotamia. However, around 1818 B.C., he was forced to flee to Babylon when Naram-Sin, the king of ESHNUNNA, captured Ekallatum and the city of ASHUR. Shamshi-Adad remained in exile in Babylon until the death of Naram-Sin in about 1811 B.C., after which he returned to Ekallatum. Three years later, he conquered Ashur and then began to expand his territory, capturing MARI and other kingdoms and city-states* in Mesoptamia. At the height of his power, Shamshi-Adad controlled most of northern Mesopotamia. He governed his kingdom as a collection of city-states. Although he united them all under a single kingship, he also allowed each to maintain its local traditions. In his old age, Shamshi-Adad divided control of his kingdom among himself and his two sons. While he lived, this system of government functioned quite well. After his death, however, his sons allowed the kingdom to collapse, and all the areas absorbed by Shamshi-Adad regained their independence. (See also Amorites; Assyria and the Assyrians; Kings.)

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heep and GOATS were the first grazing ANIMALS to be domesticated* in the ancient Near East, probably around 7000 B.C. Domesticated sheep were descended from wild sheep, which were abundant in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN. Sheep were ideal grazing animals for settled societies that practiced AGRICULTURE. Sheep could graze on the plants that grew naturally in fallow* fields, and their droppings fertilized the ground for the next growing season. They could also graze on vegetation on land just outside cultivated areas. During the summer, shepherds had to herd sheep across long distances so that the sheep could find enough food to sustain themselves. These shepherds were often members of a farmer's family or were hired professionals. In ancient times, sheep may have been slaughtered for meat or as OFFERINGS or raised to provide milk. More importantly, they were also kept for their wool, the most common TEXTILE used for clothing in the ancient Near East. In the Syrian city-state* of EBLA, which had a large textile industry, the palace owned large flocks of sheep. The Mesopotamian city-state of UR also had a textile industry. There the wool from the sheep was brought to temple workshops where it was woven into fabric to clothe the population. Textiles were also important exports and were sent to for-

Shipping Routes eign lands in exchange for metals and other resources not available in Mesopotamia. Records from Ur show that the temples not only raised sheep but also practiced selective breeding to produce traits such as finer wool. (See also Animals, Domestication of.)

SHIPPING ROUTES * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* cataract steep waterfall

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* commodity article of trade

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n ancient times, the RIVERS and seas of the Near East served as the region's highways, allowing distant cultures to communicate and trade with each other. River travel probably occurred long before the rise of settled civilizations. In fact, archaeologists* have found evidence of sea travel that predates the fourth millennium B.C.* The primary inland shipping routes in MESOPOTAMIA followed the TIGRIS RIVER or the EUPHRATES RIVER. Because of strong southerly currents, most of the ships on these rivers traveled south from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to Mesopotamia. Small boats were sometimes towed upstream against the current, but the journey took about four times as long as the same trip going downstream. River travel was particularly useful for shipping heavy or bulky cargoes, such as timber or stone. The Mesopotamians also built an extensive series of CANALS, which further aided them in commerce. The NILE RIVER was the main water artery linking Upper and Lower Egypt. Unlike the Tigris and Euphrates, the Nile permitted easy travel in both directions. Boats traveling north rode the current to the Mediterranean, while southbound craft were driven by winds that blew in from the sea. The main obstacle to southward travel was the cataracts* near the southern city of Aswan. However, a series of channels dug just after 2300 B.C. enabled ships to sail around the cataracts. Archaeological sites throughout the Near East indicate that coastal and open sea travel both developed around 3000 B.C. A sea route from Mesopotamia around Arabia and into the RED SEA was navigated at about this time. Shortly thereafter, records show that the Sumerians conducted active seaborne trade with states along the coast of the Persian Gulf. Remains of some artifacts* in the region have been traced to early Indian civilizations along the Arabian Sea. Farther west, the most important shipping routes crossed the eastern Mediterranean Sea between SYRIA, Egypt, Anatolia, and the islands of CYPRUS and CRETE. The northern Syrian city of UGARIT, which was the connecting point for many land routes from Anatolia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, was also an important seaport in the Mediterranean, with close ties with the island of Cyprus. When the Hittite empire fell in about 1200 B.C., Ugarit and other north Syrian and Anatolian seaports declined, and Phoenician ports in the south —TYRE, SIDON, and BYBLOS—came to dominate Mediterranean shipping. The Phoenicians were the greatest seafarers in the ancient world, carrying trade goods throughout the Mediterranean and establishing colonies as far away as Spain and Morocco. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, a Phoenician fleet even sailed around Africa and returned through the Strait of Gibraltar after a three-year voyage. Egypt was one of the most important destinations for Mediterranean shipping. The land was rich in grain, a particularly valuable commodity* in

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Ships and Boats such places as Greece and Anatolia, which lacked good farmland. Ships from Egypt carried grain and precious items such as jewelry, gold, and incense to ports in Syria and Phoenicia. In return, ships bound for Egypt brought back much-needed timber as well as olive oil and wine. Egypt developed sea trade with not only its northern neighbors but also those to the south. Egyptian ships sailed down the Red Sea to the land of Punt, believed to have been on the eastern African coast. However, the Egyptians were much more cautious sailors than the Phoenicians, Greeks, and other peoples of the Mediterranean, rarely sailing out of sight of land. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Ships and Boats; Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

SHIPS AND BOATS

Boats of the Gods The ancient Mesopotamians built boats to carry statues representing their gods. These boats of the gods ; were generally full-sized vessels with a crew of rowers to propel them over rivers and canals. During religious festivals, the statues of gods made ritual journeys aboard their boats to visit each other. When not being used to carry a god's statue, a boat was stored in a temple dedicated to the deity, and the god's statue and some treasures from the temple might be placed in the boat to display to worshipers. Each boat had a name, and the ves sels were an important part of Mesopotamian culture.

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he peoples of the ancient Near East often relied on water transport to move goods and establish communications over long distances. From an early date, their ships and boats turned the rivers and seas of the region into watery highways.

River Craft. Among the earliest watercraft in Mesopotamia and Egypt were simple reed rafts propelled by paddles or by poles pushed against the bottom of rivers or marshes. The Mesopotamians also used inflated animal skins as flotation devices. The Assyrian king SHAMSHI-ADAD I issued such skins to his soldiers for use in crossing rivers. A Mesopotamian river craft called the kelek combined these two technologies. It consisted of between four and several hundred inflated animal skins fastened together beneath a framework of poles and reeds to form a raft. Well suited to shallows and rapids along rivers, the kelek could float even if several skins were lost or deflated. Cargo-carrying keleks traveled downstream with the current. Once they reached their destination, they were taken apart, the wood was sold, and the skins were carried back upstream for use on future trips. Another early Mesopotamian river craft was a type of coracle, a round, flat-bottomed basket with a frame of twigs and reeds covered with animal hides. Such craft were used by many ancient cultures at different periods. In Mesopotamia, the coracles were paddled or rowed by a crew of two to four men. River craft similar to both keleks and coracles are still used in parts of the Near East today. Boats made from wooden planks were also used on the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER of Mesopotamia and on the NILE RIVER of Egypt. Ancient clay models show that early Mesopotamian wooden vessels had high sides, upturned bows (fronts) and sterns (rears), and deep keels (wooden frameworks running the length of the ship at the base of the hull, or body, of the vessel). These boats were paddled or rowed. Sailboats were rarely used on Mesopotamian rivers because the wind generally blows in the same direction as the currents flow. Early wooden boats in Egypt were shallow vessels with hulls that curved upward at both bow and stern. Unlike their Mesopotamian counterparts, many Egyptian river craft had sails to catch the wind and propel them south on the Nile River against the current. When ships flowed with

Ships and Boats the current on northbound journeys,thesails were lowered,and theboats were paddled or rowed. Early Egyptian sailboatshad asingle tall, narrow sail roughly triangularin shape;byabout B.C.,the2000 sails were squarer. Egyptiancraft usuallyhad a movable cabinofcloth stretched over a wooden framework. Alargeoar at the stern connectedto apole,ortiller, was used to steerthe craft.The shipshad crewsof up to 20men, most of whom were rowers.The recordsof oneship indicate thatitheld between 26 and 40 people, someofwhom were probably passengers. third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

Seagoing Vessels. Scholars know that theMesopotamians sailed on the PersianGulfand ArabianSea asearly as the thirdB.C.*, millennium but no detailed descriptionsoftheir seagoing vessels survive. However, there is ample evidenceof seagoing ships from SYRIA, and ancient Egypt, CANAAN that sailedon the Mediterranean Sea. Although larger than river craft, Egyptian seagoing vessels were similar in many ways. They usedthesametypesofsailsandwere steered by means of three oars (rather thanone)at thestern.Thevessels had athick rope that ranfrom one end of the ship to theother abovethehull, which prevented the bow and stern from sagging when theship passed over large wavesat sea. Seagoing shipsfromSyriaand Canaan were short, wide vessels with broad sailsand wood orreedfencingalongthesidesof thehulltoprevent water from spraying onto the deck. These ships were firstthe tohave crow's nests, or observation platforms mounted high on themasts. The sails on early seagoing vessels could not beadjustedtochange the amount of sail that caughtthe wind.Ifwind conditions required less sail, the crew had to remove the sailentirelyandreplaceitwithasmaller one. Around 1200 B.C., Mediterranean ships begantofitted be withan improved sail designbywhich crews could adjustsize theof thesail using a seriesof ropesand lines. Seagoing sailing ships generally were equipped with oars so thatthey could travel against the wind orwhen thewinds were calm. Such ships became known as galleys. Earlygalleyshad asingleset ofoarsmen who sat inside the ship's hull. Later galleyshad several sets ofoarsmen, one of

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Shulgi

Se color plate 12, ol. 4

which would often be seated on deck. On early Phoenician ships, a row of shields was mounted along the rail to protect the rowers and other crew members on deck. Most seagoing vessels were cargo ships, but ships also became important for military purposes. The earliest naval ships were used solely to transport troops. Naval combat tactics involved sailing close enough to an enemy craft so that soldiers could board it. The soldiers then fought what was essentially a land battle aboard ship. By the 700s B.C., many naval vessels were equipped with rams—metal or wooden projections mounted at the waterline on the bows of ships— which turned the ships into weapons. When a ship was rowed into an enemy vessel at high speed, the ram would strike its hull and open a hole, enabling water to enter and sink the ship or make it inoperable. Shipbuilding Techniques. Because of the importance of ships and boats for trade, transportation, and warfare, shipbuilding became an important industry in the ancient Near East. Almost all ancient wooden ships were constructed using a so-called "shell-first" construction, in which a shipbuilder first laid the keel and then attached planks to it to form the hull. Supporting frames were then placed inside the completed hull. By contrast, modern shipbuilders attach the frame to the keel and then build the hull around it. The planking of ancient ships was held together with a series of mortiseand-tenon joints. These joints consisted of mortises, or notches, cut into the edge of planks and tenons, or pegs, driven into the mortises. Planks set on top of each other were joined by fitting the mortises of one plank over the tenons of another and pounding the planks together with a hammer. Additional wooden pegs were often driven into the joints from inside the hull to lock them firmly in place. When the wooden planks came in contact with water, they expanded, sealing the seams between them. Ancient records show that the Mesopotamians also used a tarlike substance called bitumen to seal the seams between planks. In addition to mortise-and-tenon construction, the planks on some ships were lashed together with ropes or fibers. These ancient designs remained in use for thousands of years. In fact, the basic river craft of ancient times is in use in some parts of the world today. (See also Naval Power; Transportation and Travel.)

SHULGI ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C. King of Ur * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

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hulgi was the son of King UR-NAMMU, founder of the Third Dynasty of the city-state* of UR. As the most important ruler of the dynasty, Shulgi not only expanded his empire but also launched extensive reforms within his kingdom. Shulgi was most likely quite young when he assumed the throne following his father's unexpected death in battle against the Gutians, a group of nomads from the Zagros Mountains region of present-day Iran. The first 20 or so years of his reign were uneventful. However, in his twentieth year as king, he began a massive reorganization of the empire. He divided the lands of southern and northern Babylonia into provinces and placed

Shuppiluliuma I

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

SHUPPILULIUMA I ruled ca. 1370-1330 B.C. Hittite king

vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

them under the control of members of the local elite. To ensure central control, he also assigned a military commander to each province. Areas outside the ''core" provinces were settled and run by military officers. Both the core and the outer areas paid taxes consisting of agricultural goods, livestock, and other items of value. These goods were then redistributed to the royal household, temples, and other provinces as needed. Shulgi also established schools to standardize the training of scribes* and other royal officials. He created a uniform system of weights and measures and a new calendar. About halfway through his reign, Shulgi declared himself a god. He then built a large standing army and used it to greatly expand the empire into present-day southwestern Iran. During Shulgi's nearly 50-year reign, Ur became the dominant power in MESOPOTAMIA. After his death, Shulgi was succeeded by his sons Amar-Sin, then Shu-Sin. It was not long after the deaths of these two rulers that the Third Dynasty of Ur finally collapsed during an Elamite invasion. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

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huppiluliuma I (suh»pi»loo«lee»l>mah) was the son of the HITTITE king Tudkhaliya III. A skillful military leader, Shuppiluliuma strengthened the Hittite kingdom in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), used his skills to expand his territory, and founded the Hittite empire. In the early 1300s B.C., Shuppiluliuma served as a general in his father's army during campaigns against Mittani, a HURRIAN kingdom in northern SYRIA. Although the campaigns were largely unsuccessful, Shuppiluliuma gained several minor victories, which earned him a reputation as a leader. When Tudkhaliya died, senior officials murdered his successor, enabling Shuppiluliuma to take the throne. During the early years of his reign, Shuppiluliuma focused on securing his position, consolidating the kingdom, and establishing a hold on territories to the north and west. Thereafter, he turned his attention to Mitanni. He led his armies as far south as the Lebanon Mountains and subdued several Mitannian territories in Syria. Later he conquered the city of KARKAMISH, an important trade center on the western bank of the Euphrates River. This was a final defeat for Mitanni, which then became a Hittite vassal*. During his expeditions into Syria, Shuppiluliuma came into conflict with the Egyptians, who had vassals and allies there. However, to Shuppiluliuma's surprise, the widow of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN asked him to send one of his sons to marry her and become Egypt's ruler. When presented with the opportunity to take over his main rival and become the leading power in the Near East, Shuppiluliuma hesitated, thinking the message was a trick. When the Egyptian queen confirmed that the offer was real, Shuppiluliuma sent a son to Egypt to be pharaoh*. However, his son was murdered on his journey, probably by Egyptians opposed to a foreign leader, and Shuppiluliuma lost the chance to expand his territory into Egypt. Shuppiluliuma sent his troops to subdue minor uprisings in Syria and Anatolia. He also sent an expedition to face Egyptian troops to the south. There the Hittites emerged victorious, but in the end, the campaign was a

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disaster because the Egyptian prisoners brought a plague into Hittite territory. The plague killed both Shuppiluliuma and his son and successor. Thereafter, Shuppiluliuma's younger son, Murshili II, inherited the throne. The Hittite empire survived until the late 1200s B.C., when it fell after years of unrest and an invasion.

SlDON * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Siege Warfare

Silver

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idon (SY*duhn) was a city-state* in ancient Phoenicia. The presentday city of Saida still exists on the site. It is located on the Mediterranean coast about 27 miles south of present-day Beirut, Lebanon. It is believed that the name Sidon is derived from the Semitic* word sayd, which means "fishing." Founded sometime between 3000 and 2001 B.C., Sidon, along with the other Phoenician city-states of TYRE and BYBLOS, soon became a successful trading and manufacturing city. Starting in the 600s B.C., Sidon was a vassal* to several ancient Near Eastern empires, including Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. After the Persian empire fell in 330 B.C., the city was ruled by the Macedonian king ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, and the Roman Empire. Sidon is perhaps best known for its famous purple dye, which was extracted from mollusks, a type of shellfish. In fact, a huge mound of these shells can still be found south of the city. Archeologists* believe that this was where ancient dye manufacturers dumped the shells after the dye had been removed. Archeologists have found very little evidence of the ancient city because the modern city still exists on top of it. However, an elaborate cemetery containing sarcophagi* from the Phoenician period has been discovered. Also, a temple dedicated to Eshmun—the Phoenician god of healing—has been uncovered. By far the most famous archeological discovery from Sidon is the Alexander Sarcophagus, apparently carved for Alexander's vassal king in Sidon. The reliefs* on the stone sarcophagus show Alexander hunting and fishing. (See also Cities and City-States; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

See Wars and Warfare.

See Metals and Metalworking.

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ccording to the Hebrew BIBLE, Mount Sinai was where the Hebrew god YAHWEH revealed the set of laws known as the TEN COMMANDMENTS to MOSES. In addition, Moses received numerous other laws and instructions from Yahweh concerning the priesthood and rules for worship, celebration, and sacrifices. Mount Sinai is also where the Israelites entered into their covenant, or solemn agreement, with Yahweh. The Israelites

Slaves and Slavery exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

SINAI PENINSULA archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

See map on inside covers.

SLAVES AND SLAVERY

agreed to obey Yahweh's laws and worship him as their only God. Moses and the Israelites came to Mount Sinai during the period of their exodus* from Egypt to CANAAN. The first reference to Mount Sinai occurs in the Book of Exodus, where the mountain is called Mount Horeb. Its exact location is unknown. Beginning in the A.D. 300s, Christian tradition has identified Mount Sinai with a mountain known in Arabic as Jebel Musa (Mountain of Moses). It is located in the southern SINAI PENINSULA between the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. This location for Mount Sinai is accepted not only by followers of Judaism but also by those who follow Islam and Christianity. Some modern scholars have proposed other possible locations for Mount Sinai, including sites in Arabia and mountains in the Sinai peninsula but closer to the Mediterranean Sea. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews.)

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he Sinai peninsula is a triangle-shaped landmass that lies between Egypt and present-day Israel. The southern part of the peninsula is bordered by the Gulf of Suez on the west and the Gulf of Aqaba on the east. These two bodies of water meet at the southern tip of the peninsula, in the RED SEA. To the north, the peninsula is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Archaeologists* have found evidence of seasonal campsites in the Sinai peninsula dating from prehistoric times. However, the earliest written information about the region comes from Egyptian texts that date from about 3000 B.C. These texts describe Egyptian expeditions that went to the region in search of copper and turquoise. Later the northern Sinai was an important trade route between Egypt and the rest of the ancient Near East. The region was controlled at various times by the Egyptians and later by the Assyrians, Persians, Nabataeans, and Romans. Many of these civilizations established trading posts in the region. The Sinai is most famous, however, because of references to it in the Hebrew BIBLE. According to the Bible, the Israelites crossed the Sinai peninsula during their exodus* from Egypt to CANAAN. The Sinai is also famous as the site at which the Hebrew god YAHWEH gave MOSES the TEN COMMANDMENTS. Although most scholars do not doubt that the Israelites traveled across the region, no one knows the route they took or on what mountain Moses received the commandments. However, most Christians, Jews, and Muslims believe that the Israelites traveled through the southern part of the peninsula and that Moses received the commandments on Mount Sinai. (See also Sinai, Mount.)

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laves and slavery existed throughout the ancient Near East, although their conditions varied. The ancient attitude toward slavery was quite different from that of today, in which it is condemned as a violation of human rights. The concept of human rights was unknown to the ancients, who accepted slavery as a natural part of an existence in which no one was completely free of control by the gods, kings, the state, temples, the elite, or a social class above one's own. Although the fate of

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Slaves and Slavery

* serf peasant required to work land that he lives on but does not own

* commodity article of trade

* literacy ability to read and write

indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

slaves was often considered unfortunate, there was little outcry against slavery on moral grounds. The distinction between free and unfree seems clear today, but the boundaries between slaves, serfs*, and SERVANTS were often blurred in ancient times. Many slaves were foreigners captured in war or raids. Others were citizens of a state who had become slaves because of debt or crime. Some individuals even sold themselves into slavery—perhaps for a limited time—when they could not pay their debts. A parent could sell a child into slavery, and many parents did so. The definition of a slave in ancient times was that he or she was property that could be bought or sold much like any other commodity*. Slavery did not play a significant economic role in any Near Eastern culture. Slave populations were not immense, partly because most Near Eastern cultures did not have the resources to buy and guard them. Outside the palaces, even the richest households probably did not own more than 15 slaves, and 1 to 5 slaves in a household was more common. Slaves tended to be used for indoor or craft work rather than for agricultural labor because it was too easy for them to run away while working in the fields. The life of a slave was not necessarily miserable, although the majority of slaves probably led difficult lives. Some slaves, especially those with valuable skills, such as literacy* or knowledge of MEDICINE, gained wealth and status. In some circumstances, slaves could marry, raise families, and gain their freedom. Some acquired political power as advisers to kings and queens. However, this was not the case with most slaves. Mesopotamia. Slaves were part of Mesopotamian society, although their numbers and economic importance were less in earlier periods than during the Greek and Roman eras. Most slaves were originally prisoners of war. They wore special haircuts, tattoos, or brands to distinguish them from free people. A significant number of slaves were not foreigners but indigenous* residents forced into slavery by economic misfortune, such as debt or poverty. Sometimes such slaves were freed by royal decrees that canceled all private debts. Most slave owners in Mesopotamia were upper-class families who used their slaves in domestic service. Skilled slaves might either work at crafts for their masters or be hired out for profit. Slave owners sometimes entrusted their slaves with managing estates or operating businesses. Successful or talented slaves belonging to wealthy families might even have been allowed to accumulate their own wealth and spend or invest as they wished. It was not uncommon for slave owners to give slaves their freedom, and some freed slaves were adopted into the families of their former masters. Female slaves might have borne children to either freemen or slaves, but all such children became the property of their mothers' owners. Some childless slave owners adopted their slaves' children. Egypt. The lowest social class in ancient Egypt consisted of slaves who worked on royal building projects, in private workshops, and as domestic servants. Slavery was rare in Egypt between about 2700 and 1500 B.C., but it increased significantly after that period.

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* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Carried Into Slavery An Egyptian text—possibly simply a boastful inscription— j paints a woeful picture of the fate of war captives: / have brought back in great numbers those that my $word has spared, with their hands tied behind their backs before my horses, and their wives and children in tens of thousands. ,,. / have imprisoned their leaders in fortresses bearing my name, and I have added to them chief archers and tribal chiefs, branded and enslaved, tattooed with my name, and their wives and children have been treated the same way.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

Foreign slaves entered Egypt through a private slave trade, and some Egyptians sold themselves into slavery. Most slaves, however, were foreign captives, either soldiers taken prisoner in battle or civilians seized during raids of foreign territory. One Egyptian king, Sneferu, claimed to have brought back 7,000 captives from the land of Nubia, south of Egypt. On various occasions, Egyptians raided the deserts west of the Nile River and brought back LIBYANS to serve as slaves. Egypt's kings did not hesitate to uproot large groups of people under the system of slavery. For example, King RAMSES II sent Nubians to work in the Levant* and Asians to Nubia. The biblical story of the captivity of the Israelites in Egypt and their forced labor is an example of such a policy. Slaves often labored in Egyptian mines and quarries and helped construct the PYRAMIDS, tombs, and temples connected with royal burial sites. Although many slaves toiled in dreadful conditions, those lucky enough to become domestic slaves had better lives, sometimes becoming trusted family servants. The king controlled all foreign prisoners and could decide to "give" them to individuals. Citizens could also buy slaves from traders. The Egyptian legal system gave slaves some rights. For example, owners did not have a legal right to have sexual intercourse with their slaves, although many undoubtedly did so. However, children born to slaves out of these relations belonged to the slave owners. Hittite Anatolia. The HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) bought and sold slaves just like other commodities. One ancient text lists the price of a slave artisan (such as a potter, carpenter, or weaver) as ten shekels of silver, about what it cost to keep a slave alive during a year of famine*. Some wealthy slave owners probably trained their slaves as skilled craft workers, which increased their usefulness and worth. Hittite law spelled out the rights and obligations of slaves. For example, runaway slaves could be captured and returned to their masters even if they fled to another country. Slaves could marry free people, but the free individuals became slaves for as long as the marriage lasted. Like free people, slaves could collect damages for personal injuries, but unlike free individuals, slaves were not exempt from physical punishments for certain offenses. For example, a slave caught breaking into a free person's house would have his nose and ears slashed and possibly removed. Hittite law ordered an especially gruesome death for any slave who attacked his master. Israel. The ancient Israelites developed a complex system of rules to define and govern slaves, most of whom worked for private households rather than for the state. They divided slaves into Israelites and non-Israelites. Non-Israelite slaves were either war captives or people who had sold themselves into slavery (or had been sold by others) because of debt. Such slaves were considered property to be sold and inherited. Like some non-Israelites, Israelites also sold themselves into slavery to pay off debt. These individuals were often more like hired servants than slaves, and they generally were supposed to serve for only a set number of years. When masters treated Israelite slaves more harshly than the law allowed, the slaves and their free relatives sometimes rebelled. The treatment 87

Social Institutions of slaves occasionally led to crises involving the king, the wealthy and powerful masters, and the angry slaves. (See also Eunuchs; Labor and Laborers; Property and Property Rights; Wars and Warfare.)

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

P

eople who live together develop rules that define their rights and responsibilities and determine how they will interact with one another. In every society of the ancient Near East, people existed within a framework, or institutions, that both supported and limited their individual actions. Some of these institutions were direct expressions of RELIGION, GOVERNMENT, and LAW. Others involved the structure of society and aspects of social and private life. Mesopotamia. The social institutions of the Sumerians and Akkadians who lived in towns and cities of ancient MESOPOTAMIA were based on an urban way of life. City dwellers identified more strongly with the communities where they lived than with relatives by blood or MARRIAGE. The nomads* or partly nomadic livestock herders who lived outside urban areas, however, placed greater importance on clan* and kinship. In the late second millennium B.C.*, many cities began to shrink in size, and villages became the typical settlements. People again began to identify more strongly with tribes or clans. Mesopotamia was a class-based society. While most people were free, each class had obligations and duties to family, community, and state. The property-owning elite held positions in government, palace administration, military leadership, trade, or the priesthood. One could enter these ranks by birth or by appointment. Other free people who did not own property might work as crafts workers or hired agricultural laborers, for whom there was always a demand. A class called subordinates lived on and worked lands owned by the king. Most slaves were foreign prisoners of war, although Mesopotamians could sell themselves into slavery if they fell into debt. Justice was one of the fundamental ideas around which Mesopotamian society was organized. Kings presented themselves as serving the gods by enforcing justice and ensuring fairness under the law. They published laws indicating that justice was a public matter, not something left to the whims of kings. Closely linked to justice was religion. In fact, judges often held hearings and swore oaths in a temple. In all classes, from kings to peasants, social institutions reflected the idea that a divine order operated in the universe. Egypt. The basic social unit of ancient Egyptian society was the nuclear family consisting of parents and children rather than the extended family or clan. One sign of the focus on the nuclear family was that the words for father, mother, brother, and sister were the most common terms for other relationships both inside and outside the family. For example, a student might address his teacher as "Father." Egyptians lived in communities that varied in size from small villages to large cities. Privacy and individuality—prized by many modern

88

Social Institutions

The Wisdom of Experience The Instruction of Ptahhotep, an Egyptian text written in the 2400$ s»c, reflects the importance that Egyptians placed on values and social institutions. In the text, an of* r ficial asks the king's permission to write instructions on proper con\ duct for the son who will succee him in his post May this servant be ordered to make a staff of old age, So as to tetl him the words of those wfto heard, The ways of the ancestors, Who have listened to the gods. May such be done for you, So that strife may be banned from the people, And the Two Shores may serve you!

* commodity article of trade

provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

societies—had little place in the culture and everyday life of ancient Egypt. Not only did crowded living quarters offer little physical privacy for most people, but individuals also were generally defined by their roles in larger family and communal groups, such as people working together at the same task. Egyptian society was divided into three main traditional classes. The nobility consisted of the elite members of the priesthood, the government administration, and the upper ranks of the army. Most members of this class, which probably accounted for less than 5 percent of the total population, were born into it. Commoners called citizens were ordinary free people. Within this large social group, special terms identified individuals who worked on royal, temple, and nonroyal estates. The unfree class included both slaves and peasants compelled to work on land they did not own. The great majority of Egyptians, whether free or unfree, were farmers. Many social institutions and values of ancient Egyptian culture stemmed from the fact that Egypt was a theocracy—a state in which the government was run by people believed to be guided by or descended from the gods. Whether in temple worship, religious festivals, or public ceremonies, religion played a major role in the lives of people in all social classes. Although Egyptians were united in their devotion to religion, Egypt was an ethnically diverse society. Foreigners frequently entered Egypt and absorbed its culture. Some even rose to high positions in the elite class of society. Hittite Anatolia. Like most other ancient Near Eastern peoples, the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) lived in a state based on kingship. The king was not only the head of government but also the chief priest of the national religion. As the main link between the human and divine worlds, the king was responsible for organizing his people to defend and work the land for the benefit of the gods, who depended on the toil of their human servants. These principles were the basis of Hittite government, law, and religion. The highest level of Hittite society consisted of the "Great Family"— the king and his extended family. Most major offices of the state were held by individuals from this group. Many members of the landowning elite class belonged to the "Great Family" and had some relationship to the king. Those members of the elite outside the royal family belonged to the upper class simply because they were rich and powerful. The basis of wealth in Hittite society was always land and livestock. Wealthy individuals sometimes paid for entire religious festivals or built, furnished, and staffed village temples. The lowest rank in Hittite society consisted of slaves, who were bought and sold as commodities*. While many individuals were enslaved for life, some entered into slavery or servitude for a specific period of time in order to pay off debts. Occasionally, rulers demonstrated their godliness by releasing their subjects from debt slavery. Much of the Hittite population lived in the countryside and worked in AGRICULTURE. These people had to deliver part of their produce to their provincial* governments, which passed it on to the central state authority. 89

Social Institutions The central government used these goods to maintain the people who lived and worked within its sphere, to support activities that strengthened royal power (such as military campaigns or the building of palaces), and to distribute to subjects in times of need. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower rank

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* aristocrat member of the privileged upper class

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The Canaanites and Israelites. The Canaanites and Israelites were neighbors in the Levant*. Their cultures were similar in many respects, and they shared some social institutions. Both groups divided society into indigenous* inhabitants and foreigners. In Israel, however, there were further categories, such as resident aliens—foreigners who had settled in Israel but were not full citizens. The Israelites also made careful distinctions between free people and slaves. The king and his bureaucracy* formed the highest level of society in the Levant. In Israel, the king was thought to have been appointed by Yahweh as the shepherd of the people. Although kings were supposed to promote the stability of society, kingship sometimes disrupted social institutions. For example, the establishment of monarchies and the execution of state projects required a central authority to control all resources that had previously been controlled by kinship groups. Still, tribal and clan identity remained very important in Israelite society. People identified themselves first as Israelites, second as members of 1 of 12 tribes, and third as belonging to a clan or extended family called the Father's House. Members of a clan had certain responsibilities toward each other, including avenging murders and buying back land and clan members sold into slavery because of debt. Both the Canaanites and the Israelites had complex hierarchies* of priests. In Israel, where priests inherited their positions, the structure of the priesthood was thought to mirror the structure of society, with some groups having higher status than others. Status was reflected in such matters as how far into the temple a member of a particular class would be allowed to enter. Yet Israelite religion was never fixed or unified. Different priestly groups often disagreed on practices and organizational principles. Iran. Much of what is known about the ancient PERSIAN EMPIRE centered in IRAN comes from the writings of the Greek historian HERODOTUS. According to Herodotus, Persian society was divided into tribes of nomads and tribes of farmers. Within each of these categories, some tribes had higher status than others. Tribes were further subdivided into clans. One group in Persian society, the Magians, consisted of specialists in cult* rituals. As with a clan or tribe, status as a Magian was hereditary. Persian society was also described in economic terms. The Persian king DARIUS III referred to the powerful and the poor, and he considered himself the peacemaker between the two groups. The powerful were aristocrats*, while the poor were free peasants. Within each category were various subcategories and status rankings. There was also a class of people called kurtash, whose status was close to that of slaves. The kurtash were workers from many parts of the empire who toiled on royal lands and in royal workshops. The parental authority of fathers set the tone for Persian family life. Families worked together, shared high offices, and passed privileges from

Soldiers generation to generation, but family members could also be punished for another member's crime. Despite such family closeness, young men of the noble class generally spent the time between ages 5 and 20 undergoing tough physical and moral training organized by the king's men. The goal of this training was to make them worthy and faithful subjects of the king. Persian social values are well expressed in two terms: aria, which meant justice and truth, and drauga, a lie. In religious terms, aria meant worship of the god AHURA MAZDA. In political terms, it meant loyalty to the king. In moral terms, it meant honorable behavior. All these values were intertwined in the Persian understanding of religious, state, and social institutions. Woven together from laws, rules, customs, and preferences, social institutions of Near Eastern societies gave daily life in each culture its distinctive flavor. (See also Education; Family and Social Life; Priests and Priestesses; Slaves and Slavery; Women, Role of.)

SOLDIERS * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

T

he fates of cities, states, and empires in the ancient Near East were determined in part by their ARMIES. The soldiers who served in these armies ranged from peasants to highly trained and specialized professional troops. While top-ranking officers in Near Eastern armies could achieve wealth, power, and prestige, most ordinary soldiers fared less splendidly. Military service could offer security, but it also offered hardship, discomfort, and danger. An Egyptian scribe* knew well the potentially rough life of the army when he described an infantryman, or common foot soldier, as the "much tormented one" who marches over hills, carries his rations on his shoulders, drinks foul-tasting water, and after facing the enemy in battle is lucky to return to Egypt "full of sickness'' and tied to the back of a donkey.

Fighting on Demand. The first armies of the Near East existed only when needed. They consisted of people who came together to fight in a specific campaign, either to defend their homeland or to wage war on foreign soil. These soldiers were either volunteers or citizens required to provide military service to leaders and who therefore had no choice about fighting. In some cases, they were mercenaries—paid soldiers who fought not out of loyalty to king or country but for payment in cash, goods, or items they plundered*. In MESOPOTAMIA during the third millennium B.C.*, armies grew larger and better organized. One image from the city of LAGASH, dating from about 2500 B.C., portrays a tightly formed phalanx, or rectangular-shaped formation, of foot soldiers with overlapping spears. Such an orderly formation suggests a trained and disciplined fighting force. For the most part, however, being a soldier was not a full-time profession in Mesopotamia. The terms used to refer to soldiers came from words that described their peacetime activities, such as fisherman, animal herder, or civic official. Many workers had the right to farm state-owned land and to keep a share of the produce, but that right also imposed a certain number of days of military duty.

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Soldiers

A Soldier's Promise When soldiers joined the Hittite army they took an oath. They swore to be loyal, fearing dreadful curses if they were not:

As this wax melts and fat fries, so may he who breaks the oath and deceives the Hitttte king melt like wax and fry like fat... Whoever breaks these oaths and does evil to the king and the queen and the royal princes, let these oathgods change him from a man into a woman See the man who previously took his oath before the gods and then broke it. The oath-gods seized him. His innards are swollen May the oath-gods seize whoever breaks these oaths.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

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The earliest recorded Egyptian soldiers were local followers of nobles or officials who fought in time of need. However, as early as the third millennium B.C., the Egyptians preferred to have others do their fighting for them. Their armed forces consisted of captured opponents who were made to fight for Egypt and of hired mercenaries. In early times, soldiers from the region of Nubia south of Egypt comprised a significant portion of the Egyptian army. Nubians remained an important element in Egyptian armies throughout ancient times. Professional Soldiers. During the second millennium B.C.*, warfare in the Near East became more international, and a new kind of fighting force appeared in various Near Eastern states to meet the needs of such conflict. This was the permanent, standing army. The rise of such armies marked the appearance of full-time professional soldiers. The rise of professional soldiers was accompanied by increasing differentiation in rank and function. New levels of officers formed a chain of command between the kings who led the armies and the soldiers who did most of the fighting. Moreover, groups of people within the armies began to specialize in certain types of fighting. In northern Mesopotamia, for example, a chariot-owning aristocracy arose. Charioteers were based in palace lands, and the titles of their officers were identical to those of the court officials. Training and equipping the chariotry was time-consuming and expensive, and the position of charioteer became hereditary, passing from father to son. Another specialized group was the royal bodyguard, called by a name meaning "men at the king's feet." Other members included archers who used the bow and arrow, shield bearers, engineers who designed and built FORTIFICATIONS and equipment for sieges*, and horsemen who served as messengers and later on the battlefield as CAVALRY. All armies contained large numbers of infantrymen, the backbone of the fighting forces. Professional soldiers might have received pay, goods, or small plots of land in return for their service. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) maintained an army of professional soldiers who campaigned from spring through fall. They spent the winter in quarters, where they were fed by the government and expected to be ready to march at a moment's notice. If the enemy was a major power or if the Hittites faced several conflicts simultaneously, the king would draft additional soldiers from the general population. The king also had agreements with semi-independent outlying districts to supply soldiers and junior officers for the army. Small units of such men were stationed at key points throughout the empire, generally far from their own homes. The Hittites also encouraged their allies to contribute soldiers to their army, and states that paid tribute* were often required to provide troops as well. During the years from 1000 to 500 B.C., Assyrian professional soldiers established themselves as a highly organized and fierce fighting force. They used new technologies to improve their weapons and armor, chariots, and horse riding equipment. These advances enabled them to successfully expand their empire. Assyrian soldiers were cruel in dealing with their prisoners of war, many of whom were killed, blinded, or mutilated to set an example for other potential Assyrian enemies. Although much

Solomon

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

SOLOMON ruled ca. 960-932 B.C. King of Israel prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

* concubine mistress to a married man

frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

of the information about the Assyrians' treatment of enemies comes from exaggerated accounts in Assyrian royal INSCRIPTIONS, historians believe the Assyrian army was especially fearsome in the ancient Near East. A permanent, professional army came into existence in Egypt between about 1500 and 1000 B.C. It included two combat forces, the infantry and the chariotry. Soldiers from western Asia, Nubia, and Libya appear in various WALL PAINTINGS from that period, proving that the Egyptians continued to use foreign soldiers whenever possible. Although foreign-born mercenaries probably fought in all or most ancient Near Eastern armies, they were especially numerous in Egyptian forces. After about 664 B.C., mercenaries from Greece and from Caria in western Anatolia arrived in Egypt to serve as soldiers of fortune. Their military skills made these mercenaries an important element in the Egyptian army that resisted the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. The Carians became so numerous that a Carian colony took root around the Egyptian city of MEMPHIS. The Greek historian HERODOTUS, who may have been part Carian, left a description of the achievements of Carian and Greek mercenaries who fought in the Levant*, Mesopotamia, and Persia as well as in Egypt. Jewish mercenaries also may have served in Egyptian armies. The Persians were known to have employed Jewish soldiers as well. When the Persians conquered Egypt in 525 B.C., they established a base of Jewish troops at the Egyptian city of Elephantine, which marked the southern frontier of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Herodotus also wrote that the Persian army often used large numbers of foreign captives as soldiers. He maintained that these foreigners were driven into battle, ahead of the regular Persian troops, by Persians using whips. (See also Caria and the Carians; Chariots; Libyans; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Armor.)

K

ing Solomon is among the most famous of the ancient kings of Israel. Solomon was the son of King DAVID, who united the 12 Israelite tribes and their territories into the kingdom of Israel around 1000 B.C. Almost all that is known of Solomon's life and reign comes from the Hebrew BIBLE. There is no mention of Solomon, David, or Israel in any sources surviving from their own time. Although he was not David's oldest son, Solomon rose to the throne largely through the efforts of his mother, Bathsheba, and a prophet* called Nathan. Once he became king, Solomon eliminated his opponents and placed men loyal to him in important positions in the military, the government, and the temples. Solomon also gained stability and power through his marriages. The Bible reports that he had 700 wives and 300 concubines*. Although these numbers are almost certainly exaggerated, it is probable that he made alliances with a number of powerful leaders of the Near East by marrying their female relatives. One of the famous women with whom Solomon was connected was the queen of Sheba. Sheba was probably a kingdom in southern Arabia that was rich with gold and frankincense and myrrh*. Later legends suggest that the queen and Solomon may have had a child together. 93

Sphinx

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

SPHINX

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

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Whether or not this was true, the two leaders had powerful political reasons to work together. Solomon wanted Sheba's products and needed to be able to use trade routes through the queen's land. In turn, the queen of Sheba needed Israel's ports and merchants. In addition to marriage and diplomacy*, Solomon also used forced labor to develop the wealth of his kingdom. He continued to improve Israel's military, which had already been strengthened by his father. Solomon fortified cities and towns on important trade routes and made changes within Israel. He divided the territory of Israel into 12 administrative regions. Each region was responsible for providing taxes and organizing labor forces to support the central government. Solomon put the money and labor force to use when he began building his palace and the famous Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which became the Israelites' religious center. The men of Israel were required to work for the government for one out of every three months in order to finish these huge projects. Solomon is famous for his wisdom and goodness. He is credited with writing the Books of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon in the Hebrew Bible. He is traditionally said to have written many other proverbs and songs. However, most of the sections of the Bible that are credited to him were probably not written by him. Solomon's son and successor, Rehoboam, not did achieve the amount of success his father had. This was due in part to events that had occurred during Solomon's reign. Solomon had spent much of his country's wealth and may also have angered the people of the northern Israelite tribes by favoring those in the south. These conditions made it difficult for Rehoboam, who only made matters worse when he treated the northern tribes even more severely. As a result, the northern tribes rebelled and formed their own kingdom, which they called Israel. The southern kingdom then became known as Judah, which was the name of Solomon's tribe. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Kings.)

T

he sphinx (SFINKS) is an ancient mythical being with the body of an animal—usually a lion, but sometimes a ram or a hawk—and the head of a man, who may wear a royal head cloth. The word sphinx probably comes from the Egyptian term shesep ankh, which means "living image." Some language scholars believe that the term derives from the Greek word sphinx, which means "strangler," but others doubt that the mythical figure of the sphinx is related to this term. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make stone statues of sphinxes, which they associated with both the king and the god Amun. The most famous sphinx in the world is the Great Sphinx located near the PYRAMIDS at GIZA. With the body of a lion and the head of a king, the Great Sphinx is thought to represent the Fourth Dynasty ruler Khufu, who ruled Egypt from around 2585 to 2560 B.C. However, some Egyptologists* believe that the face of the sphinx is that of Chephren, Khufu's son. The Great Sphinx is more than 240 feet long and about 65 feet high. It has been covered by the sands of the SAHARA DESERT many times in its

Stamp Seals The Great Sphinx at Giza, shown here, is the most famous example of a sphinx. Another famous, although imaginary, sphinx exists in Greek mythology. According to the myth, the people of the Greek city of Thebes were being terrorized by a sphinx who posed a riddle to all passersby and devoured those who were unable to answer. When Prince Oedipus arrived in Thebes, he defeated the sphinx by answering correctly.

See [color plate 14, ] vol. 4.

funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Stamp Seals

long life. It has also been repaired several times over the centuries. As it stands today, the Great Sphinx is missing its nose, beard, and part of its crown. It continues to be worn down by erosion and pollution, but efforts are being made to protect the great statue. Some Egyptian sphinxes, such as those at the Temple of Amun at KARNAK, do not have human heads. The temple is guarded by rows of sphinxes with the heads of rams. A sphinx at the funerary* temple of Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353) was given the tail of a crocodile. Whatever animals they incorporated, Egyptian sphinxes were usually male. Even when a female pharaoh* such as Queen HATSHEPSUT was depicted as a sphinx, she was in her male role as king. The first female sphinxes were depicted in the 1400s B.C., outside Egypt. From Egypt, the idea of the sphinx traveled to other parts of the ancient Near East, including the Levant*, Anatolia, Greece, and Mesopotamia. In the Levant and Greece, the lion's body of the sphinx was often given wings. In Greek mythology, sphinxes played important parts in the tales of Oedipus and Perseus. Sphinxes did not appear in Mesopotamia until the 1500s B.C., when they were imported from the Levant. (See also Animals in Art; Human Form in Art.)

See Seals.

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Stars

STARS

* constellation group of stars that is thought to resemble, and is named after, an object, animal, or mythological character * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

L

ong before the establishment of the first settled civilizations, people looked in wonder at the night sky and attempted to understand the meaning of the stars they saw. By around 3000 B.C., the founders of the first cities in MESOPOTAMIA had probably acquired a basic knowledge of astronomy. However, the first recorded systematic observations of the night sky did not occur until after 1800 B.C. These observations were tied to the Mesopotamian religious belief that events in the heavens directly affected events on earth. The Mesopotamians believed that they could determine what would happen on earth by interpreting the signs they saw in the sky. Although knowledge of the stars was originally used to predict the future, it later came to exert a powerful influence over the development of CALENDARS and timekeeping in the Near East. The Stars and Fate. As early as 3000 B.C., the Babylonians had begun to combine careful observation of the sky with the prediction of earthly occurrences. Thus, in Babylonia, there was no difference between astronomy and astrology. Those who recorded the movements of the stars and PLANETS also interpreted their significance to human affairs. At first, the signs they saw in the heavens were believed only to be related to the welfare of the state or its ruler. Examples of this can be found in a series of tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil, the oldest of which date to before 1200 B.C. One tablet states that if the constellation* Aries is faint, misery or misfortune will befall the king of Subartu. Other predictions relate the color or appearance of certain stars to weather phenomena, peace or war, or the rise and fall of dynasties*. As astronomical observation became more sophisticated, Mesopotamian astrologers and astronomers refined their system of prediction. By noting the position of constellations throughout the night, they developed the ZODIAC, which divided the sky into 12 equal portions, or houses. Each house was named for the constellation that occupied it. Astrologers began to base their predictions on the arrangement of the planets within each of the houses of the zodiac at a particular date and time. This ultimately led to the casting of individual horoscopes, which related a person's fate to the position of the stars and planets at the time of his or her birth. The observational records used to make these predictions formed the basis of all later scientific astronomy. Calendars and Timekeeping. Stargazing had practical as well as religious significance to Near Eastern cultures. All civilizations at this time used a calendar based on the phases of the moon, because the time between one full moon and the next is constant. However, 12 lunar months of 29.5 days produce a lunar year of only 354 days instead of the 365-day solar year. This was a problem for agricultural societies, which needed to be able to predict when the planting season began each year. Because they could not calculate this using a lunar calendar, the Egyptians solved the problem through observation of the star Sirius. In ancient Egypt, there were three basic agricultural seasons of approximately four lunar months each. The first season began when the NILE RIVER started to rise and flood the surrounding land. The second season began when the waters had receded enough to allow planting, and the final

96

Stone season lasted from the harvest to the beginning of the next flood. The Egyptians noted that, for part of the year, Sirius was aligned with the SUN and was invisible. However, shortly before the beginning of the annual flood, Sirius became visible just before sunrise. They used this event— called the heliacal rising of Sirius—to mark the beginning of their new year. By counting the days between heliacal risings of Sirius, they determined the length of a solar year to be 365 days. They then divided the year into 12 equal months of 30 days, with 5 extra days added between the end of one year and the beginning of the next. With this solar calendar, they could accurately predict the cycle of the seasons. Using other stars that rise heliacally as Sirius does, the Egyptians created star clocks to measure time at night. They divided each month into three 10-day periods called decades. They then identified which stars or constellations rose heliacally on the first day of each decade as well as 11 others that rose after the first one and passed across the sky from sundown to sunrise. These observations allowed the Egyptians to divide the night into 12 units of time. If one looked at the sky and noted how many of these stars or constellations were visible, one could determine how much of the night had passed. Because nights are longer in winter and shorter in summer, the Egyptians eventually had to calculate the total hours of daylight and darkness in different months. However, these calculations always assumed there were 24 hours in a day. This was the origin of the 24-hour day, divided into two 12-hour periods. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Oracles and Prophecy; Science and Technology.)

STONE relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background artisan skilled craftsperson quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

S

tone was one of the most widely used materials in the ancient Near East. It was among the primary BUILDING MATERIALS in most Near Eastern societies, especially in monumental ARCHITECTURE. A great deal of the SCULPTURE of the region—both relief* and sculpture in the round—was executed in stone, and artisans* in many societies produced magnificently crafted stone vessels, such as cups, bowls, and vases. Stone was also extensively employed in the manufacture of certain TOOLS, even after metals such as bronze and iron came into widespread use.

Building in Stone. The cultures of the Near East relied on stone to construct their walls and buildings. Before organized societies began to quarry* specific types of stone, people used loose rocks known as fieldstones for building. These were obtained from blocks that had broken off from cliffs or boulders and had become exposed when a river or stream dried up. Small rocks and mud were used to fill spaces between the uncut stones to make the structures sturdy. The rise of centralized urban cultures around 3000 B.C. made it possible to assemble workers to exploit stone resources in a more systematic way. The Egyptians were probably the first to master these skills. Well before 2500 B.C., Egyptian stonemasons had learned how to cut massive blocks of even the hardest stone and transport them over many miles to building sites. In Mesopotamia, blocks of stone were cut after being quarried to 97

Stone

mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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make transportationand handling easier. However, because of thescarcity of stone in Mesopotamia, especiallyin the south, stones were only used for the bases of walls that were regularly madeof mudbrick*. Stone construction took several different forms. Many structures, such as thePYRAMIDSof Egypt, were built with a core of rough, unfinished stone of poorer quality thatwas then covered witha casing finely of worked blocks of granite or limestone. Some city walls consisted entirely of dressed stone, or stones whose edges werecut sosmoothly that they could be fitted together very preciselyand requiredno mortar to hold them together. Moreoften, however, walls were constructed from rubble and uncut rock, supportedat intervalsby piersofpreciselycut and dressed stones. Often thin slabsof finished stone called orthostats were usedto coverthe lower portion of walls madeof rubble or mud bricks. Stone Sculpture and Vessels. Besides its practical use as abuilding material, stone was afavorite mediumfor sculptorsand artisansin the ancient NearEast.The Egyptians fashioned many colossal figuresand obelisks (tall,four-sided shaftsof stone that taperat the top to apyramidal point)from stone, a large numberof which have survived intomodern times. Many buildings throughout the Near East incorporated stone relief sculpture as partof their decoration. Sometimes sculptors would combine relief and sculpturein the roundin the same GATESpiece. Forexample, the of the city KHATTUSHA of ANATOLIA in (present-day Turkey) fig- feature lion ures whose bodies are carvedin reliefbut whose headsand front paws emergefrom the wallin three dimensions.Asimilar lion motifcan also be found throughout the Levant*. However, muchof the stone available in the Levantwas eithertoo hardorsoft tooforcarving,and as aresult, sculpture in the round is generally rare. Eventhe Mesopotamians used stone extensivelyfor sculpture, often importing from it distant lands.

Sudan

* basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface

Sculptors were not the only artisans who employed stone in their work. Even before the rise of urban culture, Egyptian stone carvers were fashioning bowls from an extremely hard stone called basalt*. Some of the finest examples of such work date to before 3000 B.C., hundreds of years before the building of the pyramids. Egyptian artisans crafted basalt bowls, vases, jars, and other vessels featuring unbelievably thin walls and complex designs. However, for reasons unknown, this art declined dramatically toward the end of the Old Kingdom period, around 2130 B.C. The hard stones that had been used earlier gave way to softer materials, and the designs became simpler. Evidence of stone vessels has also been found at other sites throughout the Near East, but none of these pieces shows the quality and craftsmanship exhibited by the early Egyptian artisans. Stone Tools. Stone was widely used in the manufacture of blades for sickles (handheld tools used to harvest grain). Other common stone tools used during this time included scrapers for preparing animal hides, borers or drills to cut holes in hard stone, and grinding stones used to crush grain in order to make flour. Stone tools were also a basic part of the stonemason's tool kit. Removing hard stones from quarries required the use of tools made of even harder stone. After cutting the stones, masons used stone pounders and grinders to shape and smooth them. Drills with stone bits were used to cut INSCRIPTIONS and create delicate details in sculpture. Sand was used for the final polishing of stones for buildings or artwork. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Fortifications; Palaces and Temples; Walled Cities.)

