The Arabic Novel: Bibliography and Critical Introduction, 1865-1995 (6-Volume Set)

About the pagination of this eBook Due to the unique page numbering scheme of this book, the electronic pagination of the eBook does not match the pagination of the printed version. To navigate the text, please use the electronic Table of Contents that appears alongside the eBook or the Search function. For citation purposes, use the page numbers that appear in the text.

The Arabic Novel

This page intentionally left blank

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume One Prefaces and Critical Introduction Translated by Roger Monroe

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www.aucpress.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

Contents Acknowledgments Preface to the Review Edition (1998) Preface to the 2000 Edition Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel Preliminary Remarks The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel The Novel in Egypt Zaynab and the Pioneering Generation Novelists of the Pioneering Generation Al-Mazini's 'Ibrahim the Writer Tawfiq al-Hakim's Return of the Spirit 1944 Najib Mahfuz The Trilogy "What kind of monster is this?" Adrift on the Nile The Generation of Mahfuz c Abd al-Hamid Judah al-Sahhar C Ali 'Ahmad Bakathir c Adil Kamil The Novel after Mahfuz c Abd al-Rahman al-Sharqawi Yusuf 'Idris Fathi Ghanim The Sixties Generation Suncallah 'Ibrahim's The Committee al-Ghitani's al-Zayni Barakat c Ala' al-DIb's Lemon Blossoms c Abd al-Hakim Qasim's Seven Days of Man Baha' Tahir's Aunt Safiya and the Monastery v

Page ix 1 4 12 12 13 17 17 20 20 21 23 26 27 30 30 33 34 34 35 37 37 40 41 44 45 48 50 52 55

Vol. 1

vi

Contents

The Novel in the Arab East The Novel in Lebanon Tawfiq Yusuf cAwwad's Loaf of Bread Emily Nasrallah's Flight against Time Hanan al-Shaykh's Story of Zahra The Novel in Syria al-Jabiri's Farewell, O Apmea Mutac Safadl's Generation of Destiny Halim Barakat Fadil al-Sibaci's Then Sorrow Blossomed Hanna Mina The Novel in Palestine and Jordan Ghassan KanafanI Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra Emil Habibi The Novel in Iraq Gha'ib Tucma Farman's Five Voices Fu'ad al-Takarll's Distant Echo c Abd al-Rahman al-Rabici's Tattoo The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula c Abd al-Rahman Mumf East of the Mediterranean Endings Cities of Salt The Novel in Sudan Al-Tayyib Salih The Wedding ofal-Zayn Season of Migration to the North The Novel in North Africa The Novel in Morocco c Abd al-Karim Ghallab's Boss CA1J The Novel in Algeria Al-Tahir Wattar's al-Laz Bin Hadduqa's al-Jaziya and the Dervishes The Novel in Tunisia Al-Jabiri's The Sea Scatters Its Driftwood

Page 57 57 58 60 63 65 66 69 70 72 74 77 77 81 84 86 87 89 92 93 93 93 96 98 109 110 110 112 116 117 117 122 123 127 134 137

Vol. 1

Contents

Bin Salih's In the Spider's Web Muhsin bin Diyaf s Defiance The Novel in Libya Al-Faqih's Fields of Ashes Al-Faqih's Trilogy Al-Kuni's Bleeding of the Rock Notes

vii Page 138 140 143 143 145 147

Vol. 1

157

Arabic Novels Translated into English

159

The Arabic Novel: A Bibliography The Novel Arranged Alphabetically (with critical writings) General Criticism in Arabic General Criticism in European Languages

283

2-3

283 1666 1886

4

Indices Arab Novelists The Novel Arranged Alphabetically The Novel Arranged Chronologically The Novel Arranged Geographically The Novel hi Egypt The Novel Outside of Egypt The Novel in Jordan The Novel in the United Arab Emirates The Novel in Bahrain The Novel in Tunisia The Novel in Algeria The Novel in Saudi Arabia The Novel in Sudan The Novel in Syria The Novel in Iraq The Novel in Oman The Novel in Palestine The Novel in Qatar The Novel in Kuwait

1924 2437 2845 3200 3200 3422 3421 3435 3437 3438 3448 3455 3466 3471 3518 3561 3565 3595 3596

4-5 5 5-6 6

viii

Contents

The Novel in Lebanon The Novel in Libya The Novel in Morocco The Novel in Mauritania The Novel in Yemen Bibliography In Arabic Bibliographies Books and Periodicals In European Languages Bibliographies Books and Periodicals

Page 3599 3644 3649 3669 3670 3674 3674 3674 3675 3766 3766 3766

Vol. 6

Acknowledgments It is a pleasure indeed to acknowledge our gratitude to the many who made possible the publication of the Review Edition of this bibliography. Among the foremost contributors was Dr. Jabir cAsfur, whose generous assistance facilitated the printing of this limited edition, which was distributed gratis to the participants of the First International Conference on the Arabic Novel, which met in Cairo in February 1998. Thanks to this circulation of the bibliography in the Review Edition, many participants at the conference, novelists and critics alike, forwarded to us valuable information which has been included in this 2000 edition. They assisted in both eliminating certain errors which had crept into our preliminary work and in adding a great number of novels and a considerably greater number of critical studies which had not been available to us for the Review Edition. Abundant thanks are due cAbd al-Hamid 'Ibrahim, cAbd alKarim Ghallab, cAbd al-Sattar Khulayf, 'Ahmad cUmar Shahin, cAli 'Abu al-RIsh, Fathi Salama, Fu'ad al-Takarli, Ghibriyal Wahba, Ftidal cUthman, Jamal al-Ghitani, Jaylan Hamza, Mahmud Qasim, Mahmud Sacid, Marina Stagh, Muhammad cAbd al-Salam al-cAmri, Muhammad Jibril, Muhammad Mustafa Badawi, Muhammad Shahin, Muhsin Jasim al-Musawi, Mustafa al-Dabc, Nabil Sulayman, Najm cAbdallah Kazim, Roger Allen, Sabah al'Anbari, Sabri Hafiz, Sacd al-Qirsh, Salah Salih, Sulayman al-'Azraci, Yusuf al-Sharuni, Yusuf clzz al-Din clsa, and Zaynab al-cAssal. For much valuable help with the Review Edition of the bibliography, our profound appreciation goes to cAbduh Jubayr, Edwar al-Kharrat, Emily Nasrallah, Fu'ad Qandil, 'Ibrahim cAbd al-Majid, 'Ibrahim 'Asian, 'Iqbal Baraka, Liyana Badr, Lucy Ya c qub, Mahmud c Awad c Abd al- c Al, Muhammad 'Abu al-Macati 'Abu al-Naja, Muhammad al-Makhzanji, Muhammad al-Mansi Qandil, Muhammad Yusuf al-Qacid, Nawal alSacdawi, Sabri Musa, Salwa Bakr, Sharif Hatata, Suncallah 'Ibrahim and the Union of Moroccan Writers. I should also like to take this opportunity in particular to express my appreciation to Professor Catherine Cobham of St. Andrew's University in Scotland for her kind assistance on a number of occasions, especially concerning the works of the Lebanese author Hanan al-Shaykh. ix

x

Acknowledgments

I wish to express my special gratitude to my friend Mr. Roger Monroe for his unflagging efforts in translating the introduction into English. I am also personally grateful to Dr. Yusuf Nawfal, professor of Modern Literature at c Ayn Shams University, who was kind enough to review a large portion of the bibliography with me. I also want to thank my friend Dr. 'Ayman Fu'ad al-Sayyid who supervised the technical aspects of publishing and printing the review edition, and to all those who worked under his supervision at Dar al-Kutub. My thanks also go to my colleagues Dr. Mahmud al-Rabi c i, Dr. Muhammad Siraj, Dr. Firyal Ghazul and Dr. Samiya Mihriz. Special thanks are due to Mrs. Anita Hilmi and Dr. Richard Jacquemond for revising the French and German lists of novels and studies. Especially deserving of our permanent gratitude is the American University in Cairo for undertaking to finance this project and to the stalwart staff of the Academic Computing Center at the university. Leading this list is Dr. Muna Qaddah, who time and again overcame obstacles and indeed was our savior in solving intricate technical problems with our computers. We also want particularly to thank Dr. Qaddah's assistant Ms. Zaynab Fu'ad for her patience and many long hours devoted to implementing the computer technology necessary to enter and print the bibliographical material. Added to the expertise of Ms. Fu'ad is that of her colleague Ms. May cAbd al-Raziq, who was instrumental in solving many technical problems, particularly regarding foreign data. Their expertise enabled us to print our texts in a most satisfactory form. Our sincere thanks also go to Mr. William Kopecki, who typed and printed the bibliography and the indices for the Review Edition, and who in the face of a myriad of obstacles devoted valiant efforts and much time to the project. At the American University in Cairo Press, our grateful appreciation goes to Mr. Mark Linz, director of the Press, who has assisted us with his expertise in many technical matters. For their help over many long years, we offer our sincerest thanks to our research assistants at the American University in Cairo, without whose devoted efforts and diligence this publication would not have seen the light of day. Heading the list of researchers are Dr. Nadia Badran, Mr. William Kopecki, and Mrs. Wafa' Muhammad. My thanks also go to Ms. Pamela Bradley for her assistance in preparing the English translation of the Introduction for printing.

Preface to the Review Edition (1998) It is hoped that this book will be useful to readers, students, researchers, and literary critics of the Arabic novel, and to those who teach Arabic literature as well. Presented in five volumes, this work begins with a critical introduction, dealing with the beginnings of the Arabic novel in Egypt and Greater Syria. In the next sections, there are discussions of many of the most mature and significant novels, selected from a number of Arab lands including Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, the Arabian Peninsula, Sudan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Following this introduction is the bibliography of the Arabic novel from its first appearance in 1865 until 1995. From this relatively long period, some 4,600 novels have been collected and arranged according to alphabetical order in these volumes. Listed in conjunction with each novel are critical studies (to the extent that it was possible to complete them) which have been written about it in Arabic as well as other languages. This last part of the research occupied the greatest effort and time, as well as by far the largest number of pages in the work. Following the alphabetical listing, there is a special section entitled "General Criticism." This part includes studies dealing, in general terms, with the Arabic novel from the standpoint of the critic's specialized interest in a particular literary school or ideological outlook. Studies included may treat a particular trend in the literary product of one author or a number of authors united by a common literary background or purpose.* These studies are divided into two sections, the first of which is entitled "General Criticism about Arab Novelists." The second section bears the title "General Criticism about the Arabic Novel."* With regard to the indices of this work, several lists of novels are provided for the convenience of the researcher. One is a list of novels arranged alphabetically, without critical studies, beside each of which is given the date of its publication and its number in this bibliography, thus enabling the researcher to locate any pertinent information gathered here by referring to the number.

* This procedure has not been followed in the 2000 Edition.

1

2

Preface to the Review Edition (1998)

There is a second chronological list also supplied with index numbers in which the novels are arranged according to the year of their first publication. A third list, also with index numbers given, is based on the geographic origins of the novelists. The list first catalogues the novels produced in Egypt, followed by a listing of each Arab country, in alphabetical order beginning with Jordan ('alif) and ending with Yemen (ya'). Using these two lists, the one chronological and the other geographical, a researcher may conveniently become familiar with the entire production of Arabic novels for any one given year or the total production of Arabic novels in any one Arab country separately. We should like to pointedly remind the reader here that in this bibliography we do not presume, nor are we able to cover, all the Arabic novels ever written, nor the enormous volumes of studies which discuss them. We would even consider it excessively ambitious to assume that we had covered a half or even one-third of the studies which have been written on the Arabic novel. The difficulties which obstruct a more complete coverage are manifold. Suffice it to point out that, for instance, we could hardly cover, on a day-to-day basis, what the Iraqi or the Algerian press writes about a particular author, or about his or her novels. Much less could we hope to cover articles written in Japanese, Chinese, or Korean, which are being published in increasing numbers. Be that as it may, we shall reiterate here once again our previous statements concerning the bibliographies we published on Taha Husayn, alc Aqqad, Haykal, al-Mazim, Shukri, and 'Ahmad 'Amin. Our remarks about those bibliographies just mentioned are essentially what we shall say about this present work. To wit, the serious researcher, equipped with this bibliography cum introduction, will be enabled to pursue literary inquiries with a working methodology based on sound resources of practical scholarship. In addition, he will be spared much time and effort which he would have otherwise spent in gathering essential information simply to begin his research. And as is the case with our earlier bibliographies, we should appreciate the tolerant forbearance of our reader on one further matter. Namely, any reference work of this broad a scope, presenting as it does a vast array of dates and numbers, may incur the odd typographical error here or there, however much time and patience have been devoted to proofreading. Therefore we shall be most grateful to any readers if they should wish to call our attention to such errors as may have escaped our notice. We shall also appreciate being alerted to any important novel or study which may have been

Preface to the Review Edition (1998)

3

overlooked. As this work fortunately has been prepared and printed by computer, corrections and additions may be made straight away. A few other problems arose during the preparation of this bibliography which also deserve mention. It happens that some novels are referred to in daily newspapers or in periodicals for which no indication has been given as to their dates or places of publication. In rare cases, both date and place are missing. Indeed in some instances, it was impossible to determine either the identity or nationality of certain novelists. In such cases, after exhausting all means of finding precise information about them, we were obliged to include such works without any indication of the author's nationality. Fortunately, the number of unidentified authors is very small, as the reader will discover in the indices of the book. Yet another frustration was the unavailability of certain magazines published abroad in which we knew there existed, in one or more of their issues, articles dealing with Arabic novels. We were therefore obliged to list such references in the section devoted to general criticism on the novels, in the eventuality that some researchers may be able to check the source in other libraries or catalogs at some future time. The same predicament arose where books or theses dealing with novels could not be located, despite persistent searching. Notwithstanding these problems, we do hope that the reseacher will realize the effort put forth in the preparation of the bibliography and will benefit from it.

Preface to the 2000 Edition The idea of producing comprehensive bibliographical works for modern Arabic literature began to take shape in the mid-1960s. At that time, I faced frequent difficulties in my own research while writing my doctoral thesis on the Egyptian novel because of the dearth, in Arab and European libraries, of bibliographical materials which could adequately serve the needs of researchers in the field of modern Arabic literature. At the same time, interest in modern Arabic literature was growing apace among scholars and students in European and American universities. This interest, however, was often accompanied by considerable frustration among researchers because of the lack of neccessary resources for a methodical study of the modern period in Arabic literature. In 1967, when I joined the faculty of the American University in Cairo, I became acquainted with the eminent British orientalist Professor Marsden Jones, who was also keenly interested in developing a bibliography in this area. I held the opinion, after my own experience in conducting research in Europe, that the project should proceed along the lines of literary genres: the novel, the drama, and so on. Professor Jones, with whose position I eventually agreed, held that the beginning should be practical and swift-moving: to produce bibliographies of leading writers, proceeding from brief biographical notes about each author to lists of their most significant works. We began, thus, by gathering already existing bibliographical works dealing with modern Arabic literature in Arabic and European languages as well. Among the outstanding works in Arabic we found the following: 1) A compendium of titles of works printed in Arabic and of works translated into Arabic, from the first appearance of the Arabic printing press up to 1926, by Yusuf Sarkls. This consisted of titles of books printed, sometimes accompanied by brief notes about the authors' lives. 2) An M.A. thesis by Dr. c A'ida Nusayr, which took up where Yusuf Sarkis left off. She provided a list of Arabic books printed in Egypt from 1926 to 1940. 3) al-Fihris al-tahlili: (The Analytical Index) of Father ' Anawati, which presents in brief a catalog of Arabic works published between 1942 and 1944. 4

Preface to the 2000 Edition

5

4) al-Sijill al-thaqafi (The Cultural Register) published in 1948, which in fact continued publication until it was replaced by al-Nashra al-misnya HImatbucat (The Egyptian Bulletin of Printed Works) put out by Dar alKutub. The latter covered books printed from 1956 onwards and still appears under that title regularly to this day. 5) The list published by Dr. cAbd al-Muhsin Badr on the Arabic novel in Egypt from 1870 to 1938. 6)The list published by Dr. Sayyid al-Nassaj on the Egyptian short story from its first appearance until 1960. 7) The list compiled by Dr. Sabri Hafiz of Egyptian novels from 1867 to 1969. In spite of the fact that some of these lists and catalogs are lacking in precise information here and there, they have nonetheless proven to be useful tools of research, in that they helped, on the whole, to establish dates of first editions of numerous books. They have not, however, added much information of note with regard to biographical background which we needed for the project, or particular bibliographical data for any author. Khayr al-Din al-Zirikli and Yusuf 'Ascad Daghir also contributed to the advance of modern Arabic literary bibliography. Al-Zirikli published his 'Aclam (Eminent Men of Letters) which contained short bibliographical notes and listed important works for each author. Daghir, in his Masadir aldirasa al- 'adablya (Sources for Literary Studies) generally furnished more precise biographical profiles for the authors he introduced than al-Zirikli. He also sought to give as a complete a list as possible of their published books. Daghir provides, in addition, some of the critical articles written about certain books and authors. Daghir did, however, limit his compilation to authors who were deceased, and omitted mention of works written in European languages about modern Arabic literature. In certain European languages, however, the situation of modern Arabic literary bibliographies was considerably better than that which obtained in Arabic. There existed the excellent Index Islamicus compiled by the British orientalist J.D. Pearson who catalogued all that had been written on Arab and Islamic civilization in the most important European and American cultural journals (and indeed sometimes in Asian and African journals). Pearson compiled and edited the Index from 1906 until 1980. (Wolfgang Behn worked with Pearson on the 1976-1980 Index.) It continues to be published to this day, under the direction of G.J. Roper and C.H. Bleaney at Cambridge University. The Index comprises one part on classical Arabic litera-

6

Preface to the 2000 Edition

ture and another on modern Arabic literature, in which the researcher may find listed articles written in English, French, German, and other European languages, set down in detail. Pearson also compiled Index Islamicus, 1665-1905, published in 1989. Before the publication of the first edition of this valuable Index, the French orientalist Henri Peres brought out in Les Annales du centre des etudes orientales of 1937 a list of Arabic novels and collections of short stories which had either been adapted (with alterations to conform with the Arab cultural setting) or translations from the French. He also provides a list of books and articles in European languages until the year 1937. Alongside these aforementioned reference works stands the monumental biographical and bibliographical compendium of the great German orientalist Karl Brocklemann, Die Geschichte der arabischen Literatur. This work covers Arabic literature in all of its periods from its earliest beginnings through the late 1930s. For each author he provides concise (in some instances modestly expanded) biographical notes, followed by a list of the writer's works and of books and articles about him or her. The reader will realize that the list does not include all the Arabic sources. Two noteworthy slender volumes also appeared. The first was published in 1927 by the Russian orientalist Ignatii Krachkovskii (1883-1951) entitled Die Literatur der arabische Emigranten in Amerika (1895-1915). It consists of selections from modern Arabic literature by nineteen authors from the Arab east and Arab emigre writers in the Americas. He includes excerpts from al-cAqqad, Mikha'il Nucaymi, and al-Manfaluti, among others. The second volume, Leaders in Contemporary Arabic Literature: A Book of Reference, was published in 1930 by Tahir Khemiri and the German orientalist Georg Kampffmeyer (1864-1936), presenting thirteen authors of the Arab east and the Arab communities in the Americas. They include Taha Husayn, al-cAqqad, Jibran, and others. In spite of the obvious limitations of these two small tomes, which deal with publications up to 1925 and 1927 respectively, they are both significant in that they represent fresh approaches to the authors selected at this early date. They also deal with a number of outstanding pioneers of the modernizing movements of their time. Aware of the abundant merits of these works and their particular usefulness, we benefited amply from their positive features, while also recognizing their shortcomings. Thus equipped, we commenced our bio-bibliographical pro-

Preface to the 2000 Edition

7

ject with studies of the most prominent leaders in modern Arabic literature in Egypt. We selected more than a hundred leading writers. We then proceeded to gather the appropriate periodicals which would shed light on our research and found also a hundred or more such journals. We assigned the larger part of our research team to the task of going through these periodicals and noting down anything written by or about these eminent men of letters. We next appointed a smaller contingent of research assistants to survey the great libraries of Cairo and to record names of any books written by these authors or any book or portions of books dealing with them. We then undertook to review the materials brought back to us by our research assistants and to arrange our findings into appropriate categories. Our work progressed in this fashion for a period of two years during which a prodigious number of titles was collected. We accordingly published our first volume in a series which we entitled 'Aclam al- 'adab al-mucasir fi Misr (Eminent Writers of Modern Literature in Egypt) as part of a critical and bio-bibliographical series. The first volume on Taha Husayn appeared in 1975. Then followed similar works in succession about 'Ibrahim al-Mazini, c Abd al-Rahman Shukri, 'Ahmad 'Amin, and c Abbas al-cAqqad in two volumes. Likewise, we published a bibliography of Salah cAbd al-Sabbur which came out shortly after his death in the periodical Fusul (Seasons) in October 1981. Next a Bibliography of Yusuf 'Idris, 1929-1991 was published by Hay'at al-Kitab upon his death. Earlier on, a Bibliography of Najib Mahfuz was issued in serial fashion in the magazine al-Jadid (The New), directed by the distinguished critic Dr. Rashad Rushdi for a time until publication ceased for political reasons which are outside the scope of this work. The Bibliography of Dr. Muhammad Husayn Haykal and The Bibliography of Tawfiq al-Hakim were both published by the Supreme Council for Culture, each in a review edition of two separate volumes. After the publication of the Bibliography of 'Ahmad 'Amin in 1981, Prof. Jones became occupied with numerous administrative responsibilities until his death in 1992. Continuing our project, I directed the publication of the two volumes on al-cAqqad. Then, together with our small team of research assistants, I set about to update the materials gathered on other authors. At this juncture, the idea of a bibliography based on literary genres began to appeal to me again, and I became increasingly enthusiastic about the prospect that it would be possible to group together in one bibliography of four or five genres all the titles which had been gathered for the sake of

8

Preface to the 2000 Edition

the series on the 'eminent men of letters.' Given the fact that the overwhelming majority of these literary figures were novelists, short story writers, poets, playwrights, and critics, the materials which had been accumulated would appropriately fit into the new inclusive project. Thus we began planning for the Bibliography of the Arabic Novel. We agreed that this time the bibliography should be expanded to encompass works from the entire Arab world. In the first stage, we commenced by drawing information on novels from the vast mass of bibliographical data we had been accumulating over some twenty years. We then consulted bibliographical and critical sources, in both Arabic and foreign languages, dealing with Arabic novels according to the country in which they were published. Such bibliographical works, it should be pointed out, had been increasing in number for modern Arabic literature at an unprecedented rate, ever since the 1980s. Among the most important works of this type are the following: 1. Najm, Muhammad Yusuf, Faharis al-'adab al-carabi al-hadith, (Indices of Modern Arabic Literature), al-Qissa (The Novel) to the end of 1962. Beirut, al- 'Abhath (Studies), Part 1, 1963. 2. Mansur, 'Ahmad Muhammad, Da/77 al-matbu°at (Guide to Published Works, 1940-1956), Cairo, The American University in Cairo Press, 1975. 3. al-Hawwari, 'Ahmad Muhammad, Masadirnaqdal-riwaya fial-'adab al-carabi al-hadith fiMisr, Cairo, Dar al-Macarif, 1970. 4. Hafiz, Sabrl, Bibliyughrafya al-riwaya al-misnya 1970-1980 (Bibliography of the Egyptian Novel, 1970-1980), Fusul (Chapters) January/Feburary/March 1982. 5. Shalash, cAli, Nash 'at al-naqd al-riwa'i fi al- 'adab al-carabi al-hadith, Cairo, Maktabat Gharib, 1992. 6. Yusuf, Shawqi Badr, Bibliyughrafya al-riwaya fi 'iqlim gharb wa wast al-Dilta(A Bibliography of the Novel in the West and Central Delta), Cairo, al-Hay'a al-cAmma li-Qusur al-Thaqafa, 1994. 7. Bibliyughrafya al-riwaya al-maghriblya, al-Maktab al-Markazi liIttihad Kuttab al-Maghrib. In addition to these sources, we made use of some thirty lists of novels, each list covering one Arab country (and sometimes two or three lists covering the same country), which were included in books dealing with the novel in that particular country. We are indebted also to Issa J. Boullata, who edited The Arabic Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews, and Bibliography (1992), volume five in the Mundus Arabicus series.

Preface to the 2000 Edition

9

As we mentioned in the preface to the Review Edition, which covered a variety of issues and clarifications and will not be repeated here, this work begins with a critical introduction that recounts the emergence of the Arabic novel in general in both Greater Syria and Egypt. It then proceeds to a treatment of the more mature novels in these two areas, which now consist of five countries, namely Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Jordan. Moving further into the Arab lands, our discussions of the novel include Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen (representing the Arabian Peninsula), as well as the Sudan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. I wish to express my special gratitude to my friend, Roger Monroe, for his translation of the critical introduction. This is a service to those readers who know English but may lack a comfortable reading knowledge of Arabic. Also, for the benefit of our foreign readers, we have supplied a list of all the novels which have been translated from Arabic into English. This list was compiled by my student, friend, and research assistant William Kopecki. Following the introduction in Arabic and in translation is the bibliography of the novel. First, there is a list of all the novels we were able to collect, arranged alphabetically. After each novel we have given all the published critical articles, reviews, and studies concerning it, in Arabic and in foreign languages. A further section is entitled "General Criticism," which primarily contains general information about the authors and their works. It also contains press interviews, articles, and books which we have not been able to study for various reasons. In this section, we list Arabic sources and then foreign sources, a procedure we have followed in other volumes of this work. Next come the indices. The first is a list of the Arabic novelists, presented in alphabetical order with their nationalities and their dates of birth (and death if no longer living) wherever it was possible to ascertain them. Unfortunately, this often proved impossible. Under the name of the novelist are the novels he or she has written, listed alphabetically, with the date of the first publication and the identification number we have given to each by which the reader may obtain all the bibliographical materials pertaining to that particular novel. After the index of novelists comes an index of novels, arranged in alphabetical order. Each novel is listed with the identification number assigned to it in the bibliography so that the reader can find it quickly in the main body of the work. Next is an index of the novels arranged chronologi-

10

Preface to the 2000 Edition

cally based on the year of their first publication and including all the Arab novels published in the same year. Then comes a geographical index, arranging novels according to the country in which they were produced. Egyptian novels, in alphabetical order, are given first. They are followed by the novels produced in other Arab lands, arranged in alphabetical order, starting with Jordan (al-'Urdunn beginning with the letter 'alif) and ending with Yemen. The last section of this work consists of a list of the Arabic and foreign sources that were consulted. The reader will note that novellas are included in the bibliography of the novel. The reason for this is purely practical. In our researches for the Bibliography of the Arabic Novel we had also gathered the necessary information for the novella. At the same time, it appeared difficult for us to single out all the short novels for presentation in a separate volume. We therefore thought it more expeditious for our readers to hasten the printing of the bibliography of the novella as well, rather than delay their publication. Readers will also find that novels published in 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 appear in our bibliography although the year declared in our title sets the limit of our work as 1995. It so happened that after we produced our review edition, we received notice from many authors of a great number of novels and studies published after 1995. Upon reflection, we decided that it would be useful to the reader to include these novels and studies rather than to omit them. May it also be said that these novels and studies represent only what their authors were kind enough to send us. It will also be noticed that the date and/or place of publication of a novel is sometimes missing. This is because often the sources from which we have drawn our information did not mention the details of publication. It happened, for example, that an Iraqi or Syrian or Egyptian periodical might furnish a great number of detailed analyses and evaluations of a particular novel but omit the details of date and place of printing. At other times, in response to our requests, some authors sent us lists of their novels and pertinent studies about them. A number of those authors, however, occasionally did not send the details of publication, as for instance Ed war al-Kharrat, Emily Nasrallah, Sulayman Nabil and others. In such instances, after examining the sources we had at hand to no avail, we were obliged to list works without dates or places of publication.

Preface to the 2000 Edition

11

The reader will notice also that the titles of novels which consist of numbers such as 7952 by Jamil cAtiya 'Ibrahim or 17th Ramadan by Jurji Zaydan have been printed out in letters rather than digits. For example, 1952 has been printed as One Thousand Nine Hundred and Fifty-two and 17th Ramadan is printed as The Seventeenth of Ramadan. The reason for the change is that the serial number of the novel printed immediately after the digits of numbers in the title would have caused problems for the computer.

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel Preliminary Remarks The aim of this introduction is to trace the growth and development of the Arabic novel in each of the various Arab lands in turn, from the earliest emergence of this genre until the present. It typically happens that the majority of Egyptian readers are well-acquainted with, or at least have some general notions about, Egyptian novels, while they may remain quite unaware about the situation of the novel in Libya or Algeria, or even in Lebanon. The same, more or less, may be said of most Arab readers in any other Arab country. Hence, the following broad survey—while concise and general—is provided as a supplement to the bibliography of the novel. It is intended to acquaint Arab learners with the most important novelists and their works in the different regions of the Arab world. It is also intended to guide nonArab readers right to the heart and soul of the Arabic novel and to give them their bearings so they can locate works which interest them. As the earliest Arabic novels first emerged in Egypt and Greater Syria, a brief account of the initial stages of the novel will deal with authors and their works only from these two geographical areas. Next will follow discussions of the most mature novels from all across the Arab world, starting with Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, the Arabian Peninsula, the Sudan, and then concluding with Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Several issues require clarification right from the outset. First, in conformity with the rubric 'the Arabic novel,' the introduction will encompass only novels written originally in Arabic. Works authored by Arab novelists in other languages, whether in French as in North Africa, or novels written by Lebanese or Egyptians in European languages, do not fit into the scope of this bibliography. Secondly, this introduction will discuss, in brief, works of authors already well known to most Arab readers, especially here in Egypt, in accordance with the nature of a comprehensive survey. Hence, the works of novelists such as Haykal, al-Mazini, Taha Husayn, al-Hakim, Najlb Mahfuz, M. cAbd al-Halim cAbdallah, Yusuf al-Sibaci, 'Disan cAbd al-Quddus, Yusuf 'Idris, Fathi Ghanim, and Tharwat cAbaza will not be dealt with in 12

The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel

13

any special detail. Exceptionally, particular attention will be given to a few authors, in the case of various important features or information previously unknown to the majority of readers. Also, there are a number of truly distinguished novelists outside Egypt whose works have not enjoyed sufficient attention from critics, or the degree of recognition which they rightly deserve in Egypt. The works of such authors as cAbd al-Hamid bin Hadduqa, 'Ibrahim al-Kuni, cAbd al-Rahman Munif, Fu'ad al-Takarli, al-Tahir Wattar and others will therefore be accorded ample discussion. The third point to be emphasized is that this introduction usually follows the generally accepted evaluations of novels as established by their popularity with readers and the judgment of scholars. There are, however, many instances where this study will diverge from the generally held consensus. As to the fourth point, this study covers novelists up through what is called in Egypt "the generation of the 1960s," because they began writing in the 1960s. In fact, however, although some of these authors produced fine novels in that decade, the majority wrote their most striking works in the seventies, the eighties, and even into the nineties. Outside Egypt, we have included only those novelists of the sixties and beyond, whose works, because of their intrinsic brilliance, have captured the attention of scholars and critics all across the Arab world. These authors include, in particular, Ghassan Kanafani, 'Ibrahim al-Kuni and al-Tahir Wattar, among others. We have also restricted our study to the most widespread literary trends and currents. Therefore, the less prevalent trends such as science fiction, feminist literature, or the novels of the contemporary experimentalists such as Edwar al-Kharrat and 'Diyas Khun, are beyond the scope of this introduction. In the bibliography, there are numerous references in Arabic and other languages for those researchers who wish to study these trends and the novelists who represent them.

The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel Literary critics have differed, over the years, as to how the modern Arabic novel first came into being. Some maintain that Arabs have written novelistic narrative literature since very early times. They cite the epic folk romances of cAntara and of Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan, the Hilali cycles of chivalric romance, The Thousand and One Nights, al-Macarri's Epistle of Forgive-

14

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ness, Ibn Tufayl's philosophical romance Hayy ibn Yaqzan (Alive Son of Awake), and a host of other works. Another group of scholars are of the opinion that the modern novel is a new literary form imported from the West in the second half of the nineteenth century. The truth of the matter is that the roots of narrative literature, as known in tales, myths, and epic romances, have existed very early in every society—Arab, European, Asian, and African. When the novel is discussed in international literary circles, English and French critics tend to agree that the novel began in the early decades of the nineteenth century. The Arabs did not write this kind of literature until the late nineteenth century in Egypt and Greater Syria, to be exact. Indeed, until the early years of the nineteenth century and for several centuries earlier, literature was represented largely by unimaginative, imitative poetry lacking vitality and color, although delighting in lexical virtuosity and flights of verbal fancy. Then entered modern education, brought into Egypt under the guidance of Muhammad CAli Pasha (1805-1848) and into Greater Syria through the schools of the Christian missions. Lebanon had already for long centuries known strong cultural ties with the West, especially with Rome and France. Contacts with the West were strengthened and consolidated in the nineteenth century with the arrival of the American Presbyterians, who in 1866 founded what is now the American University of Beirut. One result of modern education was the emergence of a new reading public who, with renaissance zeal, applied themselves to reading European literatures directly in the original languages or else in Arabic translations. The new readers were turning away from the official literature which was expressed in the formalistic, lackluster poetry already mentioned. They also turned away from the traditional folk literature which no longer satisfied them, as represented by the chivalric romances of cAntara, the Banu Hilal, and Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan, among many others. Yet it should be noted that this time-honored folk literature persisted in keeping a lively hold on the minds of ordinary people, as indeed it also continued to command a good measure of thoughtful appreciation among the educated. The rule of Khedive 'Ismacil (1863-1879) ushered in a golden age of cultural enrichment with the flowering of literary translations. Muhammad c Ali's interest in translation had concentrated almost entirely on scientific works and textbooks for schools, to the extent that only one literary work was translated under his rule, Sacadi's Gulistan from the Persian. Under

The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel

15

'Ismacil, Egyptian translators now directed their efforts to literary works, largely casting aside their earlier principal role as translators of scientific and educational materials. During this same period they were joined by cultured Syrian and Lebanese emigres. Rifaca al-Tahtawi (1801-1873) translated Fenelon's novel Telemaque giving it a title set in saj c (rhyming prose) in keeping with the prevailing tastes of the time, Mawaqic al-'aflak fi waqa'ic Tilimak (The Orbits of the Celestial Spheres Relating to the Exploits of Telemaque), Beirut, 1867. Muhammad cUthman Jalal (1829-1898), Rifaca's pupil, translated Paul et Virginie of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre under the title, also in rhyming prose, al- 'Amani wa al-minna fi hadith Qabul wa Wardajinna (Aspirations and Gracious Gifts concerning the Story of Qabul and Virginia), 1872. Bishara Shadid translated The Count of Monte Cristo of Alexandre Dumas Pere (1871), while Yusuf Sarkis translated Jules Verne's Cinq Semaines en Ballon (1875), and so on it went. Thanks to the eager reception of such translated works by an appreciative reading public, the translation movement flourished. Already by the first decades of the twentieth century, scores of novels had been translated, usually from the French but occasionally also from the English. In most instances, the novels translated were of minor value. The majority were love stories, historical and oriental tales, science fiction, and detective stories. In translation, the stories were often rearranged and even distorted. Sometimes translators would pass their translated products off for publication under their own names. At other times quite the opposite occurred. Some writers published their own works under the names of Western writers in the hope of attracting more readers. The language used in the translations was either in sajc (rhyming prose) and thus rather contrived and artificial, or else in colloquial Arabic. But with the passing of time and the spread of the non-governmental press, from the 1870s onward, the language of translation developed into a clear and simple prose medium.1 Despite the shortcomings of the translators already mentioned during this stage, to them belongs the main credit for presenting to Arab readers the new literary genres, among which was the novel. The reactions of the reading public to the modern literary forms and to the ideas and opinions that were thus imported from abroad differed greatly. Some regarded these Western influences as a cultural invasion to be fought against tooth and nail. They advocated the use of indigenous heritage and culture. Others considered the cultural forms and ideas arriving from over-

16

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

seas as part of a universal civilization which all societies would sooner or later embrace. It would, therefore, be best to adopt them without losing further time or effort in the task of revitalizing a heritage which was otherwise suitable only in the past. Fortunately, the partisans of these two attitudes were in a minority. The large majority of cultured people were receptive to the guidance of such enlightened thinkers as 'Imam Muhammad cAbduh (1849-1905). They believed that intellect and common sense prescribed using whatever cultural resources would strengthen Arab society, whether from Western civilization or the classical Arab heritage. These varied reactions to Western culture may perhaps explain why some writers and thinkers, observing the enormous popularity of the translated novels, advocated a staunch refusal of Western influence altogether. Both Fathi Zaghlul (d. 1914) and Father Luwls Shaykhu (1859-1927) called for resistance against westernizing. Shaykhu maintained that ninety percent of books published were simply translations of frivolous and immoral trash concentrating on love. Other conservative intellectuals strove to revive the maqama (a classical genre of elegant, highly stylized Arabic prose). Foremost among this group was al-Muwaylihi (1859-1930), who first published Hadith clsa ibn Hisham in serialized form between 1898 and 1902, and subsequently had it printed in one volume in 1907. Also in the style of the maqama Hafiz 'Ibrahim (1868-1932) wrote Layali Satih (Nights of Satih) in 1906. Sharing this outlook, Muhammad Lutfi Jumca published his Layali al-ruh alha'ir (Nights of the Perplexed Soul) in 1912. A third group blazed the trail in writing novels in the Western form directly. Shaykh Muhammad cAbduh, already as early as 1871, had called attention to the salutary influence which good novels could provide for readers. Undoubtedly, this positive vision of the potential of the novel helped to encourage al-Manfalutl (1876-1924) as well as his immediate precursors and contemporaries to adopt the Western novel form outright. They believed that the novel could serve educational, moral, and social purposes, while also providing a grounding in history. Their intention was to avoid the stigma of those superficial writings which were meant principally for entertainment.2 Among the eminent writers of this group were cAli Mubarak (1823-1893), who published his cAlam al-din in 1882; the illustrious poet 'Ahmad Shawql (1870-1932), who authored a number of historical novels; al-Manfalutl (1876-1924), who wrote with a moral and ethi-

The Novel in Egypt Egypt

17

cal mission; and Husayn Haykal (1886-1956), who emphasized social reform and whose novel Zaynab came out in 1913. In the Levant, such writers as the Syrian Fransis Marrash (1836-1873) and the Lebanese Salim al-Bustani (1847-1884) were pioneers in the Arabic prose renaissance. Wholeheartedly and without reservation, they adopted the Western novel form. In 1865, Fransis Marrash wrote Ghabat al-haqq (The Forest of Truth), probably the very first Arabic novel ever published. Salim al-Bustani produced a series of novels in his magazine al-Jinan (Gardens). His first novel al-Huyam fi jinan al-Sham (Passionate Love in the Gardens of Damascus) appeared in serialized episodes in 1870, followed by Zanubiya in 1871, and Budur in 1872. In all, a total of nine novels by Salim al-Bustani were printed in al-Jinan in the ensuing years (consult the bibliography). The most outstanding Lebanese novelist of this early period was the prolific Jurjl Zaydan (1861-1914). His more than twenty historical novels outshone in literary merit the works of Salim al-Bustani and his fellow writers. They also were distinctly superior, at least in the way they were presented, to most of the translated historical romances which were being serialized in periodicals during the same years as Zaydan's novels. In many of these romances the non-historical parts rely for popular appeal on fastmoving incidents, surprises, coincidences, adventures, love, and murder, all amid a remarkable array of gripping events. His delineations of character, however, by and large lack individuality and depth. Some novels, nonetheless, for example The Ottoman Revolution (1911), do succeed in depicting numerous situations in a more mature realism, as they also abound in deftly sketched psychological cameo portraits, allowing insightful glimpses of moving human drama.3

The Novel in Egypt Zaynab and the Pioneering Generation Some literary critics claim that Muhammad al-Muwaylihl's Hadith cisa ibn Hisham constitutes the real beginning of the Arabic novel. Others assert that the Arabic novel really began with Mahmud Haqqi's cAdhra' Dinshaway(The Virgin of Dinshaway). Most critics however, are of the opinion, and rightly so, that the date of the first true novel, Egyptian or Arabic,

18

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

in the precise definition of this genre, is 1913 when Muhammad Husayn Haykal's Zaynab came off the press. Al-Muwaylihi's Hadith clsa ibn Hisham, by contrast, cannot in fact be considered as a novel nor was it actually intended to be one. In the assessment of Roger Allen, "If the work is to be considered a novel, then by any yardstick, it is a very bad one."4 Indeed there is no scope here for serious discussion either of characterization or artistic structure, which are basic requirements in any novelistic work. As for Muhammad Haqqi's The Virgin of Dinshaway it is actually not fiction nor technically a true novel. It is rather a journalistic reportage and can best be classified an historical account, as the late Yahya Haqqi described it. Indeed it bore no retouching or reworking of the Dinshaway incident which occurred one month before the publication of the work. Zaynab, on the other hand, in the words of H.A.R. Gibb, "broke away decisively in language, style, subject, and treatment from anything that had gone before." Its faults, he goes on to say, are of "little importance compared with the fact that the effort was made, and that a new, and in its setting, original kind of literary production was added to Arabic literature."5 The scope of this survey does not allow for a discussion of Zaynab or other Egyptian novels in detail. Suffice it to point out here, however, that Haykal was much more successful than his predecessors, when he based his novel on events in his own life. He thus infuses the narrative with a realism which is usually in short supply in the novels of his contemporaries. In choosing the Egyptian village as the scene for the unfolding of his plot and Egyptian villagers as his cast of characters, the author, a villager himself, was able to convey an especially lifelike authenticity to the work. He had himself lived the various aspects of country life, the customs, the values, and the traditions that he criticized and was emotionally involved in from immediate experience. By drawing on the village life he had lived, Haykal conferred on this work a convincing originality not present in earlier novels. When Zaynab was republished in 1929, Haykal had become a wellknown author and a respected political leader. The novel was then greeted enthusiastically. In the same year, it was adapted for cinema and made into a motion picture. Haykal's fellow authors now woke up to the fact that they too might achieve similar success, if they wrote novels drawing on experiences and happenings based on their lives. Autobiographically inspired novels began to flourish in these times. Interestingly, al-Mazim's 'Ibrahim al-katib

The Novel in Egypt

19

('Ibrahim the Writer) appeared in 1931, only two years after the reprinting of Zaynab. Two years later Tawfiq al-Hakim's cAwdat al-ruh (Return of the Spirit) was published in 1933, to be followed by his Yawmiyat na'ib fi al'aryaf, (Diary of a Country Prosecutor) in 1936, c Usfur min al-sharq (A Bird from the East) in 1938, and al-Ribat al-muqaddas (The Sacred Bond) in 1944. cAbbas Mahmud al-cAqqad published Sara in 1938. Taha Husayn's 'Adib (A Man of Letters) first appeared in 1936, whereas his Shajaratal-bu's (The Tree of Misery) came out in 1944. Yahya Haqqi published two novellas, al-Bustaji (The Postman) in 1933, and Qandil 'Umm Hashim (The Lamp of 'Umm Hashim) in 1944. All of these novels are to some degree or another autobiographical. The contributions of these distinguished men of letters in the sphere of Arabic novel writing conferred much added respect to the novel form. Furthermore the continuing flow of novels which they were bringing out, together with the novels of other writers such as Mahmud Taymur and Mahmud Taha Lashin firmly established the art of novel writing and guaranteed the prestige of this form from the 1930s onward. At the end of this decade in 1939 appeared Najib Mahfuz's first novel cAbath al-'aqdar (The Mockery of the Fates). It is worth highlighting that these authors, in spite of their renown and prolific contributions to other areas of writing, only began producing novels after the success of the second publication of Haykal's Zaynab in 1929. Considering also that most of their novels were, like Zaynab, autobiographical novels, the influence of Zaynab is all the more striking in the development of the Arabic novel at large. It may, therefore, more correctly be said that the real birth of the Arabic novel is in 1929, namely when Zaynab underwent a second printing. This means that the Arabic novel is hardly seventy years old. By contrast, the European novel has existed for more than four times as long. The first publication of Zaynab did not enjoy the same degree of success, inasmuch as the author was not well known at that time and was not even twenty-five years old. Also because of World War I and the declaration of the protectorate over Egypt by the British, many newspapers, including al-Jarida, which published Zaynab, were closed down. During the lapse of time between the first and second printings of Zaynab, no particular novels worthy of mention appeared except for one moderately good novel, Ibnat almamluk (The Mameluke's Daughter) by Muhammad Farid 'Abi Hadid in

20

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

1926, which may be considered the first Egyptian historical novel genuinely deserving attention. A further point should be set straight. It must be recorded that Zaynab was indeed first published in 1913 and not in 1914, even though Haykal himself gave the date 1914 which was later taken up by most critics. The Egyptian critic Zaki Kuhin wrote an excellent article about Zaynab in alJarida on September 2, 1913, as well as a second article in al-Bayan on October 2, 1913. Perhaps it was this al-Bayan article which led some academics to believe that the novel was published in 1912, since the article was contained in a volume of collected issues beginning in that year. However, the magazine adopted the Islamic calendar shortly thereafter. The researchers either did not notice this change or failed to realize that the first of the Islamic month, Dhu al-Qacda, 1331, when the article appeared, was the second of October, 1913, as previously stated.

Novelists of the Pioneering Generation Al-Mazini's 'Ibrahim the Writer Al-Mazini (1890-1949) embarked on his career as a novelist with the publication of 'Ibrahim the Writer in 1931. It met with widespread enthusiasm early on, from critics and the reading public alike, and is probably the first novel to depend primarily for its well-recognized fame on its artistic value. Unlike Zaynab, cAlam al-din, or Hadith cISa ibn Hisham, it is not concerned about social issues, nor is it constructed around historical situations, like the novels of Shawqi, Salim al-Bustani, Jurji Zaydan, and other writers of historical fiction. It appears that al-Mazini was loyal to the position which he and his fellow members of the Diwan Group, Shukri and alc Aqqad, adopted—namely to avoid the tradition of composing poetry for political and social occasions. Hence, he avoided writing anything critical of the prevailing social conditions in his novels, with the exception of fleeting references. Indeed, he stands in distinct contrast to practically all of the short story writers of the modern school in the 1920s, who wrote stories full of social criticism. In spite of some artistic weaknesses in the novel, the most salient being a certain disjointedness in the structure, al-Mazini has succeeded in presenting to the reading public, in a convincing manner, a highly cultured Egyptian intellectual for the first time in an Arabic novel. At this level, which is to say in portraying a complex, witty, and refined thinker, al-Mazini has considerably outdistanced his fellow authors of the pioneering generation.

The Novel in Egypt

21

Clearly, Tana Husayn, al-cAqqad, and al-Hakim had not created any personality measuring up to or even approaching this most striking individual, 'Ibrahim, the hero of al-Mazini's novel. Actually, fans of the novel had to wait thirty-odd years until another personality of such caliber came along in Mahfuz's Trilogy. Another feature always crucial in any Arabic novel, which this survey must deal with, is the language used. In 'Ibrahim the Writer the language excels by far that in Zaynab, as Mazim employs clear and powerful Arabic and uses an impressively successful style in presenting mocking, ironic, or satirical episodes. These are characteristic of his writing. Al-Mazini's language can also be at times sublime. The clearest instances of exalted expression are scenes where 'Ibrahim contemplates the ultimate issues of life and existence. In these passages, the reader may feel something of the poetic atmosphere resonant in Mahfuz's novels of the 1960s. Al-Mazini and Mahfuz also concur in the language of their dialogue. Unlike Haykal, al-Mazini and Mahfuz cast the conversational language of their heroes and their companions in simple fusha (formal written Arabic) in most cases. Al-Mazini did not publish any other novels after 'Ibrahim the Writer until 1943, when his four other novels appeared at one go: 'Ibrahim al-thani ('Ibrahim the Second), Thalathat rijal wa imra'a (Three Men and a Woman), c Ud cala al-bad'(Back to the Beginning), and Midu wa shuraka'uhu (Midu and His Associates). The mystery behind the silence of al-Mazini's muse of novel composition seems to lie in the great uproar stirred up by al-Mazini's insertion into 'Ibrahim the Writer of some pages of a Russian novel he had translated.6 The uproar seems to have inhibited him from publishing other novels until the storm had blown over. In this interim period between 1931 and 1943, al-Mazini restricted himself to writing narrative and political articles. Some of these are contained in two of his books, Khuyut al-cankabut (Spider Webs) and Fi al-tariq (On the Road), which appeared in 1935 and 1937 respectively.

Tawfiq al-Hakim's Return of the Spirit The first novel of Tawfiq al-Hakim (1898-1987), cAwdat al-ruh (The Return of the Spirit), appeared in 1933. Both The Return of the Spirit and 'Ahl al-kahf(The Cave Dwellers), his first play (1934), received enthusiastic acclaim which was well deserved.

22

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The critics' glowing evaluations of The Return of the Spirit probably stem from their realization that al-Hakim had in fact advanced the Arabic novel to a higher plane. This novel had by and large gotten rid of certain shortcomings found in the works of both Haykal and al-Mazim. Zaynab suffered from an excessive preoccupation with descriptions of nature, which at times hinder the momentum of the course of action. The characters which do not reflect the authors' lives in Zaynab and 'Ibrahim the Writer fall short of the mark. In both novels, the authors place their own styles of intellectual thinking in the conversations of other characters inappropriately, irrespective of their differing levels of social and educational backgrounds. AlMazini, in 'Ibrahim the Writer, does not present his characters with sufficient individuality. Deficiencies such as these are absent from Tawfiq al-Hakim's The Return of the Spirit, where each of his characters has been given his own independent and distinctive existence. The description of the village which Muhsin visits on a short vacation is executed concisely and vivaciously, even if the impressions are full of Muhsin's romantic enthusiasm about the fallahm. In this novel, as in most of his novels, al-Hakim is sincerely concerned about social conditions and ways to reform outworn attitudes and abusive practices. But in al-Hakim's novels, and especially in Yawmiyat na'ib fi al'aryaf (Diary of a Country Prosecutor) of 1937, these issues are transformed as well into occasions for entertainment and merriment, thanks to the author's quick-wittedness in catching otherwise hidden opportunities which he casts into charming vignettes of irony. In The Return of the Spirit, al-Hakim's sure mastery of the mature techniques of narration become abundantly clear. His narratives flow swiftly, smoothly, and spontaneously, drawing the reader within a few pages in medias res, into the heart of the plot. Al-Hakim also succeeds admirably in his dramatic handling of dialogue, which he utilizes to acquaint the reader with his characters, their physical features, their temperaments, their stations in life, and the standing of each one in the eyes of the others. All the while he develops the moving plot while probing the emotions and attitudes of each actor. In his dialogues, al-Hakim follows the example of Haykal in using Egyptian colloquial Arabic without hesitation. Both he and Haykal managed to consolidate appreciation for using the colloquial in conversation and, in so doing, influenced many other authors of the younger

The Novel in Egypt

23

generation, among whom were cAbd al-Rahman al-Sharqawi and Yusuf 'Idris, in their use of the colloquial in dialogue. On the basis of numerous positive strengths, some of which have already been pointed out, and which surely more than outweigh some minor flaws, The Return of the Spirit, in the opinion of certain British orientalists, can sustain comparison with Western works of class. In the words of Neville Barbour, it is "well up to the standard of literary workmanship in the West. In this respect, it marks a distinct advance in modern Egyptian literature."7 The Return of the Spirit thus constitutes a prominent landmark in the history of the Arabic novel—namely, that the first striking, fully qualified Arabic novel Zaynab, which appeared first in 1913, now had a worthy successor which had gained esteem outside the Arab world. Tawfiq al-Hakim wrote three other novels which deserve mention in this survey. Diary of a Country Prosecutor, published in 1937, which was translated into English in 1944. A French critic who was especially delighted with its sparkling wit and satire remarked that the reader even forgets the idea of social reform, which was what motivated al-Hakim to write it in the first place. He declares that he wished this group of people might remain exactly as they were, just so long as they continued to provide all this wit and spirit of fun.8 Two further excellent novels followed: cUsfur min alsharq (A Bird from the East), appearing in 1938 and also translated into English in 1966; and al-Ribat al-muqaddas (The Sacred Bond), published in 1944 (for details on these translations, see the list of translated works). Tawfiq al-Hakim subsequently gave up his calling as a novelist for the remainder of his life. A unique work, Bank al-qalaq (The Bank of Anxiety), however, defies recognized classification, being what al-Hakim called a masriwaya, a combination of the Arabic words for 'play' and 'novel.'

1944 In 1944, Tawfiq al-Hakim and al-Mazini had ceased to write novels. Taha Husayn had published Duca' al-karuwan (The Call of the Plover) in 1941, and 'Ahlam Shahrazad (The Dreams of Shahrazad) and al-Hubb al-da'ic (Lost Love), both of which were published also in the early forties. In 1944, he wrote Shajarat al-bu's (The Tree of Misery), which was his last novel. Al-cAqqad only wrote one novel Sara in 1938. Muhammad Farid 'Abi Hadid (1893-1967), however, remained the doyen of historical novelwriting, which drew subject material from Arab and Islamic history. In his

24

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

group were CA1I al-Jarim (1881-1949) and Muhammad Sacid al-cIryan (1905-64), who produced novels through the mid-fifties. Muhammad Farid 'Abi al-Hadid's al-Wica' al-marmari (The Marble Cup), published in 1951, stands out as probably the best of this group of historical novels. To return to the year 1944, when the pioneers of the novel (except for the historical novelists) gave up novel-writing, Najib Mahfuz (b. 1911) brought out Kifah Tiba (The Struggle of Thebes). Sayyid Qutb, who was considered then to be the greatest critic of the time and had written reviews of nearly all the significant novels of those decades, wrote his famous book review about The Struggle of Thebes. The degree of excitement and admiration which he expressed in his review of this novel by Mahfuz (whom he did not know) surpassed any praise or apppreciation he ever wrote in his many evaluations of works by other pioneering novelists. From then on followed a succession of novels by Mahfuz: Khan al-Khalili in 1945, alQahira al-jadida (New Cairo) in 1946, and Zuqaq al-Midaqq (Midaq Alley). Perhaps the succession of realistic novels by Mahfuz, which closely followed Sayyid Qutb's above-mentioned article, explains in part why the generation of pioneers left off novel-writing. It was as though they were assured that this new literary form was now in the able hands of Mahfuz and his generation. Therefore they turned their efforts to other types of writing, both critical and literary. The year 1944 holds us in its spell for yet another superb production: the short masterpiece of Yahya Haqqi (1905-1987), Qandil 'Umm Hashim (TheLamp of 'Umm Hashim). This novella, along with al-Hakim's novel A Bird from the East, opened up a new path followed by a good number of Arab novelists who came after Yahya Haqqi and took the theme of his work—the confrontation of cultures—as their own. The Lamp of 'Umm Hashim portrays with remarkable concision the pattern of life in Sayyida Zaynab, the old traditional neighborhood of ordinary folk, contrasting it with the style of European life which 'Ismacil, the novella's main character, comes to know well with his English friend, Mary. For seven years, 'Ismacil lives in England where he studies medicine. At first, after his return to his old neighborhood in Egypt, the values of European civilization have him completely won over. He rebels against the traditional cure of using oil from the lamp of 'Umm Hashim to treat his cousin. 'Ismacil smashes the lamp and arrogantly imposes his medically scientific care. The condition of her eyes worsens. Then gradually his opposition to

The Novel in Egypt

25

the old folk remedies subsides, and his attitude gradually changes as a result of various incidents and spiritual phenomena that come to pass. Thereafter he combines scientific medical treatment with traditional folk cures, symbolizing his heritage and identity. His patient then responds to treatment and behold! her eyes are cured. Still, 1944 merits further attention. In this same year Taha Husayn's last novel, Shajarat al-bu's (The Tree of Misery), was first published. It is distinctive in that it is an autobiographical novel. It deals with the life of an Upper Egyptian family during the middle of the nineteenth century and thus mirrors Taha Husayn's own family life. It is also distinguished in the history of the Arabic novel from another perspective, inasmuch as it is the first novel to cover the lives of three succeeding generations of one family. To the extent that this novel suffers, like the rest of Taha Husayn's novels, from his excessive concern to communicate his ideas to the reader by the shortest of means,9 a certain weakness in structure does ensue from this practice. (This weakness is also found, by the way, in The Call of the Plover, for example, where the reader may feel as though he has come upon two separate plots being enacted in two stories rather than one.) Likewise, there is an absence of coordination between the development of the characters and the long lapse of time which The Tree of Misery takes to treat them artistically. In one instance, this tendency is so pronounced that the life of one young woman, introduced at age fourteen, is followed until she reaches a ripe age of seventy years in one page. To sum up, then, in spite of the foregoing technical criticisms, The Tree of Misery has many strong positive features. First, the author has successfully portrayed with lively artistry the vicissitudes which were occurring in Upper Egyptian society in that era, and their effects on customs, traditions, values, and the social order. Also, in thus bringing to the Arabic reading public a deeply thoughtful generational novel of family life, he has conferred the prestige of his superb rhetoric upon this particular form of the Arabic novel. Indeed, he attracted younger writers to the saga of generations. cAbd al-Hamid Judah al-Sahhar launched into writing his Fi qafilat al-zaman (In the Caravan of Time), published in 1947, and al-Sharic al-jadid (The New Street), which came out in 1952, both of them generationspanning novels. In April 1952, Najib Mahfuz completed his Trilogy, unquestionably the best saga of generations in the Arabic language till now: Bayn al-qasrayn

26

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

(Palace Walk), Qasr al-shawq (Palace of Desire) and Sukkariya (Sugar Street).