SUDAN

archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

T

he Sudan is a region that stretches across north central Africa south of the Libyan and Sahara Deserts. The term Sudan, which also refers to a present-day country in Africa that lies directly south of Egypt, derives from the Arabic term bilad as-sudan, which means "land of the black peoples/' The Sudan extends from the western coast of Africa across the continent to the mountains of Ethiopia. The northernmost part of the Sudan, a region known as the Sahel, borders the Sahara. South of the Sahel, the Sudan extends southward into the rain forests near the equator. The region consists of tropical or subtropical grasslands and high plateaus, which extend across the continent. Temperatures are high throughout the year, and the region experiences a long dry season. However, the southern Sudan receives more rainfall than the north and contains forests with small trees that grow among tall grasses. In the north, the region is arid and desertlike. Humans have occupied the Sudan since prehistoric times, particularly along the NILE RIVER. Archaeological* expeditions have provided evidence that people in the region were hunting, gathering, and fishing as early as 9000 B.C. In the desert regions of the northwestern Sudan, there is evidence that from around 9500 B.C. until around 3500 B.C., the climate was wetter than it is today. During that period, the predominant

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Sumer and the Sumerians

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* deity god or goddess

SUMER AND THE SUMERIANS

mode of subsistence in the region was fishing, supplemented by hunting hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and buffalo. In ancient times, the Sudan was part of ancient Nubia and home to the Nubians, a people whose history is closely linked with that of ancient Egypt. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, the Egyptians took control of the northern Sudan, a region they called Wawat. Soon the Egyptian armies began to move farther south into the Sudan, conquering a region known as Kush. The Egyptians valued Kush because it was located along TRADE ROUTES that ran to the Red Sea. Around 1000 B.C., the rulers of Kush and the Nubian armies joined forces and regained their independence from Egypt. The Kushites retained control of much of the Sudan until the A.D. 350s, when they were overthrown by invaders from the Ethiopian highlands. Throughout ancient times, the Nubians were influenced by Egyptian cultural practices, but their local culture continued to flourish. They worshiped Egyptian gods but continued to worship their own deities* as well. Like the Egyptians, they constructed PYRAMIDS for their royal tombs but modified the design. After the Assyrians drove them out of Egypt, the Nubians had far less contact with Egypt. Over time, the Sudan was more influenced by the African cultures to its south. (See also Kush and Meroe; Nubia and the Nubians.)

S

cholars credit the Sumerians with creating the world's first true civilization, and indeed the list of their accomplishments is impressive. Sumer, located in the southernmost region of MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq), is considered the birthplace of WRITING, CITIES AND CITY-STATES, SCHOOLS, the WHEEL, large-scale ARCHITECTURE, and the earliest system of numbers. Sumerian civilization had a major impact on the political and cultural development of the entire Near East.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF SUMER * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Sumer's origins are largely lost to history and can only be guessed at on the basis of the work of archaeologists*. It is clear that an advanced culture was well established in southern Mesopotamia long before the time of the earliest surviving written records (ca. 3300 B.C.). Most theorie about the organization of that society are based on knowledge of later Sumerian civilization. While this provides a general picture of the development of Sumerian culture, many gaps remain. Earliest Roots. The Sumerians probably included people who migrated to Mesopotamia from various places and had different origins. The earliest known settlement in Sumer was established before 5000 B.C. at Tell el-Oueili. Although the oldest remains found at the settlement are unlike other sites excavated in Sumer, the remains of later buildings at the site show strong similarities to architecture at the cities of UR and ERIDU. This suggests that a common culture developed and eventually

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Sumer and the Sumeriaiis

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding land

spread throughout the region. During thisearly period,agricultural tlements were established along the banks of theEuphrates andTigris Rivers, and these became the earliest cities.fact, In scholars believe that URUK, in Sumer,was the world's first city. As the cities grew, they required more agricultural land tosupport their populations. After a time, larger cities became city-states* bytaking control of surrounding territories. This eventuallyled toconflicts between neighboring city-states competing forterritory,andmany cities builtdefensive walls.Byaround B.C.,3000 Sumer contained about 30separate city-states that remained independently ruled centersformany years.

set-

Early Dynastic Period. Political conditions in Sumer began to changeafter aboutB.C. 2900 The first serious attemptsbylocal rulers to extend their control over neighboring city-states occurred during this period. Accordingto Sumerian KISHwas texts, the seat of first the Sumerian kings.The Sumerian KING LIST credits Etana, ruler Kish, of with being the first king to unitethe Sumerian city-states B.C.However, around 2800 the first king on the listforwhom thereisdocumentationisEnmebaragesi, who ruledKishin about B.C. 2700 Kish remained an important Sumerian city-stateforseveral hundred years, although the rulers of the other city-states competedforpower. This continued for several centuries untilLugalzagesi,therulerofUmma, 101

Sumer and the Sumerians conquered LAGASH and secured control over northern Sumer in the 2300s B.C. He then turned south, capturing Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Lugalzagesi became the first leader to unite all of Sumer. However, his achievement proved short-lived.

Shulgi the Proud King Shulgi of Ur was trained as a scribe. One Sumerian royal hymn describes Shulgi's education: 4s a youth, I studied the scribal art in the E&UB8A [the scribal schooll... Of the nobility, no one was able to write a tablet like me, In the place where the people attend to learn the scribal artf Adding, subtracting, counting, and accounting—I completed &n (of their courses]; The fair Nanibgal-Nisaba (goddess of scribes) Mowed me generously with wisdom and intelligence.

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

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Sargon and the Akkadian Empire. In about 2334 B.C., SARGON I became the king of Kish and set out to take control of Sumer. Sargon, a SEMITE rather than a Sumerian, whose origins are the subject of legend and fable, had held an important position at the court of the king of Kish. When the king died, Sargon succeeded him and moved the capital to the city of Akkad. Sargon first conquered the Elamites, a people living to the east of Mesopotamia in present-day Iran. He then turned south, capturing Lugalzagesi's capital at Uruk and destroying its walls. Sargon next conquered the remaining cities formerly ruled by Lugalzagesi. Having established himself as ruler of Sumer, he then turned his attention north and extended the empire as far as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). In the west, his forces captured city-states in SYRIA and present-day Lebanon, eventually reaching the Mediterranean Sea. Sargon became the first ruler to exert control over all of Mesopotamia, and his empire encompassed a large part of the ancient Near East. Sargon died in about 2279 B.C., after a reign of 56 years. His successors, who remained in power for nearly 200 years, continued to expand the empire, although most of their efforts were aimed at securing TRADE ROUTES rather than conquering enemies. Despite the glories of the Akkadian empire, during most of its existence, it was engaged in warfare with cities that challenged Akkadian rule. During the mid-2100s B.C., the empire was weakened by disputes over succession to the throne. This was followed by a series of invasions by the nomadic* Gutians from the northeast. The Akkadians were toppled, and the Gutians controlled much of Sumer for about the next 100 years. Although the Gutians did not settle in Sumer, they ruled the region from outside. Toward the end of Gutian rule, Lagash became a prominent city-state in Sumer. Its governor, GUDEA (ruled ca. 2144-2124 B.C.), was one of the most notable leaders in Sumerian history. He undertook extensive building projects and engaged in trade with such far-off lands as Magan in presentday Oman. The Third Dynasty of Ur. Around 2120 B.C., the king of Ur, Utu-khegal, defeated the Gutian general Tiriqan and ended Gutian control over Sumer. In doing so, he established the Third Dynasty of Ur. This series of kings, who ruled for more than 100 years, was the last native dynasty* to exercise control over Sumer. Utu-khegal was succeeded by his son URNAMMU, who ruled a region extending from the Persian Gulf to central Mesopotamia. During his reign, Ur-Nammu rebuilt many of Sumer's temples and palaces and repaired canals and other important structures that had fallen into disrepair under the Gutians. After Ur-Nammu's death, the throne passed to his son SHULGI, who completed his father's conquest of the Gutians and continued UrNammu's program of building and restoration. In the twentieth year of his rule, Shulgi undertook a massive reorganization of the kingdom. He

Sumer and the Sumerians

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

restructured the tax system by collecting goods at central points and redistributing them throughout the empire. He also established schools to train the scribes* needed to run this complex system. Shulgi established a permanent army to extend Ur's influence and protect its trading interests. After his almost 50-year reign, however, his successors could not hold the kingdom together. Ur was threatened from two sides: by the nomadic Amorites from the west and the Elamites from the east. Around 2000 B.C., in the twenty-fourth year of the reign of King Ibbi-Sin, the city fell to the Elamites. After the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Sumer was loosely held together by a series of rulers from the cities of Isin and Larsa. For about the next 100 years, Sumer suffered from famines* and further invasions by the Elamites and other peoples from Iran. The Amorite ruler of the citystate of Larsa captured both Ur and Uruk, and the Elamites captured Isin. For the next 200 years, Sumer remained a patchwork of rival cities with no strong central authority. This marked the end of Sumerian control over southern Mesopotamia.

SUMERIAN SOCIETY Sumerian government, economics, and religion were woven closely. Rulers held political power by controlling goods produced in fields and in workshops that were owned and managed by the temples. Many kings served as priests of the temple, and a few, such as Shulgi, even declared themselves gods. Most of the people of the Sumerian city-states were thus bound to the king by ties of both religion and economics.

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * deity god or goddess

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

Government. Sumerian city-states were probably originally governed by citizen assemblies rather than kings. The assemblies resolved disputes, authorized construction projects, and dealt with threats from neighboring city-states. They elected leaders who were responsible for ensuring that their decisions were carried out. Over time, these leaders became the most important people in their respective city-states. Political leadership also became associated with the local religious cult*, and rulers claimed to be chosen specifically by their city's deity*. Whether a leader called himself governor or king, he maintained legitimate authority through his ties to the local cult. If a leader was overthrown or defeated by his enemies, the Sumerians believed that he was no longer favored by the city's deity. Religion. Political and religious power in Sumer were associated in other ways as well. According to Sumerian beliefs, each deity made his or her home in a different city, becoming the patron* god or goddess there. Each city was thus the home of a religious cult dedicated to a local god or goddess. The Sumerians had a large pantheon* led by ANU, the supreme deity who called Uruk home. Other deities included ENLIL, who was both a god of plenty and a god of harsh justice, and Enki, the god of wisdom and of the sea. Ur was home to Nanna, the moon god; and Utu, the sun god, was worshiped in both Larsa and Sippar. The most important female deity was 103

Sunier and the Sumerians See

N'colorplate (vol. 1).

artisan skilled craftsperson

Inanna, a goddess whose many associations included fertilityandwar. Myths about these and other Sumerian gods makeup an important part of the literatureofSumer. Economy. The temple was the focus of not only the religious life of a Sumerian city but also its economic life. Temples controlled large amounts of agricultural land outside the city and ran workshops and warehouses within its walls. Temples employed farmers, shepherds,and artisans* in addition to priestsand other religious officials. Workersin temple workshops created pottery, wove fabric, produced leather goods, and created sculpture,jewelry, and other worksof art. Someof these goods were used insacrifices to the local deity, while most were distributed to the royal household aswell as to ordinary citizens. Many of the finer materials produced were usedas trade goods.The Sumerian citystates actively engagedin long-distance trade, establishing colonies as far away as Iran,Syria,and Anatolia. They tradedfor goods such astimber, metals, and precious stones thatwere not available locally. Through the temples, the city provided itsinhabitants with thebasic necessities oflife. In return, the people were requiredto work everyday of the week and to honor the local deity with sacrifices andobedience to the city's ruler. The temple did not control the entire economy, however. There is evidence that some land surrounding each city-statewasowned and worked by private individuals.The cities themselves were also centers of private economic production. Pottery making, textile production, metalworking, shipbuilding, carpentry, and other specialized activities flourished in the cities.

ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE AND ART, The Sumerians were accomplished architects who built the world'searliest monumental structures. Fewidentifiable remains still stand because

104

Sumerian Language * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * buttress brick or stone structure built against a wall to support or reinforce it

See [color plate 14,^ vol. 3.

* inlay fine layer of a substance set into wood, metal, or other material as a form of decoration * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

SUMERIAN LANGUAGE

buildings in Sumer were not made of stone (a scarce resource there) but of dried mud bricks*, which did not last. The most important buildings were the temples, which were built following a basic plan. Temples sat on raised platforms and their large outside walls were supported with buttresses*. The interiors might be decorated with clay cones set into the wall in patterns. The cones were painted in bright colors, and their tips were often covered in bronze. Murals were sometimes painted on the walls as well. Around 2100 B.C., King Ur-Nammu of Ur constructed the first true ziggurat, or stepped pyramid that supports a temple at the top. Ziggurats are the most famous large Mesopotamian buildings. The largest ziggurats rose some 300 feet high. Scholars know less about ordinary buildings, such as workshops and HOUSES, because few of them remain intact today. Sumerian art is largely represented by SCULPTURE, which served mainly religious purposes. These works were often beautifully executed and richly decorated with inlays* of precious metals or stones. Carved relief* sculptures were another favored form of decoration on buildings. Sumerians also produced beautifully carved cylinder SEALS containing both decorative patterns and scenes of animals, humans, and gods. These seals were used to make impressions in clay bands used to secure doors and storage jars. The patterns were also impressed in CLAY TABLETS containing business transactions perhaps as a form of personal identification similar to a signature. The Sumerians' most important cultural contribution was the invention of writing and the SUMERIAN LANGUAGE, which was rarely spoken after about 2000 B.C. The Sumerian script, called CUNEIFORM, consisted of wedge-shaped marks impressed in clay with a reed pen, or stylus. The symbols were originally developed for RECORD KEEPING and evolved into symbols to represent different syllables. The flexibility of this system made it ideal for recording the business of running a city-state. Tens of thousands of clay tablets have been recovered from Sumer, most of which are records of temple business transactions and palace archives. Many works of Sumerian literature have also survived, including royal HYMNS and epics* celebrating the deeds of a ruler. The best-known Sumerian literature features GILGAMESH, a legendary ruler of Uruk. Among the earliest tales known about Gilgamesh are several Sumerian poems that were probably composed around 2100 B.C. However, the version of Gilgamesh's story that survives today is a rewrite of a version written in the Akkadian language. (See also Languages; Religion; Ziggurats.)

T

he early inhabitants of southern MESOPOTAMIA, known as the Sumerians, developed the world's first WRITING sometime before 3000 B.C. Sumerian was written in a CUNEIFORM script, which consisted of wedgeshaped characters that had specific word meanings, and these were pressed into CLAY TABLETS. The written form of the language was based on the spoken form. Although spoken Sumerian faded away as a "living" language by about 1800 B.C., written Sumerian continued to be used by scribes* and priests perhaps as late as the A.D. 200s.

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Sumeriaii Language * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

* linguist person who studies languages

106

History of the Language. The oldest evidence of written Sumerian, called Archaic Sumerian, dates from about 3100 to 2500 B.C. and consists largely of governmental and business documents and also some school exercises. Scholars do not have a good understanding of this language, and the number of texts from this era is quite small. More documents exist in Old or Classical Sumerian, which dates from about 2500 to 2300 B.C. Most examples of Old Sumerian come from the official records of the city-state* of LAGASH. A fairly large number of private letters and INSCRIPTIONS written in Old Sumerian have also been found. The greater quantity of samples has made it easier for scholars to understand Old Sumerian than Archaic Sumerian. From about 2350 to 2193 B.C., the Akkadians ruled southern Mesopotamia, and their Semitic* language—Akkadian—replaced Sumerian as the main spoken language throughout most of the region. Sumerian was again used as the written language after the Akkadian empire collapsed and the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.) was established. By 2000 B.C., however, this dynasty* was destroyed by invasions by the Elamites, peoples from the east of Mesopotamia. Within the next 200 years, spoken Sumerian vanished completely. The new rulers of Mesopotamia continued to use written Sumerian alongside Akkadian. Among those who employed written Sumerian were the Babylonians, who established an empire that extended across much of the Near East. They and the empires that succeeded them brought written Sumerian with them into the regions they controlled. This stage of the language's development is called Post-Sumerian because it occurred after the disappearance of spoken Sumerian. As in the earlier stages of its development, Sumerian was used for government and business documents as well as royal inscriptions. It was during this period that most of the great Sumerian works of LITERATURE were recorded in writing. Because written Sumerian was so important as the language of business and government, schools that trained scribes continued to teach it until about A.D. 200. After that time, it was replaced by more modern languages, such as Greek and Latin, and its use—even in written form—ceased altogether. Characteristics of the Language. Scholars have tried without success to place Sumerian within one of the existing language families. Some linguists* have attempted to relate it to modern languages based on broad similarities between the sounds and meanings of some words. However, these attempts have failed, and most scholars now consider Sumerian a unique language with no close relatives. The form of written Sumerian most familiar to modern scholars had 4 vowels (a, e, i, and u) and 16 consonants, but it is thought that the language was originally more complex. Based on the information available about written Sumerian, linguists have tried to reconstruct the sound and pronunciation of spoken Sumerian. However, much of this work is based on knowledge of the Akkadian language, which itself depends on knowledge of modern Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Given this fact, any modern pronunciation of Sumerian would most likely be vastly different from the original. An ancient Sumerian hearing a modern person speak the language would probably not be able to understand it.

Sun Close study of the existing documents has revealed much about the structure and style of the Sumerian language. Nouns were not classified as masculine or feminine, but were divided into personal and nonpersonal types. Personal nouns included those referring to humans, gods, or (in literature) creatures that had human characteristics. There was no fixed way to indicate amount or the plural form of an inanimate noun. Sometimes a noun was repeated twice to indicate all of one class of objects. For instance kur meant "land," while kur-kur meant "all the lands." Otherwise, amount could only be determined from the way a word was used. Similarly, verbs had just one form, which might be modified by a prefix, suffix, or infix (an affix appearing in the body of a word) to indicate who was performing an action or when the action occurred. There were several styles of written Sumerian, depending on the type of material being composed. The writers of business and government documents used certain words and phrases, while the authors of POETRY, prose literature, or HYMNS used different ones. Sumerian even had a separate style called emesal used to quote female speech. However, it remains unclear why this variant of the language developed or in what situations it was used. (See also Alphabets; Books and Manuscripts; Decipherment; Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Record Keeping; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

SUN

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * deity god or goddess

T

hroughout the ancient Near East, the sun occupied a particularly important place in RELIGION and MYTHOLOGY because of its connection with life, death, and rebirth. It provided the light and warmth that plants, animals, and people needed to survive. Each day it died, sinking below the horizon as it was conquered by the night. However, every morning it was reborn to once again bring light and life to the universe. As the symbol of light and day, the sun represented goodness and life, while night and darkness represented evil and death. In Mesopotamian society, eclipses of the sun were considered OMENS, or signs that something bad was about to happen. The Mesopotamians worshiped a sun god named Shamash, who represented justice. In this capacity, he is portrayed on a stela* giving the symbols of rulership to King HAMMURABI. Sun gods also held important places in other ancient Near Eastern societies. The Hittites worshiped the sun god of Heaven and the sun goddess of Arinna. Some of the most powerful Egyptian deities* were sun gods whose names corresponded to their many forms, or manifestations. These names included Ra, ATEN, and HORUS, the falcon god whose eye was associated with the sun. The rising and setting of the sun had profound significance for the Egyptians. Each night the sun god journeyed below the horizon to the underworld on a sacred barge, or raft. His soul traveled along a river that was the underworld's counterpart to the NILE RIVER in Egypt. There his soul was reunited with his body, symbolizing the rebirth of all the souls of the dead. This also signified the joining of Ra and OSIRIS, god of the dead, into a new deity containing aspects of both gods. As morning approached, the sun began its journey back to the sky, signaling the return of life to the

107

Suva and Susiaiia

pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

SUSA AND SUSIANA * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

See map on inside covers.

* sack to loot a captured city 108

land. Each morning at dawn, a priest lit a ritual torch to signify the sun's triumph over death and its importance to Egypt's welfare and future success. The Egyptians developed a complex series of rituals to ensure the continued order of the universe, represented by the regular reappearance of the sun each day. The worship of the sun god in Egypt reached its peak during the reign of the pharaoh* Amenhotep IV (ca. 1353-1336 B.C.), also known as AKHENATEN. Amenhotep outlawed the worship of all other gods besides the sun god Aten. He even changed his own name to Akhenaten, which means "he who serves Aten," to signify his devotion to the god. This reform was not accepted by many Egyptians, and Egypt returned to polytheism, or the worship of many gods, after Akhenaten's death. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Rituals and Sacrifice; Theology.)

S

usiana was an ancient region in southwestern IRAN. Its major city, Susa, had a long and illustrious history, serving at one time as a capital of Elam and later as a capital of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Both the region and the city played a significant role in the history of Iran. By about 7000 B.C., permanent settlements began to be established in many parts of Susiana, and the city of Susa was founded around 4200 B.C. During the late fourth millennium B.C.*, Susa's culture began to resemble that of Sumer, with the use of cylinder seals, counting tokens enclosed in hollow clay balls (bullae), and a cuneiform-like accounting and writing system called Proto-Elamite, which was written on clay tablets. In the late third millennium B.C., Susa and Susiana were dominated both culturally and politically by the Akkadians, who also dominated MESOPOTAMIA. After the collapse of the Akkadian empire around 2193 B.C., Susa and Susiana fell under the control of the Mesopotamian kingdom of UR. Around 2004 B.C., the Susians allied themselves with the neighboring Elamites, invaded Mesopotamia, and reasserted their independence. Thereafter, the Susians became closely tied to the Elamites, who took control of and ruled Susa and Susiana. For the next 1,400 years, Susiana was an integral part of the Elamite civilization. As a royal capital and center of commerce, Susa developed into a large and important international city. Around 1500 B.C., for reasons unknown, the city entered a period of decline and was abandoned by most of its occupants. However, Susa regained prominence about 300 years later, when the Elamite empire reached the peak of its power and supremacy. Around 1110 B.C., Susa was conquered by the Babylonians, marking the beginning of another period of decline. Little is known about Susa or Susiana for the next 300 years except that political unrest and economic disaster plagued the region. In the late 700s B.C., Elamite power reemerged. At that time, Elam and Susiana became allies of the Babylonians and engaged in frequent conflicts with the Assyrians. Thereafter, Susa served primarily as a ceremonial and cultural center rather than a political or economic one. In about 646 B.C., King ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria renewed attacks on Susiana. He conquered and sacked* the city of Susa and relocated the

Syria

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest Bank, and Jordan satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

Syllabaries

SYRIA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

survivors to the Levant*. Thiseffectively ended the history of the Elamite state. Susa and Susiana remained in Assyrian control until Ashurbanipal's death in 630 B.C.Thereafter,Assyrian powerin the region beganto decline. By 550B.C., the Persianshad gained controlSusa of and Susiana,and the region became a satrapy* of the Persian empire. DAR- The Persian king IUS I fortified Susaand madeit one of his capitals. Susa prospered under Persian rule and became one of the most important cities of the empire.It had magnificent palaces and temples and once again served as a great cultural, political, and economic center. After the conquestof theGREAT Persian in ALEXANDER THEempire by 331B.C., Susa lost much of its powerand dominance,and the citywas renamed Seluciaon the Eulaeus.PARTHIA With after the B.C., 250 Susa riseof regained itsformer name and prospered yet again. Although it never regained itsformer greatness, Susa continued to flourish as a regional center for many centuriesafterward. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Elam and the Elamites; Seleucid Em

See Writing.

T

hroughout ancient times,Syria was an object of conquest and was often dominated by foreign powers. Along with Mesopotamia and Egypt, Syria was an early center of civilization in the ancient Near East. However, the civilization that developed there was somewhat different from that of the other two regions. Instead of large, unified kingdoms and empires, Syria consisted of small kingdoms and city-states*, many of which were based on loyalty within tribes rather than territory. Consequently, the inhabitants ofSyria were never able to achieve any kind of political unity except in smallareas of the total region.

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Syria

GEOGRAPHY EARLY AND DEVELOPMENT * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * arable suitable for

growing crops

* domesticated adapted human use

no

or tamed

for

Located in the Levant*, ancient Syria was home to many natural land routes that connect western Asia with Africa both and Europe. Although protected by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Anatolian plateau to the north, ancientSyria lay exposed to the plains of Mesopotamia to the east andArabia to the south. These geographic left factors Syria open to invasion and the target of many conquests. The Syrian landscape consistsof mountains, plateaus, fertile grasslands, and desert. The westernmost part is a coastal plain, whichin ancient times containeda numberof important UGARIT cities, and including the Phoenician city-states BYBLOS, TYRE. SIDON, and Although of Syria had limited natural resources, muchof the landwas arable*. Inhabited for thousands of yearsby peoplewho were huntersand gatherers,Syria later playeda significant rolein the early development of AGRICULTURE.A numberof plantsand animals were first domesticated* in Syria—including wheat,SHEEP, barley, CATTLE, rye, PIGS—and GOATS, and their domestication contributed to the development of farming in the region as earlyasB.C. 8300

Syria

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

The development of agriculture supported an increase in population and the spread of village life in Syria. This led, in turn, to the emergence of towns as settlements grew larger and became centers of manufacture and trade. Some of the earliest towns in the ancient Near East were established in Syria, and towns and cities remained the focus of political development throughout much of the region's later history. Even with the development of larger settlements, many people in Syria continued to live in small villages scattered across the region. In addition, groups of nomads* traveled the area in search of grazing land for their herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. This mix of lifestyles contributed to the development of two different political systems in ancient Syria: centralized states that developed around large cities and decentralized tribal societies that were characteristic of villages and nomadic groups.

HISTORY Although distinct cultures emerged in Syria, the numerous invasions that occurred in its history left their mark on its people. The people of Syria found themselves under foreign rule many times.

Out of Africa Evidence suggests that the ancestors of modern hurnans migrated out of Africa more than a million years ago. Because of Syria's location at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe, these ancient ancestors no doubt traveled through the region on their way to other lands. The discovery of primitive stone axes and other tools dating from at least 250,000 years ago provides evidence of early habitation in Syria. Scholars also have evidence that early Neanderthal peoples inhabited Syria almost continuously between about 100,000 and 35,000 years ago.

Early History. By the 2500s B.C., an urban culture similar to that of Mesopotamia had emerged in Syria. One of the most important Syrian citystates of this period was EBLA, which dominated much of northern Syria for about 200 years. A number of port cities on Syria's Mediterranean coast traded with Ebla, but they were not politically dependent on it. In about 2320 B.C., the Sumerian city-state of URUK in Mesopotamia extended its power westward across Syria to the Mediterranean Sea. Uruk's influence over Syria was short-lived, however. Within the next few decades, SARGON I of Akkad and his grandson NARAM-SIN invaded Syria, sacked Ebla, and incorporated the region into the Akkadian empire. Following the collapse of the Akkadian empire, city life in Syria almost disappeared, and most people returned to living in small, temporary settlements. This decline of urban culture in Syria lasted for about a century. Between about 2100 and 1800 B.C., groups of nomadic peoples known as the AMORITES appeared in Syria and established a number of small kingdoms and city-states. By about 1800 B.C., urban culture was once again flourishing, and many cities had become the centers of small, independent states. One of the most powerful states during this period was Yamkhad, which had its capital at Halab (present-day Aleppo). The kings of Yamkhad dominated a number of minor rulers and tribal leaders in northern Syria, but a few cities remained independent, including KARKAMISH and Qatna. Various tribal societies also continued to exist, and their unruliness and demands for freedom from interference by centralized powers often caused problems for Syrian rulers. Invasion and Foreign Rule. Around 1600 B.C., parts of northern Syria suffered great destruction at the hands of the invading HITTITES from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Hittite control of northern Syria was short-lived, however. In its wake, a new power—the HURRIANS—gained control of the region. Ill

Syria

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

For some time, Hurrian tribes from the mountains of eastern Anatolia and western IRAN migrated to northern Syria and established settlements throughout that region. In many places, they comprised the majority of the population. Soon they gained political control over the Amorites and established Hurrian kingdoms throughout Syria. The most important Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni, located in upper Mesopotamia and eastern Syria. At the peak of its power, the kingdom of Mitanni ruled almost all of northern and central Syria. Its presence in the region effectively blocked other foreign intruders from entering Syria, at least until Mitanni clashed with Egypt in the mid-1400s B.C. Conflicts between Mitanni and Egypt ended peacefully when the two powers decided to divide Syria between them. They reached this agreement because of the Hittites, whose renewed strength posed a serious threat to the interests of Egypt and Mitanni. In the mid-1300s B.C., the Hittites defeated Mitanni and pushed the Egyptians back to southern Syria. Ultimately, the Hittites and Egyptians agreed to divide Syria just as Egypt and Mitanni had done earlier. Under both the Egyptians and the Hittites, most of the small kingdoms and city-states in Syria served as vassals*. Although they had little power to pursue independent foreign policies, local rulers often had significant authority to deal with their internal affairs. However, rivalries among the various Syrian states made it difficult for them to act in unison on any issues.

A PERIOD OF CHANGE Syria's history continued to be marked by foreign conquests. Sometimes the invaders were large empires acquiring more territories and resources. At other times, migrating peoples and nomadic tribes came to settle in Syria.

* Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

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Upheaval and Change. In the late 1200s B.C., invasions by the SEA PEOPLES appear to have caused great change and upheaval in Syria and the Levant. In many parts of Syria, urban life declined dramatically as people moved away from cities to the countryside. Some cities, such as Ugarit, disappeared forever. Meanwhile, large numbers of people from Anatolia fled ahead of the invaders and migrated to Syria. These migrants, who became known as NEO-HITTITES, established a number of small states in northern Syria. In the 1100s B.C., the ARAMAEANS—a group of Semitic* peoples— appeared in Syria. Over the next few centuries, they spread throughout the region and came to play an important role in Syrian history. The rise of Aramaean civilization led to the reintroduction of tribal rule. In time, however, the Aramaeans established centralized states with ruling dynasties* of tribal origin. The principal Aramaean kingdom in Syria was DAMASCUS. Beginning in the 800s B.C., the fate of Syria became linked with empires to the east: Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. During the 800s B.C., the Assyrians launched repeated military campaigns against Syria, and by the next century, the entire region had been conquered. Some Syrian kingdoms became vassal states ruled by local kings. Others, including Damascus, were incorporated into the Assyrian empire as provinces governed by Assyrian officials.

Syria

Although the Assyrians'dominationofSyria lastedforless than 150 years, the regionforever bore their Syria name, is for ashortened form of Assyria.Before the endB.C., of the invasions 700s of northernMesopotamia by the CimmeriansandScythians from Russiaweakenedthe Assyrians, and in the late 600s B.C., Assyria fell toattacks from the BabyloniansandMEDES the ofIran. After fall the of theAssyrian empire, Syria became abattleground in astruggle between EgyptandBabylonia for control of the Levant.In theend, fell Syria underBabylonia'scontrol for about 50years. Later History.B.C., In the 539Persians BABYLON conquered andtook control of Syria, which becameasatrapy, PERSIAN orprovince, of the EMPIRE. While local dynasties continuedtoruleinsome coastal cities, most ofSyria was governedbyloyal Persian officialsappointedby the satrap, or provincial governor. 113

Taharqa

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. * urbanization formation and growth of cities

TAHARQA ruled 690-664 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh

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Persian rule of Syria was mostly peaceful, although the Persians occasionally had to put down local revolts. The Persians did not allow political independence, but they permitted the local cultures of Syria to develop with little interference. Syrians could practice their own religion and carry out their own trading activities. Syrian coastal cities were even free to establish colonies along other parts of the Mediterranean coast. As a result of such policies, Persia had little influence on Syrian culture during the 200 years of its rule. In 331 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA conquered the Persian empire and gained control of Syria. After his death in 323 B.C., the region was divided between Alexander's generals and their successors, the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. These two dynasties often competed for control of Syria, and conflicts erupted between them a number of times. The occupation of Syria by the Seleucids, ruling from Antioch, marked a significant change in Syria's history. For the next several centuries, the fate of the region became increasingly linked to the West instead of the Near East. During the Hellenistic* period, Syrian society was strongly influenced by Greek-style culture. The region also became involved in international political and economic affairs, which brought Syria prosperity and led to urbanization*. Hellenistic culture, prosperity, and urbanization continued under the Romans, who took control of Syria in 64 B.C. and incorporated it as a province of the Roman Empire. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hellenistic World; Migration and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Scythia and the Scythians; Sumer and the Sumerians; Trade Routes.)

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aharqa (tuh«HAHR»kuh) was the fifth Nubian king in Egypt's Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He is best known as the king who lost Egypt to the Assyrians. Despite his unsuccessful military leadership, Taharqa is considered the greatest of builders. Taharqa inherited the thrones of Nubia and Egypt at the age of 32 after the death of his cousin (or nephew) Shebitku. Around 674 B.C., Taharqa fought off the invading Assyrians, led by King ESARHADDON. Three years later, Esarhaddon returned and successfully conquered northern Egypt, including the capital at MEMPHIS. However, Esarhaddon foolishly left the conquered territory in the hands of a few Assyrian military officers, and Taharqa was able to reconquer the region. Nevertheless, in 669 B.C., Esarhaddon's son and successor, ASHURBANIPAL, returned to Egypt and drove Taharqa into Nubia. Taharqa, who was never able to reconquer Egypt, died in Nubia and was buried in a pyramid in the cemetery of Nuri. He was succeeded by his nephew Tantamani. During his reign, Taharqa sponsored more building projects than any other Nubian ruler. He adorned the Great Temple of Amun at KARNAK with new processional ways and commissioned other buildings nearby. In Nubia, he commissioned several new temples in the Egyptian style in

Taxation the cities of Sanam, Kawa, and Pnuba. He also built several small temples in the northern province of Kush. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

TAXATION * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

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he rise of centralized states in the ancient Near East required sources of income for GOVERNMENTS, which had to pay for ARMIES and the construction of public works and to supply food to the people in times of need. Loot seized during military campaigns on foreign soil did not provide an income large enough or regular enough to support governments, and neither did tribute* collected from conquered territories or vassal* states. From the earliest days of centralized states, the solution to the financial needs of governments was some form of taxation in which people living in a state paid set amounts to the government. The government then determined how the income from taxes was to be spent or redistributed. Payment and Collection of Taxes. Throughout much of the ancient period, people paid their taxes in kind, that is, in some form of goods rather than cash. The most direct form of taxation involved giving the government or its representatives a share of one's agricultural or craft production. Such taxes might consist of items such as grain, CATTLE, cloth, or other goods. In MESOPOTAMIA during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), the Sumerians maintained a large government animal pen near the city of NIPPUR. This place served as a clearinghouse for all sorts of in-kind payments, from GOATS to JEWELRY. The Mesopotamians also imposed a tax payment called ishkaru at Nuzi in the 1400s B.C. This consisted primarily of finished goods, such as garments, arrows, chariots, or armor; in Assyria in the 800s B.C., it consisted of silver. Labor was another kind of payment that could be regarded as a tax. Individuals, households, or villages might owe the government a certain number of days of work each year. Records from throughout Mesopotamia refer to a tax called the ilku, which was a labor tax owed by those who worked land owned by a higher authority. A tenant could assign someone else, such as a laborer on his property, to perform the ilku. As exchanges of precious metals become more common, some taxes were paid in such metals. For example, as early as the 2300s B.C., one ruler of the Sumerian city-state* of LAGASH required some taxes and fines to be paid in silver. Governments collected taxes through various means. In some societies, the temples or the army were responsible for gathering or receiving tax payments. Eventually, the office of tax collector emerged and became an important administrative division in all governments. In outlying districts, provincial governors often were responsible for making the appropriate payments to the central government. By the first millennium B.C.*, a practice called tax farming—in which the government sold to the highest bidder the right to collect taxes in a region—had become a basic feature of the Babylonian and Persian administrations. Having paid the tax required by the government, the tax farmer or collector often tried to collect an additional amount from the individuals or communities within his territory and keep it as profit.

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Technology

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Technology

Temples

TEN COMMANDMENTS 116

Types of Taxes. Because most ancient Near Eastern economies were based on AGRICULTURE, taxes on land and its products remained a key part of every state's overall income. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, for example, the prophet Samuel warned those Israelites who wanted a king that such a ruler would take a tenth of their crops and orchards. Some of the most detailed accounts of land taxes come from Egypt, where land was valued and taxed according to the amount of benefit it received from the annual flooding of the NILE RIVER, which enriched the soil. Officials measured each parcel of land carefully to determine how much tax—in the form of grain—its owner owed to the temples or to the government. Priests, however, did not have to pay taxes on the land they owned, and this was true in early Mesopotamia as well. Taxes paid by those who worked on or rented royal lands comprised a significant part of the income of the Mesopotamian state. One such tax, during the 2100s B.C., was the gunmada, a provincial tax owed by military men living on state-owned land on the outskirts of the kingdom. The gunmada was paid in cattle, delivered to the livestock pens near Nippur. Land taxes were commonly paid with grain, which served as a medium of exchange similar to money. Land taxes were not the only taxes paid in the ancient Near East. Trade and commerce were taxed as well. For example, MERCHANTS carrying goods into or out of a state had to pay import or export taxes, or customs duties, on them. Governments also charged fees, tolls, or taxes for the use of canals and roads or for the privilege of traveling through a place or using a harbor. By the Hellenistic* period, Near Eastern governments had developed many forms of taxation. The Babylonians, for example, had a salt tax, a tax on the sale of slaves, a canal tax, and a sort of sales tax that consumers paid when they bought certain other products. The collection of these and other taxes was crucial to the administration of the state. (See also Economy and Trade; Land Use and Ownership; Property and Property Rights; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

See Science and Technology.

See Palaces and Temples.

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he Ten Commandments, which are recorded in the Hebrew BIBLE, form the ethical basis for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the Bible, these commandments were revealed to MOSES when YAHWEH spoke to him on Mount SINAI during the Israelites' journey from Egypt to Canaan. The Ten Commandments are also called the Decalogue, from the Greek words deka and logoi, which mean "ten words/' and form the core of the contract between Yahweh and the Israelite people.

Teshub

* adultery sexual relations between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse

TESHUB * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

The Ten Commandments are recorded twice in the Hebrew Bible. They are listed in the Books of Exodus (Chapter 20) and Deuteronomy (Chapter 5). Although the circumstances of how Moses received these laws are slightly different depending on which book reports the event, the laws are essentially the same. In the first two commandments, Yahweh tells the Israelites that he is their only God and that they should not worship other gods. The third and fourth rules state that the Israelites should not use Yahweh's name in a disrespectful manner and should observe the Sabbath (the day of rest and worship). The fifth commandment states that the Israelites should honor their parents. The last five commandments deal with ethics, saying that the Israelites should not murder, steal, commit adultery*, give false testimony, or desire their neighbors' possessions. No one is certain when the Ten Commandments were written. Some scholars believe that they were composed between the 1500s and 1200s B.C. Others believe that they were written around 750 B.C. It is also possible that they were written even later as a summary of the ancient religious and legal traditions of the Israelites. The Ten Commandments did not carry new ideas except for statements about the uniqueness of God and the holiness of the Sabbath. Similar laws existed in almost all other ancient Near Eastern cultures. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law; Mosaic Law; Torah.)

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eshub (TE»shub) was the storm god of the HURRIANS, a group who lived in northern MESOPOTAMIA and SYRIA during the second millennium B.C.* The HITTITES adopted him, as well as his wife KHEPAT, into their large and complex pantheon* and merged him with the traditional Hittite weather god, Tarkhun. During the Hittite imperial* period, which lasted from 1350 to 1200 B.C., Teshub was considered the ruler of the heavens and head of the Hittite pantheon. He was usually portrayed holding a mace (a clublike weapon with a pear-shaped end for striking) and sometimes a lightning bolt as well. In a group of Hittite myths called the Kumarbi Cycle, Teshub appears as the son and enemy of KUMARBI, king of the Hittite gods. The Hittites adopted the mythology of the Kumarbi Cycle, like Teshub himself, from the Hurrians. The first tale in the cycle, titled Theogony (or Heavenly Kingship), tells how a series of four gods held the heavenly throne, each overthrowing the one before him. Finally, Teshub rises to power and prepares to overthrow the third king, Kumarbi. Unfortunately, the description of the battle has been lost. In the second tale, titled Song ofUllikummi, Kumarbi creates a stone monster named Ullikummi to destroy Teshub, but Teshub descends into the sea in his chariot to defeat the monster. A related myth, called the Myth of Khedammu, says that Kumarbi created a dragon named Khedammu, again to challenge Teshub. The dragon begins devouring humanity so that the people can no longer serve the gods. For a time it appears that "Teshub, the powerful king of Kummiya, will have to hold the plow himself/' Because the rest of the myth is lost, the 117

Textiles ending remains unknown. A later fragment of myth hints that Teshub's pride and violent nature were sources of trouble among the gods. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)

TEXTILES Beautiful Old Rugs and Carpets Perhaps the best-known textile products from the Near East today are beautifully woven rugs and carpets* The finest of these intricately patterned textiles were not woven on a loom but by hand, one knot at a time, In fact, archaeologists have found evidence of such carpets and the tools used to manufacture them in graves in Central Asia dating from about 2000 B.C. The earliest existing example of a pile carpet came from a tomb in Siberia dating from about 450 B.C. Unlike other decorative textiles from the ancient Near East, people from alt levels of society probably used carpets.

material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

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extiles are fabrics of fiber or yarn that are made by hand or by machine. The production of textiles—for personal use and as articles of trade—was one of the most important activities in the ancient Near East. Documents from MESOPOTAMIA describe textile workshops that employed thousands of individuals, and textile manufacturing was often depicted in the WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* of ancient Egyptian tombs. Despite the importance and extent of textile production in the Near East, few examples of ancient textiles have survived to the present day. Unlike durable materials, such as STONE, metal, and POTTERY, textiles rarely survived thousands of years of burial or exposure to the elements. Only in very dry regions, such as Egypt, have archaeologists* discovered remains of ancient textiles. Nevertheless, from ancient texts, artworks, and remains of weaving equipment from ancient workshops, scholars have gained some insight into the production and uses of textiles in the ancient Near East. Origins and Use of Textiles. The earliest evidence of textile production in the Near East is a fragment of woven cloth from a site in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) dating from about 7000 B.C. Clay balls found in northeastern Mesopotamia dating from about the same time contain impressions of cloth that show the patterns of weaving. The quality of the workmanship evident from those impressions leaves little doubt that weaving was practiced long before that time. Scraps of fabric found at £ATAL HUYUK in Anatolia show that mechanical weaving machines, or looms, were in use in that region by at least 6000 B.C. Evidence of textile production in Egypt suggests that it may have developed later there, perhaps around 4500 B.C. The earliest textiles were made from linen, a fabric composed of fibers derived from FLAX. Flax grows naturally in many places throughout the region and was first domesticated* around 6000 B.C. Linen fabrics woven earlier than that must have been produced from wild flax. Although flax was the first fiber used for making textiles, wool eventually became the most widely used material in textile production. SHEEP were domesticated around 7000 B.C., but their coats were short and had little usable wool. Around 4000 B.C., breeders began to produce sheep with long woolly coats suitable for textile production. Other natural textile fabrics were unknown in the Near East until much later. Hemp, used for textiles in northern and central Europe and Asia as early as 5000 B.C., did not reach the Near East until about 1000 B.C. Cotton was probably introduced to the region from India around the same time. Silk, first developed in China in the third millennium B.C.*, did not reach the ancient Near East until about 650 B.C. Textiles served many functions. CLOTHING, tents, and similar items provided shelter and protection from the elements. Cloth sails helped propel ships, while burial shrouds covered the bodies of the dead. Colorful

Textiles rugs, furniture coverings,wall hangings,andother textile items beautified palaces, temples, and homes, while textile containers were used tohold and carry everything fromfoodsandpersonal belongingstoweaponsand tools. Textiles also servedas ameansofcommunicating values, status, and roles. For example, certain patterns, colors,anddesigns distinguished different groupsor individuals. Weaving and Dyeing. Toproduce textiles, ancient textile workers first stripped individual fibers from flaxorwoolandtied their ends together. Thefibers were thensoakedandsoftened. These softened fibers were spun intoyarn that could bewoven into cloth. The earliest looms in the ancient Near Eastconsistedof twowooden beams placed horizontally abovethe ground.Aseries ofyarns were stretched between these beams.Aweaver thenpassed bundles ofyarn back andforth through those yarnsatright anglestothemtocreatea woven fabric of verticaland horizontal threads.Byvaryingthecolorand arrangement of the yarns, theweaver could create differentdesigns and patterns in the cloth. Another type ofloom, thevertical loom, appearedinAnatoliain the early third millennium B.C. This loom stood uprightandrelied onsmall weights of clay, stone, ormetaltokeepthevertical yarns tight.Aneven more advanced typeofloomwas thetapestry loom, which hadspread from theCAUCASUSregion SYRIAbytothe middle of thethird B.C.Both millennium vertical and tapestry looms allowed weaverstoproduce complex patterns and more typesofweaves than horizontal looms. Althoughdifficult more to operate, they were less tiring physically because theweaver did nothave to squat orbend over to usethem. The earliest evidenceoftextile dyeingin theNear Eastdates from about 3000 B.C. The most commonly used coloring agents were natural dyes extractedfrom plantsoranimal-based dyes.Themost famousand expensive dye was apurpledyeobtained fromatype of seasnail. Known as Tyrianpurple—fromthe Phoenician TYREwhere itcity was of produced—the dye was sopopular among kings thatitbecameasymbol of

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Thebes royalty. During Roman times its production was a state secret, and only members of the elite were allowed to own or use the dye.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

THEBES

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol. 2).

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and .pasture

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Textile Industries. Textile production was probably the most important industry in ancient Mesopotamia. Records from the late third millennium B.C. indicate that tens of thousands of people worked in state-run textile workshops in the city of UR. These workshops used the wool from enormous herds of sheep to produce millions of pounds of woolen fabric each year. The palace and temples used some of this, but most was exported to other lands in exchange for goods not available locally. During the first half of the second millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians traded tin from IRAN and textiles from southern Mesopotamia for precious metals from Anatolia. They produced their own textiles, but these were considered inferior to the high-quality cloth woven in the south. Mesopotamian governments often used wool as a form of payment for workers, and households were expected to weave the clothes they needed and perhaps make extra cloth to meet commercial demand. Linen was the main textile produced in Egypt because woolly sheep were not raised there until after about 1000 B.C. The Egyptians also organized textile production in workshops, but the industry was less extensive than in Mesopotamia. In Egypt, Mesopotamia, and elsewhere in the ancient Near East, women did most of the spinning and weaving. However, whereas men supervised textile work in Mesopotamia, female overseers predominated in Egypt. After the vertical loom was introduced in Egypt around 1500 B.C., men become more actively involved in textile production. As in Mesopotamia, most Egyptian households wove their own cloth and made their own clothing. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Labor and Laborers; Women, Role of.)

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he ancient Egyptian city of Thebes was located on the NILE RIVER, about 400 miles south of present-day Cairo. The city and its surrounding area included the temples of KARNAK and LUXOR, numerous royal burial sites across the river, and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS and the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS. The ancient Egyptians called the city Nowe or Nuwe, which indicates that it was dedicated to the sun god AMUR The main part of Thebes was located almost entirely on the east bank of the Nile River, while the burial sites of the kings and queens were located on the west bank. Also located on the west bank were the villages that housed the workers who built the temples and tombs and the houses of the priests who maintained the religious sites. The oldest monuments in Thebes date from the Eleventh Dynasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.). It was during this period that Upper and Lower Egypt were unified and the city became the capital of Egypt. During the Twelfth Dynasty (ca. 1938-1759 B.C.), the royal capital was moved from Thebes to LISHT, closer to Lower Egypt. However, Thebes remained an important site, particularly for temples that honored Amun. Around 1630 B.C., a nomadic* group from western Asia known as the HYKSOS conquered Egypt, but they were unable to subdue Thebes. The

Theology

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

THEOLOGY

deity god or goddess

leaders of the city finally succeeded in driving the Hyksos from power in about 1523 B.C. This success marked the beginning of Thebes' greatest period. Grand estates for the country's elite and huge temples in honor of the gods were built in Thebes. On the west bank of the Nile, temples and elaborate tombs were built for the dead. Between 1100 and 950 B.C., the government was controlled by the high priest of Amun in Thebes, as well as a pharaoh* who ruled from the city of Tanis in the Nile Delta. During the early 600s B.C., Nubian pharaohs ruled Egypt from Thebes. In 663 B.C., however, the city was destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, and it never regained its former glory. (See also Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians.)