Najib Mahfuz In the mid 1940s when the realistic novels of Najib Mahfuz began to appear, one following the other in almost yearly succession, the Arabic novel entered a new era. Gone from the pages of Mahfuz's writings were the flaws which critics had noted in earlier Arab ventures into novel writing, albeit flaws which the best novelists of the pioneers' generation were skillful in avoiding. Missing in Mahfuz's prose were the prolix passages of rambling verbiage—the padding and the disjointedness in narrative structure. There were no drawn out descriptive passages, no intrusive direct personal statements by the author, no long winded digressions. Nor did readers come upon richly overblown descriptions of situations, events, and character portrayals. In Mahfuz's works, the necessary elements of good narrative are set in proper proportion, appearing spontaneously, naturally, straightforwardly. Mastery of the Arabic language allows Mahfuz to pass smoothly and felicitously from the accents of refined poetry to the familiar conversations of lane and alley. With Mahfuz one descends, as it were, into the depths of the human soul. He casts a searchlight into the motives and driving forces of human behavior. He listens to the most intricate psychic resonances in each act and occurrence. How does a person driven to the brink of suicide feel in his final fatal moments? What does a young woman who has previously always lived honestly and respectably feel when she is about to embark on a career of prostitution? What does a pious believer go through when his doubts lead him to atheism? What does the pimp feel as he plies his trade? What truth of ecstatic exaltation awaits the Sufi mystic in his trance during the few seconds in which he leaves this world for what lies beyond? What emotions does a husband endure when he is obliged to quit his home for a couple of hours every week so as to allow his wife undisturbed scope with her lover? What does a person with a long record of success experience when his fondest hopes for a crowning achievement are dashed just as he is within a hand's breadth of reaching them? Into microcosms such as these and into scores of others Najib Mahfuz guides his readers with worldly sophistication, total candor, unique originality, and persuasiveness; Mahfuz's work enables his public to enter the hearts and souls of the individuals he describes. He allows his readers, to an

The Novel in Egypt

27

uncanny degree, to assume the Weltanschauung of his protagonists, to view the world through their eyes and to see how drastic changes take place in the human personality. He provides an inner view of how individuals rejoice, how they panic, what their rage is like, how they grieve. Through probing the human soul thus vicariously comes an enrichment of the reader's private and limited world, as well as a deepening and broadening of his understanding of life and of lives around him. From this perspective, Najib Mahfuz has fulfilled a creative destiny no less than the great writers in England, France, Russia, America, and other lands. Najib Mahfuz has written an impressive number of novels (see the bibliography), some of which are counted among the Arabic classics of this century: Midaq Alley, The Beginning and the End, Palace Walk, Palace of Desire, Sugar Street, al-Liss wa al-kilab (The Thief and the Dogs), alSumman wa al-kharif (Autumn Quail), al-Shahhadh (The Beggar), Tharthara fawq al-NIl (Adrift on the Nile), Miramar (the name of a fictional pension in Alexandria), and Malhamat al-harafish (The Harafish). A brief perusal of these works will reveal that they encompass realistic novels, naturalistic novels, family sagas, novels of the absurd, existentialist novels, and novels of magical realism. In most of these novels, one finds stream of consciousness, accounts told by multiple narrators, and intertextuality. In short, it could be said that Najib Mahfuz's novels constitute an abridged history of the world novel (which evolved over some three centuries) in just three decades. Moreover Najib Mahfuz's novels, which represent various world literary trends and schools of writing, are also on a par with leading writers representing those trends and schools internationally. Being a broad survey, this introduction obviously cannot go into an adequate discussion of the works of any one author. Therefore two novels of Mahfuz will be discussed here, which in the opinion of this writer represent two important stages in Mahfuz's development as a novelist. First The Trilogy, which is undeniably Mahfuz's masterpiece of the 1940s and 1950s, and secondly Adrift on the Nile, which stands out as his best work of the 1960s. The Trilogy In my opinion, The Trilogy is Mahfuz's most important work. Indeed it can be ranked as the most significant work in the history of the Arabic novel. This rich saga brings out in brilliant relief the author's consummate

28

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ability in sustaining his creative energy without slackening throughout more than twelve hundred pages. Each paragraph, indeed each word is so placed with the utmost accuracy to further the plot, to establish the setting and background, and to present the dramatis personae in such a way that the Arab reader would never forget them. Following, as it were, through a broad view lens the lives of 'Ahmad c Abd al-Jawad's family, in-laws, and friends, a detailed, faithful record is captured of life in Cairo during the fateful years between 1917 and 1944. It is a comprehensive, kaleidoscopic series of scenes expressing what Mahfuz wished to convey in his earlier novels. Also present here are prefigurations of Mahfuz's later technical, literary, and intellectual development, which the master novelist was destined to develop in future works. His earlier novels relate instances of political corruption, social injustice, intellectual trends, and political and sectarian movements which prevailed at that time. In the Trilogy he deals with these same themes with greater depth and maturity. He adds here a meticulous aesthetic representation of the social changes gradually taking place over this long span of years. He records the change in the status of women for example, the changing relationship between fathers and sons, the changes in tastes and styles. 'Plumpness plus,' which had been the summum desideratum in feminine beauty in Palace Walk, gradually gave way to a more svelte shapeliness in Sugar Street. From quite another level of society emerges the character of al-gharib (the outsider), who has lost his faith in absolutely everything and sees no meaning in life. He deals with every situation in a mechanical fashion devoid of any enthusiasm. This personality, to an extent, calls to mind certain characters of French existentialist writer Albert Camus (1917-60). This type appears in Mahfuz for the first time in the person of Kamal cAbd al-Jawad in the beginning of his intellectual crisis in Palace of Desire. The personality type of Kamal, or the outsider, develops later to become c lsa al-Dabbagh, for example, in Autumn Quail or cUmar al-Hamzawi in The Beggar or ' Anis Zaki in Adrift on the Nile. Likewise the use of the internal monologue, stream of consciousness, and a strong reliance on dialogue are prominent phenomena in the later novels of Najib Mahfuz which he used frequently and masterfully in The Trilogy. Through his awareness of the effect of time on 'Ahmad cAbd al-Jawad's family and his striking success in creating a concrete, artistic portrayal of time's mischief, Najib Mahfuz has been able to transfer the powerful em-

The Novel in Egypt

29

phasis on the Egyptian locale in this work onto a broader human stage in a literary masterpiece of universal appeal. The effect of time on the family of 'Ahmad cAbd al-Jawad is similar to what happens to any human family in any age or society. The family in Palace Walk was bounding with lively energy, with merriment; they were immersed totally in life and in living. In the last part of Sugar Street, in stark contrast, the family members are enveloped in an atmosphere of fatigue, of hushed silence and of loneliness fraught with symptoms of disease and forebodings of mortality. At the close of the book, the chief characters, varying in degrees of importance, have died. Each generation of cAbd alJawad's family, their in-laws, and acquaintances have suffered time's depredations: cAbd al-Jawad himself, 'Amina, Fahmi, 'Ibrahim, and cA'isha, who has become a living wreck. When the English translation of Palace Walk appeared, the British critic Howard Brenton commented: The Egyptian novelist Najib Mahfuz, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1988, comes as something of a shock to read. The shock is not because of the content of his novels, although they sing of all the twentieth-century themes — Nor are Mahfuz's novels shocking because they are sensationalist, although he can write with blistering heat about love and desire and with Zolaesque intensity about human degradation . . .. The shock is that Mahfuz does not seem to have heard of the sin of readability. With European and North American fiction becoming increasingly hysterical, out-of-sorts with real stories ... it is a delight to read Mahfuz's diamond clear storytelling. It is the clarity that shocks. It makes many of our 'post-modern' novels, convoluted with guilt at even trying to write a story, look decadent and—well, plain stupid. His narratives are modern, subtle, at times anguished, but written with a faith that the most complex behaviour and the most secret machinations of the psyche can be described in the simplest of prose. If something is true, however difficult, good writing can make it understood by anyone who can read. According to the article in The Literary Review, Brenton had proudly displayed other novels by Najib Mahfuz—Autumn Quail, The Beggar, and 'Afrah al-qubba (Wedding Song)—on a shelf among the works of Flaubert and Proust. He ended his conversation by stating, '"Who is the greatest

30

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

living novelist' may be a dubious literary game, but if we were to play it, Najib Mahfuz would get my vote."10

"What kind of monster is this?" Although the scope of this introduction does not allow for a further discussion of The Trilogy, one episode about the circumstances attending the publication of that remarkable work deserves telling. It took Mahfuz two years to find a publisher willing to present his magnum opus to the public. Mahfuz relates that he had completed The Trilogy in April 1952, and later had happily delivered the work to the publisher Sacid al-Sahhar in one volume entitled Bayn al-qasrayn (Palace Walk). His satisfaction must have been mingled with relief, for at last he had finished the chef d'oeuvre which would become a classic of modern world literature. (See the article and studies in the bibliography, those written in French and English.11) The publisher, however, upon seeing the extensive manuscript, immediately exclaimed, "What kind of a monster is this?" and categorically refused to print it. Mahfuz was naturally distressed until he was assured later by the genial and magnanimous writer Yusuf al-Sibaci that the novel could be presented in serialized installments in a magazine the government was planning to put out. Thus the great work began to be published—two years after it was completed—in the periodical al-Risala al-jadida in April 1954. Installments appeared regularly until April 1956, when what is now known as the first volume was completed. Meanwhile, of course, the publisher Sacid al-Sahhar recognized the success of the novel and this time approached Mahfuz. He offered to publish the work and suggested that it be printed in three volumes.12 Mahfuz complied and assigned the title Bayn al-qasrayn for the first volume only. He chose Qasr al-shawq, and al-Sukkariya for the titles of the other two volumes.

Adrift on the Nile Most probably Adrift on the Nile and Harafish are Mahfuz's best works after The Trilogy. Although both books are of superb merit, in line with the brevity required by this survey, one of the two, Adrift on the Nile will be discussed here. In this most engaging novel, Mahfuz's full mastery of narrative is revealed. He uses the artistic devices of his craft with such ease, simplicity, and natural flow that the uninitiated might just imagine themselves capable of achieving a similar style. It is, needless to say, a refined maturity of

The Novel in Egypt

31

talent which has enabled Mahfuz to shape and manipulate the master's tricks at this level. He employs these techniques deftly and smoothly, so that the events of the narrative seem spontaneous and uncontrived. For example, the hero and his companions indulge in hashish smoking as a part of their daily program on the houseboat. 'Anis's penetrating, intellectual flights of the mind are made to seem natural as though they were the cerebral flashes of a hashish smoker on a high. The leading characters are presented to the reader just as they are introduced to the guests who arrive on the houseboat, one after the other at infrequent intervals. As soon as a new guest arrives, the main characters are again presented to the newcomer with additional information supplied about each one. They are also brought into a broader and more complete characterization in the preliminary sketches for a play which the serious-minded woman journalist (who is the one most important guest on the houseboat) is intending to construct centering around the houseboat regulars. The guests are also presented through 'Anis's reflections on their behavior and their guests' conversations with one another. Political issues and comments on literary works are hashed over in situations befitting or imposing such topics. The language which 'Anis uses to express his profound ideas is always infused with feelings of perplexity, sadness, despair, and frustration; his style often approaches the rhetoric of elevated poetry. Strictly translated from the Arabic, the title of the novel is Chitchat over the Nile and not Adrift on the Nile, indicating that the author wished to suggest that he is dealing not with a limited, local predicament, but with the plight of humanity at large. The conversations are therefore not localized to one place on the Nile, but indeed extend over and beyond the length and breadth of the Nile. The main issue which the novel dramatizes, and which escapes the grasp of numerous readers and critics as well, is the situation of man in the universe and his bewilderment as he confronts its mysteries, especially the questions concerning the tragedy of his death and the riddle of his existence. These are the concerns which obsess the minds of the chief protagonists of the novel, who have become strangers, alienated in the philosophical definition of the term. Life has lost its meaning for them. They see nothing in life worth caring about. They escape to the houseboat which belongs to one of their group to share and forget for a while these intellectual anxieties which rob them of their sleep at night. Before the thoroughly earnest journalist arrives at the houseboat, various regulars of the group discuss whether it would be right to accept her. 'Anis

32

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

asks whether she has been informed that death is what brings them together. While they are debating the techniques of playwriting in Egypt, Samara suggests that her play will revolve around characters who are uncommitted (i.e., philosophically not caring about life), of the likes of 'Anis and his companions. Whereupon one of the coterie pipes up, "Such people also have their technical problems. They live without belief. They spend all their time in the realm of the absurd, in order to forget they shall soon be turned to dust, bones, iron filings, azote, nitrogen, and water." Thus they find refuge on the houseboat and in hashish. They escape from their intellectual anxieties. As for the ordinary human concerns, like marriage, having a job, and politics, their enthusiasm could not be roused for such cares, as they have become outsiders and estranged. Rather, they believe that people rack their minds over these inconsequential matters so as to avoid facing the real problems. One day the general manager summons 'Anis to his office. It seems that, while high on hashish, 'Anis had written out a report without noticing that he had run out of ink after the first line. The director asked him haughtily and contemptuously how on earth he could have written a report with a pen that has run out of ink. 'Anis merely repeated to himself, "Yes, how? How did life first creep into the seaweed in the cracks of rock at the bottom of the ocean?" In one of 'Anis's soaring flights of the mind, he says to himself contemplating the hashish brazier: "When a light like the light of this brazier begins to glow with an incandescent radiance, then the wise astronomer will say, 'Behold, a star has exploded and a multitude of planets have exploded along with it and have all been scattered in dust throughout space. Then one day the dust fell on the face of the earth and Life was born.' After that you will tell me, 'I shall deduct two days' wages from your salary!'" Look at the types of questioning and enquiry. Consider the concerns of the masses exemplified by the director. Then consider the concerns of 'Anis and his companions at the houseboat. The novel is full of such commentaries: penetrating speculative meditations; questions without answers; variations of paradox arousing sad ironies during prolonged periods of history and the link with exact parallels right up to the present moment. Irony, of course, is one of the foremost artistic characteristics in Adrift on the Nile. In dramatizing the perennial human predicament and ever recurring social issues; by presenting a remarkable pageant of characters, somehow

The Novel in Egypt

33

larger than life—which become, like Shakespearean heroes and heroines, engraved in the reader's memory; by his extraordinary skill in inventing hundreds of ever changing and distinctly separate situations; by his grasp of narrative techniques and artistic styles; by his masterful ability to blend local Egyptian features with the universal; by his acute sensibility in selecting cogent details whether from within the human psyche or in an individual's environment; by diligent effort; by unique talent, by total dedication to the art of novel-writing, Najib Mahfuz has occupied, with total modesty, yet most definitively, first place among Arab novelists. At least eleven of his novels may be considered classics of modern Arabic literature. Some of these, such as The Trilogy are considered classics of world literature. By the recognition of the Nobel Prize Committee also, he is recognized among the leading world-class novelists of our time.

The Generation of Mahfuz To the eminent Salama Musa (1887-1958) goes the credit for publishing Mahfuz's first novel The Mockery of the Fates in 1939. After this initial good fortune, however, Mahfuz found himself with a number of new novels in manuscript piling up for which he could find no publisher, although he had received literary prizes for some of them. At last, to rescue him from this predicament, came his friend cAbd al-Hamid Judah al-Sahhar (1913-1974), who had founded Dar al-Nashr lil-Jamicin (The Graduates' Publishing House) in 1943. Al-Sahhar was one of a small group of writers including Mahfuz, c Adil Kamil (b. 1916) and CAli 'Ahmad Bakathir (1910-1969) who began their literary careers by writing novels on themes drawn from pharaonic history, as indeed Mahfuz himself had done. AlSahhar then began to print the works of these three writers together with his own and that of other authors. Later on, three of the group turned to writing about current-day Egypt, while Bakathir kept on writing about historical themes. (Bakathir, incidentally, was of Hadramawtl origin, having immigrated to Egypt in 1934, where he continued to reside and write until his death).*

* Although Bakathir is originally Yemeni and we have categorized him among the Yemeni novelists in the geographical indices, we are forced to discuss his works here along with his literary colleagues who were brought together under specific cultural and social circumstances. We have taken a similar position regarding the Lebanese novelist Jurjl Zaydan.

34

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel c

Abd al-Hamid Judah al-Sahhar

Al-Sahhar (1913-1974) wrote a number of novels of which the most famous is probably Fi qafilat al-zaman (In the Caravan of Time) published in 1947. This work and al-Sharic al-jadid (The New Street) are novels of generation. In each of these al-Sahhar relates the lives of three generations of a family. Perhaps it was al-Sahhar that Mahfuz had in mind when he remarked that he had made a mistake in explaining to his friends his plans to write a novel of three generations similar to what Taha Husayn had done in The Tree of Misery. Not long afterwards, Mahfuz was shocked that one of his circle of writer friends had seized upon the idea and published a novel of generations. In the Caravan of Time was published years before Mahfuz published his Trilogy. This was a lesson to Mahfuz not to divulge the secrets about works he was planning.13 The novel In the Caravan of Time is concerned with Egyptian society, which al-Sahhar succeeds in presenting in a lively portrayal of prevailing customs and traditions in Cairo at the beginning of the twentieth century. A further aspect of the novel is that certain political events are woven into the narrative and are bound up in the plot. A problem from which the novel suffers, however, is the lack of balance among the various parts of the book. The reader comes to realizes that the love intrigue of Mustafa, a grandson of the original progenitors, practically monopolizes a whole generation's portion of the saga. Al-Sahhar's other novel, The New Street, suffers from a similar lack of balance on an even greater scale. Moreover, the work lacks adequate delineation of character in too many instances, to the extent that, after a lapse of time, precious few figures stand out in the reader's mind. An amazing multitude of characters enters the scene without proper attention to the portrayal of individual personalities. For instance, there were the father and mother who had two sons, one of whom got married and had six children. Then there were five daughters who all took husbands and begot a large number of babies—all of these are mentioned briefly without counting their relations, friends, and acquaintances. C

AH 'Ahmad Bakathir

Although Bakathir was initially famous for his numerous plays, he wrote a good number of historical novels. The first of these, Wa 'Islamahu (By Islam), won the Arabic Academy prize. The same prize was also awarded to Mahfuz for his novel The Struggle for Thebes and to c Adil Kamil for his

The Novel in Egypt

35

Malik min shucac (King of Heavenly Rays). Bakathir's most significant novel by far was al-Tha'ir al-'ahmar (The Red Revolutionary) (1949), in which he endeavors to put forward the idea of an Islamic socialism. Bakathir is convinced that a socialism in harmony with Islam would be more successful, more excellent, and more suitable for Arab societies and, naturally, for non-Arab societies also, than the communism which had emerged with powerful effect on many in Egypt in the 1940s. The novel is not concerned with the lives of kings and political events. The author rather directs his attention to the social oppression endured by the hero of the novel, Hamdan Qarmat along with the masses, the fallahin, the laborers and artisans. It was social injustice like that described here which sparked the revolution of the Qaramita (the Carmathians) during the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. They called for social principles similar to those of communism. Their doctrines are presented by means of a dialogue between Hamdan and a leading faqih (a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence) of the age. Their discourses show, as might be expected, that an Islamic socialism is superior and suited to Egyptian and Arab societies. Obviously, Bakathir uses history to treat modern problems. Hence the title The Red Revolutionary which, subsequently on second printing, was changed to The Story of the Struggle Between Socialism and Communism. On one hand, it is true that the novel deals with a great variety of events over a vast geographical expanse without going very deeply into carefully conceived character portrayals. Yet on the other hand, the novelist deserves hearty accolades, above all for his distinguished talent in bringing to life a period in Islamic history full of momentous social events hitherto seldom discussed and unfamiliar to the general reader. Nor is he interested in reviewing the lives of kings and rulers or political upheavals as was so often done in the past. Bakathir focuses on the lives of the lower classes who had been quite deprived of any social justice. c

AdilKaiml

Another friend of Najib Mahfuz is cAdil Kamil (b. 1916), who has written three novels. The first two were published in the early 1940s. Kamil did not write another novel until almost fifty years later when al-Hall wal-rabt appeared in 1993. Of the earlier novels, the first, and better of the two, King of Heavenly Rays, won the Arab Academy Prize in 1941 as previously mentioned. This novel relates the life of the pharaoh Akhnaton, whose religious teachings and realistic attitude appealed also to Bakathir,

36

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

who wrote a play entitled 'Akhnatun wa Nafartiti. It is interesting to recall here that cAdil Kamil's friends cAbd al-Hamid Judah al-Sahhar and Najib Mahfuz had both also written about another pharaoh, Ahmose; al-Sahhar's novel 'Ahmus was published in 1943 and Mahfuz's The Struggle for Thebes was printed in 1944. It is clear that the four young friends including Hadramawti Bakathir, all recent university graduates, were attracted to pharaonic history. During the very same years members of the pioneering generation, along with Muhammad Farid 'Abl Hadid (1893-1967) and his colleagues, were deriving their plots from Arab and Islamic history, as mentioned earlier. It is also accepted that in their recourse to history under the shadow of foreign occupation, the motivation of these authors was not simply to provide escape from the grievous present, but rather quite the contrary: they were intent on reinforcing a sense of belonging, to strengthen a firm grounding in national identity and to arouse hope in the hearts of the younger generation. Coming back to his novel A King of Heavenly Rays, it is worth noting that cAdil Kamil was entirely in agreement with Najib Mahfuz when he drew from his personal experience in portraying the major part of Akhnaton's personality. cAdil Kamil himself lived through crises similar to those the pharaoh endured before his spiritual crisis was resolved by a transforming enlightenment of revelation. The formative phase in the pharaoh's intellectual life was fraught with spells of perplexity, of despair, of revulsion for life, and of a sense that everything in life is futile, which indeed were like the feelings of estrangement experienced by cAdil Kamil himself in the company of Najib Mahfuz in their early adulthood, as Mahfuz mentions.14 Hence the character of Akhnaton gains enormously in credibility and comprehensible humanity. In the later period of Akhnaton's life when he experiences revelation, cAdil Kamil utilizes in his descriptions hadith, the collected non-Qur'anic sayings and accounts of the Prophet Muhammad, which describe the event of revelation to the Prophet. An innovation in narrative technique here was cAdil Kamil's tentative use of stream of consciousness for the first time in an Arabic novel. After this novel, cAdil Kamil took up realistic writing and published Mallim al- 'akbar (Halfpenny the Great) in 1944. He exposes the injustices which the working classes suffer under the capitalists and feudal landowners. The author's intensely doctrinaire sympathy for the proletariat leads to an overly simplistic division of his characters into black and white. This was an approach completely alien to Najib Mahfuz, whose characterizations

The Novel in Egypt

37

in describing social classes are drawn with absolute objectivity, whatever the situation. Another writer of the same generation who also received the Arabic language Academy Prize is Muhammad cAbd al-Halim cAbdallah (1913-70). He wrote a number of novels which in the beginning of his career as author were in the romantic style, and sometimes exaggeratedly sentimental. These were, and still are, quite popular. His characterizations are generally oversimplistic, either thoroughly evil or paragons of virtue. The characters of the poorer classes stand out as innocent victims of an unjust oppressive society. His later works show an evolution as, for example, in Ghusn alzaytun (The Olive Branch) (1955), in which he wrote about the problems of marriage in the family. In al-Bayt al-samit (The Silent House) (1966), he treats the nature of evil and the relation between the sexes. c Abdullah published his first more realistic novel Laqita (A Foundling Girl) in 1948, which was precisely the same year that Yusuf al-Sibaci (1917-1987) published his first novel Na'ib cAzra'Il (cAzra'il's Deputy). Al-Sibaci's next novel 'Ard al-nifaq (Land of Hypocrisy) came out in 1949. Both novels are based on imaginary situations with a pervasive humorous outlook in a manner reminiscent of the writings of al-Mazinl. In subsequent years, al-Sibaci launched into romantic writing centering on love between individuals of the upper middle class, although a couple of novels are exceptions. He was joined by 'Ihsan cAbd al-Quddus (1919-1990), who pursued a parallel path in style, mood, and subject material, producing an enormous number of novels and short stories (consult the Bibliography for details). The novels by these two writers have enjoyed great popularity not only in Egypt, but in other countries in the Arab world as well.

The Novel after Mahfuz When cAbd al-Quddus began publishing his novels in the early fifties, cAbd al-Rahman al-Sharqawi (1920-1987), Yusuf 'Idris (1927-1991), and Fathi Ghanim (1924-1999) had also just started to publish their first realistic works of fiction. c

Abd al-Rahman al-Sharqawi

In contrast to al-Sibaci and cAbd al-Quddus, whose novels deal with the romantic lives of the upper class, al-Sharqawi was concerned with the plight of the fallahin in the Egyptian village. His novel al- 'Ard, translated into

38

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

English as Egyptian Earth, was the first modern work where the fallahin actually speak their own language, which was of course their country dialect of the Delta. He presents the villagers in a most realistic down-to-earth manner, dramatizing to the reader the fact that they are real people whom one has to take seriously. One becomes acquainted with them as distinct human beings with crushing problems and concerns. The reader knows that they have their own values and ideals for which they will make great sacrifices. The fallahin are not simple buffoonish bumpkins as the cinema and television usually portray them. This novel succeeds commendably in offering a vivid, truthful, close-up view of village customs and the way of life in the rural Delta. The author has gleaned hundreds of evocative details of life in action with such skill that indeed he casts the village in the role of the heroine, and not merely the backdrop to tragedy as in Muhammad Husayn Haykal's Zaynab or Yusuf 'Idris's al-Haram, translated into English as The Sinners. Al-Sharqawi however, it seems, was under the influence of the principles of the Marxist critique when he wrote this novel. Hence he falls victim to some unnecessary flaws of the Marxist approach which were not particularly applicable here. For example, he sees the village as divided into two conflicting camps. The one consists of the cumda, or village mayor, and his followers, behind whom stands the pasha. These figures are presented only through the eyes of the fallahin. Consequently, the cumda and his supporters, who are the citadel of power, are presented as evil personified. In the other camp are the fallahin, depicted as admirable, good folk by disposition. Even when they quarrel, have rows with each other, or cheat, they quickly snap back to their original sterling character, cooperating and getting along amiably with each other. Between the two camps stands a man of religion: the village 'imam, alternately arousing resentment or ridicule wherever he turns up. Naturally, he hobnobs with the camp of power. The situation has changed enormously by the time we reach al-Fallah (The Villager), al-Sharqawi's fourth and last novel. Here the man of religion appears respected by the fallahin and sympathetic to them. He supports them tacitly to the extent that he is able. Al-Sharqawi reveals in al-Fallah that he has backed off from the communist path and radical socialist ideology. Whereas in Egyptian Earth, the earth (i.e. al-'ard) is tantamount to dignity and honor, the hero of al-Fallah declares that he had been better off without the land which the state granted him, yet with the freedom which the revolution had robbed from him. In addition, the novel exposes the

The Novel in Egypt

39

extent of corruption in the Socialist Union, the single political party which the state had adopted. Al-Sharqawi's most impressive novel from the artistic point of view is surely al-Shawaric al-khalfiya (The Back Streets). Like Egyptian Earth, it relates the struggle of the early thirties against authority, this time in the cities, which culminated in 1935 when several populist groups in Cairo and other cities waged a series of demonstrations. Finally, as a result, the constitution of 1923 was restored and the National Front and the Reformed Government were formed. Al-Sharqawi lived through these events personally and took part in them as a student at the Khedival Secondary School. Hence the accounts gain a great deal of credibility which was not so convincingly substantiated in the struggle of the fallahin in Egyptian Earth. Actually, al-Sharqawi here has managed, as no other writer has, to convey an immediate sense of living the events of the struggle. He reviews the many steps and aspects of secret planning leading up to acts of protest, the accompanying details required to pull off an operation, the clandestine meetings and the ruses dreamt up to hoodwink the police. Al-Sharqawi also masterfully describes the intense bonding which joined the companions in struggle with a lively realism not present in any other nationalistic novel. Al-Sharqawi also successfully introduces the reader to the psychological back streets and the intimate secrets of the heroes of his novel on a level generally absent in Egyptian Earth. In presenting their secret lives, the author captures scenes of powerful human emotions. For example, a student beset with suspicions about his mother, who, he thinks, might be betraying his father, suddenly one day discovers his father in a scandalous situation with the chambermaid. Henceforth he is drawn much closer to his mother, and looks up to her much more than he ever had before. Later, near the end of the novel, when this same youth is shot down in a demonstration, the reader is left in perpetual doubt, not knowing whether he could have saved himself had he wished. Or instead did the student intentionally expose himself to the firing, so as to escape the cruel shock of his father's behavior and his guilt feelings towards his mother for unjustly suspecting her? Or was it courage, honor, and passionate nationalism that prevented him from fleeing to safety? The full scope of al-Sharqawi's narrative talents is most clearly displayed here in this multifaceted moral and emotional dilemma where no one knows the whole truth about the martyrdom of the hero. The Back Streets abounds in scenes of profoundly moving human pathos. It almost seems as though al-Sharqawi here was making up for the

40

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

lack of psychological insights and development in Egyptian Earth. By contrast, in Egyptian Earth he had focused almost wholly on the struggle of the fallahin, scarcely allowing any occasion for introspective revelations. In this novel, the high art of eloquent rhetoric is applied in colloquial Arabic, to which al-Sharqawi had accustomed his readers in Egyptian Earth. Al-Sharqawi displays his superb literary style in formal Arabic, at times rising to fine levels of poetic diction as he recounts moving psychological situations. One excellent example is the visit of Shawqi (who reflects alSharqawi himself) to the family of his best friend who has just been killed in a demonstration. One observes a friend's emotions of grief and loyalty mingling with his ideal admiring love for his friend's sister Safiya. One observes the appreciation of the mother towards the loyalty of her killed son's closest friend mingled with what she felt upon seeing him for the first time without her son beside him.

Yusuf 'Idris Scenes portraying complex emotions reminiscent of al-Sharqawi's art are to be found in Qissat hubb (City of Love and Ashes), published in 1956 by Yusuf 'Idris (1927-1991). Hamza, the hero of the novel, experiences nationalistic fervor simultaneously with his passionate attraction to a young school mistress. She has been soliciting contributions at her school for the Resistance and brings them to the young patriot and his companions-instruggle against the British in the Suez Canal Zone. When Hamza confesses his love to the schoolmistress, she berates him sharply for this unexpected declaration of feeling. She hurries out, leaving him because he does not seem to her sufficiently committed to the cause of resistance. Hamza feels humiliated and embarrassed. Eventually their relationship resumes and blossoms as the schoolmistress admits that she has fallen in love with him. Yusuf 'Idris's most significant novel is in fact al-Haram (The Sinners), published in 1959. It is the tragic story of a young peasant woman working among a group of migrant laborers, or al-gharabwa as they are called in the novel. They are the poorest of the fallahin and the object of scorn among the employees in charge of administering the estate where the migrant workers have come to work seasonally. At the beginning of the novel one of the watchmen of the estate comes across the dead body of a newborn child beside an irrigation ditch. He immediately spreads the news among the local inhabitants who make up their minds that the wayward mother must be one of the migrant women work-

The Novel in Egypt

41

ers. Doubts, however, soon begin to assail their minds that just possibly one of their own women might be guilty. Yusuf 'Idris is at his most brilliant in describing how very little, in fact, each one knows about his neighbors or indeed how little he knows about his own household for certain. So much so that a father, in one case, even suspects his daughter simply because she feels indisposed and is keeping to her bed. After some days it is finally discovered that the mother of the infant is indeed one of the migrant laborers. She had come to work there, as she was obliged to support a sick husband and two small children. One day her foot slipped on a stone while she was digging in the field. She fell down while trying to pick up a sweet potato for her ailing husband, who had a special hankering for them. The landowner's son, suddenly appearing out of nowhere, darted over and pretended to help her up. She resisted his overenthusiastic assistance but finally succumbed, first because he had overpowered her but also because she had long been deprived of love. Thereafter the unfortunate woman could not forgive herself for her moment of weakness. The local villagers are vastly reassured as to the state of virtue in their own households and sympathize with the migrant workers after learning about the heartrending tragedy ofcAziza, who dies of childbed fever. In her final feverish rantings, she reveals exactly what happened. One early dawn, when she felt birth pangs, she finally delivered the baby herself by a canal. But putting her hand over the baby's mouth to stop his screaming, for fear of scandal, she accidentally smothered him. As for the father who had suspected his daughter, his mind is set at rest about his daughter's virtue. He rewards her by allowing her to visit the mu'adhdhin's wife, who is in fact an adulteress and a procurer to boot. He has no idea that she is going in reality to meet the notorious young playboy of the estate who eventually runs away with her. Where then is the 'sin' in Yusuf 'Idris's novel? Is it social injustice and harsh circumstances that drive a woman like cAziza to submit to the wiles of the local playboy? Or is it the prevailing moral standard in a society which allows men to have their way with women and then smack their lips in amazement at a mistake like cAziza's? Or is it cAziza's error?

Fathi Ghanim Three years separate the publication of Fathi Ghanim's first novel al-Jabal (The Mountain), which came out in 1958, and al-Rajul alladhi faqada zillahu, translated into English as The Man Who Lost His Shadov

42

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

(1961-62). Yet what an enormous difference there is between these two novels. The first novel incorporates a true story which actually happened to the author, told here approximately as it occurred. He even announces that his name is Fathi Ghanim and that he works for the Bureau of Investigation of the Ministry of Education. He had been appointed to travel to the village of al-Gurna to investigate the complaints of the Upper Egyptian inhabitants who, it had been decided, were to be moved from their traditional village near Luxor to a new village built especially for them. They had, however, turned down this arrangement to leave their old village. This is all factual information on public record. The author tries, stumblingly, to use the technique of multiple narrators in the first person singular. The narrators here are villagers who testified as witnesses in the actual interrogation which Fathi Ghanim himself conducted, it seems. This technique was utilized obviously to present the same situation through the numerous voices of the characters in the novel. He succeeds relatively well in this tactic. There is, however, a world of difference between his experiment in using this narrative style here, which passed largely unnoticed by readers, and the later mature and fully competent use of this technique in the second novel. His felicitous use of this technique is what tempted great writers later on to apply it, as did both Najib Mahfuz and Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra. Of the many novels which Fathi Ghanim has authored, his best beyond any doubt is The Man Who Lost His Shadow. This novel achieves in an experimental style a faithful representation, even though harsh, of the hidden recesses, secrets, and moral stances of the world of the press, which come as a rough jolt to some readers. The novel is divided into four parts, each revolving around the chief protagonist Yusuf. Each part is related by a different narrator. The first section is told by Mabruka, who worked as a maid in the home of a wealthy man related to Yusuf's father, who lives in poverty. Mabruka later marries Yusuf's father. The second part is narrated by Samiya, the ingenuous actress and Yusuf's lover. He later jilts her, thus sacrificing her as unworthy in his schemes of glory, in order to gratify his ambitions and to buttress his future. The narrator of the third part is Muhammad Naji, editor-in-chief of the newspaper for which Yusuf works. Yusuf shoved him out of his way and took over his position. Yusuf himself narrates the fourth and final part. Fathi Ghanim's very successful use of witnesses to relate the events of the

The Novel in Egypt

43

novel is a first in the history of the Arabic novel. Many Arab novelists have since employed this device. While Yusuf is the hero of the novel, he is revealed to us through the testimonies of three persons closely acquainted with him either at work or in his private life, and also by his own vision of himself in the last part of the novel. Yusuf appears as an exemplar of single-minded ambition, the clever opportunistic individual who has been blinded by personal advantage to any moral and humane criteria of behavior. He embodies the gamut of selfserving attitudes, the willingness to sacrifice any person or principle for the sake of getting what he is after. Among the other characters, there is Shuhdi Pasha, who lays out money for the newspaper from behind the scenes and controls the editors. Their morality shocks readers in varying degrees. After Yusuf, probably the most important personality is Muhammad Naji, the editor-in-chief, who appointed Yusuf to the staff of the newspaper. He adopted him from the start and opened before him all doors for advancement, unaware that Yusuf would before long be trampling over his own body. Yet in spite of all that, the reader does not instinctively feel any great sympathy for Naji, in that his moral code is hardly any better than Yusuf s. Quite patently, Fathi Ghanim was objective in drawing these personalities, whom he has taken from real life, as it seems. Besides using the narrative technique of multiple speakers, Fathi Ghanim has successfully used other devices which were new at the time: stream of consciousness narrative and the flashback, to mention but two. It is no wonder, then, that the name of Fathi Ghanim is particularly linked to this novel, despite the fact that he wrote many other novels before it and after it. (See the bibliography.) Space does not allow in this present volume for a discussion of works of other writers of this period. A few distinguished writers do, nonetheless, deserve mention. Tharwat Abaza, for example, in his early works particularly, produced prose in which he used symbolism in a mature, eloquent style in his description of the political repression of the sixties. These novels were marked by great courage and boldness, for which the author was much envied and admired. Other writers who won special attention are Latifa al-Zayyat and Sacd Makkawi for their outstanding novels al-Bab almaftuh (The Open Door) (1960) and al-Sa'irun niyaman (Sleep Walkers) (1965). Others of the last three decades of the twentieth century, who are

44

Critical Introduction to the Arabic No vel

not dealt with here, are grouped under al-'Udaba' al-Shubban (The Younger Authors) or The Sixties Generation.

The Sixties Generation This decade witnessed the appearance of an impressive number of gifted novelists and short-story writers. A roster of the most prominent novelists of these years would include:cAbd al-Fattah Rizq, c Abduh Jubayr, 'Ahmad al-Shaykh, Edwar al-Kharrat, Fathi Salama, Hasan Muhassib, 'Ibrahim c Abd al-Majid, 'Ibrahim 'Asian, 'Iqbal Baraka, Khayri Shalabi, Mahmud c Awad cAbd al-cAl, Mahmud Qasim, Majid Tubya, Muhammad 'Abu alMacatl 'Abu al-Naja, Muhammad al-Busati, Muhammad al-Makhzanji, Muhammad al-Mansi Qandil, Muhammad Jibril, Muhammad Mustajab, Muhammad Yusuf al-Qacid, Nawal al-Sacdawi, Nihad Sharif, Radwa c Ashur, Sabri Musa, Salwa Bakr, Sharif Hatata, Sulayman Fayyad, and Yahya al-Tahir cAbdallah. After some years of poring over many works of the above-named writers, two important trends loom into view, whether in consideration of the main concerns of individual novelists or with regard to the artistic and technical maturity of their works. 1. A trend dominated by the reality of contemporary society or even the very current political scene. There was an emphasis on power, corruption, levels of coercion, and repression. Experimental attempts in form are prevalent. This trend included works on political questions and criticisms of power which were aimed at the human dimension behind which political situations were at times eclipsed. Also forming part of this trend are some works which focus on various aspects of human life to an extent that the political dimension recedes into the background. 2. A trend completely devoid of criticism of power from which the political dimension has vanished. Or if it exists at all, it is mainly concealed in a generally humane atmosphere and in the framework of social change. Of course, works appeared which were outside these two trends, such as science fiction, feminist writing, and the modernist or post-modernist writings of novelists like Edwar al-Kharrat. This study is directed, however, to the more dominant trends of longer duration in modern Arabic literature, which one who surveys the total panorama will recognize as clearly definable. As representative works of the first trend, al-Lajna (The Committee), alZaym Barakat, and Zahr al-laymun (Lemon Blossoms) have been selected

The Novel in Egypt

45

for study, while 'Ayyam al-'insan al-sabca (The Seven Days of Man) and Khalati Safiya wa al-dayr (My Aunt Safiya and the Monastery) will represent the second trend. The works of these authors are characterized by a plethora of attempts at innovation and experimentation in form, so much so that one sometimes has the impression that the meaning of the book has been sacrificed for the sake of dazzling forms. Various factors contributed to this interest in form. At the time when these authors began writing, the Egyptian novel had gone beyond the realistic, socialist phase. New styles of writing had emerged, some of which had appeared in Najib Mahfuz's Adrift on the Nile. The new styles had already been observed even in Mahfuz's earlier novels and in his short stories of the sixties. These works of Mahfuz preceded the 1967 defeat and later commented on the debacle after it happened, in works such as The Thief and the Dogs, 1961; Autumn Quail, 1962; The Beggar, 1964; and Miramar, 1967. Fathi Ghanim utilized these techniques in The Man Who Lost His Shadow. During the same period, Tawfiq al-Hakim in 1962 published his play Ya talic al-shajara (O Tree Climber), in which he charmingly brought the theatre of the absurd to Arabic audiences. The productions of these writers went hand in hand with a lively critical movement, in which some of the shining lights were Muhammad Mandur, Mahmud 'Amin al-cAlim, CAli alRaci, Rashad Rushdi, Luwis cAwad, and cAbd al-Qadir al-Qutt. Obviously as this foregoing account illustrates, Egyptian and Arab men of letters were following with keen interest the developments that were taking place in European and American literature. They were adapting what pleased them and honing their styles. The names Sartre, Camus, Beckett, O'Neil, Kafka, and others were frequently seen in the daily newspapers, not to mention the literary periodicals and the abundance of translated works. A typical sign of the times: Edwar al-Kharrat relates that during the sixties, some writers requested his help in acquainting them with current modern literary styles. In response to their request, eight issues of the cultural periodical Gallery 68 came out, beginning in April 1968 and through February 1971.

Suncallah 'Ibrahim's The Committee In light of the developments in style and subject matter just discussed here, it was natural that writers would avoid producing long, realistic traditional novels, apart from odd rare exceptions. Suncallah 'Ibrahim (b. 1937) pub-

46

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

lished his very short first novel Tilka al-ra'iha (The Smell of It) in 1968. Soon after its publication it was banned. Yet once the author had made some necessary fundamental changes and met the censors' norms, it was brought out again in 1968. The novel presents an ominous portrait of a psychologically shattered intellectual young man suffering from a sense of despair and estrangement after his release from prison. It is clear that the novel describes the author's own personal experience. He himself was thrown into prison around 1960 for five years for political activity as a communist. He remains a stranger throughout the novel like the heroes who were outsiders in Camus' works. Political criticism and experimentation with form continue also in Suncallah 'Ibrahim's second novel Najmat 'Aghustus (The Star of August), published in 1974. His most powerful novel, however, is certainly al-Lajna (The Committee), which came out in 1981. The novel describes how the hero appears before the Committee after preparing himself for a year reading philosophy, art, chemistry, economics, and so on, so that he will be able to answer their questions correctly. The actual committee is enveloped in inexplicable mystery. In the beginning, signs appear and hints—such as the use of a foreign language among other things—intimate that it may be a subordinate or a subsidiary of the American Central Intelligence Agency. In the end, however, the Committee is transformed into a court composed of judges, who themselves are the members of the original committee, with the exception of the murdered member. It is as though the novel mixes and combines American surveillance and Egyptian government investigation. In both cases the protagonist goes to the Committee on his own, without being arrested and shows up without police escort. The first time, he goes because, as far as he knows, it is imperative for him to meet them. It appears that he had decided, after having been a communist, to give up his political stand and become a businessman or even an agent for the Committee. The second time, he goes because, after a long spiritual struggle lasting for chapters on end, he decides not to sell his soul, his honor, and his principles. He thereupon murders the insolent Committee member with whom, by Committee orders, he had been forced to live against his will. This resident informer had been listing all his activities and had even provoked him sexually. From his first visit till the second when he is sentenced, Suncallah 'Ibrahim presents a series of concentrated morbid scenes of what was going on during the time of the open-door economic policy in Egypt in the seven-

The Novel in Egypt

47

ties and in the other Arab countries. It is a dismal panorama where all groups stand condemned: judges, political leaders, authors, poets, university professors, military chiefs, and so on. All are condemned either because they remain silent when truth and right are violated or are themselves up to their necks in schemes of personal greed and gross profiteering. Before the Committee, in an appalling atmosphere weighted down with dread and anxiety, the narrator is asked to perform actions or stunts programmed to break down his self-esteem as a civilized person. They first ask him to dance. Then they ask him to strip off all his clothes and submit to an examination of his genitals, whereupon they conclude that he is a sexual pervert. They proceed with the interrogation, grilling him with such questions as, "What is the most important thing the twentieth century will be remembered for?" "Coca-Cola!" he replies, after fending off subjects like spaceships, Arab oil, the Vietnam War, and Marilyn Monroe. He then sets out to elaborate the history of Coca-Cola, its expansion and sales all over the world. He speaks of its return to Egypt through Sadat's Open Door Policy after having been banned. He explains Machiavellian schemes of "how it plays a decisive role in the choice of our way of life." It plays a part in our choice of "the kings and presidents of our countries, the wars we should fight and the treaties we should sign." Then they interrogate him about the great pyramids of Giza, about which he discourses in exhaustive detail. He elucidates the theory that Jewish engineers obviously must have assisted in building these pyramids because he does not think that the Egyptians were intelligent enough to accomplish a feat of such magnitude on their own. He goes on to support the theory that states that Cheops was a crypto-Israeli. Finally they let him go until the Committee reaches its verdict. After several months, they telegraph him instructing him to write a scholarly paper about "the most brilliant Arab personality of the modern age." Soon they discover that he is going to write about a doctor from the influential business class in the Arab countries who works as a marketing agent for some foreign companies who supply merchandise and have a controlling monopoly in the area in which he operates. When the Committee realizes that these secrets will be publicly exposed, members of the Committee visit him in his home and request that he change his subject, or, at least, put it into a more suitable form. Then they leave a plainclothes agent in his home to compound his afflictions. Pushed to his wits' end, and beyond, he is driven into such an uncontrollable fit of rage that he murders his guardian.

48

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The novel ends as the narrator begins to eat his own limbs, listening to European classical music in compliance with the sentence of the Committee, which decreed that he must eat himself! Suncallah 'Ibrahim lays before the Arab reader in this work a blistering attack on the ruling regimes in Egypt and in other Arab societies. The novel exposes the behavior of a despotic dictatorship functioning in a harsh police state. He presents the action in an absurd Kafkaesque style which rages with stinging satire and black humor from beginning to end. If such is the artistic framework which Suncallah 'Ibrahim devised to criticize social and political conditions in the 1970s, on what loom and with what artistry has Jamal al-Ghitani woven the tapestry of his extraordinary novel?

Al-Ghitanl's al-Zaym Barakat Al-Ghitani, in his experiments with innovative forms and his criticism of political actuality, transports the reader from Kafka and absurd antiheroes to the time-honored Arab heritage, to the Mamluke age. This novel, which was first published in serial form in 1971, was later printed in one volume in 1974. Al-Ghitani brings onto his stage the personality of al-Zayni Barakat b. Musa. He is in fact a historical figure who lived in Egypt and reached the position of muhtasib, a controller of weights and measures. It was his task to oversee the markets, the merchants, the bakers, the scales, the coin currency, and the morals of the streets in the last years of the rule of Sultan al-Ghuri (1430-1517). He remained in this post after the murder of al-Ghuri and the succession of the Caliph Tumanbay in 1517, which sealed the conquest of the country when Egypt fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman caliphs. This was the era described previously by Muhammed Sacid al-cUryan in his excellent historical novel c Ala bab Zuwayla (On the Gate of Zu wayla), published in 1947. Al-Ghitani, however, did not intend to depict this historical period as al-cUryan had done. Nor did he aim to portray principally a historical period to represent the modern predicament, as Najib Mahfuz had done in retracing the self-indulgent life of King Faruq in his position vis-a-vis the majority leader in his novel Radubis (1943). Basically al-Ghitani simply aimed to add a new form to Arabic narrative prose, an original form drawn particularly from the Arabic heritage, to be precise from the traditional historical writing of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Egypt. Primarily he relied on the historical style of the Mamluke historian of the period Muhammad b. 'Ahmad b. 'lyas (1448-1522).

The Novel in Egypt

49

Hence he adopts the language and utilizes even the official declarations corresponding to those in the oeuvre of Ibn 'lyas, including annals, reports, and the like. Al-Ghitani achieved, by this approach, charming innovation in the Arabic novelistic genre. With brilliant craft, the author has gathered out of this period of Egyptian history material to realize several objectives. One may notice a strong similarity between this era of Egyptian history portrayed in the novel and the period of the early sixties to the end of the decade. Al-Ghitani has described the final Mamluke and early Ottoman years revealing the subjugation, repression, and espionage directed essentially at the private lives of the citizens. Torture and exemplary punishment were meted out to earnest, cultured citizens, as personified in Sacid alJuwayni, the Azhar student. Such were all familiar situations in the 1960s. Events then culminated in the debacle of 1967, which could be seen as a horrible replay of the defeat of Egypt at the hands of the Ottomans. Al-Zayni Barakat himself was a complex personality about whom nothing is known except through the opinions of other persons. He embarks on various reforms, yet on the other hand, he spreads fear and dread in the hearts of the citizenry. He forms an alliance with the notorious chief of the domestic spying apparatus, Zakariya b. Radi. He sentences those who help him to the cruelest punishments, as he does to Sacid al-Juwaym. In a nutshell, al-Ghitani has managed to create a dismal picture of a dictatorial police regime and of the effect of disastrous defeat on the Egyptian people. He stages scenes pulsating with vitality, fraught with ghastly abominations and anguish during the torture of prisoners entrapped for political reasons. These were all too familiar features of life in Egypt in the 1960s. Al-Zayni Barakat himself, whose personality has been briefly indicated here, in his success in maintaining his high office after the defeat, reflects, as many readers infer, the head of Egyptian political leadership at that time. Besides al-Ghitam's basic original innovation, which consists in his use of Ibn lyas's language and vocabulary, his system of chapter arrangement, and his division of the text, the novel is outstanding in its narrative richness and variety. In many changing scenes, a high poetic tone prevails, particularly when, at times, the shaykh or Sacid al-Juwayni speaks. In these moments he reminds the reader of the outsiders of Najib Mahfuz, even though the reasons for his estrangement are not convincing except for a spell immediately after his release from prison. Yet the lyricism and rushing momentum of events notwithstanding, the cultured reader is shocked by the large number of errors—grammatical,

50

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

morphological, and in spelling. To explain these weakness in language, one must remember that al-Ghitani, who was twenty-five years old when he wrote this novel, had not yet rid his refreshing new talent of these clumsy lapses. The reader also observes that his fast-moving language, which often lacks connecting words or phrases, such as subordinating conjunctions, is used in all kinds of scenes, violent as well as calm. This characteristic does not belong to al-Ghitani alone but is common among most of his contemporary fellow authors. By contrast, to the extent that a swift tempo in narration and short sentences occur in Mahfuz's works, the latter only resorts to them in describing violent or intensely emotional scenes. For other situations he chooses to use a longer, more deliberate and serene form of sentence. By comparison, this accelerated momentum of narrative is used by al-Ghitam and his contemporary fellow novelists writing in any and all situations. Although al-Ghitam has written a substantial number of novels, whenever his name is mentioned, al-Zayni Barakat alone immediately flashes into the listener's mind. Perhaps also, though less often, his other fine novel Waqa'ic fi harat al-Zacfarani (Incidents in Zacfarani Alley) will be remembered. c c

Ala' al-Dib's Lemon Blossoms

Ala' al-Dib's hero in his novel Zahr al-laymun (Lemon Blossoms) (1987) is subjected to a series of gruesome experiences all too similar to what Suncallah 'Ibrahim's hero underwent in The Smell of It. cAbd al-Khaliq also suffers the sense of defeat and the agonizing feeling of being unjustly victimized by the new authoritarian regime after the July Revolution. It resembles the "injustice of relatives," which is more devastating to the soul than the blow of the proverbial "sword made of Indian steel" in the words of the ancient Arabian poet.cAbd al-Khaliq and the hero of The Smell of It, along with countless such heroes of the 1960s, are genuinely enthusiastic about the revolution. It is not long, however, until it blows up in their faces, sweeping them into its prisons. It invalidates and voids their humanity by loathsome tortures, like those already described above. Yet the feelings of bitterness in The Smell of It are more intense, more violent than in Lemon Blossoms, even though the hero of Lemon Blossoms is wronged and tortured time and time again. He is also falsely accused of being an agent for the Internal Security Agency, an accusation which is circulated by the security agents themselves and which many believe to be true.

The Novel in Egypt

51

In this novel cAla' al-Dib succeeds to a remarkable degree, uncommon among his contemporaries, in bringing together the political dimension with the distinctly human dimension. He powerfully arouses the reader's sympathy for his hero, as he also brings to his novel with comparable talent a degree of poetic expression which arises from convincing human situations. On another plane, he manages with superior art to achieve a balance between action and narrative momentum on one hand, and contemplation on the other. At this level, he calls to mind the lyrical passages of Najib Mahfuz. After his long ordeal in a military prison, cAbd al-Khaliq takes a job in the Palace of Culture in Suez, which his old comrade 'Ahmad Salih has helped him to find through a connection with a high official in the Ministry of Education. In Suez he lives in a roof-top room in an old building. He relates to his friend his past life with all the painful memories it has left him, and his present which envelops him in feelings of frustration and despair. On the personal side of his life, he was abandoned by his wife, Muna, who was a Christian, but loved him so dearly that she married him in spite of their differences in religion. Some time after his imprisonment, Muna emigrated to Canada where she lives with her brother. On the social side, cAbd al-Khaliq has lost all hope of the bright life to which he had formerly aspired. Thus he lives in one rooftop room in a humble house in Suez, an outsider, a recluse, yawning his life away. He only comes to Cairo every now and then to meet a friend or two and to visit the family house and his paralytic mother. Then he heads back to Suez and the monstrous boredom of his life. Yet what happened before his life of colossal ennui constitutes the main body of the novel. In this framework, he presents to his readers, through the medium of his recollections, the story of his youthful years, brimming with joy and a passion for life, of a young man about to possess the keys of a prosperous and exciting future. Then appears a man drowning in a sea of disappointment, of failure, a man groping in a miasma of defeat. Here is c Abd al-Khaliq transformed into a human wreck following his experiences of prison, the false accusations of treason, and the loss of family, which culminates in his insidious undoing. Nothing quite compares with cAbd al-Khaliq in this sorrowful journey, unless it is the lemon tree which once flourished and blossomed behind their modest house of long ago. The tree then withered and wasted after

52

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

'Umm Rida, who had always cared for it, left and it was hemmed in, dwarfed by multi-level high-rises. The novel concludes as cAbd al-Khaliq has just returned from his last journey to Cairo, beset by warning signals of mortality on all sides. He visits his paralytic mother; he finds out that his best friend 'Ahmad Salih has suffered a heart attack; all the coffee-slurpers in the familiar cafes turn their backs to him to watch a football game; no one recognizes him. "No one needs him. He has no obligations, none here, none elsewhere. The days of his life are drifting by and slipping away just as the lemon blossoms flutter down and float away on the wind with neither flare nor fragrance." Back in Suez he collapses on his bed, waiting for the water to boil for tea, with his hands under his head staring at the ceiling. After reading Lemon Blossoms, the reader of modern Arabic literature will have a powerful sense that he has read a work of excellence seldom found in the fiction of the post-Mahfuz generation. This novel cries out in the exasperation of defeat, failure, and loneliness, yet does so in fine clear tones, without shrill cries or bitterness. It is a tale told with techniques of mature narrative skill, using symbolic speech and flashbacks. The language is often full of pathos, arresting, and lyrical. At times there is a lyricism approaching that of cAmir Wajdi's thrill upon his arrival in Alexandria at the beginning of Mahfuz's Miramar. "Cairo! It is Cairo! He had never left it; it had never left him. It is his skin and bone, his very marrow. It is his cross. It is his everlasting remembrance, this city of cities, wild and beautiful. In its air is freedom. In its light is power and surging force ... Whoever leaves Cairo is an exile deserving of pity. No one can change her ... Touching the stones of the venerable buildings as he approaches the Princes' Bar, he lives an ancient, liberating happiness. It as though nothing had happened. I am still alive ... I am living just as the stones and domes of these antique buildings are alive. I once more pass along beneath the high-vaulted passages. I glimpse a few flower shops. I watch the water trickling down the panes ... Then he grabs the little food packet and tosses the soiled newspaper wrapping into a rubbish bin." c Abd al-Khaliq, the hero of Lemon Blossoms, will stay in the reader's consciousness for years to come. c

Abd al-Hakim Qasim's Seven Days of Man

This novel also avoids confrontation with the ruling regime and indeed stays clear of politics altogether. cAbd al-Hakim Qasim (1935-1990) pub-

The Novel in Egypt

S3

lished 'Ayyam al-'insan al-sabca (The Seven Days of Man) in 1969, a novel which focuses on customs, traditions, and social situations which are gradually disappearing or which have already become extinct. The novel describes the annual pilgrimage performed by the village dervishes to Tanta. They travel under the command of the father of the young hero, cAbd al-cAziz, to attend the religious festival of al-Sayyid al-Badawi. The seven days announced in the title of the book each refer to succeeding stages of the progress to Tanta. Yawm al-hadra (the day of the hadra), which involves a Sufi ritual of repeated mention of the name and epithets of God, precedes the journey to the festival. The second day is yawm al-khabiz (the day of baking). Then comes yawm al-safar, the day of the journey to the Tanta festival. The fourth day, yawm al-khidma wa al-'iqama (the day of service or of sojourn in Tanta), in fact also encompasses the next two days, which is the duration of the festival. The climax occurs on al-layla alkabira (the great night), immediately followed by yawm al-widac (the day of farewell), when the dervishes return to their village. Then there is al-tariq (literally, the way), the seventh day or the return journey of cAbd al-cAziz from Alexandria to the village and his contemplation about the present world of the dervishes and of his father. It is now a world where warnings of mortality abound, reminiscent of al-Sukkariya, the third and last volume of Mahfuz's Trilogy. Some of the characters have died. Some have become infirm. Some have lost their sight. cAbd al-cAziz's father has become paralyzed and is no longer able to grasp what is happening around him. This spiritual procession, a holy pilgrimage and recreational tour at the same time, is coming to an end and has been replaced by the radio, the Socialist Union, and political news. Whereas the day of the hadra, the first day, is devoted to the menfolk, the day of baking is the special day given over to the country women of the village, who of course spend their time inside their houses. Through meticulously drawn vignettes and scenes which are enacted with total candor and lively energy, the duties, the beliefs, and the dreams of the village women of all ages and their relations with family, neighbors, and friends are portrayed. Indeed, this novel achieves a special distinction, as no other Arabic novel before it had done, in creating a lifelike, honest picture of the indoor life of village women in the countryside. These intimate glimpses are given through the eyes of cAbd al-cAziz, as a a child on day one, the day of the hadra. By the time the day of baking arrives he is already an adolescent given to hugging and kissing the baker's daughter in the dark winter

54

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

room, while all the other women are busily baking bread outside this temporarily enchanted chamber. The remaining days are chiefly devoted to the men of the village, although the womenfolk are not completely ignored. These seven days, as the reader can deduce from the foregoing account, are not arranged in chronological sequence so as to record one journey. Rather they represent spans of time, far apart from each other. The seven days begin when cAbd al-cAziz is a small boy, fascinated and impressed by the assembling of the dervishes under his father's command and authority. Then years flow by until the seventh day, when the boy has become a student in Alexandria University. During these days, which cover a relatively long period, cAbd al-Hakim Qasim faithfully portrays the important spiritual dimensions of life and the various forms of leisure time recreation in Egyptian villages. Against that background, he develops the intellectual life of cAbd al-cAziz, as this enchanting world which so delighted him as a boy is transformed into the cheating world of hoaxes and superstitious buncombe. It is a world pictured here with absolute honesty, in which the spirit of tolerance embraces the thief, the woman chaser, and the hashish addict, side by side with the worthiest and the most upright. This novel beautifully evokes a tender sweetness and a powerful longing for that atmosphere in which all Egyptian villages lived until very recently. It is a nostalgia brought about by the candid faithfulness of description and by the meticulous objectivity of narration. The hero cAbd al-cAziz, who grew up in the village, is torn between this ambiance, richly depicted in this novel in its state of gradual disintegration, and his rejection of its values and beliefs. Fortunately, cAbd al-Hakim Qasim himself grew up and came into his prime in the village and under the wing of his father who was also the shaykh of a tariqa, a dervish order. He was therefore destined to infuse the novel with this simple, ingenuous spiritual side of Egyptian villages. It was also his good fortune that he did not fall under the sway of any ideology while writing this novel, as other writers have done. Nor did he waste his talent experimenting with form. He is nonetheless a master in stream of consciousness and internalized monologue. He uses current literary Arabic capable of evoking deep emotions and new images lyrically expressed. Although cAbd al-Hakim Qasim has written a number of other very interesting novels, such as al-Mahdi (The Rightly Guided One) (1977) and Qadar al-ghuraf al-muqbida (The Fate of Depressing Rooms), his name is most associated with The Seven Days of Man.

The Novel in Egypt

55

Baha' Tahir's Aunt Safiya and the Monastery Baha' Tahir (b. 1935) also maintained a position of avoiding any antagonism against the ruling regime in his writings and indeed basically steered clear of criticizing the government. Indeed it is Tahir and before him Muhammad 'Abu al-Macati 'Abu al-Naja, particularly in his novel al-°Awda 'ila al-manfa (Return to Exile) (1969), who are great sympathizers of this revolutionary regime. Tahir's novel Khalati Safiya wa al-dayr, translated into English as Aunt Safiya and the Monastery and published in 1991, in fact has no political aims. Although dealing with the issue of sectarian discord, the novel concentrates not on religious antagonism, but on the hero's yearning (i.e., the author's yearning) for the noble social customs and attitudes which are disappearing and are, at times, giving way to hatred and fanaticism. The successive episodes in Aunt Safiya and the Monastery depict interreligious antagonism with subtlety, with amicability, in gentle, calm tones typifying the author's whole outlook and approach. The course of action revolves around a certain village in Upper Egypt (just possibly the writer's home village), which is close to a monastery. As the story begins, the author is reminiscing about his boyhood days when he used to ride his father's donkey. On the holy day of the breaking of the Ramadan fast, he would mount the donkey and trot over to the Monastery of Father Bishay with a box of holiday cakes. Father Bishay would then welcome both the boy and his donkey together. He would take the wide-eyed lad on a tour all over the monastery. The youngster marveled at the icon of the Virgin holding the Christ child to her bosom and would return to his family happy from his visit. The reader is pleasantly struck by the friendly spirit which prevails between the Muslim village community and the brotherhood, of the Christian monks. The abbot, Father Bishay, is a shining light of dynamism and a friend to the fallahin, giving them advice based on experience which they appreciate. Relations between village and monastery are cordial, being based on long friendship, affection, civility, and cooperation. Safiya, the narrator's aunt, lives with the narrator's family. As a young lady of remarkable beauty, her parents hope that Harbi will come forward to ask her hand in marriage. He of all the young men in the village is deemed worthy of her. Harbi goes to the house of Safiya's father accompanied by cAsran Bey, his uncle. cAsran Bey lives in Luxor, relying on Harbi, his nephew, to supervise his farm. Harbi astonishes the father by asking for Safiya's hand on behalf of his uncle, who is decades older than she. Safiya is furious and

56

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

mortified when she learns about Harbi's unexpected proposal. She agrees straight-away to the marriage, and the wedding takes place then and there. She gives birth to a child, but false rumors circulate that Harbi intends to kill the infant out of greed for his uncle's inheritance. cAsran Bey, getting wind of the plot, publicly humiliates Harbi and orders his men to insult him, strip him, and thrash him. Harbi bides his time patiently at first out of deference to his uncle. But when his situation has become too much for him to bear, he shoots his uncle dead. He is tried and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. Safiya, meanwhile, hatches plans so that her son may be avenged for Harbi's murder of his father. Because of a grave illness, Harbi is released from prison early, but finds nowhere to stay safe from Safiya's vengeance except the monastery. Father Bishay welcomes him and looks after him in the monastery until one day Hanayn, an escaped convict on the run in Safiya's pay, tries to kill Harbi in the monastery. Hanayn's bullet, however, misses Harbi, who, taking better aim, shoots and kills Hanayn. Father Bishay is removed from the monastery and punished for being an accessory after the fact. When Safiya learns that Harbi's illness has grown much worse, she enters her room and refuses to come out. She goes into a deep swoon. At last the narrator's father visits Safiya and wakes her out of her swoon. Her first words on waking up: "If Harbi asks me to marry him, tell the Bey that I accept." The novel ends as the narrator wonders "whether a little boy still carries cakes in a white cardboard box to the monastery, or whether the monks still give sugar-coated dates to the village people on feast days." With such questions ends one of the most striking and enjoyable novels published in Egypt during the nineties. When Aunt Safiya and the Monastery appeared in 1991, a critic commented, without having read the book, that he hoped that Baha"s novel would not be based on current events. (The novel came out when Islamic fanatics were attacking Christian citizens and their property.) Mercifully Baha' Tahir derived a very special inspiration from these ghastly events, writing a work which made use of the remarkable setting and train of events to depict a rural community deeply grounded in the spirit of tolerance and cordiality in Egypt, both among the fallahin and educated people. He has given a lasting work of art to remain as a reminder to Egyptians of their history of tolerance in all ages, apart from exceptional times, like those in which the novel was published.

The Nbve7 in Lebanon

57

The novel itself contains no mention of any of the distressing events which took place at the time of its publication. Even if a reader did not know the date of its printing or did not associate this date with those violent incidents in Egypt at that time, his admiration for the novel would not diminish an iota. A skilled writer, Baha' Tahir just alludes through the words, events, and scene of the novel to all he wishes to say. The monastery in the novel is the source of kindness, liberality, and giving. The fallahin, good hearted and uncomplicated, appreciate the role of the monastery and the advice of Father Bishay. They exchange gifts on holidays and festivals. Even the outcast fugitives who befriend Harbi in prison, when they come to visit him, are gracious enough to see him outside the monastery out of respect for its traditions. When one of them, who happens to be a Christian, is overcome with greed to steal gold from the monastery, the chief punishes him with a bullet in the foot and expels him from the band. When Harbi, a Muslim, arrives out of prison, sick and threatened with revenge by Safiya, he finds no refuge except in the monastery. The narrator's father sees no fault or shame in this. His words are, "Did not the Beloved One, upon whom be blessings and peace, send the first Muslims to the Negus [the Christian emperor of Ethiopia] for refuge when their lives were in peril?" When all the characters of the novel are considered, the only ones to deviate from congeniality, basic goodness, and friendliness are the Muslim Safiya and the Christian Hanayn. The first deviates out of vengeance, because of the shock in Harbi's lack of love for her and the monumental insult she feels when he proposes to her to marry his uncle and not himself. The second, Hanayn, is driven by greed and preference for money over all other values. The desire for vengeance is not peculiar to Muslims any more than greed is restricted to Christians. It is predictable that these two corrupt individuals will unite in their plans. Goodness, however, triumphs and neither one of the two achieves what he or she is plotting.

The Novel in the Arab East The Novel in Lebanon Although Lebanese authors had begun writing novels earlier than Egyptian men of letters, the fully mature novel did not appear in Lebanon until the late 1930s. In 1939, to be exact, Tawfiq Yusuf cAwwad (1911-1988) pub-

58

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

lished a fully developed novel, al-Raghif (The Loaf of Bread). The flowering of the novel in Egypt during the thirties and the appearance of such famous names as 'Ibrahim al-Mazini, Tawfiq al-Hakim, Taha Husayn, and later on Najib Mahfuz, did have its effect, so it seems, on the development of the novel in Lebanon, as in other Arab lands. Among cAwwad's forerunners were Salim al-Bustani, the earliest novelist of Beirut, already mentioned above; Farah 'Antun (1874-1922), author of the novel 'Urushalim al-jadlda (The New Jerusalem) (1904) and other works; Niqula Haddad (1872-1953), who wrote Hawa' al-jadida (The New Eve), IvonneMovar (1905), and other novels; Yacqub Sarruf (1852-1927), the author of the novel Fatal Misr (The Young Lady of Egypt) as well as other fiction; and Jibran Khalil Jibran (1885-1931), who wrote al-'Ajniha al-mutakassira (Broken Wings), published in 1912. All of these novels and other narratives, however, fall short of the mark to some degree. In most of their works one typically misses well-proportioned structure and clearly developed character delineation.

Tawfiq Yusufc Awwad's Loaf of Bread Tawfiq Yusuf cAwwad's novel al-Raghif (The Loaf of Bread) revolves around the village of Saqiyat al-Misk during the First World War. It depicts the lower classes of Lebanese society under Ottoman rule. The Arab Revolution, which ended in the expulsion of the Ottomans, heralded the beginning of Arab nationalism, and provides the backdrop to the social injustice from which 'Abu Sacid's family along with their impoverished fellow countrymen are suffering. By arduous toil, they barely manage to earn their daily loaf. At times, when they have been without bread for a few days, they welcome the sight of the loaf with zagharid, shrill cries of joy. Many villagers die from the famine resulting from the war. Others die victims of Ottoman repression. In the village of Saqiyat al-Misk, the tenant farmers are ground down by the greed of a feudal landlord, 'Ibrahim Bey, who controls their land, at first by usurious mortgages, and then by outright seizure when they cannot pay the interest. The entire region is under the domination of such landowners, who are in league with the ruling Ottoman authorities. Zayna, the granddaughter of 'Abu Sacid, is deeply attached to her beloved Sami cAsim, an educated young village fellow who composes poetry. He belongs to a secret revolutionary organization, devoted to the struggle against Ottoman rule. Sami is eventually killed in the final and decisive battle of the Arab forces which seals their ultimate victory over the Turks.

The Novel in Lebanon

59

Zayna declares, quoting the leader of al-clsaba al-Bayda' (The White Legion, the secret anti-Ottoman society). "The Bey and his fellow feudal overlords are the enemy within. The Turks are the enemy without. The Turks rob us of our freedom, while the Bey and his greedy henchmen snatch from us our daily bread and freedom. How can man live without these two basic staples of life? We must therefore take our freedom from the feudal landlords and from the Ottomans. Only in this way shall we Arabs have social justice and independence." Significantly Tawfiq Yusuf cAwwad in this novel writes with a candid objectivity reminiscent of Najib Mahfuz, describing the poor with their admirable qualities along with their shortcomings. c Awwad portrays the poverty, destitution, and dispossession which are destroying the lives of the landless workers. He is likewise a shrewd observer of character in describing those who collaborate with the Ottomans, the spies and the informers in the pay of the Turks against their fellow countrymen. The novel, written in a cleverly appealing style, is divided into five parts, each of which corresponds to a leg of the journey of the loaf. The first part, al-Turba (The Soil), describes the natural environment and the social conditions in which the events take place. The title of the second part, alBidhar(The Sowing), refers symbolically to the blood of the first group of Arabs who revolted against Ottoman tyranny and were seized and executed in 1915 and 1916 by the Turkish authorities. It was then not long thereafter that the seeds sprouted, matured, and bore the grains of wheat. The flame of Arab revolution was thus kindled, quite opposite to the reaction the Turks had expected. In the third section, al-Ghayth (The Drenching Rain), the novelist skillfully describes the reactions aroused in the minds and hearts of the citizens by the executions. Zayna kills the drunken officer who is trying to seduce her. The fourth section, al-Sanabil (The Sheaves of Wheat), takes up the Declaration of the Arab Revolt at Mecca in June 1916. The Arabian forces inflict heavy losses on the Turkish army, driving them into retreat and eventual withdrawal. In the fifth part, al-Hasad (The Harvest), the Arab forces enter Damascus in triumph, as the Turkish army flees northward in disarray. Out of a series of scenes and episodes of this novel emerges a convincing, lifelike portrayal of a Lebanese village and its inhabitants caught in the ordeal of war until final victory. Despite some pages of melodramatic exaggeration, The Loaf of Bread is ranked generally as a highly successful novel.

60

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Tawfiq Yusuf cAwwad wrote only one other novel after The Loaf of Bread. More than thirty years later, in 1972, he published Tawahin Bayrut (The Mills of Beirut). It is a more mature and, in fact, a more distinguished novel than A Loaf of Bread with regard to the structure of the plot, the intensely sensitive language, the treatment of extreme human situations, and the portrayals of character. The author's objectivity comes out more powerfully in this second novel, which takes place during the events of 1968 following the Arab defeat. It reveals the political corruption, the intersectarian strife, the moral perversity of men in high places, the incessant Israeli raids by air and over land, the student demonstrations, and the hollow speeches of leaders. The novel prefigures the Lebanese Civil War (1974-1994), in which the author was ultimately to lose his life in 1988. Suhayl 'Idris (b. 1924) stands out among Lebanese novelists. He has long been the owner of the periodical al- 'Adab which has played a prominent role in the development of literary and critical writing throughout the Arab world. Other famous Lebanese novelists who deserve special mention are Layla al-Bacalabaki (b. 1936), Layla cUsayran (b. 1936), Emily Nasrallah (b. 1938), Ilyas al-Khuri (b. 1948), Rashid al-Da'if (b. 1945), and Hanan alShaykh (b. 1954). (See their listed works in the index of the Lebanese novel in this bibliography.) This survey obviously cannot discuss in detail all the broad array of novels in Lebanon. A review has been undertaken of some of the works of two of the authors mentioned above to provide examples of the excellent novels written here in recent years.

Emily Nasrallah's Flight against Time The novels of Emily Nasrallah (b. 1938) are distinguished by two principle features: the first is her keen interest in the Lebanese migration to the United States and Canada, as in al-'Iqlac caks al-zaman (Flight Against Time) for example, or the migration to Beirut, the city, as in Tuyur 'Aylul (Birds of September). The second striking characteristic in her fiction is that she writes as an individual person first and not as a woman consciously monitoring the cause of feminism. Most probably her prominence is based on her matter-of-fact honesty and her objectivity in describing varied situations in Flight Against Time, which rouse the reader to sympathize more with the old fallah 'Abu Rajl, whose son left him to immigrate to America, than with Najla'. Passionately in love with Kamal, Najla' is, nonetheless,

The Novel in Lebanon

61

forced to marry Salim—a classic theme of woman's tragedy wrought by social tradition. Emily Nasrallah's narrative is characterized by her profound understanding of emotions and conflicting psychological states. This understanding merges with a most scrupulous honesty of description and powerfully poetic language to impress a strikingly original stamp on her writing. Although critics greeted her first novel, Birds of September, with widespread acclaim and well-deserved enthusiasm, Flight Against Time is, in the opinion of this writer, the best novel written in the Arabic language on the subject of emigration and the experience of leaving one's homeland for a faraway country. Ridwan, a plain ordinary fallah who has lived all his life in his home village of Jawrat al-Sindiyan in south Lebanon, is the pivotal personality of this novel. In his old age, he travels to Canada to see his children and grandchildren. His children had left Lebanon many long years before. In spite of the civil war raging in Lebanon at the time, he refuses to stay in Canada with his wife, who had accompanied him, and bids farewell to children and grandchildren. He is irresistably drawn by his deep longing for his native soil, his village which is part of him. He yearns for the village customs and the simple country people, for the almond groves, the vineyards, the terraced rows of olive trees, and the scenes which have formed the backdrop of his life. Soon after his arrival in his beloved home country, he is killed in a skirmish of the insane war which does not differentiate between peace-loving citizens and profiteering warlords with their coerced mercenaries. The scenes of the skirmish and the awe-striking funeral attended by the villagers of Jawrat al-Sindiyan and the surrounding hamlets are drawn in an epilogue of barely two pages. The other more than two hundred pages are all devoted to Ridwan's journey to Canada, starting with the episode of his visit to the Canadian consulate in quest of a visa. Here is a sketch revealing Ridwan's naivete, his goodhearted bonhomie, his utter inexperience with the outside world, and his bedazzled astonishment at modern city ways. Even the elevator is a source of both wonder and consternation. Through the airports of Beirut, Heathrow, and Halifax, he and his wife are assisted by a fellow traveller, but when they arrive in Montreal, they are on their own. Ridwan is confused and alarmed until he and his wife finally reach Charlottetown where they are met by their sons. The entire family of his progeny and their spouses congregate at the home of his eldest son, Nabil, for the first of

62

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

many celebrations with relatives and fellow villagers from Jawrat alSindiyan who have settled in Canada. He makes a short and futile expedition to New York in hopes of finding any of his brothers who had left Lebanon during the First World War. His hopes dashed, Ridwan returns frustrated to Canada. All during his sojourn there he compares, with mournful longing, everything large and small with its nearest equivalent in Jawrat al-Sindiyan. Canadian trees are different from trees back home. Snow in North America is not like snow there. An owl is a sign of good luck in Canada but a clear omen of bad luck in Lebanon. While he is bewildered by natural and cultural differences, he is enormously impressed with skyscrapers, modern comforts, handy mechanical gadgets, and the latest technology. His brother-in-law, once the mukhtar (village mayor) of Jawrat al-Sindiyan, dies. Ridwan accompanies the deceased in a simple, quiet funeral, and its stark simplicity becomes the final straw. He is overcome with despair that this man who once commanded great admiration and respect is dishonored by an insignificant burial in foreign ground. The unique achievement here is that Emily Nasrallah has skillfully created in Ridwan a great fictional personality who combines simplicity and naivete with maturity and experience. Ridwan personifies the candid and natural rural Lebanese naivete of a man who has never seen even Beirut, except fleetingly as the place outside the village with the guidance of others. On the other hand Ridwan exemplifies the maturity of a fallah deeply rooted in his origins, completely the product of his customs, traditions, values, ideals, and patterns of life. Arising from the depths of history, he is a natural among his people and in his village. The author has successfully drawn a character who arouses our sympathy, as do the heroes and heroines of Gogol, Chekhov, and Melville. Thanks to her rich experience of simple Lebanese country life, Emily Nasrallah is capable of delving into the most intimate regions of human reality, surveying them in the full measure of their complexities. How well Emily Nasrallah has conveyed Ridwan's situation as an open, frank, unspoiled villager, totally untraveled, who finds himself suddenly on the swelling ocean of Western civilization at its highest and most frantic levels of material and technological development! How he would have been dazzled, perplexed, and lost here, whereas he is totally knowledgeable about every nook and cranny of his village. Indeed in his village, he possesses a unique identity, enjoying the respect of all. He is sought after for his advice

The Novel in Lebanon

63

in important matters. His sense of being lost while abroad is the decisive factor in his decision to return to Lebanon in spite of the anticipated dangers, which indeed lead him to his death in the fateful skirmish. Because the narrative is based mainly on memories, by her skillful use of intertextualization, stream of consciousness, dreams, symbolism, total candor, her powerful language, and descriptions that spring almost from the realm of depth psychology, Emily Nasrallah has created a superb work of humane literature. This work allows her to step out of the distinctively local scene onto the world stage. To be sure, the sensations and the emotions of the immigrant stranger which Emily Nasrallah has captured do not belong specifically to Lebanese emigrants. Rather they belong to every person migrating from any spot on earth to another far off place.

Ha nan al-Shaykh's Story ofZahra Hanan al-Shaykh's novel Hikayat Zahra (The Story of Zahra) has been a resounding success since its appearance in 1980 both inside Lebanon and among a widening circle of Arab and foreign readers beyond Lebanon. The author's focus on the heroine, Zahra, is made clear in the title. As the stages of Zahra's life unfold, they reveal various injustices to which girls growing up to womanhood in our societies are often exposed. The earliest instance is the family's preferential treatment of a brother over his sister, from infancy through adolescence and after. Another case in point is that the girl alone is held to be the criminal offender against family honor whenever and however intimate relations occur. Certain factors contributing to the growing interest in this book include the exposure, in detail, of situations such as those indicated above; the time of publication, which coincided with the expansion of the feminist movement; and the emergence of feminist criticism in educated and intellectual circles have contributed to the keen interest in Hanan al-Shaykh's novel among readers, who study it both in Arabic and in English, as well as in several other European languages. Zahra is a young woman from south Lebanon whom nature has not blessed with physical beauty. Her face is pimply. She is bow-legged. In this respect she resembles Nafisa in Najib Mahfuz's The Beginning and the End. She is fully aware of her parents' preference of her brother over her, in spite of her seriousness and intelligence. In contrast, her brother is of mediocre intelligence, lazy, and superficial. What frightens Zahra most, however, is her father's violence against her and her mother and her mother's

64

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

infidelity to her father, which he suspects but cannot prove. In fact Zahra's mother hates her father. She sometimes betrays him in her daughter's presence. She insists on taking Zahra with her on her trysts so as to have a witness to bear false witness to her husband, claiming that it would be impossible for her to be unfaithful in the presence of their daughter. In spite of the brutal treatment which Zahra endures from her father to cover up for her mother, this graceless woman shows her daughter no appreciation at all, not a single spark of tenderness. She often insults Zahra about her ugliness and taunts her for never attracting any suitors. The mother habitually favors Zahra's brother, offering him the most delicious foods. The ill-starred girl notices these and other insults and secretly boils with rage, much as the heroine in Latifa al-Zayyat's novel al-Bab al-mafiuh (The Open Door). Whenever Zahra's father gives her one of his frequent brutal beatings, her mother stands in the background threatening her with vicious, vengeful looks to terrify her of worse to come if ever Zahra should tell her father anything about the secret love affair. As a result, Zahra, under these intolerable pressures, develops into an introverted, deeply disturbed personality. She easily falls prey to a married man who forces her to submit to his lust, making her pregnant. Twice she is driven to have abortions. Nonetheless, the man continues having sexual relations with her. She derives no pleasure from them, and in fact she mentally separates herself from these acts. She feels as though he were with someone else. When her brother's friend comes forward to ask her hand in marriage, she has a nervous breakdown, for fear of what will happen when he discovers she is not a virgin. Shortly thereafter she travels to visit her uncle in Africa where he has settled. Once there she senses or imagines that the uncle is trying to provoke her sexually. Hoping for better, she marries a young Lebanese immigrant who discovers, of course, that she is no longer a virgin. As time passes, however, he accepts the situation. Despite this apparently reasonable new way of life, her nervous state recurs with such distressing intensity that she has to be hospitalized. Eventually she divorces her husband and returns to Lebanon. In Beirut during the civil war, she makes the acquaintance of a young sniper on a neighboring rooftop. For the first time, she experiences natural, instinctive love. She becomes pregnant by him, but neglects to have an abortion at the appropriate time. When she informs him about her pregnancy and the physician's refusal to carry out an abortion at this late stage, he gives her a hundred lira and tells her to go to a midwife he knows for the abortion. Zahra rejects this solution, and in

The Novel in Syria

65

desperation declares that she will kill herself. After he promises to bring his family over the next day for their engagement to save the situation, satisfied she leaves him, only to walk into a sudden downpour of sniper fire in the street, the bullets raining from the sniper himself on the rooftop. The subject is not new, as it has been treated before in Najib Mahfuz's The Beginning and the End and elsewhere. However, the focusing of the entire attention on the heroine, the gnawing questions about the despotic, cruel behavior of the father and mother towards her, the meticulous observation of her feelings, varying emotions, and psychological development step by step are innovative. Hanan al-Shaykh successfully uses narrative techniques, stream of consciousness, a skilled ordering of time, and many suggestive realistic touches. The chaotic circumstances of the civil war and the growing feminist movement, as already indicated, have contributed to establish the continuing popularity of this novel. The Story of Zahra still stirs up gnawing questions about the behavior of the father and mother towards Zahra. Both parents are depicted as utterly despotic without an ounce of kindness. The father only appears as a repressive, brutal disciplinarian, who continually demonstrates his preference for his ne'er-do-well son. The mother deceives her husband flagrantly in front of her daughter, whom she treats pitilessly, crudely, and contemptuously. She trains her to lie, cheat, and deceive. She and her husband are not shown to have the slightest glimmer of compassion for their daughter. The Novel in Syria The very first novel ever written in Arabic was penned by the Syrian writer Fransis Marrash, Ghabat al-haqq (The Forest of Truth), which was published in 1865 as mentioned at the beginning of this survey. Arab readers, however, had to wait another seventy-two years for the first fully successful novel to appear in Syria. In 1937, Shakib al-Jabiri published his novel Naham (Greed), which critics generally agree is the first all-round artistically conceived and composed Syrian novel. This is not to say that in the intervening period between the publication of The Forest of Truth and Greed no other novels were printed in Syria. Quite the contrary, the reader will see a huge number of novels in the index of the Syrian novel in this bibliography. All, however, suffer to some extent from various basic technical and/or artistic flaws. Consequently, such works belong to the long formative period of the novel and are not within the scope of the present survey.

66

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Coming back to the novel Greed, one first notices that it relates part of al-Jabiri's own life during the years he spent studying overseas. This is one of the reasons for which this novel is often compared with Haykal's Zaynab. Even though all the characters are foreign (non-Arab), including the personality who represents al-Jabiri, namely Kazaroff the emigre Russian, a refugee from the communist revolution in Russia, it is obvious from the hero's romantic adventures, his attitudes towards beauty and women, and his nationalistic ideas that these are in fact elements of Shakib al-Jabiri's own thinking. Al-Jabiri wrote two other novels recounting almost the same experiences: Qadr yalhu (Fate Puts on a Comedy) in 1939 and Qaws quzah (A Rainbow) in 1946. The hero of the first mentioned novel is a Syrian student. cAla' is a fun-loving, humorous young man who is studying medicine in Berlin. He becomes romantically involved with the lovely Elsa, making her pregnant. She bears the child and promises his father to bring him up to love Arabism and Islam. The son, however, dies in infancy. After working for a time as a dancer in Beirut, Elsa catches up with °Ala' again. He meets her but does not recognize her at first. The reader will observe that the characters, the times, the situations, and the setting are virtually the same in the two novels. The first novel, however, is narrated from the point of view of cAla'; the second novel is presented through the eyes of Elsa. The author thus actually introduces with this unique structure what may be considered an early prefiguring of that newly emerging device in Arabic fiction, narrative by several narrators or witnesses. It is narration from several different points of view, which occurs in a more mature and artistically successful work such as Fathi Ghanim's The Man Who Lost His Shadow, in Miramarof Najib Mahfuz, and in al-Safina (The Ship) by Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra.

Al-Jabiri's Farewell, O Apamea After a long period of silence al-Jabiri's name was heard among fans of the novel again when he published Widacan ya Afamiya (Farewell, O Apamea) in 1960, considered to be his best. Apamea is an ancient Syrian city, with extensive classical ruins and a medieval castle. Every year a Belgian archaeological mission arrives to excavate the ruins, and some of the villagers work with them. One year a Bedouin girl named Najud, a paragon of natural beauty, appears among the local workers. Najud occupies the role of the

The Novel in Syria

67

heroine opposite the hero, Sacd, who lives in a hut in the forest. Sacd has turned his back on city life while he is exploring for a new metal. Circumstances of love and hatred towards her stepmother drive Najud to run away from her village. On the way to Latakiya she becomes lost in the mountain forest. Here the romantic author, a lover of nature, draws on his experiences to describe the magnificent woods and hills of the Anti-Lebanon. Najud is wounded in her struggle to defend herself against a hyena. While convalescing, she falls in love with Sacd, who returns her love. Najud, however, feeling that her honor has been violated in her passionate relationship with Sacd, abandons him. She runs away, unconcerned about the possible dangers en route, on the very day when Sacd has sent for the justice of the peace to arrange for them to be legally married. Sacd searches in vain for her in the forest, until at last he finds her exhausted on the point of death. The novel ends just as her lips have touched the tiny shoot of a tender branch. "He closed his eyes. On his lips was the trace of a bittersweet smile as he too touched the tender sprig to his lips. Thus they shared a final kiss of farewell as she breathed her last breath." As in al-Jabiri's other novels, his romantic inclination is clear. The novel may almost be divided into two elements: on one side there is nature and the unsophisticated village people whose behavior follows an instinctive norm of decency and a certain guilelessness; on the other side is the urban scene, the new and sometimes indecent life led by city-dwellers and the denizens of the casinos of Latakiya at the time of the French mandate. Without dwelling on the negative features of this novel, let it suffice to point out that the reader will hardly notice any change in the author's romantic conceptions of writing here from his romantic outlook and approach in his previous novels of thirty years earlier. The most significant point for this survey is that al-Jabiri has created a new, and, by and large, mature trend in the history of the Syrian novel. His literary views and manner of writing have been followed and imitated by other romantic novelists, whether closely or remotely, reflecting in varying degrees al-Jabiri's example. To this group belong cAbd al-Wahhab alSabuni, Khayr al-DIn al-'Ayyubi, and Salma al-Haffar al-Kuzbari among others. Around the time that al-Jabiri's fourth novel, Farewell, O Apamea, appeared in 1960, there was another trend in novel writing which was more realistic and more concerned with political and social issues. This trend was formed around socialist and Arab nationalist principles, which the July

68

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

revolution in Egypt unquestionably helped to promote and encourage. The literary movement influenced and incorporated the revolution's program, which called for and applied socialist principles in the spheres of agricultural reform, limitation of land ownership, Arab nationalism, the experiment in the union of Syria and Egypt in the United Arab Republic, and the rapprochement and interaction between Syrian and Egyptian authors and literary critics. This literary trend had also found support and parallel reforming ideas in novels and short stories written in Egypt during the 1940s and from many translated Russian novels which came out in the 1950s with the help of Sami al-Durubi, Fu'ad 'Ayyub and others, as well as from the influence of European, especially French writers. Out of this overall background appeared in 1954 Hanna Mina's first novel al-Masabih al-zurq(The Blue Lamps). Critics have sometimes associated this work with Midaq Alley of Najib Mahfuz. Even though Hanna Mina's novel does suffer from some technical shortcomings in structure, characterization, and perspective, the author has avoided romanticization and concentration on only one or a few characters. Instead, Hanna Mina is concerned with the common problems of the ordinary citizens of Latakiya. His subjects are the artisans and workers, their exacting toil in earning the bare necessities of life and their exploitation by influential bosses and their henchmen during the Second World War. Another representative of this school is 'Adib Nahwi (b. 1926), whose first novel Mata yacudal-matar (When the Rain Returns) appeared in 1960. This novel aims to incite the revolution of the fallahm against the feudal landholders. It is thus in line with socialism and Arab unity; it gives its blessing to the union of Egypt and Syria. Even if this novel has not stayed clear of various technical flaws, the author's later novels show noteworthy development. His next novel Jumbi, published in 1965, revolves around the separation of Syria from Egypt in 1961. Jumbi surpasses the earlier novel with regard to cohesion, concentrated focus, and fine psychological portrayal, especially in difficult human predicaments. The novel cUrs Filastin (The Wedding of Palestine), which came out in 1969, examines the reasons behind the debacle of 1967 and charts the course of liberation—a course of sacrifice and martyrdom. Nahwi's narrative sometimes reflects the style of a folk tale. Folk songs are scattered throughout the text, and colloquial Arabic is used in dialogue. Supernatural events take place; the dead speak. Realism, even so, is maintained in much of the novel.

The Novel in Syria

69

Among other prominent Syrian novelists who appeared in the fifties and early sixties, the reader will encounter cAbd al-Salam al-cUjayli, Walid Madfaci, Jean al-Kasan, George Salim, Paris Zarzur, Haydar Haydar, Ghadah al-Samman, and Nabil Sulayman. Limitations of space and time regrettably do not allow a discussion of all of their literary contributions here. On the basis of their merits, a few novels have been selected for a short, sometimes very short, review, including some of the works of Mutac Safadi, Hani al-Rahib, Fadil al-Sibaci, and Sidqi 'Ismacil. This survey of the novel in Syria will conclude with a brief discussion of the works of Hanna MIna, the author whose name is always closely associated with the Syrian novel.

Mutac Safadi's Generation of Destiny Mutac Safadi (b. 1929) blazed a new trail for the Syrian novel with his two novels Jil al-qadar (The Generation of Destiny), printed in 1960 and Tha'ir muhtarif (A Professional Revolutionary), published in 1961, both with regard to subjects and narrative style. The first novel, for example, in which existentialist thought has a prominent role (in theory at least), concentrates on the liberation of man from all his shackles, yet with a tendency to veer away from the idea of retreat from the world. Rather than concentration on self, it is a call to rally around the goal of liberation of Arab society so that the Arab individual may realize fully his own existence and the existence of the Arab 'umma (nation) as well. Nabil, the hero of the novel, says to Hayfa', "So that you may exercise your freedom, you must free the world. You must begin this liberation from the first cell of the world which you have within yourself. Of your nation and all this world, there is only one field of activity: your personal existence." This is how Nabil, the hero, thinks and behaves. He is a student in the philosophy department of Damascus University. He is considered from all points of view to be the model student in the department and in the whole university. He volunteers to serve in the war of liberation in Algeria. He joins the conspiracy to assassinate the dictator 'Adib al-Shishakll, president of the republic at that time. He demonstrates in celebration of the arrival of Jamal cAbd al-Nasir in Damascus. All of these acts he does consciously, aware that in so doing he is actualizing his own existence. It is no wonder that his fellow students are in awe of him, for beside him they seem like

70

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

disciples or followers. It is little wonder also that he enjoys intimate love with a great many women, putting it down to expression of his personal freedom and his rebellion against the bonds of tradition. The narrative style is fresh and inventive. In addition to direct narration, it includes diaries, letters, and stream of consciousness. The characters are a continuing procession of distinct personalities who are aware of fulfilling themselves and choosing the existence they wish. It is not the concern of this survey to enumerate the negative aspects of Mutac cSafadi's narrative at this stage. It should be mentioned, nonetheless, in spite of some negative points, this novel and the novel following it, A Professional Revolutionary—in which sexual relations, wine, drugs, and nationalism all enter the picture—show experimentation in form. These two novels have assisted in the growing recognition of a type of revolutionary hero who is cultured, enjoys free love, and seeks the meaning of his personal existence. This image of the hero and Safadi's experimentation in form appear in many subsequent novels.

Halim Barakat Halim Barakat, born in Syria in 1933, has written two well-known novels that demonstrate his preoccupation with the Arab-Israeli wars. These are Sittat 'ayyam (Six Days), published in 1961, and c Awdatal-ta'ir 'ila al-bahr (translated into English as Days of Dust), published in 1969. Six Days retraces some of the horrors of the War of 1948 and in particular the massacre at Dayr al-Bahr. The inhabitants of Dayr al-Bahr are issued an ultimatum demanding that they surrender within six days or be annihilated. The Israelis, however, raze the town one day before the deadline set in the ultimatum. Only one person, a young university graduate, who is the hero of the novel, survives. For each day, the author allots one chapter of the book, in which he describes the reactions of the townsfolk and their endeavours to organize a resistance. The events and observations are related by means of inner monologue and the thoughts of a number of individuals. The predicament of the village is seen specifically through the eyes of Suhayl. After being denounced by stool pigeons, Suhayl is arrested and tortured, but confesses to nothing. When his cross-examiner shows him the smoke rising from his burning village, informing him that it will soon be reduced to ashes, Suhayl replies that the ashes will fertilize the soil, which will spring into life again, a reflection of Halim Barakat's optimism.

The Novel in Syria

71

This same streak of optimism runs through his second novel Days of Dust. The original Arabic title, which translates as The Return of the Bird to the Sea, is inspired by Wagner's opera The Flying Dutchman, whose hero has been condemned to perpetual exile on his ship and forever forbidden to moor his vessel or to live on shore until he finds a woman who will be faithful to him until death. In order that he may search for such a woman, the gods allow him to go ashore once every seven years. The Flying Dutchman symbolizes Palestine; the faithful woman represents the fida'iyin(freedom fighters), for whom everything else normally considered precious is of little value. Upon these loyal sons Palestine depends for her salvation. The novel follows the debacle of June 1967, presented here with greater complexity, more refined art, and more maturity of expression than in his previous works. Barakat has divided this novel into three parts. The first and the third sections are short, beginning with the June 11, 1967, and ending on June 20. The second part, however, begins on the fifth of June and finishes on the tenth. During this time, two of the chief characters are introduced, Taha Kancan and Ramzi Safadi, along with a number of Ramzi Safadi's colleagues and students at the university. Various Palestinians residing in Beirut appear on the scene, along with Pamela, a young American friend and guest of Ramzi. Through the conversations of this diverse assortment of friends and acquaintances, from the Arabic radio broadcasts, from the university radio announcements to the students and from their demonstrations, the author adroitly manages to reconstruct the tide of events, along with the lies and bitter mockery accompanying them. He conveys the spiritual and emotional Shockwaves and the psychological traumatization which assailed all Arab citizens during each of the six days at war. Halim Barakat, a sociologist, does not neglect to scrutinize the factors which led to the defeat, examining them through the thoughts and observations of his chief protagonist Ramzi Safadi, professor at the American University of Beirut (AUB), whose opinions mirror the author's own. Ramzi suffers feelings of impotence and helplessness as he sees the incompetence of the Arabs who direct the destinies of their countries. He is also frustrated and outraged that the authorities should fail to employ him and his peers and thus make use of their expertise in many critical areas. In the end, the only thing Ramzi can do is to collect medical aid to take from Beirut to cAmman, as the head of a team of sociologists from AUB. They use this opportunity to investigate the causes which compell the refu-

72

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

gees to flee from their homes. In this way, they are able to prevent Israel from spreading false claims about the causes of this mass flight as they had done in 1948. The first and the third parts begin with quotations intentionally altered from the Old Testament to fit the then current situation. In the first chapter of the Book of Genesis, for example, it is written that God, praised be His name, "in the beginning created the heavens and the earth. And the earth was without form and void, and darkness was on the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said: Let there be light." Ramzi Safadi, however, declares that the earth after the defeat "was without form and void. And that darkness was on the face of the deep. But the Spirit of God did not move upon the face of the waters. Light, of course, did not exist." Where in the Old Testament it is written that God, praised be His name, "saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good . . . . And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made."15 The hero of this novel announces that "the Arab saw all that he had done, and it was very bad . . . . And on the seventh day, he did not rest." The reader of the novel realizes that before him is a serious work amply incorporating the techniques of a distinguished narrative art, including intertextualization, symbolism, concentrated yet fluent language, and a rushing momentum. In addition there is a well-developed structure and an aesthetically intricate division of the novel into several parts.

Fadil al-Sibaci's Then Sorrow Blossomed Before discussing Thumma 'azhara al-huzn (Then Sorrow Blossomed), it is worthwhile to briefly mention two striking novels: al-Mahzumun (The Defeated), published in 1961, and Sharkh fi tarikh tawil (A Crack in a Long History), published in 1970. In these novels, Hani al-Rahib (b. 1939) describes the challenges, problems, and crises which the younger generation of university students confronted in the fifties with regard to their position in society, their nationalistic and patriotic activity, and the quest for love. The main protagonists in A Crack in a Long History are a mixed group of Syrians, Palestinans, and Jordanians, all students at Damascus University. They are preoccupied with national and world issues, philosophical and psychological questions. They use existentialist expressions in their conversations nd drop names like Freud, Marx, and Melville.

The Novel in Syria

73

As for literary form, the influence of the new novel by the likes of Alain Robbe Grillet stands out. The concern with events, action, and dynamic features in the novel is only slight here. Another movement paralleled this west-looking existentialist trend, also open to the West though more politically and socially oriented. We have already seen examples in the work of Halim Barakat. Fadil al-Sibaci's (b. 1920) novel, Then Sorrow Blossomed, strongly reminds the reader of Najib Mahfuz's The Beginning and the End, just as we have seen previously in Hanna Mina's The Blue Lamps, which recalls Midaq Alley, also by Mahfuz. Al-Sibaci's novel strikes familiar Mahfuzian chords in that it revolves around the life of a family who have just lost their breadwinner. The mother and children are portrayed in their struggle for their livelihood and life. The point where the two families differ is that the mother here succeeds extremely well in achieving security, whereas the widow in Najib Mahfuz's novel fails to achieve an assured livelihood for her family. When the novel Then Sorrow Blossomed ends, the family tree of sorrow has indeed flowered with roses and jasmine. Two of the daughters marry and find employment after successfully completing their secondary education. The third daughter, having taken a university degree in law, becomes a successful lawyer and goes on to prepare for a doctorate at Cairo University. The fourth daughter joins the medical college. The only son is forging ahead successfully in his studies. The mother is selected as the ideal mother of the year, whereupon the novel concludes. The family does not suffer any shattering reversals of fortune apart from one: the death of the fifth daughter, who after neglecting her health literally pines away in a state of inconsolable grief after losing her soldier fiance, who dies a martyr near the enemy border. Certainly Fadil al-Sibaci's outlook is far more optimistic than Mahfuz's discerning view of a family facing a parallel loss. The family whose circumststances al-Sibaci describes undergo no real hardships or reversals of fortune. In fact, they encounter such amazing good luck that one inevitably feels, in reviewing their experiences, that one is reading fantasy and not living reality. The structure of the novel suffers from a plethora of often irrelevant details and digressions from the plot, reminiscent of Tawfiq al-Hakim's occasional ramblings off the main subject in some of his novels. In addition, the characters generally are so banal that they do not leave a lasting impres-

74

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

sion, except for the personality of Hala, who can be regarded to some degree as a reflection of the author's own personality. In contrast to the characters in Then Sorrow Blossomed (1963), al-cUsa' (The Rebels), which Sidqi 'Ismacil (1924-1972) brought out in 1964, is considerably more profound, livelier, and more compelling. A reader can empathize with clmran's family and those they are associated with. Through interactions among three generations of a family, one may see the long course of political developments and to some extent of social developments in Syrian society. The reader follows this intelligent and resourceful family during the first half of the twentieth century, beginning in the First World War and following the progress of the Arab Revolt under the Sharif Faysal in 1916, then the French Mandate in 1920, the Syrian Revolution in 1925, the events in Alexandretta in 1937, and so on.

Hanna Mina To turn to the literary achievement of the most famous Syrian novelist, Hanna Mina (b. 1924) published his first novel, Blue Lamps, in 1954. Had he ceased writing at this point in his life few readers interested in the Arabic novel would even have remembered him, much less have studied his writing. This, his earliest novel, suffers from a number of shortcomings, both in structure and in character development. Hanna Mina, however, returned to novel-writing after a lapse of some twelve years, when his first more mature and more distinguished novel, al-Shirac wa al-casifa (The Sail and the Storm), appeared in 1966. Since that time, he has been producing a steady stream of novels. Except for a few works which do not consistently follow the generally understood format of the novel and some insignificant ones, such as alMarsad(The Observatory), Hanna Mina's novels derive many episodes from experiences which the author lived through personally. In this respect, he resembles Tawfiq al-Hakim whose novels also revolve around certain stages of his life. A fundamental difference is that Tawfiq al-Hakim wrote four novels, whereas Hanna Mina wrote some twenty. There is no doubt that the rich complexity of Hanna Mma's life and the variety of trades and professions he practiced are all factors which impelled him to produce this large array of novels, just by relying on recollections from his rich adventures and experiences. He has indeed lived a life full of profound and unusual experiences. In spite of growing up in an impoverished family which suffered chronic dep-

The Novel in Syria

75

rivation, he received his primary school certificate. He began working at the age of twelve, when he did assorted marginal chores at the port of Iskandaruna (Alexandretta) for a short period. He served as a boy companion for the young child of a well-to-do family. He worked as a vegetable seller, an apprentice waiter in a coffee house, at a tennis court, as a barber's helper, and as a newspaper seller. He finally settled down to become a barber and opened his own modest barbershop, working there until the age of twentyfour. During those years, he espoused communism and performed various tasks for the Syrian Communist Party. Closing his barber shop in 1948, he went to work as an editor of the newspaper 'Insha' in Damascus. Now began a new phase in his life, more suited to his standing and education. Work in this new profession, however, did not always provide financial security. After the revolution of Husni al-Zacim in 1949, he was obliged to flee the country and take refuge for a time in Beirut. Once again during the Union of Syria and Egypt, he was accused of being a radical communist and obliged to return to Beirut. Although he had become a journalist and short story writer, he had to work off and on in a restaurant, in a nail factory, and in a construction company just to make ends meet. Despite his uncertain income, he was able to travel and made his way to China, Japan, and Hungary. He accepted a contract to teach Arabic in Hungary and to produce a literary program in Arabic for Budapest radio. Upon his return to Syria in late 1967, he abandoned politics in order to devote himself to literature and writing. As a result of his new status as a respected author, he held important positions in the Syrian Ministry of Culture.16 His extraordinarily ever-changing life, beset with poverty, struggle for survival, exile, life in foreign cultures, unending challenges, proved to be the most important source of themes for his novels, all of which one may take as partly autobiographical. When he began working in journalism and writing fiction, Hanna Mina was twenty-four years old. He spent the first eight years of his life with his family in villages near Iskandaruna, moving several times from one village to another. Finally the family moved to Iskandaruna to stay for the next seven years. He deals with these fifteen years in his novels Baqaya Suwar (Pictures from an Old Family Album) and al-Mustanqac (The Swamp) in such an obvious way that some critics were convinced that they were autobiographies. Some family members felt embarrassed and ashamed, blaming him for this exposure. The two novels take up the life of an impoverished Syrian family in the 1920s, showing how ordinary people lived in the Syr-

76

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ian countryside against a background of ignorance, exploitation, misery, and backwardness. There are also vivid descriptions of destitute workers in conditions of extreme poverty, drudgery, and unrest in Iskandaruna. After the Turkish takeover of Iskandaruna in 1939, they were obliged to leave their homes for Latakiya. If one remembers that Iskandaruna and Latakiya are on the Mediterranean, that Hanna Mina began working as a boy in the port of Iskandaruna, and that more than once he had to take refuge in Beirut which is also on the Mediterranean, it is no wonder that the sea is ever present in his works: The Sail and the Storm, al-Yatir, Thulathiyat al-bahr (Trilogy of the Sea), Hikayat bahhar (A Sailor's Yam), al-Daqal (The Mainmast), and al-Marfa' al-bacid (The Far Haven). It should also be noted, along with the autobiographical aspects, that frequently there will be a situation in one novel resembling that in another or that certain incidents have been previously enacted in earlier novels. Another factor that increases the sense of deja vu is the other axis of Mina's narratives: the political and social events in the history of Syria and the prevailing social conditions in the state, related from a socialist point of view in all cases. Mina can be accused of occasionally taking recourse in a mere 'reporting' of incidents and of using a journalistic style in his narrative. His plot structure is occasionally weak and he too often includes excessive discussions of Syrian political life. It must be remembered that he is a socialist realist writer in the sense that his novels analyze reality from this perspective, concentrating on the manifestations of poverty and backwardness among the proletariat and on the corruption of the ruling and capitalist classes. He arouses the reader's sympathy for the oppressed strata of society who struggle collectively to improve their lot by consolidating as a group. The Swamp presents an instance in which unionized activity is transformed into action by the masses when they confront the French occupying authority. Hanna Mina, however, is also enthusiastic about the traditional epic hero, who is characterized by shahama (noble-mindedness and courage) as he confronts the corrupt and powerful elite and rescues the weak and downtrodden of his own class. This hero possesses hunka, a particular worldly wisdom gained from wide experiences and the vicissitudes of inconstant fortune, along with deep-rooted patriotism. The hero is a lusty lover, a Don Juan always on the qui vive for amorous adventures; he delights in women and the cabaret; he is in love with life.

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan

77

His heroes of this type are exemplified by al-Tarusi in The Sail and the Storm; by Zakariya al-Marsinli in al-Yatir, and by Sacid Hazzum in The Sea Trilogy: A Sailor's Yam, The Mainmast, and The Far Haven. These vigorous, passionate characters make a lasting impression on the reader and they contrast with the secondary or peripheral figures who reflect the author's life. The supporting characters, however, are realistically drawn, even though they are not as clearly memorable. Hanna Mina's novels reveal his scrupulously careful observation of people's living conditions, of nature, and, particularly, of the sea. His writing is distinguished by his superior talent in depicting character and weaving together complex events to which his brilliant narrative skill confers a spontaneous momentum. He is a master in penetrating the depths of human nature and personal relationships and in unfolding human secrets. Complexities such as these are expressed in language both serene and lucid, precisely fitting the situations described. His language can also at times be superbly lyrical, especially in scenes involving the sea. What makes the name of Hanna Mina so uniquely linked to the Syrian novel is that, besides all that has been discussed here thus far, he has brought into high relief the Syrian personality and the Syrian environment more successfully than any of his contemporaries. He presents modern Syrian social and political history in a rich human context. His literary production has been prolific, serious, and true to life.

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan The mature Palestinian novel has flourished within a very short time and is now represented by works of considerable refinement, in spite of its relatively recent appearance on the Arab scene. There are many Palestinian novelists, both in their historical homeland and in the diaspora, and many Jordanian novelists as well. Among the leading writers of Palestine and Jordan are Sahar Khalifa, Yahya Yakhluf, Tawfiq Fayad, Llyana Badr, Ghassan Kanafam, Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra, Emil Habibi, Ghalib Halasa, 'Ibrahim Nasrallah, and Taysir Sabul. Within the limited space allowed in this present volume, this brief review will concentrate on the works of Ghassan Kanafani, Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra, and Emil Habibi.

Ghassan Kanafani There are some literary historians who date the emergence of the first Palestinian novel as 1943, when 'Ishaq Musa al-Husayni's novel Mudhakkirat

78

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

dajaja (Memoirs of a Hen) was published. A general consensus, however, almost unanimously recognizes the short novel Rijal taht al-shams (Men Under the Sun), published in 1963 by Ghassan Kanafani (1936-1972), as being the first Palestinian novel in the full sense of what defines the genre. With regard to al-Husayni's Memoirs of a Hen, this work is a kind of a long allegorical narrative or tale told by a domestic fowl. If considered as a novel, it suffers from transparency of symbolism, carried well beyond reasonable limits. The mentality and style of expression are excessively obvious and direct. Enemy fowl are infiltrating into the chicken coop and barn yard, swarming in and jostling the native flock in their nests. The rightful owners of the coop begin to cluck about resistance and revenge. But the wise old fowl counsels the others to hold back from opposition to the infiltrators. In their present lack of strength, they can hardly hope to be an adequate match for the overpowering numbers of the fierce enemy poultry. The situation ends when the foreign hens seize the coop, which is henceforth no longer large enough for its rightful owners and the fowl invaders. The wise old hen recommends that the wrongfully dispossessed hens spread out in a diaspora throughout the world. The flock of hens then scatter, submitting to the principle of right alone in the hope of persuading the tyrannical usurper that his injustice will bring about his downfall. Then a general humane issue will be resolved, not merely a part of it. In spite of the abstractions, the baldness of style, the transparent symbolism, not to say superficiality, the author is to be commended for openly proclaiming through his novel an opinion on which the overwhelming majority of Palestinians and Jordanians generally disagreed. From this angle, he reminds one of the stance of the opinions of a few Arab politicans, such as that of the Egyptian statesman 'Ismacil Sidqi, for example, who did not support Egypt's entry into the Israeli-Palestinian War of 1948 and who was considered a traitor to the Arab cause in those days. In Sidqi's view acceptance of the UN partition could have thus fixed the Israeli-Palestinian border, providing a sustainable degree of internationally recognized equity, while the Israelis, in time, would be swallowed by the millions of friendly Arabs through intermarriage. Returning to Ghassan Kanafani, he actually only published four novellas: Men Under the Sun in 1963, Ma tabaqqa lakum (All That's Left for You) in 1966, 'Umm Sacd (Sacd's Mother) in 1969, and cA'id 'ila Hayfa (Returning to Haifa) in 1970.

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan

79

Three unfinished works, which were published after his assassination, and the arguments which they have stirred up will not be dealt with here, given the limitations imposed by this survey. The first two novels technically supersede the latter two by far, contrary to readers' expectations. In the first two novels, Ghassan Kanafani expresses the central purport of his thought through the body of the novel, in contrast the later two novels, which contain many explicit declarations and attempts by the author to convey his ideas by the most direct means possible to the widest possible readership. Kanafani commented on this didactic approach saying, "I set aside what I considered the valuable artistic accomplishment that I had achieved in All That's Left for You. I tried to make Sacd's Mother a book which would be read by the masses."17 This statement could equally be applied to Returning to Haifa, which appeared in the same year as Sacd's Mother. It seems that the horror of the June 1967 debacle prompted this attitude. Apparently the author, who was intensely sincere and passionate in defending the cause of the Palestinian people, had just undergone a second devastating trauma and could no longer bear the luxury of artistic experimentation in which he had indulged in the early 1960s. In both the earlier novels, Ghassan Kanafani uses the techniques of modern narrative, including flashbacks, stream of consciousness, symbolism, multiple narrators in the first person, personification of nature, personification of abstract ideas and opinions, use of repeated dramatic situations to express a central theme, and poetic language. In Men Under the Sun, three Palestinians, 'Abu Qays, 'Ascad, and Marwan agree with a Palestinian truck driver, 'Abu al-Khayzuran to take them to Kuwait in his water tank van. 'Abu al-Khayzuran is preoccupied with sexual adventures despite having been disabled as a result of wounds suffered in the 1948 War. He underwent an operation which saved his life but left him sexually incapacitated. 'Abu al-Khayzuran agrees to take them to Kuwait where they dream of leading a comfortable, easy life. Before they pass across the border of Iraq into Kuwait, however, the driver asks the three to hide inside the empty water tank under the broiling desert sun of the Gulf, assuming that it will only be a matter of a few minutes. But the border guards, bored to distraction, waste a long time talking about 'Abu al-Khayzuran's sexual exploits. At last when he is able to drive on and passes beyond the danger area, 'Abu al-Khayzuran opens the tank to find to

80

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

his horror that the three stowaways have suffocated and roasted to death. He sees no other way out than to bury their bodies under a heap of rubbish, a burial of ultimate ignominy in this desert of exile. In extreme consternation, 'Abu al-Khayzuran screams out, "Why did they not knock on the sides of the tank?" Clearly the novel can be read on two levels, the realistic and the symbolic. The novel condemns the course of action which aims at personal salvation, by escape, on the individual level. It likewise condemns submission and surrender to the occupiers and lack of resistance. It warns that such negative, selfish behavior may lead to self-destruction, whether on the individual plane or on the scale of Palestinian society in its entirety. In the next novel, All That's Left for You, the situation is changing as the Resistance begins to take shape and become a reality. Hamid thrusts his dagger up to the face of an Israeli soldier in an isolated spot in the occupied desert as he is on his way to Jordan to join his mother, obliged to live there since the 1948 War when her request to return to her home in Palestine was denied. Hamid is fleeing from the imminent disgrace about to befall his sister Maryam, who has been made pregnant by Zakariya, a Palestinian ne'er-do-well who has turned traitor to the resistance movement. Zakariya marries Maryam, despite her brother's disapproval, only to spare her the dishonor of having a child out of wedlock. On his way to Jordan, Hamid meets an Israeli soldier and brandishes the dagger in his face before the latter is able to use his gun. In a technique using the phenomenon of mental telepathy, Hamid's sister plants a knife in the body of her traitorous husband just as Hamid's dagger gleams in the face of the enemy soldier. It is clear that Ghassan Kanafani was keen on presenting negative attitudes about Palestine even before positive views, in order to deter and warn against negativism. His aim is to spur his compatriots to keeping up the struggle. He has been honest in describing the negative and positive Palestinian reality of life during the period in which the two books were written. Hence Hamid does not slay the Israeli soldier because the Palestinian resistance had not yet taken off from the ground. When All That's Left for You was written, it would have been a mistake "for Hamid to do more than brandish the dagger. This was an anticipation of a future act. Sacd, in the novel Sacd's Mother three years later, made this anticipation a reality."18 In both of the earlier two novels, Ghassan Kanafani uses modern artistic devices. The desert speaks in a stream of consciousness within the stream of

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan

81

consciousness of Hamid, Maryam, and others, in a dramatic style both intruding in and intricately interacting with their thoughts. Kanafani usually introduces characters here and in Men Under the Sun through reminiscences and flashbacks, by which the reader is made aware of the entire background of these persons: the defects, positive features, dreams, frustrations, dashed hopes, and griefs of the protagonists. Each of the principal characters is presented as distinct from the others through this style rich in lyrical touches, especially in situations of weakness, defeat, and sorrow. The latter two novels do not rise to the previously mentioned sophisticated artistic level. Kanafani's novels have been praised highly by many critics. Although such praise is undoubtedly deserved, one feels that such enthusiasm for his work has been fueled, at least in part, by the horrifying manner of his death by car-bomb assassination while he was still young and in his creative prime.

Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra (1919-1994) once declared, "Whoever studies my works must study all of my currents and trends together. He should study them in chronological progression. Otherwise, if he were to take one aspect of my thinking, he would discover later on that, through his neglect, his study was unsound."19 In saying this, he means that the reader should keep in mind all of his various talents and aims at the same time for a full appreciation of his writings. Jabra was a poet, a novelist, a literary critic, a painter, and a translator of high caliber. Furthermore, he was widely cultured in Western civilization. Unquestionably all of this background enriched his novels and infused them with a unique individuality not often found among other Palestinian nor, in fact, the majority of other Arab novels. His broad culture, his penetrating critical talent and experience, and his translations of Shakespeare and Faulkner have unquestionably left marked influences on his novels. This explains why his novels generally center around cultured Arabs who display an extensive understanding of Western culture, ancient and modern. The techniques of the modern novel also figure prominently: precise design and flowing lyrical expression are characteristic of all his works. Jabra wrote his first novel Surakh fi layl tawil (A Shriek in a Long Night) in 1946, which was not actually published until 1955, and his sec-

82

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ond novel Sayyadun fi sharic dayyiq (Hunters on a Narrow Street), first published in English, in 1960. His fame as a novelist, however, was only recognized in the Arab world with the publication of his novel al-Safina (The Ship) in 1969. The heroes of The Ship are a group of cultured individuals who are travelling on a tour around the Mediterranean. Setting out from Beirut, they stop in various ports, continuing their cruise for a week. The group includes Lamya', an Oxford graduate, and her husband Falih, a successful surgeon. Lamya' has been passionately in love with clsam, an engineer, ever since they met as students in England. Old family grudges, however, have prevented their marriage. Three of the group are Iraqis. Maha is a Lebanese physician engaged to Wadic cAssaf, a Palestinian businessman. Through Maha, Dr. Falih becomes acquainted with Emilia, an Italian who has been deserted by her Lebanese husband. It is love at first sight for both of them, and the two are right away involved in a passionate romance. On shipboard discussions arise about many topics and issues occupying Arab intellectuals at this time. The names of many leading luminaries of Western civilization are bandied about: novelists, painters, sculptors, and musicians. These broad cultural conversations are a typical feature of Jabra's novels. The reader becomes familiar with the private worlds of the characters of the novel by means of reminiscences and flashbacks. The language is powerful, efficient, and at times highly intellectual. Many scenes are described with a most charming lyricism. The narrative is not presented by one narrator, but rather by numerous first person speakers, in the manner of Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury, which Jabra himself translated into Arabic. The Ship is not a novel about memorable events, but rather of personalities, issues, and lively discussions of ideas. The novel begins startlingly with a failed suicide attempt by a Dutch passenger. This incident opens up a debate on the subject of suicide. It appears later on that the unsuccessful self-immolation is in fact a prefiguration of the suicide of Falih at the end of the novel. One reason is his discovery of the love affair between his wife and clsam. As the novel concludes, the main protagonists find themselves frustrated and powerless to realize their dreams, both in their individual lives and on the national level. While the novel The Ship was largely responsible for Jabra's ascent to fame, which spread far and wide in the Arab world, it was al-Bahth °an

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan

83

Walid Mascud (The Search for Walid Mascud), published in 1978, which confirmed his preeminent position as a leading Arab novelist. In this novel, narrative techniques are remarkably advanced. The plot is well developed, and the language is clear and penetrating. The cultured Palestinian stands out with a dramatic clarity which only Jabra has achieved. Likewise Palestine and the Palestinian dilemma appear as a dominant theme on a scale not to be found in Jabra's earlier works. The novel opens after Walid Mascud has already disappeared after leaving on the tapedeck of his abandoned car a recording in his own voice. The tape reveals, as through a stream of consciousness, a series of garbled emotional utterances, which sound like hallucinations upon first hearing. Gradually, however, the reader manages to grasp levels of hidden meanings behind the apparently illogical and jumbled words. One comprehends Walid's depths of grief over the slaying of his son Marwan, a freedomfighter, at the hands of the Israelis. His wife Rima has been put into a hospital for the mentally ill in Bethlehem. He speaks about his relationships with his friends, both male and female, and of his numerous sexual adventures. He records extensive information about his childhood, his youth, his humble origins, and much more. in the novel, Walid Mascud is, so to speak, an incarnation of the Palestinian personality in exile, as no other novel presents or has presented. He has achieved success in his job and has reached an enviable rung on the social ladder. He occupies a position of respect and is appreciated among the elite of the Palestinian community in exile and the leading intellectuals of the Palestinian diaspora at large. He is often thronged by sophisticated women of culture who wish to form friendships with him. He often appears more clever than those around him. In spite of this success, he carries within himself the inconsolable grief for the land which is lost, the tragedy of his homeland. These losses of his past, which he sees all about him, make life loathsome to him. He feels guilty that he is able to enjoy a life of calm and comfort, wine, intimate love, intellectual and spiritual interests, and good friendships with both men and women friends, while multitudes of his fellow countrymen are living in unabated distress. He finally leaves his country of exile, Iraq, to join the Palestinian resistance in Lebanon. This is, at least, what Wisal Ra'uf, his latest and youngest favorite woman friend, believes. She refuses to imagine that Walid would ever have committed suicide or that the enemy could have killed him, or that he could

84

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

have fallen victim to a conspiracy. She decides to journey to Lebanon to search for him. Even though the character of Walid occupies by far the greatest attention in this novel, the other leading characters also command their ample share of interest. Each of them is uniquely distinct in the novel. Among them, one meets the objective academic, the revolutionary in theory only, and the wealthy heir to a fortune who has embraced communism all the while realizing that modern technology is the force that will take charge of changing the world. Their individual distinctiveness notwithstanding, the character of Walid receives a large measure of interest from each of them. In order fully to comprehend the particular genius of Jabra's literary achievement, several points must be emphasized. Jabra has introduced innovations in narrative style. He has created vibrant living portraits from a world of bourgeois intellectuals. His own unique lyricism of expression flows through many a page. He presents individual striking personalities of distinction, even if they do not measure up to the level of the character of Walid. With the publication of In Search for Walid Mascud, Jabra has contributed a novel which rightfully belongs among the great novels of the Arab world.

Emil Habibi A number of Palestinian writers remained in their homeland under Israeli rule after the partition of Palestine in 1948 and after the 1967 debacle. Four authors of this group stand out: Tawfiq Fayad (b. 1939), Emil Habibi (1921-1999), Sahar Khalifa (b. 1941) and Yahya Yakhluf (b. 1944). Within the limits imposed in this rapid survey, one brilliant novel written by Emil Habibi will be discussed: al-Waqa'ic al-gharlba fi ikhtifa' Sacid 'Abi al-Nahs al-Mutasha'il, (The Strange Events in the Disappearance of Sacid 'Abi Nahs, the Pessoptimist), published in 1974. In this work Emil Habibi gives a factually realistic picture of the life of the Palestinians who remained in their homeland after the breakup of Palestine in 1948. It is a portrayal of rollicking vitality and sharply cutting irony of the factual situation in which Palestinians live under Israeli occupation. Negative features emerge before positive qualities. Staunch patriots and freedom fighters come on to the scene. The oppression of the usurpers appears in a style devoid of exaggeration. It is made clear that whoever lets himself be seduced into bowing down to or collaborating with the occupying authorities will only earn the shame and humiliation of betrayal. Nor will the turncoat

The Novel in Palestine and Jordan

85

escape the tyranny of the Israelis or their prisons. The series of succeeding scenes is rounded out by the historical dimension of Palestine and other Arab countries, the struggle of the people against the forces of occupation since the invasions of the Crusaders, the siege of Acre, and the British Mandate, up through the fall of Palestine in 1948, the Tripartite Aggression by Israel, Britain, and France in 1956, the defeat of 1967, and the massacres of Black September, 1970. All of this historical background passes in review in deftly arranged time flashes in which the present stirs up the" memory of past and previously repeated episodes in harmony or in contradiction. The stylistic innovation is in fact the unprecedented form which Emil Habibi uses. He combines the classical maqama of a thousand years ago with science fiction and quotations from classical Arabic poetry. He makes fine modern use of literary Arabic generally in his writing, in which, however, current locutions and sayings mixed with colloquial Palestinian often occur, as the situation dictates. He has created an extraordinary personality, a character who rescues this work from gloom and harsh reality common to political novels, and so makes it a pleasure to read. As for the foremost artistic technique which Emil Habibi utilizes to achieve the extraordinary effect of the personality and the novel altogether, it is his stinging irony. The irony begins in the title itself: Sacid (Happy) 'Abi al-Nahs (Father of Star-crossed Calamity), then al-Mutasha'il, a hilarious term sculpted from the two words mutafa'il (optimist) and mutasha'im (pessimist), which in English would come across like 'pessoptimist.' Indeed verbal sculpture is to be found scattered all through the novel. This irony then penetrates into the characters, into all manner of situations, into details of incidents, and into language. The irony here often makes a reader laugh, but what kind of laughter is it? "It is the most dreadful calamity that unleashes laughter," according to the Arab proverb, for the contents are very tragic indeed. The author intentionally aimed to spread laughter through his novel out of a personal need. As he himself says: "I had a definite purpose in mind, which is to expose the foolishness of the ethnic persecution in Israel, to reveal the weakness of those who are inflicting repression, and to tell the persecuted, 'You are stronger than they are, if you will only realize your strength.' I had to direct my criticisms at the whole society of the oppressed and to lay bare their weak points."20 The achievements of Emil Habibi in this novel and, on a broader scale, Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra have enabled the Palestinian novel to establish a wor-

86

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

thy position of literary achievement in the sphere of Arabic novel-writing across the Arab world.

The Novel in Iraq The Iraqi literary critic Dr. Muhsin Jasim al-Musawi wrote in 1986, "The Arabic novel has remained on the periphery of modern writing in Iraq in contrast to the short story, both in terms of technique and subject matter."21 Even so, several novels published during the last three decades have shone with special luster. Iraqi academic Zuhayr Shalabiya views Gha'ib Tucma Farman as the pioneer of the Iraqi artistic novel. He considers Farman's al-Nakhla wa aljiran (The Palm Tree and the Neighbors), 1966, the first technically distinguished Iraqi novel in comparison to previous works, in that the novel accomplishes most of the fundamental requirements of its genre of literature.22 Nonetheless, neither Iraqi novelists nor short story writers have managed to captivate the attention of Arab readers outside Iraq with their writings, as certain of their colleagues have done in the realm of poetry. In comparison, Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, cAbd al-Wahhab al-Bayyati, cAbd al-Rahman alJawahiri, and Nazik al-Mala'ika are classed among top-ranking Arabic poets all over the Arab world. The novel effectively began in Iraq at the end of the 1930s with the publication of al-Duktur 'Ibrahim (Dr. 'Ibrahim), by Dhu al-Nun 'Ayyub, in 1939. The author, born in 1908, moved to Vienna in 1960 out of exasperation with the situation in Iraq at that time. At the beginning of his professional career, he had encountered corruption in the form of undeserved advancement through political influence. 'Ayyub found himself deprived of a fellowship grant to study overseas, in spite of his outstanding academic record, while undistinguished students jumped ahead to grab overseas study grants with the help of influential family friends and were eventually appointed to high-ranking posts. Before the appearance of Dr. 'Ibrahim, a number of novels had already been published in Iraq. From among these early novels, the most prominent is probably Jalal Khalid, by Muhammad 'Ahmad al-Sayyid, published in 1928. Of course, new novels continued to appear on the book stands after the publication of Dr. 'Ibrahim. (See the bibliography for details.) In the opinion of most scholars, however, distinguished Iraqi novels are actually few in number, namely, those of Gha'ib Tucma Farman, Fu'ad al-Takarli

The Novel in Iraq

87

and cAbd al-Rahman Majid al-Rabici. 'Ismacil Fahd 'Ismacil (b. 1940) may also be included in the generation of al-Rabici. In the novels of 'Ismacil, who eventually took Kuwaiti nationality, the political dimension, at times, overshadows aesthetic features. Other writers who swell the ranks of aspiring novelists belong to the generation of Dhu al-Nun 'Ayyub, whose first novel Dr. 'Ibrahim is generally recognized as the first mature Iraqi novel. 'Ayyub depicts the career of the cultured opportunist who, for example, wears a different outfit of clothes for every occasion or office for the sole purpose of showing off for personal advantage. He shows no concern whatsoever for the public welfare, nor for the benefit of those around him. The author leads us through what he himself endured from the likes of such greedy self-promoting intellectuals. To an extent, the novel is based on his personal experiences. Dhu al-Nun 'Ayyub wrote a number of novels including the significant Wa cala al-dunya al-salam (Peace on Earth). This novel, which he wrote from Austria after the defeat of 1967, conveys his view of the disaster. The social and political world view which Dhu al-Nun ' Ayyub adopted in the 1940s remained a prime focus of interest for the following generation of authors. The most prominent of this younger group of novelists are Gha'ib Tucma Farman, Ghanim al-Dabbagh, and Fu'ad al-Takarli. Then came novelists of the third generation, the generation ofc Abd al-Rahman alRabici and 'Ismacil Fahd 'Ismacil. Given the limited space of this survey, three novels have been selected for review here: Khamsat 'aswat(Five Voices), 1967, by Gha'ib Farman; alRajac al-bacid (The Distant Echo), 1980, by Fu'ad al-Takarli; and al-Washm (The Tattoo), 1972, by cAbd al-Rahman Majid al-Rabici.