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he term theology refers to the systematic study of a religious faith. In ancient times, people did not question or study their beliefs. They were accepted as true, inherited traditions. Priests and temple workers did learn about their religions, but they generally focused on the correct performance of religious rituals. In terms of the ancient Near East, the word theology will be used to refer to the people's system of beliefs about the supernatural and their knowledge of the gods and the world. Modern scholars know about theology in the ancient Near East from several sources, including myths, HYMNS, PRAYERS, and other religious writings. Artifacts, such as religious statues and architectural remains of temples and tombs, also provide insights into the beliefs the peoples of the ancient Near East held about their gods. Nature of the Supernatural. In many ancient Near Eastern societies, the supernatural — existence beyond what can be seen—was first thought of as living forces. For instance, people felt that living forces permeated the rivers, lakes, wind, and animals. In more sophisticated cultures, the people came to believe that these forces were controlled by supernatural beings — gods. Gods could have animal forms, such as bulls or birds, but more commonly they were presented in human forms, both male and female, although larger and more powerful than normal beings. Once supernatural powers were given human form, there was a tendency to model the behaviors and existences of the deities* on the human world. For example, people assumed that deities had spouses, children, and servants and that they had the same emotions— jealousy, fear, anger, joy— as humans. Some gods, however, exhibited mixed human and animal forms. Deities were not the only supernatural powers believed to exist in the ancient Near East, however. In some sophisticated theologies, powers, such as "fate" or "norms" (me in Sumerian, ma' aim Egyptian), gave stability to the cosmos and order to the divine realms. People also believed that some forces became DEMONS, generally evil and irrational beings who caused harm to people for no reason. The dead were also believed to have supernatural powers. The spirits of parents, grandparents, and other ancestors could be either helpful or harmful, depending on how they were treated by their descendants. Because of this belief, the dead were feared and 121

Theology

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

The Memphite Theology One of the few theological writings: from ancient times Is the Memphite Theology, which was inscribed on a monument in the Egyptian city of Memphis around 700 B.C. This theological work was at first said to be a copy of a more ancient Egyptian creation myth. It describes how Ptah, the great city god of Memphis, created everything else in the universe simply through his thoughts and words. The Memphite Theology is now thought to be a fake, written in a deliberate at- \ tempt to establish Memphis as an Important religious center.

appeased. The Israelites, Mesopotamians, Canaanites, and Egyptians all made offerings to their dead ancestors to gain their favor and support and to avoid their anger. The cult* of the dead was especially important in ancient Egypt. Regional Theologies. The Mesopotamians, Hittites, Egyptians, and peoples of the Levant* had many gods. According to their theologies, the deities were present in the world in the form of small statues that were kept in temple sanctuaries*. Serving the deities centered on offering their statues food and drink. Failing to serve the deities properly was believed to lead to illness or some other misfortune. It was believed that the gods had created humans to serve them, and as long as the proper rituals, OFFERINGS, and other aspects of worship were carried out, the deities would be satisfied and act kindly toward their human servants. The theology of the Israelites was at first similar to the theologies of other Near Eastern cultures, with their many deities. However, over time, the Israelites came to believe in one deity, called YAHWEH. The Israelites viewed their place in the universe as a result of a covenant, or agreement, Yahweh had made with them. The covenant was that, in return for proper observance of Yahweh's laws, the Israelites would have a strong nation and just laws. Most of what is known about Iranian theology comes from the Zoroastrian religion. As taught by the prophet* Zoroaster in the 600s B.C., there was only one god. This god—AHURA MAZDA—created twin brothers, one of whom followed the path of goodness and truth, while the other pursued evil and lies. Over time, Zoroastrianism included other gods, and Ahura Mazda came to be identified with the good twin, while AHRIMAN represented the evil one. Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were believed to be engaged in a battle over the universe, a battle that Ahura Mazda would one day win. Theology and Government. The theological beliefs of the ancient Near Eastern peoples were reflected in the structures of their governments. Rulers in the ancient Near East were considered chief representatives of the gods. As such, they were responsible for overseeing their communities in accordance with the gods; wishes and for ensuring that the gods were worshiped properly. A community's favor with the gods and its prosperity depended on how well its ruler fulfilled his duties to the gods. The gods had also appointed the king to protect the people of his kingdom. Therefore, it was his responsibility to oversee the administration of the laws the gods had entrusted to him. Myths. Part of the theology of ancient Near Eastern cultures was communicated through their mythology. Most of the questions ancient people had about their origins and existence were answered in their myths—stories that explained how supernatural forces created and controlled the heavens and earth. All ancient myths were developed to resolve a problem or answer a question. For example, a myth might provide reassurance against a potential disaster, such as a flood, or explain some unknown part of life, such as conception. Myths were a way of

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Thera making sense of the world, and they provided ancient people with a sense of stability and security. Most people in the ancient Near East had theogonies—stories about how gods came to be. They also had CREATION MYTHS that answered the question of how the world began. Creation myths from different regions shared certain similarities. For example, all the myths began with some substance that was presumed to have always existed and required no explanation. In Egyptian and Mesopotamian myths, this substance was water. According to Zoroastrianism, the world was created from fire. According to the Israelite religion, before creation there was water, earth, wind, and darkness. In another Israelite story, the universe before creation was a rainless desert. Judaism and Zoroastrianism are unusual in that their theologies included myths pertaining to the end of the world. According to their beliefs, the immortal human soul receives punishment or reward based on a person's actions in life. There will be a day of judgment at the end of the world when the soul's fate will be decided. (See also Iconography; Judaism and Jews; Mythology; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

THERA

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* tsunami large sea wave caused by a volcanic eruption or earthquake

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

T

he island of Thera, also called Santorini, is part of a group of islands known as the Cyclades, which are located in the AEGEAN SEA, an arm of the Mediterranean Sea. Thera was famous for its wine, and in ancient times, it provided an important stop between CRETE and the rest of the Cyclades. Thera is perhaps best known for the enormous volcanic eruption that occurred there. This eruption affected the entire Aegean region. Humans have lived on Thera since at least 2000 B.C., when the town of Akrotiri was the main settlement on the island. The Minoan civilization was Thera's most important influence. Archaeologists* have uncovered pottery, frescoes*, and other items at Akrotiri exhibiting this influence. Unique multistoried houses have also been found at Thera. Archaeologists believe that the settlement was a major center for the seatrade among the Aegean islands. History's largest volcanic eruption occurred on the island in about 1500 B.C. (Some scholars date the eruption somewhat earlier, others somewhat later.) The eruption literally blew most of the island away. In fact, the entire Aegean region, especially the southern Aegean and Crete, was affected by the tsunamis*, ash fallout, and EARTHQUAKES caused by the violent eruption. Akrotiri was buried under almost 100 feet of ash, and scientists have even found ash from the volcano as far away as Egypt and Israel. Some scholars believe that the eruption gave rise to the myth of the lost island of Atlantis. Others believe that it was the source for stories in the biblical Book of Exodus. In about 1000 B.C., the island was resettled by Dorians from the Greek mainland. A drought*, as well as a command from the oracle* at Delphi, prompted many of the citizens of Thera to found a colony on the northern coast of Africa in about 630 B.C. This colony, Gyrene, became one of the islanders' most important achievements. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Volcanoes.) 123

Thutmose III

THUTMOSE III ruled ca. 1479-1425 B.C. Egyptian king * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch is too young or unable to rule * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

TIGLATH-PILESER I I I ruled 745-727 B.C. King of Assyria * usurp to wrongfully occupy a position * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * province region that forms part of a larger state or empire

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hutmose III (thoot»MOH»suh) was a pharaoh* during the Eighteenth Dynasty and is considered one of Egypt's greatest rulers. When his father, Thutmose II, died around 1479 B.C., his young son and heir was not old enough to become king. Therefore, HATSHEPSUT, both wife and half sister of Thutmose II, became regent*. Eventually, however, strong-minded and ambitious Hatshepsut declared herself pharaoh and ruled together with Thutmose III until her death in about 1458 B.C. When Thutmose finally gained sole power over the Egyptian throne, he began to reestablish the empire that his grandfather Thutmose I had created. First, he marched into the Levant* and subdued a rebellion of local princes. However, he understood the power of diplomacy* far better than his predecessors had; instead of killing his conquered enemies, he took the princes' heirs back to Egypt as hostages. Once a prince died, his heir was returned to assume the throne, having been trained to be an obedient vassal*. In just 20 years, Thutmose successfully conquered much of the Levant and southern SYRIA. Like his grandfather Thutmose I, he reached the EUPHRATES RIVER, but he was unable to go any farther because of the Mitannians. Thutmose III died around 1425 B.C. and was buried in the VALLEY OF THE KINGS. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

C

onsidered one of the most capable rulers in Assyrian history, Tiglath-pileser III (TIG»lath»pi»LAY»zuhr) was the first king of the Neo-Assyrian empire. He led a series of brilliant military campaigns that rapidly expanded the empire and restored it to greatness after decades of decline. In 745 B.C., while serving as governer of the city of KALKHY, Tiglathpileser usurped* the throne of Assyria during a rebellion against the weak ruler Ashur-nirari V. After taking power, Tiglath-pileser launched an aggressive policy in the north and west, conquering the kingdom of URARTU, a number of Neo-Hittite kingdoms, and several Phoenician city-states* in SYRIA and CANAAN. He also campaigned against the MEDES in the northeast and helped Babylonia defeat the Aramaean nomads*, who were threatening its borders. Following these conquests, Tiglath-pileser began to consolidate Assyrian control. Instead of just demanding tribute*, he turned conquered regions into Assyrian provinces*. He also renewed a policy of forced migrations, or deportations, removing thousands of people from conquered territories and replacing them with loyal groups from other parts of the empire. In 729 B.C., Tiglath-pileser took advantage of unrest in Babylonia and seized the city of BABYLON. He then declared himself king of Babylonia, thus linking the two kingdoms. He died soon afterward, having regained much of Assyria's former greatness and leaving an enormous empire to his son and successor, SHALMANESER V. (See also Aramaeans; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Kings.)

Tools

TIGRIS RIVER

* tributary river that flows into another river

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

Tin

Tombs

TOOLS * artisan skilled craftsperson * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

S

ince ancient times, the Tigris River has been one of the most important waterways in the Near East. The earliest civilizations in the region developed between the Tigris and the EUPHRATES RIVER, in a region that was known as MESOPOTAMIA (a Greek word meaning ''land between the rivers''). Both rivers originate in the mountains of eastern Turkey and run in a southeasterly direction, emptying into the Persian Gulf. From its source in Hazar Lake, the Tigris flows steeply downhill through mountainous territory. Most of the water in the river is supplied by winter rains and melting snows from mountains in Turkey. Its upper reaches are fed by four main tributaries* that drain much of eastern Turkey. When the winter rains and spring snow melts are heavy, the Tigris is prone to devastating floods. During these times, because of its steep course, the Tigris is much swifter and deeper than the Euphrates. This makes it more difficult to draw water from the Tigris for use in irrigating fields downstream. Although most of the early Mesopotamian cities were founded on the banks of the Euphrates, some cities were also built along the Tigris, including NINEVEH, perhaps as early as 7000 B.C., and ASHUR, around 2500 B.C. Both of these cities eventually became part of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians also built other cities, including KALKHU and Khorsabad, along the Tigris. Among the important cultures that arose in the lands surrounding the Tigris were those of the HURRIANS, the people of Mitanni, and the Urartians. The city of Seleucia, one of the capital cities of the SELEUCID EMPIRE, was built on the Tigris around 300 B.C. After the Parthians captured Mesopotamia in the 140s B.C., they built their capital, Ctesiphon, across the river from Seleucia. (See also Floods; Geography; Rivers; Water.)

See Metals and Metalworking.

See Burial Sites and Tombs.

T

he laborers and artisans* of the ancient Near East used a wide variety of tools, many of which resemble those used by people today. With their simple tools and implements, ancient workers were able to produce a variety of artifacts* used in everyday life. Their tools—made from wood, stone, copper, bronze, and iron—built the ancient world and allowed the people to take care of themselves.

Tools of Farming and Industry. The earliest tools were stone objects, such as knife blades, spearheads, and arrow points used for hunting. Once an animal was killed, stone blades, choppers, and scrapers were used to cut it up and to remove and process its hide for CLOTHING or shelter. Early farmers used wooden plows to prepare soil for planting and stone sickles to harvest grain. They also used stone grinders to crush the

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Tools

* smelt to heat ore for the purpose of extracting pure material

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes itsname from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor,or teacher

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grain to makeflour for bread.Eventually,copper, bronze,andlater, iron tools replaced many ofthoseofstoneandwood.However,stonewasstill used for tools many hundredsofyears afterthe use ofmetals became widespread. Ancient carpenters used saws, hammers, chisels, planes (for shaving wood), and awls (for punching holes).Tobore holesinhard substances, workers used bow drills.Thestringof the bow(like that usedby anarcher) was wrapped around one ormore thinposts, each tipped with astone or metal bit at its cutting end. Movingthebowbackandforth horizontallyrotated the posts, allowing the bit topress down and cut into thematerial being worked. Builders also used several implements for planningandlaying out their projects.Theplumb bob, aweighted string from hungthecenter of one side of a triangular frame, servedas the earliest type oflevel. The frame was placed pointed side down betweentwobeamsorother objects on the ground. If the string aligned precisely with the point,thearchitect knew thesurface waslevel. Other surveyingandmeasuring tools included rulers called cubit sticksand squares that were usedtodetermine whether the corners of a building formed true right angles. The metalworkerswho created manyofthese measuring tools relied on specific tools of their own.Thehammer, tongs,andanvil were part of the metalworking trade from avery early date. first Themetalworkers blew through a metal tube to makefireshotterforsmelting* metals. This eventually gave way to the bellows, ahandheld device thatcould pump much more air and dramatically increasetheheatof a fire.

Tools of Artists and Scientists. Sculptors used many of thesam tools employed bybuilders—hammers,chisels,andadzes (cutting tools)— to shape stone into statues orstone bowls. Artisans used the bowdrill to bore holes JEWELRY, in SEALS, and other decorative objects. WRIT- Scribes used ING implements fashioned from reeds. In Mesopotamia, wedge-shaped cuneiform* symbols wereCLAY pressed TABLETS into wet with astylus (writing tool) madefroma reed called sedge. Egyptian scribes* stiffhollow used reeds for pens.

Trade Routes Ancient physicians had access to surgical and dental instruments, including scalpels, retractors (instruments for holding open edges of a wound), and needles. Remains of corpses from Egypt show that surgeons often achieved successful results using these very basic devices. Although tools had developed as a means to kill animals, they had also become a means of prolonging and enriching human lives. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Measurement; Metals and Metalworking; Sculpture; Stone; Wood and Woodworking.)

TORAH * exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

Trade

TRADE ROUTES

T

he Hebrew word torah, which means "instruction/' refers to the first five books, also called the Pentateuch, of the Hebrew BIBLE. The term also came to refer to the oral tradition of laws and customs that interprets the written Torah. According to Jewish tradition, YAHWEH revealed the Torah and the TEN COMMANDMENTS to the leader MOSES on Mount SINAI. This event occurred during the Israelites' exodus* from Egypt. Modern scholars, however, believe that the Torah was written by different people, possibly under different circumstances and during different times. The names for the books come from the first line of each book, and the English names summarize the events in each book. Bereisheet (Genesis), meaning "In the Beginning/' discusses the origins of humankind and the selection of the Israelites as God's chosen people. Shemot (Exodus), which means "Names," as in "Now these are the names of the sons of Israel," describes the journey of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan. Va-yikra (Leviticus), which means "He called," as in "And the Lord called unto Moses," discusses priestly regulations and laws. Ba-midbar (Numbers) which means "In the Wilderness," refers to a census or description of the 12 Israelite tribes. Devarim (Deuteronomy) which means "Words," as in "These are the words of Moses," is a summary of the laws stated earlier. The written Torah is the most sacred religious text in Judaism, and parts of it are read weekly during most Jewish services. Today every synagogue houses at least two Torah scrolls, each handwritten on leather. These scrolls are kept in a special box called the ark of the Law. Special ceremonies are performed each time the Torah is removed from and returned to the ark. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

See Economy and Trade.

T

rade between distant regions of the ancient Near East was common by the early third millennium B.C.* By studying records and ruins of ancient civilizations, archaeologists* and historians have been able to trace the main routes over which trade was conducted. Despite the danger of bandits and wild animals, most trade goods were carried overland

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Trade Routes * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* domestication process of adapting or taming for human use

See map in Economy and Trade (vol.2).

delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

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on ROADS by donkey CARAVANS. Traders also used water routes. Water travel was faster, safer, and more efficient than overland travel, and large cargoes were sent by boat or ship whenever possible. Mesopotamia!! Trade Routes. As early as the late fourth millennium B.C.*, the city-states* of URUK and Susa had networks of trade routes. One such route was used to bring lapis lazuli* to Sumer and Elam from presentday Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli was then traded along the Great Khorasan Road that ran southwest from IRAN to MESOPOTAMIA. Another extensive trade network developed along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, connecting southern Mesopotamia to ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) through northern SYRIA. Most of the trade routes in this region followed the rivers closely where possible. Farther north and west, the routes ran through passes in the rugged mountains of southeastern Anatolia. The Assyrians opened up trade into central Anatolia, where they had established trading colonies by about 1900 B.C. Two major roads ran west from the Assyrian capital of ASHUR to the important trading colony of Kanesh. During the first millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians constructed and maintained an extensive road system that stretched from northwestern Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf and east into Iran. After the collapse of the Assyrian empire, the Persians took over and extended the Assyrian road system. Under the Persians, the "royal roads" as they were known reached to the westernmost portions of Anatolia. They eventually linked the cities of the Aegean seacoast to the rest of the Near East. The domestication* of camels around 1100 B.C. opened new caravan routes across the Syrian Desert between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean Sea. Tin and precious stones from Iran and Afghanistan and TEXTILES from Mesopotamia were the main goods carried north and west along these routes. The Mesopotamians brought back copper, silver, wool, dyes, and timber. Much of the southbound trade moved via rivers, especially large cargoes such as timber from the Mediterranean region. CANALS in southern Mesopotamia carried most of the trade goods from the northwest that entered Babylonia. Mesopotamia developed seaborne trade with its southern neighbors of the Persian Gulf by the middle of the third millennium B.C. Sumerian records report a brisk copper trade with the country of Magan, in the present-day OMAN PENINSULA. In the 2200 B.C., the Akkadians imported copper, ivory, turquoise, and exotic animals from MELUKKHA in present-day northwestern India, through the Persian Gulf. Many of these goods were bought and sold on the Persian Gulf island of Dilmun (present-day BAHRAIN). This small kingdom became an important trading center for MERCHANTS from Arabia, southern Mesopotamia, and India. Egyptian Trade Routes. Egypt had begun to trade with the island of CRETE by at least 2000 B.C. Ships from Egypt sailed the Mediterranean Sea on a current that flowed from the delta* of the NILE RIVER northward to Crete. In summer, a wind from the northwest aided ships on their way back to Egypt. However, seaborne trade in the eastern Mediterranean took place along the coastal cities in Syria. Egypt had a serious need for timber, which it obtained from Syria, along with olive oil and wine.

Transportation and Travel Egypt also traded with African states to the south, such as Nubia and Punt. Nubia was easily reached by sailing up the Nile (the Nile flows from south to north). Scholars are unsure of the precise location of Punt, but Egyptian records indicate that expeditions to that region traveled on the RED SEA. Punt probably lay along the African coast where the Red Sea flows into the Indian Ocean at present-day Somalia. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with foreign kingdoms, states, or nations

The Levant and Arabia. The people of the Levant* played a large role in trade because the region was centrally located in the ancient Near East. Several roads ran in a north-south direction, with crossroads connecting where the terrain allowed. By 1000 B.C., the main trading cities on the eastern Mediterranean coast had come under the control of the Phoenicians. These seafaring people had developed ships that were able to make sea voyages to places as far away as Spain and possibly England. By the 700s B.C., the Phoenicians were trading with Egypt, Anatolia, Greece, and other locations throughout the Mediterranean. The people of ancient Arabia used the camel for trade. In fact, these animals were especially important in the opening of trade routes to southern Arabia. Trade goods here included such luxury items as frankincense and myrrh*. Trade routes were also dictated by where traders could stop for water on their journey. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

T

he people of the ancient Near East lived in a world that was smaller than today's in many ways. First, they had little or no contact with the peoples of northern Europe, eastern Asia, and southern Africa, which lay beyond their world. Second, traveling long distances for pleasure—as vacationers do today—was probably not done. People traveled only when they had to: to take goods to market, to flee an invading army, to visit a temple in another city, or to lead livestock to new pastures. MERCHANTS, SOLDIERS, MESSENGERS, and diplomats* were among the besttraveled people of ancient times. Some of them made frequent and long journeys as part of their jobs and responsibilities. However, the great majority of people probably never traveled far from home, although written records suggest that short local journeys—as people visited each other, attended festivals, and engaged in commerce—were common in all periods. Much of what is known about transportation and travel in the ancient Near East comes from royal records concerned mainly with military matters. However, this material sometimes contains general information about routes and methods of travel. It sheds light on how the people of the ancient Near East moved themselves and their goods from place to place. Historical Importance of Travel. Three types of long-distance travel helped shape the history and culture of the ancient Near East— those concerned with war, trade, and COMMUNICATION. 129

Transportation and Travel

Praise for Road Builders One of the biggest engineering challenges of the ancient Near East was building and maingaining roads that allowed wagon crews to transport huge fogs from ;f orests high in the mountains to jwhera they were used to construct ^palaces and temples. Hie £pic of G//* Igamesh says of a mythical mountain j ""guardian, "Where Khumbaba was wont to walk, a trail was set down, roads were straightened, and the going was made good/ King Nebuchadnezzar ft of Babylonia, who .wanted some erf the credit for himfself, boasted of his road-building f achievements in$iat region; "I cut f through steep mountains, I split frocks, opened passages, constructe i straight road for the cedars/'

Much of the traffic that moved along the ROADS and waterways of the ancient Near East consisted of ARMIES on the move. Invasions, conquests, retreats, and similar events of long-lasting political and historical significance took place to the drumbeat of soldiers' marching feet and the sound of water lapping the sides of SHIPS AND BOATS. Traveling merchants comprised the second important category of long-distance travelers. The process of buying goods in one place and selling them in another led to the growth of a network of TRADE ROUTES and a system of organized commercial travel, much of which took place in CARAVANS. Many of the contacts that allowed languages, foods, customs, beliefs, and technology to spread among ancient cultures occurred in the context of trade. The third significant group of travelers consisted of messengers. Although the ancient Near East lacked formal public postal services, communications could and did travel over great distances. While some messengers traveled on royal or government business, there were also private services that carried messages for a fee. Messengers helped weave a network of cross-cultural connections, as shown by a series of tablets found in the Egyptian city of AMARNA. Dating from the 1300s B.C., these CLAY TABLETS consist of correspondence between Egypt and other states throughout the Near East, all carried by messengers. Similar evidence of communication by messengers exists throughout the region. Transportation and Travel by Water. The easiest and cheapest way to move large quantities of goods in ancient times was by water. The NILE RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in Mesopotamia served as vital transportation arteries from very early times. The oldest known evidence of water transportation in Mesopotamia—a clay model of a sailboat found in a grave in the ancient city of ERIDU—dates from before 4000 B.C. For thousands of years, RIVERS gave the Sumerians, and later the Babylonians, of southern Mesopotamia access to their northern neighbors, Assyria on the Tigris and Syria on the Euphrates. In the flatlands of central and southern Mesopotamia, the rivers flowed slowly enough to allow easy boat travel in both directions. In the north, however, the rivers flowed down out of the hills and mountains, and the current was too swift for upstream travel. Boats could be towed against the current, but this was costly and done only for especially important missions. Usually people sailed downstream only and then returned upstream by land. In addition to the large rivers, Mesopotamia had an elaborate network of primary and secondary CANALS fed by the rivers. Riverboats could navigate these canals. Waterways were vitally important to the well-being of Mesopotamian states, as King HAMMURABI of BABYLON pointed out in a message to the king of MARI, explaining why he wanted to control the city of Id and its wells of asphalt, a tarlike substance used to make boats watertight. Hammurabi wrote, 'The strength of your country consists of donkeys and wagons, but the strength of this country consists of boats/' Transportation and Travel by Land. Although transportation by water was economical, not everyone had access to boats or waterways,

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Transportation and Travel

* first millennium B.C. period between 1000 and 1 B.C.

nor were all waterways navigable. Consequently,walkingwas themost common form of transportation in the ancient world, although women, children, the elderly,and the sickmight rideadonkey. Records fromthe first millennium B.C.* show people CAMELS, HORSES, but riding and mules, such means of transportation remainedless far common thanwalking. Thefirst wheeled vehiclesin the Near EastappearedinMesopotamia around 3000 B.C.Before that time, peopleand animalshadhauled goods on sleds. One common type ofearly wheeled vehiclewas theox-drawn wagon for carrying goodsand sometimes passengers (such ashigh-ranking men and women). There were also two-wheeled andfour-wheeled carts andCHARIOTS pulledby donkeys or horses. Although firstused forpassengers, chariots quickly acquired military uses throughout theancient world. Even with wheeled vehicles, however, most overland transport relied on pack animals. Donkeys were among firstthe animals used freight as carriers, and they remained themost common pack animal inmountainous regions, where they were prizedfortheir sure footingonnarrow paths.After about 1100 B.C., camels also became pack animals. Their ability to endure long stretches without water made themespecially valuable in desert areas. Whether onfoot, in a wagon, or on the backof ananimal, people who ventured out of familiar territory required roads with clear landmarks because MAPSfor travelers did not yet exist. Theimportance ofrecognizable points alongarouteisillustratedin theMesopotamian story of

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Trojan War

GILGAMESH when the hero asks, "Where is the road to Utnapishtim, what are its landmarks?" Magical spells from ancient Mesopotamia speak of angry ghosts who removed landmarks and made travelers go astray. Then as now, getting lost was one of the hazards of a road trip. (See also Migration and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Shipping Routes; Wheel.)

Trojan War

TROY epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

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See Troy.

T

roy is one of the most famous cities in history, yet until recently, most people did not believe that it was real place. Located in presentday Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), the city gained its fame from the Greek poet Homer's epics* the Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient city of Troy was located in northwestern Anatolia near the AEGEAN SEA. Throughout ancient times, Troy was essentially a fort that housed the Trojan king and his court. The city was rebuilt nine times during its 3,000 years of inhabitation. Each time the city was destroyed, the Trojans would level the ruins and build on top of them. Located along major trade routes in the ancient Near East, Troy quickly grew rich and prosperous. Little else of the city's early history is known. Archaeologists* believe that around 1260 B.C., Troy was destroyed by fire, perhaps during the legendary Trojan War as described in Homer's poems. The survivors of the fire rebuilt the city, but not to its former glory. During the next few hundred years, the city was destroyed and rebuilt several times until the 700s B.C., when the Greeks colonized the area. The Greeks resettled Troy, which they called Ilion. There they built a temple to Athena, which attracted many visitors and great rulers, including the Persian king XERXES and the Macedonian ruler ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In 85 B.C., the Romans attacked and destroyed Ilion. Shortly thereafter, the city was rebuilt. Over the years, Roman emperors added many imperial* buildings to the city, which they called Ilium. The city continued to flourish until the A.D. 300s, when the Romans founded Constantinople in Turkey. Thereafter, Ilium ceased to be an important city, and ultimately it was abandoned. The location of Troy was unknown until the early A.D. 1800s, when German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann identified a place in Turkey as the site of the ancient city. In excavating its ruins, archaeologists discovered ten levels of settlements occupied over a period of more than 3,000 years. Archaeologists found massive walls, citadels, gateways, and towers at several levels, indicating that the city was wealthy in ancient times. Other items unearthed during the excavations included jewelry and ornaments of gold, Mycenaean pottery, tools, vessels made of copper and bronze, and weapons. Although many scholars are unsure whether Homer's account of the Trojan War is based on actual events, archaeological excavations have

Tutankhamen

provided evidence that thecityofTroywasdestroyed aroundthe same time as the war isbelievedtohave occurred. Some historians think that the destruction wascausedby anearthquake fire, and while others maintain that the city wasdestroyed becauseof theeventsof Trojan the War.Although archaeology cannot prove whetherandwhere Trojan theWar took place, it providesframe a of referencefor theevents described in Homer's epics.(Seealso Greece and theGreeks; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

Turkey

See Anatolia.

TUTANKHAMEN ruled ca. 1332-1322 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh * pharaoh king ofancient Egypt * heretic person whogoes against established beliefs of a religion * deity god orgoddess

the

T

utankhamen(too-tehng-KAH-muhn),anEighteenth Dynasty pharaoh*, is one of the mostfamous rulersinEgyptian history. However, fame his comes notfrom alongand successfulreignorbecause he hadgreat military victories. Instead, Tutankhamen famous is because his is the best-preserved tomb everfound KINGS, VALLEY THE inOF acemetery the located near ancient THEBES. Tutankhamen succeededthepharaohs AKHENATEN. Smenkhkare and These rulers were considered heretics* because theyhad triedto make ATEN the sole Egyptian god, whereastheEgyptians worshiped many deities* of whom AMUNwas thechief god. Akhenaten hadeven established a new capital AKHETATEN called inAten's honor. Scholars areuncertain about Tutankhamen'sancestry. Some historians believe that Smenkhkarewas hisbrother. Texts fromtemple a at

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Tyre

regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch is too young or unable to rule

pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

See [color plate 10,^ vol. 4.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

TYRE * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

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LUXOR state that Amenhotep III was his father, but it is possible that the word father was used to mean ancestor. Notwithstanding the controversy regarding his ancestry, scholars know that Tutankhamen was first named Tutankhaten, meaning "living image of the Aten./; Tutankhamen inherited the throne when he was 9 years old. His main advisers were his regent*, Ay, and the general of the Egyptian armies, Horemheb. These two men advised the young king to distance himself from his Aten-worshiping predecessors. He therefore changed his name to Tutankhamen (in honor of Amun), returned the capital of Egypt to Thebes, and repaired temples and statues dedicated to the old Egyptian pantheon*. He married one of Akhenaten's daughters, Ankhesenpaaten, who also distanced herself from her father by changing her name to Ankhesenamen. Tutankhamen died when he was about 18 years old and was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb was probably originally meant for a minor official, for it did not have the long corridor typical of royal tombs and it only had four small rooms. It is most likely that the tomb actually designed for Tutankhamen was used instead by his regent and adviser, Ay. After Ay died, Tutankhamen's other main adviser, Horemheb, became pharaoh. Although he had made changes favorable to Amun, Tutankhamen later fell into disgrace for being associated with the Atenworshiping rulers. Consequently, most references to the young king were removed from monuments and temples, and his tomb was forgotten. During the 1100s B.C., the tomb of Ramses VI was unknowingly constructed above Tutankhamen's tomb. During the construction of this tomb, tons of stone chips fell over the entrance of Tutankhamen's tomb, hiding it for thousands of years. As a result of his short reign, his later disgrace, and the burial of his tomb, Tutankhamen was forgotten until A.D. 1922, when archaeologist* Howard Carter uncovered his tomb and its treasures, which were totally intact. Tutankhamen's mummy lay inside a sarcophagus* that held a nest of three coffins. The outer two coffins were made of wood with gold coverings. The third coffin was made of solid gold. The king's mummy was dressed with jewelry and amulets*, and his head was covered by a gold mask. The burial chamber also contained four shrines made of wood covered in gold. The other three rooms of the tomb were filled with furniture, clothes, weapons, statues, and a chariot. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

A

n important city-state* in ancient Phoenicia, Tyre was built on an island and on its neighboring mainland off the coast of present-day southern Lebanon. According to traditional stories, Tyrian king Hiram I (ruled ca. 969-936 B.C.) enlarged the city by joining two islands with a landfill. Later rulers of the city expanded it even farther to include the mainland portion, which was often known by a different name—Ushu. Some historians believe that Tyre may have been founded as a colony of SIDON, another Phoenician city-state.

Ugarit * archeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

~See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

UGARIT * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artisan skilled craftsperson * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Archaeological* excavations at Tyre, undertaken since the A.D. 1800s, have revealed that it was first inhabited from about 2700 B.C. However, there is a gap in the archaeological evidence from 2000 to 1600 B.C., when the city may have been abandoned. From then until the city was rebuilt in the 1400s B.C., the site was used for burials and storage pits. Thereafter, the city began to thrive as a center of trade and commerce. By the 900s B.C., Tyre had become the dominant city-state in Phoenicia and the most important harbor and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. Tyrians also established colonies throughout the region, including CARTHAGE in North Africa. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, Tyre also maintained a close relationship with the kingdom of Israel. The most famous king of Tyre, Hiram I, provided SOLOMON of Israel with building materials and plans for his palace and the first Temple of Solomon in JERUSALEM. Jezebel, the daughter of the king of Tyre and Sidon, was married to King AHAB of Israel. In 572 B.C., King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II laid siege* to Tyre during his attempt to consolidate Babylonian control in the Levant*. The Tyrians successfully held him at bay for 13 years, after which he was forced to withdraw. Although Nebuchadnezzar conquered the mainland portion of the city, he never took the city's island fortress. By 538 B.C., the Persians had driven the Babylonians out of Phoenicia, and Tyre became a Persian vassal*. In the 300s B.C., when the Macedonians conquered Persia, ALEXANDER THE GREAT became the first to conquer the island portion of Tyre. He achieved this by destroying the mainland portion of the city and using the rubble to build a road to the island. Alexander then invaded Tyre, killed 10,000 of its inhabitants, and sold the rest into slavery. After Alexander, Tyre came under the control of the SELEUCID EMPIRE and later the Roman Empire. (See also Byblos; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

U

garit (oo»GAH«rit) was an ancient city-state* located at Ras Shamra on the Mediterranean coast of northern SYRIA. The capital of a kingdom of the same name, Ugarit was one of the oldest cities in the ancient Near East. The city had a good harbor, natural defenses, and access to TRADE ROUTES. These features helped it become a center of commerce with extensive trading contacts with Mesopotamia, Anatolia (present-day Turkey), the Levant*, Egypt, Cyprus, Greece, and the Minoans of Crete. Settled by at least 6500 B.C., Ugarit experienced a period of expansion between 3000 and 2000 B.C., during which it became the center of a prosperous kingdom. Its inhabitants were a mixture of AMORITES, Canaanites, HURRIANS, and other peoples. Ugaritic society consisted of two main groups: free citizens and people employed by the king. While most residents of towns and villages in the kingdom worked as farmers and herders, inhabitants of the city of Ugarit included artisans*, soldiers, priests, scribes*, and other specialized workers. Early in the second millennium B.C.*, Ugarit formed an alliance with Egypt as protection against invaders from the north and east. Thereafter, the city fell under Egyptian. Still, it continued to flourish, and between

135

Ugarit

See map inSyria (vol. 4).

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes itsname from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

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the 1400s and 1200s B.C., Ugarit reachedthe heightof itsprosperity. During this period, trade grewtremendously, and thecity expanded greatly in size. Royal palaces, temples, libraries,andother public buildings were constructed, while art and literature flourished. Ugarit remained under Egyptian control until B.C., when about 1330 theHITTITES of Anatolia gained political dominance.Thecity did not begin to decline until theB.C.,1100s aperiod markedbynumerous pirate raids. Shortlythereafter,the cityofUgaritwasdestroyed andlargely abandoned, leading to the collapseof the kingdomaswell. Many scholarsbelieve that the city was destroyed PEOPLES, by SEA the but the chief archaeologist* who excavated Ugarit believed thatthecitywasdestroyed by a violent EARTHQUAKE. Archaeological excavations conducted A.D.in 1900s theearly yielded information about the city and itscultural heritage. Themost important discoveries include cuneiform* texts written in theAkkadian, Human, and Hittite languages. Archaeologists also excavated cuneiformalephbeth (script that contains symbolsforconsonantsbut notforvowels) texts

Ur * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

UMMA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

UR * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * patriarch male leader of a family or tribe * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

written in the local Ugaritic language, a West Semitic dialect* with many similarities to biblical Hebrew. These texts contain a wealth of information about the cultural and religions traditions as well as the mythologies of the people of Ugarit. Other objects found at the site include carved ivory panels, engraved metal vessels, and carved stone stelae* and statues. (See also Cities and City-States; Cuneiform; Economy and Trade.)

A

city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Umma rose to prominence sometime before 2500 B.C., largely due to a change in the course of the EUPHRATES RIVER. The main channel of the river shifted to the east, causing it to flow away from established cities such as NIPPUR and URUK. Cities lying on the old channel—especially Uruk—suffered a decline in population, while settlements on the new channel—such as Umma—flourished. As Umma grew, it began to extend its influence into the regions surrounding the city. This brought it into conflict with neighboring citystates, such as LAGASH to the southeast. Umma clashed with Girsu, the capital of Lagash, over a boundary dispute as well as rights to the use of water from the Euphrates River. Records indicate that Mesilim, the king of KISH, negotiated a settlement and established a formal border between Umma and Lagash. However, Umma broke this agreement, and between 2500 and 2400 B.C., the two city-states engaged in several wars. These battles raged off and on for many years with neither side seizing a decisive advantage. Ultimately, Umma emerged victorious, and its king, Lugalzagezi, conquered Lagash. He then proceeded to attack and subdue major city-states in southern Mesopotamia and established the first large Sumerian state, with its capital at Uruk. Around 2340 B.C., King SARGON I of Akkad attacked and defeated Lugalzagezi and incorporated his former lands, including Umma, into the Akkadian empire. (See also Cities and City-States.)

L

ocated in southern MESOPOTAMIA, the city-state* of Ur was the capital of several empires as well as a major trading center connected to the Persian Gulf. Many scholars believe it was also the home of Abraham, one of the patriarchs* of Israel according to the Hebrew BIBLE. First settled in the fifth millennium B.C. (years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.) by people of the Ubaid culture, Ur developed into one of the region's largest settlements. According to archaeological* evidence, the Ubaid settlement was destroyed by a flood. However, it was resettled in about 3900 B.C. During the next 1,000 years, Ur grew from a prominent town into a walled city. By the 2500s B.C., it was a major Sumerian city-state with impressive art and architecture. This is evident from the excavations conducted in the early A.D. 1900s, which uncovered the Royal Cemetery of Ur. The tombs contained jewelry, weapons, furniture, and other artifacts*, revealing the existence of a complex and accomplished culture. During the 2400s B.C., the kings of Ur extended their power throughout southern Mesopotamia, and Ur became the capital of the region. This

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Ur

period, known as theFirst Dynasty of Ur,lasted until the city wasconqueredSARGON by I ofAkkad around B.C. Thereafter, 2300Ur remained under Akkadian rule until that empire collapsed B.C.In thearound 2200 late 2100s B.C., KingUtu-khegal drove out the Gutians, who had settled in the region, and his successor, UR-NAMMU, establisheda newdynasty*,the * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group Third Dynastyof Ur, that lasted more than100years. During this period, kings undertook several building projects at Ur,including the construc* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a tion of several ziggurats*.Ur reachedthe heightof its glory under Urmultistory tower with steps leading to a Nammu'sSHULGI. son Duringhis nearly 50-year reign, Shulgi reorganized temple on the top the empire and conquered new territory. However, B.C., around 2000 * nomadic referring to people who travel while the AMORITES, a nomadic* people, invaded fromthe west, Ur was from place to place to find food and sacked* by the Elamites fromthe east. pasture Ur was rebuilt and became RELIGION a center and oftrade. During this * sack to loot a captured city period, which lasted about250 years, fellUr underthe controlofBabythe lonians. In about B.C.,1740 the Babylonian army destroyedthe walls surrounding Ur as wellas several homesand public buildings as punishment for the city's participation in a rebellion against Babylonian control. Most See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). residents stayed in the city and had restored their homes and many of the religious buildingsbyB.C. theNevertheless, 1400s Ur slowly declined until about600 B.C., when Babylonian NEBUCHADNEZZAR, king NABONIDUS, and later undertook an extensive rebuildingof the city. This markedthe last periodof Ur's greatness.ByEUPHRATES the B.C.,the 300s RIVER had changed course

138

Urartu away from the city, leaving it without a ready source of water. Ur was abandoned shortly thereafter. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Burial Sites and Tombs; Walled Cities; Ziggurats.)

UR-NAMMU ruled ca. 2112-2094 B.C. King of Ur

* diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

URARTU

U

r-Nammu was the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, a succession of kings who ruled southern MESOPOTAMIA for more than 100 years. Little information exists about Ur-Nammu;s life before he became king. Some historians speculate that he was the brother of King Utu-khegal, who ruled UR from around 2119 to 2112 B.C. Others believe that UrNammu was his son. Whatever their relationship, Ur-Nammu served as military governor of Ur under Utu-khegal. When Utu-khegal died, UrNammu succeeded him as king. Ur-Nammu assumed several titles including Mighty Man, Lord of Uruk, Lord of Ur, and King of Sumer and Akkad. He then set out to live up to those names by extending his influence throughout southern and central Mesopotamia. He did this largely by negotiation and diplomacy* rather than by military force. The only exception involved the city-state* of LAGASH, which he apparently eliminated to redirect trade from the Persian Gulf into Ur. Ur-Nammu also began a large-scale program to rebuild large portions of Ur and repair irrigation CANALS that had been neglected for years. Among his most notable building accomplishments was the completion of the first true ziggurats* in Ur and in other cities under his control. The ziggurat of Ur, which consisted of three platforms topped by a temple, was nearly 50 feet high. Many scholars consider Ur-Nammu the author of the first recorded set of law codes. (Some, however, credit them to his son SHULGI, who followed him as king.) Although these codes were not used to decide court cases at the time, they were the first attempt to describe various legal situations and set penalties for those who broke the law. Ur-Nammu;s reign ended when he died in combat against the Gutians, a people who had ruled Ur for many years before they were driven out by Utu-khegal. Ur-Nammu;s son Shulgi took over as king and during his 50-year reign, greatly expanded the empire to the north and east. However, Shulgi's successors were weak and unable to hold the kingdom together. Around 2004 B.C., a combination of internal weakness, pressure from a nomadic* people called the AMORITES, and an invasion by the Elamites ended the dynasty founded by Ur-Nammu. (See also Dynasties.)

O

ne of the more mysterious civilizations of the ancient Near East, Urartu (u«RAHR»too) was a kingdom in the mountainous CAUCASUS region and flourished for about 600 years, beginning in the 1200s B.C. In the Hebrew BIBLE, the region of Urartu is called Ararat. During the 700s and 600s B.C., the kingdom enjoyed considerable political power, dominating eastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and competing with the Assyrian empire. 139

Urbanization

See map in Assyria and the Assyrians (vol.1).

assimilate to adopt the customs of a society artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest

URBANIZATION * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

140

Little is known about the early history of Urartu, although evidence suggests that the its cultural heritage was influenced by the HURRIANS of northern Mesopotamia. First mentioned in Assyrian records from the 1200s B.C. as a region of many lands and cities, Urartu may have been unified into a kingdom in the following centuries in response to growing Assyrian power. In the late 800s B.C., Urartu entered an era of rapid conquest, and this expansion continued into the next century. Throughout this period, Urartu was often at war with Assyria, and the Assyrians exerted a strong influence on the kingdom. The Urartians assimilated* many aspects of Assyrian civilization while also maintaining a distinctive culture of their own. Among the best-known artifacts* of Urartian civilization are POTTERY, SEALS, and metalworks of decorated bronze. By the early 700s B.C., Urartu had become the most powerful state in eastern Anatolia. Its military success was no doubt aided by a decline in Assyrian power at that time. Within a few decades, however, Assyria began to reassert its power, leading to a number of dramatic military confrontations between the two kingdoms. One of the most famous of these engagements took place in 714 B.C., when SARGON II of Assyria defeated Rusa I of Urartu and plundered* Urartian temples and much of the kingdom. Despite these victories, the Assyrians never succeeded in conquering Urartu, and it remained powerful and prosperous, dominating the eastern Anatolian landscape. However, Urartu faced more formidable enemies in the 600s and 500s B.C., when repeated invasions by the Cimmerians, Scythians, MEDES, and Persians brought the kingdom to a final, violent end. (See also Scythia and the Scythians.)

T

he process of urbanization, the formation and growth of cities, was under way in the ancient Near East as early as the sixth millennium B.C.* Urbanization continued as small village settlements grew into towns and then cities and city-states*. Historians believe that the first large cities arose in MESOPOTAMIA, although urban centers also developed in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), Egypt, IRAN, and the Levant*. Urbanization could not occur until after people had started to domesticate* plants and animals instead of obtaining food through hunting and gathering. AGRICULTURE provided people with a steady food supply that allowed them to settle in one place, usually a location with useful features, such as a good water source. Not all early settlements grew into cities, but those that did became the first political organizations larger than villages. The shift to urban life brought lasting changes to the ways people lived, worked, and interacted with one another. Some of those changes involved resources and labor. Settled urban populations grew because they could store and stockpile food, sharing and distributing it as needed. This meant that instead of farming, some people could work full-time in crafts, in religious or governmental roles, or in professions such as that of scribe*. This greater variety of WORK in urban settings went hand in hand with other changes in social organization. First, a ruling class emerged,

Uruk * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

literacy ability to read and write

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place in search of food and pasture

URUK * fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C. * city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

and then bureaucracies* were established to administer such aspects of city life as the gathering and distribution of food and the building of temples, CANALS, and other public structures. The diversification of LABOR also meant that differences in rank and social class became more pronounced in urban societies. Another development that occurred as a result of urbanization was the appearance of organized, large-scale warfare. Once people began accumulating material goods in central locations, such as the cities, they became targets of others who banded together to steal from them. The Sumerian and Akkadian cities in Mesopotamia, for example, were storehouses for the enormous agricultural wealth produced by the fertile plains around them. This concentrated wealth brought attacks by nonurban peoples from the mountainous countries to the north and east and from the semideserts to the west. In addition to defending themselves from attack, cities launched wars of aggression, usually to gain control of territory or access to resources. Literacy*, developments in the arts and in techniques such as metalworking, and other features associated with the growth of civilization in the ancient Near East appear to have been linked to urban centers. Not every ancient civilization was urban, however. The Scythians and other nomadic* peoples of CENTRAL ASIA developed arts, crafts, and high levels of military and political organization without becoming city builders. Although urbanization was not the only route to civilization, today's scholars look to the remains of ancient cities for the most complete and bestpreserved records of ancient history, culture, and people. (See also Cities and City-states; Egypt and the Egyptians; Scythia and the Scythians; Walled Cities; Wars and Warfare.)

M

any scholars consider the Sumerian settlement of Uruk (OOruk) in southern MESOPOTAMIA to be the world's first true city. Founded during the fifth millennium B.C.*, Uruk grew from an agricultural settlement into an influential city-state* by about 3200 B.C. It retained its importance in Mesopotamia until around 2000 B.C., and it remained occupied for 2,000 years. However, Uruk is not historically significant simply because of its size or the length of time it was occupied. The remains of the city uncovered by archaeologists* contain the earliest evidence of some of the most important cultural developments in human history. For this reason, Uruk has been called the birthplace of civilization. Uruk probably began as two separate settlements, Uruk and Kullaba, that merged to form one city. Each former settlement became a district in the city of Uruk. Kullaba was the location of the temple of the sky god ANU, while the Uruk district (then called Eanna) housed the temple of Inanna, the goddess of war. The earliest remains of advanced culture were found in the Eanna district. These include many CLAY TABLETS that provide evidence of the world's first system of WRITING. Monumental public ARCHITECTURE and works of fine art were also excavated there. Uruk expanded rapidly, attracting settlers from the surrounding regions. By about 3200 B.C., it was the largest settlement in the Near East. As 141

Uruk

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

* dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

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from

the

the populationgrew, the government and economyofUruk also developed. Texts recovered in Uruk show that the city had textile and metalworking industriesat a very early date. Because southern Mesopotamia contains no natural sourcesof metal,it isclear that Urukhad developedan active trade network with other regionsof the ancient Near East. Thereis also evidence that it established colonies in northern Mesopotamia and western IRANand thatthe people of Uruk TRADE established ROUTES to reach them. These colonies probably servedasplaces where goods producedin Uruk were tradedfor those itemsnot available locally. In the mid-2300s B.C., a king namedLugalzagezi established firstthe united kingdom in southern Mesopotamia, with Urukas itscapital. However, aroundSARGON B.C., 2334I of Akkad defeated Lugalzagezi and destroyed Uruk's walls.The citywas revitalized B.C., when in about the 2100 Sumerian king UR-NAMMUfoundedthe Third Dynasty of Ur and undertook an extensive construction programUruk. in When this dynasty* collapsed

Valley of the Kings 100 years later, Uruk went into another decline, and the city's population decreased. It did not grow again until about 1450 B.C., when the KASSITES took control of the city. By this time, however, settlement was confined to the Eanna district. After 1000 B.C., Uruk was controlled first by the Assyrians and later by the Babylonians. Rulers of both empires began new construction in Eanna, and Uruk once again became an important and prosperous city. This may well have been because it lay on one of the main trade routes through the Near East. However, Uruk's prosperity ended when the Parthians conquered Mesopotamia in the 140s B.C. Uruk gradually faded into obscurity, and its final residents probably abandoned the city sometime before A.D. 400. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Cities and City-States; Urbanization.)

VALLEY OF THE KINGS

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

T

he Valley of the Kings is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills on the western side of the NILE RIVER, near the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS. The Valley of the Kings, Valley of the Queens, and temples of KARNAK and LUXOR were all part of the ancient Egyptian city of THEBES. The Valley of the Kings is split into two main sections: the West Valley, which contains 4 tombs, and the East Valley, which contains 58 tombs. Although almost all the tombs belong to kings, there are also tombs belonging to two queens, a few important officials, and the many sons of RAMSES II. The valley served as the royal cemetery from around 1539 to around 1075 B.C. The first king to be buried there was the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh* Thutmose I. Kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties were also buried there. Ramses XI was the last ruler to be buried at the site. The tombs at the site were built in a style that had not been used previously. To protect the tombs from robbery, none of them had any aboveground decoration or monuments. They were cut into the secluded hills and their entrances hidden. Also, for the first time since the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were not built next to mortuary temples. Unfortunately, these attempts at protecting the tombs of the kings were not successful. All the tombs except one were robbed in the centuries that followed. Most of the tombs were of similar structure. They began with a long corridor descending into the hill. This corridor contained deep shafts and, occasionally, rooms of columns that were built to confuse tomb robbers. At the end of the corridor, the burial chamber housed the sarcophagus* of the king. There were also storage rooms that contained furniture and other goods for the king to use in the afterlife. Often, the walls of the tombs were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs* showing the king meeting the gods. Some walls contained magical writings that were meant to help the king as he journeyed through the life after death. The ceilings of the tombs were sometimes painted with stars, astronomical figures, and the sky goddess Nut. The longest tomb at the site belongs to Queen HATSHEPSUT. The corridor is almost 700 feet long and drops about 320 feet into the rock. The

143

Valley of the Queens only tomb that was never robbed belonged to King TUTANKHAMEN. The wealth found in his small tomb gives an indication of the treasure that was robbed from the more ornate tombs. A more recent excavation is that of the enormous tomb meant to house almost all of King Ramses IPs 52 sons. This tomb—the largest one found in the Valley of the Kings— was discovered in the early A.D. 1800s but was never fully excavated because it was considered unimportant. In 1988, the tomb was rediscovered, and it is still being excavated. (See also Afterlife; Burials Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs; Queens.)

VALLEY o\ THE QUEENS

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Vegetables

VOLCANOES

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T

he Valley of the Queens is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills on the west bank of the NILE RIVER. Along with the temples of KARNAK and LUXOR and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS, the Valley of the Queens was part of the ancient city of THEBES. Around 90 tombs have been uncovered at this site where queens and royal children of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (ca. 12921075 B.C.) were buried. Some Seventeenth and Eighteenth Dynasty queens were also buried there; however, most queens during those dynasties were buried alongside their husbands. Most of the tombs at this site are smaller than the tombs at the nearby Valley of the Kings. Each consists of a small room (called an antechamber) that leads into a small passageway. The passageway leads to the burial chamber. Like the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, the tombs in the Valley of the Queens were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs*. The first queen to be buried in the Valley of the Queens was probably Satra, a wife of Ramses I. The most notable person buried there is Nefertari, RAMSES H's principal wife. The site also contains the beautiful and well-preserved tombs of the princes Amenherkhopshef and Khaemwaset II, two of RAMSES Hi's sons. (See also Afterlife; Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

See Agriculture; Food and Drink.

of the earth's volcanoes are found in a series of belts located M along boundaries between the plates of the earth's crust. Two such

boundaries run through portions of the Near East. The more prominent of these, and the one that has produced the most volcanic activity in the region, runs east and west through the AEGEAN SEA and the northern half of present-day Turkey (ancient Anatolia). Here two plates collide where one slides underneath the other. Another such plate boundary runs along the eastern coast of Africa, through the RED SEA. There the plates are rifting, or pulling apart. The movement of these plates releases molten rock from deep underground, which then rises to the surface. The pressure

Wall Paintings

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

WALL PAINTINGS * deity god or goddess

forces the surface rock to form a dome- or cone-shaped mountain. When the pressure becomes too great for the overlying rock surface, the top of the mountain explodes, spewing ash and lava. In ancient times, the most spectacular volcanic eruption occurred on the Aegean island of THERA. Sometime around 1500 B.C. (experts disagree about the exact date), a volcano on Thera erupted with incredibly destructive force. The explosion buried the Late Bronze Age city of Akrotiri under a thick layer of ash and volcanic rock and caused shock waves that were felt for hundreds of miles. The main settlement on the island was apparently evacuated before the eruption, but its burial in ash preserved its remains intact until their excavation in the late A.D. 1960s. At one time, scholars believed that the eruption on Thera was responsible for the destruction of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION on Crete. However, they have since established that Minoan Crete did not fall into decline until around 1450 B.C., disproving their earlier theory. The eruption also may have inspired the legend of the lost continent of Atlantis. Another well-known volcano in the Near East is Turkey's Mount Ararat, which the Hebrew BIBLE identifies as the resting place of Noah's ark. A few archaeologists* believed that this story was supported by shipshaped features on the mountain, but these later turned out to be natural formations caused by landslides and lava flows. Volcanoes exist throughout central Turkey, which is covered with soft volcanic rock that was used in local construction from the A.D. 300s to the 1200s. Lava and volcanic rock are also found in northwestern Arabia, in a region known as Harrat Ash-Shamah. Volcanic eruptions have occurred there as recently as a few hundred years ago. (See also Disasters, Natural; Obsidian.)

W

all paintings represent some of the earliest and most important forms of visual art from the ancient Near East. The earliest wall paintings featured simple geometric designs done in a single color, while later works contained complex images of plants, animals, humans, and deities* in a variety of patterns and colors. Throughout ancient times, such works decorated the walls of palaces, temples, and private homes.