Gha'ib Tucma Farman's Five Voices Gha'ib Tucma Farman (1927-1990) wrote some ten novels (see the bibliography), of which Khamsat 'aswat(Five Voices) will be discussed here. The plot revolves around a group of friends all of whom are well educated. The circle includes a journalist, a poet, and an aspiring novelist. The author devotes a special chapter to each one, gradually weaving the strands of one character's life into the threads of the lives of the others. Thus the whole fabric of the novel is woven into a tapestry. The five voices are, first of all, Sacid the journalist, who works in a leftist newspaper in charge of editing the readers' complaints column. Actually, it is through Sacid's column that the novel successfully reveals the various

88

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

shades of corruption and the pitiful lot of the masses in Iraq during the period preceding the revolution. The second voice is that of another journalist, 'Ibrahim, whose life is very much involved in his newspaper. He appears as a strong believer in principles and in the people. As for the third voice, it is the voice of the poet Sharif, a dreamer, unemployed, living entirely at the expense of his friends. He spends his nights on the roof of the newspaper building. He is permanently on the qui vive for sex. He believes he has not been adequately appreciated as the great poet that he is convinced he is: not one jot below Baudelaire! The fourth voice belongs to cAbd al-Khaliq, the government employee, vastly cultured, and an aspiring novelist. The fifth and final voice is that of Hamid, the bank employee. He has hidden from his friends the fact that he is married and a paterfamilias. He neglects his family quite shamefully so that he may spend long nights with his friends in cafes and cabarets, where they discuss the problems of society and the world, trying to forget their private problems. The truth about Hamid's double life is found out when his wife sends a letter to the newspaper seeking the assistance of the complaints column editor, Sacid. The concerned editor dutifully goes to the family home, whereupon he discovers the truth about their friend Hamid's family situation. Sacid is furious with Hamid for tricking them into believing that he was a bachelor and for thus neglecting his family. Hamid, the husband and father, tries to justify his conduct by saying that he had never wished this marriage in the first place and that one day "he opened his eyes to find that he was a husband." The novel ends as the newspaper is shut down by order of the government of Nuri al-Sacid. The two journalists turn into vagabonds. cAbd alKhaliq, the government employee, is also dismissed from his post as a destructive element. Hamid has a nervous breakdown after divorcing his wife, who goes to live with her family in Karbala'. He takes to drinking after leaving his job. As for the poet Sharif, he not only fails to win the heart of the girl whom he has been dreaming of marrying, but also the courtesan he was sponging off of completely. The author, in relating the many vicissitudes in the lives of these friends, has brilliantly succeeded in creating portraits of personalities pulsating with life and depicting the grim panorama of political and social reality under the monarchy. The writer also deserves high regard for his broad hu-

The Novel in Iraq

89

mane objectivity in avoiding partisan rigidity, either political or sectarian, on the artistic side. He wins accolades in addition for portraying convincing characters, each entirely individual, despite their belonging to the same social class and cultural milieu, and despite their allegiance to the same ideology.

Fu'ad al-Takarli's Distant Echo One of the most striking novels in modern Iraq is al-Rajc al-bacid (The Distant Echo), 1980, by Fu'ad al-Takarll (b. 1927). Not only does it surpass al-Takarli's previous novels, but also occupies a distinguished position in Iraq overall. Technically he displays virtuosity in his mature utilization of the varied arts of modern narrative craft. He reveals depths of perception and humanity. He provides masterful descriptions of daily life within the homes and crowded alleys of the medieval quarter of Baghdad. In the many difficult human predicaments confronted in the novel, his descriptive powers rise to poetic heights. The Distant Echo traces the destinies of members of a family over three generations, along with their relatives, in-laws, and friends. The novel resembles the third part of a family trilogy. By an artful use of time and acute sensitivity in selecting highly charged, richly suggestive detail, the material circumstances in which each generation lives are made known from various angles. The same event may be told from more than one point of view. Thus the present life and activities of each main character are made known, while the remote past and recent happenings are presented by means of reminiscences, flashbacks, dreams, nightmares, and interiorized monologues. Merely the scene of the grandmother and granddaughter bringing bread back to the house through the alleyways of old Baghdad at the opening of the novel shows clearly the novelist's acute sensibility in capturing convincing suggestive details. In this charming episode, the characters represent three generations, even though only two generations are apparent: grandmother and granddaughter. This snapshot vignette informs the reader of the social status to which the family belongs and of the kind of neighborhood in which they live. The grandmother's walk as she goes to fetch the daily bread with her granddaughter also indicates the sort of neighborhood they live in. Yet the two of them are not alone, as grandmother glimpses son-in-law Husayn, granddaughter Sana"s father, approaching from a distance. Privately she wishes that Sana' will not see him. She asks herself, "What mad wind has blown

90

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

him back from Kuwait? Have they discovered what he's up to and kicked him out?" Here material actuality is mingled with abstract imagining, the present with the accumulated recollections of the past within an interiorized monologue and remembrances. Two elements thus fuse and intertwine to furnish additional background about the family and other protagonists. The reader's curiosity is aroused further to seek out the meaning of these hints and clues with mounting excitement, as the pieces of the puzzle fill out an increasingly intriguing picture. Growing suspense casts a very particular spell in the ensuing chapters of al-Takarli's novel. Although the novel portrays the lives of three generations, the greater concentration is on individuals of the middle generation. Especially in the spotlight are Midhat, the eldest son; his brother cAbd al-Karim, the university student; and Husayn, the husband of their sister Madiha. Living with them also is their cousin Munira, a teacher who moved from the town of Bacquba to Baghdad after having been raped by her nephew c Adnan. Munira plays a pivotal role in the development of the plot, in keeping the cohesion of the several strands of action and in actualizing the unity of the whole. She is fortunate in that the rape does not lead to pregnancy. She decides to keep her secret to herself, thus renouncing the idea of marriage for the rest of her life. However, both brothers, Midhat and cAbd al-Karim, fall in love with her. Under extraordinary pressure from the family, she agrees to marry Midhat. But on her wedding night when he discovers that she is not a virgin, he is totally shattered. His world is turned upside down. He abandons her without a word and runs off to live with Husayn, his alcoholic brotherin-law. Husayn, who had felt himself intolerably weighed down by the burdens of a wife and job, simply up and left home and family to live a hippie existence of vagabondage and dolce far niente. Near the end of the novel, Midhat reexamines his soul and conscience in long days and nights of pondering. He comes to a personal reevaluation of society's attitude regarding the issue of virginity, and rejecting this attitude, decides to return to his wife whom he had never ceased to love. However, the very day that he sets out on his way back to Munira happens to coincide with the uprising against cAbd al-Karim Qasim. Finding himself in the vast human sea of chaotic confusion which reigned in the streets of Baghdad, Midhat is shot and killed by a stray bullet. Munira never knows of his decision to return to her. As for cAbd al-Karim, he lives in a mentally disturbed state after his dearest friend Fu'ad is struck down and killed in a car accident as Fu'ad

The Novel in Iraq

91

walks beside him. He feels guilty about the stand he took concerning his friend's death, the causes of which are ambiguous. cAbd al-Karim becomes psychosomatically ill, suffering bouts of nervous anxiety and repeated nightmares. Life holds no meaning for him. He loses all interest in living until he encounters Munira, with whom he again falls in love. In her face he sees his friend Fu'ad, perhaps because they are both victims. He keeps his unrequited love for her to himself until Midhat's death. Then he implores her to accept his love, which she refuses sharply and decisively. The careful reader will observe that Munira, as Dr. CAli Raci has pointed out, is more mature and more self-possessed than all the other members of her generation in the novel—more so than cAbd al-Karim, Husayn, or Midhat.23 She possesses shrewd insight and sound judgment regarding the situations that confront her; she has formidable willpower and determination in taking decisions, and she possesses the patience of Job. After being raped, she assesses her predicament, thanking God that it did not result in pregnancy, and decides to keep this calamity a secret and to renounce the idea of marriage. When family pressure and love of Midhat sufficiently move her to marry him, he straightaway deserts her on her wedding night as already mentioned. Although she then spends many miserable days feeling degraded, she does not crumple or collapse. She bides her time patiently and holds up heroically. When cAbd al-Karim declares his love to her, she rejects his attentions categorically saying, "Keep your emotions to yourself! There can be no relation between us. Do you understand?" She comments on Midhat's forsaking her in terms such that cAbd al-Karim will be left in no doubt as to what occurred on her wedding night. "I knew all that. I understood it well. I wanted to live on my own, on the margin of life. You would not let me. He was more ill than I was. He was weaker and more contorted than you or I. And he was cowardly, too." She also tells cAbd alKarim, "You are like me, like all of us here. You're deformed and sick." The story of what happens to Munira does not signify that this is a novel of social and moral reform. Nor is this a political novel because of the various remarks and reflections about politics that come up in the occasionally political discussions of the friendly group at 'Uwanis Bar. Nor do c Adnan and Husayn's anticipation of a revolt against cAbd al-Karim Qasim indicate that this is intended as a political novel. Similarly, Midhat's death during the uprising does not imply any specific political partisanship on the part of the author. The Distant Echo is simply a lively dramatic presentation of a star-crossed section of humanity with their familiar problems, their

92

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

shocks and jolts, and varying fortunes paralleled with the manifold emotional reactions of the protagonists. The author has managed to create this drama through the lives of a group of friends and family members, each of whom suffers actual soul-wracking problems which have been dealt them by life and fate, not by the political regime. Munira has been a victim of rape and then is contemptibly abandoned by her bridegroom on their wedding night. Midhat is horror-struck just at the peak of expected happiness on the discovery that his bride has already lost her virginity. cAbd al-Karim, whose dearest friend Fu'ad was recklessly felled by a passing car as the two were walking side by side, is plagued by a morbidly haunting obsession that he somehow may have (or must have!) a share of guilt for Fu'ad's death or somehow betrayed him. Such personalities are presented in critical and down-to-earth dilemmas, using mature, modern narrative techniques which have been referred to earlier. It should also be noted here that the The Distant Echo is characteristically marked by a good balance in presenting scenes through dialogue in which every character expresses his view in clear, flawless Arabic. Multiple first-person narrators relate much of the developing plot, which is not dominated by a lone, all-knowing narrator. When the reader considers, upon finishing the novel, the full scope of al-Takarli's achievement in The Distant Echo, he may well reflect that unfortunately for the Iraqi (and Arabic) novel, the author did not devote himself much earlier to this literary genre, producing only a limited number of novels during his long artistic career. c

Abd al-Rahman al-Rabici's Tattoo

In cAbd al-Rahman Majid al-Rabi c is (b. 1939) novel al-Washm (The Tattoo), 1972, the principal hero is a cultured leftist revolutionary. An omniverous reader, he lives in poverty and participates in subversive movements. He enjoys wine in liberal evening draughts and spends nights with ladies of the oldest profession. When he is arrested and locked up in a stable for seven months, he has a nervous breakdown. He accepts defeat and swallows frustration. He is kept awake at night by one question: how can he get rid of this tattoo, which is to say, the charge leveled against him of being involved in revolutionary activities. Finally, he seizes a pen and writes out confessions, betrayals of friends, and promises under oath to his interrogators. When released, he tries to come to grips with life through women. Failing in this experiment also, he decides to emigrate to Kuwait, hoping

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

93

to rebuild a sane life after the loss, defeat, and depression from which he has suffered. Probably the most admirable feature of this short novel is the utter honesty in portraying this revolutionary, or this clique of revolutionaries, with a candor quite untypical of the prevailing image in most leftist revolutionary novels. In such works the hero is most often shown as silent and steadfast in devotion to the revolutionary cause in the face of torture and defeat.

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula A number of notable writers of fiction have appeared in recent decades in the Arabian Peninsula. In Saudi Arabia, novelists cAbd al-Rahman Munif, c Abd al-cAziz Mishri and 'Ismacil Fahd 'Ismacil have earned special distinction for their works. In Kuwait, Layla cUthman and Walid al-Rajib have produced novels of fine quality. In Yemen, Zayd Muti c Dammaj and Muhammad 'Ahmad cAbd al-Mawla are much appreciated writers. 'Ibrahim Khalifa and ' Amin Salih are considered the leading novelists of Bahrain. In the following pages, we will focus on several works of the outstanding novelist, cAbd al-Rahman Munif. We have previously discussed some of the novels of the Yemeni writer CAli 'Ahmad Bakathir (see the discussion of Bakathir's achievements in Najib Mahfuz's generation). c

Abd al-Rahman Munif

Born in 1933, this prolific Saudi Arabian novelist has thus far published thirteen novels. Of those, cAlam bila khara'it (World Without Maps ) was written in collaboration with the Palestinian novelist Jabra 'Ibrahim Jabra. Munif did not begin writing until the age of forty years when his first novel, al-'Ashjar wa ightiyal Marzuq (The Trees and the Assassination of Marzuq), came out in 1973. cAbd al-Rahman Munif is a markedly committed novelist. Nearly all of his novels revolve around the cause of freedom, the right of the Arab citizen to be free from political tyranny, arbitrary imprisonment, and torture.

East of the Mediterranean Of all his novels, Sharq al-mutawassit (East of the Mediterranean), published in 1975, most powerfully brings out Munif's commitment to the cause of freedom. The hero Rajab 'Ismacil, condemned to eleven years of prison, is subjected to the crudest forms of torture. Broken by years of extreme physical abuse and at long last persuaded by overwhelming emo-

94

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

tional pressure from his sister, who desperately wants to assist him to gain his release, he signs an oath renouncing political life and all further antigovernment activity. His sister, who loves him very dearly, is blinded to the horrific consequences for Rajab of this surrender of conscience, which to him constitutes a moral breakdown. After his release, it becomes apparent that the grievous afflictions which Rajab endured in prison were less cruel than the psychological pain of remorse which he feels from his moral collapse and his betrayal of the cause of freedom. To compound his distress, his beloved Huda has, in the meantime, given up waiting for him and marries another man while he is in prison. He is further devastated by the death of his mother, who has always been a source of steadfast defiance and indomitable strength. She had cautioned him against surrendering his conscience. Now he has only his sister 'Anisa left, whom he sees as the one who destroyed his life and led him to his moral breakdown. With permission from the authorities, he travels to France for treatment on the condition that he will inform on Saudi students in France by sending reports on their activities. When many months pass with no such reports forthcoming from Rajab, 'Amsa's husband Hamid becomes the victim of a program of harassment. Even though Hamid has absolutely no connection with any political activity, it was he who had guaranteed under formal oath that Rajab would return to his homeland. He is subjected to legal prosecution by the authorities and detained, sometimes for days on end. 'Anisa now urges her brother to come back, lest his continued absence abroad should provoke disastrous consequences for their family. Rajab realizes that he is obliged to return home. He is persuaded to go back most of all when it becomes obvious that his efforts to atone for his moral breakdown in abandoning the cause of liberty have not materialized. He had hoped to expiate his moral defection by writing a group novel with his family to expose the violations of human rights in the Saudi kingdom, or to compile for the Red Cross a factual account of the torture of prisoners in his country. Upon his homecoming, Rajab is once again imprisoned. He endures torture with steadfast courage and perseverance. Rajab, who becomes blind as a result of his torture, is eventually released so that he will not die in prison. Not long after regaining his freedom, he dies with peace of mind, his soul cleansed from the stain of having betrayed his conscience. Rajab's death fans the flame of resistance and the desire for revenge in the hearts of family members, who resolve to carry on

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

95

the struggle for freedom in Rajab's path. As the reader will observe, the novel portrays, in short, the position of the regime vis-a-vis a person of culture who believes in freedom East of the Mediterranean, which is to say, in the Arab homeland. The novel commences in medias res after Rajab has just come out of his first prison term and is on his way to France aboard a Greek liner. From here on the novel proceeds along two lines. One line of the narrative is directed to the past to inform the reader as to what took place before the novel begins. The other narrative line moves forward, depicting events and developments occurring, as it were, before the reader's eyes until the end of the novel. This strand of the story ushers us into the heart of the action from the very first page. This narrative stream provides a level of dynamism and dramatic excitement, generated by the action, which is missing in other works of the period. In this manner, the reader learns about Rajab's five-year imprisonment and the tortures he endured in his confinement. Early on in this twotiered arrangement of the novel, by means of reminiscences and flashbacks, the central events of the plot are related. Presented thus are the account of the death of Rajab's mother; the marriage of his beloved Huda to another man; ' Anisa's attempts to dissuade him from his stubborn adherence to his convictions so as to gain his release; his family's successful efforts in securing permission for him to travel abroad for medical treatment; and Hamid's formal guarantee that Rajab will return to his homeland. All of these events in fact take place before the beginning of the novel. In contrast, the chief events are narrated as though they are taking place directly in the reader's presence: Rajab's experiences during his voyage to France, his sojourn there until his return to prison, his release and death, and Hamid's arrest (for daring to reveal the secret of Rajab's death) at the end of the novel. The actual telling of the events is taken up in turns by Rajab and 'Anisa. Rajab relates the episodes in chapters one, three, and five, both by means of recollections and direct descriptions of happenings. The second, fourth, and sixth chapters are related by 'Anisa using these same techniques. Many of the recollections are cast in short sentences, beautifully and richly evocative. The reminiscences often approach poetic diction, in the recounting of scenes of pain or sorrow. The novel progresses in the same intensely serious tone without any psychological relief from tension and without any occasion for laughter or even a smile.

96

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The author, unlike most other novelists, does not balance solemnity with humor, or psychological tension with relaxation. Munif's novel is one of profound intensity. In this work he leave the reader the burden of handling the overwhelming despair his writing portrays. As we cannot cover all of the major novels Munif has written in this brief survey, we shall look quickly at a final opus, al-Nihayat (Endings), in order to devote enough time and space to discuss his greatest work: Mudun almilh (Cities of Salt). Endings This is the first novel by Munif to focus with such striking luxuriance of detail on the natural splendors of the desert. The author also concentrates on a particular village, called al-Tiba, located in an area moderately fertile in the desert uplands. The inhabitants exist on what the soil produces when watered by rains. If the rains are late, or fail to come, they live by hunting desert animals and birds. The villagers cherish hopes that a dam which they have been promised will relieve them from the thirst and tribulations of drought. However, dam construction is delayed for years by the powerful bureaucracy. In one particular season when drought occurs, four guests visit the village in the company of some village people who have been living in the city. While cautious not to prolong their visit in al-Tiba, they always help to lighten the woes of the drought-stricken inhabitants as best they can, The village welcomes the visitors warmly, generosity being a primary Arab virtue among settled folk and Bedouins alike. They agree to accept the lamb offered by the guests on a hunting trip, although the village is cautioned against unduly diminishing the birds and animals of the desert by cAssaf alFahd, the distinguished stranger. cAssaf is expertly well initiated in reading tracks in the desert and recognizing likely haunts good for hunting. He is fully proficient in hunting skills. He admonishes the villagers that a time will come when they will find no more birds or animals to eat if they continue to hunt excessively. cAssaf is appointed as guide and catches many times more game than his hunting companions. After pausing for lunch, the group decides to remain a while longer, contrary to their original plan. c Assaf is obliged to agree. A fierce desert storm blows up, however, soon engulfing them in blinding, suffocating dust, and causing them to fear for their lives. The following day all of the hunting party have survived, except for cAssaf, who was not with them in the Land Rover. His lifeless

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

97

body is found covered by his dog, which had spread himself over his master for fear of the eagles which were hovering above. The dog too had perished. They carry cAssaf's body back to the mukhtar's house, where on the next night a large gathering of villagers keep watch by him. They tell one amazing animal tale after another, two of which are taken from Kitab alhayawan (The Book of Animals) by al-Jahiz. The next morning the entire village turns out, along with the town dwellers who were originally from al-Tiba, for the funeral. They are joined on the way to the burial ground by folk from the neighboring hamlets and encampments forming such a great throng that those who witness the event claim that cAssaf is not just borne on their shoulders but soars. Munif possesses the special talent of being able to transform humdrum facts and happenings into scenes of wonder. cAssaf was a recluse, an introvert, enigmatic, looked upon disapprovingly by villagers of al-Tiba. Indeed many considered him mad. Yet at the end of the novel he is totally transfigured. He has become a saint, almost miraculously lifted up in his bier as he is carried to the cemetery. By his death he plants in the hearts of the people of al-Tiba the determination to struggle against the devastation brought on by drought and to prepare firm guarantees to counter the otherwise inevitable desolating aridity and famine. The village mayor addresses his fellow citizens thus: "I shall return no more to al-Tiba, except to get my rifle. Then I shall remain in the mountains. From there I, along with others, shall work, but not by hunting." (Is this a reference possibly to resistance against higher authority?) "When they agree to build a dam, I shall return driving a bulldozer to start work so that al-Tiba shall know the meaning of life instead of existing forever in the shadow of death, in which her people have lived every day." This novel marks the start of cAbd al-Rahman Munif's literary trek into the desert, where he explores its hidden secrets and records in vibrant prose the perennial fascination of the Arabian wilderness. He blazes a new yet authentically Arabian trail for the Arabic novel. Munif's desert wanderings culminate in his massive novel, Mudun al-milh (Cities of Salt), especially in the first, third, and fifth parts. This particular interest in following the life of the desert dwellers has also been taken up by the Libyan novelist 'Ibrahim al-Kuni. With refreshing genius in another manner of approach and treatment, al-Kuni reveals his depth of understanding and his special concern for desert life, as will be reviewed later in this volume.

98

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Cities of Salt Cities of Salt has the distinction of being the longest Arabic novel published to date. The work is divided into five volumes, each averaging some five hundred pages. It, therefore, reaches twice the length of Najib Mahfuz's Trilogy. The reader will do well to realize that this comparison with Mahfuz's compendious novel is by bulk only. Munlf's Cities of Salt ranks, nonetheless, among the genuinely outstanding Arabic novels overall, being rightly judged as excellent. It is, likewise, Munlf's finest and most important work. In his own assessment, Munif declares, "All the novels I wrote before Cities of Salt were tantamount to experiments or trial endeavors leading up to this novel which in particular I had been dreaming of writing for a very long time indeed."24 The titles of each volume of this enormous novel are as follows: 1. alTih (The Labyrinth); 2. al-'Ukhdud (The Trench); 3. Taqasim al-layl walnahar (Variations on Night and Day); 4. al-Munbatt (The Isolated One); 5. Badiyat al-zulumat (The Desert of Darkness), which is divided into two parts: Dhakirat al-'ams al-bacid (The Memory of a Long Gone Yesterday) and Dhakirat al- 'ams al-qarib (The Memory of a Recent Yesterday). The five volumes are arranged in a rather confusing manner. As for the first volume of the work, The Labyrinth, it is in fact weakly connected to the rest of the novel in the manner in which it is presented, even though it synchronizes with topics or situations in the first half of volume five, as will be shown later. By a normal time arrangement, which is to say, in straight chronological order, the novel would have begun with the third volume, Variations on Night and Day. Following this would be the first part of volume five, The Memory of a Long Gone Yesterday. Next would come The Trench, followed by the The Isolated One. The work would end with the second part of volume five, The Memory of a Recent Yesterday. All this will become clear to the reader if he remembers that four volumes, from the second to the fifth, describe the founding of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia at the beginning of the twentieth century under the command of King (then Sultan) cAbd al-cAziz of the Sacud dynasty. The narrative traces the successions of his son King Sacud to the throne. Then are recounted the events by which King Sacud was ousted from the throne, at the instigation of King Faysal and his brothers. The assassination of King Faysal is told in the last pages of Cities of Salt. The author also decribes the deep changes which occurred in Saudi society after the discovery of oil.

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

99

The establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is narrated in the third volume, which begins right after the defeat of Mirkhan ibn Hudayyib, the father of Sultan Khuraybit (i.e., King cAbd al-cAziz). Subsequently the author describes how Khuraybit, with a small band of devoted warriors, successfully scaled the walls of the Castle of Muzhar ibn Suhaym, the very prince who had ousted his family from Muran (i.e. al-Riyad and its surrounding area) some years before. Lying in wait until dawn, Khuraybit leaps out and murders Muzhar in his palace just as he is going to find his horse in the first light of dawn. By killing Muzhar, he defeats the Banu Suhaym, and the House of Hudayyib once again returns to its ancestral fortress. By the end of volume three of the novel, Sultan Khuraybit has extended his sway over all of what is present-day Saudi Arabia after subjugating the other hundred princes who were scattered across the Arabian Peninsula. Khuraybit succeeds in consolidating his realm not only by military campaigns, but also through a series of marriages into many important tribes, as well as to tribes of lesser prominence. These marriages strengthen relations with them and assure their allegiance to him. Khuraybit also benefits from the British advisor's help and advice. During the five years after the murder of Muzhar he marries as many wives as the number of years he has lived, his mother Shaykha Zahra narrates with pride. The remaining years of Sultan Khuraybit's life are told in the first part of volume five, in which the Sultan's upbringing and the education of his son form a major portion. Especially the education of Prince Fanar (understood as Prince Faysal) receives detailed attention. Princes Khuzcul (i.e., Prince Sacud) and Fanar, being the oldest sons, were foremost in the line of succession to the throne. At this point in time, Fanar stands out as the more suitable of the two to be king. His excellence of character, his superior intelligence, and his courtly manners are entirely pleasing to his father. He is also the son most given to learning and the one best versed in the long Arabic cultural heritage. Furthermore, he has acquired a comprehensive background in general European civilization thanks to his tutor and the British advisor to the Sultanate, Mr. Hamilton. He has benefited richly from his travels outside Arabia. From one end of the world to the other, his journeys and visits had given him many broad personal contacts. Yet contrary to general expectations, the succession passes to Khuzcul. The direct cause is a foiled attempt to assassinate Sultan Khuraybit in the c Awali region, which is under the authority of Fanar. It is bruited privately that

100

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Prince Khuzcul is in fact behind the assassination attempt, so staged that he might prove his singular loyalty to his father. Khuzcul had been staying very close to the Sultan. In the assassination attempt, he is fully alert and prompt to spring to his father's defense and receives several minor stab wounds. It is he who shouts to the guards to attack the would-be murderers and he himself gives the coup de grace to one of them, as if he does not wish any of them to remain alive. This would explain the swiftness with which he killed the would-be assassins. As to why he selects this tactic and this place for the bungled regicide attempt, he is determined to demonstrate to his father that he alone has saved him from death. He also hopes to show that the administration of the cAwali region, i.e. Fanar's administration, leaves room and scope for conspiracies which threaten both sultan and sultanate. As it turns out, Khuzcul is declared crown prince. The Sultan becomes ill and dies by the end of the first part of volume five of the novel. The remainder of the fifth volume, however, does not deal with Khuzcul's accession to the throne of the sultanate, his life as sultan in Muran, and his long series of marriages. For all this, the reader has to move to the second volume of the novel entitled al- 'Ukhdud (The Trench), which chronicles the material and moral developments which accompanied the founding of the modern kingdom. This was the time when the press was established, when the system of security cadres was set up, when the vast network of roads was built, when the automobile was replacing the camel. This part ends with Khuzcul's dethronement while he is in Germany with his latest wife, Salma, the fifteen-year-old daughter of the opportunistic Syrian royal physician, Subhi al-Mahmalji, first counselor to the sultan. The life of the dethroned sultan and his court in exile are described in the fourth volume, al-Munbatt (The Banished, or more literally 'The One Cut Off). By the end of the volume, the sultan divorces Salma alMahmalji, severs relations with her father, and dies soon after. His body is flown back to Arabia for burial. The account of how Sultan Khuzcul was deposed is recorded in the second part of the fifth volume, The Desert of Darkness. The new sultan's rule is traced as his revitalized regime reveals policies of sophistication and genius. Sultan Fanar skillfully mollifies his brother's fury while avoiding violent repercussions from him. This section concludes with Sultan Fanar's assassination at the hand of one of his relatives.

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

101

The remaining portion of the novel is the first volume, The Labyrinth, which describes the arrival of the first American team prospecting for petroleum in the Harran (most certainly referring to the Zahran area). More precisely, the story is set in the fictitiously named village of Wadi al-cUyun, whose inhabitants regard the American prospectors as an evil. This volume concludes after the lives of the local people have been turned upside down. The trees have disappeared. The simple shops have been swallowed up by vast modern shopping complexes. The workers feel oppressed, as they never had felt before, and they come to regard their living conditions as poor, an attitude not prevalent in the pre-petroleum days. Many are forced to abandon their homes, and even villages are evacuated so that industrial installations may be set up to prospect and drill for oil. Pipelines are laid from the oil wells in Harran, which has grown from a small port into a roaring industrial hub drawing laborers from population centers in the area and from much farther off. In the maze of all the social and environmental upheavals, opportunists and profiteers reap the benefits of the boom. At the same time, the precious features of a way of life which had existed successfully for long centuries are gradually being swept away. It had been a solid and valid social system, distinguished in its simplicity and the supremacy of humane values and traditions, based on helping one's neighbors and guarding honor and cooperation among fellow citizens. All of this has given way to an industrial, commercial way of life, in which material gain reigns supreme and the weak are superfluous. As the reader comes to realize, The Labyrinth is devoted to the literary recording of the profound impact of cultural and social shocks caused by the petroleum industry on the minds and spirits of the individuals who make up this society. This was a veritable material assault on the foundations of Arabian society on a scale and at a pace hitherto never experienced in the peninsula. It had been a society of peaceable, traditional, simple people, almost totally isolated from the outside world for centuries immemorial, now suddenly confronted with a giant technology. Arabia had thrust upon it a foreign style of life and an alien work ethic. Its people were equally unfamiliar with the behavior and attitudes of those who set up and managed this enterprise as they were the non-American foreigners who participated in it. The most alert Arabians immediately sensed the inherent dangers from which people might suffer later as a result of the enormous developments overwhelming the region. With regard to the royal family, there is hardly any mention of them except for fleeting references and from behind heavily

102

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

veiled images, as when the ruling authorities in Muran urge the regional chief in Harran to facilitate the mission of the American oil company representatives and to help implement their proposals. In another instance, the crown prince Khuzcul travels to Harran for the first time to inaugurate a pipeline. Even the one important personality who appears in the remaining sections of the novel, Dr. Subhi al-Mahmalji, does not go to Harran; nor does he appear in the narrative until almost the end of the novel. There is no specific link between this volume and the other volumes with regard to the subject matter, nor is the artistic fabric of this volume interwoven with the texture of the other four volumes. Curious also is the fact that the time setting of The Labyrinth is the same as the last period of Sultan Khuraybit's rule. The events, however, in Harran are not mentioned at all in part one, volume five, i.e. that which deals with this period in the sultan's life. Likewise, there is not the slightest mention of the sultan in The Labyrinth. The sultan never appears in this volume. Readers may, therefore, wonder whether Munif actually planned Cities of Salt with any rigorous precision before he began writing it. This criticism does not rule out the fact that The Labyrinth does overlap, in terms of background, that is, the general economic and social development of the Sultanate of Muran and the last half of the fifth volume. There is, therefore, only a very tenuous connection between The Labyrinth and the other volumes. Also related to this commentary on the structure of this volume is the puzzling arrangement of the other four volumes previously touched on. These tomes are devoted to the rise and developing fortunes of the Hudayyibi (i.e. Sacudi) ruling family. Yet the narrative account begins with Crown Prince Khuz c ul, who not long after becomes sultan and is subsequently deposed before the end of this volume of the novel. Instead of following the deposed sultan's life in exile in the following volume, the reader meets the name of his father, Sultan Khuraybit, for the first time, in an account of his campaigns to subdue the various tribes of Arabia. This narrative is not presented as part of Khuzcul's reminiscences, nor as stream of consciousness, nor as flashbacks, but simply as a chronicling of the sultan's campaigns. In the next volume, the fourth, The Banished, Khuz c ul is not mentioned at all, although he does appear again after he has lost his throne. This time he is seen living in exile with his royal entourage in Baden-Baden, Germany, without the reader realizing the total severance of relations between BadenBaden and Muran. The section dealing with the circumstances of Khuz c ul's

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

103

dethronement and the subsequent happenings in Muran is concealed from the reader of The Banished, which ends with the death of Khuz c ul. In the final, fifth volume, The Desert of Darkness, the narrative returns once again to Sultan Khuraybit, the story of his life, and the founding of the kingdom, which is named after his father Hudayyib, as the Hudayyibi Sultanate, the allusion to the Saudi Kingdom being obvious. After entrusting the succession to Khuzcul as crown prince, the sultan dies, as related earlier. At this point, the second part of volume five continues the account of events in Muran while Khuzcul is in exile in Baden-Baden. It would not be strange in fact if the author switched the time forward in years and later backwards in time to the past, provided that there is convincing artistic justification and provided that there exists a technically masterful and appropriate framework for this method. Usually the device of refocusing the time to the past is done by means of flashbacks. Sometimes the story will be told by various witnesses or by the technique of multiple narrators in the first person singular. Often one witness will present an abbreviated account of a specific event or an enigmatic interpretation. The next narrator may come forth with a clarification of points left obscure or ambiguous, and present additional details. Usually such speakers will begin from different points in time; they often differ in age and level of culture. All these possibilities allow the author the liberty to resume from different dates in time. Furthermore, along with the use of such techniques, the author will usually employ stream of consciousness, thereby avoiding repetition of details. Stream of consciousness, of course, greatly facilitates alternation from past to present and on to future and the reverse. The novel Cities of Salt, however, is told using third person pronouns, which is to say, in the traditional narrative style. What, then, prompted the author to resort to all these fast forward changes in time and instant reverses into the past, which are actually awkward, unnatural adjustments? One possible explanation which some critics have adopted is that after the author had finished one part or volume, it occurred to him that it would be useful to write more about this stage or that personality, already presented in a previous volume. A different explanation comes to mind: perhaps the author intended by using these unusual chronological arrangements to further obscure or conceal the real persons whom the characters in the novel represent. Possibly he suspected that changing names of individuals and locations was not sufficient to disguise the identity of the actual persons and places, which he aimed at describing indirectly. He therefore re-

/ 04

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

sorted to the scheme of racing fast forward in time, reversing abruptly into the past, and standing still, so that the reader might not easily identify the persons from real life who are actually playing important roles in the novel. Whatever the author's purpose was, certainly the division of volume five into two parts—the first of which completed volume three and the second of which is the completion of volume four—is a most perplexing phenomenon which does nothing to serve the novel aesthetically or rationally. The existing chronological and topical order of the volumes is in fact irksome when one remembers that the fourth volume would be richer, more powerful by contrast, better integrated, and more precise in dramatic action if the episodes dealing with the deposed sultan and occurring in BadenBaden were juxtaposed and given their actual relevance to events taking place in Muran, which is to say al-Riyad. Incidentally, the fourth volume is relatively brief when compared to the other volumes, as it hardly amounts to more than two-hundred and sixty pages, whereas the other parts contain more than four hundred pages and even six hundred pages in one. Although the structure of Cities of Salt leaves much room for improvement, two further observations ought to be included here before passing on to the positive features of this novel. The first point deserving note is the slow pace of the action, which at times seems excessively drawn out. Another point is the scarcity of emotionally complex situations which can be treated in a suitable artistic style. Additionally, Munif uses many quotations from actual or fictional journalistic reports and academic studies. His frequent reliance on these elements results, at times, in a textbook style, with boring repetition. In addition, he sometimes resorts to over-wordy writing to express a plethora of insignifiant details. One instance will suffice to illustrate this tendency. Dr. Mahmalji, the royal physician, has returned from a summer vacation, before his wife joins him. He is delighted by the sultan's cordiality and obvious hearty amiability. As the desert potentate tells him, 'Your absence was much longer than it ought to have been.' His unaffected warm welcome so deeply impresses the doctor that he is emboldened to take a few long strides forward. But it cuts him to the quick that he was striving for a better life alone, on his own. Others, even his family, in spite of the sacrifices he had made for them, do not adequately share his intimate concerns. Otherwise, how could he explain his own son Ghazwan's lateness or his assistant Samir's absence. Mahmalji had

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

105

shortened his vacation, not lingering in Alexandria, only allowing himself three days in Duhur al-Shwayr in the mountains of Lebanon, where he moves back and forth from the small front balcony, just to let everyone know that he is in residence there. He made an agreement with the new gardener because the old gardener had died a few months before his return. His relative who comes to ask how much he should receive in back wages claims that the old gardener had died only fifteen days before Mahmalji's arrival! The wise doctor, who pretends to believe what the relative says, gazes around at the overgrown gardens a number of times, so as to tell him without words that the old gardener must have died a year or more ago. Otherwise he surely would not have left the garden in such a tangled state. Such non-functional unrelated details as these, which in no way advance the train of action, slow down the tempo of the narrative. When, in addition, these details are repeated, their effect is wearisome. The story of how the doctor was hurt that, after making great sacrifices to accumulate wealth for his children and wife, they do not appreciate his efforts for them is repeated after a few pages. He tells "how he has worn himself out for their sakes and spent his life acquiring wealth. Then after achieving this goal, when he wished to provide them with the fruits of his toil, he finds them distant and paying him scant attention. It is as though his wealth meant nothing to them." The doctor's attempt to write about his theory recurs often and becomes boring, even irritating. If such essentially purposeless, ineffective details were eliminated, the novel would gain enormously in cohesion and concentration and cast its intrinsic fascination more clearly. The second critical observation, similar to a degree to the first, concerns the enormous cast of characters. The novel introduces an astounding number of persons who are, by and large, not portrayed with sufficient depth. Most of them simply play some role or another, then go off, disappear, and are never heard of again. If the novel were restricted to a reasonable quota of characters, carefully selected; if they were drawn with some depth, experienced important events, and played effective roles; if they appeared, as Mahmaljl does, in more than one of the five volumes, the issue of characterization would be altered vastly for the better. The foregoing observations notwithstanding, the author has to his credit a good number of characters soundly conceived and masterfully drawn.

106

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Such personalities the reader will remember clearly. On this level are Dr. Mahmalji, his wife, his son Ghazwan, the three sultans, and Hammad alMutawwic, the chief of internal security during Khuzcul's rule and later the minister of the interior and ambassador of the sultanate to Japan under Fanar's rule. Some religious leaders stand out, like cAbdullah al-Bakhit alc Ajrami, as do some of those wronged by the theft of their lands, such as Shamran al-cUtaybi. Some characters are memorable by the imprisonment of their family members or even by their execution, like cUmayr, Sultan Fanar's uncle, and his sons, one of whom, Barjas, is executed. His brother Dari gains prominence by assassinating Sultan Fanar out of revenge at the end of the novel. These characters, all portrayed with superior skill, are considered part of the fine positive literary achievement in Cities of Salt. Another most striking feature in Munlf's artistic creation is his originality in choosing the desert environment as the setting, especially in The Labyrinth. In so doing, Munif has established himself firmly as one of the two most important desert novelists, along with 'Ibrahim al-Kuni. Furthermore, in The Labyrinth he presents a moving, lyrical elegy for the wilderness world of the Bedouin, their customs, their interpretation of the human situation, their values, and their way of life. Here is a world which has been destroyed by the materialistic developments which accompanied the discovery of oil and the industrial production springing from it. Munif brings to mind the plight described by the writers of Nubia in Egypt. Their beautiful villages, their culture, customs, traditions, and folklore all drowned in Lake Nasir after the building of the High Dam at Aswan. Most regrettably, those in charge of great development projects in our countries are only marginally concerned with the feelings and suffering of these powerless, unsophisticated people. A permanent debt of gratitude is owed to Munif and the writers of Nubia who have immortalized by thei creative genius and art human worlds in harmony with nature, whose peopk had lived in peaceful contentment for generations until they became victims of material expediency. Cities of Salt creates a series of vast panoramic scenes embracing all the major historical events and changing social conditions in Saudi Arabia from the beginning of the twentieth century onward. The novel provides a lively record of the conditions and customs of the people, the battles of Sultan Khuraybit, the hardships endured by the people during his campaigns, and how he rallies many followers around him to consolidate his rule and eliminate his rivals. Munif records the drastic dwindling of the sultan's

The Novel in the Arabian Peninsula

107

finances, his enforced parsimony, his unavoidable postponement of projects and required belt (or sash) tightening. The author then describes the phenomenal transformation in the peninsula after petroleum production begin on a large scale, the prodigious material developments which occurred, the exploitation of the booming economy by greedy high-ranking individuals and profiteers, and the obscene sudden accumulation of vast wealth. He records how numerous enmities are kindled when fast deals are struck, and how many unscrupulous speculators make fools of traditional landholders, who sell for pittances lands which the speculators then turn around and sell at astronomical figures in the mushrooming new commercial projects. Then arrive luxury, extravagance, squandering, and the scattering of money on those who surround the palace and whoever has the slightest connection with the family in the days of Sultan Khuzcul. Thus the very structure of this ancient society is transmogrified by the newly arriving contractors from overseas, as certain Arabians become suddenly wealthy at the expense of the classes who were in principle content with basic sufficiency before petroleum. In the meantime, the poor become poorer. As for individual freedom and freedom of opinion, it becomes totally stifled, as Muran grows to resemble a cemetery. One friend dares not speak to another for fear of peering eyes and eavesdropping ears, particularly at the end of Sultan Fanar's rule and during the war with the neighbors (i.e., Yemen). Executions of many every so often become customary occurrences. This state of affairs comes to halt when the sultan is assassinated by the hand of a blood brother of one who has been executed. And so ends the novel. Another innovation can be added to Munif's credit in this novel: namely, the use of the third person pronoun. Munif's narrator here is not all-knowing, as is customary when this technique is employed. He is sometimes a chronicler who is well aware of what is going on and ai other times he is a narrator of limited knowledge, as if he were a character in the novel. Consider, for example, the proposed explanations of the possible motives behind the foiled attempt to assassinate Sultan Khuraybit, and the speculations on what prompted the would-be assassins. There remained, nonetheless, the growing conviction that the shaykha was not far removed from what had transpired. However the interpretation of her possible motives varied. Fariza and Mabruka were not involved in the affair. Rakan, on the other hand, had a connection. ... If

1 08

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

this sort of interpretation were circulated in the west wing of the palace and in Muran, well then there were competing explanations in all of alc A wali. For example, the merchants and the notables were of the opinion that the unsuccessful assassination was planned by the citizens of Muran. Some were even so bold as to say that Khuzcul himself was behind the murder attempt. Here the narrator clearly does not know who was behind the thwarted plot. He does not inform the reader here or anywhere else about what actually happened. In another instance, the reader is informed about the deterioration of Sultan Khuraybit's health in this way: "But how did Sultan Khuraybit's health start to decline? Did his eyesight grow dim during this period? Or were these simply rumors that anxious servants let slip out? Was what happened a sudden, impulsive outburst of violence and unexpected? Would more violence follow? Indeed the news issuing from the palace was so conflicting and garbled that it was impossible to pronounce authoritatively on the factual soundness of any of it." In another twist of originality, the author sometimes relates what is going on between a person and his inner self, the position of the narrator being all knowing. "He smiled for an instant, as he imagined a scene such as that. But then once again, he became sad . . . . He said to himself in a fit of fury: But she is Ghazwan's wife . . . . Now she bears the complete responsibility." In a scene immediately before this, Robert Young contemplates the position of his legal adversaries. He observes that law courts are quicker here than in America and that what is rightfully his will revert to him. Whereupon he continues his contemplation thus: he imagines a lawsuit of litigants, each with hands missing. They would be wearing clothes that are covered with sleeves so as to conceal their crimes. "Which hand do they usually cut off first?" he wonders. In other words, one is in the presence of a most singular type of storyteller. He reminds cultured readers of Arabic, in many passages, of the Arab historians of the Middle Ages who wrote of events and situations as though they were actually seeing them, or else as other people told about them. The point of special interest here is that this historian chronicler records events which took place in the twentieth century. On rare occasions, as already pointed out, he seems to be the all-seeing and all-knowing narrator.

The Novel in Sudan

109

This novel has benefitted from the first technique of narration, which is used particularly in complex situations as one observes in the text itself. In the author's recounting of what happened at the assassination of Sultan Fanar, for example, the novel gains dramatically when the narrator takes the role of a person living the actual scene of a regicide. The narrator is alternately overwhelmed by blinding light and then stunned and aghast. The situation is sometimes obscure and ambiguous to the narrator. This approach confers lively credibility and a dynamic elan to the novel. When, however, the author behaves as though he is all-knowing, the account or description is generally not of great moment in the novel, a feature which has already been clearly illustrated in the preceding example. A final point of interest remains concerning the significance of the title, Cities of Salt. It is in fact a title which embraces the vision of the author. Symbolically implied is that these cities which have been erected with wealth from petroleum will also vanish and melt away into nothingness with the depletion of petroleum. It will not be for the critics to debate this vision of the author inasmuch as he has excelled in this literary creation. Yet one wonders whether this vision is still valid today. After the industrial and agricultural developments and the discovery of great mineral wealth, will the exploitation of petroleum have been all or largely negative? What of the strides in education and the founding of many universities and research institutes? The problem for the author of historical or quasi-historical novels is that unless he appears completely neutral to the reader, especially here in dealing with relatively recent history, he will very likely arouse many queries in the minds of his readers, and thus detract from the very credibility of the novel. However, we must grant the author, as an accomplished artist, the right to present his view of the life around him, whether this view is positive or negative. Also, in-depth discussions on social conditions in any environment are primarily the domain of sociologists and political scientists. So, we are left only to welcome this excellent novel and wish its author continued success.

The Novel in Sudan Strictly speaking, Sudanese novels began to appear from publishing houses in the early 1960s. However, despite a certain renown which some writers achieved, as for instance 'Ibrahim al-Hardalu, 'Abu Bakr Khalid, and Makki Muhammad CA1i, no Sudanese novelist to date has been so widely ac-

110

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

claimed by well-read fans of the Arabic novel in the Arab world at large as al-Tayyib Salih.

Al-Tayyib Salih Born in 1929, Salih has written three novels. His published works, though few in number, are held in high esteem and are generally considered as top notch by readers and critics alike. First came Mawsim al-hijra 'ila al-shamal (Season of Migration to the North), printed in 1966, then cUrs al-Zayn (The Wedding of al-Zayn), published in 1967, followed by Bandar Shah. This last mentioned work is divided into two parts: Daw' al-bayt (The Light of the House), which appeared in 1971, and the second part, Maryud, which came out in 1977. Salih's first two novels will be reviewed in the following pages.

The Wedding of al-Zayn The events in cUrs al-Zayn (The Wedding of al-Zayn) take place, as in Salih's other novels, in the countryside of Northern Sudan, and in this novel in the village of Wad Hamid. The Sudanese villagers appear with the traits of character for which they are famous: genial good-heartedness and candid directness, except for minor quarrels and clashes which flare up among them occasionally. They cherish a strong faith in the miracles of saints and religious fraternities. One of the holy men whose miracles are often recounted is Shaykh al-Hamn, whose prophecies for one year brought such good fortune to the village that people spoke of that year as "The Year of al-Hanin." The blessed shaykh spends six months of the year in the village, devoutly going about his prayers and fasting. Then all of a sudden, he vanishes into the desert for the other six months until, as abruptly as he disappeared, he comes again. Some claim that he belongs to 'ahl al-khutwa (people of the step) and appears mysteriously in a flash in remote places in the desert with other holy folk, in prayers and pious converse. Al-Hanin's one and only friend is al-Zayn, the hero of the novel and one whom al-Hamn considers to be blessed. In one of al-Hanin's curious prophesies, he declares that al-Zayn will marry the most beautiful girl in the village, even though he is ugly and deformed. An inexhaustible source of merry pranks and amusing banter with the village women, he is said to have been born laughing and is indeed an irrepressible clown, albeit one with extraordinary strength.

The Novel in Sudan

111

Perhaps because of his own deformities, al-Zayn befriends the handicapped, the crippled, the deformed and deaf, while all the time remaining the truest friend of al-Hanln. He cheerfully encourages the shaykh, amicably embraces him, and even stops clowning in his presence. This seriousness is only shown to one other person, his cousin Nicma, the loveliest and most dignified girl in the village. She is also the most strong-willed and stubborn and insists on going to the kuttab boys' school where she is the only girl. She is deeply religious and memorizes the Holy Qur'an. Because of her intelligence and beauty, the finest youths of the village approach her, but she refuses them one after the other. She believes in predestined fate and thinks that even before her birth, her marriage to al-Zayn had been foreordained (as al-Hamn predicts before his death) and inscribed on a tablet guarded by angels. She experiences a mysterious knowledge of sacrifice when she recites the sura of Mary, and the thought of marrying al-Zayn arouses in her a feeling of compassion, as a mother would feel for her son: "al-Zayn had always struck her as an orphan in need of care." To the wonder and astonishment of all in the village, Ni c ma herself arranges her engagement and marriage to al-Zayn. The amazed groom describes the events: "She came to me at home early in the morning and announced, 'On Thursday they will come for you to sign the marriage contract with me. You and I will be husband and wife. We shall move into a house together.'" Thus, under the surface of her dignified obstinacy, Nicma is truly a magnificent spirit, gracious, compassionate, and ready to sacrifice. This magnificent spirit is also manifested in al-Zayn and is evident on the night of his wedding feast. During the celebration he disappears and a large contingent of guests fan out in the darkness to search for him. He is found stretched out on the ground beside al-Hamn's grave, weeping for sorrow that the holy man could not take part in the wedding festivities. In this instance, al-Zayn reveals that he is in fact a soul of rare refinement, splendid loyalty, and beautiful tolerance. The wedding celebration shows the loving tolerance of the dervish orders for a wide range of behaviors; in fact, their tolerance distinguishes them from other Islamic groups. The reader is reminded of cAbd al-Hakim Qasim's The Seven Days of Man, which, as stated earlier, beautifully evokes the spirit of tolerance for humanity at all levels of spiritual and material development. The wedding party as presented by al-Tayyib Salih includes recitations of the Qur'an and singers extolling the Prophet and the

112

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

saints as their listeners weep in pious joy, while wine flows for the tipplers, and courtesans and dancers add their sensual charms. The Wedding of al-Zayn is a short novel in which al-Tayyib Salih displays the broad scope of his delightful, poetic craft. His is a unique lyrical quality which springs from the theme itself and from the many human touches. His language is condensed and brilliant in deftly evoking fine shades of meaning and subtle nuances of emotion. He informs through descriptive flashbacks. Always present are sympathetic irony and gentle humor. He uses the sweet Sudanese dialect to good effect in many scenes. Season of Migration to the North This novel is al-Tayyib Salih's most highly esteemed work and has in fact won for him a distinguished place among leading Arabic novelists. Salih's preeminent literary achievement sparkles with language that is condensed, powerful, and lyrical. The structure is complex, yet architecturally sound and cohesive, designed on various planes superimposed one on another. Time and stream of consciousness are masterfully used. Violence and sex are introduced with refined artistry, to an extent usually not found in most Arabic novels. Great issues of the twentieth century concerning man's place in the universe and the meaning of life keep recurring. The central theme is clearly the clash of civilizations. Salih's work may be considered the finest expression of this conflict, or at least it may be seen as one of the most realistic and mature variations. A number of other writers have tackled this concern as, for instance, Tawfiq al-Hakim, Yahya Haqqi, and Suhayl 'Idris. The theme can be taken as the confrontation between the Sudan and England, Africa and colonialism, the Arabs and Europe, or East and West. With a brilliant opening scene and astute intimation, the author reveals the main subject at the outset. The narrator, returning home from England after successfully completing a seven-year course of study, is joyfully reunited with his family: "Be happy with me! Shout and roar around me! How quietly I have begun to feel as if ice were melting inside me. It was as though I had frozen and the sun had began to shine on me. This is the warmth of life with kith and kin that I missed so long while I was living in a country where even whales die from cold." He continues further on: "We in comparison with industrial Europe—we are just poor farmers. But when I embrace my grandfather, I feel rich, as

The Novel in Sudan

113

though the rhythm of my heartbeats comes from the heart of the universe itself!" It will become clear from the start, as this paragraph indicates, that this narrator and Mustafa are in many ways almost the same person, except that the former is better adjusted and more happily integrated among the people of his village. Mustafa Sacid also goes to England to study. His father dies before he is born in 1898, and his mother brings him up with little motherly tenderness. Her farewell to him when he sets out alone on his way from Sudan to Cairo was: '"Leave or stay! Do as you like! It's your life! In this cloth-covered bundle you have everything you need to live on!' Such was our parting! No tears, no kisses, no outbursts of emotion!" Perhaps this has a long-term effect on Mustafa's inability to express himself emotionally. Long afterwards, upon receiving news that his mother has died as he is in the embrace of a woman, he feels no sorrow, only indifference. At school Mustafa displays such genius that he is sent on a fellowship to study in Cairo. There he enjoys a generous portion of care and tender affection from Mrs. Robinson and her husband. This friendship compensates to some extent for the lack of his own mother's affection. The Robinsons, in their attachment and concern for Mustafa, send him on a study program to England. His excellent academic record and keen intellect lead to his appointment as a lecturer in the School of Economics at London University. In England Mustafa is the object of many fond glances from women, whom he attracts by his color as "a strong primitive African." He tells them exotic tales and entices them into his house, "which resembled the abode of an Oriental prince, redolent with fragrances, of musk, frankincense, and sandalwood." He carries on relationships with four women, of whom three commit suicide. The fourth woman he marries in a tempestuous union, and it is not long before rumors of her extramarital betrayal spread. The marriage only lasts two months, ending when he kills her in a mad fit of jealousy. The failure which he suffers in trying to maintain relationships with other women brings him to the realization that none of them—from the intellectual women at the London School of Economics to a naive working-class waitress—actually regard him with the same respect they hold for men of their own race. The waitress tells him, "My sister would go mad if she knew I loved a black man, and my father would kill me. But I don't care." The secret behind the cordial acceptance Mustafa receives in England and his appointment to an academic post lay in the fact that he is in demand as

114

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

an African personality. He can be shown off by members of the aristocracy who wish to make a public display of being liberal. He is conscious of this because of the conceited contempt which the women and their families harbor towards men like him; their disdain cannot be hidden from Mustafa by their sexual appreciation and their fascination with him. These attitudes outrage Mustafa and make him burn with desire for revenge on the civilization and its people, in addition to what they have done to his nation. Mustafa describes what is going on in his mind as he sits opposite the jurors during his trial. "I have come to your country to present charges and accusations," he imagines himself saying. I feel towards them a sort of superiority, for this celebration is being held for me. I am the intruder. When Mahmud Wid 'Ahmad was brought in shackles and chains before Lord Kitchener after his defeat at the Battle of Atbara, Kitchener asked him, 'Why did you come to my country to destroy and plunder?' The alien occupier of the land asked this question. The owner bowed his head and gave no reply. Indeed, I hear in this courtroom the rattle of the Romans' swords at Carthage. I hear the clatter of the hoofs of Allenby's horses, trampling the ground at Jerusalem. They came in boats plowing the breadth of the Nile, not bringing bread but cannons. They built railroads to carry troops. They built schools to teach us how to say 'yes' in their tongue. Yes, gentlemen, I have come to you in your own country bringing charges. Given his justified resentment, his desire for revenge, and the deep-seated contempt of both men and women for him and his civilization, there is no possiblity for any true love. Mustafa is sentenced to seven years in prison. On his release, he travels to Paris, Copenhagen, and Delhi before settling down in his native village of Wad Hamid. There he marries a country girl, Husna bint Mahmud, who bears him two sons. He is also incapable, however, of adjusting to life in his own civilization and lives among the village people as a stranger. When the narrator returns and becomes acquainted with him, Mustafa relishes his company. He amazes the narrator one night when he recites English poetry while drunk, in a clear voice and with impeccable pronunciation. He then tells the narrator his entire life story, begging him to keep it secret. Two years later, after the narrator has been away, he returns to the village. He learns that Mustafa has drowned in the Nile and his body has never

The Novel in Sudan

115

been found. It is natural that Mustafa Sacid's life—anxious, frustrated, despairing, and miserable—should end as a result of his failure to adjust to either of the two cultures. This is in fact what happens after he arranges all his personal affairs. "A day before he died," says his wife, "he called me and spoke to me about his property. He entrusted the two children to my care. He gave me a letter sealed with wax saying, 'Give this letter to him [i.e., the narrator] if anything should happen to me.'" Inside the envelope is the key to a secret room, which Mustafa's family has never entered. When the narrator opens the door, to his amazement he beholds a chamber furnished exactly like the study of a British professor. Among the books which fill the room and cover a multitude of subjects, he does not come across one single volume written in Arabic. This room, Mustafa's private study, was his secret piece of England, hidden away for himself alone. Mustafa had been a stranger to village life after his sojourn in England. He was—even he—an imperialist. Salih remarks concerning his novel's hero, "The strange thing in his career is that he, although a native son born and bred, returns home as a colonialist. He looks upon his homeland as fanciful and delusory, not real. This is the irony of his personality."25 There is no doubt that Mustafa deals with the people of the village in the same way that the English aristocrats and his women friends treated him. This is in contrast to the narrator who is less unhappy and better integrated with the customs and conventions of his village. He suggests that the developments wrought by time in the village society will perhaps lead to a rapprochement between the two civilizations. The narrator says, "If they, the English, came to our land, for what reason I know not, it does not mean that we shall poison our present and future. They shall leave our country sooner or later . . . . Railways, ships, hospitals, and schools will belong to us. We shall speak their language with no sense of guilt or sense of gratitude. We shall be, as we are, ordinary people. If we are living lies, we are lies of our own making." For certain, this attitude represents a change in comparison with Mustafa Sacid's attitude. Mustafa is miserable after his return. He is violent in his confrontation with Western civilization. Al-Tayyib Salih is of the opinion that the position of the Arabs vis-a-vis the West will move along the way black Africa has taken before them: rage and violence at first, then calmer relations later on.26 This is what the novel aims to say, through Mustafa

116

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Sacid at first, then later through the narrator. This is clear through the attitudes of the two characters towards the infrastructures and services which the colonialists set up, such as the railroads, hospitals, schools, and so on. It is also clear in the extremely fair picture of the English which the author presents during the trial of Mustafa Sacid in London, which is of course the author's view and not Mustafa's. Time and the cooling off of rage will eventually ensure that the Arabs will drop their general bias against Western civilization. Conversely, in time Westerners should revise their charges that Arabs and Africans are lazy, lying, and childlike in their dealings with them, and that they are ungrateful and obsessed with sex. These opinions were fixed in Western minds by travel accounts of Europeans to Africa during the nineteenth century.27 The position al-Tayyib Salih expresses in Season of Migration to the North is that reconciliation between the two civilizations has not yet come, a position which differs from that of other novelists who have addressed this issue.

The Novel in North Africa In the several lands across North Africa, maturely conceived and competently fashioned novels written in Arabic have only appeared relatively recently, which is to say during the last three decades of the twentieth century. There are indeed a number of North African writers of Arabic who have succeeded in bringing their talented accomplishments to the attention of readers in the Arab East as well. Among novelists deserving special mention in Algeria are al-Tahir Wattar, cAbd al-Hamid ibn Hadduqa, and Wasini al-'Acraj. Morocco has produced a large number of novelists: cAbd al-Karim Ghallab, Mubarak Rabic, cAbdallah al-cUrawi, Muhammad Zafzaf, Muhammad Barrada 'Ahmad al-Madani, and Lahamdani Hamid. In Tunisia, Mahmud alMascadi, Muhsin bin Diyaf, al-Bashir Khurayyif, Muhammad al-Salih alJabiri, and clzz al-Din al-Madim are novelists of high standing. In Libya, 'Ahmad al-Faqlh and 'Ibrahim al-Kuni are leading novelists. Mauritania has thus far not produced any novel to compare with their fine achievements in poetry. (Consult the bibliography.) Some outstanding works of a limited number of North African novelists will be discussed in the following pages of the present survey. The choice of novels reviewed is in no way intended to imply that works of other accomplished novelists are also not worthy of study.

The Novel in Morocco

117

The Novel in Morocco Viewed overall, Moroccan novels have been strongly committed to themes involving the resistance against French colonial rule. They also criticize negative aspects of the period after independence. Indeed the struggle against colonialism has been a central source of thematic material of many novels in Algeria and to some extent in Tunisia. This trend has been so dominant in Morocco that it inspired one critic to say, "They are writing one novel. They just change the titles."28 Among the most important and mature works focusing on the struggle for independence are by cAbd al-Karim Ghallab (b. 1919), who wrote Dafanna al-madi (We Have Buried the Past) in 1966, and al-Mucallim cAli (Boss cAli) in 1971. c

Abd al-Karim Ghallab''s Boss cAli

This novel is actually the second part of the novel We Have Buried the Past, both consummating and complementing it. In al-MucalIim CA1i (Boss C A1i), the lower social classes occupy center stage, whether in their struggle to better their social conditions or in their resistance against the French colonial rulers. By contrast, in We Have Buried the Past the bourgeoisie occupy the leading roles. The representative of the bourgeois class in the earlier novel is Hajj Muhammad al-Tihami, patriarch of the clan of al-Tihami. He is introduced during the many diverse social functions taking place in his palace in the city of Fez before and during the Second World War. There appear slaves, bondmaids, sex in its multifarious varieties, and cures by herbal potions and amulets—which eventually cause the death of the father. The relations between fathers and sons and among brothers are represented. Furthermore, the novel introduces us to the fabled city of Fez, of ancient and noble heritage. The author recreates the atmosphere of piety and spirituality which permeate the age-old quarters and the much-famed monuments, ever redolent with fragrances of auspicious incenses. Most especially the Grand Mosque of al-Qarawiyin is depicted, and the eminent role in which it figured during the resistance movement against colonialism remains in the forefront. Through the Tihami family palace and Hajj Muhammad's daily visits to his commercial enterprises and the individuals surrounding them, the reader becomes acquainted with the al-Makhfiya district and the role of the bourgeoisie in the struggle against colonial occupation.

118

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The events related in Boss CA1i also take place in the city of Fez. This novel, however, is devoted almost entirely to the class who were practically overlooked in We Have Buried the Past. These are the poor who live in bleak poverty and are disgracefully exploited. The hero cAli, who is present at the opening of the novel, is, by the way, neither a boss nor a teacher (as the term mucallim literally implies). He is simply a humble apprentice working under three successive bosses who act as though their hearts are hewn of stone in their treatment of the junior apprentices. They, too, had once worked as miserable apprentices and had doubtless received exactly the same treatment. As the novel opens, cAli's mother wakes him up early in the morning, for fear he might be late for work and be dismissed by his boss, al-Tadlawi, the owner of the flour mill where he works. cAli mutters grumpily about his taskmaster and about the miserable life his family leads. Being the oldest of four brothers, he is obliged by custom to succeed in his job and to master it quickly, so as to help his mother provide for the family after his father's death. For the time being, she has to support the whole family, including cAli, because apprentices like him are paid nothing. They perform the heaviest, most exhausting tasks from dawn to dusk for the privilege of learning a trade, in which one day they may become qualified workers, and perhaps boss-workers themselves. cAli is sacked from his job at the flour mill for no real fault or mistake of his own. Then he is fired from a tannery and soon after, from a factory of loose leather slippers, it seems because of the malicious spitefulness of boss-workers who have a habit of getting rid of young apprentices for the most trivial reasons. c Ali's next job is at a spinning factory owned and managed by Frenchmen. The workers are both Moroccan and French, among whom he begins to develop a consciousness of his rights. Instinctively cAli is a rebel against social injustice and the arbitrary high-handedness of foremen and supervisors. He has regular discussions with some of his coworkers, especially alHayani during their work in the tannery. Al-Hayani is in touch with alFaqih cAbd al-Aziz, an energetic campaigner in the Istiqlal (Independence) Party. Al-Faqih cAbd al-Aziz informs the workers of their rights and arouses them to found a labor union to protect their rights. After a series of moves to promote workers' rights, al-Hayani and CAli are thrown into prison for organizing a successful strike which includes all the factory workers of Fez, even the French workers. Subsequent to their release, the two of them on their own initiative and with assistance from

The Novel in Morocco c

119

Abd al-Aziz proceed with their strategy. This time they do not limit their demands to founding labor unions, but as the workers are behind them, they call for national independence and labor unions simultaneously. The strike succeeds and represents the whole country. Again CAli and al-Hayani are imprisoned, this time with cAbd al-cAziz and the leading proponents of independence. By the time they are released, virtually all the workers have become supporters of the independence movement. As CAli reports, he and al-Hayani, with support from cAbd al-cAziz, are successful in forming a National Union, which embraces all the workers of Morocco. It might seem from this summary of the action that the novel focuses primarily or even solely on the political aspects of the period. In fact, the novel presents a broad, lively view of the working-class areas of Fez, throbbing with vitality and candid realism. Portrayed here are the poorer districts of the city, with their customs, traditions, religious celebrations, and saints' day festivals, especially the feast of Mawlaya Idris (My Lord 'Idris). These religious festivities are considered almost the only public occasions of entertainment for the majority of participants and observers. Through the festive bustle and pageantry in the famed labyrinthine markets and shops, the world of the artisans, skilled craftsmen, and ordinary merchants of small shops comes to life. More intimate vistas and close-up glimpses are provided by scenes of events taking place in cAli's home: moving graphic views of lanes, alleys, and blind passageways, where a full range of neighborly cooperation and childhood innocence are to be found. Nor does the novel omit descriptions of the splendid, great old trees, the flowers, the aromatic plants, the river, and the medieval city gates. Furthermore, the life of the poorer classes is depicted with faithful exactitude in its relentless austerity. Here is a family consisting of five members living in one room and sharing an interior courtyard with two other families, each occupying one room. The mother toils all day long so that she can return at the end of the day with one loaf of bread and some modest savory to go with it, preferring to give this scant fare to her children as she herself goes to bed hungry. C Ali, who is forced to work from his childhood, suffers immensely from the malicious bullying of his small-time work bosses, their curses, their obscenities, and their constant browbeating. In addition he experiences the ordeal of anxiety, the fear of losing his job and unemployment. In early childhood, he is pained every time he imagines his mother outdoors under the rain, her feet immersed in freezing cold water as she washes other people's clothes by hand. As for himself, CAli wears

120

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ragged, torn, and patched clothes, while over his head he puts canvas or sack-cloth to protect his head and body from the rain and mud. On his feet he wears leather slippers, full of holes and cracks letting in water and mud. Like his mother, he too grinds wheat so that others may eat. Later on he and his companions toil to make fine leather in the service of the rich, or rather, in c Ali's words: "We go barefoot. We wade through mud in the cold. We roast the soles of our feet on scorching paving stones under the blazing sun." Clearly CAli is a most unusual lad whose instinctive intelligence opens his eyes to the oppressive social situation. This grotesque state of affairs becomes apparent to him in conditions and incidents which assault his vision day and night, at home and at work. Yet CAli is not educated, nor has he even heard of the term 'trade union.' When he does hear about it, he does not understand what it means and cannot explain what trade unions are to his mother. All of these circumstances graphically illustrate what the author wishes to say about Fez, about the living standard of the workers, and about the most pitiful strata of society. Descriptions of such scenes and events in which CAli and his circle of neighbors live form approximately half of the novel. It is this half which is characterized by vivacity and many occasions for delight. As for the other half, it is predominantly taken up with the problems of the struggle and political or pedagogical discussions. For this reason, the substance narrated is perforce more direct and consequently drier and less rich in human emotions. Such tends to be a routine result in many novels or some chapters of novels concentrating on political issues. Moroccan novels continue to dwell on themes having to do with the resistance movement against the French occupation in the decades following c Abd al-Karim Ghallab. Probably the most outstanding of these later works is the two-volume novel by Mubarak Rabic (b. 1935), al-Rih al-shitawiya (Winter Wind), the first volume of which was published in 1977 and the second volume in 1978. It provides comprehensive coverage of the Moroccan people's struggle for independence, in the towns and in the country, against the French occupation. The novel also shows the effects of harsh colonial rule on the lives of the Moroccan citizenry. Soon after independence, however, another trend emerges in which existentialist features and absurd or frivolous heroes come to the fore. A striking example is the character of Bu Mahdi in 'Arsifa wajudran (Sidewalks and Walls), published in 1974 by Muhammad Zafzaf (b. 1946). The leading

The Novel in Morocco

121

protagonists in this novel are heroes suffering from personal tragedies. They live in states of existential frustration, perplexity, failure, and general inability to cope, as they are confronted with all the manifestations of skullduggery and wickedness surrounding them both before and after independence in Moroccan society. Qasim exemplifies this type of hero in Mubarak Rabic's novel al-Tayyibun (The Good-Hearted), published in 1972. Similarly constructed is the hero of Muhammad Zafzaf's al-Mar'a wa al-warda (The Woman and the Rose) of 1972 and the central figure in Dahaliz al-habs al-qadim (The Corridors of the Old Jail), published in 1987 by Hamid Lahamdam (b. 1949). Each of the leading characters in The Good-Hearted and The Corridors of the Old Jail, after long picaresque journeys of aimless wandering and frustrated quest, realize the sterility of the life they have been leading. Muhammad in Lahamdani's novel knows the way of the future. He participates in inciting political disturbances in the desert, for which he is imprisoned. Through the prison bars, the disc of the sun appears and begins to emerge slowly, but its appearance is absolutely certain and beyond all doubt bringing light. In Warda lil-waqt al-maghrabi (A Rose for Moroccan Time) which 'Ahmad al-Madani (b. 1948) brought out in 1982, the narrator faces a very similar congeries of problems, social and political. He strives heroically to wage a personal campaign against the supine passivity of Moroccan society in the face of subjection and repression in the wake of independence. He seeks to encourage the zealous enthusiasm of patriotic intellectuals who are ready to do anything to rescue the nation, now in need of "a second liberation," to quote the expression of one of the characters in Hikayat wahm (The Story of an Illusion), published in 1992. Even though the nation is described as agreeing that the country is "a farm for thieves and liars," the protagonists accomplish nothing more than sharp moral condemnation of the lamentable state of affairs. Then they raise many a cup at the bar of a Christian taverner. Nor does the narrator himself leave these nightly seances at the Christian-owned saloon, until with great efforts friends succeed in enlisting him in an organized protest group. No sooner has he joined than the clouds of uncertainty and perplexity are dispersed from before his eyes. As to literary devices employed in works of this latest generation of novelists, authors use such contemporary devices as stream of consciousness, analepsis (flashbacks), prolepsis (the technique of foreshadowing events to take place in the future), folk songs, folktales and daydreams,

122

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

mocking of the traditional style of storytelling, and radical experimentation in narrative forms, which one encounters especially in the works of 'Ahmad al-Madani, as in his latest novel, The Story of an Illusion.

The Novel in Algeria The first Arabic novels in Algeria began to appear somewhat later than in either Morocco or Tunisia. The reasons for this delayed start may be attributed to the status of the Arabic language and the Arabic heritage in Algeria, even before the French occupation in 1830. Generally speaking, Arabic was not cultivated at the same standard as in Tunisia or Morocco. There was no great mosque in Algeria like the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunisia or the Qarawiyin Mosque in Morocco. (The first, the Zaytuna Mosque, was founded in the second century AH, in AD 732; the Qarawiyin Mosque was established in the third century AH, in AD 859). Both of these mosques were centers for the teaching of Arabic and continuing scholarship in the Islamic sciences. In the case of Algeria, the success of the French linguistic and cultural conquest lasted for a relatively long time, in fact for 130 years. As one would expect, after the victory of the Algerian revolutionaries, which ended the French colonial presence and halted French linguistic and cultural domination, there were of course many Algerian writers who had a superb mastery of the French language and novelistic traditions. After independence, there began a massive and all inclusive movement of Arabization, which the revolutionary leadership directed to restore to Algeria her full Arab personality. It was natural then that novelists who gained the necessary linguistic proficiency launched boldly into writing creative works of fiction in Arabic. Thus in 1965, al-Tahir Wattar (b. 1936) set out to write his famous novel al-Laz, which he completed in 1972. One year earlier, cAbd al-Hamid ibn Hadduqa (b. 1925) published his first novel Rih al-janub (The South Wind), which is considered to be the first maturely conceived and strikingly well-composed Algerian novel in Arabic. In the years immediately following, there appeared a succession of works by these two distinguished novelists. Al-Tahir Wattar published a number of novels, of which al-Zilzal (The Earthquake) of 1974, stands out. cAbd al-Hamid ibn Hadduqa brought out numerous novels, among which al-Jaziya wa al-darawish (al-Jaziya and the Dervishes), published in 1983, is his most striking (consult the bibliography for details concerning other Algerian novels).

The Novel in Algeria

123

Al-Tahir Wattar's al-Laz The word laz is most probably a corruption of the French word l'ace signifying 'the ace' in playing cards. In Algeria, it is the nickname given to a person one does not want to see, someone thought to represent an evil omen or a harbinger of bad luck. It may also refer to an individual towards whom one feels an aversion, but whom one is nevertheless obliged to meet.29 Such is the name, in any case, of the hero, or anti-hero, of the novel. Originally a foundling, he is clever yet detested throughout his childhood and adolescence because of his vicious nature and his aggressive behavior towards other children. The novel describes him thus: It was no use for fathers or the shambit [the local representative of authority] to intervene in quarrels where al-Laz was involved. An arrogant bully, willful, insolent, and stubborn, he would never give up in a fight. Someone might thrash him until one would have thought he had been killed. But no sooner would his opponent turn to walk off than alLaz would leap up and start pelting him with stones or make a lunge for him. As he became older, people assumed that he would calm down. Quite the reverse! He dashed any such assumptions with variations on the theme of viciousness no one had ever dreamt of. While the negative sides of al-Laz's character personify the Algerian understanding of the term 'al-laz,' this is but half of the picture. The positive aspect of this name and the personality in question, which will become apparent in the gradual unraveling of the plot, are embodied in French meanings of the word. For indeed the 'Ace,' al-Laz, is the winning card in the hand of the commander of his unit. Al-Laz is assigned the most difficult missions which no one else can pull off. The novel al-Laz describes how acts of resistance were carried out against the army of occupation by units of the Liberation Front. The reader is informed how leaders of the Resistance are chosen; about operations of infiltration into enemy camps; about the transport of news, supplies, and weapons; and about the subversion of Algerian conscripts within the French army to join the rebel ranks. In short, the novel allows the reader to relive the War of Liberation from inside the revolutionary movement, to learn about their secrets, and to know their anxieties, tensions, treacheries, errors, and their victims. The author also gives an understanding of what the fami-

124

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

lies of martyred heroes and victims suffered after independence, including the family of al-Laz himself. The novelist accomplishes these descriptions through his portrayals of characters of diverse leanings, positions, outlooks, and backgrounds. In the vanguard of a numerous host of characters is al-Laz, who becomes attached to the French barracks due to the circumstances of the war. Many a grateful sigh of relief is breathed among the villagers after al-Laz departs. They are amazed, however, that he finds a position of favor with the commanding officer and the camp. The camp commander, in fact, enjoys the embraces of young men. Al-Laz thus manages to form a very close relationship with him. Rumors soon circulate that al-Laz is a turncoat and a spy for the French, and that he also pimps for them. In reality, however, he is secretly working for the Resistance. He wins over Algerian conscripts from the ranks of the French to the rebel forces. He gives help whenever he can to any Algerian who is arrested, and he bears witness in their favor during torture and interrogation. The false rumors are put to rest once and for all when the villagers are astonished to see two soldiers dragging al-Laz along by his arms. Eight other soldiers are goading him on with their rifle butts as blood oozes from his nose, cheeks, forehead, and lips. Alternately he staggers and then lashes out at them with torrents of obscenities. The scene is ordinary to all the onlookers except to Qaddur, the chief of the resistance movement in the village, who keeps watching al-Laz's every move with close attention until the procession reaches the door of his shop. Al-Laz now summons all his remaining strength to stand erect. He stares at him and spits in his face, "You're pleased with what you see! You pigs! Your hour has come! For all of you!" Thus in a manner worthy of such a fellow, al-Laz warns the other freedom fighters within the hearing and the full view of his would-be executioners. His message is understood. The guerillas take heed and under the command of Qaddur, they manage to save al-Laz and spirit him out of the camp to the mountains. In the high Atlas, al-Laz ponders long over his predicament. He begins a new phase of being which gives his life meaning. A new self-consciousness confers on him respect and self-esteem. He begins to be at ease with himself and finds a spiritual contentment, despite the wounds dealt him by his torturers. "Everything in my life, or what remains of it, is waiting for me and begins here . . . . Oh, poor unlucky Qaddur! He knew how to spin thread, how to twist rope, and how to save me . . . . I was not alone. That was the most important thing."

The Novel in Algeria

125

Zaydan, a communist and the leader of local revolutionary units, is the most important character. The one cultured member of the local rebel group, Zaydan recruits al-Laz into their ranks. Once he is confident of al-Laz's loyal stand, he reveals to him that he, Zaydan, is his legitimate father. AlLaz's mother is his father's second cousin. When Zaydan was conscripted into the French Foreign Legion, he was sent off to Indochina and thus separated from her immediately after they had met. Al-Laz thus realizes that he has a respected revolutionary father. His instinctive readiness to rebel and to join the rebel cause thus takes firm root in his life and he feels reborn. He moves to the mountains and meets his father for a few days, after which he intends to devote all his energies to the struggle and resistance. However, his father is killed before his eyes by the Algerian high command for refusing to renounce formally his allegiance to the Communist Party, and al-Laz goes out of his mind. He takes to wandering through the craggy uplands as though he were simple-minded. From that time forward, he keeps repeating over and over again the secret password which his father had given him: "Nothing is left in the valley but stones." Zaydan is executed in spite of his long service and oft-proven courage in the cause of the revolution. He is not alone. Together with him, and also without any trial, a group of European communists who had volunteered to fight with the rebel forces of Algeria are executed. In this novel, al-Laz represents in sundry ways the Algerian people who belong to the lower rungs of the social ladder. Under the shadow of colonialism, like his people, he is poor; he suffers from illiteracy, want, deprivation, and suppression of cultural identity. Hence al-Laz's enlistment in the Resistance is a natural and logical outcome to the long years of colonial rule. Just such conditions of dire poverty prompted tens of thousands to join up with the rebels. The vast majority of al-Laz's comrades in arms are poor and illiterate. Al-Laz is unique, however, in being well aware of his social status even as a child. He beats up school boys and apprentices, and then threatens them with worse thrashings if they do not filch money from their fathers' tills and snatch food from their mothers' kitchens for him. Endowed with a sharp natural intelligence and a primeval sense of justice, he is aware of the tyranny of the unjust social structure. Zaydan declares after bringing his son into the resistance movement, "I always pinned great hopes on you. I was confident that you would never betray our movement, because you . . . you were never afraid of losing anything. Your open defi-

126

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ance which stirred up commotions and hullabaloos, well, I engineer such in silence and by strategems." Shaykh al-Rabici declares, at the end of the novel and after the revolution is over and independence is won, "You are the best of us all, al-Laz, because you feel nothing. You are the revolution." And still al-Laz repeats the secret password, which is ever on his lips, "There is nothing left in the valley but stones." Shaykh al-Rabi c is remarks hint that he himself is not satisfied with conditions after independence. The novel illustrates the reasons for this discontent by the example of the families of the fallen guerrillas. There is a scene where old men, fathers of the martyred Resistance fighters, line up once every three months to claim their pensions. They reminisce over the deeds of heroism of the slain rebel fighters. Some of them keep repeating a sort of refrain, "Our robes, in tatters and rags, are beyond mending. Our shoes are scraps of torn leather held together with bits of rusty wire. Our faces are blue with cold and shriveled dry. Of the past, all we have is tragedies. Of the present, we have only waiting. For the future, nothing is left to us except certain death." The novel begins just as the country has won independence, after the rebels have at last shaken off foreign domination by forcing out the colonials. The basic theme, however, is the struggle of the freedom fighters and the war of independence. To handle the time leaps, al-Tahir Wattar relies frequently on analepsis (flashbacks) and moving in time between present and past, thereby creating, as it were, present scenes of guerrilla operations side by side with the past backgrounds of the characters. Should any flaws of technique be noted in the novel (which will not be taken up here), the reader will be amply compensated by a great succession of moving events lived in appalling fear, of people's lives exposed time after time to extreme risks of capture or death, of infiltration into enemy camps, of stealing supplies and weapons, and of smuggling Algerian conscripts or detained suspects out of hostile cantonments. Tragic human situations occur all through the novel, drawn with meticulous craft and compelling realism. The reader is ushered into all sides of reality in the guerrilla camp: the execution of Zaydan in the presence of his son, al-Laz; the executions of the European volunteers serving with the rebels; and the torture of al-Laz to force him to confess what is going through his mind at that time. Consider the situation of c Attush, the agent of the French against his fellow countrymen, when he is forced to kill the mother of one of al-Laz's friends, and later to have intercourse with his aunt in front of her own husband and

The Novel in Algeria

127

then to kill her. Thereafter, he can bear the thought of what he has done no longer. With a small number of guerillas, he contrives to kill the officer who gave these abominable orders and manages to wreck the entire camp. (Even Hollywood scenarists would be hard put to concoct sequences of such evil). Through his outstanding, original work, al-Tahir Wattar has proven to the public that the Arabic novel in Algeria has arrived and has passed beyond the initial and experimental stages to take a place among the eminent novels of the Arab nation.

Bin Hadduqa's al-Jaziya and the Dervishes This is another work that confirms the extent of the technical advances made by Algerian authors. It is a novel that reveals, through many lyrical passages, a country which is staggering and reeling under corruption and strong-arm authoritarian rule after independence is won. It also presents a dream of change and virtually traces the steps leading thereto. c Abd al-Hamid Bin Hadduqa portrays a formidable atmosphere of a society in convulsions through scenes and episodes which are charming and down-to-earth, but in no way innocent or starry-eyed. It is the world of the shambit (the local chief magistrate appointed by the central government), the dervishes, the beauteous al-Jaziya, the shepherds, and the inhabitants of the village of al-Sabca al-Jibayiliya. The novel is divided into eight parts of which the odd-numbered sections, one through seven, are concerned with retrieving the past, as alTayyib's recollections from prison. Each of these four parts is referred to as "The First Time Span." The even-numbered parts, two through eight, relate to the events of the present as they unfold. Each of these sections is entitled "The Second Time Span." The novel opens near the end of the story, as al-Tayyib al-Jibayili is being led to his prison cell. From this point, the narrative proceeds along two opposite or inverted lines. One line reverts to the past, revealing through flashbacks and recollections what happened before al-Tayyib's imprisonment. This portion is narrated by al-Tayyib himself. The other line of the narrative progresses on into the future until it ends with the final demise and death of the shambit. In this portion, the narrator is c Ayid, the cultured young man just returned from overseas to visit the village of al-Sabca alJibayiliya, as he is enjoined to do in his father's will.

128

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The people of the mountain village live an arduous, simple life, which has been their accustomed lot over the centuries. They wrest their meager living partly from tilling their terraced garden plots and partly from grazing their flocks. The dervishes, the holy men, and the mosque personnel devote themselves to miracles, supernatural phenomena, legends, dhikr (Sufi ceremonies of repeating the name of God and his epithets), and religious celebrations. In the hearts of all lives al-Jaziya, a young woman of incomparable beauty and character. She is a symbol of change for which everyone longs, both for the village and the nation also. As for the shambit, he resides not in the village, but rather in the plain below. He is campaigning to move the village down to the plain so that a new village can be built and a dam constructed nearby. The son of the shambit has been studying in America. The villagers, however, fail to believe that their welfare could come from the hands of the shambit. They believe that his son is an instrument of an agency of long and complex connections, possibly an intelligence agency. One day a delegation of student volunteers arrives in the village. They announce that they have come to help the inhabitants. The shambit circulates the rumor that they have been sent by the government to convince the citizens to move to the proposed new village. The most mature of the group is the student "of the red dream," whose name is in fact al-'Ahmar (meaning The Red'). One evening a religious celebration is held, al-zarda (comparable to the Egyptian hadra, a gathering for a dhikr), to which the students are also invited. The dervishes perform their dhikr, ritually repeating the name of God and his epithets, they dance, they lick red hot sickles. Al-'Ahmar joins in the ritual dancing and also licks the glowing sickles. Al-Jaziya's face becomes radiant upon seeing him participate in the rites of the dervishes and she agrees to dance with him. The villagers become violently agitated at such audacity and insolence. They fiercely condemn his brazen act of inviting her to dance and conspire to prevent him from any possibility of marrying al-Jaziya. Within only a few days, al-'Ahmar is murdered. Al-Tayyib is accused of the murder, inasmuch as both al-Tayyib's father and the village wished him to marry al-Jaziya. He had previously asked for her hand in marriage which she graciously refused. All the village, nonetheless, still consider al-Jaziya as al-Tayyib's fiancee. Furthermore although al-Tayyib's father al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili, the popular leader of the village, and the village guardian were the ones who carried out the murder, alTayyib's father agrees let his son take the blame for the crime, because in

The Novel in Algeria

129

this case, it will be an honor for him. The people will say that he has washed away the disgrace that fell upon the village and upon his fiancee. The shambit now is quite happy about all this because a major obstacle is removed, clearing the way for his own son to marry al-Jaziya, while alTayyib is packed off to prison. As to what happened after al-Tayyib's arrest, the four chapters of the "Second Time Span" provide a meticulous account. Al-Sayih ibn 'Abu alMahayin, a close friend of al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili and of al-Jaziya's father, has ended his long struggle in exile. His son cAyid, who grew up and was educated overseas, now returns to the village as his father stipulated on his death bed that he should do. The reports about al-Jaziya's beauty had reached him overseas and had redoubled his resolve to return to visit the village. He would, therefore, be able to propose to al-Jaziya after alTayyib's imprisonment and before the shambit's son reaches her. c Ayid arrives in an enormous, luxurious car which dazzles the local hill people; but the vehicle has to be parked at the bottom of the slope, as there is no automobile road leading up to the village. Soon cAyid is staying at the home of al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili, his father's friend, where he remains until the end of the novel. When he wishes to meet al-Jaziya, obstacles inevitably arise. At the same time, interestingly, romantic feelings spring into being between c Ayid and Hajila, al-'Akhdar's daughter. When the shambit's son arrives from America, the shambit decides to hasten the nuptial arrangements between his son and al-Jaziya by taking the first major step in this direction. He sends urgently for the dervishes and six rams, as the appropriate sacrifice at the ceremony of al-zarda which he shall attend with his son. When the shambit fails to turn up, however, the trustee of alzarda and the dervishes find themselves obliged to sacrifice the rams, roast them, and partake of the ceremonial repast. The drumming begins and the dhikr ritual is intoned honoring God's name and His epithets, as the dervishes start dancing. But hardly has the celebration begun when the Guardian of al-Sabca arrives, bearing the sad tidings that the shambit has died while toiling up the mountain slope on foot with his son. The only ones absent from the zarda are al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili and the guardian. Their absence and that of the shambit are indeed connected. The two conspirators are disposing of the shambit in the same way al-'Ahmar was killed. (It is a much-used method for suspicious persons who are a threat to the well-being of the village and to al-Jaziya. Indeed, Jibay ill's unsolved deeds include the murders of four gendarmes, three forest wardens, a secret plainclothes in-

130

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

spector sent to investigate the village, and a court judge.) The method is simple, but deadly effective. Leading up to the village from the foot of the mountain is one narrow road. At a particular point, there is a dangerous curve, right on the edge of a chasm. If a flock of sheep happens to panic on their way down, their speed can be formidable and should any person ascending chance to be at that point, when the sheep are rushing headlong down the trail, the unfortunate wayfarer would inevitably be sent plunging over the brink into the gorge. The operation proceeds thus: al-Jibayili and the guardian of the village walk down the trail, the former to hunt and the latter to graze his flock. At a particular moment, a shot or two is fired by al-Jibayili, who can see clearly the dangerous spot on the road. The flock panics at the sound of the the shot, rushing pell-mell down the trail and the climber is swept over the brink into the ravine. With the exception of al-Jaziya, as she behaves and thinks, all the characters and episodes of this novel are intensely realistic. On the individual plane, the personalities of al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili and his family—al-Tayyib, Hajila and her mother—stand out. Another prominent personality is the guardian of al-Sabca, al-'Akhdar's associate in the stratagems to protect alJaziya. Al-'Ahmar, the student, and Safiya, another of the student delegation, are impressively drawn characters. Each has a convincingly unique personality, portrayed by the pen of a master novelist. On the group or collective level, the novel brings to mind al-Sharqawi's novel The Earth in that al-Jaziya and the Dervishes depicts the mountain villagers as real persons, each with his own provincial role and outlook. They are not naive and mindless bumpkins. Each possesses an intuitive intelligence which can shrewdly change to cope with difficult circumstances. They also have their rigid, stern code of ethics and behavior, which is often veiled in village diplomacy. For example, the hill people treat the delegation of student volunteers with a cordial welcome; they put them up at their homes as guests for a month. Although they show sympathy towards the students, the villagers really regard them as naive and utterly unacquainted with rural ways and the village mentality. And when the villagers sense that their traditions and beliefs are in danger they do not hesitate to kill al-'Ahmar. Another example is how the villagers handle the shambifs scheme to marry his son to al-Jaziya. They categorically refuse this marriage; however, they never confront him with their adamant position. The shambit comes forth to settle his son's engagement with al-Jaziya which she vehemently

The Novel in Algeria

131

rejects. The villagers implore the shambit to delay the matter in the likelihood that she may change her mind in the future when his son finally does return from America and she sees him in person. When the shambit explains his point of view, which is not devoid of threat, the village people openly complain about her refusal, while secretly they are jubilant. Still another ploy is the insinuation, through rumors, that al-Jaziya's honor might have been tarnished, in the hope that nagging doubts would drive the shambit's son to abandon the idea of marrying her. The village leader, al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili, then pressures his son to go ahead and propose marriage to al-Jaziya, so that they may become engaged. This is the wish of her father and the whole village. But, as noted earlier, al-Jaziya turns him down, most politely and tactfully. The community, however, assumes that the engagement still stands, an assumption which already constitutes a major obstacle to the shambit's plans. As has been illustrated, the villagers do not lack intelligence, quickwittedness, fine subtlety, and depth of understanding. It is the educated city-dwellers who appear naive and deficient, as they seem actually unable to fathom the full psychological and spiritual stature of the mountain people. Indeed the city guests appear as unwitting subjects for satire. cAyid is an example of an educated young man who owns a flashy sports car and whose comical side the guardian of the village is quick to see. The two of them meet several times. The guardian is convinced, as every one else is, that cAyid wants to see al-Jaziya in hopes of becoming engaged to her, if it is possible. The guardian and his cronies concoct a way to make cAyid think that he meets with al-Jaziya to discuss marriage, when, in fact, he meets with a veiled trickster in a shepherd's hut. As was noted earlier, the village guardian also misleads cAyid with a tale he fabricates from pure imagination, alleging that a sexual relation occurred between al-Jaziya and the ill-fated student, al-'Ahmar. That tale costs al-'Ahmar his life. The educated town dwellers in cAbd al-Hamid Bin Hadduqa's novel, in spite of their intelligence, take roles resembling the positions of Tawfiq al-Hakim's fallahin in Diary of a Country Prosecutor with regard to laws, legal procedures, and official flimflam. The guardian of al-Sabca and al-'Akhdar al-Jibayili, as was previously noted, form a well-rehearsed duo who carry out the graver but essential operations required for safe-guarding al-Jaziya and the village. At home and in the village, al-Jibayili, a man of few words, is a respected and beloved

132

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

leader. He is generous, hospitable and shrewd. During the war of liberation al-Jibayill had masterminded the deaths of those, mentioned above, who had exceeded all bounds in repressive injustices or corruption. He and his fellow villagers take a nationalistic stand during the war against colonialism and their exemplary heroism deserves recognition. The whole village takes part in the war. "The community struggled as one, remaining steadfast throughout, standing up to the faces of oppression, house by house, person by person, and yet without rancor." In spite of the splendid fighting role of the village, the war is recorded only in memories in the minds of the inhabitants, although "they exalted their acts of heroism which became proverbial." Yet they retell their feats of heroism "only with an astonishing simplicity and modesty." They are proud of their past and their identity. "The revolution did not give birth to their village. Rather it was their village that gave birth to the revolution. They created the revolution with their hands when its dawning was still in the womb of night." As was stated earlier, the villagers see alJaziya as their dream and their hope. She is a symbol for a better Algeria. Conversations revolving around al-Jaziya transport the reader from the realm of reality to another world not entirely real. Nor is it all fantasy and fables. It is a live dream containing the two. Of reality, it is a fact indeed that she is an orphan whose father dies a martyr in the War of Independence and whose mother dies at childbirth. The author transforms the basic facts of her life story into the shifting mists of dream and myth. This ordinary girl "was born with the birth of time," as the opening lines of the novel announce. Her father was a close friend of al-'Akhdar and al-Sayih. No one knew where he came from. "Some said from the East. Some said from the West. Of his exact lineage no one knew for sure." Her father's friends said, "He was killed by a thousand rifles! He was not a person. He was a people." This symbolism of the people and the nation is further personified and expanded in the daughter al-Jaziya. When al-Tayyib al-Jibayili proposes marriage to her, she tells him: My tragedy is that I shall not be married in a lawful [halal] marriage in the foreseeable future. When I was a little girl, a woman of strange appearance came to our house and read my palm. She told me that I would eat of herbs known to no one in our mountains, which would keep me young until the day I would wed in a lawful [halal] wedding. My first husbands would not be lawful . . . . Each of them would meet his fate

The Novel in Algeria

133

as soon as he believed that his life had become properly settled [a possible allusion to the rulers of Algeria after independence?]. Then shall come a time when there will be no sun. It will be like night. Yet it will not be night while I live through crises, one after another. Then I shall marry again after all of my sons born out of wedlock have died. I shall be married in a wedding attended by all the dervishes of the world. Here the narrator moves into the world of symbols and myths. To the people of the village who believe in this prophecy, Algeria appears as having lived through a stage when she was married to unlawful husbands, or else it seemed that she lived through a time without sun which resembled night, but was not night. Al-Jaziya is the dream of change for the better. It will be a change in which "the wickedness of rulers and the obscenities of the rich will disappear." The villagers cannot accept a corruption of this dream. Therefore they kill the shambit to prevent his son from marrying al-Jaziya. They do away with al-'Ahmar because he considers himself to be superior to them, and because he refuses even to try to understand their way of life. He supposes that their minds only contain trivial, foolish thoughts. He wants rashly to put an end to their identity. The villagers, in contrast, want him to become absorbed into the community and assimilated into their lives, so that progress can grow from within, as a part of their history and traditions. As one of the dervishes says, "Had he not tried to rush the future, he could have become an excellent dervish! He ruined himself and harmed the dervishes. He did not ally himself with us! Nor did he even consult us! The people were tortured and imprisoned. For many long years, they have dreamed of having a glimpse of al-Jaziya." Al-'Ahmar, from the first instant, wishes "to have a child with her and to take her as his, right before our eyes. No! He was wrong!" The dervishes know how to realize their dream. They do not oppose progress. Their attitude towards al-Jaziya explains why her name is linked to the dervishes in the title of the novel. Al-Jaziya supports al-'Ahmar's principles, but she wants to implement these aims in fully integrated cooperation with the villagers (i.e., with the entire people). For this reason, she is pleased .when al-'Ahmar dances with the dervishes and when he licks the red hot sickles as each one of them does. Al-Jaziya exclaims, "I was, in fact, overwhelmed with joy indescribable! I felt the courtyard, the dervishes, the shambit, the willow trees, your brother, the mountain, the village of al-Sabca, the student dancing, a sickle in his hand like the dervishes—I felt them all spin-

134

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ning round and round in my head, lifting me higher, higher, to a heavenly sphere of holy ecstasy!" This is then what al-Jaziya, as the symbol of the future Algeria, desires. This is also why she refuses to let al-'Ahmar, rash fellow that he is, accompany her and her chaperon to her home. Al-Jaziya, that is to say, Algeria, therefore refuses corrupt authority. Likewise, she refuses presumptuous pride and rash impatience. She offers generous free scope to educated youth who genuinely belong to the village or return after sojourning abroad, those who are not arrogantly selfimportant. She seeks association with young people of the city who gradually acquire an understanding appreciation of the village and enter into their spirit and way of life. This is how c Ayid wins the heart of Hajila. The novel hints at a similar friendship possibly developing between al-Tayyib and Safiya, who begins to visit him in prison after she and the earnest volunteer students actually begin a resistance against the shambit and his projects. The novel points towards the course to be followed in building the Algeria of the future. Al-Jaziya will consummate her legitimate halal wedding. The novel al-Jazlya and the Dervishes provides an abundance of rich narrative and provocative thought. One finds maturity and lyricism in solid, down-to-earth reality. There is fresh romanticism. There are dreams, symbolic allegories, episodes of mythic quality, and gripping mystery. The author uses contemporary narrative techniques and style which depend on concise, concrete details with a remarkably evocative skill in characterization and portrayal of events. He also maintains the reader's curiosity and interest until the last line of the novel. The Algerian Arabic novel entered the scene of Arabic fiction relatively late, compared with novels written in the other Arab lands of North Africa. The achievements, however, of certain novelists, in particular al-Tahir Wattar and Ibn Hadduqa, have already won a position of distinction. Their contributions have significantly added to the stock of outstanding Arabic novels.

The Novel in Tunisia In North Africa, Tunisia led the way in the emergence of the Arabic novel, at least in terms of early publication.30 Not only did the Arabic novel appear very early in Tunisia in comparison with its neighbors, but also many novels were published in the early years right from the start. The Arab

The Novel in Tunisia

135

world is still waiting, however, for a Tunisian novelist to produce a mature novel of aesthetic refinement, narrative elan, and psychological and/or cultural depth which would, so to speak, put Tun isian writers at least in the running among top-notch Arabic novelists. Probably the first among serious Arabic novelists in Tunisia is Prof. Mahmud al-Mascadi (b. 1911), who received his higher education in France. His specialization in Arabic literature allowed him to acquire an excellent competence in both the Arabic and French cultures. Taha Husayn once said of him, "This Tunisian litterateur has become truly erudite in Arabic culture and has completed his studies in France, where he has reached an excellent standard in his knowledge of French literature. He has been much influenced by the renowned French philosophical writer Albert Camus."31 These remarks of Taha Husayn were printed in a review of his comments on al-Sadd (The Dam). In Taha Husayn's description, "This is a play, or it should more aptly be termed a theatrical story, which the wellknown author Prof. Mahmud al-Mascadi wrote to be read, not acted."32 Be that as it may, al-Mascadi's novels reveal a broad culture and intellectual depth. The language he uses, however, in particular in a novel like Haddatha 'Abu Hurayra qal ('Abu Hurayra Told the Following Story... (1973), is cast in an ornamented and pedantic style, influenced by the tradition of Classical Arabic rhetoric. Although this style is considered by some critics a skillful adaptation of Classical language, which marks an original new direction in novel-writing, it is in my opinion entirely unsuitable for either modernist or traditional fiction. One passage from his novel Mawlid al-nisyan (The Birth ofForgetfulness), printed in 1974, will serve to illustrate this style. In this excerpt, two of the characters, Madyan and Layla, discuss life and death: Madyan remarked, "Time must be broken or its wheels must be set askew, so that it will become confused and rave like a reeling drunkard." Said she, "You forget, O Madyan, that time is the divine way, the way of Allah, the way of existence. It is the way of death, secretly plotting its course." He replied, "The way of deceit, of death. I abhor death because it is theft. It is slander and fraud. I look at that planet on the far western horizon casting back its light. Do you believe that it is still alive? Or has it already been reduced to dust and scattered throughout all the corners

136

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

of the sky? We perceive its light, as though it were moving and alive. Yet just possibly it was obliterated long eons ago, it vanished, and ceased to be. Only its light remains, even though the planet itself has evanesced." A style such as this offers the reader mainly intellectual, abstract, and conceptualized thoughts, in terms of vocabulary, the structure of its sentences, its synonyms, repetition, and ornamentation. It is thus remote from the mature artistic style found in the good narrative fiction of today. Fortunately, Tunisian novelists in general do not use this archaic style. They have developed a simple, lucid prose style of their own, a style now full of graphic descriptions, lively events, and colorful characters. Most of the novels which have come out in recent decades, however, suffer from some basic defects in structure and from a lack of credible and convincing narrative sequences. The novel cA'isha by Bashir ibn Salama (b. 1931) is a novel fairly typical of this period, published in 1982. Zubayda spurns the love of cAdil, the legitimate heir of the feudalist landholder, al-Farik Mustafa. She marries, instead, al-Tahir, who lives in the palace thanks to his father's long-time friendship with Mustafa. Zubayda is, all the while, assiduously working to arrange for her husband, al-Tahir, to inherit al-Farik Mustafa's fortune, lawfully willed to his son, the legitimate heir. The family fortunes and the living situation of the son and his parents are declining. But Zubayda, all the same, becomes the son's lover and bears a son by him. She fraudulently passes the child off as the son of her husband, al-Tahir. Al-Tahir, on the other hand, has taken to tyrannizing Zubayda and marries a second wife, Sakila. She now deceives her new husband al-Tahir with his imputed son (the child secretly passed off as al-Tahir's by Zubayda). Their assignations even occur in the same room where al-Tahir is sleeping. The novel thus fantastically proceeds. Muhammad al-cArusi al-Matawi (b. 1920) published his novel al-Tut almurr (Bitter Mulberries) in 1967, which enjoyed wide popularity in Tunisia. This novel derives its success from a realistic portrayal of a village community with its customs, traditions, and way of life. The author, however, portrays his characters not as ordinary people with all the concomitant moral ambiguities, but rather as people ought to be but usually are not. c Abdullah, the wealthy son of an owner of a large estate, marries the daughter of Miftah, a laborer on the estate, in spite of the fact that she is a cripple

The Novel in Tunisia

137

and a paralytic, against his mother's vigorous objections. However, her disabled condition notwithstanding, she gives birth to a son and is cured, almost as if miraculously, of her paralysis at the maternity clinic. One night, c Abdullah and a group of his companions manage to uproot the entire hashish crop from around the houses and farms to put an end to its sale and addiction. 'Ibrahim, another member of the group, discovers that his father is a secret agent of the French, whereupon he burns down his shop. He publicly admits to his father his act of arson, boldly defying the consequences. Shaykh Ramadan, out of compassion, adopts a young black orphan girl and eventually gives her a lavish wedding, for which he pays with money he has been saving up for his pilgrimage to the holy cities in the Hijaz. These altruistic and charitably inclined heroes and the happy endings are perhaps a main cause of the wide circulation of this work.

Al-Jabin's The Sea Scatters Its Driftwood One of the most distinctive personalities in Tunisian fiction is Dirbal in the novel al-Bahr yanshur 'alwahahu (The Sea Scatters Its Driftwood), published in 1975 by Muhammad Salih al-Jabiri (b. 1940). Dirbal is egotistical, yet chronically hesitant, unable to take a firm decision. In this and other respects, he calls to mind the character of Mansur Bahi in Mahfuz's Miramar. Dirbal grows up in a small village. When he is nineteen the family council meets for two days to determine whether he should be sent to the capital to complete his studies. The council is split between those who favor this plan and those who oppose it on the grounds that cities are like crushing millstones and conceal myriad pitfalls. Those who oppose further argue that his father's will asserts, "You shall return here at last. Think about your move long and seriously." His mother also warns him about the city and tells him to cover his eyes with both hands because the women are shameless and "give long looks at many a man." Despite objections, Dirbal moves to the capital and completes his baccalaureate. He is then appointed as a teacher in the area of Binzerte and regards his three years there as the most glorious of his life. It is interesting that it is also during this time in Binzerte that his mental rupture with his own village begins. He spends many long days criticizing his native village in his mind and feels in his heart that it is being wrecked, collapsing brick by brick.

138

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Following his time in Binzerte, Dirbal returns to the capital, moving into a poor, medieval quarter which pulses with vitality and exuberance. He becomes acquainted with a young woman named Habiba and falls in love with her just days before he is scheduled to leave for study abroad. He vacillates between marrying her or not marrying her before leaving, and in the end does not make a formal proposal as she had wished. When he at last returns to the capital, he seeks to resume his relation with Habiba, but finds that she has married. Her husband soon betrays her and is sent to prison. Dirbal finds that there is now a way to "to draw nearer to her" so that she will not be forced to go out and beg. In this situation, his attitude again resembles that of Mansur Bahi in Mahfuz's Miramar. He finds her weeping pitifully in deep distress. He touches her hand and she squeezes his tightly, as if wanting him to draw closer to her in her calamity. However, he finds that his emotions are frozen and he is filled with a sudden sadness. It becomes clear to him that his antagonism toward his old home village was unjustified and superficial. In his heart of hearts, he realizes that his true feelings are quite the contrary. Later an acquaintance of his from the village informs him that the roof of his old family home has fallen in. The friend reminds him that according to folk tradition "a man is not a man in the village if his family house has tumbled down and he has done nothing to repair it." He remembers his mother's tears falling on his cheeks and his parents' words to him as he was leaving for the city long ago. These thoughts so move him that he determines to put an end to the anguish and struggle that have been stirring inside him. Following the prompting of his heart and conscience, he quickly drives off in his car back to his home village.

Bin Salih's In the Spider's Web The Tunisian novelistic hero, however, who gains the reader's sympathy through force of character is Salih al-Qadri in the novel Fi bayt al-cankabut (In the Spider's Web) (1967) by Muhammad al-Hadi bin Salih (b. 1945). The chief protagonist, Salih, is a penniless young fellow, his head scarred from ringworm, who is drafted into the French army along with many other Tunisians to fight a war against the Germans. They take him by sea to many different ports. After the war is over, he goes on wearing his green military trousers until they are threadbare and tattered. He tells amazing stories, all of them fibs or whopping lies, about his daring exploits in the war and his amorous adventures with women. He relates tales about a

The Novel in Tunisia

139

French general's wife and daughter who both fell in love with him. The villagers listen to him laughing up their sleeves, yet highly entertained. Contemplating marriage, Salih is deaf and blind to the warnings of many people about the woman he wants to marry. They inform him about her secret, disgraceful misbehavior. But love being blind, he goes through with the marriage. Soon, however, he begins to discover on his own the bitter truth about his wife's loose conduct, which he had refused to believe. He finally decides to escape to the city with his son. While visiting his sister, she and his brother-in-law, who is also his cousin, treat him with undisguised revulsion. His sister remarks, "Don't mention the village filth here in my home!" Her mother-in-law says, "Has this house been turned into a hotel?" Salih feels compelled to leave the house straightaway. In a scene in which Salih speaks to himself in total frankness, the undisguised tragedy looms up before him, more clearly than ever: "Salih alQadri! You claim to be a pure-blooded Arab. You trace your roots back to the Prophet of God. The family elders told you this. They also said that you are a descendant of a powerful judge! . . . You claim that your grandfather, the judge's son, died before his father. Therefore your grandfather inherited nothing . . . . These were all invented tales. The truth is that the judge lay with his minor servant girl making her pregnant. Your grandfather was the child of this union. However, although the judge verbally acknowledged your grandfather as his son, he never formalized his paternity in the legal records." On his return from Central Africa by ship with his regiment, the perspiration dripping from his brow, he is afraid to wipe his forehead with his sister's white towel, fearing that someone might say that he is dirty. He remarks, "Although you are filthy, you still do not want to allow anyone else to say you are filthy, even though you are aware of your filth." The scene of his frank recognition of his predicament and his selfflagellation continues as he reviews in his mind his position towards his prostitute wife on his wedding night. He goes over all the lies he told about his romantic adventures. He says to himself, "You only knew women in the person of your wife, whom you hardly glimpsed half-naked in a pitch-black night. You had hoped that this would be a night of passion, the night of nights, which you claimed to have spent in the embraces of beautiful women." He continues telling how she turned away from him, spurning his repeated attempts, and how she rejected him violently. He says to himself,

140

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

"You whispered in her ear some words of love poetry you had memorized for the occasion. You tried to recite a poem you memorized before you entered the house. What stunned you was her retort, 'Leave me alone! Keep away from me! The smell of your head is nauseating! Is it ringworm that has left your head all scabby?'" When he discovers that she is not a virgin and questions her about it, she slaps him on the face. He continues to himself, "You didn't sleep. You tried to rebel for the sake of your honor, but she shut you up with a second slap to the face. She taught you submission and obedience." This monologue indeed brings out into the open the monstrous misery and tragedy which Salih suffers. Like many others one meets in life, he conceals his life's distress with light-hearted chatter, frivolity, and ironic wit. Salih eventually ends up committing suicide, lying down for his last sleep under the wheels of an enormous truck which is parked for the night by the side of the road. After roaming the city hour after hour, he finds no place to spend the night except under a huge moving van. Then he wanders in his memories through the illusory feats of heroism which his imagination had woven. He forgives in his conscience all the people who had offended him, after creating justifications for being magnanimous to each one. He at last surrenders to sleep until the truck moves the next morning, crushing him under its great wheels. The remainder of the novel is taken up with his son Mahmud, whose dishonorable legacy, bequeathed to him by his parents, stands as an obstacle to his happiness in spite of his education and work in a respectable job.

Muhsin bin Diyaf's Defiance In this review of the Tunisian novel, mention must also be made of one of the most important novels describing the resistance of the Tunisian people to French colonialism. This is a novel by Muhsin bin Diyaf (b. 1932) entitled al-Tahaddi (Defiance), published in 1972. Hasan, the hero of the novel, represents the example of an educated man who carries on the struggle in both words and deeds. He is a lawyer, a writer, a journalist, and a patriot who has joined the ranks of the Resistance. The nationalist doctor who operates on him to extract a bullet from his arm remarks, "You are the last person I would have imagined to have carried out an assignment like this one, sir." Whereupon Hasan agrees, "Doctor, I, too, could never imagine myself doing a job like this!"

The Novel in Tunisia

141

Several different motives are interwoven, some personal and some patriotic, which propell Hasan into the blast furnace of the Resistance. He belongs to a well-to-do family which has a nationalistic past and a history of leadership. French settlers take over a large part of their land, which is contiguous to the property of a Frenchman's plantation. As a consequence of this land-grabbing incident, the family fortunes gradually slide into continuing decline. The mother grows ill and dies. The father's morale is shattered, worries being his constant companion. Hasan is obliged to combine work with study. These circumstances are compounded by the fact that Hasan's grandfather, whose name is also Hasan, was once an army commander with an illustrious record of patriotic service. His words are deeply engraved in Hasan's memory: "Youth will come possessing strong will. They will give us back our land and honor." How the grandfather wishes that his grandson, a young man, can take revenge to regain the land that was taken from them. All of these personal motives are combined with Hasan's own strong nationalist drive, especially after his mother's death and his sweetheart's suicide. Hasan finds no way to delay any longer joining up in the resistance movement. The operations in which he takes part multiply, until he is finally wounded. His arm is amputated and two bullets are lodged in his chest. He is transferred to the French military hospital until he recovers, at which time he is moved to prison to await his execution. All this information, which forms the substance of the novel, is not presented in consecutive, serialized episodes. Rather, it is communicated in bursts of reports of happenings remembered and retold and in commentaries related haphazardly, either chronologically close or distant in time. The body of the novel is conveyed through recollections, stream of consciousness, and flashbacks. The author makes good use of these techniques, which enable him, on one hand, to plunge into the depths of personalities. He also has ample liberty, on the other hand, to move about in time at will, from past to present and on into the future. The opening lines of the novel describe the resistance operation in which Hasan is so seriously wounded that he is taken to a French hospital. When he is sufficiently recovered, he will be transferred to prison to await execution. In a nutshell, practically all the main points of the plot are resumed through the narrative devices just referred to. Beyond his highly successful achievements in literary style and techniques, Muhsin ibn Diyaf excels in describing human emotions, the realm

142

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

of the spiritual, idealistic yearnings, and moral values in terms of true to life situations. Although this is one of the early novels in the history of the maturely realized Tunisian novel, it is a great step forward in the technical and artistic development of this genre in Tunisia. A good example is found in the novelist's handling of Hasan's spiritual and psychological state in the following scene. Hasan is on his way to the rebels' hideout. He crosses the avenues and alleyways of the capital, holding his revolver in his pocket. Naturally, he watches everything in front of him and around him, without concentrating on any one point. Yet, in his state of acute anxiety, agitation, and fear, he bumps into other pedestrians. He is irritated by the ringing of the bicycle bell of a gendarme: A pedestrian jolts him and then goes on his way without apologizing. He turns to look at him and sees an affable looking gentleman. While continuing along his way, further on he runs into some youths. This time it is he who apologies, 'Excuse me!' He hears a bicycle bell behind him again and, looking around, gets a start of anxiety at the sight of the policeman on his bike turning into an alleyway opposite. He gropes for the revolver in his pocket. Locating it, he leaves his palm where the small, cold body of the weapon lies extended ... It was like touching

death which somehow breathed into the depths of his innermost being. Then he experiences a return to the reality of his thoughts. All of a sudden, he has reached the secret hideout. With rapid steps, he ascends the stairs and taps lightly on the door. Just as Hasan's joining the ranks of the resistance movement is logical, justified, and convincing as well, so too is the development of his personality both logical and convincing as the plot unfolds. During and after his first guerilla operation, he feels that he has put an end to all vestiges of hesitation in his mind. All at once, there resounds in his inner soul of souls the words "you have killed fear! You have broken down the wall!" On another occasion, he feels that "he was no longer the Hasan who had entered the casino moments before. The old Hasan had become a foreigner to him." This particular anticolonialist action takes place in a casino frequented by French officers and soldiers for gambling and other sundry diversions. After his last and final resistance operation is over, he holds onto the vestigial stub of his arm where it had been blown off and recalls the words

The Novel in Libya

143

of his grandfather, mentioned earlier, saying, "I have fulfilled your dreams, O my grandfather!" The last part of the novel is entitled "The Letter." The first two parts of the novel bear the titles "Days" and "Memories and Visions." In this third and final part, there emerges another special quality in Hasan's personality which typifies his character. He is deeply pained, as a human being, that he was obliged to kill in these acts of violent resistance, in spite of the brutality of the French occupation. Hasan records this confession in a letter to his wife only hours before his execution. The Novel in Libya Novels began to appear in Libya in the late 1950s. More than forty novels were published representing over twenty Libyan writers (consult the bibliography for the full list of Libyan novels). Of these novelists, three in particular stand out: 'Ahmad 'Ibrahim al-Faqih (b. 1942), Khalifa Mustafa (b. 1944) and 'Ibrahim al-Kuni (b. 1948). It is sufficient here to give a summary of some of the works of two of these novelists, al-Faqih and al-Kuni.

Al-Faqih's Fields of Ashes Dr. 'Ahmad al-Faqih attaches central importance to the situation of Libyan women in his collections of short stories and his novels, such as Huqul alramad (Fields of Ashes), published in 1985, and his trilogy Sa'ahabuk madma 'ukhra (I Shall Offer You Another City), Hadhihi tukhum mamlakati (These Are the Borders of My Kingdom), and Nafaq tudi'uhu imra'a wahida(A Tunnel Lit by One Woman), published in 1991. In his oeuvre, 'the woman' is either a symbol for an intellectual cause or the image of the backwardness of society. In his novel Fields of Ashes, the heroine Jamlla appears dazzling in her loveliness. She breaks out of the traditions of Qarn al-Ghazala, her isolated desert village, by joining a teachers' training college. When the other village women start to become wary of her out of envy for her singular beauty and for fear that their husbands may fall in love with her, they spread false rumors, accusing her of magic and loose behavior. Indeed, the village men are dazzled out of their wits and are virtually panting after Jamlla. So powerful is the adoration for Jamila that even Jumca, the dervish, assaults her in public as she is returning from the teachers' college. He tries to rape her, and not satisfied in the attempt, goes to her home at night. As he tries to gain entry into Jamila's house, he falls to his death. Shaykh Nasr al-Din,

144

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

the otherwise pious 'imam of the village mosque, also falls passionately in love with Jamila. Finding no other way to reach her, the shaykh resorts to a scurrilous ruse. He claims at the police station that he has had sexual relations with her. Then, confessing his crime, he asks to marry her. The unfortunate girl is subjected to a medical examination and is pronounced a virgin. The shaykh, now completely mentally deranged, locks himself in his house until he dies of a broken heart. While the behavior of these two would-be suitors reflects a cultural and social backwardness, the attitude of the mutasarrif, the provincial governor, reveals political corruption and abuse of high rank for a personal obsession. The mutasarrif makes up his mind that he will take Jamila as his second wife, in spite of the fact that she is his daughter's classmate at the teachers' college. He starts by bribing Jamila's family in various ways. He assigns the family to a new house and promotes her father, a night watchman, to a better job with a higher salary. In fact, he arranges for her father to become the village candidate for parliament. The mutasarrif then rigs a victory for him and embarks on a program to teach him to read and write. Meanwhile, he continues to shower the family with gifts. The villagers, realizing that the mutasarrif is bestowing favors on Jamila's family, also begin to ingratiate themselves with the family. They invite her father to social functions, and various professional and tradesman's groups compete with each other to render services to the family. Teachers offer to give his children private lessons, and shopkeepers lay aside for the family supplies of whatever products are disappearing from the market. However, in reality, the villagers hold the father in contempt. They know that he was only a night watchman before the mutasarrif became obsessed with marrying his daughter. Such public attitudes and conduct show the full extent of the coercive pressure that a person in authority can hold over his ordinary fellow countrymen. This power is also apparent later when the mutasarrif effectively pressures the villagers into signing a petition to move them out of the village, theoretically because of its miserable poverty. The real reason, in fact, is a royal decree to rent the area to Americans and turn it into a military base. A primary aim of this novel is to portray certain manifestations of social backwardness and some of the negative features of the isolated village, shut off and apart, clinging to patterns of life inherited from past generations. The reader becomes acquainted with old customs, values, superstitions, magic, tombs of holy men, and flattery before figures of authority. All of

The Novel in Libya

145

these phenomena are vividly exposed through the reactions of the community when confronted with the singular beauty of Jamila and her pursuit of higher education.

Al-Faqih's Trilogy Women also hold center stage in Dr. al-Faqih's Trilogy. This work incorporates a triptych of traditional society, a society which the author wishes to see evolve for the public benefit. The work sets forth expressions of progress and enlightened civilized life that the novelist desires to nurture in the soil of his community. Realistic views of the hero's encounters with women are presented in the first and third volumes, I Shall Offer You Another City and A Tunnel Lit by One Woman. In total contrast, the second volume, These Are the Borders of My Kingdom, is a fantastic legend. In each of the volumes, the hero Khalil meets two women. One follows the ideal of the uneducated Arab East and the unemancipated Arab woman. She embodies love, fulfillment of instinctive human longing, and procreation. The second woman is educated and emancipatd—a rich and multifaceted personality. In the first volume, Khalil is in England working on a study of A Thousand and One Nights. He meets Linda, the married landlady of his boarding house. Their growing friendship is consummated in love and blossoms in passionate delight and happiness. When the existentialist Sandra, full of clever ideas, arrives, she awakens in Khalil a deep-seated yearning to contemplate everything and to doubt philosophically even fundamental axioms and self-evident truths. Khalil falls in love with her. In a theater production he plays Othello and she Desdemona with smashing success, filling the theater with roaring applause. They celebrate their success by singing and imbibing many a libation with co-members of the cast. The two of them return home together to Khalil's lodging. The next morning, Sandra, half-clad, asks Linda to loan her a hair-drier. This brief encounter puts a quick end to the liaison between Linda and Khalil, in spite of desperate efforts by Khalil to revive and perpetuate their relationship. In the second volume, Khalil stops reading part one of The Thousand and One Nights to undertake a pilgrimage to the tomb of Shaykh 'Abu alKhayrat (literally, the Father of Blessings). Instead of a tomb, however, he finds the shaykh alive. The shaykh asks Khalil to look very carefully in order to see the outlines of a city looming on the horizon. He instructs him to travel there. Khalil arrives at the city exhausted from the arduous jour-

146

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

ney. He tries to go back but cannot find the way. The inhabitants surround him, as the shaykh of the city announces that their prince has died and that he, Khalll, has become the new prince. According to tradition, the first man to enter the city gates after the death of a prince will become the new ruler. Khalll is married to Princess Narjis al-Qulub ('Narcissus of Hearts'), whose great beauty reminds him of Shahrazad, the feminine beauty of tempting charms. At first, he lives with her happily, just as he had with Linda in the earlier volume. Then arrives Budur ('Full Moons'), who assumes a role similar to Sandra's. Khalil becomes her lover before her parents' very eyes. "Not to worry!" Budur assures Khalil and tries to lighten the burden of guilt he feels towards his wife. She explains that Khalil has embarrassed no one by his overt amorous attentions; the traditions of the city allow their relationship, in spite of his being married to the princess. Budur further explains that she will announce her love before her parents and that she will suggest the revival of an ancient tradition which allowed any woman who wanted to have a child by the prince to go to him and declare her desire. Khalil tries in vain to persuade his wife to accept Budur as his second wife, in spite of the fact that she, Narjis, is the first princess. Narjis, however, considers that to be impossible. When Budur's wish to discover the secret of a closed room drives Khalil to break open the door and enter the room, he is shocked by the hot foulsmelling air. The fantastic City of the Coral Necklace disappears as Khalil finds himself in the desert, returning to his native land. Once again at home, he is amazed that the book which he had been reading, A Thousand and One Nights, is still open. His wife is still wearing her loose flowing gown as when he left her. She tells him that he has only been away from home an hour. The whole adventure, then, has been only a waking dream, an imaginary tale like the tales he has been reading. This fantastic story is added to the novel as a new story in the tales of the ancient book. It is, however, a tale which serves the main issue with which the Trilogy is dealing. In the last volume of the trilogy, A Tunnel Lit by One Woman, the same dual-love situation arises. Khalil is married to Fatima when he meets Sana', who attends one of his lectures about A Thousand and One Nights. Sana' asks him many clever questions related to free expression, women's liberation and male domination, and plants and their medicinal properties. He discovers that it is Sana' who inspired in him the vision of Budur in the

The Novel in Libya

147

City of the Coral Necklace. He remembers that he saw her waving to him as he watched the rising sun in the world of reality, not the world of dreams. They fall in love at this first meeting. He divorces Fatima and becomes engaged to Sana', but a few months before the wedding, he rapes her. By this act, he allows the golden opportunity to slip through his hands, as happened in the first two volumes of the Trilogy. It is clear that Khalil has conflicting opinions about the traditional roles of women. He is not happy only with traditional feminine behavior, nor is he content with the behavior of educated women. He is troubled by the differences. His predicament is that faced by the hero of Yahya Haqqi's The Lamp of 'Umm Hashim or al-Tayyib Salih's Season of Migration to the North. These situations clamor for a healthy combination between the two vastly different possibilities for women. The Trilogy outshines all these other works, as Dr. c All al-Raci rightly observed: "This novel delves deeply into the beauty and splendor of A Thousand and One Nights and brings rich benefit in creating 'a virtuous city' in which there are no taxes, no coercion, and no slavery."33

Al-Kuni's Bleeding of the Rock In contrast with the novels of Dr. al-Faqih, which move with clear, flowing narrative, Nazif al-hajar (The Bleeding of the Rock) and the novels of 'Ibrahim al-Kunl in general require several rereadings to be properly understood on a basic level. A principle reason for this is the setting of the novel, which is described intimately and in great detail: the wild, mountainous desert, extending far south in its vastness as far as al-cUwaynat. Besides its natural beauty, the desert is rich in its prehistoric heritage, recorded in the unique drawings engraved on the walls of caves and on great rocks. It is expressed in extraordinary legends and mythology, which are linked to the undulating elevations in the earth and the fauna living there. In The Bleeding of the Rock, up until almost the end of the novel, there is one man who seems to embody the desert legacy and seems, in fact, to truly love every animal. He daily grazes his flock of sheep, but interacts principally with one animal, an almost sacred creature called the waddan, a species of mountain goat which is considered the oldest animal in the great Sahara (extinct in Europe in the seventeenth century as the novel mentions in a footnote). Moreover, the valley, mountains, and topography of the region are presented in their local names never heard of by most readers,

148

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

such as Massak Satafat, Massak Milat, Mitkhandush, 'Abrahuh, and many more. All sections of the novel begin with an epigraph which alludes to the action that follows. In one such quotation, the historian Herodotus states: "In the south of Libya in the Nasamonean Uplands live the Garamantes [a group of Libyan tribes] in a land abounding in wild animals. The people of these tribes actually run away from outsiders, as they are afraid to talk to them. They do not use weapons nor do they know how to defend themselves." The hero of the novel, ' Assuf, is of this tribe, as were all his forefathers. In one of many lessons given to his son, 'Assuf s father asks him, '"What does the gazelle say to himself, when he sees the enemy of living creatures?' He says, The plain.' 'What does the waddan say when he sees the enemy of living creatures?' He says, The mountain.' To the gazelle the mountain is a trap, whereas to the mountain goat, the waddan, the plain represents a snare." The message here is that the enemy of all created beings is, of course, man. In another lesson to his son in which he explains the tyranny of man, 'Assuf's father asks, "How can I be a neighbor to man? Your mother reproaches me and asks me to return with her to the home area of her tribe in 'Abrahuh. She complains that she is lonely and cries at night . . . But I cannot live near any man . . . This is how my grandfather taught me. It is how I must teach you ... Do you understand?" The passage from Herodotus quoted above is found in the novel's sixth chapter, entitled "al-Bunayya" ('the girl'). By 'al-bunayya,' the author means 'Assuf himself. His mother accuses him of being "a little girl" and not a man once when, after his father's death, she sends him to the leaders of a caravan to barter goats for wheat and barley. 'Assuf, however, does not have the courage to talk to the caravan merchants and returns without making the transaction, although the next caravan will not pass for weeks or perhaps even months. 'Assuf, therefore, must travel a very long distance on a different trail to wait for another passing caravan. This time he ties a nanny goat and a billy goat to tent pegs beside the caravan route. He hangs on the neck of each a small bag, one containing wheat and the other barley. Then he disappears into the distance until a passing caravan stops by the two goats. The merchants try in vain to call out to 'Assuf, but he begins to tremble and runs to hide behind rocks. The merchants laugh and leave him two sacks, one filled

The Novel in Libya

149

with wheat and the other with barley, and go on their way with the two goats. When 'Assuf is a young man, he has a profound experience which changes the course of his life and makes him swear off eating meat and hunting the waddan forever. The incident will be related in due course. Towards the end of his life, archaeologists visit the area with a learned Italian scholar to explore the region. Tourists begin to arrive in groups on short, infrequent visits. They leave him tea, milk, sugar, and cans of sardines and tuna. Near the end of the novel, the second important character arrives and dominates the conclusion. His name, Qabil 'Adam (Cain, Son of Adam), has obvious symbolic significance. Qabil, driving a Land Rover and carrying a rifle, is accompanied by a friend named Mascud. He is on a hunting trip at the request of an American officer in 'Assuf s home territory. Qabil asks 'Assuf to help him search for the waddan. 'Assuf, to protect the waddan, cleverly uses tricks to keep Mascud from finding any of the places where the mountain goat grazes. 'Assuf's clever deception leads to murder at the end of the novel. The foregoing account is only a short summary at the surface level of a many-layered, complex, and densely written work, which is on one hand realistic, but also magical, mythical, rife with legends, and symbolic and semantically rich in spite of its relatively short, 142 small-sized pages. As for the other levels, they center around this one region of Libyan desert. They provide the reader with a faithful, aesthetically satisfying, engrossing, and comprehensive representation of the region. It is a highly charged, profoundly thoughtful, and detailed panoramic portrayal of valleys, mountains, and caverns, in which the desert animals reveal their traits and temperaments. On rocks and in caves are engraved prehistoric drawings. Stirring legends are told. The desert dwellers' beliefs, customs, and traditions permeate the narrative. One comes to understand the value of water, the secrets of hunting, and the reading of tracks and footprints in Bedouin life. One appreciates the heart in its extended meaning, the practice of patience, bullets used in self-defense, and education which is instinctive, practical, and inclusive of all the values mentioned here. In addition, one learns of the true affection, understanding, and even devotion which bind the leading characters to the desert animals within this exotic setting, especially the deer and desert mountain goats.