Materials and Techniques. Near Eastern wall paintings were done using paints made from natural pigments, or coloring agents, found in minerals, plants, and animal sources. The earliest and most basic colors used were red (made from iron oxide), white (from the mineral gypsum), and black (from a tarlike substance called bitumen). Other colors, developed later, included blue (from either copper oxide or the semiprecious stone LAPIS LAZULI), green (from the stone malachite), and yellow (from iron oxide mixed with clay or sand). Ancient painters mixed dry pigments with water and a substance called a binder, which makes paint adhere, or stick, to a surface. Among the binders used were egg whites or a substance in milk called casein. Artists applied paint to a surface with brushes made of reeds, one end of 145

Wall Paintings

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

which had been split and chewed to make the reed fibers soft enough to absorb the pigment. Two basic techniques were used in wall painting: distemper and fresco*. Distemper, the earliest and easiest technique, involved painting on a wall covered with a layer of plaster, lime, or mud that had been allowed to dry. All wall paintings up to about 1500 B.C. were probably done using this technique. In fresco painting, several layers of plaster or a similar substance were applied to the wall, and the artist painted while the top layer of plaster was still wet. With the distemper technique, the paint formed a film on the surface of the wall. In fresco painting, the particles of pigment were bound to the plaster as it dried. Thus, a fresco actually became a part of the wall itself, which made fresco paintings very durable and allowed them to retain their color longer. However, fresco was a much more difficult technique than distemper because the painter had to work quickly before areas of fresh plaster dried. Early Wall Paintings. Wall paintings first appeared in the Near East between 8000 and 5000 B.C. in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), IRAN, and the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The earliest works contained simple monochrome (single-color) designs, which remained

This fresco from an Assyrian provincial palace at Til Barsip in Syria shows two officials in profile. Although the palace was decorated with many paintings, stone reliefs were more customary for Assyrian palace art.

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Wall Paintings

* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically

See [color plate 12, ] vol. 4.

standard for centuries. Multicolored paintings featuring simple geometric patterns appeared around 6000 B.C., and more elaborate patterns and designs began appearing soon afterward. Many such wall paintings have been discovered in Anatolia. By the early sixth millennium B.C.*, the imagery in wall paintings had expanded to include hunting scenes, birds, and landscapes that attempted to reproduce objects and scenes found in the natural world. Among the earliest examples of such wall paintings are ones found at £ATAL HUYUK in Anatolia and in SYRIA. However, geometric patterns remained the most popular form of wall decoration in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant* in the fifth and fourth millennia B.C. The first wall paintings in MESOPOTAMIA were associated with the construction of large temples in the southern region of Sumer between 3500 and 3000 B.C. The walls of Sumerian temples at that time featured primarily geometric designs, although human and animal figures appeared in some wall paintings. The most widely used colors were black, red, and white. Wall paintings in houses of this and later periods continued to feature simple geometric designs done in a single color. New Images and Colors. Little is known about wall painting during the third millennium B.C.* However, archaeologists* have uncovered many works dating from the 1800s B.C. and later throughout the Near East. Among the new types of images that appeared during the second millennium B.C. (2000-1001 B.C.) were ceremonial scenes, often depicting acts of worship or processions of people before a ruler. Humans were represented according to the same rules used in bas-relief*. That is, faces appeared in profile, with the fronts of bodies facing outward or turned slightly to the side. Such scenes were intended to support rulers' claims that they were divinely chosen leaders. Wall paintings from this period often included depictions of rich plant life and plentiful water, suggesting the fertility of the land. Other popular images included hunting scenes and images of sacred trees. Many paintings also incorporated bands of stylized* flowers and palm leaves, as well as groups of the ever popular geometric figures. Some paintings even attempted to imitate the look of materials such as wood or stone. Most wall paintings of this period made use of a variety of colors, including blue, green, yellow, and orange. Many of the wall paintings that have survived from the second millennium B.C. offer clues to the spread of ideas and influences among the cultures in the Near East. For example, wall paintings from the city of MARI reflect influence from the cultures of Sumer and Babylonia. Elements from the art of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of CRETE can be seen in wall paintings from northern Syria and Egypt. The artistic styles of the Levant influenced wall paintings in palaces of northern Mesopotamia, while paintings in the Levant featured images of bulls and masks associated with Egypt. Babylonian wall paintings from the 1100s B.C. provided models that were copied widely in Assyrian and Persian art several hundred years later. Later Developments. One of the major developments in wall painting after 1000 B.C. was the increasing use of glazed BRICKS and tiles, which 147

Walled Cities

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

WALLED CITIES

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * eighth millennium B.C. years from 8000 to 7001 B.C. * silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

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helped create a more durable form of art. A single ceramic tile might contain an entire scene, with one or several figures or decorative images. More often, however, many individual colored bricks or tiles were arranged together to form larger images and scenes. Artists in Assyria, Babylonia, and Iran created magnificent reliefs* made from colored tiles or molded bricks. Glazed brick decorations also were used widely by the Persians from the 500s to 300s B.C., but there is little evidence of true wall painting in the PERSIAN EMPIRE. After ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire in 332 B.C., wall paintings in the westernmost regions of the Near East reflected a strong Greek influence. Later with the expansion of the Roman Empire into the region, Roman artistic influences shaped wall painting styles and techniques. Farther east, artists combined both Western and Asian styles until the decline of Roman influence in the early centuries A.D. (See also Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Birds in Art; Burial Sites and Tombs; Human Form in Art.)

I

n ancient times, many cities in the Near East were surrounded by walls. Sometimes the walls surrounded an entire city, and as the city grew over time, its walls were extended to enclose new spaces. In other cases, the walls surrounded only the older part of a city or perhaps a central core of special importance, such as a fortress or a district surrounding palaces and temples. Although historians assume that cities were walled for defense against human attackers, other possibilities exist. For example, in the city of URUK in MESOPOTAMIA, people drove their livestock inside the city's walls each night. In fact, an early version of the epic* of GILGAMESH speaks of the city as a "sheepfold" or "cattle pen." Other early city dwellers may have built walls to protect their animals from wild animals or human raiders, turning their cities into large corrals. Other city walls originated as flood barriers. Huge walls of mud brick* around the Mesopotamian city of Sippar, for example, were intended as protection from the floodwaters of the Euphrates River. The earliest known city walls are the massive fortifications* built at JERICHO in the eighth millennium B.C.* Scholars have long thought their purpose to be military defense, but a later interpretation suggests that the Jericho walls were built to protect the settlement from silt* carried by a brook. Walls also served to define areas of settlement and as visible reminders of authority. A wall dating from around 7000 B.C. found at the Mesopotamian village of Maghzalia, for example, probably functioned more as a symbol of the identity of the enclosed community than as a defensive fortification. Another purpose of city walls was to display the wealth and power of their builders. To this end, some walls bore rich decorations intended to win admiration for the city's rulers. Most city walls were probably military structures built for defensive purposes. In times of war, farmers and people from the countryside sought safety inside walled cities. Between 3500 and 3000 B.C., the Sumerians built a well-planned and fortified colony in northern SYRIA. It was a

Wars and Warfare

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

WARS AND WARFARE * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

rectangular city about 44 acres in area, surrounded by a mud-brick wall about ten feet thick. The wall contained nearly 50 square towers from which the people could defend the city during an attack. Uruk, the largest Sumerian city, was surrounded by a defense wall almost six miles long, enclosing nearly 1,360 acres of land. This wall's 900 towers offered vantage points for lookouts or for soldiers. Cities built in the Levant* between 2000 and 1600 B.C. had massive fortifications, such as earthen mounds, steep artificial slopes, and moats, in addition to walls of mud brick or stone. Another impressive walled city was KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittites of ANATOLIA. Its fortifications included massive earthen ramps, thick stone walls, and gates with guard chambers and heavy wooden doors. In Egypt, walls were used as fortification as long ago as the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), although no remains have been found. Even heavily walled cities, however, could fall to determined attackers and foes. The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia became expert at conquering walled cities. They laid siege* to the cities surrounding the Assyrian empire and starved out their populations. They also assaulted city walls with battering rams (large logs mounted on wheeled frames), ladders, and axes and undermined them with tunnels. JERUSALEM, with stone walls 23 feet thick and at least as high, was one of the few walled cities in the ancient Near East that was able to hold off the Assyrian army. (See also Cities and City-States; Fortifications; Wars and Warfare.)

W

ars and warfare played an important role in the societies of the ancient Near East. The peoples of the region waged war for three main reasons. They fought defensive wars to protect their territories from aggression and offensive wars to conquer new lands. They also fought civil wars, which involved internal rebellions or uprisings. The earliest wars were disputes between small, loosely organized forces wielding hunting tools such as clubs, spears, and bows and arrows. Nomads* raided the fields and pastures of settled communities, whose inhabitants fought to protect their crops and livestock. City-states* fought for control of land and water resources. Over the course of several thousand years, the states of the Near East grew larger, stronger, and more centrally organized. In some cases, they developed into imperial* powers controlling vast territories. The fighting forces of these states and empires also grew larger and more organized, becoming ARMIES consisting of professional SOLDIERS with an array of WEAPONS AND ARMOR and commanded by ranks of officers. With the development of large states and empires, wars were fought on a larger scale, and sieges*, fighting at sea, and multiyear campaigns in distant lands became commonplace. The centerpiece of warfare, though, remained the pitched battle, in which land armies maneuvered for position and then clashed on the battlefield. Reconstructing Ancient Battles. Modern historians have a difficult time reconstructing ancient battles. Surviving information about even the 149

Wars and Warfare * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* propaganda communication deliberately shaped or slanted toward a particular viewpoint

Holy Wars The ancient Mesopotamians justified warfare on religious grounds, claiming that their enemies had sinned against the gods. Consequently, victory in war was more than military triumph; it was the 1 umph of divine justice, backed by the gods. Invaders who seized thrones could also be viewed in a religious context. For instance, when Cyrus of Persia defeated Nabonidus of Babylonia, people I lieved that the Babylonian ruler had sinned against the gods, who had chosen the outsider Cyrus to replace him. So deep were such beliefs that when King Sargon II of Assyria was killed in battle, his son Sennacherib agonized over the sin that his father must have committed to arouse the terrible anger of the gods.

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

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best-documented conflicts is often vague and incomplete. An example is a battle fought at MEGIDDO in the Levant*, which took place around 1456 B.C. This is the earliest Near Eastern battle for which detailed descriptions survive. Yet even the fullest account of the battle, which was recorded on the walls of the great temple of the god AMUN at KARNAK in Egypt, has many missing sections of text. Moreover, scholars realize that it was written in a literary style intended to glorify the achievements of the king. Many ancient accounts of battles were written for a similar purpose—to serve as propaganda*—making the accuracy of their information highly questionable. The battle at Megiddo pitted THUTMOSE III, the ruler of Egypt, against a coalition of Canaanite forces. The surviving record gives many details of the Egyptian army's long march to the city of Megiddo and its position on the day of battle on the Plain of Jezreel facing the city. However, it includes no details about the size or position of the Canaanite forces or about the actual fight. It says only that when Thutmose appeared on the battlefield, the enemy fled in great disorder. The battle of Qadesh, in which the Egyptians fought against the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) around 1274 B.C., is known in greater detail because pictorial records accompany written accounts in Egypt. However, these pictures and texts fail to reveal that the Egyptians lost the battle. Instead, they focus on the bravery and heroism of the Egyptian king, RAMSES II. Nearly all accounts of warfare in the ancient Near East contain no reliable information about such things as the location of battlefields, the weather and terrain in which a battle took place, the size and position of troops, the duration of the fighting, and how armies coordinated the movement of people and supplies. In short, information gathered from surviving official accounts of military encounters gives a broad picture of ancient warfare, but it lacks the details that would allow historians to reconstruct those battles. Siege Warfare. According to ancient texts, the battle of Megiddo was followed by a siege of that city. The ancient armies of the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians often employed siege warfare, which developed into a highly specialized form of combat with its own tools and weapons. Siege warfare was a way of capturing cities or fortresses that could not be taken quickly in battle. Fortresses and many ancient Near Eastern cities had strong walls and other fortifications* to help them withstand direct attacks by an enemy. During a siege, however, such protective barriers could become like the walls of a prison, trapping the defenders inside the city or fort. An attacking army laid siege to a city by surrounding it with troops to make sure that no one could enter or leave. The defenders inside the city could neither send messages to allies asking for help nor obtain fresh supplies or reinforcements. Their ability to endure a siege depended on the quality of their fortifications and the soldiers who operated them, their stockpiles of food, and their access to freshwater from wells or streams.

Wars and Warfare

The attackers in a siege had three ways to assault abesieged city or fortress. They could dig tunnels under the walls, climb over them,orsmash and burn theirway through them.Ifthese methods failed, they could seal off the city and try to starveits inhabitants until they surrendered. Usually, attackers used someor all of these methodsat the same time. Tunneling under city walls required no special equipment other than shovels. Climbing overthe walls requiredthe constructionofladders or towers. The attackers might also build huge rampsofearth leading up to the top of the enemy walls. Sometimes these rampshad to cross streams or water-filled ditches that helped protect the approach to thewalls. Attempts to break through walls usually centeredon gates, often made of wood, whichwere the weakest pointsin the walls. Attackersmighttry to set the gateson fire or break through them withabattering ram,ahuge log or wooden beam mounted in a wheeled frame. Using ropesor chains, the attackers drove the ram ashard aspossible against the gatesorpossibly the walls themselves.If the ram succeededin makingaholein the defenses, soldiers would charge throughto attackthe defenders inside. Another tactic involved shooting flaming arrows intoabesieged fortorcity, hoping to start fires that would cause the inhabitants toflee, panic, and surrender. It was not easytocarryout siege operations underthe watchful eyes of the defenders, who could shoot arrowsor hurl stones,hot fireliquids,or from the top of the walls onto the enemy below. Moreover, sieges took time, during which the attacking force also needed foodand other supplies. When these ran short,the attackers suffer from couldhungerand disease almost as muchas thedefenders insidethe besieged city. Thecapture of an enemy capital or sacred city had great psychological impact on both the victors and the vanquished. Because siege warfarewas difficult so and costly,it tended to be undertaken onlyas alast resort. 151

Wars and Warfare

epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* plunder property stolen by force, usually after a conquest

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

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Bribery, treachery, or trickery occasionally offered attackers a way into a besieged city. A well-known example of this appears in the Iliad, the epic* by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which tells the story of the long siege of TROY in Anatolia by the Greeks. After many years of siege, the Greeks built a giant wooden horse and a small band of soldiers hid inside it. When the Trojans hauled the horse into their city, the Greeks came out of the horse at night and opened the city gates to their armies. Military Tactics. Warfare involves strategies, which are overall goals, and tactics, which are the means used to reach those goals. The societies of the ancient Near East used different combinations of tactics to achieve their military strategies. The military history of Assyria illustrates a shift from defensive to offensive strategies and the use of a wide range of tactics, including psychological warfare. At the beginning of the second millennium B.C.*, the city-state of ASHUR in northern MESOPOTAMIA slowly built a fighting force to defend itself. The rulers of Ashur, believing that their state had to conquer or be conquered, raided surrounding regions that threatened to attack. Plunder* proved to be an added advantage to Assyrian raids, and greed became a motive for further campaigns. Another motive for warfare was the growing desire of Assyrian kings to gain prestige through successful military campaigns. By 700 B.C., Assyrian armies had waged offensive wars from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Persian Gulf in the south. Campaigns usually began in the spring and lasted through the summer. The Assyrians made little use of NAVAL POWER in warfare. Because they did not have a navy, they usually used Phoenician ships when they had to go to sea. They made extensive use of pitched battles and siege warfare, but these tactics consumed much time, energy, and labor. The Assyrians came to prefer psychological warfare, which involved breaking down the enemy's will to resist. Once the Assyrians decided to conquer a region, they would try using diplomacy* to get the inhabitants to submit. If diplomacy failed, they surrounded the foreign capital and shouted to its inhabitants, urging them to surrender. The next step was to attack small, weak cities and commit extreme acts of destruction and cruelty as a warning to all who did not submit. Using such methods of psychological warfare, the much-feared Assyrians made some conquests with minimal effort. During the second millennium B.C., the Hittites of Anatolia had a wellorganized and efficient military force that protected their borders and earned them a place among the great powers of the day. The Hittites used sentries, outposts, and spies to gather information about enemy movements. Sometimes Hittite agents disguised as deserters or fugitives deliberately passed false information to the enemy, a tactic that contributed to the victory of the Hittite king Muwattalli II over Ramses II of Egypt at the battle of Qadesh in about 1274 B.C. The Hittites, just like others in the ancient Near East, believed in seeking guidance from the gods on military matters. The king might ask the gods if they approved of a campaign and if the king would win. He might even ask the gods to approve specific tactics and plans of action. The Hittites favored direct attacks and pitched battles. One favorite tactic was to

Water burn crops and villages in an area until the men of the district were forced to fight the Hittite army. Another was to destroy one town in the hope that neighboring towns would submit without a fight. If a city did not submit and could not be taken by storm, the Hittites mounted a siege. Evidence suggests that, on occasion, a duel between two champions, one representing each side—for example, between David, the Israelite, and the Philistine Goliath; or between Achilles, the Greek, and Hector, the Trojan—might settle an issue. Such contests represented warfare in its most basic form. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cavalry; Chariots; Egypt and the Egyptians; Persian Wars.)

WATER

* urbanization formation and growth of cities

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

M

any peoples of the ancient Near East considered water sacred, a symbol of fertility, and the source of life. Access to reliable sources of water was essential for survival, especially in places such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, where rainfall alone did not provide sufficient water to sustain large-scale settlements and AGRICULTURE. The ancient Near Easterners realized the importance of managing their resources so that they could make the most use of the water available to them. How well they were able to do so meant the difference between prosperity and starvation for many farming communities, cities, and even entire empires of the ancient Near East. As a consequence, water became an important resource to safeguard or control. Climate. About 15,000 years ago, during the most recent Ice Age, the climate of the Near East was cool and dry. There was little precipitation because a large amount of moisture was trapped in large ice sheets. As the earth warmed and the ice melted, the climate became warmer and more humid. Wetter conditions peaked around 7500 B.C. and again in about 4000 B.C., corresponding to times of increased population growth in Egypt and Mesopotamia. By the time the first cities in the Near East were founded, however, somewhat drier conditions had returned. Despite generally less favorable climatic conditions, rapid urbanization* and population growth occurred in the ancient Near East. Water Sources and Irrigation. Because most parts of the ancient Near East received little rainfall, the societies there had to rely on other sources of water. Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians depended on the annual flooding of local RIVERS to provide the water they needed. Every year, summer rains steadily increased the water levels of rivers emptying into Egypt's NILE RIVER. These rivers lay far south of Egypt, so the floodwaters traveled a great distance before spilling into low-lying basins adjacent to the Nile, soaking the ground, and depositing silt* rich in nutrients. After the waters receded, farmers plowed and planted the moist soil that was left behind. Consequently, there was little need for man-made IRRIGATION. The main water sources in ancient Mesopotamia, the EUPHRATES RIVER and the TIGRIS RIVER, originated in the mountains of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and were fed by rapidly melting spring snows. The 153

Water

See color plate 6 vol.4.

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

* regulator gate or valve to control amount of water passing through a channel

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floodwaters traveled a shorter distance over steeper terrain, resulting in floods that were difficult to control for purposes of irrigation. Moreover, the timing of the flood was such that it occurred when crops were in the fields. Consequently, unlike those of the Nile, the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates needed not only to be controlled but also to be stored for use prior to the planting. In order to use the floodwaters, the ancient Mesopotamians constructed an elaborate series of CANALS that allowed them to hold the water and channel it to the fields where it was needed. Another problem in ancient Mesopotamia was that the Tigris and Euphrates carried sediments containing salts that built up in the soil over time, making it unsuitable for farming. The soil in the Tigris and Euphrates Delta became so salty after about 1850 B.C. that the population eventually migrated to more fertile regions where agriculture was still possible. Outside the main river valleys, people used other sources of water, such as brooks or natural springs into which water flowed by the force of gravity. The earliest permanent settlement in the world was at JERICHO in Canaan, which was located near the Jordan River and a spring. Protection of Water Resources. In the ancient cities of Canaan, inhabitants constructed public works to tap and protect valuable water sources. They built covered galleries to allow residents access to the streams or pools and to exclude their use by outsiders. In some cities such as MEGIDDO, tunnels were built so that water from a nearby spring flowed into a pool constructed under the city. Bringing the water to the city in this manner was not only more convenient, but it also ensured access to water if the city were attacked or placed under siege*. Water and Politics. Water had the potential to be used as a tool for destruction. For instance, cities along a river could ruin the economy of neighboring rivals by not maintaining their water-controlling devices or by diverting the water away from other cities, either causing a flood or a drought*. Several early Sumerian texts suggest that this was a cause or result of conflicts between cities. Mesopotamians also fought wars to defend themselves from invaders who wanted to conquer their wellwatered land. Access to water and construction and maintenance of water-controlling devices were important issues in the ancient Near East, because everyone had to share this essential resource. Records of wills and land sales from Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region show that people carefully defined the water rights associated with their property. Maintenance of canals was crucial, and each city appointed officials who were responsible for this task. Other large-scale projects, such as the construction of regulators* to control the flow of water from the rivers, required the efforts of several villages or even cities working together. These projects were considered so important that several Mesopotamian kings left INSCRIPTIONS celebrating the construction of canals and other steps they took to manage water resources. (See also Drought; Environmental Change; Floods; Geography.)

Weapons and Armor

WEAPONS AND ARMOR

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* cudgel short, heavy club

* sinew tough cord of tissue that attaches muscles to bones

* third millennium B.C. period from 3000 to 2001 B.C. nomad person who travels from place to place in search of food and pasture

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n the history of the ancient Near East, many battles were fought over territory and resources. The SOLDIERS fighting these battles relied on weapons to attack their foes and on protective armor to escape harm. Over the course of several thousand years, the weapons and armor used by the ARMIES of the region underwent many changes as people developed new materials, new technologies, and new ways of waging war. Weapons. The first weapons used for war were those used in hunting: spears, bows and arrows, axes, nets, and maces. Most weapons were made of stone or wood, but after about 3000 B.C., advances in metalworking led to the introduction of bronze weapons, with blades that were easier to keep sharp. After about 1200 B.C., bronze was replaced by iron. The number and variety of weapons increased as people developed implements specifically for combat. Texts, illustrations, and artifacts* of the Egyptians show the array of their weaponry. These weapons fell into two groups: weapons intended to serve as an extension of the arm and used at short range and weapons designed for long-range use. At times, short-range weapons were adapted for long-range use. Short-range weapons were meant to kill or disable opponents with bone-crushing blows. Maces, clubs, and cudgels* had weighted ends that could strike an opponent with terrific force. Thrusting and stabbing weapons were intended to pierce the body and penetrate vital organs. They included daggers, straight swords, and lances (stabbing spears). Slashing and cutting weapons, such as the battle-ax and single- and double-edged swords combined the qualities of the other two types. That is, they delivered cutting blows over a wide area of the body and, at the same time, struck like clubs and could lop off limbs. Ancient long-range weapons were missiles (objects that are thrown through the air) launched either by hand or by a launching device. Handlaunched missiles included stones, throwing sticks, throwing axes, and javelins (spears for throwing). The longest-range missiles were those driven by the energy of a launching device. Slingshots could be used to hurl stones with accuracy and force. An example of this is described in the Hebrew BIBLE, when the Israelite David uses a slingshot to kill the Philistine Goliath (1 Kings 17:50). The longest-range weapon, however, was the bow and arrow. Early bows in Egypt consisted of a single long piece of wood bent into a curved shape. The bows that developed later, called composite bows, were shorter and consisted of layers of wood, animal horn, and sinew*. Such bows were more powerful and more accurate than the earlier ones. Similar weapons came into use across the Near East, but various regions and cultures developed distinctive variations. In MESOPOTAMIA during the third millennium B.C.*, for example, the large number of words for different kinds of axes, such as single-bladed and double-bladed, indicates that axes were widely used not just as weapons but also in ceremonies and as a form of currency. The Scythians and other nomads* of CENTRAL ASIA, who were among the most skilled horsemen and archers of the ancient world, had bows that were small enough to handle on horseback but that could shoot powerfully over a long range. The Scythian arrowheads had thorn-shaped projections that prevented an arrow from being removed from a wound without causing more damage. 155

Weapons and Armor Armor. Weaponrywas only partof asoldier's equipment. Warriors also needed protection from their enemy's attacks. Twomain types ofprotective equipment came into use in the ancient Near East: shieldsand protective armor. Shields were portablebarriers, usually strappedto forearm, one that a soldier could position to block blows aimed at him. Most shields were made of wood or of leather on a wooden frame. Because metalwas both heavy and expensive, whole shields were rarely madeofmetal. However, metal bands, studs, or spikes were usedon shields madeofother materials. Egyptian wall paintings illustrating ANA-HITTITES a battle of with the TOLIA (present-dayTurkey) show that they favoreda tall shield with indentations on its sides. This shield wasprobably intended to protect the

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Wheel

Uncovering Ancient Armor The ancient Greeks believed that the Saka people of the Central Asian plains had invented several forms of battle armor, including a large shield. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that the Saka horses wore armored coats, Modern archaeologists have found evidence that the Saka were skilled armorers. The ruins of the Temple of the Oxus, built in the 300s B.C. in present-day Afghanistan, contain many iron plates from defensive armor. The major part of a complete suit of armor has also survived. Its plates are fastened together in overlapping rows. Those plates may have been the best protection from the hazards of ancient warfare.

Weaving

Wheat

WHEEL

entire body. By the end of the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), smaller, round shields were coming into use. Ancient armies employed shields in several ways. One widely used tactic was to march infantry, or foot soldiers, forward in a solid block called a phalanx. The soldiers were trained to march in rhythm and close enough together that their shields overlapped, presenting a solid wall to their enemy's arrows or spears. Another important use of shields was to protect the drivers of chariots and the archers who rode in the chariots. The Hittites used three-man chariots, with one soldier who carried the shield to protect both the driver and the fighter. In addition to shields, soldiers sometimes wore protective clothing, such as helmets or body armor. Helmets were generally made of leather, although metal plates might be attached to them. In Hittite Anatolia, helmets had pointed tops and flaps that protected the wearer's cheeks and neck. The Assyrians made helmets of hammered iron with bronze rivets. Crests and plumes often adorned warrior's helmets. These were sometimes symbols of rank but also may have helped identify members of a particular force during the confusion of battle. The earliest armor consisted of garments of leather or perhaps heavy felt, a dense woolen cloth. In the later part of the second millennium B.C., as swords and arrows became more powerful and lethal, people began wearing metal plates as armor. Scale armor, which consisted of many small overlapping discs or plates, offered some protection from the enemy's weapons, especially the supreme weapon, long-distance arrows. A soldier portrayed on the King's Gate in the ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA wears a sleeveless jacket that may have been made of leather. Underneath it is what looks like a shirt of scale armor. Hittites and other ancient soldiers may also have worn protective garments of chain mail, many small metal rings sewn together in a flexible sheet. The quest for more powerful weapons was paralleled by a drive to develop lightweight, effective protection from them. For the people of the ancient Near East, improved techniques of weapon and armor making could make the difference between life and death. (See also Cavalry; Chariots; Egypt and the Egyptians; Metals and Metalworking; Wars and Warfare.)

See Textiles.

See Cereal Grains.

H

istorians, archaeologists*, and other scholars consider the invention of the wheel one of the most important technological advances that occurred in the ancient Near East. The wheel made the transport of people and goods easier and faster. It also led to developments in many aspects of life, particularly in trade and war. 157

Wine * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artisan skilled craftsperson

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* millennium period of 1000 years; pi. millennia

WINE * commodity article of trade

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Archaeologists believe that the wheel used for transport was adapted from the potter's wheel, which was invented around 4000 B.C. The potter's wheel was set on an axle, which in turn was set within a bearing that enabled the wheel to rotate freely. This freely rotating wheel enabled ancient Near Eastern artisans* to mass-produce pottery, which became a necessity with the establishment of cities. The first evidence of wheeled vehicles—depictions in pictographs from URUK—date from the late fourth millennium B.C.* Most archaeological evidence of wheels, however, dates from after 3000 B.C. Before that time, sledges, or sleighs, and pack animals were used to transport people and goods. The earliest wheels in Mesopotamia were made using three planks of wood that were cut to form a circle and held together by a thin strip of lumber. These disk wheels were then fixed to an axle that was attached to a cart. This type of wheel was soon adopted by the other cultures of the ancient Near East. However, these wheels were heavy and clumsy, making vehicles slow, and people continued to use sledges and animals for transport. When wheeled vehicles were used, they were ox-drawn wagons, two-wheeled or four-wheeled carts, or CHARIOTS, pulled by donkeys or HORSES. These were used for passengers or for carrying goods. Over the millennia*, ancient Near Easterners improved the wheel in several ways, including the addition of a tire by which the wheel wore down evenly. Eventually, tires of leather, and later, metal were used. The most significant improvement was the creation of openings in the disks. These eventually led to the invention of spokes, which were first portrayed in Hittite and Syrian carvings in the early second millennium B.C. (years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.). Wheels with spokes were lighter than disk wheels, and they could carry their loads at faster speeds. Because their speed and lightness made them more maneuverable, the spoked wheels were used in chariots to transport soldiers. Around 400 B.C., the Persians turned chariot wheels into weapons by mounting sharp, curved blades on them. When driven into an enemy infantry formation, these blades could cut down troops. Scholars are unsure of the extent of the impact the invention of the wheel had on ancient Near Eastern society. Some believe that improved TRANSPORTATION enabled people to move into cities even though they were farther away from food sources and supplies because these could now be easily imported. The invention of the wheel also stimulated the economy because it created new professions, such as jobs for people who made wheels and carriages. (See also Science and Technology.)

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he earliest evidence of wine making in the ancient Near East—dating to about 3500 B.C.—was found in sediments inside a large pottery jar at a site in IRAN. However, it is most likely that wine was produced much earlier than that. In addition to grapes, wine was also made from other fruits, including dates, figs, pomegranates, and plums. Wine was a rare and valuable commodity* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, which contains few regions suitable for the cultivation of grapes. Described as ''mountain beer" or "bright wine like the uncountable waters

Witchcraft

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to more powerful one, often under the threat of force

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

WITCHCRAFT incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

of the river," wine was never plentiful in Babylonia. Wine consumption was limited to the wealthiest classes, and wine was often presented as an OFFERING to the deities. An expensive luxury item of trade, wine reached BABYLON in the form of taxes from northern and western lands or as tribute* from defeated enemies. Vineyards were more commonly found in northern Mesopotamia, where the terrain was mountainous and the rainfall was sufficient for grape cultivation. For instance, Assyria enjoyed favorable conditions for growing grapes, with the best vineyards in the regions east of the city of NINEVEH. The royal palace at KALKHU contained space for the storage of up to 528 gallons of wine. Several clay tablets found in the palace describe the allocation of wine rations to the members of the royal household, indicating that wine was not as rare a commodity in Assyria as it was in Babylonia. In Egypt, the cultivation of grapes was easier, and therefore the consumption of wine was greater. However, because the cultivation of grapes required IRRIGATION, wine was still largely a drink of the upper classes. Archaeologists* have found sealed wine jars with labels indicating where and when the wine was made, the name of the vintner (the person in charge of the vineyard), and the quality of the wine inside. The quality listed could vary from simply "wine" to "very good" or "genuine" and, in at least one case, "for merrymaking." Depictions in tomb paintings as well as INSCRIPTIONS and texts have also yielded considerable information on wine making and consumption in ancient Egypt. As in Mesopotamia, wine was often used to pay taxes and as an offering to the gods. Wine was also well known SYRIA and in the Levant*, as indicated by the many references to it in the Hebrew BIBLE. (See also Food and Drink.)

T

he use of MAGIC was widespread in the ancient Near East. Both white magic, or helpful magic, and witchcraft, or black magic, were practiced. Magicians used incantations*, other special words, and objects such as amulets* to control the supernatural world for specific purposes. White magic, practiced openly in the ancient Near East, was closely related to both religion and medicine. It was generally used to protect people from harm. For example, it might have been used to cure someone by turning away the evil DEMONS who were believed to be causing the person's illness. In contrast, witchcraft was used to deliberately harm others for the benefit of the witch or the witch's client. For instance, it might have been used to cause illness in someone the witch or warlock (male witch) disliked. Because witchcraft was prohibited by law, it was practiced in secret. People believed that witches were frequent and unpredictable causes of harm, and they lived in constant dread of their black magic. Many written sources from the ancient Near East describe white magic, but little has been found about witchcraft. What is known about witchcraft comes primarily from texts describing the white magic that was used to combat it. Counterspells—spells designed to fight witchcraft— dealing with almost every facet of life have been found, indicating that the practice of witchcraft was common and widespread.

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Witchcraft

* divination art or practice of the future

foretelling

Methods of Witchcraft. Although their aims were different, witches and people who practiced white magic usedthe sameor similar methods. Of the two techniques most commonlyused,one was basedon analogy, or similarity,and the other was basedon contiguity,or closeness. In witchcraft based on analogy, an object that bore some resemblance to a person was manipulated by the witch. The assumption was that whatever happened to the object would happen to the person the object represented. For example, a witch might prepare a doll so that it th looked like a particular person. Then the witch would pierce the doll with needles to cause pain or injury to the person the doll resembled. In witchcraft based on contiguity, an objector objects that had belonged to or been touched by a particular person were manipulated by the witch. The assumption here, as in witchcraft basedon analogy, was that whatever happened to the objects would also happen to the people the objects had touched. For instance,a lockof hairor pieceof clothing belonging to a person might be damaged or destroyed by a witch to cause harm or death to the person from whom the hair or clothing had been taken. A special category ofwitchcraft thatwas commonin the ancient Near East, especiallyin Mesopotamia,was the "evil eye." Thiswas a cursedirected at another person to cause that person harm.Egypt, In ancient texts mention people who were "red of eye/; which may be related to the Mesopotamian evil eye. These people were believedtoSETH, be worshipersof the god of chaos.The Hebrew Bible describesthe evileye as well, but here it was not a curse.Rather, it was the idea thatan enviousjealous or person could injure another with a look. The spirits of dead people were believedto have supernatural powers and knowledge, including thatof the future. Necromancywas a method of divination* in which a magician tried to learn about future the by communicating with spirits of the dead. Although necromancy was practiced in many regions in the ancient Near East, it was considereda bad form of magic, practiced onlyby witches. Consequently,it was punishable by death.

Detecting and Punishing Witchcraft. Witchcraft was ill throughout the ancient NearEast. Several law codes banned it and set procedures to be followedin cases whereit was suspected.For example, the law code issuedby the Babylonian HAMMURABI king B.C. around 1750 states that bothwitchcraftand false accusationsof witchcraft were punishable by death. The Code of Hammurabi also spelled out how to determine if the person accusedof witchcraftwas actuallya witch.The accused person was to be put through a test called the river ordeal in which he, or more commonly she, plunged intothe watersof a river.If the person drowned, he or she was presumedto be guiltyof witchcraft.If the person survived,the presumptionwas of innocence. Another way of dealing withwitchcraftwas spelledout in an ancient Mesopotamian ritual calledMaqlu, meaning "burning/' This ritual, which always took place at night, did not require that the witch's identity be known. Instead,effigy, an or model,was usedin placeof the unknown witch. Much of the ritual and its accompanying incantations 160

Women, Role of were aimed at associating the effigy with the real witch. At the end of the ritual, the effigy was burned to punish the witch, whose true identity remained unknown. Although it is likely that witchcraft was practiced widely in the ancient Near East, it is unlikely that many people were actually accused and put through the river ordeal or some other type of trial. Because witchcraft was always practiced in secret, the identity of a witch usually was not known. Moreover, because a false accusation of witchcraft could mean death for the accuser, people probably avoided accusations of witchcraft whenever possible. (See also Amulets and Charms; Oracles and Prophecy; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

WOMEN, ROLE OF

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future

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n every major civilization of the ancient Near East, men dominated the government, religion, and economy. Women did not enjoy equal status with men although they had more rights in some places and times than in others. Women's legal rights, both within the family and in society as a whole, were generally defined and limited by men. Although history does not tell of any organized resistance by women to male authority, some individual women achieved considerable status and power. These women usually came from elite, often royal, families. Several were QUEENS who governed their states in their own right. Although most women of the ancient world occupied humbler levels of society, they filled numerous vital roles in addition to those of wives and mothers. Their activities and responsibilities may have been viewed as separate from men's, but they were essential to the functioning of society. Mesopotamia. Women of the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures of MESOPOTAMIA could own property in their own names, even when married. As early as the third millennium B.C.*, their names appeared in records as property buyers. In the time of the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), women could serve as witnesses to legal transactions, although they later lost this right. Women also served as scribes*, physicians, diviners*, artists, and performers, although in all of these roles they were outnumbered and overshadowed by men. Information about the status of some Mesopotamian women comes from the ruins of Nuzi, a Mitannian town in northeastern Mesopotamia. Free women (as opposed to slaves) in Nuzi were active in the town's economy and in its courts, particularly in connection with the ownership of land, which they acquired by purchase, inheritance, and grants from rulers. They bought and sold goods, lent money, and made investments alone or in partnership with other women and men. Although such activities show that women's legal status was equal to that of men, women participated in economic activities outside the household only when there were no men in their families to do so. Babylonians developed the custom of sending a rich young woman away to become a naditum. She lived apart from the world in an institution called a gagum, which was associated with a temple. As a naditum, a woman was forbidden to marry and was expected to devote her life to

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Women, Role of * dowry money or property that a woman brings to the man she marries

Paying for a Man's Mistakes Although women without male relatives faced many difficulties in the ancient Near East, a husband or father was no guarantee of protection. A man's wife and chil- \ dren were likely to suffer if he had unpaid debts or other legal problems, A tetter from the Old Babylon-j fan period describes just such a situation: Immediately after you left for the trip, Imgur-Sin arrived here and claimed: "He owes me twenty shekels of silver/'He took your wife and daughter as pledges. Come back before your wife and daughter die from. ,. constantly grinding barley while in detention. Please get your wife and daughter out of this.

cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

162

prayer and religious worship. She controlled some private, portable property from her dowry*, such as money and jewelry, and with these goods she could engage in business activities and investments. Because she was free from the responsibilities of marriage and motherhood, a naditum was able to become an important businessperson. Mesopotamian women of the merchant class sometimes became alewives, or owners and operators of taverns who also lent money to farmers. Lower-class women had fewer opportunities to control their own destinies. Those without men to provide for them sometimes performed forced labor in dire conditions and received smaller rations than their male counterparts. Such women worked in the wool-processing and weaving industries. Egypt. Ancient Egypt was a male-dominated society that made sharp distinctions between men's and women's roles and occupations. Nevertheless, women enjoyed significant legal rights. They could inherit property, own real estate, and on their deaths, leave it to whomever they pleased. They could own slaves and free them. They could also conduct economic and legal transactions, including lawsuits. Records even tell of one woman who sued her father over ownership of some possessions. A woman's work in ancient Egypt depended largely on her social status or that of her husband. The titles given to women in Egyptian texts offer clues about their roles. During the Old Kingdom period (ca. 26752130 B.C.), elite and noble women bore such titles as "She-who-is-knownto-the-king," the female version of a high-ranking male official's title. Other descriptive titles, such as "inspector of treasure," reveal that women worked in administrative positions as stewards for other powerful women. Some were in charge of state or temple storehouses of food and textiles, while others worked in private households. Female weavers, wigmakers, singers, dancers, and doctors also appear in the records. As in Mesopotamia, however, women formed a minority in most professions. Women also had roles, although limited ones, in the temple cults* of Egyptian religion. Texts contain accounts of priestesses of the goddess HATHOR and of female singers and dancers in the temples. During the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a royal wife or daughter headed the priesthood at the temple of AMUN at THEBES. Married Egyptian women generally ran their households. One Egyptian text even recommended to men that they let their wives run the house without male interference. In addition to overseeing the household, a wife might also have performed textile work for a temple or other state institution or increased family income by selling or trading garden produce, cakes, clothing, or pottery. Female servants worked in houses and in the tasks of food and textile preparation, but most skilled crafts were limited to men. It is possible that some women worked outdoors as forced laborers as a form of punishment. Generally however, there was a division of labor in Egypt between men's and women's work. Anatolia. Although the pantheon* of the HITTITES of central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) consisted of almost as many goddesses as gods who

Women, Role of

received equal space and prominence in shrines and temples, the status of women wasless equalin everyday life.An exampleof thiscan be found in one Hittite story featuringa husband telling wife, his "Youare a woman and of a womanly nature:you know nothingat all." A Hittite woman's activities were usually limited to her home. Her roles were daughter, wife, mother,and widow. Her power, if she had any, was determined by her husband's statusand wealth.A king's daughteror sister, for example, could become queenof a neighboring state. A rich man'swife could command many servantsand have timefor leisure activities. She supervisedthe preparationof the family's foodand clothing, while ordinary womenperformed these tasks themselves. Some women, however, had roles outside the home, although they earned abouthalf as muchas men did. Those fromthe poorer ranks of society performed manual labor for wages. Some women workedin the palace, and temple personnel included priestessesand female singers. Midwives aided in birth, and women skilled in the magic arts werein demand to help people suffering from both physical ills suchas headaches and supernatural ones such as attacks by witches. The most powerful women in Hittite society were queens, someof whom exercised considerable power and conducted official business in their own names. Widowed queens held their power until death, which meant that their influence overlapped with the reigns of their husband's sons or stepsons, resulting in many strugglesfor powerin the palace. Queens were able to strengthen their positions and to influence others by using funds they controlled, their knowledgeof state secrets,and even their supposedskills in spellsand magic. 163

Wood and Woodworking

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

* patrilineal descending through the male line, from father to son

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See [color plate 13, vol. 2.

WOOD AND

WOODWORKING 164

Iran. Women in the Elamite civilization of western IRAN had higher status than those in neighboring Mesopotamia. This may be reflected in the fact that many cities in Elam had a goddess as their patron* deity. Some scholars also believe that the Elamites had a matrilineal system of inheritance (one that ran from mother to daughter rather than from father to son). Evidence for this comes from a letter from an Elamite king who claimed he should rule Babylon because he was married to the oldest daughter of its king. Other Elamite records show that women could serve as witnesses to the swearing of oaths in legal transactions. In contrast to the state of Elam, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, which dominated Iran from 550 to 330 B.C., was organized along patrilineal* lines of descent and inheritance. Although women could not inherit their father's goods, they could and sometimes did occupy positions of higher rank than men. Records reveal that women sometimes supervised groups of male workers and received equal or larger shares of rations. Syria and the Levant. In Syria and the Levant*, as elsewhere in the ancient Near East, women's status and roles depended largely on their male connections. In the third millennium B.C., women of the royal household held a significant place in the society of the Syrian city-state* of EBLA. The king's mother and his primary wife had full access to the palace goods and their management, a privilege they retained in the Canaanite and Israelite cultures that later emerged in the region. The royal harem, or the ''women of the king/' lived in their own building and were assisted by a group of officials. Sometimes these women were placed in charge of important parts of palace work, especially textile manufacturing. Among the Israelites, many families raised livestock or engaged in farming. In such households, women and girls shared the work. Although women were raised primarily to be wives and mothers, the Book of Samuel in the Hebrew BIBLE lists jobs that women performed outside the home, including those of performer, cook, and baker. Some women participated actively in trade. Israelite women had few legal rights, however. They could not divorce their husbands, and only rarely could they inherit property. Unlike most Near Eastern societies, Israel barred women from holding religious offices. Although this prohibition set Israelite women apart, the existence of rules that established what roles women could have in society was common in the ancient Near East. (See also Childbirth; Children; Divorce; Egypt and the Egyptians; Family and Social Life; Marriage; Pregnancy.)

T

he natural abundance of wood, together with its structural qualities and the ease with which it can be worked, has made wood one of the most widely used BUILDING MATERIALS for many millennia*. Throughout history, wood has remained popular not only for building but also for crafts and necessities. Although the Near East is not noted for its extensive timber resources, the inhabitants of the region have made use of wood for a variety of purposes since ancient times.

Wood and Woodworking millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

Building the Tabernacle The Hebrew Bible describes the construction of the tabernacle, a makeshift woodeivframed tent used for worship by the ancient j Israelites during their journey to the Promised land: He [the craftsman] made upright frames, too, ofacada wood to support the tabernacle. Each board was ten cubits high, and had a width of a cubit and a half; and at the sides of it, two tenon»piece$ jutted out, so that each might be mortised to the next; all the frame work of the tabernacle he made in this way. (Exodus 36:20-23)

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized wood from certain tropical trees

Construction and Building. Circular huts dating to around 8000 B.C. were among the earliest wooden structures built in the ancient Near East. These mud-covered HOUSES consisted of a timber frame with gaps filled with twigs, reeds, and branches. As buildings became larger and more sophisticated, STONE or mud brick* often replaced wood as the primary building material. However, builders did not abandon the use of wood for construction. The remains of early stone houses indicate that wooden posts were used as structural supports on the insides of walls. Throughout the history of the Near East, certain parts of most structures continued to be made of wood. These included doors, door and window frames, and roof beams. Sometimes roofs also contained twigs and branches that were typically covered with mud or plaster. The roofs on some Greek buildings were made of baked clay tiles set over supporting wooden beams. In larger structures, such as palaces and great halls, tree trunks often served as pillars to support the weight of the roof. Also, the outer walls of many large buildings contained horizontal timber beams laid between layers of stone or masonry. The wooden beams added a measure of flexibility, which was especially important in the many EARTHQUAKEprone regions of the ancient Near East. Particularly fine ancient buildings contained wooden floors and walls that were decorated elaborately. Exotic and expensive woods such as cedar were often used for the massive doors of temples and palaces. The type and amount of wood used for construction depended on the resources available to each region. In ancient times, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), IRAN, and the Levant* contained large forests that provided local builders a ready supply of sturdy wood. The cedars of Lebanon were famous for their majestic size and their strength as building materials. Because it was difficult to cut and transport these huge trees across long distances, only empires with substantial financial resources could afford to use them. Pine, oak, and poplar trees provided most of the wood used for building in the Near East. In contrast to other areas of the region, Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA boasted few timber resources. Those trees that were available, such as sycamore, acacia, and date palms, were often not suited to large-scale construction because they were smaller and their wood was of a lower quality. Societies without access to substantial sources of timber either used the inferiorquality local woods or imported what they needed from other regions. Egypt imported cedar and other conifers (cone-bearing trees such as pine) from Lebanon, as well as ebony* from the Sudan. Mesopotamians also used Lebanese cedar as well as juniper wood from SYRIA and Anatolia. Because of the expense of transporting wood from so far away, imported timber was used primarily in monumental ARCHITECTURE, such as PALACES AND TEMPLES.

Woodworking. Besides its use as a building material, wood was widely employed in the making of FURNISHINGS AND FURNITURE, such as tables, stools, chairs, cabinets, chests, and beds. Woodworkers also created a wide range of items, including screens, coffins, small statues and figurines, utensils, musical instruments, TOOLS, and game boards. One of the more interesting items fashioned from wood in Mesopotamia was an 165

Wood and Woodworking

* veneer thin layer of material the surface of an object

bonded

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

early form of writing tablet consistingof two wooden boards joined with a hinge. Ancient Egyptian woodworkers achievedahigh degree ofskill anddisplayed mastery over many artistic techniques. Some ofthese skills areevident from remainsoffurniture foundin royal tombs suchasthatof the to pharaoh TUTANKHAMEN.One chest fromhis tomb contains aveneer* of IVORY and is inlaid with more than 30,000 piecesofivoryand ebony.The Phrygians of Anatolia were knownfor the beautyand quality of their wooden furniture. Archaeologists have recovered numerous tables, stands, and beds withbeautiful inlayed designs. HERODOTUS The Greek historian described a wooden throne donated by the Phrygian king Midas to the temple at Delphi in Greeceas"well worth seeing/' Ancient carpenters' tools usedforwoodworking resembled their modern counterparts. These included saws, axes, chisels, planes,and wooden rulers called cubit sticks. Early carpenters' tools were typically fashioned from copper. AfterB.C., 4000 bronze becamethe most widely used material for these tools,and iron tools became common B.C. after only 1200 Wood in Shipbuilding. In ancient times, many ships werefrom built wood, and constructing them required skilled woodworkers. Reliefs*

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Work

* artisan skilled craftsperson

Wool

WORK

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place in search of food or pasture

See (color plate 12,1 vol. 2.

from Egypt depict the process of building a ship, from preparing the trees to be used to putting on the finishing touches. The various reliefs show woodcutters chopping down acacia trees and splitting open the trunks with axes. They also depict artisans* called joiners making planks from the wood from which they constructed the ship's hull. These planks were held together by wooden pegs (called tenons) fitted into holes cut into the edge of each plank (called mortises). This was the basic technique for shipbuilding in the ancient Near East. Timber was also essential for making other forms of TRANSPORTATION. All wheeled vehicles, from carts and wagons to CHARIOTS, were constructed of wood. Most bridges in the ancient Near East were also wooden structures. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Ships and Boats; Wheel.)

See Clothing; Sheep; Textiles.

I

n the ancient Near East, as in the modern world, most people had to work for their living. As the economy and way of life of the people of the ancient Near East changed over thousands of years, the nature of work also changed. By the end of the ancient period, Near Easterners were engaged in many different types of work and occupations. Before the development of AGRICULTURE, most people in a given community spent their time performing very similar tasks. The only real differences, perhaps, were between men's and women's responsibilities. However, the role of work in a person's life depended not just on that person's gender but also on his or her social status. The class structure and the economy also shaped the nature of work within each culture. From Subsistence to Occupation. Before the development of agriculture, nomadic* groups lived by hunting and gathering wild foods. They lived in what economists call a subsistence economy, where individuals or family groups each produce what they need to subsist, or stay alive. Although there may have been some division of duties within bands or communities in ancient subsistence economies, everyone basically had the same "job," which was the daily business of survival—of obtaining food, clothing, and shelter. The shift from obtaining food by hunting and gathering to agriculture, which began around 9000 B.C., allowed people to occupy permanent settlements and to accumulate, store, and redistribute food. For the first time, not everyone had to obtain each day's or each week's food for himself or his family. Some people could work at other tasks—specializing in craft production, for example—and exchange the products of their labor for food that other people cultivated and harvested. This was the beginning of occupational diversity. Society and Employment. The development of settled communities was closely linked to other trends that affected work. One of these 167

Work * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

A fob With Good Benefits

Between 1539 and 1075 a.c, the Egyptian workers who built and decorated the tombs at the Valley of the Kings near Thebes lived at a village called Dayr-al Madina, Because these workers were doing important work for the king, they received many benefits that were not typical for workers of the ancient Near East. Not only were the workers paid generously with differ^ ent foodstuffs, but they also had people to do their laundry and servants to help them with other daily j tasks. Moreover, the workers' children were educated and taught how to read and write, a privilege usually reserved for nobility.

* bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future * hierarchical referring to a society or an institution divided into groups with higher and lower ranks * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * artisan skilled craftsperson * quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

* apprentice individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field

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processes was URBANIZATION, the formation of urban centers as some settlements grew into cities and city-states*. The people living in urban centers were able to store large quantities of food for distribution among the population. This allowed some people to work at other occupations or to work at new specialized jobs to meet the needs of large communities. As these sweeping changes took place in settled states, new social classes emerged. A ruling class developed, and the growth of governments led to the rise of bureaucracies* that employed administrators and later, scribes*. In the same way, the growth of large religious institutions created work not only for priests and priestesses but also for those who served the priesthoods and temples as servants, scribes, stewards, singers, dancers, and diviners*. A result of these changes was that society became increasingly hierarchical*, and the kind of work people did had much to do with their status. Those in the royal and noble classes perhaps did nothing that a poor, hard-laboring peasant would consider "work/' but they had their own obligations, such as administering justice and conducting diplomacy*. As ruling institutions, the state and the temple influenced other people's work with forced labor. In many ancient Near Eastern societies, people owed the state or the temple a certain number of days of labor each year in exchange for the food and clothing rations they received. Much of that labor was devoted to agricultural production, although it might also be directed toward the construction or repair of roads, bridges, irrigation canals, or public buildings. Some laborers worked on royal or temple estates year-round. Trade generated much work for people in the ancient world. For instance, MERCHANTS bought and sold goods for long-distance exchange, scribes kept records of their transactions, and handlers and boatmen loaded and moved the goods by ship or animal CARAVAN. As members of society acquired wealth, they wanted to purchase fine, luxury goods as symbols of their status. Painters, jewelers, sculptors, and crafts workers such as potters and textile weavers worked to supply the demand for such goods. Large numbers of other artisans* were occupied producing everyday textiles, furniture, metalwork, POTTERY, SEALS, TOOLS, and household utensils for the general market. People in the ancient Near East worked at occupations dealing with many aspects of life. People working on farms might be shepherds, sheep shearers, cattle fatteners, or managers, to name a few possibilities. There were doctors to attend to the sick and people to care for the dead. People were needed to quarry* stones and to mine and process gems and metals. Women worked as grain grinders, weavers, oil pressers, and nurses for babies. Prostitution was also a known occupation, especially for women, some of whom worked for temples. The Worker's Life. The majority of people in the ancient Near East almost never faced the dilemma of deciding what to do with their lives or what kind of work to pursue. Those lucky enough to be born into a family of artisans, priests, or scribes generally acquired the skills and education to work in these high-status fields. Such opportunities were rarely open to individuals from the lower or peasant classes. Sometimes, however,

Writing

* creditor someone to whom a owed

Worship

WRITING

debtis

experts took peasant or slave boys intotheir householdsasapprentices* to whom they would teach atradeinexchangefor acertain numberof years of labor. Highly skilledor talented free laborers received wages fortheir work, sometimes in theform of silverand sometimesingrain. Such workers probably had some degreeofcontrol over their lives. Theymayhave been able to move around freely and choose whenand forwhom they worked. The same was probably trueofthosewhooperated theirownbusinesses. At any given time, however, more people worked forced as semifree or laborers under the controlof apublic institutionor acreditor*. These people did not receive wagesbut were paid only their rations,theamount food of needed to keep them (See also alive. Art, Artisans,and Artists; Economy and Trade; Labor and Laborers;Slaves andSlavery.)

SeePrayer;Religion;Ritualsand Sacrifice.

one of the most important cultural contributions made W byritingthewas people of the ancient Near East. Beforethe inventionof

writing, most information had to becommunicated orally andcommitted to memory. Writing, however, enabled detailed andprecise communication between people hundredsofmiles away.Italso permitted knowledge to be accurately recorded and stored, and theneasily retrieved, aftereven hundreds of years.The abilityto record information through writingenabled the developmentofSOCIAL advanced INSTITUTIONS in the early urban societies of the NearEast.

The Development of Writing. Theearliest existing evidence ofwriting consistsofTABLETS inscribed CLAYfrom the Sumerian URUK thatof city date to aroundB.C. 3300 Like most written records MESOPOfromancient TAMIA, theseare accounting lists thatrecord inventories ofgoods. Atthat 169

Writing * urbanization formation and growth of cities * deity god or goddess

The invention of writing in the ancient Near East was a direct consequence of the demands of developing economies in the region. As early as 3500 B.C., clay tokens and bullae (balls) were used for record keeping and accounting purposes. As cities and city-state emerged, governments became centralized, and trade and administration became more complex, accountants and scribes could no longer depend on this simple method of record keeping. Their needs led to the invention of writing, the aleph-beth, and later the alphabet.

early stage, writing mainly served the administrative function of RECORD KEEPING. However, the need to keep accurate accounting records was not the only inspiration for the invention of writing. Instead, writing was developed as a result of urbanization*. As societies of the ancient Near East became increasingly urbanized, the temples began to take over many of a city's productive activities. In Uruk, the temple of the city's deity* owned not only large tracts of agricultural land but also workshops that produced POTTERY, TEXTILES, SCULPTURE, metalwork, and other goods. The temple was also responsible for coordinating the work of thousands of employees and making sure they were paid by means of food and clothing rations. The needs of administering such a complex enterprise necessitated a system for recording all this information, leading to the invention of writing. The earliest form of writing is called logographic because it used symbols, or logograms (derived from the Greek words for word and writing) to communicate words and ideas. For example, the symbol for ox was a picture of an ox's head. The early Sumerian writing system contained more than 1,200 different logograms.

BBflEiOPMENT OF WRITING

ca. 4000-3001 B.C.

Tokens and clay balls are used to record and store information. Writing is invented at Uruk. Sumerian scribes develop cuneiform writing. Egyptians develop hieroglyphic script Proto-Elamite script developed in Iran.

ca. 3000-2001 B.C.

Egyptians develop hieratic, a cursive form of hieroglyphics* Sumerian cuneiform spreads to northern Syria. Elamites develop Elamite cuneiform system. Akkadians adopt the cuneiform script.

ca. 2000-1001 B.C.

Akkadian cuneiform spreads to Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt Minoans develop hieroglyphic and Linear A scripts. People of Syria and the Levant develop the first examples of the linear aleph-beth. Semitic-speaking northern Syrians create cuneiform-type signs for aleph-beth. Mycenean Greeks develop Linear 8 script. Hittites develop hieroglyphics.

ca. 1000-1 B.C.

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Phoenician traders transmit the aleph-beth to Greeks. Greeks develop vowels for alphabet. South-Semitic aleph-beth is developed in Arabia* Aramaic language and aleph-beth spread throughout ancient Near East. Egyptians develop demotic script. Persians adapt the cuneiform script. Following the Invasions of Alexander the Great, Creek is introduced throughout the ancient Near East.

Writing

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Which Way Is Up? One of the challenges ancient writing posed for modern scholars who first attempted to decode and interpret it was figuring out in which direction it should be read. Early Sumerian writing was originally read top to bottom, starting in the upper right hand corner of the tablet Later, the symbols were written and read left to right In some cultures the writing had no fixed direction—sometimes it was read right to left, and at other times it was read left to right. One particularly interesting method was calW boustrophedon, which literally means "turning like oxen in plowing/' Here, one line is read left to right, while the next is read right to left, alternating in this way throughout the entire document or inscription.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

Shortly after writing was invented in Mesopotamia, a logographic type of writing known as HIEROGLYPHICS appeared in EGYPT. Most scholars believe that the Egyptians borrowed the idea of writing from the Mesopotamians. Others claim that the Egyptians developed it independently. In either case, logographic writing systems were established in both societies by about 3000 B.C., but they were used for quite different purposes. In Mesopotamia, writing served primarily administrative functions, while the Egyptians used it for INSCRIPTIONS and for religious texts. The earliest Mesopotamian scribes* used a pointed tool called a stylus to scratch signs on their clay tablets. However, they soon began to use a stylus with a triangular-shaped tip to press the shape of the symbol into the clay. The stylus made a wedge-shaped mark; consequently, logograms were transformed into symbols composed of one or more variously oriented wedge-shaped strokes. Over time, these symbols, called CUNEIFORM writing, became more abstract and bore less resemblance to the original logograms. Meanwhile, scribes also invented symbols that stood for the syllables that formed a word rather than objects representing it. This made it easier to express abstract ideas in writing. For instance, they took the logograms for the noun "water" (a), and the verb "to strike" (ra), and combined them to produce the Sumerian word ara, which translates as "to the." Before they began using syllables, such words as ara could not be written. The move away from a purely logographic system was a significant step in the evolution of writing. The early logograms had meaning irrespective of language. Cuneiform symbols that represented syllables could be used to write words in any language that contained similar syllables. Once a word in a particular language was spelled out, it could be sounded out by anyone who could read the script, but it made sense only to a speaker of that language. Compared to fully logographic systems, this method of writing, called a syllabary, was easier to learn and use because it required fewer signs. As Sumerian cuneiform spread across the Near East, local peoples adapted it to write their own languages. They added symbols for syllables in their languages that did not exist in Sumerian. Most of these writing systems, however, continued to use logograms as well as syllables. In Egypt, hieroglyphics remained in use for more than 3,000 years. Like cuneiform, it consisted of syllabic signs as well as logographic signs. During its long history, two cursive forms of Egyptian hieroglyphics—hieratic and demotic—were adopted for use in writing in everyday practical matters. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) also developed a hieroglyphic writing system of their own during the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.). This script remained in use in the NeoHittite city-states* of northern Syria until about 700 B.C. Hittite hieroglyphs were generally used for royal seals and inscriptions on buildings and sculptures. Further Developments. The next step in the development of writing was the use of symbols to represent just the individual consonants. This occurred among Canaanite speakers sometime before 1500 B.C. Early Semitic* writing used a system known as the aleph-beth, which had no symbols for vowels. The reader had to supply the proper vowel depending on 171

Xerxes the context of the writing. For example, it is easy to determine the meaning of the following sentence even without vowels—"Th mn grbs th bttl." The Phoenicians, who traded extensively across the Mediterranean Sea, were probably responsible for the transmission of the aleph-beth writing to the Greeks during the 800s B.C. The Greeks added symbols for their vowels, creating the first true alphabet. Later, the Romans adopted a modified version of the Greek alphabet, which continues to be in use for almost all Western languages. Literacy. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, only a small segment of the population was literate—able to read and write. Even the majority of kings in the ancient Near East were illiterate. Only three Mesopotamian kings are known to have been trained as scribes—SHULGI of UR, Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, and ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria. In contrast, Egyptian princes were apparently regularly trained as scribes during their youth. The rate of literacy was low because very few people in the ancient Near East received an EDUCATION. Because schools were controlled by the state or by temples, the political and religious elites effectively controlled a society's knowledge. For instance, it was in the interest of the scribal class to limit the spread of literacy. This enabled them to maintain their high social position, which they gained from their ability to read, write, and keep society functioning smoothly. On the other hand, societies that lacked an established scribal class, such as the ancient Aramaeans, had less reason to restrict literacy and more incentive to adopt new forms of writing that were easier to master. The development of an alphabetic system made writing and learning more accessible to the people of the ancient Near East. Instead of a confusing system of many hundreds of symbols that took years to master, alphabets had fewer than 30 characters that could be learned in a matter of days or weeks. In Syria, Canaan, Phoenicia, and Israel during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), many people learned to read and write well enough to conduct their daily business. Some scholars estimate the literacy rate in classical Greece (ca. 500 B.C.) at about 30 percent, which was dramatically higher than in Mesopotamia or Egypt. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Communication; Epic Literature; Languages; Literature; Schools; Scribes; Semitic Languages; Sumer and the Sumerians; Sumerian Language.)

XERXES ruled 486-465 B.C. Persian king

172

est known for his campaigns against Greece, Xerxes (ZUHRK^seez) B was one of the most famous kings of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. He was the

son of the Persian ruler DARIUS I and Atossa, the daughter of CYRUS THE GREAT. Named heir to the throne instead of his elder brother, Artabazanes, Xerxes became ruler of Persia after the death of his father in 486 B.C. By that time, Xerxes had had a great deal of administrative experience, having governed the province of Babylonia for more than a decade. When Xerxes ascended the throne, one of his first concerns was to regain control of Egypt, where a local ruler had usurped* power. In 484 B.C.,

Yahweh * usurp to wrongfully occupy a position * delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest

* strait narrow channel that connects two bodies of water

YAHWEH * monotheistic referring to the belief in only one god * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * patriarch male leader of a family or tribe

* exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

Xerxes and his armies invaded the delta* region of Egypt and put down the revolt, regaining control of the country. When Xerxes learned of a rebellion in BABYLON, he sent his son-in-law to reconquer the city in 482 B.C. This reconquest was followed by violent repression during which temples and fortifications* were plundered* and destroyed. Xerxes also canceled the special status that Babylon had enjoyed since its incorporation into the Persian empire. After Xerxes had resolved the difficulties in Egypt and Babylon, he planned an invasion of Greece. Responding to pressure from his advisers, he became determined to avenge the defeat that his father, Darius, had suffered at the hands of the Greeks nearly a decade before. After three years of preparation, Xerxes was ready to invade Greece. In 480 B.C., Xerxes led a force of at least 300,000 soldiers and hundreds of ships across the Hellespont (present-day Dardanelles), the narrow strait* separating Europe and Asia, and entered Greece. The Persians enjoyed a few early successes, including victory over a small band of Greeks at a mountain pass called Thermopylae and the capture and plunder of the city of Athens. However, the tide of war changed when the Greeks destroyed the Persian fleet at the battle of Salamis. Without a fleet to bring supplies, Xerxes and his armies were forced to retreat into ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The following year, a Greek victory at a battle near Plataea in central Greece forced the Persian troops to withdraw from the region. Little is known of Xerxes' last 14 years except that he launched a vast building program at PERSEPOLIS. Xerxes and the crown prince were assassinated by a member of his bodyguard in 497 B.C. He was succeeded by his son ARTAXERXES I. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Persian Wars; Susa and Susiana.)

ahweh is the God of the Hebrews (or Israelites) whose worship led to Ythe development of Judaism, the first monotheistic* religion. The

early Israelites often referred to Yahweh as EL, a Semitic* term meaning "god," and also as Elohim, a Semitic term for "gods" that was understood to apply to the one God. The name Yahweh, which comes from the Hebrew root word hay ah, "to be," is often interpreted to mean "I am that I am"; "He was, He is, He ever will be"; or "He causes [things] to be." According to the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism, Yahweh is the creator of the universe and everything in it. Jews trace the foundation of their religion to the time when Yahweh made a covenant, or solemn agreement, with the patriarch* Abraham (also called Abram). Yahweh promised Abraham that he would have an heir and many descendants and that the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) would belong to them. Yahweh first revealed his true name to the Israelite leader MOSES during the exodus* of the Israelites from Egypt. At that time, Yahweh made a new covenant with the Israelites and gave them the TEN COMMANDMENTS, a set of laws to observe.

173

Ziggurats Some scholars believe that worship of Yahweh developed from worship of the Canaanite god El, who was the king of the gods and the creator of the earth. Eventually, the Israelites began to identify El with Yahweh, a storm god. Although Yahweh could be portrayed as a warlike god, he eventually came to be seen as a benevolent father who had chosen the Jews to fulfill a special destiny. While it is possible that the early Israelites believed that Yahweh had a human form, they certainly later believed that he did not have a specific form and therefore could not be represented. As a result, Yahweh is not depicted in art or sculpture. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law; Sinai, Mount.)

ZIGGURATS

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

F

ound mainly in ancient Mesopotamia, ziggurats were large, multistory structures with steps leading to a temple at the top. Although their general shape resembled that of the Egyptian pyramids, there were many differences between the two structures. While most later pyramids had smooth, sloping walls, ziggurats, like the earlier stepped pyramids, resembled a series of rectangular boxes, set one atop the next. Also, the pyramids were built as tombs and funeral shrines for deceased kings, whereas ziggurats served as temples for the local gods of the cities in which they were located. Although no intact ziggurat exists today, archaeologists* have been able to reconstruct them by studying their ruins and ancient descriptions that have survived.

HISTORY OF ZIGGURAT CONSTRUCTION

See [color plate 14, vol. 3.

174

The first ziggurats, built in SUMER sometime before 3000 B.C., were simply a single, large platform on top of which sat a temple. The temple was reached by climbing a stairway or ramp. Over time, the ziggurat changed to include additional platforms stacked on top of one another. The earliest "true" ziggurat, consisting of more than one level, was probably constructed by King UR-NAMMU, founder of the Third Dynasty of UR, around 2100 B.C. Its base is believed to have measured 210 by 160 feet, and the completed building might have been nearly 50 feet high. A reconstructed version of this early ziggurat, which was dedicated to the moon god Nanna, remains at the site of the ancient city. Like many early ziggurats, it consisted of three platforms, topped by a temple. The basic design soon evolved to consist of four stories, and later ziggurats were built with as many as seven levels. Moreover, some earlier ziggurats were expanded to include additional stories. The most famous ziggurat was a seven-story structure built in the city of BABYLON in the early 500s B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar II, on a foundation that possibly dates back to King HAMMURABI, who ruled in the early 1700s B.C. According to some ancient sources, the ziggurat rose some 300 feet above the ground and might have been the inspiration for the story of the Tower of Babel in the Hebrew BIBLE. The largest surviving ziggurat,

Ziggurats built in the 1200s B.C., is at Chogha Zambil in Elam. Rising more than 78 feet from the ground, the ziggurat still stands at half its original height.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ZIGGURATS OF Although they all originatedfrom the same basic plan, ziggurats were constructed indifferentforms indifferent regions of Mesopotamia. Despite the differences in architecture, all ziggurats were designed to serve as a platform for the temple of the city's god.

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

Southern Ziggurats. The civilizations of southern Mesopotamia— Sumer and Babylonia—built ziggurats in what is considered the classic form. The ziggurat was situated in a walled courtyard that was entered by means of gateways. A large platform coveringan areaof aboutan acre formed the base of the structure. The corners of the platform were aligned with the four major points of the compass. This lower platform, like the ones above it, was a solid structure made of clay and sun-dried mud brick*. Unlike the pyramids, ziggurats had no interior passageways or chambers. Most ziggurats had three staircases that led from the ground to the lower level. All the staircases were on one side of the building. Two of them ran along the outside wall, and the third was perpendicular to the wall face and extended some distance away from the base of the ziggurat. Remains of a ziggurat at Ur indicate that only one staircase led to the top of the building. At the top of the ziggurat was a ''high temple" to the local god. A "lower temple" for other gods was usually located at the baseof the ziggurat. Although impressively designed and built, ziggurats were not very durable. During heavy rain, water penetrated the mud brick interiors and caused them to soften. Over time, the weight of the upper levels would

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Zimri-Lim

The Tower of Babel The ancient Mesopotamians be* lieved that the temple on top of a ziggurat was a place where their god might come down to earth. However, according to the Hebrew Bible, its purpose was quite different. According to the story of the Toweraf Babelln the Book of Genesis 11:1 *9, Noah's descendants attempted to build a tower that they hoped would reach heaven. However, to prevent them from completing construction, their god made them speak different languages so they could not understand one another. The tower was never completed, and Noah's descendants scattered over the face o the earth. This story is said to account for the origin of the world's different languages.

* deity god or goddess

ZlMRI-LlM ruled ca. 1776-1761 B.C. King of Mari 176

cause the lower walls to bulge and eventually collapse. Several texts from ancient Mesopotamia indicate that the rulers expected this to happen. To try to preserve the structure as long as possible, all ziggurats incorporated features such as internal drainpipes to drain water away from the building. Some ziggurats also contained layers of reeds and bitumen (tarlike substance used for waterproofing) between each level to absorb extra moisture. Notwithstanding these precautions, many ziggurats had to be rebuilt every 100 years or less. Northern Ziggurats. The ziggurats in northern Mesopotamia were similar in design and construction to southern ones, but with a few differences. Assyrian ziggurats were typically square, not rectangular like the ones in the south. The four corners were not always aligned to the points of the compass, nor were the external stairways the only means of reaching the temple at the top. However, the most important difference between the two types of ziggurats was their physical surroundings. Sumerian and Babylonian ziggurats stood alone on a site, while the Assyrians incorporated their ziggurats into larger temple complexes that contained other buildings. These temple complexes were constructed on three platforms. The first, or lowest, platform was simply a courtyard surrounding the buildings on the site. The second platform contained the main temple of the god. The ziggurat was the third, and highest, platform in the group. Function of Ziggurats. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the ziggurats served as a link between humans and the gods. Every important city contained a ziggurat dedicated to its local god. The structure rose to the sky, enabling the deities* to descend from heaven to visit their subjects. The high temple on top of the ziggurat received the god when he or she first descended from the sky. The lower temple at the base received the deity upon reaching the earth. The names given to many ziggurats express the idea that ziggurats were the stairways of the gods. The name of the ziggurat in the city of Sippar meant "the staircase to holy heaven/' while the great ziggurat in Babylon was called "the temple which is the foundation of heaven and earth." In some ziggurats, the high temple had a bedchamber in which sacred marriage ceremonies took place. In these ceremonies, the king would enact a ritual with a priestess of the temple to ensure the fertility and prosperity of the kingdom. (See also Architecture; Assyria and the Assyrians; Palaces and Temples.)

was the king of MARI, a city-state* located on the upper EUZimri-Lim PHRATES RIVER in present-day Syria. Historians know more about second millennium B.C.* Mari than about any other Near Eastern culture of this period because official records and many of the king's personal letters have survived. These sources have enabled historians to reconstruct a detailed picture of Mari society during Zimri-Lim's reign. Zimri-Lim was the son of a former king of Mari who had been defeated and removed from power by the Assyrian king SHAMSHI-ADAD I.

Zodiac * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

ZODIAC * constellation group of stars that is thought to resemble, and is named after, an object, animal, or mythological character

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Around 1776 B.C., shortly after Shamshi-Adad's death, Zimri-Lim reclaimed his father's throne. When the city-state of ESHNUNNA allied itself with his enemies and attacked Mari, Zimri-Lim joined forces with the neighboring Syrian city-state of Aleppo. He successfully defeated his rivals and increased his power by forcing the rulers of several cities near Mari to swear loyalty to him. Zimri-Lim had a friendly political relationship with the great Babylonian king HAMMURABI. He sent troops to aid Hammurabi's attack on the city-state of LARSA. Still, Zimri-Lim did not trust his more powerful neighbor, and his suspicions were soon justified. After the siege of Larsa, the Babylonians entered Mari. Over the next two years, they recorded the city's valuables, seized them, and then burned Mari to the ground. ZimriLim's fate is unknown, and scholars are still unsure why Hammurabi decided to destroy his ally's capital. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

B

abylonian astronomers were the first to observe that the SUN, moon, and PLANETS move across the sky within a narrow, imaginary band. This band, called the zodiac, extends about nine degrees on either side of the ecliptic—the path in which the sun appears to travel during the course of a year. The astronomers also identified constellations* on the ecliptic. By about 1100 B.C. they had named 17 such constellations and used them to mark the locations of the moon and planets. Around 500 B.C., Babylonian astronomers divided the band of the zodiac into 12 equal sections, each named for a prominent constellation contained within the section. The name of each constellation became the name of that segment, or sign, of the zodiac. The 12 signs of the zodiac in modern astrology are direct descendants of the signs of the Babylonian zodiac. Their modern names—Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces—are nearly direct translations of the original names given to the constellations by the Greeks when they borrowed the zodiac from the Babylonians during the late Hellenistic* period. Over a period of many hundreds of years, Babylonian astronomers, using the zodiac, compiled enormous amounts of data about the positions of planets and STARS. They were eventually able to use MATHEMATICS to determine the location of planets. Using these data, they could predict where the heavenly bodies would be on any given date, even if the sky was too overcast for direct observation. The Babylonians were able to use this information in their practice of astrology—the interpretation of the movement and relationships of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars in order to predict eclipses as well as human affairs and events. Because astrologers could refer to the zodiac to determine exactly where each planet was when a person was born, they could draw a horoscope—a map of the heavens at the moment of birth. Astrologers then interpreted that map, determining what the positions of the planets at birth meant for a given person's life. At first, horoscopes related only to the king or to the state as a whole. However, by the 300s B.C., astrologers had begun to draw 177

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Dating from the third millennium B.C., this clay tablet from Uruk is inscribed with the drawings of several constellations, or groups of stars. On the left, Corvus, a raven, pecks at the tail of a serpent, Hydra. The star (center) represents the planet Mercury, and the figure holding a spike (right) symbolizes Virgo.

horoscopes for individuals as well. Beginning in the 200s B.C., Babylonians, especially at Uruk, began to use images of the signs of the zodiac, either individually or in groups of twos or threes, as decorations on finger rings that could be used as seals. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Lunar Theory; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ZOROASTER AND ZOROASTRIANISM * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * monotheism belief in only one god

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F

ounded by a Persian prophet* and religious reformer named Zoroaster (ZOH»ruh»as«tuhr) in the late 600s B.C., Zoroastrianism (zoh»ruh»AS«tree»uh»ni»zuhm) is a Persian religion that still survives in some parts of IRAN and India. One of its notable features is a belief in monotheism*, and some scholars believe that this aspect of Zoroastrianism may have influenced other monotheistic faiths, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Little is known about Zoroaster, who was also known as Zarathustra. According to tradition, he was born in eastern Iran in about 628 B.C. Perhaps a member of a family of knights, he was credited with having knowledge of magical practices. When Zoroaster became a priest, however, local religious and civil authorities opposed his teachings. This was largely because Zoroaster focused his teachings on one god, AHURA MAZDA, or ''Wise Lord", whom he considered the highest god and the only one worthy of worship. Zoroaster believed that he had received a vision from Ahura Mazda in which the god told him to teach the truth. At that time, however, most religions were polytheistic, or based on a belief in many gods. According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was the creator of heaven and earth, the supreme lawgiver, the center of nature, and the originator of order in the universe. Although supreme, Ahura Mazda was not the only

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Fire is a sacred symbol to the Zoroastrians, who keep their altars, shown here, perpetually lit. The importance that ancient Persians accorded fire is evident from a relief in the tomb of Darius I, which shows the king praying before a blazing fire altar.

The Magi Before the establishment of Zoroas- \ trianism, the priests of Persia were known as Magi or Magians. Famed for their skills in astrology, they adopted the religion of Zoroaster a their own. In fact, it is possible that Zoroaster himself was a Magi. The Magi acquired great power because of their knowledge of sacred rituals, and at times, they exerted great influence on the Persian government. Many ancient writers revered them as wise men, and their supposed power over demons j gave rise to the word magic. The Magi also appear in the Christian religion as the three wise men who followed a star and brought gifts to j the infant Jesus at Bethlehem.

spirit, however. He was surrounded by several immortal beings called amesha spentas, whom he had also created. These beings represented such qualities as truth, justice, righteousness, devotion, and salvation. Because Zoroaster maintained that the world was divided into good and evil, he also believed that there were evil spirits—daevas—ruled by a being named Angra Mainyu, or AHRIMAN, the source of darkness and lies. According to Zoroaster, there was a great war in progress, both on earth and in the heavens, between the forces of good and evil. He believed that Ahura Mazda allowed humans to choose between good and evil and to decide which side to serve. Because humans were free to determine their own fate, those who chose good and proved their worth through good words, thoughts, and deeds would be rewarded. Those who chose evil would be punished. Zoroaster taught that after death, the soul of every human received judgment from Ahura Mazda. The good entered the kingdom of everlasting joy and light, while the evil fell into the kingdom of misery and darkness. Zoroaster also taught that, in the end, good would triumph over evil, Ahriman would be destroyed, and the world would be renewed and inhabited by the good. Zoroaster's teachings are compiled in the Gathas, which form part of the Zoroastrians' holy book, the Avesta. The Gathas include early HYMNS believed to have been written by Zoroaster. These hymns contain many 179

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

12,000 Years of Existence According to Zoroastrianism, the history of the universe is divided into four periods of 3,000 years each. During the first three periods, totaling 9,000 years, a great battle rages between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman—the forces of good and evil—for dominance. In the fourth 3,000-year period, however, a savior, known as Saoshyant, is expected to appear and help forces of good triumph over evil. The dead will then rise for a final judgment, and good will reign forever after.

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references to the basic beliefs of Zoroaster and are the only evidence of what the prophet actually taught. In addition to hymns, the Avesta also contains sections dealing with ritual and sacrifice that were to be followed by Zoroastrian priests during worship. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years and died in about 551 B.C. Many legends about him arose after his death, including stories that credited him with being a skilled healer, artisan, astrologer, and magician. He also was said to have founded sacred fires. This idea may have been associated with the ancient Persian respect for fire, which was later incorporated into Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrians believed that fire was a symbol of Ahura Mazda, and a fire was always kept burning in Zoroastrian temples. The early Persian kings were among the first followers of Zoroaster, although other Persians soon adopted Zoroastrianism as well. By the early 500s B.C., Zoroastrianism had become the major religion of the PERSIAN EMPIRE, and it was made the official state religion of Persia in the A.D. 200s. When the Muslims took over Persia in the 600s, many Zoroastrians sought refuge in India, where they became known as Parsis. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Magic; Monotheism; Mythology; Religion.)

SUGGESTED READINGS ATLASES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Raines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1980. Bienkowski, Piotr, and A. R. Millard. Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. Branigan, K., ed. The Atlas of Archaeology. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982. Freedman, David Noel, ed. Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Grant, Michael. Ancient History Atlas. New York: Macmillan, 1971. . From Alexander to Cleopatra: The Hellenistic World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1982. *Haywood, John. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean. Library Reference ed. Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe Reference, 1997. Kuhrt, Amelie, and Susan Sherwin-White, eds. Hellenism in the East: Interaction of Greek and Non-Greek Civilizations from Syria to Central Asia After Alexander. London: Duckworth, 1987.

Leick, Gwendolyn. Who's Who in the Ancient Near East. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Manley, Bill. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York and London: Penguin Books, 1996. McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History. London: Penguin Books, 1967. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East; Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Radice, Betty. The Penguin Who's Who in the Ancient World. New York: Penguin Books, 1973. Roaf, Michael. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. Oxfordshire, England: Andromeda Oxford Ltd., 1996. Sasson, JackM., ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995. Speake, Graham, ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Ancient History. New York: Penguin Books, 1995. Whitehouse, Ruth D., ed. The Facts on File Dictionary of Archaeology. New York: Facts on File, 1983.

HISTORY Bright, John. A History of Israel. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981. The Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. 12 vols. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970-1998. The Cambridge History of Iran. 7 vols. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1968-1991. Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994. *Corbishley, M. J. The Near East. The Legacy of the Ancient World Series. Kernel Hempstead, England: Macdonald Young Books, 1995. *Currah, Ann. From Cities to Empires. This Is Our World Series. Glasgow, Scotland: Collins, 1975. Dunstan, William E. The Ancient Near East. Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998. Herodotus of Halicamassus. The Histories. Edited by Carolyn Dewald. Translated by Robin Waterfield. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

*Asterisk denotes book for young readers

Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East. 2 vols. London and New York: Routledge, 1995. Nissen, Hans J. The Early History of the Ancient Near East, 9000-2000 B.C. Translated by Elizabeth Lutzeier and Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Oates, Joan. Babylon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1986. Potts, Timothy. Mesopotamia and the East: An Archaeological Study of Foreign Relations ca. 3400-2000 B.C. Oxford, England: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1994. Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Reade, Julian. Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991. Saggs, H. W. F. Civilization Before Greece and Rome. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989. Starr, Chester G. A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

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Suggested Readings

CULTURE AND SOCIETY *Anatolia: Cauldron of Cultures. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. *Bianchi, Robert Steven. The Nubians: People of the Ancient Nile. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1994. *Church, Alfred]., and Arthur Oilman. The Story of Carthage. Austin, Tex.: BookLab, 1996. Crawford, Harriet E. W. Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbors. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Curtis, John. Ancient Persia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990. David, A. Rosalie. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1998. Dicks, Brian. The Ancient Persians. How They Lived and Worked Series. North Pomfret, Vt: David and Charles, 1975. Dothan, Trude Krakauer, and M. Dothan. People of the Sea: The Search for the Philistines. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Dumbrill, Richard]. The Music of the Ancient Near East. London: Athlone, 1999. *Egypt: Land of the Pharaohs. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Frankel, David. The Ancient Kingdom of Urartu. London: British Museum Publications, 1979. *The Holy Land. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Hoerth, Alfred]., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of the Old Testament World. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1994. Kramer, Samuel Noah. History Begins atSumer: ThirtyNine Firsts in Man's Recorded History. 3rd ed., rev. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986.

Maisels, Charles Keith. The Emergence of Civilization: From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities, and the State in the Near East. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. *Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. Moscati, Sabatino, ed. The Phoenicians. New York: Rizzoli Bookstore, 1991. Murnane, William]. The Penguin Guide to Ancient Egypt. London: Penguin Books, 1983. *Odijk, Pamela. The Phoenicians. The Ancient World Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1989. * . The Sumerians. Ancient World Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1990. *Perl, Lila, and Erica Weihs. Mummies, Tombs, and Treasure: Secrets of Ancient Egypt. New York: Clarion Books, 1987. *Persians: Masters of Empire. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. Postgate, J. Nicholas. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. London: Routledge, 1994. Potts, D. T. The Archaeology ofElam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999. . Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997. Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. New York: Penguin, 1992. Schulz, Regine, and Matthais Seidel, eds. Egypt: The World of the Pharoahs. Cologne, Germany: Konemann, 1998. *Sumer: Cities of Eden. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1994. Welsby, Derek. The Kingdom ofKush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empire. London: British Museum Press, 1996. * Wondrous Realms of the Aegean. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1993.

MYTHS AND LEGENDS Curtis, Vesta Sarkosh. The Legendary Past: Persian Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993. *Epics of Early Civilization: Middle Eastern Myth. Myth and Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 2000. Gray, John. Near Eastern Mythology. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1969. Hamilton, Virginia. In the Beginning: Creation Stories from Around the World. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988. Harris, Geraldine, David O'Connor, and John Sibbick. Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1982.

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Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. McCall, Henrietta. The Legendary Past: Mesopotamian Myths. Legendary Past Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. Skinner, Fred Gladstone. Myths and Legends of the Ancient Near East. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1993. *The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Myth and Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1998.

Suggested Readings

RELIGION Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith. Sussex Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices Series. Porland, Oreg.: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Revealing Antiquity Series. London and Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.

Jakobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976. Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York: Dover Publications, 1997. Ringgren, Helmer. Religions of the Ancient Near East. Translated by John Sturdy. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE Amiet, Pierre. Art of the Ancient Near East. Translated by John Shepley and Claude Choquet. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1980. Aruz, Joan, Prudence Oliver Harper, and Fran^oise Tallon, eds. The Royal City ofSusa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992. Cadogan, Gerald. Palaces ofMinoan Crete. University Paperbacks Series. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Caubet, Annie, and Patrick Pouyssegur. The Ancient Near East: The Origins of Civilization. Translated by Peter Snowdon. Paris: Terrail, 1998. Collon, Dominique. Ancient Near Eastern Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Doumas, Christos. The Wall-Paintings of Them. Translated by Alex Doumas. Athens: Thera Foundation, 1992. Downey, Susan B. Mesopotamian Religious Architecture: Alexander Through the Parthians. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988. Frankfort, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. 4th ed., rev. impression. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1970. Klengel, Horst. The Art of Ancient Syria. Translated by Joan Becker. Cranbury, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, 1971.

*Leacock, Helen, and Richard Leacock. The Buildings of Ancient Mesopotamia. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1974. Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Architecture. London: Routledge, 1988. Lloyd, Seton. The Art of the Ancient Near East. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publisher, 1961. Lundquist, John M. The Temple: Meeting Place of Heaven and Earth. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993. Perrot, Georges. History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia. Boston: Longwood Press, 1977. Polin, Claire C. J. Music of the Ancient Near East. New York: Vintage Press, 1954. Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. . Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Weiss, Harvey, ed. Ebla to Damascus: Art and Archaeology of Ancient Syria: And Exhibition from the Directorate-General of Antiquities andMuseums, Syrian Arab Republic. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1985. Woolley, Leonard. The Art of the Middle East Including Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine. New York, Crown Publishers, 1961.

THE JEWISH WORLD Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Crenshaw, James L. Education in Ancient Israel: Across the Deadening Silence. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Galil, Gershon. The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah. Vol. 9 of Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East. New York: E. J. Brill, 1998. Gordon, Cyrus H., and Gary A. Rendsburg. The Bible and the Ancient Near East. 4th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. Jaffee, Martin S. Early Judaism. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1996. Josephus, Flavius. The Jewish War. Edited by Mary E. Smalley. Translated by G. A. Williamson. New York: Penguin Books, 1984.

Modrzejewski, Joseph. The Jews of Egypt: From Ramses II to Emperor Hadrian. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Niditch, Susan. Ancient Israelite Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Pixley, Jorge V. Biblical Israel: A People's History. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1992. Shanks, Hershel. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Destruction of the Temple. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999. Tcherikover, Victor. Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1959. Uffenheimer, Benjamin. Early Prophecy in Israel. Translated by David Louvish. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1999. Weber, Max. Ancient Judaism. New York: Free Press, 1967.

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Suggested Readings

DAILY LIFE Countenau, George. Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. New York: W. W. Norton, 1966. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Daily Life Through History Series. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998. Oppenheim, Adolf Leo, trans. Letters from Mesopotamia: Official Business and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Poliakoff, Michael. Contact Sports in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987.

Saggs, H. W. R, Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1965. Snell, Daniel C. Life in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. Time Frame 3000-1500 B.C.: The Age of God Kings. Time Frame Series. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1987. What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile: Egypt 3050-30 B.C. What Life Was Like Series. Alexandria, Va.: TimeLife Books, 1997.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Bobula, Ida Miriam. Sumerian Technology: A Survey of Early Material Achievements in Mesopotamia. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1960. *Gonen, Rivka. Fired Up! Making Pottery in Ancient Times. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Hodges, Henry. Technology in the Ancient World. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1992. James, Peter, and Nick Thorpe. Ancient Inventions. New York: Ballantine Books, 1995.

Moss, Carol. Science in Ancient Mesopotamia. New York: Franklin Watts, 1989. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Cuneiform Mathematical Texts as a Reflection of Every day Life in Mesopotamia. American Oriental Series, Vol. 75. New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1993. Neugebauer, Otto. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1957.

WRITING AND RECORD KEEPING Ben-Tor, Daphna. The Scarab: A Reflection of Ancient Egypt. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1989. Cohen, Mark E. The Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near East. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1993. Collon, Dominique. First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. . Near Eastern Seals. Interpreting the Past Series. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Damerow, Peter, R. K. Englund, and Hans J. Nissen. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East. Translated by Paul Larsen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Daniels, Peter T, and William Bright, eds. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Pedersen, Olof. Archives and Libraries in the Ancient Near East 1500-300 B.C. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1998. Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing. London: Thames and Hudson, 1995. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Before Writing. Vol. 1 of From Counting to Cuneiform. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. *Woods, Geraldine. Science in Ancient Egypt. New York: Franklin Watts, 1998.

LITERATURE Andrews, Carol, ed. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Translated by R. O. Faulkner. New York: Macmillan, 1985. Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1996. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, trans. TheEpicofGilgamesh. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989. lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973-1980. Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1955.

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Reiner, Erica. Your Thwarts in Pieces, Your Mooring Rope Cut: Poetry from Babylonia and Assyria. Ann Arbor: Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan, 1985. Roth, Martha. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Vol. 6 of Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Suggested Readings

ARCHAEOLOGY Ben-Tor, Amnon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. Translated by R. Greenberg. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994. Bibby, Geoffrey. Looking for Dilmun. London: Stacey International, 1996. Clapp, Nicholas. The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of the Sands. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1998. Dineen, Jacquelin, and Philip Wilkinson. The Lands of the Bible. New York: Chelsea House, 1994. Duchene, Herve. Golden Treasures of Troy: The Dream of Heinrich Schliemann. Translated by Jeremy Legatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Farnoux, Alexandre. Knossos: Searching for the Legendary Palace of King Minos. Translated by David J. Baker. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

Foreman, Laura. Cleopatra's Palace: In Search of a Legend. Del Mar, Calif.: Discovery Books, 1999. Maisels, Charles Keith. The Near East: Archaeology in the Cradle of Civilization. Experiences of Archaeology Series. London and New York, Routledge, 1993. Mclntosh, Jane. The Practical Archaeologist: How We Know What We Know About the Past. London: Facts on File, Paul Press, 1986. Meyers, Eric M. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 5 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.

WOMEN Bach, Alice, ed. Women in the Hebrew Bible: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 1999. Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. Women's Work: The First 20,000 Years. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. Ide, Arthur Frederick. Women in the Ancient Near East. 2nd ed. Mesquite, Tex.: Ide House, 1982. Lesko, Barbara S. The Remarkable Women of Ancient Egypt 3rd ed., rev. and enl. Providence, R.I.: B. C. Scribe Publications, 1996.

*Nardo, Don. Cleopatra. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1994. Robins, Gay. Women in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993. Tyldesley, Joyce. Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. London: Penguin Books, 1998. . Nefertiti: Egypt's Sim Queen. New York: Viking Press, 1999. Vivante, Bella, ed. Women's Roles in Ancient Civilizations. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

ECONOMY Aberbach, M. Labor, Crafts, and Commerce in Ancient Israel. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1984. Aubet, Maria Eugenia. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Finley, M. I. The Ancient Economy. Sather Classical Lectures Series. Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Groom, Nigel. Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. New York: Longman, 1981. Parkins, Helen, and Christopher John Smith, eds. Trade, Traders, and the Ancient City. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.

Pastor, Jack. Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine. London and New York: Routledge, 1997. Powell, Marvin A. Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987. Price, B. B. Ancient Economic Thought. Routledge Studies in the History of Economics, Vol. 1. London: Routledge, 1997. Wright, Christopher J. H. God's People in God's Land: Family, Land, and Property in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans, 1990.

WARS AND WARFARE *Brewer, Paul. Warfare in the Ancient World. Austin, Tex.: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 1998. Briant, Pierre. Alexander the Great: Man of Action, Man of Spirit Translated by Jeremy Leggatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. *Gonen, Rivka. Charge! Weapons and Warfare in Ancient Times. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The Persian Wars. Translated by George Rawlinson. New York: Modern Library, 1942. *Nardo, Don. The Battle of Marathon. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1996.

Stillman, Nigel, and Nigel Tallis. Armies of the Ancient Near East, 3000 B.C. to 539 B.C.: Organisation, Tactics, Dress, and Equipment. Devizes, England: Wargames Research Group Publications, 1984. Time Frame: Barbarian Tides, 1500-600 B.C. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1987. *Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. Ancient Warfare. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 2000. Yadin, Yigael. Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

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Suggested Readings

ON-LINE RESOURCES Abzu: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near East. Contains information about the study of the ancient Near East. Provides links to other sites about the ancient Near East. http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html Ancient Persia. Contains a historical overview and a gallery of art and artifacts from ancient Persia. http://dolphin.upenn.edu/~pps/ Architecture in the Ancient Near East. Discusses building techniques used in ancient structures, with images and descriptions. http://www-lib.haifa.ac.il/www/art/archimedia.html Canaan and Ancient Israel. Contains information about the University of Pennsylvania's Museum of Archeology and Anthropology's permanent exhibit on Canaan and ancient Israel. Provides links to its galleries on Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world. http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Collections/ canaanframedocl .html The Hermitage Museum. Provides information about and examples of art from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/ hm3_5.html Hittite Home Page. Provides information about resources for Hittite and ancient Anatolian studies and information about other regions of the ancient Near East. http://www.asor.org/HITTITE/HittiteHP.html The Iraklion Archaeological Museum. Contains information about exhibits on ancient Minoan art and artifacts from Crete. Also provides information about the history of Crete and archaeological sites. http://www.interkriti.org/museums/hermus.htm The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Provides information about archaeological and historical discoveries in Israel and presents visual images of artifacts. http://www.imj.org.il/archaeology/index.html Learning Sites, Inc. Contains information on archaeological sites in Greece and the ancient Near East, including Anatolian, Assyrian, and Egyptian sites. http://www.learningsites.com

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Lost City of Arabia. Contains information about the discovery and excavation of the site of ancient Ubar, a "lost city" in Arabia. http://www3.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ubar The Louvre Museum. Contains information about the Louvre's ancient Near Eastern collections, with photographs of art and artifacts from ancient Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, the Levant, and Arabia. http://www.louvre.fr/anglais/collec/coll_f.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art. Contains information and photographs of the museum's ancient Near Eastern art collection. Also provides an introduction to ancient Near Eastern art. http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/ department.asp?dep=3 National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Provides images and information on the museum's collections of ancient Greek and Egyptian art. http://www.culture.gr Near East—Cradle of Civilization. Contains information about the peoples and contributions of ancient Near Eastern civilizations. http://www.emory.edu/CARLOS/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/ homepg.html Oriental Institute. Provides information on the ancient Near East. Also contains a video tour of the University of Chicago's collection of Near Eastern art. http://www-oi.uchicago.edu http://www.oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/OLMuseum.html Science Museum of Minnesota: Mysteries of £atalh6yiik. Contains information about archaeological excavations and artifacts from fatal Huytik. http://www.sci.mus.mn.us/catal The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Provides information about the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Great Pyramid ofGiza. http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/list.html Smith College History of Science: Museum of Ancient Inventions. Provides an on-line exhibit of ancient inventions, with photographs and accompanying text. http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/ hsclist.htm

PHOTO CREDITS VOLUME 1 Co/or P/crtes for Religion

1: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 2: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 3: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York/Gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust/Schecter Lee; 4: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 6: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 7: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 9: Israel Museum; 10: Louvre Museum, Paris/Explorer/SuperStock; 11: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 13: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 14: Archaeological Museum, Iraklion, Crete/Bridgeman Art Library; 15: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 1: SuperStock; 4: Corbis/Werner Forman; 7: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/ET Archive, London/SuperStock; 15: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Index, Barcelona/ Bridgeman Art Library; 17: Louvre Museum, Paris; 21: Iraq Museum, Baghdad; 25: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 32: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 34: The

Granger Collection, New York; 36: Ekrem Akurgal, Die Kunst derHethiter; 42: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York; 46: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 55: Oriental Division, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 58: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emirate; 67: The Granger Collection, New York; 72: Corbis/Bettmann; 77: The Granger Collection, New York; 85: British Museum, London; 86: British Museum, London; 101: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 105: Louvre Museum, Paris; 106: Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; 114: Brooklyn Museum, New York; 116: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; 120: Corbis/Archivo Iconografico, S.A.; 120: Louvre Museum, Paris/SuperStock; 129: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 139: Louvre Museum, Paris; 149: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 152: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 154: Courtesy B.A. Litvinsky; 156: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 161: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 171: Friedrich Schiller University, Jena; 172: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York

VOLUME 2 Color Plates for Daily Life 1: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Bridgeman Art Library; 2: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York; 3: Christie's Images/SuperStock; 4: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 5: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 6: Corbis/Chris Hellier; 7: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 9: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 10: Corbis/Gianni Dalgi Orti; 11: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 12: World Photo Service Ltd./SuperStock; 13: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York; 14: Corbis/Adam Woolfitt; 15: Scala/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 2: Corbis; 4: Corbis; 8: British Museum, London; 10: Archaeological Museum, Teheran; 12: Egyptian Museum, Cairo; 14: Bridgeman Art Library; 17: J.D.S. Pendlebury, A Handbook to the Palace of Minos atKnossos; 25: After M. Matousova-Rajmova, Archiv Orientalni; 27: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; 31: Minneapolis Institute of Arts; 37: Louvre Museum,

Paris; 51: Louvre Museum, Paris; 55: British Museum, London; 60: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 62: SuperStock; 68: Louvre Museum, Paris; 71: Louvre Museum, Paris; 82: H. Von Minutoli, Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon in derLibyschen Wuste; 85: Louvre Museum, Paris; 86: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 93: Corbis; 102: SuperStock; 106: Adapted from Peter R. S. Moore and P. E. Newberry Beni Hasan; 108: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 111: Art Resource; 122: British Museum, London; 125: Art Resource; 127: National Museum of the Syrian Arab Republic, Aleppo; 128: Art Resource; 135: Art Resource; 145: Art Resource; 147: Louvre Museum, Paris; 152: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 161: Hieroglyphic text from Alan Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar; 163: British Museum, London; 167: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 172: Corbis; 173: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emirate; 176: British Museum, London; 179: British Museum, London; 180: The Granger Collection, New York; 181: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 185: J. Black and A. Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia

187

Photo Credits

VOLUME Co/or P/ates for Architecture and Tombs I: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 3: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 4: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 5: Israel Museum/Nachum Slapak; 6: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 7: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 8: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 9: Art Resource, New York; 10: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 11: SuperStock; 12: Vanni/Art Resource, New York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 14: Corbis/Charles & Josette Lenars; 15: SuperStock Black-and-White Photographs 3: Louvre Museum, Paris; 7: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 16: Louvre Museum, Paris; 22: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 25: Biblical Archaeology Review; 34: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 36: British Museum, London; 40: Fritz Hintze and Ursula Hintze, Alte Kulturen Im Sudan; 43: Louvre Museum, Paris; 52: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 55: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 60: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 64: Courtesy Trevor R. Bryce; 66: Courtesy Crawford M. Greenwalt, Jr.; 69: Courtesy Oriental Institute,

University of Chicago; 70: British Museum, London/ Bridgeman Art Library; 74: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 76: British Museum, London; 81: Corbis/Adam Woolfitt; 84: Corbis/Bettmann; 89: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 92: Courtesy Klaas R. Veenhof; 97: British Museum, London; 102: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 110: Christos G. Doumas, The Wall-Paintmgs of Them; 112: N. Angell, The Story of Money; 118: The Granger Collection, New York; 120: British Museum, London; 122: National Museum of Athens; 124: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 131: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 134: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 139: Courtesy Elizabeth C. Stone; 142: Courtesy Frank Hole; 145: Courtesy Frank Hole; 146: Fritz Hintze and Ursula Hintze, Alte Kulturen Im Sudan; 150: Richard F. S. Starr, Nuzi, Vol. 2; 152: Phoebe Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley; 154: British Museum, London; 160: Helen Leacroft and Richard Leacroft, The Buildings of Ancient Mesopotamia; 165: Giraudon/Art Resource, New York; 170: Ernst Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient Near East; 175: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 182: Israel Department of Antiquities, Jerusalem; 187: Private Collection

VOLUME 4 Color Plates for Arts and Culture 1: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 3: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 4: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 6: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 7: Museum of Baghdad/Silvio Fiore/SuperStock; 8: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 9: Erich Lessing/ Art Lessing, New York; 10: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 11: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 14: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 15: Scala/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 2: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 8: Arnaldo Mondador, Ed., Anatolia: Immagini di Civilita; 15: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York; 22: Courtesy John Ruffle; 25: NY Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen; 28: Louvre Museum, Paris.; 33: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 37: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 42: British Museum, London; 47: Giovanni Lilliu, La Civilta

188

Nuragica; 53: British Museum, London; 57: Ekrem Akurgal, Ed., The Art and Architecture of Turkey; 64: British Museum, London; 67: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 75: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 81: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh; 95: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 98: Archaeology in the United Arab Emirates, Vol. 4; 104: State Museum, Berlin; 109: Courtesy Francois Vallat; 113: National Museum of the Syrian Arab Republic, Damascus; 119: Sergei I. Rudenko, The World's Most Ancient Artistic Carpets and Textiles; 126: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 131: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 133: Courtesy Hans G. Jansen; 136: Louvre Museum, Paris; 138: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 142: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 146: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 151: British Museum, London; 156: Giraudon/Art Resource, New York; 160: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 163: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 166: British Museum, London; 169: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 175: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 178: Giraudon/ Art Resource, New York; 179: Corbis/Roger Wood

INDEX A

Aba-Enlil-dari, 1:53 Abortion, 4:13 Abraham (Abram), 2:155, 3:24, 166-67 Absolute chronology, 1:166 Absolute dating (archaeological), 1:58-59 Abu Simbel, 1:1 (illus.) Abydos, 1:1-2, 3:157 Achaemenes, 3:171 Adad, 1:2-3 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 in Eblan pantheon, 2:130 in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Adad-nirari, 1:86, 87 Adad-nirari III, 1:88 Addu. See Adad Addu-yisci, 4:113 (illus.) Adoption, 2:87 Aegean Sea, 1:3 earthquake belt in, 2:46 Greek islands in, 2:139 Mycenaean colonization of islands in, 3:122 Thera, 4:123 volcanic belt through, 4:144 Aethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians Afro-Asiatic languages, 3:47-48. See also Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages Afterlife, 1:3-6. See also Burial sites and tombs; Death and burial and Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cosmetics for use in, 2:11 Egyptian beliefs about, 1:120-21, 2:63 Hittite beliefs about, 2:170 inscriptions as guide to, 3:4 and letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41 Mesopotamian beliefs about, 2:29 netherworld, 1:5 offerings for the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52 Osiris and, 3:157 of pharaohs, 3:180 pyramids and, 4:20 resurrection in, 1:6 and roles of dead in lives of the living, 2:86 soul (portrayal of), 1:4 (illus.) underworld, 1:1 Agade. See Akkad and the Akkadians

Agriculture, 1:6-11. See also Gardens of Akkadians, 1:20-21 in Babylonia, 1:108 calendars and, 1:135 in Canaan, 1:138 at Qatal Huyiik, 1:148 cereal grains, 1:154-57 development of, 4:167 as economic foundation, 2:47 in Egypt, 1:9-10,2:61-62 farming methods, 1:8-10 farmworkers, 1:10-11 and flooding, 2:38, 98-99 impact of, 1:11 irrigation, 3:8-11 in the Levant, 1:8-9 main crops, 1:7-8 in Mesopotamia, 1:9, 3:94, 95 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 Nile River's impact on, 3:138 nomadism and, 3:141, 142 olive growing, 3:152 origin of, 1:6 peasants' role in, 3:168 in Persian empire, 3:175 state-run (in Akkad), 1:20 in Syria, 4:110-11 Ahab, 1:11-12, 3:15, 4:44 Ahhotep, Queen (Egypt), 1:12 Ahmose, 1:12-13, 2:183 Ahriman, 1:6,1:13, 2:130, 4:179 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 on Behistun inscription, 1:116 (illus.)

earth as battleground of, 1:13 as Zoroastrian one true god, 1:6, 2:130,3:114,4:178-80 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 monotheism ordered by, 1:97, 3:113-1:114 Nefertiti and, 3:133 temple of, 1:15 (illus.) wives of, 4:25 Akhetaten, 1:16, 1:31, 2:174 Akkad and the Akkadians, 1:16-22, 1:19 (map), 2:79 agriculture and trade, 1:20-21 arts of, 1:21-22 attack on Magan by, 3:153 in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 barus, 3:153-54 cuneiform adopted by, 2:20-21 and Elamites, 2:67-68 fall of, 1:19

Page numbers of articles in these volumes appear in boldface type.

government of, 2:132 history of, 3:96 language of, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 35, 3:47, 4:72 literature of, 3:60 naming in, 3:128 Naram-Sin, 1:18, 3:129-30 poetry in, 3:59 political organization, 1:20 religion of, 1:21 royal inscriptions, 1:164 Sargon I, 1:17-18, 4:48-49 sculpture of, 4:57 social institutions of, 4:88 Akrotiri, 4:123, 145 Alaca Huyiik, 1:38,39 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Albright, William E, 1:64 Aleph-beths, 1:27-30, 4:171-72 Alexander IV, King, 1:26 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27 (illus.) army of, 1:74-75 and Darius III, 2:27 empire of, 1:24 (map), 3:67 and the Gordian knot, 1:26 Lycian invasion by, 3:63 Macedonia and Greece united by, 2:141 Ptolemy I and, 4:19 Tyre conquered by, 4:135 use of cavalry by, 1:152 Alexandria, library in, 3:55 Alliance of the twelve kings, 1:52 Alloys and alloying, 3:101, 108, 4:54 Alluvial plains, 2:118, 3:9 Alphabetic numeration, 3:149 Alphabets, 1:27-30, 4:172 Greek, 2:142-43 Hebrew, 2:157-58 Phoenician, 3:188 Alyattes, King, 3:65 Amamet, 1:5 Amarna, 1:31-32. See also Akhetaten Amarna letters, 1:31 Ambassadors. See Messengers Amenemhet I, 3:156 Amenemhet III, 3:36 Amenhotep III, 3:160-61 Amenhotep IV. See Akhenaten Amharic language, 4:73 Amorites, 1:32-33 in Babylonian history, 1:103 in Canaan, 1:138 dynasties of, 2:44

189

Index Hammurabi, 2:147-48 history of, 3:96 migration of, 3:105 nomadism of, 3:143 Phoenicians and, 3:184 Amulets and charms, 1:34-35 (illus.) animal carvings as, 1:46 for childbirth, 1:162 and magic, 3:68, 69 worn during pregnancy, 4:13 Amun, 1:35 in afterlife beliefs, 1:5 Akhenaten's discrediting of, 1:97 Amenhotep and, 1:14 combined with Ra, 2:128 in creation myths, 2:14 Great Temple of, 3:63 rams or geese as representative of, 1:47 temples to, 3:162 Amun-Ra, 2:128, 135 Amun-Re, 2:14 Analogic magic, 3:68 Analogic witchcraft, 4:160 Anat, 1:35-36 in Baal cycle, 1:99 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 displaced by Astarte, 2:130 Anatolia, 1:36-39 animals in art of, 1:45-46 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:61 architecture in, 1:70 building materials in, 1:126 Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 qatal Huyiik, 1:37,1:148-49 cities in, 1:173 climate of, 2:6, 120 clothing of, 2:8 Crete settled by, 2:15 dance in, 2:26 death and burial in, 2:31-32 domesticated animals in, 1:42 earthquake belt in, 2:46 ethnic and language groups in, 2:82 family and social life in, 2:87 feasts and festivals in, 2:93 funerary offerings in, 3:151 furnishings in, 2:107-8 geography of, 1:36, 2:119-20 gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30, 4:34 government of, 2:136-37 Hittites, 2:167-70 houses in, 2:173 labor and laborers in, 3:42-43 land use or ownership in, 3:46-47 languages of, 2:188, 3:48 location of, 1:37 (map) Luwians, 3:62 Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65 Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67 medicine in, 3:86-87 metal objects found in, 3:100 mining in, 3:107-8 mythology of, 3:126

190

Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 Neolithic settlements in, 1:37 omens in, 3:154 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3 queens of, 4:24-25 religions of, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:58 temples in, 3:163 trade in, 3:92 Troy, 4:132-33 Urartu, 4:139-40 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:162-63 Anaximander, 3:70 Ancestor worship, 1:5-6 Animal husbandry, systems of, 1:43 Animals, 1:39-41 in art, 1:45-48 birds, 1:40-41 burial of, 1:130 as burial offerings, 1:132 camels, 1:136-37 for caravans, 1:144 cats, 1:40, 1:149 cattle, 1:42 (illus.)t 1:150 cemeteries for, 1:2 chickens, 1:44 domestication of, 1:7, 1:41-45, 1:149, 150, 2:5, 179, 4:110, 140 Ethiopian, 1:39 figurines of, 1:36 (illus.) goats, 1:40, 2:126 gods and goddesses associated with, 2:129, 185-86 golden calf, 1:139 (illus.) herding of, 3:141-42, 144 horses, 1:40,2:170-71 humor in art depicting, 2:178, 179 (illus.) hunting of, 2:179-80 lions, 1:39, 3:57-58 mammals, 1:40 Palearctic, 1:39 pigs, 1:40,4:3-4 as sacrifices, 1:5, 3:151, 153-54, 4:37 sea animals, 1:41 sheep, 1:40, 4:78-79 as tax payment, 4:115 for transportation, 4:131 worship of, 2:63, 4:33 Annals of Thutmose III, 1:165 Antigonus Gonatas, 3:67 Anti-Lebanon Mountains, 2:120 Antony, Mark, 2:4 Anu, 1:48, 1:110,2:127 Anubis, 1:47,2:129 Apology of Khattushili III, 3:32, 60 Apprenticeships, 2:55 Arabia and the Arabs, 1:49-51 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62, 63 ethnic and language groups in, 2:83 geography of, 2:120-21 languages in, 3:47 location of, 1:50 (map)

merchants in, 3:93 nomadism of, 3:143 number systems of, 3:149 Oman Peninsula, 3:153 trade routes of, 4:129 Arabic language, 4:73 Arabic numerals, 3:148 Aramaean language, 4:73 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 in Babylonia, 1:105-6 and Chaldeans, 1:158 Damascus and, 2:24 deportation of, 3:106-7 migration of, 3:106 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135 nomadism of, 3:143 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 3:49, 4:73 Assyrian use of, 1:85, 3:143 in Babylonia, 1:109 as language of Persian empire, 3:176 and Phoenician alphabet, 3:188 replacement of cuneiform by, 1:122 study of, and names, 3:129 Ararat, Mount, 2:119, 4:145 Ararat (kingdom). See Urartu Archaeological sites, 1:55-57 Abydos, 1:2 Akhetaten, 1:16 Alalakh, 1:22-23 AliKosh, 3:173 Amarna, 1:31-32 Azatiwadiya, 3:135 Bahariya Oasis, 2:59 bird skeletons in, 1:41 gatalHiiylik, 1:148-49 in the Caucasus, 1:151 in Central Asia, 1:153 copper-working sites, 3:108 in Crete, 2:16 Eridu, 2:76-77 evidence from, 1:55-56 houses at, 2:172-75 Jericho, 3:17-18 Kalkhu, 3:28 Khattusha, 2:168, 3:31 at Kish, 3:38 Knosses, 3:39 kurgans, 1:151 libraries and archives at, 3:158 locating, 1:56 Median, 3:80-81 Midas Mound, 2:32 Mycenaean, 3:123 Nineveh, 3:21, 139, 140 nomad tent camp discovery by, 3:142, 143 Nuzi, 3:149-50 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102 (illus.)f 4:137 Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.) on Sardinia, 4:47 (illus.) Sidon, 4:84 Susa, 4:108 (illus.) Tel Dan, 2:28 Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), 2:78 Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100

Index Tell Hariri (Mari), 3:71, 72 temple Eshumesha, 3:159 textiles from, 4:118 on Thera, 4:123 Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.) Tutankhamen's tomb, 3:21 Tyre, 4:135 Ugarit, 4:136 (illus.) working, 1:56-57 in Zagros Mountains, 3:6 Ziwiye, 3:6 Archaeology and archaeologists, 1:54-64. See also names of specific people in Anatolia, 1:61 in Arabia, 1:62 and Aswan High Dam threat, 1:57 Babylonian puzzle and, 1:100 chronology for, 1:167-68 Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 in Egypt, 1:59-60 environmental change studied by, 2:73-74 ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 evidence and sites, 1:55-59 and evidence for biblical stories, 2:155-56 farming resources for, 1:11 flood evidence in, 2:98 importance of serendipity to, 1:56 in Iran, 1:62-63 in the Levant, 1:61-62 in Mesopotamia, 1:60 metal objects found by, 3:100-102, 104 methods used by, 1:56-57, 59 mummies studies by, 3:119 nomadic campsites and, 3:142, 143, 145 (illus.) palaces and temples, 3:157-58 Persian Gulf coastline change evidence of, 3:94 pottery as source of information for, 4:9 roads found by, 4:40 Rosetta Stone, 1:59 salvage archaeology, 1:57 search for Hanging Gardens of Babylon by, 2:150 theft of artifacts from, 1:62, 127-28, 131 and tomb robbing, 1:127-28 trade studied by, 2:48-49 Archimedes, 2:142 Architecture, 1:64-70. See also Building materials in Anatolia, 1:70 in Assyria, 1:93 in Babylonia, 1:111 in Egypt, 1:65-68, 2:63-64 engineering of, 4:53 (illus.) fortifications, 1:70, 2:104-6 Great Pyramid of Giza, 1:126 of Greece, 2:142 of Hittites, 2:170 houses, 1:64-65, 67, 68, 70, 2:172-75

of Israelites, 2:158 in the Levant, 1:68-70 of Lydia, 3:66 in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 of Minoans, 2:16 monumental, 1:66-67 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Oman peninsula towers, 1:58 (illus.) palaces, 1:65, 66, 68-70, 3:157-61 in Persian empire, 1:69-70, 3:176 pyramids, 1:66, 2:63-64, 4:20-23 Sumerian, 4:104-5 temples, 1:65-67, 69, 70, 2:63-64, 3:157-59, 3:161-63 tombs, 1:66, 69-70 ziggurats, 4:104, 4:174-76 Area, measurement of, 3:79 Arinna, 2:129 Aristotle, 1:94, 2:142 Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71, 3:19, 24, 115 Armageddon, 3:90 Armies, 1:71-75 Assyrian, 1:91 cavalry, 1:74,1:152 early, 1:71-72 of empires, 1:73-75 engineers in, 1:74, 75 of Hittites, 1:72-73 of Persian Empire, 3:174-75 professional, 1:73 soldiers, 4:91-93 travel by, 4:130 Armor. See Weapons and armor Arranged marriages, 3:74-75 ArsacesI, 3:166 Arses, 3:174 Art, artists, and artisans, 1:75-79 (illus.). See also Tools; specific topics of Akkad, 1:21-22 of Amarna, 1:31-32 (illus.) animals in art, 1:45-48 in Assyria, 1:93 in Babylonia, 1:111 bas-reliefs, 1:7 (illus.), 1:113-15 (illus.) birds, 1:118-20 bricks as "canvas" for, 1:124 at gatal Hiiyiik, 1:148-49 chariots, 3:7 (illus.) comic art, 1:40, 47 demons represented in, 1:47-48, 2:36 in Egypt, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 faience, 2:85-86 gems used by, 2:114 and gender roles/attitudes, 2:116-17 glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25 gods and goddesses in, 2:128 of Greece, 2:142 Gudea's influence on, 2:143 Hittite, 2:169 horses in, 2:171 human form in art, 2:175-78 Human, 2:181 (illus.) iconography in, 2:184-86 of Israelites, 2:158

ivory for, 1:153 (illus.)f 3:16-17, 4:13607/115.; jewelry, 3:20-23 lions in, 3:57 Lydian vessel, 3:66 (illus.) in Mesopotamia, 1:78-79 metal figurines (Bronze Age), 1:36 (illus.) metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 of Minoan civilization, 3:111-12 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) of Persian empire, 1:153 (illus.), 3:176 pharaohs portrayed in, 3:181 Philistine, 3:182 (illus.)f 184 of Phoenicians, 3:187 pottery, 4:6-11 purposes of art, 1:76 relief in, high vs. bas-, 1:113 religious, 1:46-48, 118-19 sculpture, 4:56-59 Scythian, 4:62 secular, 1:45-46,119-20 Sethin, 4:76 specialization of, 3:42 stela of the Vulture, 1:71-72, 119 stone used by, 4:98-99 Sumerian, 4:105 textiles, 4:118-20 tools for, 4:126 Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17 (illus.), 21 wall paintings, 4:145-48 woodworking, 3:43 (illus.) workshops for, 1:77, 78 ArtabanusII, 3:166 Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80, 3:173-74 Artifact typology, 1:168 Aryans, 1:80-81, 3:7,106 Ashdod, 3:183 Asherah, 1:139, 3:25 (illus.) Ashur, 2:128 Marduk and, 3:71 Mitanni's domination of, 1:85 Shamshi-Adad's rule of, 1:85 as trade center, 3:92 Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83 art in palace of, 1:46 construction and building by, 3:140 dream of, 2:41 library of, 3:55, 140 reign of, 1:90 Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84, 1:87 Ashur (city), 1:81-82 Ashur (deity), 1:82 Ashurnasirpal, 2:92 Ashurnasirpal II, 1:86 (illus.)f 87, 2:29-30, 3:4 Ashur-uballit, 1:85 Ashur-uballit II, 1:91 Asiatics, 2:80 Canaanites, 2:80 Hyksos, 2:182-83

191

Index Assyria and the Assyrians, 1:84-93, 2:79 Arabian trade routes and, 3:143 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaean conflict with, 1:52 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 army of, 1:73-74 art and architecture of, 1:93 Ashur, 1:81-82 Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83 Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84 Ashur (deity), 1:82 in Babylonia, 1:100, 105-6 bloodthirstiness of, 1:86 burial of kings and queens in, 1:130 and Chaldeans, 1:158-59 chariots in, 1:161 chronicles of, 1:165 clothing of, 2:7 death and burial in, 2:29 deportations by, 3:106-7 economy and trade, 1:92 and Elamites, 2:69-70 Esarhaddon, 2:77 fall of, 3:97-98 geography of, 1:84-85 government of, 1:91-92 and Israelites, 3:15 Karkamish, 3:29 king lists of, 3:34-35 lions in, 3:57 location of, 1:88 (map) Medes as vassals of, 3:81 merchant communities (karu) in, 3:92-93 (illus.) merchants in, 3:93 Middle Assyria, 1:85-87 monotheism in, 3:114 Nabopolassar and, 3:127 Neo-Assyria, 1:84, 87-91 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135-36 Nineveh, 3:139-40 Old Assyria, 1:85 palaces of, 3:159 Philistines conquered by, 3:183 Phoenicians and, 3:186 queens of, 4:23-24 religion of, 1:92-93 rise of, 3:97 roads in, 1:91 Samaria and Israel conquered by, 4:44-45 Sargon II, 4:49-50 sculpture of, 4:57 Scythians and, 4:60 Semiramis, 4:70 Sennacherib, 4:73-74 Shalmaneser III, 4:77 Shalmaneser V, 4:77-78 Shamshi-Adad I, 4:78 social structure of, 1:92 soldiers of, 4:92-93 Tiglath-pileser III, 4:124 trade routes of, 4:128 and Urartu, 4:140 women's role in, 4:161

192

writing of, 1:122 ziggurats of, 4:176 Astarte, 1:139, 2:130, 3:187 Astrology and astrologers, 1:93-95 divination and, 3:155 education for, 2:55 horoscopes, 1:95 omens explained by, 3:153 zodiac in, 1:95, 4:177-78 Astronomy and astronomers, 1:95-97 in Babylonia, 1:111, 166 and calendars, 1:111, 133, 134 development of, 4:53 lunar theory, 3:62 planets, 4:4 and pyramid positions, 4:22 stars, 4:95-97 sun, 4:107-8 zodiac, 4:177-78 Astyages, 2:23 Aten, 1:97-98; Amenhotep s worship of, 1:14-15 hymn to, 1:97 as only true god, 3:113-14 during reign of Akhenaten, 2:129 Athaliah, 1:98 Athens, 2:140-42 Atlantis, 2:38, 46 Atrakhasis, 1:48 Atum, 2:13-14, 128 Atum-Re, 2:14 Aurochs, 1:150 Avestan language, 2:188, 3:48-39 Axes, 4:155

B

Baal, 1:98-99 andAdad, 1:2 Ahab's temple to, 1:12 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 in creation myths, 2:15 El and, 2:130 BaalatGubla, 3:187 Baal Cycle, 1:35-36, 1:99, 3:60, 125 Baal Shamem, 3:187 Babylon (city) archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 art depicting animals in, 1:46 Hanging Gardens of, 1:100, 102, 2:149-50 historical role of, 1:100 Marduk and, 3:71 physical features of, 1:101 Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) roads in, 4:40 Southern Citadel of, 3:159-60 Babylonia and the Babylonians, 1:102-11,2:79 agriculture in, 1:108 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaeans and Assyrians in, 1:105-6 artifacts from, 1:55 (illus,) arts in, 1:111 Assyria and, 1:86,89

astrology in, 1:94-95 astronomy of, 1:95, 96 calendars in, 1:134, 3:62 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 1:157-59 chronicles of, 1:165 cosmetics used by, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:14 Dark Age, 1:104-5,3:96 demons and, 2:37 deportation of, 3:106 economy and trade in, 1:102, 108 and Elamites, 2:68-69 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 fall of, 3:97-98 family in, 1:109 geography of, 1:102 government of, 1:107-8 Hammurabi, 2:147-48 history of, 1:102-7, 2:166, 3:96 Jewish exiles in, 3:20, 25-26 Kassite rule of, 3:29-30 king lists of, 3:34 land use or ownership in, 3:46 language of, 1:109 literature of, 1:110-11, 3:59 maps from, 3:70 (illus.) Marduk, 3:71 mathematics in, 3:76-77 Median alliance of, 3:82 merchants in, 3:93 Middle Babylonian Empire, 1:104-5 monotheism in, 3:114 mythology of, 1:110-11 Nabonidus, 3:126-27 Nabopolassar, 3:127 Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32 Neo-Babylonian Empire, 1:100, 101, 103 (map), 106-7, 159 New Year's festival, 2:94 Nippur, 1:171 (illus.), 3:140 number systems of, 3:148 Old Babylonian Empire, 1:100, 103-4, 108-11 Palace of Governors, 3:158-59 Persian and Macedonian conquests in, 1:107 and Persians, 3:172 Philistines conquered by, 3:183 Phoenicians and, 3:186 religion of, 1:110 Samsu-iluna, 4:46 science in, 1:111 sculpture of, 4:57-58 social structure of, 1:108-9 Southern Citadel, 1:65 temple servants in, 4:75 Tiglath-pileser III and, 4:124 trial records, 3:52 Ur and, 4:138 women's role in, 4:161-62 Xerxes and, 4:172, 173 ziggurats of, 4:175-76 zodiac in, 4:177-78 Babyloniaca, 2:166 Babylonian Chronicles, 1:169 Bactra, 1:154

Index Bactria, 1:111-12 and Alexander the Great, 1:25 death and burial in, 2:33 location of, 1:153 Bagoas, 2:84 Bahrain, 1:50,1:112-13 Ballard, Robert, 3:187 Barley, 1:155 Barter, 2:49, 52-53 Barthelemy, Jean-Jacques, 2:33 Barns, 3:153-54 Bas-reliefs, 1:113-15 animals depicted in, 1:46 in Assyria, 1:93 from Egypt, 1:113-14 (illus.), 2:64 from Mesopotamia, 1:114-15 Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Phoenician ships, 3:131 (illus.) on stone stelae, 1:114-15 Bast/Bastet, 1:149 Bauer, Hans, 1:30 Beekeeping, 1:44 Beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 Behistun Inscription, 1:62,1:115-17, 3:4, 4:59 Bel. See Enlil Berber languages, 2:146 Bes, 1:162 Bessus, 1:25 Bible, Hebrew, 1:117-18 alphabetic numeration and, 3:149 Aramaic used in, 1:52, 3:48 archaeological evidence about, 1:61-62, 2:155-56 and Ark of the Covenant, 1:71 Athaliahin, 1:98 Book of Isaiah, 3:12 and Canaanite literature, 1:138 Chaldeans in, 1:159 Chronicles in, 1:165 clothing laws in, 2:8 Covenant Code, 3:53 creation myths in, 2:15 King David, 2:28-29 Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 dreams in, 2:41 droughts in, 2:42-43 earthquakes in, 2:46-47 Eden in, 3:126 edict of Cyrus the Great in, 2:54 Egyptian chronology and, 1:170 Elisha in, 3:86 "evil eye" in, 4:160 famine in, 2:91 feasts and festivals in, 2:92 flood story in, 2:97 Hurriansin, 2:181 illnesses and diseases in, 2:153 Israel and Judah in, 3:13-16 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jericho story in, 3:18 Jerusalem in, 3:19-20 Judaism and, 3:23-26, 28 kingship in, 2:45 law codes in, 2:149, 3:53, 3:114-16 locust plagues in, 2:38

Masoretic text of, 3:28 mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Megiddo in, 3:89-90 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Moses, 3:116-17 Mount Sinai, 4:84-4:85 music and dance in, 2:71-72 Nebuchadnezzar II in, 1:106 Omriin, 1:11-12 patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, 3:166-68 Philistines in, 3:181, 182 pigs in, 4:3 poetry in, 3:59-60 prophecies in, 3:156-57 Proverbs in, 4:18 Psalms in, 4:11 Red Sea vs. Sea of Reeds in, 4:31 Samaritans in, 4:45 7-day week in, 1:134 Shalmaneser V in, 4:77 Sinai Peninsula in, 4:85 tabernacle construction in, 4:165 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 Torah, 4:127 Tyre in, 4:135 use of El in, 2:66 Yahweh and other gods in, 3:114 Bibliotheca, 2:97 Bidu, 1:5 Bietak, Mannfred, 1:63 Birds in art, 1:118-20 Birthplace of civilization, 4:141 Bittel, Kurt, 1:64 Black magic, 3:68, 4:159 Black Obelisk, 4:77 Boats. See Ships and boats Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 Books and manuscripts, 1:121-23. See also Texts and documents clay tablets as, 1:121-22 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 on omens, 3:154 papyrus rolls, 1:122 writing of, 1:122-23 Botta, Paul-Emile, 1:60 Bows and arrows, 4:155 Bread, 1:156-57 Breads, 2:100-101 Breasted, James Henry, 1:63 Brick(s), 1:123-24 Egyptian use of, 1:125 Mesopotamian use of, 1:125 Persian use of, 1:127 as replacement for wood, 4:165 Bronze, 3:101, 108, 4:155 Bronze Age, 1:166,3:101 Alalakhin, 1:22-23 Khatti in, 3:30 metal figurines from, 1:36 (illus.) trade in, 1:3 Building materials, 1:124-27 in Anatolia, 1:126 bricks, 1:123-24 clay for, 4:6

in Egypt, 1:67-68, 125-26 fragrant wood as, 3:169 for houses, 2:173-74 (illus.) in Iran, 1:127 in the Levant, 1:68, 126 in Mesopotamia, 1:124-25 mud brick as, 1:64 of palace at Susa, 3:176 for palaces, 3:161 for ships and boats, 4:80-81 stone, 2:40, 4:97-99 in Syria, 1:126 for temples, 3:163 wood and woodworking, 4:164-67 Buildings. See Architecture Bulgur (recipe), 2:103 Bull, human-headed, 1:47 Bullae, 4:68 "bull leaping," 3:111-12 Burial sites and tombs, 1:127-32 Abydos, 1:1-2 amulets in, 1:34 of Assyrian queens, 4:24 bas-relief in, 1:114 at Qatal Hiiyuk, 1:148 for cats, 1:149 in Central Asia, 1:130-31 of King Darius I, 3:175 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:66, 128-30 graves, 1:128 inscriptions in, 3:4 in Iran, 1:131 kurgans, 1:151 in the Levant, 1:131-32 at Lisht, 3:58 in Mesopotamia, 1:130 of Mycenaeans, 3:123 near Thebes, 4:120 necropolises, 1:128 in Persia, 1:69-70 Ramses VI's tomb, 4:134 robbing of, 1:127-28 sarcophagi, 1:132 secondary burial, 1:132 tombs, 1:128 Tutankhamen's tomb, 4:134 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Valley of the Queens, 4:144 Byblos, 1:132-33, 2:10

c

Caesar, Julius, 2:4 Calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96 Babylonian astronomy and, 1:111 civil vs. religious, 1:134, 135 counting years with, 1:135 Egyptian, 1:134-35 and lunar theory, 3:62 Mesopotamian, 1:133-34 use of, 1:135-36 Cambyses II, 1:136, 3:172-74 Camels, 1:40, 1:136-37 Arabs'use of, 1:49 in art, 1:44-45

193

Index caravans using, 1:144, 4:128 trade using, 3:93, 4:128, 130 Canaan and the Canaanites, 1:137-40 afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 Baal, 1:98-99 burial practices of, 1:131 creation myths of, 2:15 El, 2:66 ethnic and language groups, 2:82-83 geography of, 1:137-38 government of, 2:137 hairstyles in, 2:144, 145 health in, 2:153 Hebrews and Israelites, 2:155-58 history of, 1:138-39 houses of, 2:175 Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 Israelites in, 2:83, 156 and Jews, 3:24 king lists of, 3:35 land ownership in, 3:46 languages of, 1:139, 4:72 magic in, 3:69 marriage in, 3:74-75 Megiddo, 3:89 merchants in, 3:93 mythology of, 3:125-26 palaces of, 3:161 Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, 2:83, 3:184-88 poetry of, 3:60 religions of, 1:139 resources of, 1:138 Semites in, 4:71 social institutions of, 4:90 temples of, 3:163 Canals, 1:140-42 for irrigation, 1:9, 3:9, 11 maintenance of, 4:154 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 trade routes along, 4:128 Capacity, measurement of, 3:79-80 Capital punishment, 1:142-43, 3:53 Caravans, 1:143-45 dangers facing, 3:93 messengers use of, 2:10 routes, caravan, 4:128 trade and, 3:92-93 Carbon-14 dating, 1:168 Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 Carmel, Mount, 2:121 Carnelian, 3:90 Carpets, 4:118 Carter, Howard, 1:59, 128, 4:134 Carthage, 1:146-48, 3:88 Cartography, 3:69, 70 Casting (metal), 3:103 fatal Hiiyuk, 1:148-49 birds in paintings at, 1:118 clothing of, 2:8 furnishing at, 2:107 houses at, 2:173 location of, 1:37 rock paintings at, 1:45

194

wall paintings at, 4:147 Cats, 1:40, 1:149 (illus.), 2:179 Cattle, 1:42 (illus.), 44, 1:150 Caucasus, 1:130, 1:150-51 Cavalry, 1:152 (illus.) Cemeteries. See Burial sites and tombs Centaurs, 1:47,2:171 Central Asia, 1:153-54 Bactria, 1:111-12, 1:153-54 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130-31 Margiana, 1:153 Central Semitic languages, 4:72 Ceramics. See Pottery Cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 Chadic languages, 2:146 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 1:157-59, 3:107 Champollion, Jean-Frangois, 2:34, 162, 4:41-43 Chariots, 1:152 (illus.), 1:160-61 (illus.) animals used with, 1:44 art depicting, 3:7 (illus.) cavalry vs., 1:152 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71 in Hittite army, 1:73 horse-drawn, 2:171 as tax payment, 4:115 wheels for, 4:158 Charms. See Amulets and charms Cheops. See Khufu Chickens, 1:44 Childbirth, 1:162, 3:85 Children, 1:163-64. See also Family and social life arranged marriages for, 3:74 burial offerings for, 1:131 divorce and, 2:39-40 education for, 2:54 in Egypt, 2:64 hairstyles of, 2:144 as laborers, 3:42 medical treatment of, 3:85 naming of, 3:128 sacrifice of, 1:147, 3:151, 188, 4:38 sold into slavery, 4:86 Chogha Mami, 2:172 Chronicles, 1:164-66, 2:165-66, 3:130 Chronology(-ies), 1:166-70, 2:165 Cimmerians, 3:65 Phrygians and, 4:1 Urartu invasion by, 3:143 Cities and city-states, 1:171-76 Akhetaten, 1:16 Akkad, 1:16-22 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Amarna, 1:31-32 in Anatolia, 1:38, 173 appearance of, 1:175 Ashdod, 3:183 Ashur, 1:81-82 Babylon, 1:100-102 Bactra, 1:154 building materials for, 1:125 Byblos, 1:132-33

in Canaan, 1:138 Carthage, 1:146-48 Damascus, 2:24 Ebla, 2:47 in Egypt, 1:173 Eridu, 2:76-77 Eshnunna, 2:77-78 founded by Philistines, 3:181-82 gates in, 2:113-14 Giza, 2:123-24 Greek, 2:140 Itjtawy, 3:58 Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 Kalkhu, 3:28 Karkamish, 3:28-29 Khattusha, 3:31 Kish, 3:38 Knossos, 3:38-39 Lagash, 3:44 and land use, 3:45 Larsa, 2:147 layout of, 1:175-76 in the Levant, 1:174 location of, 1:174 Maracanda, 1:154 Mari, 3:71-72 Memphis, 3:90-91 Meroe, 3:39-41 in Mesopotamia, 1:171-73 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 Nineveh, 3:139-40 Nippur, 3:140 nomads and, 3:142 Persepolis, 3:170-71 Philistine, 3:183 Phoenician, 3:184 populations of, 1:174 Samaria, 4:44-45 Samarkand, 1:154 Sardis, 4:47-48 Sidon, 4:84 size of, 1:174 Sparta, 1:80 Sumerian, 4:101 (map), 103, 104 Susa, 4:108-9 in Syria, 1:174,4:109 Thebes, 4:120-21 Troy, 4:132-33 Tyre, 4:134-35 Ugarit, 4:135-37 Umma, 4:137 Ur, 4:137-39 urbanization and, 4:140-41 Uruk, 4:141-43 walled cities, 4:148-49 waste disposal in, 1:175 "cities of the dead," 1:128 Civilization, birthplace of, 4:141 Clapp, Nicholas, 1:62 Clay tablets, 2:1-3 (illus.) agricultural records on, 1:10 at Amarna, 1:31 from Ashurbanipal's library, 3:55 (illus.)

Index of Assyrian kings, 1:92 astronomy records on, 1:96 Baal cycle, 1:99 in Crete, 2:16 at Ebla, 2:47 Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96 Farmer's Almanac on, 1:10 inscriptions on, 3:3-4 as manuscripts, 1:121-22 maps on, 3:69-70 fromMari, 3:71 Mesopotamian, 3:54 of Mesopotamian law, 3:52 messages sent on, 2:10 in Nineveh library, 3:140 numbers expressed on, 3:148 Plow Star, 1:96 for record keeping, 4:29 storage and retrieval of, 3:56 Three Stars Each, 1:96 Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 (illus.) Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.) Climate, 2:4-6, 4:153. See also Agriculture; Environmental change of Anatolia, 1:36,2:120 of Arabia, 1:48 and canals, 1:140 cosmetics and, 2:11 and drought, 2:42-43 of Egypt, 2:119 and environmental change, 2:73-75 herding of animals and, 3:144 of Iran, 2:120, 3:6 of the Levant, 2:120 of Mesopotamia, 2:118 nomadism necessitated by, 3:144 rainfall, 4:153 in Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 of Sudan, 4:99 Clocks, 1:134,135 Clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.). See also Textiles Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 as tax payment, 4:115 Code of Hammurabi. See Hammurabi, Code of Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52 Codes of Shulgi, 3:52 Coins, 3:112, 3:113 early, 2:142 as item of exchange, 2:53 Lycian, 3:64 (illus.), 112 (illus.) tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 Comedy. See Humor Commerce. See Economy and trade Commercial economies, 2:50 Communication, 2:9-11. See also Language^); Writing with the dead, 1:4-6 iconography, 2:184-86 between kings, 2:137 messengers for, 3:99 prayers as, 4:12

Contact magic, 3:68 Copernicus, 1:94 Copper, 2:22, 3:100, 101, 108 Coptic language, 2:34 Corvee (forced labor), 3:168 Cosmetics, 2:11-13 perfumes in, 3:170 on statue of Lady Nofret, 2:12 (illus.) Cosmogony. See creation myths Council of 500, 2:141-42 Counting, 3:148 Creation myths, 2:13-15 of Ahriman and Ahura Mazda, 1:13 Anu in, 1:48 Ea in, 2:45 Enuma Elish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 and Hebrew Bible, 1:118 similarities among, 4:123 Crete, 2:15-17 earthquakes of, 2:38, 46 geography of, 3:109 Greek influence on, 2:139 Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:110, 111 Minoan civilization, 2:15-17, 3:109-12 Mycenaean trade and, 3:122 shipping trade in, 3:88 Crime. See Capital punishment; Law(s) Croesus, King, 3:65-66 Cross-dating (archaeological), 1:58 Cults, 2:18-19 Cuneiform, 2:19-22 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 in Babylonia, 1:109 in Bahrain, 1:113 on clay tablets, 1:59, 122, 2:2 (illus.), 3:56 decipherment of, 2:34-36 as forerunner of alphabet, 1:28-29 mathematical texts in, 3:77 replacement of, 1:122 Sumerian language written in, 4:105 Currency. See Money The Curse ofAkkad, 1:18 Cushitic languages, 2:146 Cyaxares, King, 3:81, 127 Cybele, 2:129, 3:67, 4:3 Cyclades islands, 1:3 Cyprus, 2:22-23, 3:88 Cyrus the Great, 2:23-24 Lydian battle against, 3:66 and Median Kingdom, 3:82-83 Persian empire founded by, 3:172 tomb of, 1:129 (illus.)

D

Dagan, 1:54, 139, 2:130 Dairy products, 2:101-2 Damascus, 1:12, 2:24 Dance, 2:24-26 (illus.)

Darius I (Darius the Great), 2:27 (illus.) in art, 2:178 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16 (illus.), 3:4 and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71 Cambysesand, 1:136 palace of, 1:69 and Persian Wars, 3:177 reign of, 3:173 satrapies originated by, 2:138 Darius II, 3:173 Darius III, 1:23-25, 2:10 (illus.), 2:27, 3:174 Dark Age(s), 1:3 in Anatolia, 3:136 in Babylonia, 1:104-5, 3:96 in Greece, 2:140 Dark or Gloomy Earth (netherworld), 1:5 Date palms and dates, 2:27-28 Dating, archaeological methods of, 1:57-59, 166-68 David, King of Israel, 2:28-29 dynasty of, 2:45 historical evidence about, 2:156 Jerusalem and, 3:19, 24 sources of information about, 3:14-15 Dead Sea, 2:121 Dead Sea Scrolls, 1:62 Death and burial, 2:29-33. See also Burial sites and tombs; Capital punishment and afterlife, 1:3-6 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cosmetics used in, 2:11 Egyptian practices, 2:63, 3:68-69 feasts and festivals associated with, 2:94 funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) incense in funerary rites, 2:186-87 letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41 mummies, 3:117-19 by Mycenaeans, 3:123 offerings to the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52 supernatural powers of the dead, 4:121-22 Decimal system, 3:78, 148, 4:52 Decipherment, 2:33-36 of Behistun inscription, 1:116-17 of hieroglyphics, 2:161-62 of lost languages, 3:49-50 of Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 Deforestation, 2:39, 42, 75 Deioces, King, 3:81 Deities. See Gods and goddesses; Religion(s) Delian League, 3:178 Lycia in, 3:63 Rhodes as member of, 4:35 Democracy (Greece), 2:141 Democritus, 2:142 Demons, 2:36-37 and afterlife beliefs, 1:5 exorcisms of, 3:69 imaginary creatures representing, 1:47-48

195

Index incense as protection against, 2:186 Lamashtu, 1:162, 2:36, 37 (illus.), 3:68 magic rituals against, 3:68, 69 Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) in theology, 4:121 Demosthenes, 2:142 Demotic script, 2:34 Denyen, 4:63 Deondrochronology, 1:168 Deportation, 3:104, 106-7 Desertification, 2:75 Deserts Libyan Desert, 2:120 Negev Desert, 2:121 Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 Syrian Desert, 2:120 Western desert, 2:120 Dialogue of a Man With His God, 3:60 Digs. See Archaeological sites Dilmun, 1:50, 2:52, 3:91, 4:128 Diplomats merchants as, 2:49 messengers as, 2:9, 10 Disasters on Crete, 2:17 drought, 2:42-43 earthquakes, 2:46-47 famine, 2:90-91 flood legends and, 2:97 floods, 2:97-100 natural, 2:37-39 as omens, 1:94 volcanoes, 4:144-45 The Dispute Between Copper and Silver, 3:101 Distemper, 4:146 Divination education for, 2:55 goats for, 2:126 from incense, 2:186 necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160 omens for, 1:94, 3:153-54 and oracles, 3:155-56 The Prophecy of Neferti, 3:156 with zodiac, 1:95 Divine kingship, 3:129 Divorce, 1:163, 2:39-40 Diyala River, 4:39 Djoser, 2:40, 4:20 Documents. See Texts and documents Dogs, 2:179 Donkeys, 1:42, 44 The Doomed Prince, 2:63 Dorians, 2:139 Dreams, 2:41, 3:155 Drought, 2:42-43 Drums, 3:121 Dyes in cosmetics, 2:12 for Egyptian clothing, 2:7 hair, 2:12 purple, 3:186, 4:84, 119-20 for textiles, 4:119-20 Dynasties, 2:43-45

196

E Ea, 2:45 animals depicting, 1:47 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 in creation myths, 2:14 creation of humans by, 2:127 Eagles in art, 1:119 Early Bronze Age, art of, 2:177 Earthquakes, 2:46-47 East Semitic languages, 4:72 Ebers, George, 3:164 Ebla, 2:47 Adad (god of weather), 1:2 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61-62 land ownership in, 3:46 language of, 4:72 Eclipses, 4:107 Eclipses as omens, 1:94-95 Economy and trade, 2:47-53 of Akkadians, 1:20-21 in Anatolia, 1:38 animals' roles in, 1:44-45 in Arabia, 1:49-50 (map) of Aramaeans, 1:52 in Ashur, 1:81 in Assyria, 1:92 in Babylonia, 1:102, 108 inBactria, 1:111-12 in Bahrain, 1:112-13 inByblos, 1:132-33 in Canaan, 1:138 caravans for, 1:143-45 Carthage, 1:146-48 of Chaldeans, 1:158 city gates as centers of, 1:175 commercial economies, 2:50 of Crete, 2:16 Cyprus as center of, 2:22 Dilmun civilization (Arabia), 1:50 of Ebla, 2:47 of Egypt, 2:61-63, 3:133 essential goods, 2:51 by farmworkers, 1:10-11 fish in, 2:96 and growth of cities, 1:173 harbors and, 2:150-51 of Hittites, 2:168-69 incense in, 2:187 in Iran, 3:8 of Israelites, 2:156 lapis lazuli for, 3:50 luxury goods, 2:51-52 Lydian, 3:66 inMari, 3:71 maritime, 3:186-87 markets, 3:72-73 on Mediterranean Sea, 3:87-89 Melukkha, 3:90 merchants, 3:91-93 of Minoans, 3:109-10 money, 3:112-13 in Mycenae, 3:121-22 between nomads and city-dwellers, 3:142

nomads' part in, 3:144 of Nubia, 3:145-46 obsidian in, 3:150-51 with Oman Peninsula, 3:153 of Persian Empire, 3:175 of Philistines, 3:183 of Phoenicians, 3:185-87 (map) of Phrygia, 4:2 reciprocal economies, 2:49 redistributive economies, 2:49-50, 62 retail trade, 3:66 Rhodes and, 4:35 of Scythians, 4:61 shipping routes, 4:79-80 slavery, 4:87 staple goods, 2:51-52 subsistence economy, 4:167 of Sumerians, 4:104 textile industry, 4:120 trade routes, 4:127-29 in Transcaucasia, 1:151 work generated by, 4:168 Edict of Ammi-saduqa, 2:53 Edict of Khattushili, 2:53-54 EdictofKhattushilil, 3:60 Edict of Telipinu, 2:54, 166, 3:60 Edicts, 2:53-54 Education, 2:54-56 apprenticeships, 2:55 clay tablets used in, 2:3 in Egypt, 1:164 of Israelites, 2:157 Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39 literacy restrictions and, 4:172 schools, 4:50-52 of scribes, 4:54-55 Egypt and the Egyptians, 2:56-66 Abydos burial site, 1:1-2 agriculture, 1:9-10, 2:61-62 Akhetaten, 1:16 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 Amarna, 1:31-32 amulets worn by, 1:34 apiculture in, 1:44 Arabs and Assyrian campaigns against, 3:143 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:59-60 architecture. See Egyptian architecture archives and libraries in, 3:54-56 armies of, 1:72-73, 4:92, 93 art of. See Egyptian art Asiatics in, 2:80 under Assyria, 1:82-83 astronomy of, 1:97 autobiographies of, 3:60 burial sites and tombs in, 1:128-30 calendars in, 1:134-35 Cambyses II in, 1:136 Canaan and, 1:138 canals in, 1:141-42 capital punishment in, 1:142-43 Carians in, 1:145 cavalry in, 1:152 cereal grains in, 1:155

Index chariots in, 1:160 chronicles of, 1:165 chronology of, 1:170 cities in, 1:173 climate of, 2:5, 119 demotic script of, 2:34 dependence on flooding in, 2:98 dreams and, 2:41 economy of, 2:61-63 ethnic and language groups, 2:80-81 Faiyum Depression, 2:57 family life of. See Egyptian family and social life famine in, 2:90 farming in, 1:155, 3:45 funerary papyrus of Djedkhonsefankh, 2:31 (illus.) gardens of, 2:112-13 geography of, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 Giza, 2:123-24 god and goddesses. See Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion government of, 2:133-36 historical periods of. See Egyptian historical periods Hyksos and, 2:182-83 independence from Persia of, 3:173 irrigation in, 3:10-11 kings. See Egyptian rulers Kush and, 3:39-40,146-47 labor and laborers in, 3:42 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages of, 2:64-65, 2:146, 3:48 law in, 3:52-53 Libyan and, 3:56-57 literature of, 2:65, 3:60 location of, 2:58 (map) Lower and Upper Egypt, 2:133, 136 Luxor, 3:63 magic in, 3:68 maps from, 3:70 mathematics in, 3:76-78 (illus.) measurement in, 3:79, 80 medicine in, 3:85-86 Memphis, 3:90-91 merchants in, 3:91 messengers, treatment of, 2:10 mining in, 3:108 money in, 3:112, 113 Moses and, 3:116 mummification by, 3:117-19 (illus.) navy of, 3:130-31 Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 Nile River, 2:38, 56-57, 3:137-38 Nubia and the Nubians, 3:145-47 number systems of, 3:148 papyrus rolls from, 1:122 peasant labor in, 3:169 pharaohs. See Egyptian rulers Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 poetry of, 3:59 queens. See Egyptian rulers racial beliefs of, 2:80 (illus.) religion of. See Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion

roads in, 4:40 rulers of. See Egyptian rulers science of, 4:52-54 Sea People and, 3:106 Semitic influence on, 4:71 servants in, 4:74-75 shipping and, 3:88, 4:79-80 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 social life of. See Egyptian family and social life textile industry in, 4:120 Thebes, 4:120-21 timekeeping by, 4:96-97 trade in, 2:52, 2:62-63, 3:72 trade routes of, 4:128-29 wine and, 4:159 writing of, 4:171 Xerxes and, 4:172-73 Egyptian architecture, 1:65-68, 2:63-64 building materials in, 1:125-26 building techniques in, 1:67-68 earthquake protection in, 2:46 houses, 2:174 palaces, 3:160-61 pyramids, 4:20-23 temples, 3:163 Egyptian art, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 animals in, 1:40, 46-48 birds in, 1:118-19 deities shown in, 2:129 faience in, 2:85 human form in, 2:175-77 (illus.) jewelry making, 2:115-16 Nefertiti in, 3:133-34 (illus.) in Old Kingdom, 1:46 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) sculpture, 4:58 Egyptian family and social life, 2:65-66, 86-87, 2:89 banquets, 2:72 childbirth in, 1:162 children in, 1:163-64 clothing of, 2:7-8 cosmetics used by, 2:11-13 dance in, 2:25-26 death and burial in, 2:30-31 divination and, 3:155 divorce in, 2:39-40 eating practices, 2:62 education, 1:164, 2:55 entertaining, 2:62 ethnic diversity in, 2:65 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 94 furnishings in, 2:109-10 hairstyles, 2:144, 145 health in, 2:152-54 marriage, 1:164, 3:75 music and dance in, 2:71 naming in, 3:128-29 polygamy in, 4:6 schools in, 4:51-52 scribal education in, 4:54-55 slaves in, 4:86-87 social classes, 2:65 social institutions in, 4:88-89

sports, 2:72 use of perfumes, 2:13 women's role in, 4:162 Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion, 2:63, 2:128-29, 4:32-33 afterlife beliefs of, 1:4-5 Amun, 1:35 animal worship, 2:63 Anubis, 1:47 Aten, 1:97-98 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cats in, 1:149 in creation myths, 2:13-14 and demons, 2:37 feasts and festivals in, 2:93 funeral practices in, 1:4 funerary offerings in, 3:151 Hathor, 2:151 Horus, 2:171-72 hymns for, 2:183 incense for, 2:186 Isis, 3:13 Karnak, 3:29 magic in, 3:68 medicinal use of myths in, 3:126 monotheism, 3:113-1:114 music and, 3:119-21 in mythology, 3:125 offerings for, 3:151 Osiris, 3:157 prayers to, 4:11,12 priests in, 4:13-16 prophecies in, 3:156 Seth, 4:76 sun worship, 4:107-8 theology, 4:122 Egyptian historical periods, 2:57-61 Early Dynastic, 2:44, 2:57-59 Eleventh Dynasty, 3:63 Fifth Dynasty, 1:1 First Dynasty, 1:173, 2:44 First Intermediate period, 2:59 Greco-Roman period, 2:61 Late Period, 1:2,2:44,2:61 Middle Kingdom, 1:1, 66, 129, 149, 165, 2:26, 41, 44, 55, 2:59-60, 2:134, 3:11 New Kingdom, 1:12, 66, 130, 142-43, 149, 165, 2:26, 44, 2:60, 2:135-36, 3:4, 63 Old Kingdom, 1:46, 142, 2:38, 40, 42, 44, 2:59, 2:123, 124, 133-34, 3:4, 33 Predynastic, 2:57-59 Ptolemaic period, 3:11 Second Intermediate Period, 2:59-60 Third Intermediate Period, 2:60 Twelfth Dynasty, 2:134 Twenty-fifth Dynasty, 4:114 Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 2:135-36 Egyptian rulers Ahmose, 1:12-13 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 Amenemhet III, 3:36 Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.)