150

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

The novel also reflects the vast reading and broad culture of the author. His well-honed narrative style reflects a wide knowledge of mature novelistic writings. The quotations which preface the beginnings of many chapters epitomize or interpret the coming episodes. Appropriate quotations from the Holy Qur'an, the Old Testament, al-Naffari, Ibn cArabi, Herodotus, Ovid, Sophocles, and archaeologists draw the reader into a spell of pleasant excitement. The first introductory quotation at the opening of the novel intimates epigrammatically what follows. It is a verse of the Qur'an of portentous significance for the novel. "There is not an animal on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms) communities like you" (as rendered into English by c Abdullah Yusuf CAli).34 The reader will find the significance of this verse confirmed in the novel. The second quotation is taken from the Old Testament, in the passage relating the killing of Abel by his brother Cain, a crime re-enacted in the novel. Sufism holds a prominent place in this novel. Information about Sufism is slyly introduced by the American officer John Parker, who has become fascinated with the idea of eating venison, albeit the manifestations of Sufism here most specifically apply to 'Assuf. Parker studied Eastern philosophies at the University of California. He has been moved by the statement of a French scholar on Sufism who wrote, "North Africa, the Arab Maghrib, is the place which brought Sufism down from the throne of sacred philosophy to the earth of daily life ... In these lands, it is impossible to distinguish from the ignorant dervish or the virtuous, devout wali [holy man or popular saintly believer], because of all the wandering beggars." The author also quotes from an obscure Sufi mystic, "There is truth in gentle and harmless animals. Allah has placed his secret among gazelles . . . . He who tastes the flesh of this creature does away with his insufficiency and stands erect in the sight of God." With these ideas in mind, Parker seizes the opportunity of being in the area to mingle with ascetic mystics and dervishes. He is astonished by their commonly held conviction that "gentle animals are the most worthy in saintliness and in receptivity to the divine spirit of all creatures." Parker also finds strong corroboration for the teaching of Zen (or Tsen, the Buddhist school founded in Japan by Tsen in the late Middle Ages). One of their tenets is that the incarnation of the heavenly spirit in man is only realized if a person passes through the animal stage. That is to say, the heavenly state is achieved when a person lives exclusively apart, by himself, until he becomes like a desert animal. To realize this 'animalness,' the per-

The Novel in Libya

151

son must become dumb to the point where he is no longer capable of speaking and must eat grass until he forgets the taste of ordinary human food. This understanding is such that the Creator is more disposed to descend to the creature who has penetrated the innermost reaches of the desert, cut off, under the open heavens. He will remain apart even from all tamed animals which do not choose to live in the wild. A dervish of the Qadiriya sect (following the teaching of cAbd al-Qadir al-Jaylani) says to Parker, "Our difference with you, O company of Christians, lies in this. You say that Christ is God and restrict His glory and majesty to one creature, whereas we see Him existing in all beings." This Qadiri dervish, a vegetarian who lives only on barley bread, goes on to say, "Olive oil is Gharyan. Dates are Fazzan. Meat is the waddan. The waddan is truly something d i f f e r e n t . . . . I have tasted all kinds of meats, when I used to eat meat. The divine secret resides in the waddan mountain goat." Parker is fascinated by this declaration. His determination concerning the meat of the waddan leads him to direct Qabil to hunt the animal after the herds of gazelles have migrated. In tangibly real, emotive scenes of nature in its own context, these Sufi views of life are expressed by the author through his hero 'Assuf, the solitary, isolated man, utterly absorbed by the desert animals and thoroughly acquainted with their secret glances and peering stares. 'Assuf, himself possessed, has come to believe that the waddan is possessed—possessed by the spirits of the mountains, by the spirit of his father, by the spirit of the Creator. He has lived on barley bread since he was a youth, and the waddan saved his life once, as will be seen. In one incident, he escapes from the Italian soldiers in the oases. A prolonged, severe drought had driven him there to try his luck with people. On the day he arrives, he is arrested with some other young Libyans who are being conscripted into the Italian army to fight in their Ethiopian campaigns. 'Assuf, however, escapes on the way. The youths who were with him swear that they did not see anyone escape as he ran away under the hail of Italian bullets. This incident further adds to the mystery and spirituality of 'Assuf, who is seen as an almost ethereal hero. He is welcomed within the hearts of the Sufis of the desert, as they "agreed unanimously that he was a holy man of God. At night, they went to the zawiya [a small domed mosque over a saint's tomb, with adjoining rooms belonging to a religious brotherhood]. They organized a dhikr in which they were in a trance until dawn . . . .

152

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

They were in rapture at the descent of the divine being to miserable, earthly creatures." Turning to the structure of the novel, it will be noticed that it begins shortly before the end of the story. In the first lines, 'Assuf hears the roar of Qabil's car announcing his imminent arrival. When he arrives with his companion, only a few hours elapse from the time of their actual contact with 'Assuf until Qabil slays him. The significance of this arrangement is that the entire novel is presented in the form of reminiscences and analepsis. Most pages of the novel describe 'Assuf's life in this manner, from his boyhood days when he lives with his parents, learning everything having to do with the desert, until his murder in his old age. Some pages are devoted to Qabil and his past life, including his relation with the American officer. Qabil is star-crossed even before his birth. His father dies of a stab wound when Qabil is still in his mother's womb. His mother dies from the bite of an adder a week after she gives birth to him. His maternal aunt then provides for him, and acting on the advice of a faqih (a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence), she gives him gazelle's blood to drink to remove the curse hanging over him. His aunt and her husband perish from thirst on the journey they take to procure the gazelle, while Qabil is able to suck its blood. A passing caravan discovers him snuggling his head against the belly of the gazelle. When his adoptive father, 'Adam, suddenly comes upon Qabil eating raw meat while they are on a journey to Kano in Nigeria, he takes him to some witch doctors for treatment. These magicians inform him, "Whoever is weaned on gazelle's blood will not stand straight until he has his fill of the flesh of Adam when he is full grown." Thus Qabil grows up, always ravenous, never satisfied no matter how much meat he devours. Because of his insatiable craving, he becomes an excellent hunter of such skill that with the help of the American officer and his weaponry, he is instrumental in causing the extinction of gazelles in Libya through overhunting and migration. Thereafter he and the officer decided to concentrate on hunting the waddan. By the time the reader forgets the tales of how the infant Qabil drank doe's blood, by means of related reminiscences of what happened to his adoptive father and of the other children's attitudes toward Qabil when he was a boy, and excursus on the Sufis in North Africa, he suddenly finds himself confronted with a strange and unexpected scene. Qabil has come out to the desert with the American officer and Mascud in a helicopter piloted by an African-American. They intend to comb al-Hasawna Mountain, where

The Novel in Libya

153

flocks of deer stop to rest in their flight from Qabil and his hunting parties into the Algerian desert. After great effort searching, Qabil sees a gazelle shading herself in the shadow of a rock. He stands there, gun in hand, staring at her in astonishment. "Her eyes are large, black and intelligent, speaking to him in an unknown language, telling him something, intimating some secret. Yes! Yes! It is a secret which he senses but does not understand. Ah, the crudest communication of all in life is to be aware of a secret which one cannot comprehend. Long they gazed at one another, staring. She did not budge, while beside her stood a gazelle fawn, who agreed with what her mother said. Qabil was awed and strangely chilled by the sight. His companions, baffled by his behavior, bade him sit down. He was sweating profusely." But after a few moments, egged on noisily, crudely by his comrades, he fired the shot, averting his face from her gaze. He killed her, the mother doe and the infant fawn, too. The narrator then quite bowls the reader over at the end of the chapter, which is entitled "Flesh of Kin." Quoting from the novel, "That night Qabil not only slew his sister. He also ate her flesh." Here the reader will recall one of the most intriguing chapters of the book, about a unique human conversation among members of a flock of gazelles about the rescue of a traveler, his wife, and child who were suffering from a mortal thirst. The oldest gazelle explains the benefit of sacrifice, saying that the offering will be presented to the Creator, not to man. She then asks that one gazelle volunteer so that the suffering child and his family might drink of her blood and survive. The debate, however, continues as no one comes foreword. Finally, the old slender mother gazelle decides to offer herself as a sacrificial victim, whereupon another gazelle volunteers, even though her small fawn is with her, so that the flock will not lose their chief guide, the elder gazelle. At this point the older gazelle tells her that one of the secrets of the sacrifice is that it will inaugurate a covenant between her descendants and the human race: "This covenant will make your progeny inviolate against the human race for all ages." The unfortunate gazelle thus sacrifices herself, allowing the infant Qabil to suckle her blood after his aunt and uncle die of thirst. She is the mother of the gazelle which Qabil shoots, the latter being only a small fawn at that time. He does not understood her gaze, reminding him of the covenant of blood, and that she is his sister by right of her mother's blood, which he also drank.

/ 54

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Al-Kuni's intense concern and fondness for animals and his compelling desire to awaken sympathy towards other creatures is prominent in many passages of this book. Sometimes the author's presentation of details and situations concerning animals appears so subtle and casual as to be passed over. Then he startles the reader by revealing a mystery and clarifying its meaning. This indeed is a characteristic feature of The Bleeding of the Rock. It is a technique he uses to create an element of gripping fascination. One episode in particular, actually a near death experience, changes the course of' Assuf's life and transforms him into a Sufi and a vegetarian. 'Assuf's father often tells him that any worthy dweller of the desert must prove his mettle by hunting the waddan alone. The hunt is basic to life like hunger and thirst; the chase is, in fact, the enactment of the drama of entering a maze, which in some way reveals the full measure of the desert. His father warns him above all against the waddan's horns: "His madness, when his secret wildness awakens, resides in his horns. Then the attack begins." When, after his father's death, 'Assuf is a bold and valiant youth at the height of his powers, he feels he can even wrestle a rampaging camel to the ground. Then arrives the supreme challenge of hunting a waddan that he finds among his sheep. Forgetting his father's warning, he manages to lasso the creature's horns. Now the battle starts in earnest. The raging waddan drags 'Assuf higher and higher up to the slope, to the very summit of the mountain. Bruised, cut, and bleeding, he keeps clinging to the rope, hoping the mountain goat will collapse from exhaustion. In a sudden wild bound to escape, the waddan leaps from the precipice into the unknown darkness of the abyss, throwing 'Assuf over the edge of the ravine. With the speed of a lightning bolt, he finds himself clinging to a projecting crag, a tiny rock shelf, with one hand, as his feet dangle over the sheer rock cliff. 'Assuf faces, as it seems to him, defeat and certain death by dropping into the gorge below. He remembers the lessons his father taught him about how to survive in extremis: first to rely on the bullet; second, on patience; then on the heart; and finally, the mind. His patience was now at an end, exhausted as he is from thirst, the terror of darkness, total silence, and utter solitude with no one to help. He next resorts to the heart, recalling that his father had told him that Allah is in the heart. He remembers his aged mother at home, who will die at the sight of the herd coming back without him. He meditates on

The Novel in Libya

155

her love that also lives in his heart. His father was right. These thoughts renew his strength. Otherwise, how could he maintain his ability to persevere? But this ability inevitably falters as his horrible predicament continues. As his strength grows weaker and he begins to accept his inevitable fate, all at once he hears steps. Are these the perceptions of a dying man which no one else perceives? Then he feels the rope to which he is holding fast being slowly pulled. He is dragged up to the top of the cliff where he gazes up into the eyes of the waddan. In these sad eyes, he sees his father's eyes. In a voice dry and choked from thirst, he cries out, "You are my father! I know it's you! Wait for me!" And he faints into a deep swoon. This critical experience decisively divides 'Assuf's life into two stages. The former stage brims with lyricism, while the latter contains mystical intimations. It is natural that this mortal contest with fate should separate the two ages of his life. In his early years, a stalwart youth, he delights in the simple licit pleasures available to him. His favorite sport is wrestling with animals, hunting, and butchering them so as to eat them. In his second age, he becomes a Sufi ascetic. He swears never again to cause harm to his brother animals, "who are also human," and vows never again to butcher them or eat their meat: "Whoever can eat the flesh of the waddan will also be ready to eat the flesh of man . . ." The father appears incarnated in the waddan, as the waddan becomes incarnated in 'Assuf. For this reason, 'Assuf, now a Sufi advanced in years, refuses to help Qabil to locate and slaughter the waddan: "Had he not already annihilated countless gazelles, the creatures closest in holiness to the waddan?" This refusal leads to 'Assuf's death. "The Abyss," the title of this chapter, is also an image which may be better interpreted on two levels. One is the concrete, realistic level, where it is the actual chasm from which 'Assuf falls to his death. On another level, it symbolizes 'Assuf's long, arduous, and terrifying ordeal in which he is finally saved from falling into the desires of the flesh—a mystical catharsis. At the end of his struggle, he sees in the eyes of the waddan his father, in both the immediate and symbolic sense. As for the title of the novel, The Bleeding of the Rock, it becomes clear to the reader in the following two situations: In the beginning of the novel, while grazing his goats, 'Assuf discovers an enormous rock, decorated with the most exquisite and amazing prehistoric carved drawings in the whole of the great desert. Covering the entire

156

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

enormous rock face is the gigantic figure of a veiled priest with two twisted horns rising next to a huge holy waddan. Both stand with their heads raised towards the distant horizon where the sun rises. At the end of the novel, in Qabil's murder of 'Assuf, he first crucifies him on the tremendous, sublime rock and "stuffed his body into the belly of the rock, uniting his body with the body of the great waddan, the two horns bound together and wound around his neck." As Qabil gazes at him in this position, he shouts to his companion, "Do you not see the waddan hanging there [meaning 'Assuf]? He is a mountain goat indeed! How did I not notice the resemblance before?" He thereupon proceeds to butcher 'Assuf with all the swaggering guestures of the expert, expertise gained from the slaughter of vast herds of gazelles in al-Hamada al-Hamra'. Threadlike streams of blood trickle down the rock. Thus the rock bleeds. On the rock, too, is written in the tacawidh alphabet, resembling the magical charms at Kanu, "I am the high priest of Matkhindush. I prophesy to the generations that salvation will come when the holy waddan bleeds and his blood flows down the great rock. A miracle will be born which shall wash away the curse and the flood shall purify the desert." Such then is 'the bleeding of the rock.' But what salvation does the high priest have in mind? Is it the salvation of 'Assuf, 'the holy waddan,' from the burdens of this life? Or is it the annihilation of the mortal body of the mystical Sufi sense? Or is it the salvation of the waddan, the real animal, from the threat of extinction, after the curse which had existed in Qabil since the moment of his birth has been washed away? It is the curse of his ravenous perverse greed, indeed a pathological voracity driving him to slaughter and devour animals en masse. This is the mania of which the soothsayers prophesied he would not be cured until he ate human flesh. The human flesh, it becomes clear, is 'Assuf's flesh, which Qabil will eat after butchering him. The novel, however, ends before any cannibalism actually occurs. Or is it the salvation of the Earth or society by the sacrifice and the shedding of blood? This rich text allows all these and perhaps more interpretations.

Notes 1. For futher details concerning the translation movement, see Hamdi Sakkout, The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends (1913-1952) (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971), p. 9. 2. Ibid., p. 8, and references mentioned there. 3. H. Sakkout, in the introduction to Muqaddima (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1985). 4. Roger Allen, The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (Manchester: University Press, 1982), p. 29. 5. H.A.R. Gibb, "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature," in Studies on the Civilization of Islam, ed. S.J. Shaw and W.R. Polk (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), p. 292. 6. For further details, see Nicmat 'Ahmad Fu'ad, 'Adab al-Mazini (Cairo: Mu'assasat al-Khankl, 1961), pp. 258-268. 7. Sakkout, The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends (1913-1952), p. 89. 8. Ibid., p. 91. 9. For further details, see Hamdi Sakkout and Marsden Jones, Taha Husayn in the series 'Aclam al-'adab al-mucasir fi Misr, vol. 1, second printing (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1983), p. 57 and ff. 10. Howard Brenton, "Mahfouz Discovered," The Literary Review (June 1991), pp. 4 3 - 4 . 11. See article by Roger Allen, "The Impact of the Translated Text: The Case of Najib Mahfuz's Novels with Special Emphasis on the Trilogy," Edebiyat, vol. 4, no. 1 (1993). 12. For details of the story, see Jamal al-Ghltanl, ed., Najib Mahfuz yatadhakkar (Beirut: Dar al-Masira, 1980), pp. 59-60. 13. Ibid., p. 63. 14. See Fu'ad Dawarah, "Rihlat al-khamsln mac al-qira'a wa al-kitaba," alKatib (January 1963), p. 21. 15. al-Kitab al-muqaddas: tarjama tafsiriya (Cairo, 1988), pp. 1 and 3. 16. For details, consult Muhammad al-Bardi, Hanna Mina, riwa'i al-kifah wa al-farah (Beirut: Dar al-'Adab, 1993). 17. See Faruq Wadi, Thalath calamat fi al-riwaya al-filistlniya (Beirut: alMu'assasa al-cArabiya lil-Dirasat wa al-Nashr, 1981), p. 77. See sources given. 157

158

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34.

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Ibid., p. 66. Ibid., p. 143. See sources given. Ibid., p. 137-138. See al-Riwaya al-carabiya, al-nash'a wa al-tahawwul (Baghdad: Maktabat al-Tahrir, 1986), p. 293. See Dr. Zuhayr Shalabiya, Dirasa muqarana fi al-riwaya al-ciraqiya (Beirut: Dar al-Kunuz al-'Adabiya, 1996), pp. 9 and 49. Dr. cAli al-Raci, al-Riwaya fi al-watan al-carabi (Cairo: Dar alMustaqbal al-cArabi, 1991), p. 421. See Mahmud 'Amin al-cAlim, 'Arbacun caman min al-naqd al-tatblqi (Cairo: Dar al-Mustaqbal al-cArabi, 1994), p. 43. al-Tayyib Salih, cabqari al-riwaya al-carabiya (Beirut: Dar al-cAwda, 1976), p. 126. Ibid., pp. 130-131. Ibid., p. 135. See 'Idris al-Naquri, al-Mustalah al-mushtarak, dirasat fi al-'adab almaghribi al-mucasir (Morocco: Dar al-Nashr al-Maghribi, 1977), pp. 38-39. See also 'Ahmad Muhammad c Atiya, al-Riwaya al-siyasiya (Cairo: Maktabat Madbuli, n.d.), p. 87. See the novel, 4th ed., 1983, p. 130. See also Sayyid al-Nassaj, Banurama al-riwaya al-carabiya (Cairo: Maktabat Gharib, n.d.), p. 300. For those wishing more information about the years 1906 or 1935, for the beginning of the Tunisian novel, see Sayyid al-Nassaj, Banurama al-riwaya al-carabiya al-haditha (Cairo: Dar al-Macarif, 1985), p. 271. See also Mustafa al-Kilani, The Novel, volume 2 in Tarikh al- 'adab altunus'i, (Tunis: Bayt al-Hikma, 1990), p. 9. Taha Husayn, Min 'adabina al-mucasir (Cairo: al-Sharika al-cArabiya lil-Tibaca wa al-Nashr, 1958), p. 114. Ibid, p. 113. al-Raci, al-Riwaya fi al-watan al-carabi, p. 554. In the novel the verse reads as follows: Wa la ta'irin yatiru fi al-sama ' ("Nor is there any bird that flies in the heavens"). See surat al-'ancam, Verse 38, in the Holy Qur'an. Please note that this is a misquote of Verse 38.

Arabic Novels Translated into English Abdel Meguid, Ibrahim. The Other Place. Trans. Farouk Abdel Wahab. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. . No One Sleeps in Alexandria. Trans. Farouk Abdel Wahab. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1999. Abouzeid, Leila. Year of the Elephant. Trans. Barbara Parmenter. Austin: University of Texas, 1989. El Aqqad, Abbas Mahmoud. Sara. Trans. Moustafa Badawi. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1978. Algosaibi, Ghazi A. An Apartment Called Freedom. Trans. Leslie McLoughlin. London: KPI, 1996. Ali, Idris. Dongola: A Novel of Nubia. Trans. Peter Theroux. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998. 'Awwad, Tawfiq Yusuf. Death in Beirut. Trans. Leslie McLoughlin. London: Heinemann, 1976. Badr, Liana. A Compass for the Sunflower. Trans. Catherine Cobham. London: The Women's Press, 1989. . The Eye of the Mirror. Trans. Samira Kawar. Reading: Garnet, 1994. Bakr, Salwa. The Golden Chariot. Trans. Dinah Manisty. Reading: Garnet, 1995. . The Shrine of Atia in The Wiles of Men. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. Baradah, Muhammad. The Game of Forgetting: A Novel. Trans. Issa J. Boullata. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996. Barakat, Halim. Days of Dust. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick. Wilmette, IL: Medina, 1974. . Six Days. Trans. Bassam Franjieh and Scott McGhee. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1990. Barakat, Hoda. The Stone of Laughter. Trans. Sophie Bennett. New York: Interlink Books, 1995. El-Bisatie, Mohamed. Houses Behind the Trees. Trans. Denys JohnsonDavies. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. Choukri, Mohamed. For Bread Alone. Trans. Paul Bowles. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1987.

159

160

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Dammaj, Zayd Mutee'. The Hostage. Trans. May Jayussi and Christopher Tingley. New York: Interlink Books, 1994. Elkhadem, Saad. Travels of the Egyptian Odysseus in Three Contemporary Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1979. . Ulysses's Hallucinations or the Like in Three Pioneering Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1986. . Wings of Lead: A Modern Egyptian Novella. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1994. Faqih, Ahmad. Gardens of the Night: A Trilogy (I Shall Offer You Another City, These Are the Borders of My Kingdom, and A Tunnel Lit by One Woman). Trans. Russell Harris, Amin al-'Ayouti, and Suraya 'Allam. London: Quartet Books, 1995. Fayyad, Soleiman. Voices. Trans. Hosam Aboul-Ela. London: Marion Boyars Publishers, 1993. Ghanem, Fathy. The Man Who Lost His Shadow: A Novel in Four Books. Trans. Desmond Stewart. London: Heinemann, 1966. al-Ghitani, Gamal. Incidents in Za 'farani Alley. Trans. Peter Daniel. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1986. . Zayni Barakat. Trans. Farouk Abdel Wahab. New York: Viking Press, 1988. Gibran, Khalil. The Broken Wings. Trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York: Citadel, 1957. . Spirits Rebellious. Trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York: Philosophical Library, 1946. Habiby, Emile. The Secret Life of Saeed, the Ill-Fated Pessoptimist: A Palestinian Who Became a Citizen of Israel. Trans. Salma Khadra Jayussi and Trevor Le Gassick. New York: Vantage, 1982. al-Hakim, Tawfig. Return of the Spirit. Trans. William M. Hutchins. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1990. . Bird of the East. Trans. R. Bayly Winder. Beirut: Khayats, 1966. . The Maze of Justice: Diary of a Country Prosecutor. Trans. Abba Eban. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989. Haqqi, Mahmud Tahir. The Maiden of Dinshway, in Three Pioneering Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton, N.B.: York Press, 1986. Haqqi, Yahya. The Saint's Lamp and Other Stories. Trans. M.M. Badawi. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973.

Arabic Novels Translated into English

161

Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. Zaynab. Trans. John Mohammed Grinsted. London: Darf, 1989. Hetata, Sherif. The Eye with an Iron Lid. Trans, by the author. London: Onyx, 1982. . The Net. Trans by the author. London: Zed Books, 1986. Hussein, M. Kamel. City of Wrong: A Friday in Jerusalem. Trans. Kenneth Cragg. New York: Seabury Press, 1959. Hussein, Taha. The Call of the Curlew. Trans. A.B. As-Safi. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1980. . The Dreams of Scheherezade. Trans. Madgi Wahba. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1974. Ibrahim, Jamal 'Attiya. Down to the Sea. Trans. F. Liardet. London: Quartet Books, 1991. Ibrahim, Sun'allah. The Smell of It. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: Heinemann, 1971. Idilbi, Ulfat. Sabriya: Damascus Bitter Sweet: A Novel. Trans. Peter Clark. New York: Interlink, 1997. Idris, Yusuf. The Sinners. Trans. Kristin Peterson-Ishaq. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1984. . City of Love and Ashes. Trans. R. Neil Hewison. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1998. Jabra, Jabra Ibrahim. The Ship. Trans. Adnan Haydar and Roger Allen. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1985. Jalal, Muhammad. Trial at Midnight. Trans. Nehad Selaiha. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1986. Kanafani, Ghassan. All That's Left to You. Trans. May Jayussi and Jeremy Reed. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1992. . Men in the Sun. Trans. Hillary Kilpatrick. London: Heinemann, 1978. Khalifeh, Sahar. Cactus. Trans. J. Barreda. Tafalla: Txalaparta, 1994. . Wild Thorns. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick and Elizabeth Fernea. London: Al Saqi Books, 1985. Al-Kharrat, Edwar. City of Saffron. Trans. Frances Liardet. London: Quartet Books, 1989. . Girls of Alexandria. Trans. Frances Liardet. London: Quartet Books, 1993. Khoury, Elias. Gates of the City. Trans. Paula Haydar. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

1 62

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

. The Journey of Little Ghandi. Trans. Paula Haydar. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. . Little Mountain. Trans. Maia Tabet. London: Carcanet Press, 1989. Lashin, Mahmud Tahir. Eve Without Adam, in Three Pioneering Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton, N.B.: York Press, 1986. El Lozy, Salim. The Emigres. Trans, by the author. London: Alison & Busby, 1977. Mahfouz, Naguib. Adrift on the Nile. Trans. Frances Liardet. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1993. . Akhenaten: Dweller in Truth. Trans. Tagreid Abou-Hassabo. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1998. . Arabian Nights and Days. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1995. . Autumn Quail. Trans. Roger Allen. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1985. . The Beggar. Trans. Kristen Walker Henry and Nariman Khales Naili al-Warraki. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1986. . The Beginning and the End. Trans. Ramses Awad. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1985. . Children of the Alley. Trans. Peter Theroux. New York: Doubleday, 1986. . Children of Gebelawi. Trans. Philip Stewart. London: Heinemann, 1981. . The Day the Leader Was Killed. Trans. Malak Hashem. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. . Fountain and Tomb. Trans. Soad Sobhy, Essam Fattouh and James Kenneson. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1988. . The Harafish. Trans. Catherine Cobham. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994. . The Journey of Ibn Fattouma. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. . Al-Kamak in Three Contemporary Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El- Gabalawy. Fredericton, N.B.: York Press, 1979. . Midaq Alley. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1985. . Miramar. Trans. Fatma Moussa Mahmoud. London: Heinemann, 1978.

Arabic Novels Translated into English

163

. Mirrors. Trans. Roger Allen. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1999. . Palace of Desire. Trans. William M. Hutchins, Lorne M. Kenny and Olive E. Kenny. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. . Palace Walk. Trans. William M. Hutchins and Olive E. Kenny. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1989. . Respected Sir. Trans. Rasheed El-Enany. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1987. . The Search. Trans. Mohamed Islam. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1987. . Sugar Street. Trans. William Maynard Hutchins and Angele Botros Samaan. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. . The Thief and the Dogs. Trans. M.M. Badawi and Trevor Le Gassick. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1984. . Wedding Song. Trans. Olive E. Kenny. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1984. Mahmud, Mustafa. The Rising from the Coffin. Trans. D. Bishai. Cairo: Arab Writer Publishers and Printers, 1967. Mamdouh, Alia. Mothballs. Trans. Peter Theroux. Reading: Garnet Press, 1996. al-Mazini, Ibrahim. Ibrahim the Writer. Trans. Magdi Wahba. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1976. . Al-Mazini's Egypt. (Midu and His Accomplices and Return to a Beginning.) Trans. William Hutchins. Washington DC: Three Continents Press, 1983. Minah, Hanna. Sun on a Cloudy Day. Trans. Bassam Frangieh and Clementina Brown. Pueblo, Colorado: Passegiata Press, 1997. Mosteghanemi, Ahlam. Memory in the Flesh. Trans. Baria Sreih. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1999. Munif, Abdelrahman. Cities of Salt. Trans. Peter Theroux. London: Vintage, 1987. . The Trench. Trans. Peter Theroux. New York: Pantheon Books, 1991. . Variations on Night and Day. Trans. Peter Theroux. New York: Pantheon Books, 1993. . Endings. Trans. Roger Allen. London: Quartet, 1988.

164

Critical Introduction to the Arabic Novel

Moussa, Sabri. Seeds of Corruption. Trans. Mona N. Mikhail. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. . The Incident. Trans. Hoda Ayyad. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1987. al-Muwaylihi, Muhammad. A Period of Time: A Study and Translation of Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham. Trans. Roger Allen. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992. Nasrallah, Emily. Flight Against Time. Trans. Issa J. Boullata. Charlottetown, N.B.: Ragweed, 1987. Nasrallah, Ibrahim. Prairies of Fever. Trans. May Jayussi and J. Reed. New York, Interlink Books, 1993. Nu'ayma, Mihka'il. Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul or the Pitted Face. New York: Philosophical Library, 1952. Al-Qa'id, Yusuf. News from MeneisiFarm. Trans. Marie-Therese F. AbdelMessih. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1987. . War in the Land of Egypt. Trans. Olive and Lome Kenny and Christopher Tingley. London: Al Saqi Books, 1986. Qasim, 'Abd al-Hakim. The Seven Days of Man. Trans. Joseph N. Bell. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1989. . Rites of Assent. Trans. Peter Theroux. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997. El Saadawi, Nawal. The Circling Song. London: Zed Books, 1989. . The Fall of the Imam. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Methuen, 1998. . God Dies by the Nile. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Zed Books, 1985. . The Innocence of the Devil. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Methuen, 1994. . Memoirs of a Woman Doctor: A Novel. Trans. Catherine Cobham. London: Al Saqi Books, 1988. . Searching. Trans. Shirley Eber. London: Zed Books, 1991. . Two Women in One. Trans. Osman Nusairi and Jana Gough. London: Zed Books, 1985. . The Well of Life and The Thread: Two Short Novels. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Lime Tree, 1993. . Woman at Point Zero. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Zed Books, 1983.

Arabic Novels Translated into English

165

Salih, Tayeb. Bandershah. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: KPI, 1996. . Season of Migration to the North. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: Heinemann, 1969. Samman, Ghada. Beirut '75. Trans. Nancy N. Roberts. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1995. Sharqawi, Abd al-Rahman. Egyptian Earth. Trans. Desmond Stewart. London: Heinemann, 1962. al-Shaykh, Hanan. Beirut Blues. Trans. Catherine Cobham. London: Chatto & Windus, 1995. . The Story of Zahrah. Trans. Peter Ford. London: Quartet, 1986. . Women of Sand and Myrrh. Trans. Catherine Cobham. London: Quartet, 1989. al-Tahawy, Miral. The Tent. Trans. Anthony Calderbank. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1998. Taher, Bahaa'. Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery: A Novel. Trans. Barbara Romaine. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Walyy al-Din, Ismail. Hommos Akhdar in Three Contemporary Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1979. Yared, Nazik Saba. Improvisations on a Missing String. Trans. Stuart A. Hancox. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998. Zangana, Haifa. Through the Vast Halls of Memory. Trans. Paul Hammond and the author. Paris: Hourglass, 1991. al-Zayyat, Latifa. The Owner of the House. Trans. Sophie Bennett. London: Quartet Books, 1997. Zeghidour, Slimane. / Want to Talk to God. Trans. Sarah Matthews. London: Moonlight, 1994.

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

A- Bibliographies in European Languages B- Books and Periodicals

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

The Egyptian Novel and its Main Trends (1913-1952). Cairo: AUC Press, 1971, p. 9.

Roger Allen,

The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical

Introduction. Manchester : University Press, 1982, p.29. Gibb, H.A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature," Studies on the Civilization of Islam. Ed. by S.J. Shaw and W.R. Polk, Boston, 1962. p. 292.

Brenton Howard, Literary Review, London, June , 1991, pp.43-44

Translated Text: The Case of Najib Mahfouz s Novels with Special Emphasis on the Trilogy. Edebiyat (new series), issue 1, vol. 4.

This page intentionally left blank

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba'/. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Saussey, E. "Ibrahim al-Mazni et son 'Roman d'Ibrahim'." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales (Damas), Vol. 2, 1932 Gibb, H. A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature IV: The Egyptian Novel." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 7, 1933 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Ezz El-Din, Hassan El-Banna. "Language Levels in Yusuf Idris' Writings." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 05/1982

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Mazini, Ibrahim. Ibrahim the Writer. Trans. Magdi Wahba. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1976

Gibb, H. A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature IV: The Egyptian Novel." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 7, 1933

Gibb, H. A.R. Studies on the Civilisation of Islam. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1962 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "The Image of the City: Wounded Beirut." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Khuri, Ilyas. Gates of the City. Trans. Paula Haydar. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992

Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries laTypo-Litho, 1977 Jibran, Jibran Khalil. Broken Wings. Trans. Anthony R. Ferris. New York: Citadel, 1957

Elkhadem, Saad. Wings of Lead: A Modern Egyptian Novella. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1994

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by MM. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Hussein, Taha. The Dream of Scheherezade. Trans. Magdi Wahba Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1974

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by MM. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Kilpatrick, Hilary.'" Abd al-Hakim Qasim and the Search for Liberation." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1995

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modem Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Baladi, Naguib. "La Terre (al-Ard) de Abd El-Rahman El-Sharqawi." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d 'etudes Orientates du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 2, 1955 Stewart, Desmond. "Contacts with Arab Writers." Middle East Forum, Vol. 37, 1961 Gabrielli, Francesco. "Contemporary Arab Fiction." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1965

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Xusein-Zade, M. Sh. "Zemlia i Fellax Abd ar-Raxmana ash-Sharkavi" (The Earth and The Fellah by ' Abdarrahman ash-Sharqawi). Vostochnaia Filologiia, Vol. 1, 1974 Jad, Ali. '"Abd ar-Rahman ash-Sharqawi's al-'Ard." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Vial, C. "La vie 'un village du delta dans les annees trente, d'apres al-ard." Hommages a la Memoire de Serge Sauneron 1927-1976, II. Egypte Post Pharonique. Le Caire: Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale (Bibliotheque d'Etude LXXXII), Vol. 82, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Hafez, Sabry. "Commitment and Liberty." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 23, 01/08/1991

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1993 Saad El-Din, Mursi. "Post 1952: Novel & Devolution." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 130, 19/08/1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Sharqawi, ' Abd al-Rahman. Egyptian Earth. Trans. Desmond Stewart London: Heinemann, 1962 Downs, Suzannah. "Egyptian Earth Between the Pen and the Camera: Youssef Chahine's Adaptation of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sharqawi's Al-Ard."Alif,Vol. 15, 1995

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Sib'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Fayyad, Soleiman. Voices. Trans. Hossam Aboul-Ela. London: Boyers: 1

Fathi, Ibrahim. "Death and the Maiden."Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 380, 04/06/1998

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984

Roe, Sue. "The Circling Song" (review). Times Literary Supplement, 22/12/1989 Bardenstein, Carol. "The Circling Song" (review). Middle East Journal, Vol. 44,1990 Cooke, Miriam. "The Circling Song" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 64,1990 Cooke, Miriam. "The Circling Song" (review). Choice, Vol. 27, 01/1990 Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. The Circling Song. London: Zed Books, 1989

El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib) Mahfuz." Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Hoffert, Barbara. "Wedding Song" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 114, 01/10/1989 Kaganoff, Penny. "A Rich Bazaar of Imagination from Stylish Naguib Mahfouz." Chicago Sun-Times, 19/10/1989 Bardenstein, Carol. "Wedding Song" (review). New York Times Book Review, 10/12/1989 Ghosh, Amitav. "Wedding Song" (review). New Republic, Vol. 202, 07/05/1990 Enright, D.J. "Wedding Song" (review). Encounter (London), Vol. 75, 09/1990 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Mahfouz, Naguib. Wedding Song. Trans. Olive E. Kenny. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1984

Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction" Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Nasrallah, Emily. Flight Against Time. Trans. Issa J. Boullata Charlottetown, N.B.: Ragweed, 1987

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Cherif-Chergui, Abderrahman. "Tres dimensions de la novela 'El elixier de la vida' del Dr. Lahbabi." Almenara, Vol. 9, 1976

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Parmenter, Barbara McKean. Giving Voices to Stones: Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Coffin, N. "Engendering Resistance in the Work of Ghassan Kanafani: All That's Left to You, Of Men and Guns, and Umm Sa'd." Arab Studies Journal/ Majallat al-Dirasat al-'Arabiya, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1996

Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. Woman at Point Zero. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Zed Books, 1983

MacLeod, Sheila. "Two Women in One" (review). New Statesman, Vol. 110, 12/07/1985 Cooke, Miriam. "Two Women in One" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 60, 1986 Terry, Sara. "Two Women in One" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition), 05/09/1986 Keddie, Nikki R. "Two Women in One" (review). New York Times Book Review, 07/09/1986 Harlow, Barbara. "Two Women in One" (review). Choice, Vol. 24, 03/1987 Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. Two Women in One. Trans. Osman Nusairi and Jana Grough. London: 1985

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modem Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modem Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Haim, Gordon. "The Situation of the Arab Woman in the Mirror of Literature" Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 17, 1981 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975

Accad, Evelyne, & Ghurrayb, Rose. Contemporary Arab Women Writers and Poets. Beirut: Beirut University College: Monographs of the Institute for Women's Studies, 1985

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Jomier, J. "A travers le monde des romans egyptiens: notes et interview." Melanges de l'Institut dominicain d 'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO). Vol. 7, 1963 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: YusufalSiba'/'. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Fathi, Ibrahim. "Historical Polyphony." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 194, 10/11/1994

Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et l'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977

Stewart, Philip. "Awlad Haritna by Najib Mahfuz." Unpublished B. Litt. thesis, Oxford University, 1963 Schuman, L.O. Een moderne arabische vertelling Nagib Mahfuz, Awlad haritna. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965 Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Somekh, Sasson. "The Sad Millenarian: An Examination of Awlad Haratina." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1971 Vatikiotis, P.J. "The Corruption of Futuwwa: A Consideration of Despair in Nagib Mahfuz's Awlad Haritna." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 7, 1971 Jomier, J. "Quelques livres egyptiens modernes sur le problemes religieux." Melanges de l'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (M1DEO), Vol. 11, 1972 Wessels, A. A Modem Biography of Muhammad: A Critical Study of Haykal's Hayat Muhammad. Leiden: E.J. Brill 1972 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Wessels, A. "Modern Biographies of the Life of the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic." Islamic Culture, Vol. 49, No. 2, 1975 Kirpicheko, V.N. "O putyakh razvitiya realizma v sovremennoy egipetskoy proze (na primere romana Nagiba Makhfuza 'Deti nashego kvartala')." (Some features of realism in contemporary Egyptian exemplified by Najib Mahfuz's novel 'Children of Our Quarter'). NarodyAzii i Afriki, Vol. 5, 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Stewart, Desmond. "An Egyptian War Novel." Middle East International, No. 90, 1978 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Microcosm of Old Cairo." Times Literary Supplement, 25/09/1981

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: an analysis of some novels." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 Ronnow, G. "The Oral vs. the Written: A Dialectic of World Views in Najib Mafouz's Children of Our Alley." Al-'Arabiyya. Vol. 17, 1984 Abu Haider, Jareer. "Awlad Haritna by Nagib Malifuz: An Event in the Arab World." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 16, 1985 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. Modern Arabic Literature and the West. London: Ithaca Press, 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Mahmoud, Mohamed. "The Unchanging Hero in a Changing World: Najib Mahfuz's Al-liss wa'1-Kilab." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 15, 1986 Stewart, Philip. "An Arabic Nobodaddy: The Gebelawi of Naguib Mahfouz." The World of Muslim Imagination. Ed. by Alamgir Hashemi. Islamabad: Gulmohar, 1986 Al-Ghitani, Jamal. "The Alley in Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1988 El-Enany, R.M. "Religion in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. Vol. 15, No. 1/2, 1988 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 Milson, Menahem. "Najib Mahfuz and Jamal 'Abdal-Nasir: The Writer as Political Critic." Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 23, 1989

Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz and World Literature." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, Vol. 5, 1992 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Shepard, William. "Satanic Verses and the Death of God: Salman Rushdie and Najib Mahfuz." The Muslim World, Vol. 82, No. 1/2, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adrian Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Hooper, Brad. "Children of the Alley" (review). Booklist, Vol. 92, 15/11/1995

Hutchison, Paul E. "Children of the Alley" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 120, 12/1995 Hawthorne, Mary. "Children of the Alley" (review). New York Times Book Review, 18/02/1996 Mahfouz, Naguib. Children of Gebelawi. Trans. Philip Stewart London: Heinemann, 1981

Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Cachia, Pierre. "Freedom from Clerical Control: The Portrayal of Men of Religion in Modern Arabic Literature." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1995 Qasim, ' Abd al-Hakim. The Seven Days of Man. Trans. Joseph N. Bell. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Qa'id, Yusuf. The Days of Drought. Trans. George Takla Cairo: State Publishing House (GEBO), 1997

Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Die kritische reaktion auf die zeit Gamal 'Abd al-Nasirs in manchen werken der agyptischen literatur." Archiv Orientdlni, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "On Political Commitment and Feminist Writing." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Helmy, Ghada. "The Plight of Women in Literary Text and Filmic Adaptation."Alif, Vol. 15, 1995

Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. Searching. Trans. Shirly Eber. London: Zed Books, 1991

Milson, Menahem. "Najib Mahfuz and Jamal ' Abdal-Nasir: The Writer as Political Critic." Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 23, 1989 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Ghanayim, Mahmud. "Macrocosm and Microcosm in Najib Mahfuz's alBaqi nim al-Zaman Sa'ah." Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ami Elad. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1993

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Fayed, Mona Shafik. "Colonial Refractions: The Image of the West in Modern Arabic Literature." JUSUR, No. 4, 1988 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra and the Novel of Subjective Aesthetics." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Anonymous. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra's Politics: An Interview with Jabra Ibrahim Jabra." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Parmenter, Barbara McKean. Giving Voices to Stones: Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Peled, Mattityahu. "Sexuality in Jabra's Novel: The Search for Walid Mas'ud." Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R. Allen, H. Kilpatrick and E. de Moor. London: Saqi Books, 1995

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981

El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz."Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 . Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction "Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Hoffert, Barbara. "The Beginning and the End" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 114, 01/10/1989 Kaganoff, Penny. "A Rich Bazaar of Imagination from Stylish Naguib Mahfouz." Chicago Sun-Times, 19/10/1989 Bardenstein, Carol. "The Beginning and the End" (review). New York Times Book Review, 10/12/1989 Ghosh, Amitav. "The Beginning and the End" (review). New Republic, Vol. 202, 07/05/1990 Khoury, Moussa. "Salvation and the Negavist" Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Milson, Menahem. "The Beginning and the End." Commentary, Vol. 91, 06/1991 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitution." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Beginning and the End. Trans. Ramses Awad. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Nasrallah, Ibrahim. Praries of Fever. Trans. May Jayyusi & J. Reed. New York: Interlink Books, 1993

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984

Faulk, Tina. "Inside the Lives of Women in the Arab World." The Canberra Times, No. 22, 03/04/1994 Hussein, Aamer. "Beirut Blues" (review). Times Literary Supplement, No. 4800, 31/03/1995 Lancaster, Pat. "Beirut Blues." The Middle East, No. 244, 04/1995 Saliba, Therese. "Beirut Blues" (review). Ms. Vol. 5, 05/1995

Needham, George. "Beirut Blues" (review). Booklist, Vol. 91, 01/06/1995 Harlow, Barbara. "Beirut Blues" (review). Nation, Vol. 260, 19/06/1995 Booth, M. "Beirut Blues" (review). Women's Review of Books, Vol. 12, 07/1995 Ingraham, Janet. "Beirut Blues" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 120, 01/09/1995 Allen, M.D. "Beirut Blue" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 70, 1996 Larson, Charles R. "Beirut Blues" (review). Nation, Vol. 262, 27/05/1996 Anonymous. "Beirut Blues" (review). Economist, Vol. 342, 15/03/1997 Al-Shaykh, Hanan. Beirut Blues. Trans. C. Cobham. London: Chatto & Windus, 1995

Cooke, Miriam. "Beirut... Theatre of the Absurd... Theatre of Dreams (The Lebanese Civil War in the Writings of Contemporary Arab Women)." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 13, 1982

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modem Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Abdel-Meguid, Ibrahim. The Other Place. Trans. Farouk M. Abdel-Wahab. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1997

Berkley, Constance E. Gresham. "The Roots of Consciousness Molding the Art of El Tayeb Salih: A Contemporary Sudanese Writer." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York University, 1979 Nasr, Ahmad A. "Popular Islam in al-Tayyib Salih." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 11, 1980

Wielandt, R. "The Problem of Cultural Identity in the Writings of al-Tayib Salih." Studio Arabica et Islamica, Festschrift Ihsan 'Abbas. Ed. Wadad Qadi. Beirut: American Unviersity of Beirut, 1981 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Salih, al-Tayyib. Bandershah. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: KPI, 1996

Sherif, Nur. About Arabic Books. Beirut: Beirut Arab University, 1970 Said, Amina. "Tawfiq al-Hakim's Bank of Anxiety: Sounding the Alarm." Gombak Review. Vol. 2, No. 1, 1977 Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. Modern Arabic Drama in Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987

Young, Ros. "A Compass for the Sunflower." Race and Class, Vol. 32, No. 2, 1990 Lancaster, Pat. "A Compass for the Sunflower." The Middle East, 01/1990 Bennet, Michael. "A Compass for the Sunflower." Late News, 06/1991 Badr, Liana. A Compass for the Sunflower. Trans. Catherine Cobham. London: The Woman's Press, 1989

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Al-Samman, Ghada. Beirut 75. Trans. N.N. Roberts. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1995

Badran, Nadia Abdel-Wahab. "A Critical Study of Sun'Allah Ibrahim's Novels." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1989 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Allen, Roger. "The Artistry of Yusuf Idris." World Literature Today, No. 55, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Novels of Yusuf Idris." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allen Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1994

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusufal-Siba 7. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Mahfuz." Melanges de I'lnstitut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 4, 1957

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Najib Mafuz's Trilogy." Middle East Forum. Vol. 39, 1963 Roshchin, Y.U. "Nagib Makhfuz i ego trilogiya Bayn al'-Kasrayn." Kratkie soobshcheniya Institute! narodvAzii, No. 84, 1965 Issawi, C. "European Loan-Words in Contemporary Arabic Writing: A Case Study in Modernization." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 3, 1967 Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Habib, Mustafa. Cultural Life in the U.A.R. Cairo: U.A.R. National Commission for UNESCO, 1968 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Roshchin, Y.U. "Realizm Trilogii Nagiba Makhfuza Bayn al-Kasrayn i Egipetskaya Deystivitel'nost Dorevolyutzionnogo." Literatura Vostoka, 1969 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Vial, C. "La femme dans Trilogie de Nagib Mahfuz." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales, Vol. 25, 1972 Peled, Mattityahu. "Yasin the Gate Crasher." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Chehata, A. "Les influences etrangeres sur la trilogie de Mahfuz." Arabica, Vol. 22, 1975

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J.An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt des Mams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 Fateem, Souad P. "Bayn al-Qasrayn by Naguib Mahfouz: A Translation and a Survey of Critical Approaches to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, University of Exeter, 1987 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Ghorab, Nevine. "The Influence of the English Novel on Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

Shammas, Anton. "The Shroud of Mahfouz." The New York Review of Books, 02/02/1989 Hutchison, Paul E. "Palace Walk" (reveiw). Library Journal, Vol. 114, 12/1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Hower, Edward. "A Pious and Depraved Life." The New York Times, 04/02/1990 Hower, Edward. "Palace Walk" (review). New York Times Book Review, 04/02/1990 Morrissey, Jake. "Palace Walk" (review). National Review, Vol. 42, 19/02/1990 Dickey, Christopher. "Palace Walk" (review). Newsweek, Vol. 115, 26/02/1990 Werner, Louis. "Palace Walk" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastren edition), 05/03/1990 Abdul-Qader, Ramadan. "Mahfouz Gives Intimate Insight into Human Psyche." The Egyptian Gazette, 06/03/1990 Stewart, Philip. "Mahfouz: Letting His People Speak." The Independent, 24/03/1990 Conrad, Peter. "Looking at the People." The Observer, 25/03/1990 Radwan, Noha. "A Page of Egypt's History Unveiled by Its Premier Writer: Palace Walk Is Now a Treat in English." Middle East Times, 26/03/1990 Ellis, Alice Thomas. "Love Among the Lemon Pickles." The Guardian, 29/03/1990 Catling, Patrick Skene. "Agony Ants." The Daily Telegraph, 07/04/1990 Soueif, Ahdaf. "Essence of Egypt Lost in Transit." The Independent on Sunday, 15/04/1990

Strawson, Galen. "Palace Walk" (review). Times Literary Supplement, 27/04/1990 Ghosh, Amitav. "Palace Walk" (review). New Republic, Vol. 202, 07/05/1990 Enright, D.J. "Palace Walk" (review). Encounter (London), Vol. 75, 09/1990 El-Shamy, Hasan M. "The Traditional Structure of Sentiments in Mahfouz's Trilogy: A Behavioristic Text Analysis." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Milson, Menahem. "Palace Walk" (review). Commentary, Vol. 91, 06/1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. "The Impact of the Translated Text: The Case of Najib Mahfuz's Novels with Special Emphasis on the Trilogy." Edebiyat (new series), Vol. 4, No. 1, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Williams, Caroline. "Place and Time in Mahfouz's al-Qahira." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.E. Tauris, 1994

Lopez Enamorado, M.D. "El factor tiempo en el exordio de Bayna 1Qasrayn." Sharq al-Andalus, Vol. 10-11, 1994 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Juilliard Beaudan, C. "Le champ du feminin dans la trilogie de Naguib Mahfouz: la vision de la femme en islam." Cahiers de I 'Orient, Vol. 38, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Palace Walk. Trans. William Hutchins & Olive E. Kenney. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1989

Al-Bisatie, Mohamed. Houses Behind the Trees. Trans Denys JohnsonDavies. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1997

Awadalla, Maggie H. "Temporality and the Ontological Experience in the Work of .Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse and Edwar alKharrat's Saffron City." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 05/1989

Anonymous. "Magic Realism of al-Kharrat." Egyptian Gazette, 02/02/1990 Osman, Khaled. "Parfumes d'Enfance." Jeune Afrique, 07/05/1990 Smart, Alan. "The Book on Alex." Cairo Today, 06/1990 Saidenburg, Nadine. "Alexandrie, ville de la memoire." Tribune d'Oriente, 16/06/1990 Minkowski, Anne. "Alexandre, Terre de Safran"Arables, 07/1990 Said, Edward. "Tragically, A Book Closed the West." The Independent, 12/08/1990 Edde, Dominique. "Memoires d'Alexandrie." Le Monde, 24/08/1990 Anonymous. "Le combat contre le temps." Arabies, 10/1990 Thoraval, Yves. "Alexandrie, Terre de Safran." Europe, 10/1990 Lessing, Doris. "Favourite Book of the Year." The Independent, 24/11/1990 El-Deeb, Joussef. "Prismatic Vision." Al-Ahram Weekly, 21/95/1990 Anonymous. "City of Saffron." The Egyptian Mail, 02/02/1991 Deonna, Laurence. "Un virtuose en Terre de Safran." Journal de Geneve, 20/07/1991 Mikhail, Mona N. "Man and the Sea: Intertextual Perspectives in Idwar alKharrat's Turabuha Za'faran." The Arabic Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Al-Nowaihi, Magda. "Memory and Imagination in Edwar al-Kharrat's Turabuha Za'faran." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1994 Al-Kharrat, Edwar. City of Saffron. Trans. F. Liardet London: Quartet Books, 1989

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badran, Nadia Abdel-Wahab. "A Critical Study of Sun'Allah Ibrahim's Novels." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1989 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. "Arabic Fiction and the Quest for Freedom." Journal of Arabic Literature. Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1995 Ibrahim, Sun'allah. The Smell of It. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: Heinemann, 1971

Al-Shamikh, Muhammad A. The Rise of Modern Prose in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh: King Saud University, 1984

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modem Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976

Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modem Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington B.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi V/ay"Alif, Vol. 5, 1985 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "Narrative Form in Mahfouz from The Thief and the Dogs to Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Toorawa, Shawkat M. "Movement in Mahfouz's Tharthara fawq an-Nil." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. "Respected Sir." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Seaman, Donna. "Adrift on the Nile" (review). Booklist, Vol. 89, 01/01/1993 Hutchison, Paul E. "Adrift on the Nile" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 118, 15/02/1993 Davis, Dick. "Adrift on the Nile" (review). Times Literary Supplement, No. 4703, 21/05/1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Salti, Ramzi M. "Adrift on the Nile" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 68, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Adrift on the Nile. Trans. Frances Liardt Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Elkhadem, Saad. Thulathiyat Ulis. Fredericton, N.B. York Press, 1988

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press. 1983

Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Elad, Ami. "Ideology and Structure in Fathi Ghanim's al-Jabal." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 20, 1989 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Saad El-Din, Mursi. "Post 1952: Novel & Devolution." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 130, 19/08/1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Mowles, Chris. "Little Mountain" (review). New Statesman and Society, Vol. 2, 17/11/1989 Werner, Louis. "Little Mountain" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition), 21/11/1989 Tololyan, K. "Little Mountain" (review). Choice, Vol. 27, 12/1989 Accad, Evelyne. Sexuality and War: Literary Masks of the Middle East. New York: New York University Press, 1990 Allen, Roger. "Little Mountain" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 64, 1990 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Khuri, Ilyas. Little Mountain. Trans. M. Tabet London: Carcanet Press, 1989

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984

Abdel-Malek, Z.N. "The Influence of Diglossia on the Novels of Yuusif alSibaa'i." Journal of Arabic Literature. Vol. 3, 1972

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: YusufAl-Siba 7. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

McNeil, Jean. "The Innocence of the Devil" (review). Times Literary Supplement, No. 4753, 06/05/1994 Allen, M.D. "The Innocence of the Devil" (review). World Literature Today Vol. 69, 1995 Bums, Erik. "The Innocence of the Devil." New York Times Book Review, 28/05/1995 Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. The Innocence of the Devil. Trans. Sherif Hetata. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Moussa, Sabri. The Incident. Trans. Hoda Ayyad. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1987

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

ShagaT, V. "Vzgliad v Budushchee (A Glance into the Future)." Inostrannaia Literature*, No. 12, 1974 Le Gassick, Trevor. "An Analysis of al-Hubb taht al-Matar (Love in the Rain), a Novel by Najib Mahfuz." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris & Phillips, 1975 Allen, Roger. "Some Recent Works of Najib Mahfuz: a Critical Analysis." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, No. 14, 1977 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Mahfouz's al-Karnak: The Quiet Conscience of Nasir's Egypt Revealed." Middle East Journal, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1977 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfaz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz 's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimerie; la Typo-Litho, 1977 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973

Mamdouh, Alia. Mothballs. Trans. Peter Theroux. Reading: Garnet Press, IQQfi

Tadros, Marlyn. "Romantic to the End." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 105, 25/02/1993

Ashour, Radwa. "My Experience with Writing." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Barakat, Hoda. The Stone of Laughter. Trans. Sophie Bennet New York: Interlink Ronks 1 995

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Skarzy ska-Boche ska, Krystyna. "Mahmud al-Ma'adi and Philosophy of Life and Death in his Existentialist Novels." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Vol. 10, 1992

Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Gibb, H. A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature IV: The Egyptian Novel." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 7, 1933 Peres, Henri. "Les engines d'un roman celebre de litterature arabe moderne: Le 'Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham' de Muhammad al-Muwailihi." Bulletin d'etudes orientales (Damas), Vol. 10, 1944 Peres, Henri. "Essai sur les editions successives du Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham de Muhammad al-Muwaylihi: remaniements de texte et corrections de vocabulaire et de style." Melanges Louis Massignon. Damas: Institut Francais, Vol. 3, 1957

Peres, Henri. "Editions successives de Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham." Melanges LouisMassignon, Vol. 3, 1957 Allen, Roger. "Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham: The Excluded Materials." Die Welt deslslams, Vol.7, 1969 Allen, Roger. "Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham: A Reconsideration." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 1, 1970 Allen, Roger. "The Unpublished Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham, or Some New alMuwaylihi Materials." Humanoria Islamica, Vol. 2, 1974 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Allen, Roger. "The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. A Period of Time: A Study and Translation of Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham by Muhammad al-Mu\vaylihi. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Perennial Themes in Modern Arabic Literature." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, 1993 Mondal, Anshuinan A. "Between the Turban and Tarbush: Modernity and the Anxieties of Transition in Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham." Alif, Vol. 17, 1997 Al-Muwaylihi, Muhammad. A Period of Time: A Study and Translation of Hadith 'Isa ibn Hisham. Trans Roger Allen. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992

Barresi, C.F. "La Saga dei Harafish (...di Nagib Mahfuz). "La Bisaccia dello Sheikh: Omaggio ad A. BausaniRome: Scalia, 1981 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Allen, Roger. "The Harafish" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 68, 1994 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.E. Tauris, 1994 Hooper, Brad. "The Harafish" (review). Booklist, Vol. 90, 15/03/1994 Hutchison, Paul E. "The Harafish" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 119, 15/04/1994 Singh, Preeti. "Family Circles." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 175, 16/06/1994 Davis, Dick. "The Harafish" (review). Times Literary Supplement, No. 4760, 24/06/1994

Chaudhuri, Amit, 'The Harafish" (review). London Review of Books, Vol. 16,21/07/1994 Coetzee, J.M. "The Harafish" (review). New York Review of Books, Vol. 41, 22/09/1994 Malifouz, Naguib. The Harafish. Trans. Catherine Cobhain. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Allen, Roger. "The Artistry of Yusuf Idris." World Literature Today, No. 55, 1981 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Ezz El-Din, Hassan El-Banna. "Language Levels in Yusuf Idris' Writings." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 05/1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Al-Qitt, ' Abd Al-Hamid ' Abd Al-Azim. "The Novel The Taboo as a New Phase." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allen. Washington D.C. Three Continents Press, 1994 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Novels of Yusuf Idris." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allea Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Idris, Yusuf. The Sinners. Trans. Kristin Peterson-Ishaq. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1984 Shukri, Ghali. "Idris's Novel The Sin." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allea Washington D.C. Three Continents Press, 1994

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introductio." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt Under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Qa'id, Yusuf. War in the Land of Egypt. Trans. Olive & Lome Kenny and Christopher Tingley. London: Al-Saqi Books, 1986

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 El-Enany, R.M. "Hadarat al-Muhtaram by Nagib Mahfuz: Translation and Critical Assessment." Unpublished Thesis - University of Exeter, 1984 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime" Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adrian Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitution." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. "Respected Sir." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. "Arabic Fiction and the Quest for Freedom." Journal of Arabic Literature. Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Respected Sir. Trans. Rasheed el-Enany. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986

El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Mahfouz, Naguib. Fountain and Tomb. Trans. Soad Sobhy, et. al. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1988

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt Under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Cooke, Miriam. "Beirut... Theatre of the Absurd... Theatre of Dreams (The Lebanese Civil War in the Writings of Contemporary Arab Women)." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 13, 1982 Accad, Evelyne, & Ghurrayb, Rose. Contemporary Arab Women Writers and Poets. Beirut: Beirut University College: Monographs of the Institute for Women's Studies, 1985 Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Accad, Evelyne. Sexuality and War: Literary Masks of the Middle East. New York: New York University Press, 1990 Larson, Charles R. "The Fiction of Hannan Al-Sheikh, Reluctant Femenist." World Literature Today, Vol. 65, 1991 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egyp.". The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Hutchison, Paul E. "Variations on Night and Day" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 118, 01/06/1993 Throm, Lindsay. "Variations on Night and Day" (review). Booklist, Vol. 89, 01/06/1993 Ajami, Fouad. "Variations on Night and Day" (review). New York Times Book Review, 05/09/1993 Caesar, Judith. "Variations on Night and Day" (review). Christian Science .Monitor (Eastern edition), 28/09/1993 Ingraham, Janet. "The Story of Zahra." Library Journal, Vol. 118, 15/11/1993

Adams, Phoebe Lou. "The Story of Zahra" (review). Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 273, 02/1994 Just, Julia. "The Story of Zahra" (review). New York Times Book Review, 27/03/1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Cooke, Miriam. "Death and Desire in Iraqi War Literature." Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Roger Allen, Hilary Kilpatrick and Ed de Moor. London: Saqi Books, 1995 Zeidan, Joseph Tufeek. Arab Women Novelists: The Formative Years and Beyond. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995 Al-Shaykh, Hanan. The Story ofZahrah. Trans. Peter Ford London: Quartet Books, 1986

Makarius, Raoul. Anthologie de la litterature arabe contemporaine. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1964 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "Haww' bila Adam: An Egyptian Novel of the 1930s." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Lashin, Mahmud Tahir. "Eve Without Adam." Three Pioneering Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad El-Gabalawy. Fredericton N.B.: York Press, 1986

Boullata, Issa J. "Encounter Between East and West: A Theme in Contemporary Arabic Novels." Middle East Journal, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1976

Soullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992

Lively, Penelope. "Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery" (review). New York Times Book Review, 30/06/1996 Beeson, Trevor. "Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery" (review). Christian Century, Vol. 113, 20/11/1996 Semaan, Khalil I. "Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery" (review). Choice, Vol. 34, 12/1996

Bamia, Aida A. "Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery" (review). Middle East Journal, Vol. 51, 1997 Peters, Issa. "Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 71, 1997 Tahir, Baha. Aunt Safiyya and the Monestary. Trans. Barbara Romaine. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modem Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz."Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt deslslams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 Abou Ghazi, Badr el-Din. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Plastic Arts." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Khoury, Moussa. "Salvation and the Negavist" Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Al-Tahawy, Miral. The Tent. Trans. Anthony Calderbank. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1996

Anonymous. "Street Arab." Times Literary Supplement, 05/04/1974 Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction" Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Natij, Salah. "Le pain nu de Mohamed Choukri: une lecture plurielle." IBLA: Revue de I'Institut des Belles Lettres Arabe, Vol. 55, No. 1, 1992 Choukri, Mohammed. "Being and Place." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Choukri, Mohammed. For Bread A lone. Trans. Peter Bowles. London: Paul Owen, 1973

Mahmud, Mustafa. The Rising from the Coffin. Trans. D. Bishai. Cairo: Arab Writer Publishers and Printers, 1967

Mehrez, Samia. "Re-Writing the City: The Case of Khitat al-Ghitani." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976

Al-S'dawi, Nawal. The Well of Life and The Thread: Two Short Novels. Trans. Sherif Hetata London: Lime Tree, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Haim, Gordon. "The Situation of the Arab Woman in the Mirror of Literature." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 17, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Villegas, M. "Otra manera de traducir: Du'a al-Karawan, del libro a la pantalla." Revista del Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islamicos en Madrid/Majallat al-Ma 'had al-Misri lil-Dirasat al-Islamiyafi Madrid, Vol. 25, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Helmy, Ghada. "The Plight of Women in Literary Text and Filmic Adaptation".^///; Vol. 15, 1995 Hussein, Taha. The Call of the Curlew. Trans. A.B. as-Safi. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1980

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition.) Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

McPhee, Jenny. "Sabriya" (review). New York Times Book Review, 07/09/1997 Cooke, Miriam. "Sabriya" (review). Choice, Vol. 35, 12/1997 Gundara, Jaswinder. "Sabriya" (review). Multicultural Review, Vol. 6, 12/1997 Idlibi, Ulfat. Sabriya: Damascus Bitter Sweet: A Novel. Trans. Peter Clark New York: Interlink, 1997

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Some Recent War-Related Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1971

Fathi, Ibrahim. "A Tale Yet to End." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 146, 09/12/1993 D'Alanzo, Robert. "Chronicling the Present." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 148, 23/12/1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Mahmoud, Fatrna Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994

Ibn Jallun, Tahir. "La culture arabe aujourd'hui." Le Monde, 31/07/1985 Fontaine, Jean. "Le noveau roman egyptien 1975-1985." ILBA: Revue de I'lnstitut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Vol. 49, No. 158, 1986 Farhi, Catherine. "Rama wa-t-Tennin, du myth a la mystique avec traduction de 'Mikhail et le Cygne'." Unpublished Thesis - Universite d'Aixen-Provence, 06/1989 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Seurat, Michel. "Des Hommes dans le soleil, suivi de 'l 'Horloge et le desert' et 'Oum-Saad la matrice'." Nouvellespresentees et traduitespar Michel Seurat. Paris: Sindbad, 1977 Magrath, D.R. "A Study of Rijal fi al-Shams by Ghassan Kanafani." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 10, 1979 Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Audebert, C.F. "Choice and Responsibility in Rijal fi al-Shams." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 15, 1984 Camera D'Afflitto, I. "Simbolo e Realta in Ghassan Kanafani." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 64, No. 7-12, 1984 Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by MM. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Harlow, Barbara. "Readings of National Identity in the Palestinian Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar. 1992 Tresilian, David. "Reading Kanafani." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 53, 27/02/1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Parmenter, Barbara McKean. Giving Voices to Stones: Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Kanafani, Ghassan. Men in the Sun. Trans. Hillary Kilpatrick. London: Heinemann, 1978

All, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994

Raphael, F. "The Man Who Lost His Shadow." Sunday Times, 06/02/1966 Kingsley, Amis. "The Egyptian Novel Arrives in the West." Arab Observer, 15/08/1966 Altoma, S.J. "Socio-Political Themes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel: 1950-1970." Cry of Home. Ed. by Ernest Leward. Tennessee: University Press, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Saad El-Din, Mursi. "Post 1952: Novel & Devolution." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 130, 19/08/1993 Ghanem, Fathi. The Man Who Lost His Shadow. Trans. Desmond Stewart London: Heinemann, 1966

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfiiz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 El-Enany, R.M. "Najib Mahfuz in Search of the Ideal State: A Critique of His Rihlat Ibn Fattuma." Golden Roads: Migration, Pilgrimage and Travel in Medieval and Modern Islam. Ed. by I.R. Netton. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "A Muslim's Pilgrim's Progress: The Rihla of Ibn Fattuma." Golden Roads: Migration, Pilgrimage and Travel in Mediaeval and Modern Islam. Ed. by I.R. Netton. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way. " The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Journey of Ibn Fattuma. Trans. Denys JohnsonDavies. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1992

Khuri, Ilyas. The Journey of Little Ghandi. Trans. P. Haydar. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Pressm 1993

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Abdel-Malek, Z.N. "The Influence of Diglossia on the Novels of Yuusif alSibaa'i." Journal of 'Arabic Literature. Vol. 3, 1972 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: YusufalSiba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Dammaj, Zayd Mutee'. The Hostage. Trans. May Jayyusi & C. Tingley. New York: Interlink Books, 1994

Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Der Traditionelle Islam in der Konfrontation mit den Sozialen Umwandlungen auf dem Algerische Lande. Abdelhamid Benhaduqas Roman Rih al-Ganub." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973 Amaldi, Daniela. "Zuqaq al Midaqq di Nagib Mahfuz." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 54, No. 4, 1974 Tashuxamedova, G. A. "Roman Pereulok al-Midakk Nagiba Maxfuza (Naguib Mahfouz's Novel Midaqq Alley)." Nauchnye Trudy Tashkentskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, No. 456, 1974 Ostle, R.C. "Midaq Alley." Middle East International, No. 64, 1976 Vatikiotis, P.J. "Midaqq Alley." Times Literary Supplement, 30/04/1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.Cj Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Laroui, A. L 'Ideologie arabe contempoiraine. Paris: Frangois Maspero, 1977 King, J.R. "The Theme of Alienation in Contemporary Middle Eastern Literature." The Muslim World, Vol. 68, 1978 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz.'Al- 'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Deeb, Muhammad. "Najib Mahfuz's Midaq Alley: A Socio-Cultural Analysis." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1983 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "Images of Arab Women in Midaq Alley by Nagib Mahfouz and Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih.' 'International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 17, 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "The Alley in Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1988 Salib, Samiha. "A Cross-Cultural Interpretation of Midaq Alley and the Difficulties It Presents to Western Readers." Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Southern Connecticut State University, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Hussein, Taha. "A Work of Modern Arabic Fiction: Al-Midaq Alley." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Taylor, D.J. "The Maestro of Midaq Alley." The Sunday Times, 18/03/1990 Khoury, Moussa. "Salvation and the Negavist." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Kodama, M. Individuals and Community in Midaq Alley: Social Dynamics in the World of Naguib Mahfouz. Niigata: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, International University of Japan, 1991

Bamya, Aida A. "The North African Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitution.". Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Williams, Caroline. "Place and Time in Mahfouz's al-Qahira." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Abdel-Rahim, Said H. "Die Midaq-Gasse von Nagib Mahfuz: Eine Interpretation." Festschrift Ewald Wagner zum 65. Geburtstag. Hrsg. W. Heinrichs & G. G. Schoeler. Band II: Studien zur Arabischen Dichtung. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1994 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 El-Barbary, Samir M. "Mahfiiz's Midaq Alley and Hardy's The Return of the Native: Some Parallels." Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 28, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Midaq Alley. Trans. TrevorLe Gassick. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1977

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Ibn Jallun, Tahir. "La culture arabe aujourd'hui." Le Monde, 31/07/1985 Fontaine, Jean. "Le noveau roman egyptien 1975-1985." ILBA: Revue de I'lnstitut desBellesLettresArabes, Vol. 49, No. 158, 1986 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Gibb, H. A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature IV: The Egyptian Novel." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 7, 1933 Smith, Charles D. "The Egyptian Novel that Shook the Arab Literary Set." Mid East, No. 10, 1969 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Ostle, R.C. "Zaynab and the Theme of Romantic Love" Azure, No. 2, 1978 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Smith, Charles D. "Love, Passion and Class in the Fiction of Muhammad Husayn Haykal." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99, No. 2, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Tomiche, Nada. "Naissance et avatars du roman arabe avant Zaynab." Annales Islamologiques, Vol. 16, 1980 Haim, Gordon. "The Situation of the Arab Woman in the Mirror of Literature." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 17, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Ostle, R.C. "The City in Modern Arabic Literature." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies of London, No. 49, 1986 El-Barbary, Samir M. "Hayka's Zaynab: Western Affinities." Arab Journal for the Humanities/Al-Majalia al- 'Arabiyya li-l- 'Ulum al-Insaniyya, No. 7/27, 1987 Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Allen, Roger. "The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The' Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. Zaynab. Trans. John Mohammed Grinsted. London: Darf, 1989

Draz, Ceza Kassem. "In Quest of New Narrative Forms: Irony in the Works of Four Egyptian Writers (1967-1979): al-Ghitani, Yahya T. ' Abdallah, Tubya, Sun'Allah Ibrahim." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 12, 1981 Mehrez, Samia. "Al-Zayni Barakat: Narrative Strategy."Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 8, 1986 Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980. " The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Die Kritische Reaktion auf die Zeit Gamal 'Abd alNasirs in Manchen Werken der agyptischen Literatur." Archiv Orientdlni, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. Zayni Barakat. Trans. Farouk Abdel Wahab. New York: Viking Press, 1988

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-'Aqqad, Abbad Mahmud. Sara. Trans. M.M. Badawi. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organisation, 1978

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction" Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Some Recent War-Related Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1971 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977

Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Harris, D. "Novels of Escape and Alienation: A Comparative Review of Six Days and A Perfect Peace." Arab Studies Journal/Majallat alDirasat al- 'Arabiya, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Barakat, Halim. Six Days. Trans. Bassam Franjieh and Scott McGhee. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1990

Ostle, R.C. "Mahmudal-Mas'adi and Tunisia's 'Lost Generation'." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 8, 1977 Gonzalez Reboll edo, V. "Al-Sudd de Mahmud al-Mas' adi:: El Hombre entre la Fe y la Duda, Entre la Esperanza y la Action." El Ma1ghreb: Coordenadas Socioculturales. C. Perez Beltran & C. Ruiz-

Almodovar (eds.). Granada: Grupo de Investigation Estudios Arabes Contemporaneos, Universidad de Granada, 1995

Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Douglas, Allen & Malti-Douglas , Fedwa. "Literature and Politics in the Arab Novel: A Conversation with Emile Habiby." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973

Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfotiz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Ghorab, Nevine. "The Influence of the English Novel on Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformatio.". Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra and the Novel of Subjective Aesthetics." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Anonymous. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra's Politics: An Interview with Jabra Ibrahim Jabra." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Jabra, Jabra Ibrahim. The Ship. Trans. Adnan Haydar and Roger Allen. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1985

Jomier, J. "Un grand roman de la condition humaine: ypiquement egyptien: Al-Saqqa Mat." Melanges de I'lnstitut dominicain d'etudes orientates du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 1, 1954 Makarius, Raoul. Anthologie de la litterature arabe con temporal ne. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1964 Abdel-Malek, Z.N. "The Influence of Diglossia on the Novels of Yuusif alSibaa'i." Journal oj'Arabic Literature: Vol. 3, 1972

Al-Sa'dawi, Navval. The Fall of the Imam. Trans. Sherif Hetata. London: Methuen, 1988

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Jomier, J. "La vie d'une famille au Caire d'apres trois Romans de M. Naguib Mahfouz." Melanges de I'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientates du Caire (M1DEO), Vol. 4, 1957 Le Gassick, Trevor. "Najib Mafuz's Trilogy." Middle East Forum. Vol. 39, 1963 Issawi, C. "European Loan-Words in Contemporary Arabic Writing: A Case Study in Modernization." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 3, 1967 Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Habib, Mustafa. Cultural Life in the U.A.R. Cairo: U.A.R. National Commission for UNESCO, 1968

Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfiiz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Cachia, Pierre. "Themes Related to Christianity and Judaism in Modern Egyptian Drama and Fiction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 2, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Vial, C. "La femme dans Trilogie de Nagib Mahfuz." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales, Vol. 25, 1972 Peled, Mattityahu. "Yasin the Gate Crasher." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Chehata, A. "Les influences etrangeres sur la trilogie de Mahfuz." Arabica, Vol. 22, 1975 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz." Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. ''Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 El-Enany, R.M. "Religion in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. Vol. 15, No. 1/2, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Ghorab, Nevine. "The Influence of the English Novel on Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Milson, Menahem. "Najib Mahfuz and Jamal' Abdal-Nasir: The Writer as Political Critic." Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 23, 1989 Shammas, Anton. "The Shroud of Mahfouz." The New York Review of Books, 02/02/1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 El-Shamy, Hasan M. "The Traditional Structure of Sentiments in Mahfouz's Trilogy: A Behavioristic Text Analysis." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Allen, Roger. "The Impact of the Translated Text: The Case of Najib Mahfuz's Novels with Special Emphasis on the Trilogy." Edebiydt (New Series), Vol. 4, No. 1, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Juilliard Beaudan, C. "Le champ du feminin dans la trilogie de Naguib Mahfouz: La vision de la femme en Islam." Cahiers de I'Orient, Vol. 38, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Sugar Street. Trans. William Maynard Hutchins, et. al. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1992

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba'/. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel" Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Altoma, S.J. "Socio-Political Themes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel: 1950-1970." Cry of Home, Ed. by Ernest Leward. Tennessee: University Press, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction."Journalof Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "Narrative Form in Mahfouz from The Thief and the Dogs to Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Autumn Quail. Trans. Roger Allen Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985

Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www.aucpress.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume Two Novels arranged alphabetically with criticism from al- 'Atun to Shacirmalik [1-2228]

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York

Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction." Middle East Journal Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 Hatatah, Sharif. The Net. London: Zed Books, 1986

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et l 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Haim, Gordon. "The Situation of the Arab Woman in the Mirror of Literature." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 17, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Philipp, T.H. "Women in the Historical Perspective of an Early Arab Modernist"."Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 18, 1977

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfiiz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Altoma, S.J. "Socio-Political Themes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel: 1950-1970." Cry of Home, Ed. by Ernest Leward Tennessee: University Press, 1972 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Alizade, E.M. "Ob Antiburzhuaznoi Napravlennosti Romana 'Nishcii 'Nagiba Makhfuza'." (About the Anti-Bourgeois Charge of Najib Mahfuz's Novel Al-Shahhadh (1965)." Nauchnye Trudy Azerbaidzhanskogo Un-Ta, Vol. 1, 1979 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way."Alif, Vol. 5, 1985 Thacher, Jean-Louise. "Book Reviews: Recent Translations of Arabic Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1988 El-Rai, Ali. "The Tragedy of the Individual Self in Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "Narrative Form in Mahfouz from The Thief and the Dogs to Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990

Al-Tawati, Mustafa. "Place in Three Novels by Mahfouz." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adrian Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Anonymous. El Mendigo, Naguib Mahfuz: Guida de lectura. Barcelona, Plaza & Janes, 1994 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Beggar. Trans. Kristen Walker Henry and Kariman Khales al-Warraki. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egyp.". The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Fathi, Ibrahim. "An Index of Different Dreams." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 331, 26/06/1997 Mehrez, Samia. "The Duplicity of the Literary Field." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 331, 26/06/1997

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1993

Choukri, Mohammed. Streetwise. Trans. Ed Emery. London: Saqi Books, 1996

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Algosaibi, Ghazi A. An Apartment Called Freedom. Trans. Leslie McLoughlin. London: KPI, 1996

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Brinner, W. Readings in Modern Arabic Literature: The Short Story and the Novel. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1971

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

El-Zayyat, Latifa. The Owner of the House. Trans. Sophie Bennet London: Quartet Books, 1997

Siddiq, Muhammad. "The Fiction of Sahar Khalifah: Between Defiance and Deliverance." Arab Studies Quarterly, No. 8, 1986 Harlow, Barbara. "Readings of National Identity in the Palestinian Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar. 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Khalifa, Sahar. Wild Thorns. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick and Elizabeth Fernea. London: Al-Saqi Books, 1985

Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Fathi, Ibrahim. "A Jewelled Casket." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 212, 16/03/1995

Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Fayed, Mona Shafik. "Colonial Refractions: The Image of the West in Modern Arabic Literature." JUSUR, No. 4, 1988 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Chukov, B.V. "Vozniknovenie Sotsial'noi Utopii v Irakskoi Literature." Narody Azii i Afrikii, Vol. 6, 1978

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "'Abd al-Hakim Qasim and the Search for Liberation." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1995 Hutchison, PaulE. "Rites of Assent" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 120, 08/1995 Hanaway, W.L. "Rites of Assent" (review). Choice, Vol. 33, 12/1995 Allen, M.D. "Rites of Assent" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 70, 1996 Qasim, 'Abd al-Hakim. Rites of Assent: Two Novels. Trans. P. Theroux. Philadelphia: University Press, 1995

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977

Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction" Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 El-Alim, Mahmoud Amin. "The Search (The Road)." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Al-Tawati, Mustafa. "Place in Three Novels by Mahfouz." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Suyoufie, Fadia. "Myth as Mimesis in Naguib Mahfouz's The Search." Abhath al-Yarmouk: Literature & Linguistics Series/Abhath alYarmuk: Silsilat al-Adab wa 'l-Lughawiyat, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1993 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Search. Trans. Mohamed Islam Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1987

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusufal-Siba 7. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Fathi, Ibrahim. "Sneaking Kisses with the Neighbours." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 227, 29/06/1995

C N N

All, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of A rabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Steppat, F. "Konfessionalismus in Libanesischen Roman: Taufiq Yusuf 'Awwads Tawahin Bairut." Die Welt DesIslams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Accad, Evelyne. Sexuality and War: Literary Masks of the Middle East. New York: New York University Press, 1990 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "The Image of the City: Wounded Beirut." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 ' Awwad, Tawfiq Yusuf. Death in Beirut. Trans. Leslie McLoughlin. London: Heinemann, 1976

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by MM. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Helmy, Ghada. "The Plight of Women in Literary Text and Filmic Adaptation."^///Vol. 15, 1995

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Some Recent War-Related Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1971 Camera D'Afflitto, I. "Simbolo e Realta in Ghassan Kanafani." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 64, No. 7-12, 1984 Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984 Harlow, Barbara. "Readings of National Identity in the Palestinian Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar. 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Parmenter, Barbara McKean. Giving Voices to Stones: Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Siddiq, Muhammad. Man Is A Cause: Political Conciousness and the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani. Seattle: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Washington Press, 1984

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra and the Novel of Subjective Aesthetics." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Siddiq, Muhammad. "The Fiction of Sahar Khalifah: Between Defiance and Deliverance." Arab Studies Quarterly, No. 8, 1986 Howeidi, Amira. "The Shadow of the Cactus." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 90, 12/11/1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Peled, Mattityahu. "Sahar Khalifah's ' Abbad al-Shams: A Feminist Challenge." Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ami Elad Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1993

Philipp, T.H. "Women in the Historical Perspective of an Early Arab Modernist." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 18, 1977

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modem Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1973 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz." Az"Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Starkey, P. "Quest for Freedom: The Case of 'Izz al-Din al-Madani." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 26, No. 1/2, 1996

Peled, Mattityahu. "Dansawai - Fiction and Reality." Die Welt deslslams (New Series), Vol. 19, 1979 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Allen, Roger. "The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Lockman, Zachary. "Imagining the Working Class: Culture, Nationalism and Class Formation in Egypt, 1899-1914." Poetics Today, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994 Haqqi, Mahmud Tahir. The Virgin of Dinshaway. Three Pioneering Egyptian Novels. Trans. Saad el-Gabalawy. FrederictonN.B.: York Press, 1986

Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988

Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Singh, Preeti. "Aziza's Prison Notebooks." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 226, 22/06/1995 Bakr, Salwa. The Golden Chariot. Trans. Dinah Manisty. Reading: Garnet, 1995

Cox, D. "Marginality as Resistance to Incorporation in Algeria's Arabic Literature: An Approach to Tahar Wattar's Urs Baghl." Journal of Algerian Studies, Vol. 1, 1996

Abbas, All Abdallah. "Notes on Tayeb Salih: Season of Migration to the North and Wedding of Zein." Sudan Notes and Records, No. 54, 1974

Berkley, Constance E. Gresham. "The Roots of Consciousness Molding the Art of El Tayeb Salih: A Contemporary Sudanese Writer." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York University, 1979 Berkley, Constance E. Gresham. "The Wedding of Zein." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 11, 1980 Nasr, Ahmad A. "Popular Islam in al-Tayyib Salih." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 11, 1980 Al-Rawi, Karim. "The Village and the World: Tayeb Saleh." Ajkar Inquiry, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1985 Harrow, K. "Camara Laye, Cheikh Hamidou Kane and Tayeb Salih: Three Sufi Authors." Faces of Islam in African Literature. Ed. by K.W. Harrow. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1991 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Al-Haggagi, Ahmad Shams Al-Din. "The Myth-Maker: Al-Tayeb Saleh's The Wedding of Zein." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Salih, al-Tayyib. The Wedding of Zein, and Other Stories. Trans. Denys Johnson-Davies. London: Heinemann, 1968

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Some Recent War-Related Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1971 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Von Grunebaum, G.E. Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity. New York: Vintage, 1964 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Berque, Jacques. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. Trans. Jean Stewart London: Faber & Faber, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R. A.E., 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Farag, Nadia Raouf. "Tawfiq al-Hakim and His Search for a National Culture." Unpublished M. A. thesis, American University in Cairo 1977 King, J.R. "The Theme of Alienation in Contemporary Middle Eastern Literature." The Muslim World, Vol. 68, 1978 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979

Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J.An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980.". The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Perennial Themes in Modern Arabic Literature." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. L 'Oiseau d'Orient. Trad. H.W. Schenoudda et Morik Brin. Caire: Editions Horus, 1941 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Bird of the East. Trans. R. B. Winder. Beirut: Khayyats, 1966

Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Asfour, Gaber. "Remembering Ali Mubarak." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 144, 25/11/1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusufal-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Al-Mazini, Ibrahim. Al-Mazini's Egypt. Trans. William Hutchins. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Barbour, Nevill. "'Audatu' al-Ruh, An Egyptian Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 9, 1935 Brockelmann, Carl. Geschichte der arabischen Literatur. Supp. III. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1939 Abdel-Jalil, J.M. Histoire de la litterature arabe. Paris: A. Colin, 1943 Idris, Suhayl. L'Heroism dans la Litterature Arabe. Trad. M. Barrmans. Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes (IBLA), No. 26, 1963 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Berque, Jacques. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. Trans. Jean Stewart. London: Faber & Faber, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Farag, Nadia Raouf. "Tawfiq al-Hakim and His Search for a National Culture." Unpublished M. A. thesis, American University in Cairo 1977 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et I 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Cachia, Pierre. "Idealism and Ideology: The Case of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 100, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987 Naguib, Nagi. "Agypten als Kunstwerk oder Aesthetische Idee: Zur Rezeptiongeschichte des Romans der Ruckkeht des Geistes (Audat ar-Ruh) von Taufiq al-Hakim." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 28, 1988 Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Die Kritische Reaktion auf die Zeit Gamal 'Abd alNasirs in Manchen Werken der agyptischen Literatur." Archiv Orientalni, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1993 Saad El-Din, Mursi. "The Beginnings of the Egyptian Novel." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 121, 17/06/1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. L 'Ame Retrouvee. Adaptation Frangaise par Morik Brin (d'apres une traduction de I 'arabepar M.A. Khedry). Paris: Bibliotheque-Charpentier Fasquell Editeurs, 1937 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. El Despertar de un Pueblo. Trad. Federico Corriente de Cordoba. Madrid: Institute Hispano-Arabe de Cultura, 1967 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Return of the Spirit: Tawfiq al-Hakim's Classic Novel of the 1919 Revolution. Trans. William M. Hutchins. Washington D.C., Three Continents Press, 1990

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Halim Barakat: Pacemaker of the Psychological Technique in Fiction." Mid East, No. 10, 1969 Le Gassick, Trevor. "Some Recent War-Related Fiction." Middle East Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1971 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Accad, Evelyne. Sexuality and War: Literary Masks of the Middle East. New York: New York University Press, 1990 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egyp.". The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Barakat, Halim. Days of Dust. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick. Wilmette, IL: Medina, 1974

Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Allen, Roger. "The Artistry of Yusuf Idris." World Literature Today, No. 55, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Novels of Yusuf Idris." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allen Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1994

Hatatah, Sharif. The Eye with the Iron Lid. London: Onyx, 1989

Badr, Liana. The Eye of the Mirror. Trans. Samira Kawar. Reading: Garnet, 1994

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Jad, All. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by MM. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992

Elmessiri, Nur. "Restoring Al-Andalus." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 248, 23/11/1995

Guth, S. Liebe und Mannesehre: Szene einer muslimischen kleinburgerehe, beluchtet anhand des Roman der Olzweig (Gusn az-Zaytun) von M. Abdelhalim Abdallah. Berlin: Schwarz, 1988 Sherif, Nur. About Arabic Books. Beirut: Beirut Arab University, 1970 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Accad, Evelyne, & Ghurrayb, Rose. Contemporary Arab Women Writers and Poets. Beirut: Beirut University College: Monographs of the Institute for Women's Studies, 1985

Gibb, H. A.R. "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Literature IV: The Egyptian Novel." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 7, 1933

Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Moussa, Sabri. Seeds of Corruption, Trans. Mona M. Mikhail. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973

Xusein-Zade, M. Sh. "Zemlia i Fellax Abd ar-Raxmana ash-Sharkavi" (The Earth and The Fellah by ' Abdarrahman ash-Sharqawi). Vostochnaia Filologiia, Vol. 1, 1974 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Stagh, Marina. The The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Banneth, E., and Morelon, Regis. "Al-Sahhar Temoin de la vie Populaire." Melanges de I'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 13, 1977 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusufal-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979

Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz" Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt des lslams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 El-Enany, R.M. "Religion in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. Vol. 15, No. 1/2, 1988 Khoury, Moussa. "Salvation and the Negavist." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977

Anawati, G.C. "Deux Livres Recentes sur le Christ." La Revue du Caire, No. 183,1955

Anawati, G.C. "Jesus et ses Juges d'apres 'La Cite Inique' du Dr. Kamel Hussein." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 2, 1955 'Abd al-Tafahum . '"City of Wrong': A Muslim Studies the Cross." The Muslim World, Vol. 46, 1956 Cachia, Pierre. "Themes Related to Christianity and Judaism in Modern Egyptian Drama and Fiction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 2, 1971 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Husayn, Muhammad Kamil. City of Wrong. Trans. K. Cragg. Amsterdam, 1959

Kamel, Salwa. "The Structure of Time in A Very Good Morning to You and Qashtamar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Ezz El-Din, Hassan El-Banna. "Language Levels in Yusuf Idris' Writings." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 05/1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Issawi, C. "European Loan-Words in Contemporary Arabic Writing: A Case Study in Modernization." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 3, 1967 Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967 Habib, Mustafa. Cultural Life in the U.A.R. Cairo: U.A.R. National Commission for UNESCO, 1968 Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 El-Naggar, Y. "The Religious Phenomenon in Modern Egypt." Islamic Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 2-3, 1971 Hanna, A. Sami. "The Arabic Renaissance or al-Nahda and the Development of the Novel." Islamic Culture, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1971 Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Vial, C. "La femme dans Trilogie de Nagib Mahfuz." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales, Vol. 25, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Peled, Mattityahu. "Yasin the Gate Crasher." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, 1973 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz 's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Chehata, A. "Les influences etrangeres sur la trilogie de Mahfuz." Arabica, Vol. 22, 1975 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 El-Sheikh, Ibrahim. "Egyptian Women as Portrayed in the Social Novels of Najib Mahfuz."Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, 1982 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Nijland, C. "Naguib Mahfouz and Islam: An Analysis of Some Novels." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 El-Enany, R.M. "Religion in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. Vol. 15, No. 1/2, 1988 Fayed, Mona Shafik. "Colonial Refractions: The Image of the West in Modern Arabic Literature." JUSUR, No. 4, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Ghorab, Nevine. "The Influence of the English Novel on Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Shammas, Anton. "The Shroud of Mahfouz." The New York Review of Books, 02/02/1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 El-Shamy, Hasan M. "The Traditional Structure of Sentiments in Mahfou's Trilogy: A Behavioristic Text Analysis." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Peters, Issa. "Palace of Desire" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 65, 1991

Hutchison, Paul E. "Palace of Desire" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 116, 01/1991 Theroux, Peter. "Palace of Desire" (review). New York Times Book Review, 20/01/1991 Mendelsohn, Jane. "Palace of Desire" (review). Voice - Literary Supplement, Vol. 92, 02/1991 Hussein, Aamer. "The Vagaries of Love: Naguib Mahfouz's Palace of Desire." Times Literary Supplement, 15/03/1991 Hussein, Aamer. "Palace of Desire" (review). Times Literary Supplement, 15/03/1991 Ryan, Nigel. "Palace of Desire: Review." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 8, 18/04/1991 Brenton, Howard. "Mahfouz Discovered." The Literary Review, 06/1991 Milson, Menahem. "Palace of Desire" (review). Commentary, Vol. 91, 06/1991 Castronovo, David. "Palace of Desire" (review). Commonwealth, Vol. 118, 14/06/1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. "The Impact of the Translated Text: The Case of Najib Mahfuz's Novels with Special Emphasis on the Trilogy." Edebiyat (New Series), Vol. 4, No. 1, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed.

by Michael Beard and Adrian Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Juilliard Beaudan, C. "Le champ du feminin dans la trilogie de Naguib Mahfouz: La vision de la femme en Islam." Cahiers de l'Orient, Vol. 38, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Palace of Desire.: Cairo Trilogy II. Trans. William Hutchins, et. al. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1991

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel Ithaca Press,

. London:

Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Perennial Themes in Modern Arabic Literature." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Haqqi, Yahya. The Saint's Lamp and Other Stories. Trans. M.M. Badawi. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973

Tadros, Marlyn. "Turn of the Lock." Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 120, 10/06/1993

Fahmy, Nazek. "Seasons and Cycles." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 362, 29/01/1998

Le Gassick, Trevor. "A Malaise in Cairo: Three Contemporary Egyptian Authors." The Middle East Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1967

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modem Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusufal-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Bardenstein, Carol. "The Thief and the Dogs." New York Times Book Review, 10/12/1989 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990 Ghosh, Amitav. "The Thief and the Dogs" (review). New Republic, Vol. 202, 07/05/1990 Enright, D.J. "The Thief and the Dogs" (review). Encounter (London), Vol. 75, 09/1990 Al-Tawati, Mustafa. "Place in Three Novels by Mahfouz." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Milson, Menahem. "The Thief and the Dogs" (review). Commentary, Vol. 91,06/1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitutio.". Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Thief and the Dogs. Trans. Trevor Le Gassick. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1984

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Barrada, Muhammad. The Game of Forgetting: A Novel. Trans. Issa J. Boullata Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Jalal, Muhammad. Trail at Midnight. Trans. Nehad Selaiha Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1986

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

El-Enany, R.M. "Cities of Salt: A Literary View of the Theme of Oil and change in the Gulf." Arabia and the Gulf: From traditional society to modern states. Essays in honour of M.A. Shaban's 60th Birthday (16 November 1986). Ed. by I.R. Netton. London: Croom Helm, 1986

Prose, Francine. "The Trench" (review). New York Times Book Review, 27/10/1991 Werner, Louis. "The Trench" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition), 27/11/1991 Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Peters, Issa. "The Trench" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 66, 1992 Siddiq, Muhammad. "The Making of a Counter-Narrative: Two Examples from Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew Fiction." Michigan Quarterly Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1992 Ghosh, Amitav. "The Trench" (review). New Republic, Vol. 206, 02/03/1992 Gilmour, David. "The Trench" (review). New York Review of Books, Vol. 39, 26/03/1992 Semaan, Khalil I. "The Trench" (review). Choice, Vol. 29, 06/1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Munif, ' Abd al-Rahman. The Trench. Trans. Peter Theroux. New York: Pantheon Books, 1991

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992

Peters, Issa. "Variations on Night and Day" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 68, 1994 Munif, 'Abd al-Rahman. Variations on Night and Day. Trans. Peter Theroux. New York: Pantheon Books, 1993

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992

Munif, ' Abd al-Rahman. Cities of Salt. Trans. Peter Theroux. London: Vintage, 1987

Naimy, Nadeem. Mikhail Naimy: An Introduction. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1967 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Mikha'il N'aimy as a Novelist." Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, No. 1-2, 1982 Ramadan, Hadia Ihsan Hauak. "The Development of the Hero in Mikhaail Naimy's Novels." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 01/1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Nu'ayma, Mikha'il. Memiors of a Vagrant Soul or the Pitted Face. New York: Philosophical Library, 1952

Al-Sa'dawi, Nawal. Memoirs from the Women's Prison. Trans. Maralyn Booth. London: 1986

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Allen, Roger. "Mahfouz's Mirrors."American Research Center in Egypt Newsletter, 10/1971 Allen, Roger. "Mirrors by Naguib Mahfouz." The Muslim World, Vol. 62, No. 2, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976 Tonkin, Hiemphry. "Mirrors, a Novel by Najib Mahfuz." Edebiyat, No. 2, 1977 Fontaine, Jean. "Le noveau roman egyptien 1975-1985." ILBA: Revue de I'lnstitut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Vol. 49, No. 158, 1986 King, J.R. "The Deconstruction of the Self in Nagib Mahfu's Mirrors." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 19, 1988 Haim, Gordon. Naguib Mahfouz's Egypt: Existential Themes in His Writings. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990

Allen, Roger. "Mirrors by Naguib Mahfouz." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adrian Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitution." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Mirrors. Trans. Roger Allen Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Elmessiri, Nur. "Restoring Al-Andalus." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 248, 23/11/1995

. Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Accad, Evelyne, & Ghurrayb, Rose. Contemporary Arab Women Writers and Poets. Beirut: Beirut University College: Monographs of the Institute for Women's Studies, 1985 Larson, Charles R. "The Fiction of Hannan Al-Sheikh, Reluctant Femenist." World Literature Today, Vol. 65, 1991 Sunderman, Paula W. "An Interview with Hanan al-Sheikh." Michigan Quarterly Review, Vol. 4, No. 31, 1992 Sunderman, Paula W. "Gender, Violence and Sexuality: Female Narrators in Women of Sand and Myrrh." Phoebe, 03/1993 Al-Shaykh, Hanan. Women of Sand and Myrrh. Trans. C. Cobham. London: Quartet Books, 1989

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Khuri, Ilyas. The Kingdom of Strangers. Trans. P. Haydar. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996

Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Hutchison, Paul E. "Rites of Assent" (review). Library Journal, Vol. 120, 08/1995 Hanaway, W.L. "Rites of Assent" (review). Choice, Vol. 33, 12/1995 Allen, M.D. "Rites of Assent" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 70, 1996 Qasim,' Abd al-Hakim. Rites of Assent: Two Novels. Trans. P. Theroux. Philadelphia: University Press, 1995

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Abbas, Ali Abdallah. "Notes on Tayeb Salih: Season of Migration to the North and Wedding of Zein." Sudan Notes and Records, No. 54, 1974 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Boullata, Issa J. "Encounter Between East and West: A Theme in Contemporary Arabic Novels." Middle East Journal, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1976 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Peled, Mattityahu. "Portrait of an Intellectual." Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1977 Siddiq, Muhammad. "The Process of Individuation in al-Tayyeb Salih's Novel Season of Migration to the North." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 9, 1978 Berkley, Constance E. Gresham. "The Roots of Consciousness Molding the Art of El Tayeb Salih: A Contemporary Sudanese Writer." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York University, 1979 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "Tayeb Salih's Season of Migration to the North, An Interpretation." Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 2, 1980 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Nasr, Ahmad A. "Popular Islam in al-Tayyib Salih." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 11, 1980 Wielandt, R. "The Problem of Cultural Identity in the Writings of al-Tayib Salih." Studia Arabica et lslamica, Festschrift Ihsan 'Abbas. Ed. Wadad Qadi. Beirut: American Unviersity of Beirut, 1981 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "Images of Arab Women in Midaq Alley by Nagib Mahfouz and Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 17, 1985

Aymuni, Mona Takieddine (ed). Tayib Salih 's Season of Migration to the North: A Casebook. Beirut: The American University of Beirut Press, 1985 Tarawneh, Yosif. "Quest for Identity: The I-Thou Imbroglio in Tayeb Salih's Season of Migration to the North." Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 8, 1986 Tarawneh, Yosif and John, J. "Tayeb Salih and Freud: The Impact of Freudian Ideas on Season of Migration to the North." Arabica, Vol. 35,1988 Van Pol, M. "Wie is wie in de roman Seizoen van de trek naar het Noorden van Tayyib Salih: De Identificatie van de personages." Sharqiyyat, No. 1, 1988 Werner, Louis. "Season of Migration to the North" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition), 22/06/1989 Pryce-Jones, David. "Season of Migration to the North" (review). New York Times Book Review, 23/07/1989 Tololyan, K. "Little Mountain" (review). Choice, Vol. 27, 12/1989 Harlow, Barbara. "Season of Migration to the North" (review). Choice, Vol. 27,03/1990 Foster, Edward Halsey. "Season of Migration to the North" (review). Small Press, Vol. 8, 04/1990 Ghattas-Soliman, S. "The Two-Sided Image of Women in Season of Migration to the North." Faces of Islam in African Literature. Ed. by K.W. Harrow. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1991 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 John, Joseph. "A Dialogue with Mr. Tayeb Salih on Season of Migration to the North." Islamic Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 3, 1992

Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: DarMahjar, 1992 Makdisi, Saree S. "The Empire Renarrated. Season of Migration to the North and the Reinvention of the Present." Critical Inquiry, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1992 Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Arabic Bildungsroman: A Generic Approach." InternationalJournal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 25, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Liyong, T.L. "Tayeb Salih's Concluded Season of Migration to the North: an Exercise in a Subjective, Development-Oriented Approach to African (and Third World) Literary Discussion." Perspectives and Challenges in the Development of Sudanese Studies. Ed. Ismail H. Abdallah with D. Sconyers. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1993 Al-Raheb, Hani. "Two Invasions and One Tragic End: The Dialectics of North and South in Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Salih's Season of Migration to the North." New Comparison, No. 17, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Salih, Mahmud Husein & al-Ath amneh, Naser. "Silence in Arabic-English Translation: The Case of Salih's Season of Migration to the North." Babel, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1995 Salih, al-Tayyib. Season of Migration to the North. Trans. Denys JohnsonDavies. London: Heinemann, 1969

Skarzynska-Boch enska, Kiystyna. "Mahmud al-Mas'adi and Philosophy of Life and Death in his Existentialist Novels." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Vol. 10, 1992

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Al-Mazini, Ibrahim. Al-Mazini's Egypt. Trans. William Hutchins. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983

Al-Warraki, Nariman. "The Novels of Najib Mahfiiz Subsequent to the Trilogy." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1969 Jomier, J. "Quelques contes et romans recents." Melanges de l 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientates du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 10, 1970 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Arabic Novel - A Single Tradition?" Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 5, 1974 Hafez, Sabry. "The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976

Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Allen, Roger. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature." Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, 1981 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Outsider in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1981 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 De Moor, Ed. '"Wij schrijven geen gedichden meer, maar Strijden': Politiek in de moderne Arabische literatuur." De Pen en het Zwaard. Literatuur en Politiek in het Midden-Oosten. Red. G.J. van Gelder & E. de Moor. Muiderberg: (Midden-Oosten en Islam Publicaties, NR 6), 1988 Eksell, K. "Komposition av Nagib Mahfuz Miramar och Dess Forhallande till Lawrence Durrels Alexandriakvatett." Orientaliska Studier, Vol. 64, 1988 Samaan, Angel Botrus, "Linguistic Features and the Point of View in Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1988 Somekh, Sasson. "A Minute to Midnight: War and Peace in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Middle East Report, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1988 Amer, Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

El-Zayyat, Latifa. "Narrative Form in Mahfouz from The Thief and the Dogs to Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Milson, Menahem. "Najib Mahfuz and Jamal' Abdal-Nasir: The Writer as Political Critic." Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 23, 1989 Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Mahfouz, Naguib. Miramar. Trans. Fatma Moussa Mahmoud. London: Heinemann, 1978

Abdel-Malek, Z.N. "The Influence of Diglossia on the Novels of Yuusif alSibaa'i." Journal of Arabic Literature. Vol. 3, 1972 Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14,1993

Yakhlaf, Yahya. "The Execution: Excerpt from a Novel Banned in Most of the Arab World." Trans. M. Booth. Index on Censorship, Vol. 13, No. 3, 1984

Badran, Nadia Abdel-Wahab. "A Critical Study of Sun'Allah Ibrahim's Novels." Unpublished thesis, The American University in Cairo, 1989 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Die Kritische Reaktion auf die Zeit Gamal 'Abd alNasirs in Manchen Werken der agyptischen Literatur." Archiv Orientalni, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1993 Kassem-Draz, Ceza. "Opaque and Transparent Discourse in Sonallah Ibrahim's Works." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Abdel-Malek, Z.N. "The Influence of Diglossia on the Novels of Yuusif alSibaa'i." Journal of Arabic Literature. Vol. 3, 1972

Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba 'i Stockholm: Universitet, 1996

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Ibrahim, Jamil 'Attiya. Down to the Sea. Trans. F. Liardet London: Quartet Books, 1991

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995

Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Munif, 'Abd al-Rahman. Endings. Trans Roger Allen. London: Quartet Books, 1988

Baldissera, Eros. "Syrian Narative and the Topic of Sex: Sakib al-Gabiri and Muhammad al-Naggar via Zakariyya Tamir." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Vol. 10, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Jomier, J. '"Un trop beau revu' par M. Tharwat Abaza." Melanges de l'lnstitut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire, Vol. 6, 1961

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980

Faqih, Ahmad Ibrahim. Gardens of the Night: A Trilogy. Trans. Russel Harris, Amin al-Ayouti and Suraya Allam. London: Quartet Books, 1995

Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Smith, Charles D. "Hakadha Khuliqat: The Triumph of the Irrational in the Fiction of Muhammad Husayn Haykal." Edebiyat, No. 1, 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Smith, Charles D. "Love, Passion and Class in the Fiction of Muhammad Husayn Haykal." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99. No. 2, 1979 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985

Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Ali, Muhsin Jassim. "The Socio-Aesthetics of Contemporary Arabic Fiction: An Introduction." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 14, 1983

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984

Daniel, Peter O. "Waqa'i Harat al-Zafarani (The Facts of Zafarani Alley)." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 01/1984 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. Incidents in Za'farani Alley. Trans. Peter Daniel. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1986

Habibi, Emil. "An Extract from The Pessoptimist, A Novel." Azure, No. 2, 1978 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Luckless Palestinian." Middle East Journal, Vol. 34, 1980

Camera D'Afflitto, I. "La Vita di un Arabo in Israele: II Pessottimista di Emil Habibi." Studi Arabi-Islamici in Onore di Roberto Rubinacci nel suo Settanesimo Compleanno. A cura di C. Sarnelli Cerqua. Naples: Istituto Univeritario Orientale, 1985 Douglas, Allen & Malti-Douglas , Fedwa. "Literature and Politics in the Arab Novel: A Conversation with Emile Habiby." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA:Dar Mahjar, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Khater, Akram F. "Emile Habibi: The Mirror of Irony in Palestinian Literature." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1993 Neuwirth, A. "Israelisch-Palastinensische Paradoxien: Emil Habibis Roman Der Peptimist als Versuch Einer Entmythisierung von Geschichte. (Summary: Palestinio-Israeli Paradoxes: Emile Habibi's Opsimist Viewed as an attempt to De-Mythify History." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Vol. 12, 1994 Parmenter, Barbara McKean. Giving Voices to Stones: Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Habibi, Emil. The Secret Life of Saeed, the Ill-Fated Pessoptimist: A Palestinian who Became a Citizen of Israel. Trans. Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Trevor Le Gassick. New York: Vantage, 1982

Fathi, Ibrahim. "To Be Beside the Seaside." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 177, 14/07/1994 Al-Kharrat, Idwar. Girls of Alexandria. Trans. F. Liardet. London: Quartet Books, 1993

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993

Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993

Naimy, Nadeem. Mikhail Naimy: An Introduction. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1967 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Mikha'il N'aimy as a Novelist." Al-'Arabiyya, Vol. 15, No. 1-2, 1982 Ramadan, Hadia Ihsan Hauak. "The Development of the Hero in Mikhaail Naimy's Novels." Unpublished Thesis - The American University in Cairo, 01/1993

Hasem, Malak. "The Sense of Ending in The Day the Leader was Killed." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Emani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Milson, Menahem. "Najib Mahfuz and Jamal' Abdal-Nasir: The Writer as Political Critic." Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 23, 1989

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modem Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 Mehrez, Samia. Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction: Essays on Naguib Mahfouz, Sonallah Ibrahim and Gamal al-Ghitani. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Day the Leader was Killed Trans. Malek Hashem. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989

Abdel-Jalil, J.M. Histoire de la litterature arabe. Paris: A. Colin, 1943 Woodruff, Philip. "Maze of Justice, Translated by A.S. Eban." Middle East Journal Vol. 2, 1948 Calverley, Eleanor. "The Maze of Justice." Muslim World Vol. 39, 01/1949 Sherif, Nur. About Arabic Books. Beirut: Beirut Arab University, 1970

Sakkut, Hamdi. The Egyptian Novel and Its Main Trends from 1913-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1971 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Anonymous. "Un substirut de campagne en Egypte." Maghreb-Machrek, No. 70, 10/1975 Barakat, Halim. Visions of Social Reality in the Contemporary Arab Novel. Washington D.C.: Institute of Arab Development, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1977 Peres, Henri. La litterature arabe et l 'Islam par les textes. Alger: Imprimeries la Typo-Litho, 1977 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Cachia, Pierre. "Idealism and Ideology: The Case of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 100, 1980 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Ostle, R.C. "The City in Modem Arabic Literature." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies of London, No. 49, 1986 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987

Enani, M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Hossaini, Ali. "Maze of Justice" (review). Voice - Literary Supplement, Vol. 80, 11/1989 Werner, Louis. "Maze of Justice" (review). Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition), 21/11/1989 Harlow, Barbara. "Maze of Justice" (review). Choice, Vol. 27, 05/1990 Haywood, John A. "Maze of Justice" (review). World Literature Today, Vol. 65, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Saad El-Din, Mursi. "The Beginnings of the Egyptian Novel." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 121, 17/06/1993 Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Un substitut de Campagne en Egypte: journal d'un substitut de procureur egyptien. Trad. Gaston Wiet Le Caire: Editions de La Revue du Caire, 1939 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Journal d'un Substitut de Campagne. Trad. Gaston Weit et Zaki M. Hassan. Caire: Editions de la Revue du Cake, 1942 Al- Hakim, Tawfiq. Yomano shel tove 'a bi-Khefare Mitsrayim. Tirgem Menahem Kapelyuk. Tel Aviv: 'Am 'Oved, 1945

Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Maze of Justice: Diary of a Country Prosecutor. Trans. Abba Eban. London: Harvill Press, 1947 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Diario de un Fiscal Rural. Trad. Emilio Garcia Gomez. Madrid: Institute Hispano-Arabe de Cultura, 1955 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. Uit het Dagboek van een Officier van Justitie. Trad J.J. Witkam. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff: 1975

This page intentionally left blank

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www. aucpress. com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume Three Novels arranged alphabetically with criticism from al-Shacira wallada to Yawmiyat Hala [2229-4648]

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York

This page intentionally left blank

Mosharrafa, M.M. Cultural Survey of Modern Egypt. London: Longman, 1947 Gabrieli, Francesco. Storia della letteratura araba. Milan: Casa Editrice "Academia." 1951 Monteil, Vincent. Anthologie bilingue de la litterature arabe contemporaine. Beyrouth: Imprimerie Catholique, 1961 Safran, Nadav. Egypt in Search of Political Community. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961 Gibb, H.A.R. Studies on the Civilisation of Islam. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1962 Etiemble, Rene. La crise de la litterature comparee. Paris: Gallimard, 1963 Francis, Raymond. Aspects de la litterature arabe contemporaine. Beirut: Dar alMa'arif, 1963 Makarius, Raoul. Anthologie de la litterature arabe contemporaine. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1964 Wiet, Gaston. Introduction a la litterature arabe. Paris: Editions G.P. Maissonneuve etLarose, 1966 Ali, Mohamed Ali. "Philosophical Concepts in Five Plays by the Egyptian Dramatist Tawfiq al-Hakim." Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Denver, 1968 Habib, Mustafa. Cultural Life in the U.A.R. Cairo: U.A.R. National Commission for UNESCO, 1968 Yunusov, K. 0. Taufiq al-Hakim: Biobibliograficheskii ukazatel. Moscow: Kniga, 1968 Ben Halima, Hamadi. Les principaux themes du theatre arabe contemporain 1914 a 1960. Tunis: Universite de Tunis, 1969 Aziza, Mohamed. Regards sur le theatre arabe contemporain. Tunis: Maison Tunisienne de l'Edition, 1970

General Criticism in European Languages

Ghazi, Fend. Le roman et la nouvelle en Tunisie. Tunis: Maison Tunisienne 1'Edition, 1970 Pellat, Charles. Langue et litterature arabe. Paris: A. Colin, 1970 Haywood, John A. Modem Arabic Literature: 1800-1970: An Introduction with Extracts in Translation. London: Lund Humphries, 1971 Berque, Jacques. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. Trans. Jean Stewart. London: Faber&Faber, 1972 Xusein-Zade, M. Sh. Fellah v literature egipta (The fellah in egyptian literature). Dushanbe: Donish, 1973 Alizade, E.M. Egipetskaia novella. Zarozhdenie i formirovanie zhanra. Moscow: Nauka, 1974 Berque, Jacques. Langages arabes du present. Paris: Gallimard, 1974 Laroui, A. La crise des intellectuels arabes, traditionalisme ou historicisme? Paris: Francois Maspero, 1974 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Viguera, Maria Jesus. Cuentos ciertos e inciertos. Seleccion, traduccion, presentacion de Marcelino Villegas. Madrid: Institute Hispano-Arabe de Cultura, 1974 Kotsarev, N.K. Pisateli Egipta. XX vek. materialy k biobibliografi (Egyptian writers. 20th cent, data for a bio-bibliography). Moscow: Nauka, 1975 Wild, S. Ghassan Kanafani, The Life of a Palestinian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassov/itz, 1975 Yunusov, K. O. Dramaturgiia taufika al-khakima. Moscow: Nauka, 1976 Fontaine, Jean. 20 ans de litterature tunisienne 1956-1975. Tunis: Maison Tunisienne de 1'Edition, 1977 Laroui, A. L 'Ideologie arabe contemporaine. Paris: Francois Maspero, 1977 Allen, Roger (ed). In the Eye of the Beholder: Tales of Egyptian Life from the Writing ofYusufldris. Minneapolis and Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1978

Farid, Amal. Panorama de la litterature arabe contemporaine. Cairo: Organisation Egyptienne Generale du Livre, 1978 Fontaine, Jean. Mort-resurrection une lecture de Tawfiq al-Hakim. Tunis: Editions Bouslama, 1978 Sorival, Hilana. L 'Intemporel entre Marcel Proust et Naguib Mahfouz. Cairo: L'Organisation Egypte Generale du Livre, 1978 Al-Khatibim'Abd Al-Kabir. Le roman maghrebin. Rabat: S.M.E.R., 1979 Long, Richard. Tawfiq al-Hakim: Playwright of Egypt. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Vial, Charles. Le personnage de lafemme dans le roman et la nouvelle en Egypte de 1914 a I960. Damas: Institut Francais de Damas, 1979 Beheiry, Kawser Abdelsalam. L 'Influence de la litterature francaise sur le roman arabe. Sherbroke, Quebec: Naaman, 1980 Elyas, Adel A. The World of Naguib Mahfouz. Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, 1980 Hussein, Taha. An Egyptian Childhood. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Ramos, Calvo A. La Batalla del Rio Majazin en la literatura marroqui contempordnea. Madrid: Institute Hispano-Arabe de Cultura, 1980 Villegas, M. Titulos recurrientos en la neoliteratura arabe. Madrid: Institute Hispano-Arabe de Cultura, 1980 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz". Encyclopedia of World Literature in the Twentieth Century. Ed. by Leonard S. Klein. New York: Ungar, 1981 Krul, Attinger C. Seve et sable. Contes et nouvelles de Syrie. Textes choisis, pres. et trad, de I'arabe par Attinger C. Krul. Geneva: Zoe, 1981 Tomiche, Nada. Histoire de la litterature romanesque de I 'Egypte moderne. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1981 Yammouni, J. Mehri. L 'Homme et sa pensee philosophique. Vision de I'homme et de la divinite. Lausanne: L'Aire, 1982

General Criticism in European Languages

Awwad, Hanan Ahmed. Arab Causes in the Fiction ofGhadah al-Samman (19611975). Sherbrooke: Naaman, 1983 Derbisoliev, A.B. Araboyazychnaya. Literatura Marokko: Osnovnye etapy razvitiya. Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1983 Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983 Smith, Charles D. Islam and the Search for Social Order in Modern Egypt: A Biography of Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Albany: University of New York Press, 1983 Wielandt, R. Das erzdhlerische Friihwerk Mahmud Taymurs: Beitrag zu einem Archiv der moderner arabischen Literatur. Beirut: Orient Inst. der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 1983 Al-Ashmawi, Fawzia Abouzeid Lafemme et I 'Egypte moderne dans I 'oeuvre de Naguib Mahfouz, 1939-1967. Paris: Publications Orientalistes de France, 1985 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. Modern Arabic Literature and the West. London: Ithaca Press, 1985 Fil, Shtinskii. Istoriya arabiskoi literatury: V-nachalo x veka. (History of Arabic Literature). Moscow: Nauka, 1985 Fontaine, Jean. Aspects de la litterature tunisienne: 1975-1983. Tunis: Rasm, 1985 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. Introduccion a la literatura drabe moderna. Madrid: Cantarabia, 1985 Barbulesco, Luc and Cardinal, Ph. L 'Islam en questions: Vingt-quatre ecrivains arabes repondent. Paris: Grasset et Fasquelle, 1986 Hegazy, Samir. Litterature et societe en Egypte (de la guerre de 1967 a celle de 1973). Algiers: Enterprise Nationale du Livre, 1986 Mohammedi, Tabti Bouba. La societe algerienne avant I 'independance dans la litterature: Lecture de quelques romans. Algiers: Office des Publications Universitaires, 1986 Allen, Roger. Modern Arabic Literature. New York: Ungar, 1987

Cooke, Miriam. War's Other Voices: Women Writers on the Lebanese Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Sellhem, R. Materialen zur arabischen literaturgeschichte. Tell II. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1987 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study ofTawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987 Moreh, Shmuel. Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1988 Peled, Mattityahu. Aspects of Modern Arabic Literature. Louvain: Peeters, 1988 Rubiera, Mata M. La arquitectura en la literatura drabe: Dasto para una estecia de placer. Madrid: Heprion, 1988 Said, Amina. Sables funambules (demeures traces et meditation). Paris: Arcantree, 1988 Cooke, Miriam. Women Write War: The Centring of the Beirut Decentrists. Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1989 Cachia, Pierre. An Overview of Modern Arabic Literature. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990 Fontaine, Jean. Ecrivaines tunisiennes. Tunisia: Le Gai Savoir, 1990 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. Literatura drabe de hoy. Madrid: Editorial Cantarabia, 1990 Walter, H. Wilderschein Afrikas: zu einer algerischen Literaturgeschichte. Themen undmotiv. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1990 Cohen-Mor, D. Yusufldris: Changing Visions. Potomac: Sheda Press, 1992 Shawabikah, Muhammad 'Ali. Arabs and the West: Study in the Modern Arabic Novel, 1935-1985. Jordan: Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies, Mu'tah University. Al-Osta, Adel. Diejuden in der palastinensischen Literatur zwischen 1913 unrf Berlin: Schwarz, 1993

General Criticism in European Languages Tomiche, Nada. La litterature arabe contemporaine: roman - nouvelle - theatre. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1993 Elad, Ami. The Village Novel in Modern Egyptian Literature. Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1994. Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. Men, Women and God(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab Feminist Poetics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995 Stagh, Marina. Modern arabiskprosa. Lund: Bibliotekstjanst, 1996 Makar, Ragai, N. Modern Arabic Literature: A Bibliography. Lanham, MD., & London: Scarecrow Press, 1998 Kelman, Georges. "The Egyptian Intelligentsia." The Middle East in Transition. Ed. by W.Z. Lagueur. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958 Cowan, David. "Literary Trends in Egypt Since 1952." Egypt Since the Revolution. Ed. by P.J. Vatikiotis. London: Allen & Unwin, 1968 Grozdanic, Sulejman. "Misaone drama Tawfiqa al-Hakima (Les drames d'idee de T.H.)." Dans Radovi Filoxofskog Fakuleta Sarajevo, Vol. 7, 1972 Awad, Louis. "Problems of the Egyptian Theatre." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. Warminister, Eng.: Aris & Phillips, 1975 Bragman, J. "Muhammad al-Siba'i and the Egyptian Literary Renaissance." Akten des VII Kongresses fur Arabistik undIslamwissenschaft, Gottingen, 15. bis 22. August 1974. Hrsg. von A. Dietrich. Gottingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1976 Wicp, S.T. "Der palestinenser in literarischen werk Ghassan Kanafani." Akten des VII. Kongresses fur Arabisk und Islamwissenschaft, Gottingen, 15. bis 22. August 1974. Hrsg. von A. Dietrich: Gottingen, 1976 Khouri, R.G. "Zur entwichlung des Begriffs 'Ilm' in werke Taha Husains (18891973)." XIXDeutscher Orientalistentag, vom 28. September bis 4. Oktober 1975 in Freiburg im Breisgau. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, Vol. 3, 1977

Montavez, Pedro Martinez. "De nuevo singularidad polemica y permanencia de Tawfiq al-Hakim." Exploraciones et literatura neoarabe. Madrid: IHAC, 1977 Paz, Francis Xavier. "Woman and Sexual Morality in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Actes IVCongresso de Etudes Arabes e Isldmicos. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977 Vial, Charles. "Reflets d'une societe: 1. La litterature." L 'Egypte d'aujourd'hui. Permanence et changements 1805-1976. Paris: CNRS, 1977 Cachia, Pierre. "The Assumptions and Aspirations of Egyptian Modernists." Islam; Past Influence and Present Challenge. Ed. by Alford T. Welch and and Pierre Cachia. Edinburgh: University Press, 1979 Ende, W. "The Palestine Conflict as Represented in Contemporary Arabic Literature." The Contemporary Middle East. Hrsg. G. Stein/U. Steinbach. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1979 Wild, S. "Social Problems in Contemporary Arab Literature." The Contemporary Middle East. Hrsg. G. Stein/ U. Steinbach. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1979 Nisbet, A.M. "Function of the Female Character in Maghrebian Literature." Maghrebine Studies Conference. Ed. by A.M. Nisbet. Kensington, N.S.W. n.p. 1980 Anonymous. "Al-Kharrat, Edwar." Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. by Leonard S. Klein. New York: Ungar, 1981 Gabrieli, Francesco. "Influssi della lirica e narrativa araba in Europa." Studien zur Geschichte undKulturdes Vorderen Orients: Festschrift fur B. Spuler. Hrsg. H.R. Roemer u A. Noth. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981 Hafez, Sabry. "The State of the Contemporary Arabic Novel: Some Reflections." The Arab Cultural Scene. Ed. by C. Hourani. London: Namara Press, 1982 Johnson-Davies, Denys. "Women Writers in the Arab World." The Arab Cultural Scene. Ed by C. Hourani. London: Namara Press, 1982 Moreh, Shmuel. "The Beginning of the Egyptian Novel and the Influence of the Maqama and Risalat al-Ghufran." 30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa. Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1982

General Criticism in European Languages

Le Gassick, Trevor. "Arabic Theatre." McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama. Ed. by Stanley Hochman. New York: McGraw Hill, 1984 Abousenna, Mona. "Language as Culture." Change in Language and Literature: Proceedings of the 16th Triennal Congress of the Federation Internationale de Langueset LiteraturesModernes... Budapest, 1984. Ed. by M Szabolcsi, J. Kovacs, M. Gulyas. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1986 Bois, M. "Tendances nouvelles du roman algerien de langue arabe." Des nouveaux enjeux culture Is au Maghreb. ParJ-R. Henret, (et. al). Paris: CNRS, 1986 Siblot, P. "Queles publics, queles strategies discursives." Des nouveaux enjeux culturels au Maghreb. Ed. J-R. Henry, et. al. Paris: CNRS, 1986 Bonn, C. "La traversee, arcane du roman maghrebin?" Visions du Maghreb, Montpellier... 1985 Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1987 Djaider, Mireille, & Khadda, Naget. "L'Ecriture en chantier." Visions du Maghreb, Montpellier... 1985. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1987

Jacobi, R. "Allgemeine charakteristik der arabischen dichtung." Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Band II: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Landau, Jacob M. "Moderne Literatur." Grundiss der arabischen philologie. BandII: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Moreh, Shmuel. "Traditionalle und neue formen der dichtung in der gegenwart." Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Band II. Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Petracek, K. "Volkstumliche Literatur." Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Band II: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Ruhe, E. "Historie nationale et roman algerien." Festschrift fur R. Baehr. Literature und Wissenschaft: Begegnung und Integration. Hrsg. B. Winklehner. Stauffenburg: Tubingen, 1987 Igonetti, G., & Sergio, M. "Una novella satirica di Taher Wattar." StudiAraboIslamici in Onore di Roberto Rubaianacci nel suo Settantesimo Compleanno. A cura di C. Sarnolli Cerqua. Naples: Istituto Univeritario Orientale, 1988

Nijland, K. "Het vaderland in de arabische emigrantenpoezie." De pen en het Zwaard: Literatuur en Politiek in het Midden-Oosten. Red. GJ. van Gelder en E. de Moore. Muiderberg: (Midden-Oosten en Islam Publicaties, Nr 6), 1988 Somekh, Sasson. "Genre and Language." BRISMES... Proceedings of the 1988 Conference on Middle Eastern Studies... Leeds... 1988. Oxford: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1988 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz." Dictionary of Literary Biography: Yearbook 1988. Ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli. Detroit: Gale Research, 1989 Dawarah, Fouad. "A Journey in the Mind of Naguib Mahfuz on his 50th Birthday." Naguib Mahfouz: Nobel 1988. Ed. M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Khashabah, Sami. "Naguib Mahfouz and His Cairo." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Naguib, Nagi. "Der verlust des vaters."XXIIIDeutscher Orientalistentag... 1985 in Wurzburg: Ausgewahlte Vortrage. Hrsg. E von Schuler. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1989 Salaiha, Nehad. "Naguib Mahfouz as Playwright." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Shivtiel, A. "Arabic Idioms and the Text: A New Aspect in Literary Analysis." BRISMES: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies (in association -with AFEMAM). Proceedings of the 1989 International Conference on Europe and the Middle East... Durham... 1989. Oxford: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1989 Abousenna, Mona. "Traduccion y critica literaria: ultima generation de hispanistas Egipicos 1975/1985." La Traduccion y la Critica Literaria. Actos de las Jornadas de Hispdnismo Arabe (Madrid, 24-27 de mayo de 1988). Ed. Fernando de Agreda. Madrid: Institute de Cooperation con el Mundo Arabe, 1990 Allen, Roger."Najib Mahfuz." Nobel Laureates in Literature. Ed. by Rado Pribic. New York and London: Garland Reference Library of the Humanities, 1990 Ramos, Calvo A. "Vision de Espafia en la literatura Arabe contemporanea." La Traduccion y la Critica Literaria: Actos de las Jornadas de Hispdnisomo

General Criticism in European Languages

Arabe (Madrid, 24-27 de mayo 1988) Ed. F. de Agreda. Madrid: Institute de Cooperation con el Mundo Arabe, 1990 Stienen, P. "Themes in Saudi Women's Literature." BRISMES: Proceedings of the 1991 International Conference on Middle Eastern Studies, SOAS, London... 1991. Exeter: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1991 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz and World Literature." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, Vol. 5, 1992 Allen, Roger. "The Beginnings of the Arabic Novel." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Anonymous. "Badr, Liana." Bloomsbury Guide to Women's Literature. Ed. by Claire Buck. London: Bloomsbury, 1992 Bamya, Aida A. "The North African Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Boullata, Issa J. "New Directions in the Arabic Novel: An Interview with Jamal alGhitani." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 De Moor, Ed. "Egyptian Love in a Cold Climate: Egyptian Students in Paris at the Beginning of the 20th Century." The Middle East and Europe: Encounters and Exchanges. Ed. by Geert Jan van Gelder and Ed de Moor. Amsterdam; Atlanta GA: Rodopi, 1992 Igonetti, G. "Donna araba e donna straniera nella letturatura maghrebina contemporanea." L 'Altro visto dall'Altro LetteraturaAraba edEbraica a Confronto. A cura di R.D. Ceccato, T. Parfitt, E.T. Semi. Milan: Libreria Cortina, 1992 Tomiche, Nada. "L'Heritage culturel: source d'innovation dans la litterature romanesque de 1'Egypte et du monde arabe." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992

Accad, Evelyne. "Rebellion, Maturity and the Social Context: Arab Women's Special Contribution to Literature." Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers. Ed. by Judith E. Tucker. Bloomington: Indiana University Press (in association with the Center for Contemporary Arabic Studies, Georgetown University), 1993 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "From Naguib Mahfouz Remembers." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. "Egyptian Literature." Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. by Leonard S. Klein. New York: Ungar, Vol. 5, 1993 Allen, Roger. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Arabic Novel: The Historical Context." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Asfour, Gaber. "From: Naguib Mahfouz's Critics." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Wo-Man, Retelling the War Myth." Gendering War Talk. Ed by M. Cooke and A. Wollacott. Princeton: University Press, 1993 Darouich, Ahmed. "De 1'influence de Jean-Jacques Rousseau sur le naissance du roman arabe moderne." Actes du Xle Congres de I 'Association Internationale de Litterature Comparee/Proceedings oftheXIth Congress of the International Comparative Literature Association (Paris, 20-24 August 1985). Paris: Bern, Vol. 8, 1993 Galvez Vazquez, E. "El faraonismo como leit-motiv en la literatura egipcia." Mundo Arabe/Mundo Hispdnico: Creatividad e Historia: Homanaje aMarcelino Villegas. Al- 'Alam al-Arabi/Al-'Alam al-Isbani: al-Ibda'wa 'l-Tarikh. Madrid: M. A.E. Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Internacional, Institute de Cooperacion con el Mundo Arabe, 1993 Lawall, Sarah. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Nobel Prize: Reciprocal Recognition." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. "Mahfouz's Dreams." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by M. Beard and Adnan Haydar.