197

Index Djoser, 2:40 dynasties of, 2:44-45 Hatshepsut, 2:152 Hyksos, 2:182-83 Khufu, 3:33-34 king lists, 3:35 Necho II, 3:132-33 Nefertiti, 3:133-34 Nitokris, 3:141 Pharaohs, 3:178-81 Piye, 3:147 Ptolemy I, 4:19-20 queens, 4:24 Ramses II, 4:26-27 Ramses III, 4:27 Sety I, 4:76-77 Taharqa, 4:114-15 Thutmose III, 4:124 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 £1,2:66,2:130 in Baal cycle, 1:99 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70, 2:81 archaeological discoveries of, 1:63 in Babylonian history, 1:105 dynasties of, 2:45 family and social life of, 2:88 feasts and festivals of, 2:92-93 geography of, 2:66-67 gods and goddesses of, 2:67, 130, 4:33 history of, 2:67-70, 3:6 language of, 2:34, 36, 3:49 priests of, 4:14 Proto-Elamites, 2:67 religions of, 2:67, 3:7-8, 4:33 Susianaand, 4:108 women's role in, 2:67, 4:164 Elba, 2:47 Elburz Mountains, 2:120 Ellil. See Enlil Empire(s) armies of, 1:73-75 communication within, 2:11 idea of, 1:22 Employment. See Work Enkheduanna, 1:21, 4:138 (illus.) Enki, 1:110,2:14 Enki and Ninmakh, 1:110, 3:125 Enlil, 2:70, 2:127 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 in creation myths, 2:14 cult of, at Nippur, 3:140 Enmerkar, 2:19-20, 4:5 Enmerkar and the Lord ofAmtta, 2:75 Entertainment, 2:70-73. See also Feasts and festivals banquets, 2:72 dance, 2:24-26, 71-72 feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 games, 2:110-12 Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39 music and musical instruments, 2:71-72, 3:119-21 sports, 2:72-73 storytelling, 2:73

198

Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96, 3:62, 4:96 EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 Envelopes, clay, 2:1, 4:28, 66 Environmental change, 2:73-75 Ephermerides, 1:96 Epic literature, 2:75-76 Aqhat, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Atrakhasis, Epic of, 1:48, 110, 3:125 in Babylonia, 1:111 Curse of Akkad, 1:18 Ea in, 2:45 EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 Gilgamesh, Epic of, 2:122-23 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 Iliad, 3:121 Keret, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Odyssey, 3:121 poetry as, 4:5 Epic of Aqhat, 1:138, 3:126 Epic of Atrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 2:97, 3:125 Epic of Creation. See Enuma Elish Epic of Gilgamesh, 2:122-23 Anuin, 1:48 dreams in, 2:41 Great Flood in, 2:97 Ishtar myth in, 3:12 netherworld in, 1:5 title of, 3:59 walls of Uruk in, 1:175 Epic of Keret, 1:138, 3:126 Eratosthenes, 3:70 Ereshkigal, queen of the dead, 1:5 Eridu, 2:76-77 Erra, 1:110-11 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 Esarhaddon, 2:77 and Ashurbanipal, 1:82 death omen of, 1:94-95 reign of, 1:90 Eshnunna, 2:77-78 divorce in, 2:39 laws of, 3:52, 73 (illus.) Palace of Governors, 1:65, 3:158-59 Eshtan, 2:129 Etana, 1:119 Ethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians Ethiopian language, 4:73 Ethnic and language groups, 2:78-84 Anatolian, 2:82 Arabian, 2:83 Canaanite, 2:82-83 Egyptian, 2:65, 80-81 Iranian, 2:81-82 Mesopotamian, 2:78-79 Ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 Eunuchs, 2:84 Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118, 4:38-39 changes in, 2:74, 4:137 flooding of, 1:9, 2:99, 4:153-54 harbors on, 2:150 and irrigation, 3:9 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98

shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes along, 4:128 Evans, Sir Arthur, 2:17, 3:39, 109 "evil eye, "4:160 Excavations. See Archaeological sites Exorcisms, 1:5 Extispicy, 3:153-54 Eye of Horus, 2:172 Ezra, 3:26

F

Fabrics. See Textiles Faience, 2:85-86 (illus.) Faiyum Depression, 2:57, 3:137-38 Falcons in art, 1:118 Family and social life, 2:86-89 of Anatolians, 2:87 of Babylonians, 1:108-9 burial customs, 1:127 of Chaldeans, 1:158 childbirth, 1:162 children, 1:163-64 dance, 2:24-26 divorce, 2:39-40 economy's effect on, 2:49 of Egyptians, 2:65-66, 86-87, 89 of Elamites, 2:88 entertainment, 2:70-73 feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 games, 2:110-12 gender and sex roles in, 2:116-18 gradual disasters and, 2:39 of Hittites, 2:87 houses, 2:172-75 influence of cities on, 1:171 inheritance and, 2:88-89 Iranian, 2:88 of Israelites, 2:87-89 legal rights in, 3:51 Lycian, 2:87 marriage, 3:74-75 merchant families, 3:92 Mesopotamian, 2:86, 89 naming, 3:128 nomadic, 3:145 of peasants, 3:169 of Persians, 2:88 polygamy, 4:5-6 pregnancy, 4:12-13 women, role of, 4:161-64 Famine, 2:90-91, 3:138 Farmer's Almanac, 1:10 Farming. See also Agriculture; Gardens animal husbandry with, 1:43 by Aramaeans, 1:52 and canals, 1:140-41 cattle, 1:150 in Crete, 2:15 as economic foundation, 2:47 effect of, on climate, 2:6 in Egypt, 1:155 and irrigation, 3:8-11 of Israelites, 2:157 in the Levant, 1:155

Index in Mesopotamia, 1:155 nomadism and, 3:105, 141 peasants and, 3:168, 169 plows for, 1:44 settlements depending on, 3:44-45 sharecropping, 3:45-46 tools for, 4:125-26 in Transcaucasia, 1:151 Fashion and grooming clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.) hair, 2:143-45 jewelry, 3:20-23 perfumes, 3:169-70 Fate, 4:121 Feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 Babylonian New Year's festival, 2:94 banquets, 2:72 cult festivals, 2:18 dance in, 2:26 of Egyptians, 4:32 of Elamites, 4:33 following blood sacrifices, 4:37 of Hittites, 2:89, 170,4:34 offerings during, 3:151 Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63 Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95 Field of Offerings, 1:4-5 Fires, sacred, 4:179 (illus.), 180 Fish, 2:102 Fishing, 2:95-96 Flax, 2:96-97,4:118 Floating chronology, 1:167 Flood legends, 2:97 Floods and flooding, 2:97-100 agriculture and water from, 1:9-10 of Euphrates River, 2:85, 98 and irrigation, 3:9-11 of Nile River, 1:10, 141-42, 2:61-62, 74,3:10-11, 138 in southern Mesopotamia, 1:9 of Tigris, 2:98, 4:125 Flutes, 3:120 Food and drink, 2:100-104 aurochs for, 1:150 banquets, 2:72 beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 birds as source of, 1:41 bread, 1:156-57, 2:100-101 cattle, 1:150 cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 crops raised for, 1:7-8 dairy products, 2:101-2 dates, 1:8, 2:27-28 deer and gazelles, 1:40 domesticated animals for, 1:41-44 in Egypt, 2:62 fish, 2:95-96, 2:102 fruits, 1:8, 2:101 goats, 2:126 for gods and goddesses, 4:32 hunting, 2:179-80 meat, 2:102 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 offered to gods, 3:151 oils, condiments, sweeteners, 2:102

olives, 3:152-53 pigs as, 4:3 preparation of, 2:103 rationing of, 2:101 sacrifices of, 4:37 storage and preservation of, 2:103-4 vegetables, 1:8, 2:101 wine, 2:101, 102, 4:158-59 Fortifications, 2:104-6 city walls as, 4:148-49 gates in, 2:113-14 inKhattusha, 1:70 of Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.) Fox-Talbot, W. H., 2:35 Frankfort, Henri, 1:47, 63 Frankincense, 2:186, 187 Frescoes, 2:16-17 (illus.), 4:146 (illus.) Friedrich, Johannes, 1:30 Fruits, 2:101 Funerals. See Death and burial Funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) Funerary offerings, 1:5, 3:151-52 Furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 (illus.) textiles for, 4:118-19 wood for, 4:165-66 Future, foretelling. See Divination

G

Games, 2:110-12 (illus.) Garbage contamination by, 2:154 disposal of, 1:175 Garden of Eden, 1:13 Gardens, 2:112-13 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 irrigation for, 3:11 shade gardens, 1:8 vegetable gardens, 1:8 Garstand, John, 1:63 Gasur. See Nuzi Gates, 1:175, 2:105, 2:113-14 Gathas, 4:179-80 Geb, 1:119,2:14, 128 Gems, 2:114-16, 3:21 Gender and sex, 2:116-18 eunuchs, 2:84 hairstyles and, 2:144-45 of potters, 4:7 property rights and, 4:16 women, role of, 4:161-64 Geography, 2:118-21 (map). See also Climate; Mountains; Rivers of Anatolia, 1:36, 2:119-20 of Arabia, 2:120-21 of Assyria, 1:84-85 of Babylonia, 1:102 of Canaan, 1:137-38 Caucasus mountains, 1:150-51 of Central Asia, 1:153 (map) of Crete, 3:109 of Egypt, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 of Elam, 2:66-67

Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95 of Greece, 2:138-39 and growth of cities, 1:174 harbors, 2:150-51 of Iran, 2:120, 3:6 of Israel, 2:121 of Lebanon, 2:121 of the Levant, 2:120-21 and maps, 3:69-70 (illus.) of Mesopotamia, 2:118, 3:94-95 of Nile River, 3:137 of Nubia, 3:145 of Oman Peninsula, 3:153 of Persian Empire, 3:172 (map) of Phoenicia, 3:186 of Syria, 2:120, 4:110 and trade routes, 2:52 Ghirshman, Roman, 1:63 Ghosts beliefs about, 1:4, 5 funerary offerings and, 3:152 magic rituals against, 3:68, 69 as type of demon, 2:36-37 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 in epic literature, 2:75. See also Epic of Gilgamesh in Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 war of, with Agga, 1:9 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 Giza, 2:123-24 Great Sphinx at, 4:94-95 (illus.) pyramids at, 4:21, 22 (illus.) Glaciers, 2:5 Glacis, 2:105 Glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25 (illus.) Goats, 1:40, 42, 43, 2:126 GodinTepe, 3:80-81 Gods and goddesses, 2:126-30. See also Demons Adad, 1:2-3 Ahura Mazda (Persia), 1:14 Amun (Egypt), 1:35 of Anatolia, 2:129-30 Anat (Syria and Levant), 1:35-36 animals associated with, 1:46-48 Anubis (Egypt), 1:47 Anu (Mesopotamia), 1:48 in art, 2:184-85 Ashur (Assyria), 1:82 associated with lions, 3:58 and astrology, 1:94 Aten (Egypt), 1:97-98 Baal, 1:98-99 in Babylonia, 1:110 Bast/Bastet (Egypt), 1:149 Bes (Egypt), 1:162 birds associated with, 1:118-19 boats for, 4:80 in Canaan, 1:139 childbirth practices and, 1:162 of cities, 1:171 and cults, 2:18-19 Cybele (Lydia), 3:67 Cybele (Phrygia), 4:3 Dagan (Aramaea), 1:54

199

Index dead pharaohs as, 3:180 Ea (Mesopotamia), 2:45 of Egypt, 2:63,128-29 of Elamites, 2:67 El (Canaan), 2:66 Eni mahanahi (Lycia), 3:63-64 Enlil (Sumeria), 2:70, 3:140 Erra (Babylonia), 1:110-11 "family" gods, 1:110 feasts and festivals and, 2:91-93 in Greece, 2:142 Hadad (Aramaea), 1:54 hairstyles of, 2:144 Hathor (Egypt), 2:151 Hecate (Greece), 1:145 Hephaestus (Greece), 3:103 of Hittites, 2:129-30, 169-70 Horus (Egypt), 2:171-72 incantations for healing to, 3:69 of Iran, 2:130 Ishtar (Mesopotamia), 3:12 Isis (Egypt), 3:13 jewelry of, 3:20 ofKassites, 3:30 Khepat (Hurrians), 3:33 kings and, 3:35-37 in Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39 Kumarbi (Hittite), 3:126 Kumarbi (Human), 3:39 law as established by, 3:51 of the Levant, 2:130 of Lycia, 3:63-64 Lydian, 3:67 magic and, 2:67 Marduk (Babylon), 3:71 Matar (Phrygia), 4:3 medicine and, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 of Mesopotamia, 2:127-28, 3:97 monotheism and, 3:113-14 Mot (Canaan), 1:6 music and, 3:119 natural disasters and, 2:38 of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 Ninurta (Mesopotamia), 3:124 (illus.), 159 number representing, 3:149 offerings to, 3:151 omens from, 3:153-54 oracles from, 3:154-55 Osiris (Egypt), 3:157 Papsukkal (Mesopotamia), 1:119 of Phoenicia, 3:187 Ptah (Memphis), 3:90 sacrifices to, 4:37 Sahr (Aramaea), 1:54 in sculpture, 4:56-59 of Scythia, 4:62 on seals, 4:68-69 Sekhmet (Egypt), 1:149, 2:37 Seth (Egypt), 2:37, 4:76 Shamash (Mesopotamia), 1:5, 21 Sin (Akkadia), 1:21 in Sumeria, 4:34 of Sumeria, 4:103-4 sun gods, 4:107-8 of Syria, 2:130

200

Taweret (Egypt), 1:162 and temple furniture, 2:110 Teshub (Human), 4:117-18 theogonies of, 4:123 theophoric names and, 3:128 Thoth (Egypt), 1:47 Vulcan (Rome), 3:103 Yahweh (Israel and Judah), 4:173-74 ziggurats and, 4:176 Gold, 3:100, 102 as item of exchange, 2:53 mining of, 3:109 Gordianknot, 1:26 Gordium, 1:61,4:1-3 Government(s), 2:131-38. See also Edicts; Law(s) of Akkadia, 1:20,2:132 of Anatolia, 2:136-37 of Assyria, 1:83,91-92 of Babylonia, 1:107-8 of Canaan, 2:137 and capital punishment, 1:142-43 in Carthage, 1:147 communication and, 2:11 edicts of, 2:53-54 of Egypt, 2:133-36, 3:138 eunuchs in, 2:84 of Greece, 2:141-42 of Hittites, 2:136-37, 168 of Iran, 2:138 of Israelites, 2:156 kingship form of, 3:35-38 of the Levant, 2:137-38 of Mesopotamia, 2:131-33 of Neo-Assyrian Empire, 2:133 nomadic tribes and, 3:144 palaces as centers of, 3:157, 158 of Persian Empire, 2:138, 3:174 of Philistines, 2:137 of Phoenicians, 2:137 protest literature and, 3:59 and religion in Israel, 3:24 rituals as responsibility of, 2:18 of Sumeria, 2:132, 4:103 taxation by, 4:115-16 theology and, 4:122 Governors and rulers Gudea (Lagash), 2:143 Gyges (Lydia), 3:65 kings, 3:35-38 of Mesopotamian city-states, 2:131 of Minoan civilization, 3:111 Perikles (Lycia), 3:64 pharaohs, 3:178-81 queens, 4:23-26 satraps, 4:50 Grain(s) cereal grains, 1:154-57 as money, 3:112-13 as source of wealth, 3:45 as tax payment, 4:115 Grave robbers, 1:127-28, 131, 4:20, 143 Graves. See Burial sites and tombs Great Kings, 2:132-33

Great Pyramid, 1:126, 3:33-34, 180, 4:23 Great Sphinx, 2:64, 123, 124, 3:33, 4:94-95 (illus.) Great Temple of Amun (Luxor), 2:62 (illus.), 3:63 Greece and the Greeks, 2:138-43 in Aegean Sea area, 1:3 and Alexander the Great, 1:23 alphabet, 1:29-30 Archaic Age in, 1:3 art and architecture of, 2:142 Athens, 2:140-42 and Carthage, 1:146-47 Classical period of, 2:140-41 Council of 500, 2:141-42 Crete, 2:15-17 in Dark Age, 1:3 geography of, 2:138-39 government in, 2:141-42 and Hellenistic world, 2:158-59 Herodotus, 2:159-60 history of, 2:139-41 hymns of, 2:183 incense in, 2:186 influence of, 1:26-27, 3:63-64 language of, 2:139, 188, 3:48, 49 literature of, 2:142 Lydia and, 3:65 Macedonia, 2:141, 3:67 maps from, 3:70 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 migration in, 2:42 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 mythology and religion of, 2:142 navy of, 3:130-31 Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41 Persian invasion of, 3:173 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78 philosophy and science in, 2:142 Rhodes, 4:35 shipping trade of, 3:89 Sparta, 2:140-41 Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.) writing in, 2:142-43 Grooming. See Fashion and grooming Grotefend, Georg, 2:34 Gudea, 2:143, 3:3 (illus.) dream of, 2:41 statue of, 2:178 Guide to Geography, 3:70 Gutians attacks of, on Akkadian empire, 1:19 migration to Mesopotamia of, 3:105 nomadism of, 3:143

H

Hadad, 1:54 Haft Tepe, 1:131 Hair, 2:143-45 dye for, used by Egyptians, 2:12 of slaves, 4:86 Halab, 3:31, 33

Index Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages, 2:146-47, 3:48 Hammering (metal), 3:103 Hammurabi, 2:147-48 Babylon's expansion under, 1:100 Code of Hammurabi, 3:52 (illus.) inscriptions about, 3:2 reign of, 1:104 Zimri-Lim and, 4:177 Hammurabi, Code of, 1:104, 2:147 (illus.), 2:148-49, 3:52 (illus.) canal laws in, 1:140 capital punishment in, 1:142 copy of, 3:52 (illus.) kings' role in, 1:107 respect due to fathers in, 2:86 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 irrigation for, 3:11 Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 search for, 1:100 Harappan civilization, 3:90 Harbors, 2:150-51 of Cyprus, 2:22 on Mediterranean, 3:88 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 Harps, 3:120 (illus.) Harvesting, 1:155-56 (illus.) Hathor, 2:128 (illus.), 129, 2:151 and childbirth, 1:162 cow as representative of, 1:47 Hatshepsut, 2:152 (illus.) aspharaoh, 3:179 temple built by, 1:66-67 tomb of, 4:143 Hattic language, 3:49 Hazael, 1:52 Healing. See Medicine Health, 2:152-54. See also Medicine and childbirth, 1:162 common diseases, 3:83 Hebrews and Israelites, 2:83, 2:155-58. See also Israel andJudah; Judaism and Jews afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.) alphabetic numeration of, 3:149 alphabet of, 2:157-58 amulets worn by, 1:34 archaeological evidence about, 2:155-56 architecture of, 2:158 Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 art of, 2:158 Assyrians and, 2:155 Athaliah, 1:98 Bible, 1:117-18 in Canaan, 1:138-39 and capital punishment, 1:143 clothing of, 2:8 cosmetics used by, 2:12-13 deportation of, 3:107 divination through dreams by, 3:155 divorce and, 2:40 economy of, 2:156 education of, 2:55, 56, 157

family and social life of, 2:87-89 forced labor and, 3:43-44 funerary practices of, 2:32-33 government of, 2:156 hairstyles of, 2:144, 145 history of, 2:155 houses of, 2:175 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 land ownership in, 3:46 language of, 2:157, 4:72-73 and magical practices, 3:69 marriage in, 3:74-75 Megiddo controlled by, 3:89 monotheism of, 3:114 Moses, 3:116-17 mythology and, 3:125-26 necromancy among, 3:69 offerings by, 3:151 patriarchs and matriarchs of, 3:166-68 poetry of, 2:158 priests of, 4:16 psalms, 4:18-19 roads of, 4:40 settlements of, 2:157 slavery and, 4:87-88 social classes among, 2:157 social institutions of, 4:90 theology of, 4:122 use of perfumes by, 2:13 women's role in, 4:164 Yahweh, 4:173-74 Hecataeus, 3:70 Hecate, 1:145 Hellenistic world, 2:158-59 Herding, 3:141-42, 144, 169 Hermos River, 4:47 Herodotus, 2:142, 2:159-60 on Cambyses, 1:136 and cartography, 3:70 and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149 History, 2:159 on marketplaces, 3:72 on Median kingdom, 3:81 on Nile's role in Egypt, 2:99, 100 on Nitokris, 3:141 on Nubians, 3:147 on Persian road, 4:41 on Persian society, 4:90 on polygamy, 4:5 on pyramid building, 4:23 on royal messengers, 3:99 and Scythian history, 4:59-60 and Semiramis legend, 4:70 Hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 (illus.), 4:171 on bas-reliefs, 1:113-14 decipherment of, 2:34-35 invention of, 2:64 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 on sculpture, 4:58 on stela, 3:152 (illus.) symbols for pharaohs in, 3:181 Hincks, Edward

Akkadian language deciphered by, 2:35 Behistun Inscription deciphered by, 1:62 hieroglyphics deciphered by, 2:35 Old Persian deciphered by, 2:34 Hinduism, 1:81 Hippocrates, 2:142 History and historiography, 2:162-66. See also Creation myths battle reconstruction, 4:149-50 chronicles as, 1:164-66 chronology in, 1:166-70 dynasties used in, 2:44 Egyptian, 2:163-64, 166 in Hebrew Bible, 2:165, 166 Herodotus, 2:159-60 of Hittites, 2:164, 166 of Israel and Judah, 2:165 of the Levant, 2:164-66 of Mesopotamia, 2:162-63, 165-66 of nomadic peoples, 3:144 recent events and, 2:162-65 remote past and, 2:165-66 of Syria, 2:164 Hittites, 2:167-70 afterlife beliefs of, 1:5-6 archaeological discoveries about, 1:61 armies of, 1:72-73,4:92 in Babylonian history, 1:104 banquets and, 2:72 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:31 and capital punishment, 1:143 chariot development by, 1:160 childbirth in, 1:162 cities of, 1:173 clothing of, 2:8 control of central plateau by, 1:38 dance of, 2:26 decipherment of inscriptions by, 2:35 deportations by, 3:107 divination and oracles of, 3:155-56 divorce in, 2:40 drought and fall of empire, 2:42 economy of, 2:168-69 empire of, 2:167-68 family and social life of, 2:87 famine and, 2:90 feasts and festivals of, 2:92-94 gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30 government of, 2:136-37, 168 health of, 2:153 hieroglyphic script of, 2:160 houses of, 2:173 inscriptions by, 3:5 Karkamish, 3:28-29 Khattusha, 3:31 Khattushili I, 3:31-32 Khattushili III, 3:32 king lists of, 3:35 Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39,4:117 labor and laborers, 3:42-43 language of, 2:188 laws of, 2:168, 3:53 literature of, 2:170, 3:60

201

Index location of, 2:170 (map) Luwians and culture of, 3:62 magic and, 3:68, 69 marriage among, 3:74 (illus.), 75 military force of, 4:152-53 Mitanniand, 2:181 music and dance of, 2:71 mythology of, 2:170, 3:126 navy of, 3:130 Neo-Hittites and, 3:134-36 Old Kingdom of, 2:167 palaces of, 3:161 peasant labor in, 3:169 poetry of, 3:60 prayers of, 4:12 priests of, 4:13, 14, 16 queens of, 4:24-25 religions of, 2:169-70, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:58 servants of, 4:74 Shuppiluliuma I, 4:83-84 slavery of, 4:87 social institutions of, 4:89-90 sports of, 2:73 temples of, 3:163 theology of, 4:122 women's role in, 4:162-63 writing of, 4:171 Hogarth, David George, 1:63-64 Hole, Frank, 3:142, 143 Holy wars, 4:150 Homer, 2:140, 142, 4:132 Honey, 1:44 Horoscopes, 1:95, 4:177-78 Horostepe, 1:38 Horses, 1:40, 2:170-71 in cavalry, 1:152 domestication of, 1:42 uses of, 1:44, 4:61 Horus, 2:128-29, 2:171-72 (illus.) birds representing, 1:47, 118 in creation myths, 2:14 Hathor and, 2:151 and Ishtar, 3:13 priests of, 4:16 Seth and, 4:76 "house" (family as), 2:86 Houses, 2:172-75. See also Palaces; Temple(s) in Anatolia, 1:70 Aramaean royal compounds, 1:53 burial under floors of, 1:128 at gatal Huyiik, 1:70, 148 construction of, 4:165 courtyard houses, 1:65 in Egypt, 1:67 furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 of peasants, 3:169 of Philistines, 3:183 inUgarit, 1:68 Human form in art, 2:175-78 combined with animals, 1:47-48 of Crete, 2:17 Egyptian, 2:64

202

Greek influence on, 2:142 on Narmer Palette, 1:114 Human rights, 4:85-86 Humor, 2:178-79 in animal art, 1:40, 47 in literature, 3:60 Hunter-gatherers, 2:179, 4:167 Hunting, 2:179-80 art depicting, 1:45, 46 chariots for, 1:161 domestication of animals and, 1:41-42 of lions, 3:57 transition to farming from, 1:7 Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81 Khepat, 3:33 Kumarbi, 3:39 language of, 3:49 migration of, 3:105 Mitanni established by, 3:97 Teshub, 4:117-18 Hyksos, 2:182-83 Ahmose's defeat of, 1:12-13 in Canaan, 1:138 Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 Hymns, 2:183 of Egypt, 3:59 Mesopotamian, 3:59 HymntoAten, 1:97

I Ice Ages, 2:5 Iconography, 2:184-86 Idrimi, statue of, 3:5-6 Iliad, 2:140, 141, 3:121, 4:5, 132 Ilion/Illium. See Troy Imdugud, 1:47, 119 Imhotep, 2:130, 4:20 Immortals (Persian army troops), 1:74-75 Inanna, 2:127 Inar, 2:129 Inara, 2:129 Incantations, 3:68, 69 Incense, 2:186-87 Incubation, 2:41 India Aryans, 1:81 number systems of, 3:148-49 Indo-Aryan language, 2:188 Indo-European languages, 2:187-88, 3:48-49 Indo-Iranian languages, 2:188 Indra, 2:129 Inheritance family and social customs about, 2:88-89 laws concerning, 3:52-54, 4:164 of priesthood, 4:13 property rights and, 4:17 in Scythia, 4:62 Inscriptions, 3:1-6 alphabet contributions from, 1:28 Anatolian, 3:5

Assyrian conquests described in, 1:83 at Azatiwadiya, 3:135 in Bahrain, 1:113 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17 bilingual, for decipherment, 2:33 on clay tablets, 2:2 (illus.) Egyptian, 3:4 format of, 3:1-2 as historical records, 2:163-65 HymntoAten, 1:97 Iranian, 3:4-5 from the Levant, 3:5-6 as literature, 3:60 materials and methods for, 3:2 Mesopotamian, 3:2-4 pillar of Xanthus, 3:5 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 royal, 1:164-65,2:2,3 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4 types of, 3:1 Insect plagues, 2:38 Inshushinak, 2:130 The Instruction ofAmenemope, 4:18 Instructions ofShuruppak, 4:18 Instruments, musical, 3:120-21 Investment, in trading missions, 3:93 Iran, 3:6-8 Achaemenid dynasty, 2:45 afterlife beliefs in, 1:6 AliKosh, 3:173 animals in art of, 1:45-46 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:62-63 Aryans in, 1:80-81, 3:7, 106 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17 building materials in, 1:127 burial sites and tombs in, 1:131 climate of, 2:120 clothing of, 2:8-9 domesticated animals in, 1:42 dynasties of, 2:45 early inhabitants of, 3:173 Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70 Elamites, 2:81 ethnic and language groups in, 2:81-82 family and social life in, 2:88 geography of, 2:120, 3:6 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:33-34 government of, 2:138 health in, 2:153 history of, 3:6-7 houses in, 2:174 Manneans, 3:6-7 Medes, 2:82, 3:7, 3:80-83 mining in, 3:108 mythology of, 3:126 nomads in, 3:143, 145 (illus.) Persian Empire, 2:82, 3:7, 3:171-76 religions of, 3:7-8, 4:33-34 sculpture of, 4:59 social institutions in, 4:90-91 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9

Index theology of, 4:122 trade in, 3:8 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:164 Iraq, archaeological work in, 1:60 Iron, 3:102-3, 108-9 Iron Age, 1:166,3:103 human form in art of, 2:177 Khatti in, 3:30 Irrigation, 3:8-11 canals for, 1:140-42 Euphrates River for, 2:84-85 at Lagash, 3:44 from Nile River, 3:138 quanat system, 3:11 Isaac, 3:167 Isaiah, 3:12 Ishkur, 2:127, 128. See also Adad Ishtar, 1:21, 2:127, 3:12. See also Astarte in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Gate of Babylon dedicated to, 1:101 walking bird as representing, 1:119 Isis, 2:128, 3:13 in art, 1:119 childbirth and, 1:162 Cleopatra in guise of, 2:4 (illus.) in creation myths, 2:14 Horus and, 2:171-72 references to, 3:125 Israel and Judah, 3:13-16. See also Hebrews and Israelites Ahab, 1:11-12 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Queen Athaliah, 1:98 Baal cult and, 1:99 burial practices in, 1:132 children in, 1:164 clothing of, 2:8 cosmetics in, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:15 David, 2:28-29 geography of, 2:121 gods worshipped by, 2:130 history of, 3:15-16 hymns of, 2:183 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 location of, 3:14 (map) mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Omri, 1:11-12 palaces of, 3:161 patriarchs and matriarchs of, 3:166-68 Philistines and, 3:182-83 prophets and prophecies of, 3:156-57 queens of, 4:25-26 revolt against Babylon by, 3:132 Samaria, 4:44-45 Solomon, 4:93-94 temples in, 3:163 tribes of, 3:15 Italic languages, 2:188 Itjtawy, 3:58 Ivory, 3:16-17, 3:89 (illus.)

]

Jacob, 3:167 Jarmo, 2:172 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 burial practices in, 1:132 history of, 3:15-16 Nebuchadnezzar's destruction of, 3:132 and Samaria, 4:44 Jewelry, 3:20-23. See also Amulets and charms at gatal Hiiyuk, 1:148 gems in, 2:114-16 lapis lazuli for, 3:50-51 metals for, 3:102 obsidian for, 3:150 as tax payment, 4:115 Jezebel, 1:12, 4:44 Jordan, archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Jordan River, 2:121 Joseph, 3:167-68 Judah. See Israel and Judah Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28. See also Bible, Hebrew and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 King David, 2:28-29 demons and, 2:37 deportation of, 3:107 Diaspora, 3:25 exile of Jews, 3:25-26 in Hellenistic period, 3:26-27 Holy Land of, 3:13 intermarriage, 3:26 Isaiah, 3:12 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 mathematics of, 3:78 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 rabbis, 3:27-28 Samaritan sect of, 4:45 Talmud, 3:27-28 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 theologies of, 4:123 Torah, 4:127 Yahweh, 4:173-74 Judicial systems, 3:51-54

K

Kalkhu, 3:28, 4:24 Kamose, 2:183, 3:4 Kanesh, 3:92 Karkamish, 3:28-29, 3:93 Karnak, 3:29, 3:163, 135 Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30 Babylonia and, 1:100, 104-5 Babylonian and, 3:96 chronicles of, 1:165

dynasty of, 2:44 and Elamites, 2:68-69 human form in art of, 2:178 land grants by, 3:46 language of, 3:49 migration of, 3:105 Kenyon, Kathleen, 1:64, 3:18-19 Khabiru, 2:158 Khabur River, 4:39 Khafre, 4:21 Khatti, 3:30, 4:24-25 Khattusha, 3:31 art depicting animals in, 1:46 monuments at, 1:70 reign of, 2:167 Khattushili I, 3:31-32, 3:60 Khattushili III, 2:168, 3:32, 3:60 Khepat, 2:129, 3:33 Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.) Khufu, 3:33-34, 4:21, 22 (illus.) Khumban, 2:130 King lists, 2:44, 3:34-35 (illus.) Great Flood in, 2:97 as literature, 3:60 Sumerian, 2:76 Kings, 3:35-38. See also Dynasties; Pharaohs Achaemenes (Persia), 3:171 Adad-nirari (Assyria), 1:86, 87 Adad-nirari III (Assyria), 1:88 Addu-yisci (Aramaean), 4:113 (illus.) Ahab (Israel), 3:15 Ahmose (Egypt), 1:12-13 Alexander IV (Macedonia), 1:26 Alexander the Great (Macedonia), 1:23-27 Alyattes (Lydia), 3:65 Amenemhet III (Egypt), 3:36 Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia), 3:67 Arsaces I (Parthia), 3:166 Arses (Persia), 3:174 Artabanus II (Parthia), 3:166 art and, 1:76, 2:184-85 Artaxerxes I, II and HI (Persia), 1:79-80, 3:173-74 Ashurbanipal (Assyria), 1:82-83 Ashurbanipal II (Assyria), 1:83-84 Ashurnasirpal II (Assyria), 1:86 (illus.), 87 Ashur-uballit (Assyria), 1:85 Cambyses II (Persia), 1:136, 3:172-74 as chief priests, 3:161 Croesus (Lydia), 3:65-66 Cyaxares (Media), 3:81 Cyrus the Great (Persia), 2:23-24, 3:172 Darius I and Darius III (Persia), 2:10 (illus.), 2:27, 3:173, 174 Darius II (Persia), 3:173 David (Israel), 2:28-29 Deioces (Media), 3:81 Djoser (Egypt), 2:40 Egyptian, 2:164 Egyptian titles for, 3:36

203

Index Enmerkar (Uruk), 2:19-20 Esarhaddon (Assyria), 2:77 funerary offerings to, 3:151 Great Kings, 2:132-33 in Greece, 2:141 Hammurabi (Babylon), 1:104, 2:147-48 hierarchy among, 3:37 Hittite, 2:168 hunting and, 2:179 inscriptions by, 1:164-65, 3:1-3, 5 Kamose (Egypt), 3:4 Kamose (Thebes), 2:183 Khattushili I (Hittites), 3:31-32 Khattushili III (Hittites), 3:32 Khufu (Egypt), 3:33-34 killed by cylinder seals, 4:66 lion hunting by, 3:57 in literature, 3:60 Manishtushu (Akkad), 1:18 Merenre II (Egypt), 3:141 Midas (Phrygia), 4:1 Minos (Crete), 3:109, 111 Mithradates (Parthia), 3:166 Murshili II and III (Hittites), 3:32 Nabonidus (Babylonia), 3:126-27 Nabopolassar (Babylonia), 3:127 Naram-Sin (Akkad), 3:129-30 Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonia), 3:131-32 offerings to gods by, 3:151 Omri (Israel), 3:15 palaces of, 3:158 Perdikkas I (Macedonia), 3:67 of Persian Empire, 3:171-74 Philip III (Macedonia), 1:26 Philip II (Macedonia), 1:23, 3:67 Phraortes (Media), 3:81 Piye (Kushite), 3:147 polygamy of, 4:5 privileges of, 3:36 (illus.) Ptolemy I (Egypt), 4:19-20 pyramids built by, 4:20-21 Ramses II (Egypt), 4:26-27 Ramses III (Egypt), 4:27 Rimush (Akkad), 1:18 rise of, 3:35-36 roles and responsibilities of, 3:36-37, 174 royal compounds of, 1:53 Samsu-iluna (Babylonia), 4:46 Sargon I (Akkad), 4:48-49 Sargon II (Assyria), 4:49-50 in sculpture, 4:56-59 Sennacherib (Assyria), 3:139-40, 4:73-74 Seqenenre II (Thebes), 2:183 Shalmaneser I (Assyria), 1:86 Shalmaneser III (Assyria), 4:77 Shalmaneser V (Assyria), 4:77-78 Shamshi-Adad I (Assyria), 4:78 Shamshi-Adad V (Assyria), 1:88 Shar-kali-sharri (Akkad), 1:19 Shoshenq I (Egypt), 3:57 Shulgi (Ur), 4:82-83 Shuppiluliuma I (Hittites), 4:83-84

204

Sin-muballit (Babylon), 1:104 Solomon (Israel), 4:93-94 substitute kings, 4:36 and succession to throne, 3:37 Sumerian, 2:134 Sumu-abum (Babylon), 1:100, 103 symbols of, 3:37 of TaSety, 3:146 Telipinu (Hittites), 2:43 Tiglath-pileser I (Assyria), 1:86-87 Tiglath-pileser III (Assyria), 4:124 tombs of, 1:129-30 Tukulti-Ninurta I (Assyria), 1:86 Ur-Nammu (Ur), 4:139 Xerxes II (Persia), 3:173 Xerxes (Persia), 3:173, 4:172-73 Zimri-Lim (Mari), 4:176-77 Kish, 1:17, 3:38 Kiya, 4:25 (illus.) Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:122 Kohl, 2:12 Koldewey, Robert, 1:63 Korte Brothers, 1:61 Kubaba, 2:129 Kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.)t 108, 119, 3:30 Kullaba,4:141 Kumarbi, 2:129, 3:39, 3:126 Kura-Araxes, 1:151 Kurgans, 1:151 Kush and Meroe, 3:39-41 Kushukh, 2:129

L

Labor and laborers, 3:41-44 animals for, 1:44 cattle as, 1:150 corvee (forced labor), 3:168 farmworkers, 1:7 (illus.)f 10-11 forced laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 free laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 for ilku (tax), 4:115 landowners' use of, 3:45 peasants, 3:168-69 for pyramids, 4:23 semifree laborers, 3:41, 45 servants, 4:74-76 slaves, 3:41, 45, 4:85-88 used by Solomon, 4:94 wages of, 3:41-42 work done by, 4:168-69 Lagash, 3:44 Gudea, 2:143 Ummaand, 4:137 Lamashtu, 2:36, 37 (illus.) on amulets, 1:34 childbirth and, 1:162 and pregnancy, 4:13 rituals against, 3:68 Lamellae, 1:34 Land use and ownership, 3:44-47 inheritance laws and, 3:52, 53 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 taxes on, 4:116 value of, 1:11

Language(s), 3:47-50. See also Ethnic and language groups; Writing Afro-Asiatic family of, 3:47-48 Akkadian, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 3:47 alphabets, 1:27-30 Anatolian, 3:48 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 109, 3:49 Assyrian, 1:85 Avestan, 3:48-39 Babylonian, 1:109 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16 Canaan, 1:139 Carian, 1:145 Coptic, 2:34 decipherment of, 2:33-36, 3:49-50 Egyptian, 2:64-65 Elamite, 2:34, 36, 3:49 Greek, 2:139, 3:48, 49 Hamitic, 2:146-47, 3:48 Hattic, 3:49 Hebrew, 2:157 Human, 2:180, 3:49 Indo-European languages, 2:187-88, 3:48-49 Israelite, 2:157, 3:27 Kassite, 3:49 Khatti, 3:30 Koine Greek, 2:139 Kushite, 3:40 learning of, 2:55 Linear A and B, 2:36 "love" in, 3:61 Luwian, 2:36, 3:62, 136 Lycian, 3:63 major families of, 3:47-49 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Old Persian, 2:34, 3:48-39 outside major families, 3:49 Palmyrene, 2:33 of Persian Empire, 3:176 Phrygian, 4:1 Rosetta Stone and, 3:50 Semitic languages, 3:47-48, 4:72-73 Sumerian, 1:109, 3:49, 4:105-7 Ugaritic, 2:35-36 Lapis lazuli, 3:50-51, 3:90 Larsa, 2:147 Late Bronze Age, 4:63, 64 Law(s), 3:51-54. See also Edicts Code of Hammurabi, 2:148-49 codes of, 3:51 Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52 Codes of Shulgi, 3:52 contracts and, 3:51 Covenant Code, 3:53 edicts as, 2:53-54 of Eshnunna, 3:52, 73 (illus.) in Hebrew Bible, 3:53 of Hittites, 2:168, 3:42, 43 inheritance, 3:52-54 judicial system, 3:51 kings as source of, 3:36 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 ordeals, 3:52 in Persian Empire, 3:175

Index property rights in, 4:16 Ten Commandments, 3:53 on wages, 3:42, 43 against witchcraft, 4:160 Layard, Austen Henry, 1:60, 63 Lead, mining of, 3:109 Leah, 3:167 Lebanon, geography of, 2:121 Lebanon Mountains, 2:121 Legends Atlantis, 2:38, 46 flood legends, 2:97 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 Mycenaeans in, 3:121 Naram-Sin in, 3:130 netherworld in, 1:5 of Scythian origins, 4:61 Semiramis, 4:70 of Ubar's destruction, 1:63 Length, measurement of, 3:78-79 Lepsius, Carl Richard, 1:121, 2:35 Letters Amarna letters, 1:31 to the dead, 1:4,2:41 to the gods, 2:163 between kings, 2:137 the Levant agriculture in, 1:8-9 alphabet contributions from, 1:28 Amorites, 1:32-33 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:61-62 architecture in, 1:68-70 building materials in, 1:126 burial sites and tombs in, 1:131-32 Canaan, 1:137-40 cereal grains in, 1:155 chariots in, 1:160 chronicles of, 1:165 cities in, 1:174 climate of, 2:6, 120 clothing of, 2:8 creation myths of, 2:15 dance in, 2:26 death and burial in, 2:32-33 dynasties of, 2:45 entertainment in, 2:71-73 farming in, 1:155, 3:11 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 fortifications in, 2:105 furnishings in, 2:108 geography of, 2:120-21 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 government of, 2:137-38 houses in, 2:174-75 human form in art of, 2:177 labor and laborers in, 3:43-44 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages in, 3:47 law in, 3:53 magic used in, 3:69 medicine in, 3:87 Megiddo, 3:89-90 mythology in, 3:125-26 Philistines, 3:181-84 religions of, 4:34

sculpture of, 4:59 Semites in, 4:71 temples in, 3:163 women's role in, 4:164 Libraries and archives, 3:54-56. See also Books and manuscripts at archaeological sites, 3:158 at Nineveh, 1:83,3:140 Libyan Desert, 2:120 Libyans, 2:80-81, 3:56-57 Life expectancy, 2:154 Limmu lists, 1:169-70 Linear A and B, 2:16, 36 Lions, 1:39 in art, 1:46,3:57-58 on Babylon's Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:149 statuette of, 3:150 (illus.) Lisht, 3:58 Literature, 3:58-61. See also Libraries and archives in Aramaic, 1:53 authorship, 3:59 autobiographies, 3:60 Babylonian, 1:110-11 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 books and manuscripts, 1:121-23 Canaanite, and Hebrew Bible, 1:138 education in, 2:55 of Egypt, 2:65 epic literature, 2:75-76 Gilgamesh in, 2:121-23 of Greece, 2:142 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 of Hittites, 2:170 humor in, 2:178, 3:60 lions in, 3:57 myths in, 3:124 and oral tradition, 3:58 papyrus rolls for, 3:165 poetry, 3:58-60, 4:4-5 The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 prose, 3:60-61 protest, 3:59 proverbs, 4:17-18 Proverbs ofAhiquar, 1:53 Sumerian, 4:105 titles of, 3:59 Lloyd, Seton, 1:63 Logographic writing, 4:170 Looms, 4:119 Looting, 1:127-28 Lord of Abundance (Adad), 1:2-3 Love, 3:61 Lugalbanda, 4:5 Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, 2:75 Lugalbanda in Khunumkurra, 2:76 Lugalzagesi, 1:17 Lukka, 4:63 Lunar theory, 3:62 Lutes, 3:120 Luwians, 3:62 inscriptions by, 3:5 language of, 2:36, 188

Luxor, 2:62 (illus.), 3:63 Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65 burial practices of, 1:131 coins of, 3:63 (illus.) family and social life of, 2:87 inscriptions by, 3:5 Lycian League in, 3:63 Lycian League, 3:63 Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67 burial practices of, 1:131 Cyrus the Great's defeat of, 2:23 money in, 3:113 Sardis, 4:47-48 Lyres, 3:120

M

Macedonia, 3:67 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27 Babylonian conquests of, 1:107 cavalry in, 1:152 Greece and, 2:141 Judahin, 3:16 King Philip II, 1:23 Magan, 3:153 Magi, 4:179 Magic, 3:68-69 amulets and charms, 1:34-35 analogic magic, 3:68 ashipu (experts), 3:69 and capital punishment, 1:143 contact magic, 3:68 Ea and, 2:45 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 magicians vs. wizards/sorcerers/witches, 3:69 and medicine, 3:85 Metternich Stela and, 4:160 (illus.) necromancy, 3:69 numbers significant in, 3:149 oracles and prophesy, 3:154 during pregnancy, 4:12, 13 white vs. black, 3:68 witchcraft, 4:159-61 Makeup. See Cosmetics Mallowan, Max, 1:63 Mammals, 1:40 Manetho, 2:164 Egyptian history by, 2:57 and Hyksos takeover of Egypt, 2:182 onNitokris, 3:141 Manishtushu, 1:18, 20 Manneans, 3:6-7 Maps and mapping, 3:69-70 (illus.), 4:52 Babylonia, maps from, 3:70 (illus.) clay tablets, maps on, 3:69-70 Egypt, maps from, 3:70 Greece, maps from, 3:70 measurements on maps, 3:70 Mesopotamia, maps from, 3:69-70 as occupation, 3:69, 70 by Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius), 3:70

205

Index star maps, 1:97 underworld "maps," 3:4 Maracanda, 1:25, 154 Marduk, 1:90, 2:128, 3:71 animals depicting, 1:47 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110, 3:114 in creation myths, 2:14, 15 in Enuma Elish, 1:110, 3:125 temple of, 1:101 Margiana, 1:153 Mari, 3:71-72 Amoritesin, 1:33 Hammurabi's war against, 2:147-48 palace at, 3:159 prophecies from, 3:156 Zimri-Lim, 4:176-77 Markets, 3:72-73 Marmara, Sea of, 1:3 Marriage, 3:74-75. See also Divorce; Family and social life adultery and, 2:117 in Assyria, 1:92 Cleopatra's, 2:4 and continuation of dynasties, 2:43-44, 3:180 in Egypt, 1:164,3:180 and ghosts of the unmarried, 2:37 of gods and goddesses, 2:167 (illus.) legitimacy of, 2:89 polygamy, 4:5-6 pregnancy and, 4:12 slavery and, 4:87 and "son of the sister/' 2:67 Mastabas at Lisht, 3:58 locations of, 4:21 (map) in pyramid construction, 1:126 religious significance of shapes, 4:20 on tombs, 1:129 Matar, 4:3 Mathematics, 3:76-78 astronomical predictions from, 3:62 and body proportions in art, 2:177 (illus.) development of, 4:52-53 education in, 2:55 numbers and numerals, 3:148-49 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 (illus.), 77 Matriarchs. See Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel Matthiae, Paolo, 2:47 Mausolus, 1:146 Meander River, 4:39 Measurement(s), 3:78-80 chronology, 1:166-70 gur (Akkadian), 1:20 on maps, 3:70 tools for, 4:126 Meat, 2:102 Medes, 2:82, 3:80^83 (illus.) cavalry in, 1:152 migration of, 3:106 Persia and, 3:171-72 settlement of, 3:7

206

Medicine, 3:83-87 in Anatolia, 3:86-87 in Bible, 3:87 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 education for, 2:55 in Egypt, 3:85-86 incense as, 2:187 in Iran, 3:86 in the Levant, 3:87 and magic, 3:68, 69 in Mesopotamia, 3:83-85 myths for healing, 3:126 practice of, 4:54 tools for, 4:127 white magic and, 4:159 Mediterranean Sea climate and, 2:6 Crete, 2:15-17 Cyprus, 2:22-23 earthquake belt in, 2:46 harbors on, 2:151 Sardinia, 4:46-47 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade on, 3:87-89, 4:128 Medjay, 3:53 Megiddo, 3:89-90 battle at, 4:150 roads in, 4:40 water tunnels in, 4:154 Melukkha, 3:90,3:153 Memphis, 2:14, 3:90-91 Memphite Theology, 4:122 Menes, 2:133 Menkaure, 4:21 Merchants, 3:91-93 dangers facing, 3:93 as diplomats, 2:49 independent vs. agents, 2:50 Lydian retail trade and, 3:66 and nomadic trade routes, 3:144 taxes paid by, 4:116 travel by, 4:130 Merenre II, King, 3:141 Merodach-Baladan, 1:159 Meroe, 3:39-41, 3:147 Mersa Gawasis, 2:150 Mesopotamia, 3:93-98 afterlife beliefs in, 1:5 agriculture in, 1:9 Anu, 1:48 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:60 architecture of. See Mesopotamian art and architecture archives and libraries in, 3:54, 55 armies in, 1:71-72,4:91 art of. See Mesopotamian art and architecture Aryans in, 1:81 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130 calendars in, 1:133-34 canals in, 1:140-41 cereal grains in, 1:155 chariots in, 1:160 childbirth in, 1:162 children in, 1:163

chronicles of, 1:164-65 chronology of, 1:169-70 cities and city-states in. See Mesopotamian cities, towns, and city-states clay tablets, 2:3 climate of, 2:6, 118 clothing of, 2:6-7 cosmetics used in, 2:12, 13 creation myths in, 2:14, 15 dance in, 2:24-25 death and burial in, 2:29-30 divination in, 3:155 divorce in, 2:39 domesticated animals in, 1:42 dynasties in, 2:44 education in, 2:54-55 epic literature in, 2:75-76 ethnic groups in. See Mesopotamian ethnic and language groups family and social life in, 2:86, 89 famine in, 2:90 farming in, 1:155 feasts and festivals in, 2:91-92 flooding in, 2:98 funerary offerings in, 3:151 furnishings in, 2:108 gardens of, 2:113 geography of, 2:118, 3:94-95 gods and goddesses of, 2:127-28, 4:31-32 government of, 2:131-33 hairstyles in, 2:144, 145 harbors of, 2:150 health in, 2:153, 154 houses in, 2:172-73 irrigation in, 3:9-10 Ishtar, 3:12 king lists of, 3:34-35 labor and laborers in, 3:42 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages in, 3:47-48 law in, 3:51-52 literature in, 3:59 location of, 3:94 (map) maps from, 3:69-70 marriage in, 3:74 measurement in, 3:78-80 medicine in, 3:83-85 merchants in, 3:91 money in, 3:113 monotheism in, 3:114 mythology in, 3:125 naming in, 3:128 nomads in, 3:143 numbers significant in, 3:149 omens in, 3:153-54 (illus.) palaces in, 3:158-60 peasants in, 3:169 poetry of, 4:5 polygamy in, 4:6 prayers of, 4:11-12 priests in, 4:13, 14 religions of, 4:31-32 roads in, 4:40 salt deposits in, 2:38-39

Index schools in, 4:51 science of, 4:52-54 scribal education in, 4:54-55 sculpture of, 4:56-58 secular rituals in, 4:36-37 Semites in, 4:70-71 servants in, 4:74-75 Shamshi-Adad I and, 4:78 slaves in, 4:86 social institutions in, 4:88 Susianaand, 4:108 temple rituals in, 3:151 temples in, 3:162 textile industry in, 4:120 theology of, 4:122 trade in, 2:50, 52, 4:128 wine from, 4:158-59 women's role in, 4:161-62 Mesopotamian art and architecture architecture, 1:64-65 art, 1:78-79, 119 building materials in, 1:124-25 depicting animals, 1:45-48 faience of, 2:85 human form in, 2:177 wall paintings in, 4:147 Mesopotamian cities, towns, and citystates, 1:171-73 Babylon, 1:100-102 Eridu, 2:76-77 Kalkhu, 3:28 Mari, 3:71-72 Nippur, 3:140 Nuzi, 3:149-50 origins of, 3:95 Umma, 4:137 Ur, 4:137-39 Mesopotamian ethnic and language groups, 2:78-79, 3:95 Akkadians, 1:16-22, 2:79, 3:96 Amorites, 1:32-33, 3:96, 105 Aramaeans, 1:51-54, 3:97, 106 Assyrians, 1:84-93, 2:79, 3:97-98, 106-7 Babylonians, 1:102-11, 2:79, 3:96-98 Chaldeans, 1:157-59 Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81, 3:105 Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30, 3:105 migration of, 3:105 Sumerians, 2:78-79, 3:96, 4:100-105 Messengers, 2:10 (illus.), 3:99 cavalry as relayers of, 1:152 classes of, 3:99 communication and, 2:9, 10 travel by, 4:130 Metallurgy, 3:100-101 Metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 of Achaemenid dynasty, 3:170 (illus.) in Anatolia, 1:38,39 bronze, 3:101 casting, 3:103 in the Caucasus, 1:151 in Central Asia, 1:154

copper, 3:101 development of, 4:53-54 gold, 3:102 hammering, 3:100, 103 iron, 3:102-3 as item of exchange, 2:53 for jewelry, 3:21 local traditions, 3:104 in Lydia, 3:66 metallurgy, 3:100-101 mining, 3:107-9 Minoan, 2:16 Phrygians and, 4:1-2 (illus.) Scythian, 4:62 silver, 3:102 smiths (metalworkers), 3:103 tin, 3:101 tools, metal, 4:126 (illus.) Midas, 4:1 Migration, 3:104-6. See also Nomads and nomadism of Aramaeans to Mesopotamia, 3:97 drought as cause of, 2:42 forced (deportation), 3:106-7 of Gutians to Mesopotamia, 3:105 horizontal, 3:144 of Hurrians, 2:180-81 large-scale, 3:105 names and study of, 3:129 nomadic, 3:144 prehistoric, 4:111 of Scythians, 4:60 vertical, 3:144 Military. See Wars and warfare Military tactics, 4:152-53 Mining, 3:107-9, 3:153 Minoan civilization, 2:16-17, 3:109-12 in Aegean Sea area, 1:3 destruction of, 4:145 human form in art of, 2:178 navy of, 3:130 palace at Knosses, 2:16, 3:39 Minos, 3:109, 111 Missiles, 4:155 Mitanni Ashur's dominion by, 1:85 establishment of, 3:97 kingdom of, 2:181 names in, 1:81 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 Mithra, 2:129, 130 Mithradates, 3:166 Moabite language, 4:72 Moats, 1:175, 2:105 Money, 3:112-13 barter and, 3:112 cereal grains as, 1:154, 157 coins, 2:53, 142, 3:63 (illus.), 112 (illus.), 3:113 definition of, 3:112 Lydian, and trade, 3:66 origin of, 2:53 and price of goods, 3:73 (illus.) tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) trade and, 2:142 Monotheism, 3:113-14

Months. See Calendars Moon cycles of, and calendars, 1:133, 134 lunar theory, 3:62 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Moses, 3:116-17,4:116 Mot, 1:6, 99, 2:130 Mountains Anti-Lebanon, 2:120 Caucasus, 1:150-51 Elburz, 2:120 Lebanon, 2:121 Mount Ararat, 2:119 Mount Carmel, 2:121 Mount Sinai, 4:84-85 Omani, 3:153 Taurus, 2:119 Zagros, 2:120 Mud for building, 1:124, 125 Mules, 1:44 Mummies, 3:117-19 (illus.) amulets in wrappings of, 1:34 of cats, 1:149 (illus.) information from examination of, 2:153 Mutnodjmet, 1:162 perfumes for, 3:170 process of creating, 2:30 rituals involving, 2:30 Murshilil, 2:167 Murshili II, 2:167-68, 3:32 Murshili III, 3:32 Music and musical instruments, 3:119-21 in education, 2:55 hymns, 2:183 psalms, 4:18-19 Mutnodjmet, Queen, 1:162 Muwattalli II, 2:168 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 in Crete, 3:111 history of, 2:139 navy of, 3:130 Myrrh, 2:186, 187 Mythology, 3:123-26 (illus.). See also Creation myths; Gods and goddesses about Ishtar, 3:12 Adadin, 1:2 Anatolian, 3:126 Baal cycle, 1:98, 1:99, 3:60, 125 Babylonian, 1:110-11 blacksmiths in, 3:103 Canaanite, 3:125-26 drought in, 2:42-43 Egyptian, 2:128, 3:125 El in, 2:66 EnkiandNinmakh, 1:110, 3:125 Enlill in, 2:70 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 Etanain, 1:119 famine in, 2:91 fish in, 2:96 of good vs. evil, 1:13 Greek, 2:142

207

Index Hittite, 2:170 horses in, 2:171 Iranian, 3:126 Isis and Osiris, 3:125 Israelite, 3:125-26 King Minos in, 3:111 Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39, 4:117-18 of the Levant, 3:125-26 lions as symbols in, 3:58 Macedonians in, 3:67 Mardukin, 3:71 Mesopotamian, 3:125 Minotaur in, 3:111 netherworld in, 1:5 Osiris and Isis, 3:157 Poseidon in, 3:111 role of, 3:124-25 sphinx in, 4:94 theology in, 4:122-23 Theseus in, 3:111

N

Nabateans, 1:51 Nabonidus, 3:126-27 and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 Neo-Babylonian empire under, 1:103 (map) reign of, 1:106 Nabopolassar, 3:127 and arranged marriages, 3:74 ethnicity of, 1:159 reign of, 1:106 Names, personal, 3:128-29 in Babylonia, 1:110 of Chaldeans, 1:158 given to babies, 1:162 Namma, 2:127 Nanna. See Sin (god) Naram-Sin, 3:129-30 and Enlil's temple, 1:21 government under, 2:132 inscriptions about, 3:2 reign of, 1:18 in Sargon's dynasty, 2:44 victory stela of, 1:17 (illus.), 21 Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Narunde, 2:130 Natural disasters, 2:37-39 Natwatwa twins, 2:129 Naval power, 3:130-31 of Assyrians, 4:152 in Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Navigation, 3:88 Neanderthal peoples, 4:111 Nearchus, 1:25 Nebayot tribe, 1:49 Nebuchadnezzar I, 1:105 Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32 and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 rebuilding by, 1:100 reign of, 1:106 Necho II, 3:132-33 Necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160

208

Necropolises, 1:128 Nefernefruaten, Queen, 1:15 Nefertari, Queen, 1:1, 2:111 (illus.), 4:144 Nefertiti, Queen, 1:15, 3:133-34 (illus.) Nefrusobek, 3:37 Negahban, Ezat, 1:131 Negev Desert, 2:121 Nehemiah, 2:84, 3:26 Nemrik,2:172 Neo-Assyrian empire, 2:133, 4:40 Neo-Babylonians, 3:159 Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 Neolithic period gatalHiiyuk, 1:148-49 economy in, 2:49 Transcaucasia, 1:151 Nephthys, 2:128 Nergal. See Erra Nerik, 2:129 Netherworld, 1:5 Nile River, 2:56-57, 118-19, 3:137-38, 4:38-39 archaeological sites along, 1:59 farming along, 1:9-10 flooding of, 1:10, 141-42, 2:38, 42, 74,97-100,4:153-54 and irrigation, 2:61-62, 3:10-11 as Nubian trade route, 3:145 Opet festival at flooding of, 3:63 shipping routes on, 4:79 Nineveh, 3:139-40 library in, 1:83 roads in, 4:40 Sennacherib and, 4:74 Ninkhursag, 1:110 Nintu, 4:13 Ninurta, 2:127, 3:124 (illus.), 159 Nippur, 3:140 magic in, 3:68 map of, 3:70 orchards and gardens in, 1:175 plan of, 1:171 (illus.) temple Eshumesha at, 3:159 Nitokris, 3:141 Nofret, Lady, 2:12 (illus.) Nomads and nomadism, 3:141-45 Amorites, 1:33 animal husbandry and, 1:43 in Arabia, 1:49 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 in Central Asia, 1:154 pastoral nomadism, 3:104-5, 141 Scythians, 4:61 tent camp archaeological site, 3:142, 143 "norms," 4:121 Nubia and the Nubians, 2:81, 3:145-47 AbuSimbel, 1:1 (illus.) Rush, 3:39-41, 3:146-47 Meroe, 3:39-41 pyramids of, 3:146 (illus.) in the Sudan, 4:100 Taharqa,4:114-15 TaSety, 3:146

Numbers and numerals, 3:148-49 Nut, 2:14 (illus.), US Nuzi, 3:149-50, 4:161

O

Oases, 2:120 Obelisk of Manishtushtu, 1:20 Obsidian, 1:108, 151, 3:150-51 Occupations. See Work Octavian, 2:4 Odyssey, 2:140, 3:121, 4:132 Offerings, 3:151-52 burial, 1:130-32 for the dead, 1:5, 2:29, 3:151-52 food and drink, 4:32, 37 goats for, 2:126 to gods and goddesses, 3:151, 4:33 (illus.) of incense, 2:186 ritual offerings, 4:37 wine as, 4:159 Old Persian language, 2:34, 188, 3:48-39 Old Testament. See Bible, Hebrew Olives, 3:152-53 Oman Peninsula, 1:62, 3:153 Omens, 3:153-54 death omen of Esarhaddon, 1:94-95 and divination, 3:155 eclipses as, 1:94-95 for foretelling future, 1:94, 3:153-54 and medicine, 3:84 natural events as, 1:94, 3:154 weather as, 1:94 Omri, 1:11-12,3:15 Onomastics, 3:129 Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63 Oracles and prophecy, 3:154-57 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117 Isaiah, 3:12 Jeremiah, 3:17 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Oral tradition, 3:58 Ordeals, 3:52 Osiris, 2:128-29, 3:157 in creation myths, 2:14 cult of, and Abydos, 1:1-2 and Ishtar, 3:13 Seth and, 4:76 unrecorded stories of, 3:125

p

Paints, 4:145 Palaces, 3:157-61 art depicting animals in, 1:46 in Assyria, 1:93 bas-reliefs in, 1:114-15 in cities, 1:175-76 of Crete, 2:16, 3:110, 111 at Djoser's burial site, 2:40 in Egypt, 1:66 functions of, 3:157, 158

Index Great Palace of Mari, 3:72 history of, 3:158 in Khattusha, 1:70 at Knosses, 2:16, 3:38-39 in the Levant, 1:68-69 at Megiddo, 3:89 in Mesopotamia, 1:65 Minoan, 2:16 of Mycenaeans, 3:121, 123 in Persia, 1:69 Sennacherib's, 3:139-40 Southern Citadel (Babylon), 1:101 Susa, palace at, 3:176 inUgarit, 1:69 Palaic language, 2:188 Palermo Stone, 2:166 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) Palmyrene language, 2:33 Papsukkal, 1:119 Papyrus, 3:164-65 fromByblos, 1:133 funerary papyrus of Djedkhonsefankh, 2:31 (illus.) harvest of, 3:165 (illus.) parchment in place of, 3:56 rolls, papyrus, 1:122, 3:164-65 Papyrus Anastasi I, 3:77 Parchment, 3:56 Parsa. See Persepolis Parthia and the Parthians, 3:166 Iran and Mesopotamia seized by, 3:143 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 Patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, 3:166-68 Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) Peasants, 3:168-69 as farmworkers, 1:10-11 as laborers, 3:42 Peleset, 4:63 Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41 Pentateuch. See Torah Perdikkas I, 3:67 Perfume(s), 3:169-70 incense as, 2:187 manufacture and uses of, 2:13 wigs and, 2:145 (illus.) Pergamum, parchment used in, 3:56 Perikles, 3:63 Persepolis, 3:170-71 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 archaeological discoveries of, 1:62 art depicting animals in, 1:46 building of, 3:176 palace at, 1:69 Persia and Persian Empire, 2:82, 3:171-76 Achaemenid Dynasty, 3:173-74 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 and Alexander the Great, 1:23-25 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaic as official language of, 1:52 architecture of, 1:69-70, 3:176 army of, 1:74-75 Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80 art of, 3:176

Aryan origins of, 1:81 Babylonian conquests of, 1:107 Bagoas in, 2:84 building style in, 1:127 Cambyses II, 1:136 capture of Babylon by, 3:127 caravansaries in, 1:144-45 Carianand, 1:145 cavalry in, 1:152 in Central Asia, 1:154 chariots in, 1:161 clothing of, 2:8-9 economy of, 3:175 education in, 2:56 establishment of, 3:7 family and social life of, 2:88 First Persian Empire, 3:172-73 gardens of, 2:113 gods and goddesses of, 2:130 government of, 2:138, 3:174 history of, 3:171-74 human form in art of, 2:178 Judahin, 3:16 Judaism and Jews in, 3:26 king lists of, 3:35 languages of, 3:48, 176, 4:73 law in, 3:54, 175 location of, 3:172 (map) Lycia in, 3:63 Lydia and, 3:65-66 marriage in, 3:75 Medes and, 3:82-83 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 migration of, 3:106 military of, 3:174-75 monotheism in, 3:114 navy of, 3:131 palaces of, 3:161 Persepolis, 3:170-71 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Phoenicians and, 3:186 polygamy in, 4:5 religion of, 3:8, 176 roads of, 4:41 Sardis, 4:47-48 satrapies and satraps, 3:174, 4:50 social institutions of, 4:90-91 trading and merchant activity, 3:93 wall paintings in, 4:148 women's role in, 4:164 Xerxes, 4:172-73 Persian Gulf, trade routes on, 4:128 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78 Petra, 1:62 Petrie, Sir William Matthew Flinders, 1:31, 63 Pharaohs, 3:178-81 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 animals in art of, 1:47 choosing of, 3:180 and co-regencies, 3:180 divine status of, 3:180 Egyptian beliefs about, 3:179-80 Hatshepsut, 2:152, 3:179 information sources about, 3:178-79

Necho II, 3:132-33 role of, 3:179 and Sed-Festival, 3:179-80 Sety I, 4:76-77 symbols of, 3:181 Taharqa, 4:114-15 Thutmose III, 4:124 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 Philip II, 1:23, 2:141, 3:67 Philip III, 1:26 Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84 art of, 3:182 (illus.) government of, 2:137 migration of, 3:106 as Peleset, 4:63 Philosophy, Greek, 2:142 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, 2:83, 3:184-88 aleph-beth, 1:29-30 (illus.) art of, 3:187 Byblos, 1:133 Carthage, 1:146-48 coins, 3:187 (illus.) deportation of, 3:106 economy and trade of, 3:185-87 (map) funerary practices of, 2:32 government of, 2:137 history of, 3:184-86 human form in art of, 2:177 language of, 4:72 merchants in, 3:93 navy of, 3:130-31 (illus.) religion of, 3:187-88 shipping trade of, 3:88, 4:79 Sidon, 4:84 trade of, 4:129 Tyre, 4:134-35 writing of, 3:188 Phraortes, 3:81 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:32 furnishings in, 2:108 Phylactery, 1:34 Pigs, 1:40, 42, 44, 4:3-4 Pillar of Xanthus, 3:5 Pinengir, 2:130 Piye, King, 3:147 Place-value system (mathematics), 3:77 Planets, 1:94, 96, 4:4 Plants for cosmetics, 2:11 date palms, 2:27-28 domestication of, 2:5, 4:110,140 flax, 2:96-97 in gardens, 2:112-13 grown for crops, 1:8 olive groves, 3:152 in Sahara Desert, 4:44 until 6000 B.C., 2:5 Plato, 2:142 Pleistocene epoch, 2:5 Plows, 1:44 Plow Star, 1:96 Plutarch, 1:24, 3:125

209

Index Poetry, 4:4-5. See also Creation myths Baal Cycle, 1:99, 3:60, 125 epic literature, 2:75-76 EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 in Hebrew Bible, 3:59-60 Hittite, 3:60 hymns as, 2:183, 4:5 of Israelites, 2:89, 158 love in, 3:61, 4:5 as style of literature, 3:58-60 in Sumerian language, 3:59 Police forces, 3:53 Politics. See Government(s) Polygamy, 3:75, 4:5-6, 4:62 The Poor Man From Nippur, 3:60 Population, estimating, 1:174 Potassium-argon dating (archaeological), 1:58 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Pottery, 4:6-11 (illus.) Prayer, 4:11-12, 4:36 Pregnancy, 4:12-13 Prehistoric Period, 2:73-74 Prices of goods, 3:73 (illus.) Priests and priestesses, 4:13-16 clothing of, 2:6-7 cosmetics used by, 2:11 cult rituals performed by, 2:18 of Egypt, 4:32 in Elam, 4:33 hierarchies of, 4:90 of Hittites, 4:34 Isaiah, 3:12 kings and queens as, 3:36, 161, 187 and magicians, 3:69 in Mesopotamia, 4:32 omens explained by, 3:153 rituals performed by, 4:36 in Syria, 4:34 Zoroaster, 4:178-80 Primogeniture, 4:17 The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 Propaganda, 1:75, 2:23 Property and property rights, 4:16-17 concerning slaves, 4:86 divorce and, 2:39-40 land use and ownership, 3:44-47 water included in, 4:154 for women, 4:161-62, 164 The Prophecy ofNeferti, 3:156 Prophets and prophecies. See Oracles and prophecy Proverbs, 4:17-18 Proverbs of Ahiquar, 1:53 Psalms, 4:18-19 Psalms of Solomon, 4:19 Ptah, 2:14, 129, 3:90 Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius), 3:70 Ptolemy I, 1:26,4:19-20 Ptolemy's Canon, 3:35 Ptolemy XII, 2:3 Ptolemy XIII, 2:3 Ptolemy XIV, 2:4 Pu-abi, jewelry of, 3:21, 22 (illus.) Punic Wars, 1:147 Punt, expedition to, 2:150-51

210

Purification, ritual, 4:36, 37 (illus.) Pyramid(s), 4:20-23. See also Ziggurats architecture of, 1:66 building of, 1:126, 2:63-64, 4:22-23 design of, 1:66 of Djoser, 2:40 at Giza, 3:33 Great Pyramid at Giza, 1:126, 3:33-34 of Kushites, 3:40, 146 (illus.) laborers for, 3:42 at Lisht, 3:58 location of, 4:21 (map) origin of, 4:20 outfitting of, 3:180 robbery of, 4:20 Step pyramid, 2:130 stones for, 1:125-26 structure of, 4:21 and tomb robbing, 1:129 Pythagoras, 2:142

Q

Qedar tribe, 1:49, 50 (map) QermezDere, 2:172 Queens, 4:23-26 Ahhotep (Egypt), 1:12 Athaliah (Judah), 1:98 Cleopatra (Egypt), 2:3-4 (illus.) Hatshepsut (Egypt), 2:152, 3:179 Hittite, 2:170, 4:163 Mutnodjmet (Egypt), 1:162 Nefernefruaten (Egypt), 1:15 Nefertiti (Egypt), 3:133-34 Nefrusobek (Egypt), 3:37 Nitokris (Egypt), 3:141 Pu-abi (Ur), 3:21, 22 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 Smenkhkare (Egypt), 1:15

R

Ra, 2:128 Rabbis, 3:27-28 Rachel, 3:167 Radio-carbon dating (archaeological), 1:58 Rainfall. See climate Ramman. See Adad Ramses II, 4:26-27 and Abu Simbel temples, 1:1 (illus.) and Khattushili, 3:32 tomb for sons of, 4:144 Ramses III, 4:27 cosmetics and, 2:12 and Sea People, 4:63 Ramses VI, 4:134 Rassam, Hormuzd, 1:63 Rawlinson, Sir Henry Behistun Inscription decipherment by, 1:62, 116 Old Persian decipherment by, 2:34 Re, 2:14

Rebecca, 3:167 Reciprocal economies, 2:49 Record keeping, 4:27-30. See also Libraries and archives by archaeologists, 1:57 of astronomers, 1:96-97 chronicles, 1:164-66 and chronology, 1:168-69 clay tablets for, 2:2-3 of climate, 2:5 education needed for, 2:54 of important events, 2:163 (illus.) influence of, on writing, 4:170 of land use, 3:45 measurement and, 3:78-80 of merchant activities, 3:91, 92 on Sumerian clay tablets, 4:105 of trade, 2:49 Redistributive economies, 2:49-50, 62 Red Sea, 4:30-31 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes on, 4:129 volcanic belt through, 4:144 Reeds for building, 1:124 Rehoboam, 4:94 Rekhmira, 1:77 Relative chronology, 1:166-67 Relative dating (archaeological), 1:57-58 Religion(s), 4:31-34. See also Creation myths; Demons; Gods and goddesses; Rituals; Sacrifice(s); Temple(s); specific religions afterlife beliefs, 1:3-6 Ahriman, 1:13 under Akhenaten (Egypt), 1:14-15 of Akkadians, 1:21 of Aramaeans, 1:54 art, religious, 1:46-48, 2:184-85 (illus.) of Assyrians, 1:92-93 of Babylonia, 1:110,3:140 birds in religious art, 1:118-19 calendars and, 1:134,135 in Canaan, 1:139 in Carthage, 1:147 cats in, 1:149 cosmetics used in, 2:11 cults, 2:18-19 dance and, 2:26 and drought, 2:42 education and, 2:55, 56 of Egypt, 2:63 of Elamites, 2:67 feasts and festivals and, 2:92-93 fish in, 2:96 and government, 2:131, 133, 136-38 of Greece, 2:142 and growth of cities, 1:171-72 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 of Hittites, 2:169-70 horses in, 2:171 in Iran, 3:7-8 and Jerusalem, 3:19 Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28

Index and justice, 4:88 lions as symbols in, 3:58 of Lydia, 3:67 and magicians, 3:69 and medicine, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 of Mesopotamia, 3:97 of Minoan civilization, 3:111 monotheism, 3:113-14 music and, 3:119, 120 of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 numbers significant in, 3:149 offerings in, 3:151 Opet festival, 3:63 oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 in Persian Empire, 3:176 of Philistines, 3:184 of Phoenicians, 3:187-88 prayer, 4:11-12 priests and priestesses, 4:13-16 purposes of art in, 1:76 science and, 4:52 of Scythia, 4:62 and shape of mastabas and pyramids, 4:20 of Sumeria, 3:140, 4:103-4 sun in, 4:107-8 theology, 4:121-23 use of seals in, 4:66 white magic and, 4:159 Zoroastrianism, 4:178-80 Reshef, 2:130 Resurrection, 1:6, 3:157 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 (illus.), 77 Rhodes, 4:35 Rich, Claudius James, 1:55, 60 Rimmon. See Adad Rim-Sin, 2:147 Rimush, 1:18 Rituals anointing with olive oil, 3:152-53 of Aramaeans, 1:54 by cult priests and priestesses, 2:18 Egyptian funerary rituals, 3:68-69 government responsibility for, 2:18 healing, of Jews, 2:37 Hittite funerary practices, 2:31-32 incense in, 2:186 involving mummies, 2:30 magic, 3:68, 69 Mesopotamian death rituals, 2:30 Mesopotamia temple rituals, 3:151 perfumes in, 3:170 prayers as, 4:12 and sacrifice, 4:36-38 at Sed-Festival, 3:179 substitute-king, 2:77, 4:36 against witchcraft, 4:160-61 Rivers, 4:38-39 of Anatolia, 2:120 canals from, 1:140 environmental changes in, 2:74 Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118 flooding of, 4:153-54 Hermos River, 4:47 and irrigation, 3:9

Jordan River, 2:121 land use along, 3:45 in Lebanon, 2:121 Nile River, 2:118-19, 3:137-38 Tigris River, 2:118,4:125 transportation and travel by, 4:130 watercraft using, 4:80 Roads, 4:39-41 economy and trade using, 2:48 (map) landmarks on, 4:131-32 messengers and, 3:99 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 traffic on, 4:130 in Uruk period, 2:48 (map) Robbers, grave. See Grave robbers Rock(s) animals in paintings on, 1:45 obsidian, 3:150-51 temples carved out of, 3:163 Rome and the Roman Empire artistic influences of, 4:148 and Carthage, 1:147-48 Cleopatra and Caesar's marriage, 2:4 and Jews, 3:27 andjudah, 3:16 Lycia and, 3:63 Macedonian Wars with, 3:67 Phoenicians and, 3:186 Rosetta Stone, 1:59, 2:34, 162, 3:50, 4:41-43 (illus.) Royal bodyguards, 4:92 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102 (illus.) Royal messengers, 3:99 Royal orders (misharu), 1:107 Royal Standard of Ur, 1:71, 72 (illus.), 2:93 (illus.) Rugs, 4:118 Rulers. See Governors and rulers Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.)

s

Sacrifice(s), 4:37-38 blood, as part of worship, 3:151 of cattle, 1:150 of children, 1:147,3:188 goats for, 2:126 to gods, 4:33 (illus.) human, 3:151, 4:38 of white horses, 2:171 Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 Sahr, 1:54 Saka, 1:154 battle armor of, 4:157 death and burial in, 2:33 Samaria, 1:12, 3:15, 4:44-45 Samaritans, 4:45 Samarkand, 1:25, 154 Samsu-iluna, 4:46 Sanitation, 2:154 Santorini. See Thera Saoshyant, 4:180 Sarah, 3:166-67 Sarcophagi, 1:132, 4:84

Sardinia, 4:46-47 Sardis, 3:65, 4:47-48 Sargon I, 4:48-49 Akkad's creation by, 1:16 army of, 1:72 dynasty established by, 2:44 government under, 2:132 inscriptions about, 3:2 rule of, 1:17-18 Sargon II, 2:135 (illus.)f 4:49-50 appeal to god by, 1:92 Khorsabad citadel of, 3:160 (illus.) palace of, 1:65, 3:159,160 (illus.) reign of, 1:89 relief from palace of, 2:51 (illus.) Satrapies and satraps, 4:50 Parthia as, 3:166 of Persian Empire, 3:174 Sayings ofAhiquar, 4:18 Scarabs, 1:34, 2:116 Schaeffer, Claude, 1:64 Schliemann, Heinrich Mycenaean work by, 3:123 search for Homer's epic sites by, 3:122 Troy identified by, 1:61, 4:132 Schools, 2:54, 4:50-52 Science and technology, 4:52-54 astronomy, 1:95-97 in Babylonia, 1:111 cartography as, 3:70 in Greece, 2:142 mapping, 4:52 mathematics, 3:76-78 metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 mining, 3:107-9 wheel, 4:157-58 Scribes, 4:54-56 academy for, at Nippur, 3:140 cuneiform use by, 2:19, 20 education of, 2:54, 55 Israelite, 2:157 in Judaism, 3:26 matrology (measurement) learned by, 3:78 names of, 3:128 numerals used by, 3:149 parchment used by, 1:122-23 schools headed by, 4:51 science as province of, 4:52 symbols invented by, 4:171 tools of, 4:126,171 writing on clay tablets by, 2:1-3 Sculpture, 4:56-59 Anatin, 1:35 bas-reliefs, 1:113-15 Behistun Inscription, 4:59 bronze head, Akkadian, 1:21 (illus.) Egyptian, 1:77-78, 2:64 Great Sphinx, 2:64 of Greece, 2:142 lions in, 3:57 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 puzzle sculptures, 4:58 relief sculptures, 4:57 (illus.)

211

Index stone for, 4:98 Sumerian, 4:105 Syrian, 4:113 (illus.) tools for, 4:126 of Uruk, 4:124 (illus.) Scythia and the Scythians, 4:59-62 and fall of Assyrian empire, 3:143 groups identified as, 1:154 Medes conquered by, 3:81 Seals, 4:64-69. See also Amulets and charms Adadon, 1:2 Akkadian, 1:21 animals depicted on, 1:45 for clay envelopes, 2:1 clothing represented on, 2:6, 8 cylinder seals, 3:97 (illus.), 4:67-68 (illus.) images on, 4:68-69 killing by, 4:66 making of seals, 4:68 Old Babylonian, 1:106 (illus.) for papyri, 3:164-65 stamp seals, 4:66 Sumerian, 4:105 uses of, 4:65-66 weapons shown on, 1:71 Sea Peoples, 4:63-64 (illus.) Mediterranean raids of, 2:22 migration of, 2:42, 3:106 Philistines, 3:181-84 Phoenicians and, 3:185 Secondary burial, 1:132 Sedentists, 3:142 Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 Sekhmet, 1:149, 2:37 Seleucid Empire, 4:69-70 Phoenicians and, 3:186 Southern Media in, 3:83 SeleucusI, 1:26 Semiramis, 4:70 Semites, 4:70-71 Semitic languages, 1:28, 2:146-47, 3:47-48, 4:72-73 Semito-Hamitic languages. See Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages Senenmut, 2:152 Senet,2:l\\, 112 Sennacherib, 4:73-74 Nineveh and, 3:139-40 reign of, 1:88-89 Seqenenre II, 2:183 Servants, 4:74-76 (illus.) Seth, 2:128, 4:76 Horus and, 2:172 andlshtar, 3:13 perceived as demon, 2:37 Sety I, 4:76-77 burial site of, at Abydos, 1:2 with Hathor, 2:128 (illus.) and Ramses II, 4:26 Seven Wise Men, 2:130 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50

212

pyramids at Giza, 2:124 tomb of Mausolus, 1:146 Sewers, 2:154 Sexagesimal system (mathematics), 3:76, 148, 4:52 Sexual behavior. See Gender and sex Shadow clocks, 1:134 Shalmaneser III, 1:12, 87-88, 4:77 Shalmaneser V, 1:89, 4:77-78 Shamaneserl, 1:86 Shamash, 1:5, 21, 94, 106 (illus.), 4:107 Shamash-shum-ukin, 1:83, 90 Shammu-ramat, 4:70 Shamshi-Adad I, 1:85, 4:78 Shamshi-Adad V, 1:88 Shardana, 4:63 Shar-kali-sharri, 1:19 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 Sheep, 1:40, 42, 43, 4:78-79, 4:118 Shekelesh, 4:63 Sheol, 1:6 Shields, 4:156-57 Shiloh,Yigal,3:19 Shipping routes, 4:79-80 Ships and boats, 4:80-82 funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) lost cargoes from, 2:52 naval vessels, 3:130-31 navigation by, 3:88 of Phoenicians, 3:187 Royal Ship of Khufu, 3:33 for sea trade, 3:87 warships, 3:130-31 wood for building of, 4:166-67 Shipwrecks, 3:187 Shoshenql, 3:57 Shu, 2:14, 128 Shulgi, 4:82-83 government under, 2:132 roads built by, 3:99 Shulgi Law Code, 1:142 Shuppiluliuma I, 2:167, 4:83-84 Shurpu, 3:68 Siculus, Diodorus, 4:70 Sidon, 4:84 Siege warfare, 4:150-52 Silver, 3:100-102 as item of exchange, 2:53 mining of, 3:109 as money, 3:112-13 as tax payment, 4:115 Simut, 2:130 Sinai, Mount, 4:84-85 Sinai peninsula, 4:85 Sin (god), 1:21 in Babylonia, 1:110 and childbirth, 1:162 in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Nabonidus and worship of, 3:126 Sin-muballit, 1:104 Slaves and slavery, 4:85-88 divorce of, 2:40 hairstyles of, 2:144 naming of, 3:128 property ownership by, 417

serfs and servants vs., 4:86 tax on sale of, 4:116 Smenkhkare, Queen, 1:15 Sneferu, 4:21 Social classes among metalworkers, 3:103 animal ownership and, 1:43 of Aramaeans, 1:53 in Assyria, 1:92 burial practices and, 1:128-30,2:29-31 of Canaanites, 4:90 cattle ownership and, 1:150 in Central Asia, 1:154 clothing and, 2:7-8 in Code of Hammurabi, 2:149 economy and, 2:49 and education, 2:54, 4:54 in Egypt, 2:65, 4:89 hairstyles and, 2:144 of Hittites, 4:89 horse ownership and, 2:171 hunting and fishing and, 2:95 of Israelites, 2:157, 4:90 and life expectancy, 2:154 in Mesopotamia, 4:88 in Minoan civilization, 3:110 urbanization and, 4:140-41, 168 and women's roles, 4:161-64 Social institutions, 4:88-91. See also Family and social life education, 2:54-56 government, 2:131-38 schools, 4:50-52 Solar system, 1:94,96 Solar temples, 3:162 Soldiers, 4:91-93, 4:156 (illus.) Solomon, 4:93-94 historical evidence about, 2:156 Jerusalem and, 3:19 sources of information about, 3:14-15 temple of, 3:24, ;163 "son of the sister/ 2:67 Sophocles, 2:142 Soul(s) beliefs about. See Afterlife depictions of in art, 1:118 portrayal of, 1:4 (illus.) and underworld, 1:1 South Arabian language, 4:73 South Arabic aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.) Southern Citadel, 1:101 South Semitic aleph-beth, 1:30 South Semitic languages, 4:72 Sparta, 1:80, 2:140-41 Sphinx, 4:94-95 Sphinxes, 1:47, 2:152 (illus.). See also Great Sphinx Spirits. See Afterlife Sports, 2:72-73. See also Games archery, 2:169 hunting as, 2:179-80 (illus.) Star clocks, 4:97 Stars, 4:95-97. See also Astrology and astrologers constellations, 1:96, 4:178 (illus.) Egyptian maps of, 1:97

Index identification of, 1:96 Sothis, 1:170 Stelae of Aramaean storm god, 2:127 bas-reliefs on, 1:114-15 at burial sites, 1:128 Code of Hammurabi, 2:147 (illus.), 2:148-49 as focus of worship, 3:133 of King Amanikhabale, 3:40 (illus.) magic spells on, 3:68 of Mesha, 3:16 (illus.) Metternich Stela, 4:160 (illus.) Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 (illus.) table of offerings on, 3:152 (illus.) fromUruk, 1:46 Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17 (illus.), 21 of Vulture, 1:71-72, 119 Stone, 4:97-99. See also Rock(s) building with, 1:124-27, 4:165 diorite, 4:57 gems, 2:114-16 kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.), 108, 3:30 lapis lazuli, 3:50-51 for pyramids, 2:40, 4:22 for sculpture, 4:57 for tools, 4:125 Stone Age, 1:166 Stone towers (Sardinia), 4:47 (illus.) Storage canals for, 1:140,142 of cereal grains, 1:155 of clay tablets, 2:3 of cosmetics, 2:13 of food and drink, 2:103-4 libraries and archives for, 3:54-56 of perfumes, 2:13, 3:170 of personal possessions, 2:107, 109 The Story of Sinuhe, 3:60, 4:74 Storytelling, 2:73 Stratigraphy, 1:168 Sudan, 4:99-100 Suicide, 1:142-43 Sumer and the Sumerians, 2:78-79, 4:100-105 Akkadian Empire, 4:102 archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 architecture, 4:104-5 art of, 4:105 in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 cosmetics used in, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:14 cuneiform of, 2:2,19, 4:105 Early Dynastic period, 4:101-2 economy of, 4:104 Enlil, 2:70 epic literature in, 2:75-76 Eridu, 2:76-77, 2:134 gardens of, 2:113 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 gods and goddesses of, 4:34, 103-4 government of, 2:132, 4:103 history of, 4:100-103 human form in art of, 2:177 hymns from, 2:183

king list from, 3:34 (illus.) Lagash, 3:44 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages, 3:49 literature of, 3:59, 60, 4:105 location of, 4:101 (map) naming in, 3:128 Nippur and religion of, 3:140 number systems of, 3:148 palaces of, 3:158 poetry of, 4:5 priests in, 4:16 queens of, 4:23 religion of, 4:103-4 SargonI, 4:102 social institutions of, 4:88 Third Dynasty of Ur, 4:102-3 trade in, 3:91 Uruk, 4:141-43 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:161 writing from, 4:169-71 ziggurats of, 4:175-76 Sumerian Flood Story, 2:97 Sumerian language, 4:105-7 in Babylonia, 1:109 literature written in, 3:59 Sumu-abum, 1:100,103 Sun, 1:133, 134,4:107-8 Sundials, 1:134 Supernatural demons, 2:36-37 gods and goddesses, 2:126-30 magic, 3:68-69 omens and, 3:153-54 oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 religion, 4:31-34 in theology, 4:121 witchcraft, 4:159-61 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9 archaeological discoveries of, 1:62, 4:W& (illus.) houses at, 2:174 wall relief from, 2:68 (illus.) Syria and the Syrians, 4:109-14 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Amorites, 1:32-33 Anat, 1:35-36 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 archaeological discoveries in, 1:61-62 building materials in, 1:126 cities in, 1:174 climate of, 2:6 clothing of, 2:8 (illus.) Damascus, 2:24 Ebla, 2:47 entertainment in, 2:71-73 faience in, 2:85 farming in, 3:11 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 geography of, 2:120, 4:110 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 health in, 2:153 history of, 4:111-14 human form in art of, 2:177

inscriptions in, 3:5 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages used in, 3:48 location of, 4:110 (map) nomads in, 3:143 palaces of, 3:161 religions of, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:59 Semites in, 4:71 shipping trade in, 3:88 temples in, 3:163 Ugarit, 4:135-37 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:164 Syrian Desert, 2:120, 4:128

T

Tabernacle, Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 Tablet houses, 2:54 Tablets, clay. See clay tablets Taharqa, 4:114-15 Talmud, 3:27-28 Aramaic language of, 1:52 mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Tannit, 3:187 TaSety (Nubia), 3:146 Taurus Mountains, 2:119 Taweret, 1:162 Taxation, 4:115-16 in Babylonia, 1:107-8 and forced labor, 3:45 of peasants, 3:169 wine as payment of, 4:159 Tax farming, 4:115 Technology. See Science and technology Tefnut, 2:14 Tel Dan, 2:28 Telipinu, 2:43, 129 Tell Arpachiyah, 2:172 TellAsmar, 2:78 Tell Atchana. See Alalakh Tell el-Amarna. See Amarna Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100 Tell es-Sawwan, 2:172 Tell Hariri, 3:71 Tell Kuyunjik, 3:139, 140 Tell Maghzaliyeh, 2:172 Tell NebiYunus, 3:139 Temperature, 2:5 Temple(s), 3:157-59, 3:161-63 atAbuSimbel, 1:1 of Akhenaten, 1:15 (illus.) of Aramaeans, 1:54 archives in, 3:55 in Assyria, 1:93 building techniques for, 1:126 built by Gudea, 2:143 children as workers in, 1:163 in cities, 1:175-76 at Djoser;s burial site, 2:40 in Egypt, 1:66-67, 2:64, 4:32

213

Index Eshumesha, 3:159 functions of, 3:161-62 furniture in, 2:110 Great Temple of Amun, 3:63 Great Temple of the Aten (Amarna), 1:31 Greek, 2:142 and growth of cities, 1:171-72 history of, 3:162 Innana, Temple of, 2:86 (illus.) in Jerusalem, 3:19 in Jewish life, 3:27 at Karnak, 3:29, 3:29 inKhattusha, 1:70 at Kish, 3:38 at Lagash, 3:44 in the Levant, 1:69 libraries in, 3:54, 55 ofMarduk, 1:101,3:71 in Meroe, 3:40-41 in Mesopotamia, 1:65, 4:31-32 in Nuzi, 3:149-50 professional dancers in, 2:25 redistributive economies and role of, 2:49-50 solar temples, 3:162 Solomon's, 3:163 staff of, 3:159 Sumerian, 4:104 Syrian, 4:34 ziggurats and, 4:174-76 Ten Commandments, 3:53, 4:116-17 Moses and, 3:116 as part of Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, 3:15 Tepe Gawra, 1:45, 48, 64 Tepe Ghabristan, 3:108 Tepe Nush-I Jan, 3:80 Tepe Sialk, 2:174 Teshub, 2:129,4:117-18 Textiles, 4:118-20 (illus.) from Acemhuyuk, 2:8 from flax, 2:96-97 household, 2:107, 109 Phoenician, 3:186 purple dye for, 3:186 wool, 4:78-79 Texts and documents on afterlife, 1:4-5 Apology, 3:32 decipherment of, 2:33-36 The Disputte Between Copper and Silver, 3:101 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 Farmer's Almanac, 1:10 Guide to Geography, 3:70 historical, 2:162-66 of Hittite funerary practices, 2:31 on magic, 3:68, 69 mathematical, 3:77 medical, 3:83, 85-86 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Shurpu, 3:68 storage and retrieval of, 3:56 fromUgarit, 1:61 Theaters, Greek, 2:142

214

Thebes, 4:120-21 in creation myths, 2:14 Hyksos and, 2:182-83 Kushite control of, 3:147 palace of Amenhotep III at, 3:160-61 temples of Karnak, 3:29 temples of Luxor, 3:63 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Valley of the Queens, 4:144 Theology, 4:121-23 Thera, 2:17, 38, 46, 4:123, 4:145 Thermoluminescent analysis, 1:168 Thoth, 1:47, 119,2:129 Three Stars Each, 1:96 Thucydides, 2:142 Thutmose II, 2:152 Thutmose III, 3:4, 4:124 Tiglath-pileser I, 1:69, 86-87 Tiglath-pileser III, 1:52, 89, 4:124 Tigrinya language, 4:73 Tigris River, 2:118, 4:38-39, 4:125 changes in, 2:74 flooding of, 1:9, 2:38, 99, 4:153-54 harbors on, 2:150 and irrigation, 3:9 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes along, 4:128 Time and timekeeping, 4:96-97 calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96-97 chronology, 1:166-70 shadow clocks, 1:134 star clocks, 4:97 water clocks, 1:134, 135 Tin, 3:101, 108 Tocharian language, 2:188 Tokens, 2:1, 4:28 (illus.) and bullae, 4:68 counting with, 3:148 mathematics and, 3:78, 4:30 record-keeping uses of, 4:27-29 replacement of, by cuneiform, 2:19 Tombs. See Burial sites and tombs; Pyramid(s) Tools, 4:125-27 in Central Asia, 1:154 metals for, 3:101, 102 obsidian for, 3:150 primitive, 4:111 of scribes, 4:55, 171 stone, 4:99 for woodworking, 4:166 (illus.) for writing inscriptions, 3:2 Torah, 4:127 books of, 1:117 Mosaic Law in, 3:114-16 Torture, 3:53 Tower of Babel, 4:176 Toys, 2:110-12 Trade. See Economy and trade Trade routes, 2:52, 4:127-29 Arab control of, 3:143 in Arabia, 1:50 (map) Bahrain as part of, 1:112 camels, 1:137

caravan routes, 1:144, 3:71 and Chaldeans, 1:158 Damascus' control of, 2:24 dependence of economy on, 2:47-48 Karkamish and, 3:28 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135 Nile River as, 3:145 nomadic control of, 3:144 Parthian control of, 3:166 Red Sea, 4:30-31 through Megiddo, 3:89 Transcaucasia, 1:150-51 Transportation and travel, 4:129-32 animals for, 1:44-45 camels, 1:137 canals for, 1:141 caravans, 1:143-45 chariots, 1:160-61 and growth of cities, 1:174 importance of rivers to, 4:38-39 maps, 3:69-70 messengers, 2:10-11 Nile River's impact on, 3:138 roads, 1:91,4:39-41 ships and boats, 4:80-82 of stone for pyramids, 4:22 taxes, travel, 4:116 through Megiddo, 3:89 trade routes, 2:52 wheels and, 4:157-58 wood's importance in, 4:166-67 Trash, disposal of, 1:175 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4 Trojan War, 4:132, 133 Troy, 1:38,4:132-33 archaeological discovery of, 1:61 battle of, 3:122 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46 fortifications of, 2:105 Tudkhaliyal, 2:167 Tudkhaliya IV, 2:168 Tukulti-Ninurta I, 1:86 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 and deities, 1:15 tomb of, 1:59,4:144 Tyre, 4:134-35 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 and Carthage, 1:146

U

Ubar, 1:63 Ugarit, 4:135-37 aleph-beth, 1:28-30 (illus.) archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 communal prayer of, 4:11 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46 El and, 2:66 forced labor in, 3:43 funerary practices of, 2:32 houses of, 1:68, 2:175 language of, 2:35-36 merchant protection agreement with Karkamish, 3:93

Index Umma, 3:91, 4:137 Underworld Abydos as entrance to, 1:1 "maps" of, 3:4 Osiris and, 3:157 spouse-seeking demons in, 2:37 Ur, 4:137-39 animal figures found at, 1:45-46 (illus.) archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 cosmetics, 2:12 and Elamites, 2:67-68 royal tombs at, 3:21 Shulgi, 4:82-83 Ur-Nammu, 4:139 Urartu, 4:139-40 metalworking in, 3:104 Scythians and, 4:60 Urbanization, 4:140-41, 4:167-68 Ur-Nammu, 3:97 (illus.), 4:139 Uruk, 4:141-43 clay tablets, 2:2 fortifications of, 2:105 Gilgamesh and, 2:121-23 rock stela from, 1:46 trade networks of, 2:51 White Temple at, 1:65 Utu, 2:127

V

Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Tutankhamen's tomb in, 4:134 worker benefits in building, 4:168 Valley of the Queens, 4:143, 4:144 Varuna, 2:129 Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 (illus.) Vegetables, 2:101, 103 Vegetation. See Plants Vehicles, 4:131, 158 Virolleaud, Charles, 1:30 Volcanoes, 4:144-45 earthquakes and, 2:46 Thera, 2:17, 4:123 Volume, measurement of, 3:79, 80 Vulture, stela of, 1:71-72, 119

W

Wages, 3:41-42 Walled cities, 1:175, 4:148-49 fortifications of, 2:104-6 gates in, 2:113-14 Jericho, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:19 Khattusha, 3:31 Megiddo, 3:89-90 Wall paintings Babylon's Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) birds on, 1:119, 120 (illus.) brick for, 1:124 at £atal Hiiyiik, 1:148

Egyptian, 2:64 of hunting, 2:180 Wars and warfare, 4:149-53 animals' roles in, 1:44 armies, 1:71-75 in art, 4:151 (illus.) attacks of walled cities, 4:149 cavalry, 1:152 chariots in, 1:160-61 fighting under banner of Amun, 1:35 fortifications and, 2:104-6 (illus.) horses in, 2:171 Lagash known for, 3:44 naval power, 3:130-31 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 propaganda in, 1:75 Scythians and, 4:61 slaves as war captives, 4:86, 87 soldiers, 4:91-93 urbanization and, 4:141 water important to, 4:154 weapons and armor for, 4:155-57 Waste disposal in cities, 1:175 Water, 4:153-54. See also Floods and flooding; Waterways and bodies of water agriculture and use of, 1:9-10 camels and, 1:136-37 climate and, 2:5 and drought, 2:42-43 and growth of cities, 1:174 and habitation in Iran, 3:6 health and, 2:154 irrigation, 3:8-11 and land use, 3:45 protecting supply of, 3:11 storage of, 3:10 transportation and travel by, 4:130 Water clocks, 1:134, 135 Waterways and bodies of water Aegean Sea, 1:3 canals, 1:140-42 Dead Sea, 2:121 harbors, 2:150-51 for irrigation, 3:9 linking Aegean and Black Seas, 1:3 Mediterranean Sea, trade on, 3:87-89 naval power and, 3:130 Red Sea, 4:30-31 rivers, 4:38-39. See also specific rivers trade routes using, 2:52 Weapons and armor, 4:155-57 (illus.) for charioteers, 1:160 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71, 72 ofHittites, 1:72 metals for, 3:101, 102 obsidian for, 3:150 of Persians, 1:74-75 as tax payment, 4:115 Weather. See also climate Adad (god of), 1:2-3 and drought, 2:42-43 as omen, 1:94

Weaving, 4:118,119 Wedding ceremonies, 3:74 (illus.), 75 Weight, measurement of, 3:79 Wepemnofret's stela, 3:152 (illus.) Western desert, 2:120 West Semitic languages, 4:72-73 Wheat, 1:155 Wheel, 4:157-58 White magic, 3:68, 4:159-60 Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, 1:31 Winckler, Hugo, 1:64 Wind rose, 3:88 Wine, 2:101, 4:158-59 Witchcraft, 3:68, 4:159-61 Women, role of, 4:161-64 (illus.) in Assyria, 1:92 divorce and, 2:39 education for, 2:55-56 in Egypt, 2:64 as Egyptian pharaohs, 3:179 in Elam, 2:67 gender and sex, 2:116-18 as laborers, 3:42, 43 as landowners, 3:46 in medicine, 3:84 (illus.), 85 in Minoan society, 2:16 occupations, 4:168 property control by naditus, 4:17, 161-62 property rights and, 4:16,17 as prophets, 3:156 as rulers, 3:37 Wood and woodworking, 1:125,126, 4:164-67 Woolley, Sir Charles Leonard and Noah's flood, 2:98 and Pu-abi's tomb, 3:21 Ur excavations of, 1:60,128, 130 Work, 4:167-69 (illus.). See also Economy and trade; Tools artists and artisans, 1:75-79, 3:42 cartography (mapmaking), 3:69, 70 children's training for, 1:163 education for, 2:55 farm work and methods, 1:8-11 labor and laborers, 3:41-44 magicians, 3:69 mining, 3:109 physicians, 3:83-87 pottery making, 4:7 of scribes, 4:55-56 temple workers, 3:159, 4:104 tenant farmers, 3:168 urbanization and, 4:140 women, role of, 4:161-64 Writing, 4:169-72. See also Books and manuscripts; Record keeping alphabets, 1:27-30 Aramaean influence on, 1:51, 53 Aramaic, 1:85 in Assyria, 1:85 of books and manuscripts, 1:122-23 from Byblos texts, 2:36 in Canaan, 1:139 on clay tablets, 2:1-2

215

Index Cretan, 2:16 cuneiform, 2:19-22 decipherment of, 2:33-36 demotic script, 2:34 development of, 4:29 in Greece, 2:139, 142-43 hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 inscriptions, 3:1-6 Linear A and Linear B, 2:16, 3:123 logographic, 4:170 of Mycenaeans, 3:123 of numbers, 3:148 numerical values of letters, 1:28 papyrus, 3:164-65 on parchment, 1:122-23 of Phoenicians, 3:188 phonemes represented in, 1:27 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 and scribes, 4:54-56 and Semitic languages, 4:72 Sumerian, 4:105-7

X

Xerxes, 4:172-73 and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71 and Persian Wars, 3:177-78 reign of, 3:173 Xerxes II, 3:173

216

Y

Yadin, Yigael, 1:64 Yahweh, 2:130, 4:173-74 and Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 in creation myths, 2:15 and El, 2:66 gifts to children by, 1:164 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 incense offerings to, 2:186 and Isaiah, 3:12 and Israel's patriarchs and matriarchs, 3:166-68 and Judaism, 3:23-26, 28 prophets of, 3:156-57 temple of, 3:19 Ten Commandments given by, 4:116-17 inTorah, 1:117 Yahwism, 1:6 Years. See Calendars; Chronology(-ies) Young, Rodney S., 1:61 Young, Thomas, 2:34, 4:41

z Zagros Mountains, 2:120 Zarathustra. See Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

Ziggurats, 4:174-76 (illus.) form of, 1:65 at Kish, 3:38 ofMarduk,3:71 in Mesopotamian temples, 3:162 Sumerian, 4:104 in Ur, 4:139, 174, 17S (illus.) Zimri-Lim, 3:156, 4:176-77 Zippalanda, 2:129 Ziwiye, 3:6 Zodiac, 1:95, 4:177-78 development of, 4:96 planets and, 4:4 signs in, 2:45 Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism, 3:8, 4:178-80 afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 Ahriman, 1:13 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 altars of, 4:179 (illus.) birthplace of Zoroaster, 1:111 healing in, 3:86 mythology and, 3:126 prophecies in, 3:156 as religion of Achaemenid dynasty, 3:176 rise of, 3:114 square towers of, 1:69 as state religion, 4:33-34 theologies of, 4:122, 123

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Plate I Made of ivory, this Phoenician carving of a female head, which is 6!4 inches tall, dates from the 700s B.C. It was found at a palace at Kalkhu (present-day Nimrud) in Assyria, where it was originally attached to a piece of furniture.The Assyrians prized fine furniture and often took it as booty from lands that they conquered.

Plate 3 Ancient Near Eastern artisans used silver and other precious metals to make jewelry and luxury and decorative items, suchas the vase shown here. Approximately 14inches tall, this silvervase belonging to King Entemena of Lagash dates from around 2450 B.c.The copper-basedvase bears engraved figures of both mythical and real animals.The top of the vase contains an inscription of devotion to the city god of Lagash.

Plate 4 The people of the ancient Near East used amulets as lucky or protective charms. A wingedscarab (representation of the dung beetle) made of precious stone sits at the center of this amulet, which was found in the tomb of Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian king Tutankhamen (reigned ca. 13321322 B.c.).The annulet, which is inlaid with lapis lazuli, carnelian, glass, and other stones,may have been worn as a pectoral.

P/afe 6 This round bronze sculpture from ancient Luristan (present-day Iran) features water spirits in the center. Dating from around 1850B.C., the sculpture measures 13 inches in height. Many bronze objects have been found at Luristan.

Plate 9 The 7-inch-highclayvase shown here dates from around 2000 B.C. and was found atSusa in ancientElam. It resembles a type ofvase found inLagash, reflecting the influence Mesopotamia had on its close neighbor,Elam. Similar vases have also been found in the region of the Diyala River and atTello,all of which appear tohave been made in the same shop, possiblySusa. in

Plate 10 The A.D. 1922 discovery of the tomb of ancient Egyptian king Tutankhamen (ruled ca. 13321322 B.C.) in the Valley of the Kings provided modern scholars with many examples of Egyptian art, such as this plastered and painted wooden chest.The scene on its central panel depicts Tutankhamen in his chariot, attacking a group of Nubians. On the ends of the chest,Tutankhamen is shown as a sphinx trampling Egypt's enemies.

Plate 11 This silver rhyton, or ancient drinking horn, was found in Central Asia and dates from theAchaemenid period (538-331 B.c.).The bottom of the rhyton depicts a mythical beast called a griffin. A small opening on the chest of the griffin indicates where the liquid poured into the rhyton came out.

Plate 12 Ancient Minoan and Cycladic art are known for their colorful frescoes, many examples of which were found on the islands of Crete andThera. The fresco above depicts a galley ship being rowed through waters where dolphins swim. It comes fromThera and dates from around 1500 B.C.

Plate 13 Animals were portrayed in ancient Near Eastern art for both secular and religious purposes.The gold- and silver-winged ibex shown here forms the handle of a vase. Approximately ten inches long, this ibex is typical of art from theAchaemenid period (538-331 B.c.).The Persians were especially skilled in metalworking, and their gold jewelry is noteworthy for its fine quality.

Plate 14 Although the sphinx originated in Egypt, its use in art spread to other cultures in the ancient Near East, who added their own elements. In Syria and the Levant, the body of the sphinx was often portrayed with wings. Dating from the 700s B.C., this 3-inch-high sphinx was found at Hadatu in northern Syria.

Plate 15 Glassmaking was an important industry in the Levant during ancient times.The Phoenicians were famous in the ancient world for their skill in producing colorful glass beads, such as those in this necklace, which dates from the 500s B.C. The Phoenicians might have learned some of their glassmaking skills from the ancient Egyptians.