General Criticism in European Languages

Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "Intertextual Dialectics." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Brown, Christy. "Literary Images of Intercultural Relationships Between Westerners and Middle Easterners." Inside the Mixed Marriage: Accounts of Changing Attitudes, Patterns and Perceptions of Cross-Cultural and Interracial Marriages. Ed. by W.R. Johnson & D.M. Warren. Lanham: University Press of America, 1994 Dadoo, Youssef. "Cross-Cultural Fertilisation and Najib Mahfuz." Culture: Unity and Diversity. Proceedings of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies... 1994, the University of Manchester. Durham: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1994 Fahndrich, H. "Beschleunigung durch reden: zur Dialogverwendung bei Nagib Mahfuz." Gesellschaftlicher Umbruch undHistorie im Zeitgenossichen Drama der Islamischen Welt. Hrsg. J.C. Burgel & S. Guth. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1995 Fahndrich, H. "William Faulkner in der modernen arabischen literatur - Am beispiel des palestinensers Ghassan Kanafani." Manner unter Todlicher Sonne: Ghassan Kanafanis WerkHeute. Hrsg. W. Fischer. Wiirzburg: Ergon, 1995 Fischer, W. "Ghassan Kanafani und Nagib Mahfuz: ein literarischer und stilistischer vergleich." Manner unter todlicher Sonne: Ghassan Kanafanis Werk Heute. Hrsg. W. Fischer. Wurzburg: Ergon, 1995 Flores, A. "Ghassan Kanafanis politisches engagement." Manner unter todlicher Sonne: Ghassan Kanafani's Werk Heute. Hrsg. W. Fischer. Wiirzburg: Ergon, 1995 McDonald, M.V. "Recent Egyptian History in Two Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Actas XVI Congreso UEAI. E. Vaquez de Benito, M. A. Manazano Rodriguez (eds.). Salamanca: Agencia Espanola de Cooperaci n InterNacional, Consejo superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Union Europeenne d'Arabisants et d'Islamisants, 1995 Camera D'Afflitto, I. "Tradizione e innovazione nella narrativa araba contemporanea." Un Ricordo che non si Spegne: Scritti di Docenti e Collaborator! dell 'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli in Memoria di

Alessandro Bausani. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientate, Dipartimento di Studi Asiatic!, 1995-1996 Peres, Henri. "Le roman, le conte et la nouvelle dans la litterature arabe moderne." Annales de I 'Institut des Etudes Orientates, Vol. 3 & 5, 1936 Rizzitano, U. "II teatro arabo in Egitto. Opre teatrali di Taufiq al-Hakim." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 23, 1943 Rizzitano, U. "Guerra e littature in un libro di Taufiq al-Hakim." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 26, 1946 Rizzitano, U. "Spirito faronico e spirito arabo nel pensiero dello scrittore egiziano Tawfiq al-Hakim." Annali Institute Orientate di Napoli (New Series), Vol. 3, 1949 Astre, G.A. "Le theatre philosophique de Tawfik Al-Hakim." Critique, Vol. 66, 11/1952 Papadopoulo, Alexandre. "Trois grands ecrivains." Revue du Caire, Vol. 31, 1953 Schoonover, K. "Some Observations on Modern Arabic Literature." The Muslim World, Vol. 44, 1954 Schoonover, K. "Contemporary Egyptian Authors: 1. Tawfiq al-Hakim - Dramatist." Muslim World, Vol. 55, No. 1, 1955 Papadopoulo, Alexandre. "Un ecrivain egyptien: Yehia Hakki." Revue du Caire, No. 193, 1956 Rossi, Pierre. "Litterature irakienne d'aujourd'hui: la nouvelle." Orient, Vol. 4,1957 Khalafallah, Muhammad "The Theatre in Egypt." New Outlook, No. 4,12/1957 Nagy, Olga. "Un representant du 'modernisme' dans la litterature egyptienne' Taufik al-Hakim." Studio et Acta Orientalia, Vol. 1, 1958 Papadopoulo, Alexandre. "Tewfiq el Hakim et son oeuvre." Revue du Caire, No. 212, 1958 Papadopoulo, Alexandre. "Tewfiq al-Hakim a 1'honneur." Revue du Caire, No. 220, 12/1958

General Criticism in European Languages

Peres, Henri. "Le roman arabe dans le premier tiers du XXe siecle: Al-Manfaluti et Haykal." L'Institutd'EtudesOrientates, Annales, Vol. 17, 1959 Khalafallah, Muhammad "L'Evolution de la langue et de la litterature arabes au XXe siecle." Journal of World History, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1960 Rushdy, Rashad. "Revival of the Theatre." Arab Review, No. 8, 1960 Jomier, J. "Deux extraits des 'Souvenirs' de M.Y. Haqqi." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 6, 1961 Rushdy, Rashad. "The Impact of the Revolution on Literature: The Drama." Arab Review, No. 19, 1961 Anonymous. "Nouvelles culturelles." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 7, 1962 Khury, A. "Naguib Mahfouz." The Scribe: Arab Review, No. 5/6, 1962 Von Grunebaum, Gustave E. "Acculturation as a Theme in Contemporary Arabic Literature." Diogenes, No. 39, 1962 El-Sharouny, Youssef "The Society Theatre by Tawfiq al-Hakim." Arab World, No. 21, 02/1962 Rushdy, Rashad. "Egyptian Playwrights." Arab Review, No. 23, 04/1962 Rushdy, Rashad. "Our Theatre... Old and New." Arab Review, Vol. 23, No. 23, 04/1962 Idris, Suhayl. "L'Heroisme dans la litterature arabe, trad, par M. Borrmans." ILBA: Revue de I'lnstitut des BellesLettresArabes, Vol. 26, 1963 Miquel, A. "La technique du roman chez Naguib Mahfouz." Arabica, Vol. 10, 1963 Monnot, Jourduin. "Un novelliste egyptien Mohammed Abd al-Halim Abdallah." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 7, 1963 Anonymous. "Portrait: Tewfiq El Hakim." Arab Observer, No. 167, 02/09/1963

Usmanov. N. K. "Proza Tawfik al-Khakim." Kratkie Soobshcheniya Instituta NarodovAzii, No. 65, 1964 Vial, Charles. "Evolution du roman arabe moderne en Egypte de 1870 a 1938.". Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d 'etudes orientates du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 8, 1964 Anonymous. "Egyptian Theatre." Arab Observer, No. 185, 06/01/1964 Kamel, Raouf. "The Writer YoussefEl-Siba'i." Arab Observer, 14/12/1964 Sfeir, George. "Writer with a Universal View." Arab World, No. 2, 1965 Al-Hakim, Tawfiq. (Reply to World Theatre's Inquiry Regarding Realism). World Theatre, No. 14, 1965 Emekhdzhyan, S.P. "P'esa Taufika al-Khakima 'Sdelka' kak opuit sozdaniya dramui na 'Srednem' Yazzuik." Problemui Filologii stranAzii iAfrikii, 1966 Jomier, J. "Ghali Shokri et la critique litteraire." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO),No. 8, 1966 Mekhitarian, Arpag. "Tawfiq al-Hakim et Mahmoud Taymour face aux problemes de 1'arabe parle." Acta Orientalia Belgica (Correspondance d'Orient), No. 10, 1966

Monnot, Jourduin. "Mohammed 'Abd El-Halim 'Abdallah: romancier du delta." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 8, 1966 Sfeir, George. "The Contemporary Arabic Novel." Daedalus, 09/1966 Fabe, T. "Le place de Tawfiq al-Hakim dans le renaissance litteraire et culturelle en Egypte." Przeglad Sociologiczny, Vol. 21, 1967 Horiuchi, M. "Modern Egyptian Literature and Politics as Mirrored in the Writing of T. al-Hakim." (In Japanese). Chuto Sogo Kenkyu, No. 5, 1967 Roshchin, Kriticheskiy. "Realizm v romanakh Nagiba Makhfuza." VOSTAKA Literatura i Fol'klor Narodov Vostoka, 1967

General Criticism in European Languages

Wormhaudt A. "The New Arabic Literature." Books Abroad, 12/1967 Ad-Damin, Khayri. "Povest Nagiba Makhfuza 'Boltovnya nad Nilorn'." Literatura Vostoka, 1969 Anonymous. "Literary Renaissance of the Arab World." The Arab World, No. 24, 1969 Aro, J. "Taha Husain iiber sufische scheiche in Agypten ." Temenos, No. 5, 1969 Long, C. W.R. "Tawfiq al-Hakim and the Arabic Theatre." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 5, 1969 Milson, Menahem. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Problem of the Search for Content in Life." Hamizrah Hehadash, Vol. 19, No. 1/2, 1969 Moosa, Matti I. "The Growth of Modern Arabic Fiction." Islamic Quarterly, Vol. 13, 1969 Le Gassick, Trevor. "Arab Prose and Poetry, a Prod and Reflection of Unity and Progress." Mid East, 10/1969 Allen, Roger. "Nagib Mahfuz: His World of Literature." Arab World, Vol. 15, No. 11/12, 1970 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz: His World of Literature." Aramco World, Vol. 17, No. 8/9, 1971 Altoma, S. J. "Westernisation and Islam in Modern Arabic Literature." Yearbook of Comparative and General Literature, Vol. 20, 1971 Somekh, Sasson. "Najib Mahfuz's Social Novels" (in Hebrew). Hamizrah Hehadash, Vol. 21, No. 3,1971 Hanawa, H. "Contemporary Egyptian Literature" (In Japanese). Chuto-Tsuho, No. 196, 1972 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Literature of Modern Egypt." Books Abroad, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1972

Ashixmina, N.P. "Nekotorye osobennosti razvitiia palestinskoi literatury." (Some features of the development of Palestinian literature). Nauchnye trudy Tashkentskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta No. 456, 1973 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Al-Mazini the Novelist." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 4, 1973 Peled, Mattityahu. "No Refuge for Murderers" (in Hebrew). Hamizrah Hehadash, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1973 Tomiche, Nada. "Najib Mahfuz et 1'eclatement du roman arabe apres 1967." Revue de {'OccidentMusulman et de la Mediterranee, No. 15-16, 1973 Kajaia, O. "Pafos grazhdanstvennosti. Puti razvitiia novoi arabskoi literatury" (The pathos of social engagement. Ways of the development of modem arabic literature). Literaturnaia Gruziia, No. 9/10, 1974 Walther, W. "Das Bild der agyptischen Gesselschaft in einigen Werken von Nagib Mahfuz aus den Sechziger Jahren." Asien in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, 1974 Walther, W. "Mittel der Darstellungskunst und des Stils in einigen Romanen von Nagib Mahfuz aus den Sechziger Jahren." Problemy Literatur Orientalnykh, 1974 Wessels, A. "Nagib Mahfuz and Secular Man." Humaniora Islam, No. 2, 1974 Yasin'ka, Y. "Nekotorye elementy struktury sotzial'nobtovogo romana Nagiba Makhfuza." Problema Literatur Orientatnykh, 1974 Amaldi, Daniela. "Nagib Mahfuz e il realismo." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 55, 1975 Bencheneb, Rachid. "Les rapports de 1'orient et de 1'occident vus par Fecrivain Yahya Haqqi." Revue de I'Occident Musulman et de la Mediterranee, No. 20, 1975 Crabbs, Jr., Jack. "Politics, History and Culture in Nasser's Egypt." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 6, 1975 Michel, L. "Sul cristo di al-'Aqqad." Annali Delia Facolta di Lingue e Letterature Straniere di Ca'Foscari (Serie Orientate no. 6), Vol. 14, No. 3, 1975

General Criticism in European Languages

Moreh, Shmuel. "An Outline of the Development of Modern Arabic Literature." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 55, 1975 Namitokova, Z.A. "Arabskie pisateli v bor'be za osvobozhdenie Palestiny" (Arab writers in the struggle for the liberation of Palestine). Literatury Zarubezhnoi Azii v Sovremennuiu Epoxu. Moscow: Nauka, 1975 Somekh, Sasson. "Style and Theme in Yusuf Idris's Fiction." Actes du XXIX XIO 1975: Etudes Arabes et Islamiques II. Langue et Litterature III. Paris: L 'Asiatheque, 1975 Allen, Roger. "Egyptian Drama and Fiction in the 1970s." Edebiydt, Vol. 1, 1976 Amaldi, Daniela. "Sotto la peninsula di Nagib Mahfuz." Levante, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1976 Berque, Jacques. "Taha Hussein et la division des genres." Journal of Middle East Studies, No. 3, 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "Committment and Literature: The Case of Ghassan Kanafani." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1976 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "Tradition and Innovation in the Fiction of Ghassan Kanafani." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 7, 1976 Milson, Menahem. "Reality, Allegory and Myth in the Work of Najib Mahfuz." Asian and African Studies, No. 11, 1976 Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Mensch Gesellschaft und Schicksal in den Erzahlungen von Nagib Mahfuz." Archiv Orientdlni, Vol. 44, No. 4, 1976 Vial, Charles. "Sur quelques romans algeriens." Cahiers de Linguistique, d'Orientalisme etde Slavistique, No. 8, 1976 Witkam, J. J. "Tewfiq al-Hakim: Bewustzijn herronnen inleiding en naschrift." De Grids, No. 139, 1976 Abraham, S. "The Jew and the Israeli in Modern Arabic Literature." Jerusalem Quarterly, No. 2, 1977 Allen, Roger. "Some Recent Works of Najib Mahfuz: a Critical Analysis." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, No. 14, 1977

Amaldi, Daniela. "I critic! arabi e Negib Mahfuz." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 57, No. 9/10, 1977 Barresi, C.F. "Lo scrittore egiziano Yusuf Idris." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 57, No. 7/8, 1977 Berque, Jacques. "L'Islam vu par Taha Hussein." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales, No. 29, 1977 Durakovic, Esad. "Knjizevnost umajadskog perioda u delu razgovori sredom Taha Huseina." Prilozi Oriejentalnu Filologiju, No. 27, 1977 Grech, R. "Le recit heroi'que de sources arabes dans la litterature populaire algerienne." Libyca, No. 25, 1977 Hafez, Sabry. "Yusuf Idris - The Man and His Work." Azure, No. 1, 1977 Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "Two Types of Hero in Contemporary Arabic Literature." Mundus Artium, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1977 McDermott, A. "A Conversation with Yusuf Idris." Azure, No. 1, 1977 Naguib, Nagi. "Der Sozialhistorische hintergrund von Nagib Mahfuz Romanen." Die Welt der Oriens, No. 9, 1977 Petito, O. "Analyse texruelle d'un extrait du livres des jours de Taha Hussein." Cahiers d'Etudes Arabes et Islamiques, No. 2/3, 1977 Strika, V. "II teatro di Najib Mahfuz: II tema della persecuzione." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 57, No. 1/2, 1977 Albin, M.W. "Yusuf al-Siba'i 1917-1978." MELA Notes, No. 14, 1978 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "The Origins of the Arabic Novel." Ur, No. 9/10, 1978 Ballas, S. "Le courant expressionniste dans la nouvelle arabe contemporaine." Arabica, Vol. 25, 1978 Barresi, C.F. "La narrativa egiziana contemporanea." Oriente Moderno, Vol.58, 1978

General Criticism in European Languages

Busool, Assad N. "The Development of Taha Husayn's Islamic Thought." The Muslim World, Vol. 68, 1978 Cooke, Miriam. "The Dilemma of an Egyptian Writer." Middle East International, No. 90, 1978 Hafez, Sabry. "The Fiction of YahyaHaqqi." Azure, No. 2, 1978 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Contribution of Women to Modern Arabic Literature." Azure, No. 2, 1978 Lamourette, Chr. "Taha Hussein du le prestige d'une culture egyptienne moderne." Les africaines. Sous la direction de Ch-A. Mien, et al. Paris: Jeune Afrique, Vol. 9, 1978 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "Literature as a Unifying Influence in Modern Arab Culture." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1978 Nunez, Antonia Martinez. "Una afinidad literaria: Tawfiq al-Hakim y Pirandello." Miscelanea des Estudios Arabes y Herabicos, Vol.28, 1978 Samso, J. "El Teatro arabe actual." Revista de la Universidad Comlutense, Vol. 114, No. 27, 1978 Sanguinetti, A. "Tii que subes al arabol. Tawfik al-Hakim. Traduccion del arabe. 2o Acto." Estudios de Asia y Africa, No. 36, 1978 Allen, Roger. "Egyptian Drama after the Revolution." Edebiydt, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1979 Gadanti, M. "African Literature - An Arab Point of View." Azure, No. 3, 1979 Hardy, R. "Ghassan Kanafani." Azure, No. 3, 1979 Krutikhin, M. "Pisatel' i borets" (A writer and a fighter). Aziia i Afrika Segodnia, No 3, 1979 Lamourette, Chr. "A propos de trois romans pharaoniques de Naguib Mahfouz." Hommages a la memoire de Serge Sauneron 1927-1976, II. Egypte Post Pharaonique. Le Caire: Institut Frangais d'Archeologie Orientale (Bibliotheque d'Etudes LXXXII). 1979

Semaan, Khalil I. "Drama as a Vehicle of Protest in Nasser's Egypt." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 10, 1979 Somekh, Sasson. "The Diglottic Dilemma in the Drama of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Israeli Oriental Studies, Vol. 9, 1979 Stewart, Desmond. "Social Reality and the Egyptian Novel." Azure, No. 3, 1979 Strika, V. "Note sulla qissa e riwayah saudiana." Oriente Moderno, Vol. 59, No. 712, 1979 Tomiche, Nada. "Le roman egyptien apres 1973... Sa place dans le monde arabe et Fimage qu'en regoit 1'occident." Annales Islamologiques, Vol. 15, 1979 Cachia, Pierre. "Idealism and Ideology: The Case of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 100, 1980 Hassan, Razek Ibrahim. "The Iraqi Novel after the 17 July Revolution." Ur, No. 4, 1980 Yadlin, R. "The Egyptian Personality: Trends in Egyptian Character Literature." Asian and African Studies (Haifa), No. 14, 1980 Wren, Christopher. "Literary Letter from Cairo: On Al-Ahram's Sixth Floor." The New York Times Book Review, 16/03/1980 Berkley, Constance E. Gresham. "The Contours of Sudanese Literature." Africa Today, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1981 Broms, H. "The Middle Eastern Literary Style." Toimetised, No. 558, 1981 Cooke, Miriam. "Egypt - Baptism Earth." Al-'Arabiyya, No. 14, 1981 Cooke, Miriam. "Yahya Haqqi as Critic and Nationalist." InternationalJournal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, 1981 Fontaine, Jean. "La litterature feminine tunisienne (1971-1980): Marque-t-elle un renouveau?" Cahiers de Tunisie, Vol. 29, No. 1/2, 1981 Johnson-Davies, Denys. "The World of Tayib Salih." Azure, No. 8, 1981 Maleta, Andreas. "Meeting Mahfouz." The Middle East, No. 75, 1981

General Criticism in European Languages

McNutly, F.H. "Mahjar Literature: An Annotated Bibliography of Literary Criticism and Biography in Western Languages." Mundus Arabicus, Vol. 1, 1981 Tomiche, Nada. "Le revelateur le plus sensible de 1'acculturation. L'Indivudu contre le groupe." Annales Islamologiques, No. 17, 1981 Tomiche, Nada. "Taha Husayn: a la recherche d'un monde perdu." Arabica, Vol. 28, 1981 Al-Fagih, Ahmed Ibrahim. "Some Background Notes on Modern Libyan Literature." Azure, No. 10, 1982 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Naguib Mahfouz." Egyptian Bulletin, No. 1, 1982 Cooke, Miriam. '"Oh, What a Lovely War'." Azure, No. 10, 1982 Hardy, R. "Samih al Qasim and Emil Habibi. Palestinian Writers in Israel: Two Views on the Forms of Censorship and the Limits of Freedom." Index on Censorship, Vol. 4, No. 11, 1982 Johnson-Davies, Denys. "Yahya Taher Abdullah: Tribute." Azure, No. 10, 1982 Lachese, J.P. "Les 'Souvenirs' de Madame Suzanne Taha Hussein." Melanges de I 'Institut dominicain d'etudes orientales du Caire (MIDEO), Vol. 15, 1982 Lowi, M. "Nawal al-Saadawi: The Truth Sometimes Shocks." Index on Censorship, Vol. 3, 1982 Peled, Mattityahu. "Annals of Doom: Palestinian Literature 1917-1948." Arabica, Vol. 29, 1982 Shaddad, Fatima E. "Literary Activity in the Sudan 1900-1950." NEA: Journal of Research on North-East Africa, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1982 Tijani, E. "Le conte pharaonique dans le roman historique de Naguib Mahfouz." Arabica, Vol. 29, 1982 Tomiche, Nada. "L'Oeuvre de Sun'Allah Ibrahim ou la 'litterature des prisons' (Adab al-Sugun)." Annales Islamologiques, No. 18, 1982 Ziadeh, Farhat. "MikhailNu'ayma (Naimy)." Al-'Arabiyya, No. 15, 1982

Boullata, Issa J. "Contemporary Arab Writers and Literary Heritage." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 15, 1983 Camera D'Afflitto, I. "Narrative palestinese contemporanea: note su Alcuni Autori." Quadreni Studi di Arabi, No. 1, 1983 Ramsay, G. "Om den Egyptiske forfattaren Ihsan Abdel Qudduus." Orientaliska Studier, No. 45/46, 1983 Tijani, E. "Contradiction entre le pouvoir et I'autorite dans le roman historique de Nagib Mahfuz." Arabica, Vol. 30, 1983 Yadlin, R. "Society in the Mirror: Representations of Social Cohesion in Egyptian Fiction." Asian and African Studies (Haifa), No. 17, 1983 Abushariefeh, Abdel-Qader. "Portrayal of Arab Women in the Arab Political Novel." International Journal of Islamic and Arabic Studies, No. 1/2, 1984 Amo Hernandez, M. Del. "Aproximacion a la novela Egipcia de entregeurras." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabesy Hebraicos, Vol. 32-33, 1984 Cachia, Pierre. "In a Glass Darkly: The Faintness of Islamic Inspiration in Modern Arabic Literature." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984 Gouryh, Admer. "The Fictional World of Walid Ikhlasi." World Literature Today, Vol. 58, 1984 Hutchins, W.M. "Naguib Mahfouz. Contemporary Foreign Language Writers." Ed. by. J. Vinson and D. Kirkpatrick. London: St, James Press, 1984 Khalafallah, Haifaa. "Closing the Door of Thought: The Background to Censorship of Contemporary Arabic Literature." Index on Censorship, Vol. 13, No. 3, 1984 Oliverius, Jaroslav. "Der ideologische kampf der agyptischen literaturkritik der 50er und 60er Jahre." Archiv Orientdlni, No. 52, 1984 Tomiche, Nada. "Precedes d'ironie dans le traitement des valeurs traditionelles." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984

Wielandt, R. "Die Bewertung slamischen Volksglaubens in agyptischer Erzahlliteratur des 20. Jahrunderts." Die Welt des Islams (New Series), Vol. 23/24, 1984

General Criticism in European Languages

Basfao, Kacem. "La litterature maghrebine: une question de langue." Annuaire de I'Afrique du Nord, Vol. 24, 1985 Shaheen, Mohammed. "Tayeb Salih and Conrad." Comparative Literature Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1985 Allen, Roger. "The Novella in Arabic: A Study in Fictional Genres." InternationalJournal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1986 Amo Hernandez, M. Del. "Situation de la novela de los anos cincuenta en Egipto." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabesy Hebraicos, Vol. 34/35, No. 1, 1986 Baldissera, Eros. "Sakib al-Gabiri: pionere del romanzo siriano." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, No. 4, 1986 Claus, Elisabeth. "Modern Literature in Agypten." Papyrus, No. 3/4, 1986 Cooke, Miriam. "Telling Their Lives: A Hundred Years of Arab Women's Writings.' World Literature Today, Vol. 60, 1986 Fontaine, Jean. "Le nouveau roman egyptien 1975-1985." IBLA: Revue de I 'Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Vol. 158, No. 49, pt. 2, 1986 Haim, Gordon. "Naguib Mahfouz: 'The Search for the Egyptian Thou.' Dance, Dialogue and Despair: Existentialist Philosophy and Education for Peace in Israel." Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1986 Hatem, Jad. "Les jeux du r£el et du fantasme: etude sur la litterature inspiree par la guerre libanaise." Panorama de I 'Actualite/Haliyat, 1986 Hutchins, W.M. "Report: A Recent Biography of Tawfiq al-Hakim." American Research Center in Egypt Newsletter, No. 132, 1986 Mikhail, Mona N. "Middle Eastern Literature and the Condition of Modernity: An Introduction." World Literature Today, No. 60, 1986 Myers, Richard Kenneth. "The Problem of Authority: Franz Kafka and Naguib Mahfouz." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 17, 1986 Sellin, E. "Literary Expression and the State: The Case of Algeria." World Literature Today, No. 60, 1986

Walther, W. "Notwendige Freiheiten und ihre Grenzen-zur Ubersetzung moderner arabischer Prosaliteratur ins Deutsche." Hallesche Beitrage zur Orientwissenschqft, No. 10, 1986 Galley, M. "Aspects de la culture: 1'Imagerie populaire en Tunisie. Langues et cultures populaires dans 1'aire arabo-musulmane." Journees d'Etudes Arabes, 10/1986 Zafrani, Haim. "Especes de convergences socio-culturelles judeo-arabes au Maghreb: les litteratures dialectales populaires." Journees d'Etudes Arabes, 10/1986 Amo Hernandez, M. Del. "Algunas obras de la literatura arabe contemporanea aparecidas en espaftol en 1987." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabesy Hebraicos, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1987 Amo Hernandez, M. Del. "El nacimento de la novela Egipcia antecedente." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabes y Hebraicos, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1987 Amo Hernandez, M. Del. "La novela Egipcia de los anos sesenta." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabes y Hebraicos, Vol. 36, No. 1, 1987 Azar, Amine A. "Les perigrinations du petit chaperon rouge au pays du Levant." Cahiersde I'Orient, No. 7, 1987 Baldissera, Eros. "La formation du recit moderne en Syrie." Quaderni di Studi Arabi, No. 5-6, 1987 Bois, M., Gouin , F., & Fontaine, J. "Litterature maghrebine d'expression arabe." Annuaire de I'Afrique du Nord, Vol. 26, 1987 Chebel, Malek. "Identite et litterature en Algerie." Cahiers de I'Orient, No. 6, 1987 Czapkiewicz, A. "The Function of the Monologue in Modern Arabic Literature." Folia Orientalia, Vol. 24, 1987 De Moor, Ed. "Nationalisme et modernite dans 1'oeuvre de Muhammad Taymur (1892-1921)." Quadrenidi Studi Arabi, No. 5-6, 1987 Gershoni, I. "The Role of Periodicals in Shaping the Intellectual and Cultural Life in Egypt Between the Two Wars: Notes on Current Research." Bulletin of the Israeli Academic Center in Cairo, No. 8, 1987 Halloun, M. "Note on D. Wasserstein Gamasa in Taha Husayn (ZAL 13)."

General Criticism in European Languages

Zeitschriftfur Arabische Liguistik, No. 16, 1987 Ortega Marin, Juan Manuel. Tawfiq al-Hakim: teatro de la sociedad. Malaga: Universidad de Malaga y Universidad de Granada 1987 Tabai, Alia. "La litterature Tunisienne des anees 80: la mort et ses versions." IBLA: Revue de I'lnstitut des Belles Lettres Arabes, No. 50/160, 1987 Van Gelder, G.J. "The Conceit of Pen and Sword: On an Arabic Arabic Literary Debate." Journal of Semetic Studies, No. 32, 1987 Villegas, M. "Influencia o lectura critica? Nagib Mahfuz y Abd al-Hamid ibn Haduqa." Sharq al-Andalus, No. 4, 1987 Villegas, M. "Reiteraciones en la narrativa de Nayib Mahfuz." Miscelanea de Estudios Arabes y Hebraicos, Vol. 36, No. 1, 1987 Claus, Elisabeth. "Autorenportrat." Literatur n Chrichten, 12/1987 Accad, Evelyne. "Mashreq and Maghreb Women Writers of Arabic Expression." Revue CELFAN/CELFAN Revue, Vol. 7, No. 1/2, 1988 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "A Passion for Experimentation: The Novels and Plays of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Third World Quarterly, No. 10, 1988 Bonn, C. "La femme l'emigre et l'ecriture romanesque Maghrebine ou la triple productivite de Fetrange." Peuples Mediterranees, No. 44-45, 1988 Cooke, Miriam. "Women Write War: The Feminisation of Lebanese Society in the War Literature of Emily Nasrallah." British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1988 Inzodine, Said. "On a marche sur la lune." Etudes Ocean Indien, No. 10, 1988 Meyer, B. "Nawal Al Sa'dawi." Orient, No. 29, 1988 Mikhail, Mona N. "Naguib Mahfouz: The Nobel Prize Laureate in Literature." Newsletter of the American Research Center in Egypt, No. 142, 1988 Sellin, E. "Obsession with the White Page, the Inability to Communicate and Surface Aesthetics in the Development of Contemporary Maghrebian Fiction." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 20, 1988

Strika, V. "Letteratura egiziana contemporanea fra crisi e contestazione." Islam: Storia e Civilta, Vol. 25, No. 7, 1988 Villegas, M. "Nagib Mahfuz: premio Nobel 1988." Sharq al-Andalus, No. 5, 1988 Villegas, M. "Narrativa arabe otra interpretation." Sharq al-Andalus, No. 5, 1988 Villegas, M. "Nayib Mahfuz, un premio Nobel arabe." Awraq, Vol. 9, 1988 Cardinal, Ph. "Les cles d'Egypte." Liberation, 09/03/1988 Gumucio, Juan Carlos. "Naguib Mahfouz: ni siquiera sabia que hubiese sido prospectos para el primo." Diaro, No. 16, 14/10/1988 Honan, William H. "From 'Balzac of Egypt', Energy and Nuance." The New York Times, 14/10/1988 Howard, Philip. "First Nobel Prize for Arabic Writer: Egyptian Breaks Mould." The Times, 14/10/1988 Rule, Tony. "Egyptian Novelist wins Nobel Prize; First Award for a Writer in Arabic." International Herald Tribune, 14/10/1988 Viguera, Maria Jesus. "El mas gabal novelista arabe." El Pais, 14/10/1988 Villegas, M. "La linea de sombra." Diaris, No. 16, 14/10/1988 Honan, William H. "Naguib Mahfouz: Penetrating the Soul of Egypt." International Herald Tribune, 15/10/1988 Walker, Tony. "Egyptian First Arabic Writer to Win Nobel Prize." Sunday Financial Times, 15/10/1988 Rodenbeck, John. "Old Man of Cairo." The Observer, 16/10/1988 Uberrachat, Veiling. "Nach scharzafica entdecht die Nobel-Jury fur agypten eine schwedische kaprice." Der Spiegel, 18/10/1988 Gad, Kama! Ayad. "To Naguib Mahfouz the Nobel Prize Winner." The Egyptian Gazette, 19/10/1988 Cruz, Jorge. "El escritor en su mundo fragmentos de sus obras." La Nation, 23/10/1988

General Criticism in European Languages

Barakat, Enyas. "New Edition Planned by A.U.C. Press." Caravan (A. U.C.), 24/10/1988 Dickey, Christopher. "A Stirring Nobel Prize to a Bold Arab Author." Newsweek, 24/10/1988 Moneir, Marusa. "A Dickens of the Cairo Cafes: Egyptian Novelist Naguib Mahfouz wins the Literature Award." Time, 24/10/1988 Moneir, Marusa. "A.U.C. Plans Celebration to Honour Author." Caravan (A. U.C.), 24/10/1988 Clung, Claude Michel. "Le miracle de Stockholm: Le nobel au Cairote Naguib Mahfouz, romanciersaville." L'Express, 28/10/1988 McDowell, Edwin. "Doubleday Acquires Naguib Mahfouz Rights." The New York Times, 22/11/1988 Ezzeddine, Ahmed. "Naguib Mahfouz a Arabics: 'En creusant sa propre realite on debouchesurl'universer." Arables, 12/1988 Allen, Roger. "Nagib Mahfuz: A Profile and a Bibliography of Selected Readings." Indiana University Middle East Studies Program, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1989 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz: Nobel Laureate in Literature, 1988." World Literature Today, Vol. 63, No. 1, 1989 Booth, M. "Mahfouz and the Arab Voice." Index on Censorship, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1989 Brahimi, D. "A l'ecoute de la litterature: la maison et le monde." Maghreb Machrek, No. 123, 1989 Eichhorst, A. "Vroumen en literatuur in Egypte: opstelling en intentie van schrijfsters versus receptic en beschouwing door critici." Sharqiyyat, No. 1, 1989 El-Mansoury, Paris. "Naguib Mahfouz: The Arab Voice in World Literature." Arab Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 8, 1989 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "Depth of Vision: The Fiction of Naguib Mahfouz." Third World Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1989

Rooke, T. "Monster et djupverkan - en analys av en roman au Naguib Mahfouz." Orientaliska Studien, Vol. 67/68, 1989 Snir, R. "The Arab-Israeli Conflict as Reflected in the Writing of Najib Mahfuz." Abr-Nahrain, Vol. 27, 1989 Tomiche, Nada. "L'Expression du moi, verite regionaliste ou verite humaine, dans l'imaginaire romanesque cas referentiel del ' etre egyptien." Arabica, Vol. 36, 1989 Steinick, Karl. "Mahfouz skildar Nassers 50-tal." Goteborg, 11/10/1989 Khale, Sigrid. "Naguib Mahfouz - fern minuter ett helt liv." Svenska Dagbladers 'Litteraturpristagare, 22/11/1989 Magnusson, Bo. "Kanslan drar at ett hall, farnuftet at ett annat." Eskilstuna Kuriren, 13/12/1989 Walker, Christopher. "Exercising the Right to Write." The Times, 30/12/1989 Booth, M. "Naguib Mahfouz: The Continuing Struggle." Index on Censorship, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1990 El-Enany, R.M. "The Novelist as Political Eye-Witness: A View of Najib Mahfuz's Evaluation of the Nasser and Sadat Eras." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1990 H'ir, Naji, Hahn, L. & Shir, J. (Tr.). "An Interview with Naguib Mahfouz." Tel-Aviv Review, Vol. 2, 1990 Le Gassick, Trevor. 'Postface' to Miramar. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1990 Somekh, Sasson. "The Essence of Naguib Mahfouz." Tel-Aviv Review, No. 2, 1990 Bergsten, Jon. "Tidig Mahfouz om Nassers revolution." Norrlandska Socialdemokraten, 01 /1990 Johansson, Ake. "Mahfouz om Nassertiden." Sundsvalls Tidinig, 03/01/1990 Hafez, Sabry. "Ihsan Abdel Quddus." The Independent, 23/01/1990 Lipson, Eden Ross. "The Nobel Effect." The New York Times, 04/02/1990

General Criticism in European Languages

Nydhal, Thomas. "Storberattarkonst." Kristianstads-Balet, 26/02/1990 Walter, Natasha. "Cairo Practices." Vogue, 03/1990 Irwin, Robert. "Egyptian King." The Listener, 22/03/1990 Dickey, Christopher. "A Baedeker to Egypt's Soul." Newsweek, 05/1990 Hassan, Ihab. "The First Arab Laurate." The World and I, Vol. 5, No. 6, 06/1990 Le Gassick, Trevor. "Trials of Faith." The World and I, Vol. 5, No. 6, 06/1990 Kessler, Brad. "Laurate in the Land of the Pharaohs." The New York Times Magazine, 03/06/1990 Thomas, G. "Literary Mosaic." The Egyptian Gazette, 16/12/1990 Elsheikh, Mahmoud Salem. "Perpresentare Nagib Mahfu." Mazara del Vallo: Istituto di Studi Arabo-Islamici "Michele Amari."1991 Tresilian, David. "Not Farewell, but Fare Forward." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 13, 23/05/1991 Saliha, Nehad. "The Man and the Mask." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 20, 11/07/1991 Shukri, Ghali. "The Record of a Life." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 24, 08/08/1991 Nasr, Sherine. "Mahmoud Teymour 1894-1973." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 29, 05/09/1991 Murad, Mahmoud. "Naguib Mahfouz: The Courage to Write." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 37, 07/11/1991 Al-Mousa, Nedal. "The Nature and Uses of the Fantastic in the Fictional World of Nagib Mahfouz." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1992 Allen, Roger. "Narrative Genres and Nomenclature: A Comparative Study." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1992 Amyuni, Mona Takieddine. "Women in Contemporary Arabic and Francophone Fiction." Feminist Issues, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1992

Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Two Novelists from Iraq: Jabra and Munif." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Fontaine, Jean & Slama, Mounir B.H. "Arabic-Language Tunisian Literature (19561990)." Research in African Literatures, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1992 Stock, Kristine. " 'Abd ar-Rahman Magid al-Rubai'i: Portrat eines zeitgenossischen irakischen Schriftstellers." Die Welt des Islams, Vol. 32, No. 2, 1992 Svetozar, Pantucek. "Die Gestaltung der maghribinischen Nationalliteratur in der 1. Halfte des 20. Jahrhunderts." Archiv Orientdlni, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1992 Anis, Mona. "Yehia Haqqi: Ilmiglior fabbro." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 47, 09/01/1992 El-Sayyed, Mohamed Sabri. "Youssef El-Sibaie 1971-1978." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 51, 13/02/1992 Goda, Suleiman. "Critics of the Form." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 54, 05/03/1992 Duval, J.F. "Derives en Alexandrie." Contruire, 02/09/1992 Anonymous. "Egyptian Novelists." Toronto Star, 19/10/1992 Anis, Mona. "The Essential Yehia Haqqi." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 95, 17/12/1992 Anonymous. "Politics and Culture in Lebanon: Interview with Elias Khoury." Beirut Review, No. 5, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. "Perennial Themes in Modern Arabic Literature." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Journeys Real and Imaginary." Edebiydt (New Series), Vol. 4, No. 2, 1993 El-Erian, Mohamed Ali. "The Distinctive Contribution of Naguib Mahfouz as a Multi-Dimensional Trend-Maker." Voices: The Quarterly Journal of the National Library of Australia, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1993 Eshel, A. "Emil Habibi." Neue Gesellschaft/Frankfurter

Hefte, Vol. 40, 1993

Naimy, Nadeem. "The Main Trends in Modern Arabic Literature." Voices: The Quarterly Journal of the National Library of Australia, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1993

General Criticism in European Languages

Pena, Salvador. "Suenos de Mahfuz: Lo onirico en la construccion de la novela." Anaquel de Estudios Arabes, Vol. 4, 1993 Pipes, D. "Egyptian Family Life in 1919." Muqarnas, Vol. 10, 1993 Somekh, Sasson. "Colloquialized Fusha in Modern Arabic Prose Fiction." Jerusalen Studies in Arabic and Islam, Vol. 16, 1993 Hugh, Deborah. "Islamic Book Bans." The Guardian, 28/01/1993 Brown, Kenneth. "Emile Habibi: porter deux pasteques dans une seule main: un entretien." Mediterraneans/Mediterraneennes, Vol. 6, 1994 Hafez, Sabry. "The Transformation of Reality and the Arabic Novel's Aesthetic Response." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 57, No. 1, 1994 Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. The Nobel Laurate. (Introduction to Midaq Alley). Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1994 Manganaro, Eli Salem. "Bearing Witness: Recent Literature from Lebanon." Literary Review, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1994 Manisty, Dinah. "Madness as a Textual Strategy in the Narratives of Three Egyptian Women Writers." Alif, Vol. 14, 1994 Matar, Nabil I. "Homosexuality in the Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz." Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1994 Miossec-Kchir, Samia. "Damas en projets: une representation litteraire." Monde Arabe Maghreb-Machrek, Vol. 143, 1994 Natij, Salah. "L'Hypothese naturaliste Zolienne dans 1'oeuvre de Naguib Mahfouz." IBLA: Revue de I'Institutdes Belles Lettres Arabes, Vol. 57, No. 1, 1994 Prieto Gonzales , M.L. "El amor y la imagen femenina en los relates de ' Abd alRahman Mayid al-Rubay'i." Boletin de la Asociacion Espanola de Orientalistas, No. 30, 1994

Salti, Ramzi M. "Paradise, Heaven, and Other Oppressive Spaces: A Critical Examination of the Life and Works of Nawal El-Saadawi." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1994 Wade Minkowski, A. "Litterature egyptienne." Europe, No. 786, 1994 Walther, W. "Gelaubte Wirklichkeit - verfremdete Realitat: Phantasie- und Marchenstoffe in der alteren und der modernen arabischen Prosaliteratur." Journal of Turkish Studies, Vol. 18, 1994 Wolf, D. "Gesprach mit Nawal el-Saadawi." Du, Vol. 7-8, No. 640, 1994 Ghazaleh, Pascale. "Latifa El-Zayyat: A Cause of One's Own"." El-Wardani, Mahmoud. "The Overcoat of Abdel-Fattah El-Gamal." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 158, 03/03/1994 Halim, Hala. "The Face of Memory." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 177, 14/07/1994 Fathi, Ibrahim. "Continuing Radiance." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 196, 24/11/1994 Bramming, Pemille. "In Search of Something New." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 201, 29/12/1994 Howeidi, Amira. "The Art of Reconcilation." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 201, 29/12/1994 Said, Edward. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra: A Kindly Sage." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 201, 29/12/1994 Al-Janabi, Hatif. "Reaching the Light at the End of the Tunnel." Studio Arabiztyczne i Islamistyczne, Vol. 3, 1995 Alcock, A. "A Note on the Historical Works of Naguib Mahfouz"." Discussions in Egyptology, Vol. 33, 1995 Khan, Zafarul-Islam. "Najib al-Kilani." Muslim and Arab Perspectives, Vol. 7/2, No. 4-7, 1995 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "Egyptian Fiction and Arabic Literary Tradition." Arabist: Budapest Studies in Arabic, Vol. 15-16, 1995 Machut-Mendecka, E. "Magic and Realism of the Desert: The Prose of Ibrahim alKawni." Arabistyczne i Islamistyczne, Vol. 3, 1995

General Criticism in European Languages

Pinault, D. "Pharaoh Akhenaten as Messenger of God: The Use of Islamic Theological Vocabulary in Some Recent Novels by Naguib Mahfouz." Edebiydt (New Series), Vol. 6, No. 1, 1995 Raihanova, Bayan. "On the Question of Tradition in Modern Syrian Prose." Arabist: Budapest Studies in Arabic, Vol. 15-16, 1995 Skarzynska-Bochenska, Krystyna. "From Poet's Romantic Dreams to Reality: Love and Lust in Tunisian Fiction." Studio Arabistyczne i Islamistyczne, Vol. 3, 1995 Jones, Jessica. "Nawal El-Saadawi: Teach Them How to Fish." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 233, 10/08/1995 Elmessiri, Nur. "Bahaa Taher: A Question of Memory." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 243, 19/10/1995 Ashour, Radwa. "A Space of My Own." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 248, 23/11/1995 Halim, Hala. "Exile at Home." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 253, 28/12/1995 Machut-Mendecka, E. "The Seventy-Yard Long Chain (The Prose of Ibrahim alKawni)." Studio Arabistyczne i Islamistyczne, Vol. 4, 1996 Fathi, Ibrahim. "Ibrahim Asian: On the Wing." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 262, 29/02/1996 Anonymous. "He Who Remained." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 272, 09/05/1996 Ashour, Radwa. "Gender in History." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 272, 13/06/1996 Hassan, Fayza. "Gamil Attiya Ibrahim: Keeping the Books." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 278, 20/06/1996 Halim, Hala. "Edwar El-Khanat: Mikhail and the Dragon." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 279, 27/06/1996 Fathi, Ibrahim. "Alaa El-Dib: The Word and the World." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 288, 29/08/1996 Taher, Bahaa. "Portait of a Gentlewoman." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 291, 19/09/19%

Fathi, Ibrahim. "The Stuff of Experience." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 292, 26/09/1996 Ghazoul, Ferial J. "The Compassionate Rebel." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 292, 26/09/1996 Fathi, Ibrahim. "Sonallah Ibrahim: Cliffhanging." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 297, 31/10/1996 Seymour-Jorn, Caroline. "Fiction Writers as Intellectuals: An Anthropological Approach to the Study of Women Writers in the Middle East." Center for International Studies, University of Wisconsin, no. 96-02, 1996 Al-Jumly, Mohamed Saad & Rollins, J.B. "Emigration and the Rise of the Novel in Yemen." World Literature Today, Vol. 71, No. 1, 1997 Martinez Nunez, M. A. "El teatro de Tawfiq al-Hakim: un genero literario y su legimitacion." MiscelaneadeEstudiosArabes y Hebraicos, Vol.46, 1997 Fathi, Ibrahim. "Broken Promises." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 311, 06/02/1997 El-Wardani, Mahmoud. "Texts and Tiffs." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 367, 05/03/1998 Mounif, Abdel-Rahman. "A Homeland and a Passion." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 367, 05/03/1998 Nkrumah, Gamal. "Lutfi El-Kholi: The Warrior Dove." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 384, 02/07/1998 Saad El-Din, Mursi. "Creative Antagonisms." Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 398, 08/10/1998 Abu-Shamsie, Eisa Muhammad. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra's Fiction: A Study of Themes and Technique." Unpublished thesis, Indiana University, date unknown Mahfuz, M.I. "The Modern Arabic Historical Novel." Unpublished thesis, University of London, 1966 Tutungi, G.V. "Tawfiq al-Hakim and the West." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Indiana, 1966 Somekh, Sasson. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz - An Appraisal." Unpublished thesis, University of Oxford, 1968

General Criticism in European Languages

Bar-Nissim, Nahman. "An Approach to Tawfiq al-Hakim the Dramatist." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis - University of Pennsylvania, 1970 Noel, Usamov. "Adab Tawfiq al-Hakim." Unpublished thesis, University of Moscow, 1970 Peled, Mattityahu. "Religion My Own: a Study of the Literary Works of Nagib Mahfuz." Unpublished thesis, University of California, Los Angeles. 1971 Paz, Francis Xavier. "The Novels of Najib Mahfuz." Unpublished thesis, Columbia University, 1972 Yassine, Sazdel Ahmad. "Influences etrangeres dans 1'oeuvre de Tawfiq al-Hakim." Unpublished thesis, University of Alexandria, Faculty of Letters, 1972 Lunt, Lora Graham. "Love and Politics in the Tunisian Novel: Themes, Structure and Character in the Novels of Muhammad al-'Arusi al-Matwi and al-Bashir Kurayyif." Unpublished thesis, Indiana University, 1977 Balarabe, Abubakar. "Suhayl Idris: Lebanon's Major Literary Figure." Unpublished thesis, Indiana University, 1978 Barazanji, Ahmed Zeyad. "The Impact of European Drama on Two Arab Playwrights: Tawfiq al-Hakim and Kateb Yacine."Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, City University of New York, 1979 Hakamy, Abdelwahab Ali. "The Struggle Between Traditionalism and Modernism: A Study in the Novels of George Eliot and Najib Mahfuz." Unpublished thesis, University of Michigan, 1979 Sadiq, Muhammed. "Patterns of Identity in the Hebrew and Arabic Novel." Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1981. Wazzan, A.M. "Realism in Arnold Bennet and Najib Mahfuz: A Comparative Study in the Arabic and the English Novel." Unpublished thesis, Edinburgh University, 1981 Mahmoud, M.A. "The Fiction of Najib Mahfuz (1959-1978)." Unpublished thesis, Oxford University, 1982 Zeidan, Joseph Tufeek. "Women Novelists in Modern Arabic Literature." Unpublished thesis, University of California at Berkeley, 1982

Al-Zubi, Ahmed Muhammed. "Death in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." Unpublished thesis, University of Chicago, 1982 Abushariefeh, Abdel-Qader. "The Prison in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." Unpublished thesis, University of Michigan, 1983 Al-Bassam, E.S. A. "Socio-Political Obstacles to the Individual's Search for Identity: A Comparative Aspect of the Novels of E.M. Forster and Najib Mahfuz." Unpublished thesis, Exeter University, 1984 Hussein, Yousif Hussein. "A Comparative Study of the Historical Novels of Walter Scott and Najib Mahfuz." Unpublished thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1984 Shawabkeh, Mohammed Ali. "The Interchange Between the Arabs and the West: A Thematic Study in the Modern Arabic Novel Since 1935." Unpublished thesis, University of Michigan, 1985 Fayed, Mona Shafik. "The Impact of the Absurd on Modern Arabic Literature: A Study of the Influence of Camus, Ionesco and Beckett." Unpublished thesis, University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1986

Frangieh, Bassam K. "The Theme of Alienation in the Novel of Palestine." Unpublished thesis, Georgetown University, 1986 Kleibo, Ali M. "The Desire for Progress: A Structural Anthropological Analysis of Contemporary Arabic Knowledge as Embedded in Tawfiq al-Haki's Oeuvres." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 1986 Nunez, Antonia Martinez. "Tawfiq al-Hakim y la configuration de la literature national egipcia." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Granada, 1986 Park, Heony Dug. "Nawal al-Sadawi and Modern Egyptian Feminist Writings." Unpublished thesis - University of Michigan, 1988 Abadir, Akef. "Najib Mahfuz: Allegory and Symbolism as a Means of Social, Political and Cultural Criticism, 1936-1985." Ph.D. thesis, New York University, 1989 Ghandour, Sabah S. "Discourse in Fiction: The Case of the Lebanese Novel, 19601990." Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1994

General Criticism in European Languages

Seymour-Jorn, Caroline. "Indaha Qalam, 'She Has a Pen': The Social Discourse of Contemporary Female Fiction Writers in Cairo." Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1995 Lyons, Thomas M. "The Fictional Artifact: Ethnography and the Novel in Algeria." Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1998 Cox, Deborah Cheryl. "The Language of Authenticity?: Politics, Language and Gender in the Algerian Arabic Novel." Ph.D. thesis, University of Oxford, 1999

This page intentionally left blank

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www.aucpress.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume Four General criticism in Arabic and foreign languages: novelists from al-Shalabi to Mitwalli, Sacid

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www. aucpress. com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume Five General criticism in Arabic and foreign languages: novelists from Mitwalli, Muhammad to Yunus, Mahmud Novels arranged chronologically from 1865 to 1980

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

A- Bibliographies in European Languages Altoma, Salih J. Modern Arabic literature : a bibliography of articles, books, dissertations and translations in English. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1975. Boullata Issa J., and Allen, Roger M.A. (eds). The Arabic novel since 1950: critical essays, interviews and bibliography. Cambridge, Mass. U.S.A: Dar Mahjar, 1992. Brockelmann, C. Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur. Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1943-1949. Pearson, J.D. et al. Index Islamicus, 1906-. Cambridge, London, East Grinstead: Varidus, 1958. Peres, H. Bibliographie generale sur la litterature arabe moderne, Annales de l'institut d'Etudes Orientales, Faculte des Lettres de l'Universite d'Alger. Tome 3, 1937. Shuiskii, Sergi, "Annual bibliography of works on Arabic literature published in the Soviet Union" (in Russian). Journal of Arabic Liteatrure, Vol 6, 1975, Vol 8,1977, Vol 10, 1979, Vol 12, 1981, Vol 14, 1983.

B- Books And Periodicals Abdal-Malek, Anouar. Egypt: Military Society. New York: Random House, 1968

Abdallah, Ismail H., et. al. (eds). Perspectives and Challenges in the Development of Sudanese Studies. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1993 Abdel-Rahim, Said H. "Die midaq-gasse von Nagib Mahfuz: eine interpretation." Festschrift Ewald Wagner zum 65. Geburtstag. Hrsg. W. Heinrichs & G. G. Schoeler, Band II: Studien zur Arabischen Dichtung. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1994 Abdel-Saboor, Salah. "The World of God." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Abou Ghazi, Badr el-Din. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Plastic Arts." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Abousenna, Mona. "Language as Culture." Change in Language and Literature: Proceedings of the 16th Triennal Congress of the Federation Internationale de Langues et Litteratures Modernes... Budapest, 1984. Ed. by M. Szabolcsi, J. Kovacs, M. Gulyas. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1986 Accad, Evelyne. "Rebellion, Maturity and the Social Context: Arab Women's Special Contribution to Literature." Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers. Ed. by Judith E. Tucker. Bloomington: Indiana University Press (in association with the Center for Contemporary Arabic Studies, Georgetown University), 1993 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "From Naguib Mahfouz Remembers." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and AdnanHaydar. Syracuse: University Press. 1993 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "Intertextual Dialectics." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Al-Ghitani, Gamal. "The Alley in Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1988

Al-Haggagi, Ahmad Shams Al-Din. "The Myth-Maker: Al-Tayeb Saleh's The Wedding of Zein." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Al-Qitt, ' Abd Al-Hamid ' Abd Al-Azim. "The Novel The Taboo as a New Phase." Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Ed. by Roger Allen. Washington D.C. Three Continents Press, 1994 Al-Shamikh, Muhammad A. The Rise of Modern Prose in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh: King Saud University, 1984 Allen, Roger (ed). Critical Perspectives on Yusuf Idris. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1994 Allen, Roger, et al. (eds). Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. London: Saqi Books, 1995 Allen, Roger. '"Abd al-Rahman Munif." Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. by Wolfgang Bernard Fleischmann. New York: Ungar, 1993 Allen, Roger. "Mirrors by Naguib Mahfouz." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Allen, Roger. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Arabic Novel: The Historical Context." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Allen, Roger. "Najib Mahfuz." Nobel Laureates in Literature. Ed. by Rado Pribic. New York and London: Garland Reference Library of the Humanities, 1990 Allen, Roger. "The Mature Arab Novel Outside Egypt." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Allen, Roger. Modern Arabic Literature. New York: Ungar, 1987

Allen, Roger. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd edition). Syracuse: University Press, 1995 Amen Ibrahim. "The Politics of Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Anonymous. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra's Politics: An Interview with Jabra Ibrahim Jabra." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Anonymous. Actes du Xle congres de l 'association Internationale de litterature comparee/proceedings of the XIth congress of the international comparative literature association (Paris, 20-24 August 1985). Paris: Bern, Vol. 8, 1993 Anonymous. BR1SMES... Proceedings of the 1988 Conference on Middle Eastern Studies... Leeds... 1988 Oxford: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1988 Anonymous. Culture: Unity and Diversity. Proceedings of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies... 1994, the University of Manchester. Durham: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1994 Anonymous. Melanges Louis Massignon. Damas: Institut Francais, Vol. 3, 1957 Anonymous. The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Anonymous. Visions du Maghreb, Montpellier... 1985. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1987 Anonymous. XIX Deutscher orientalistentag, vom 28. September bis 4. Oktober 1975 in Freiburg im Breisgau. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1977 Ashour, Radwa. "My Experience with Writing." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Awwad, Hanan Ahmed. Arab Causes in the Fiction of Ghadah al-Samman (1961-1975). Sherbrooke: Naaman, 1983 Aymuni, Mona Takieddine (ed). Tayib Salih 's Season of Migration to the North: A Casebook. Beirut: The American University of Beirut Press, 1985 Ayyad, Shukry & Witherspoon, Nancy. Reflections and Deflections: A Study of the Contemporary Arab Mind Through Its Literary Creations. Cairo: Foreign Cultural Information Department, 1986 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. A Short History of Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993 Badawi, Muhammad Mustafa. Modern Arabic Literature and the West. London: Ithaca Press, 1985 Ballas, S. "The Circular Structure of Edward Al-Kharrat's Work: An Approach to Mahattat al-Sikkah al-Hadid." Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ami Elad. Fredericton, N.B.: York Press, 1993 Bamya, Aida A. "The North African Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Barakat, Halim. "Arabic Novel and Social Transformation." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris and Phillips, 1975 Beard, Michael. "The Mahfouzian Sublime." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and AdnanHaydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Beard, Michael, and Haydar, Adnan (eds). Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Berque, Jacques. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. Trans. Jean Stewart. London: Faber & Faber, 1972 Boullata, Issa J. "New Directions in the Arabic Novel: An Interview with Jamal al-Ghitani." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992

Boullata, Issa J. Critical Perspectives on Modern Arabic Literature 19451980. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Brinner, W. Readings in Modern Arabic Literature: The Short Story and the Novel. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1971 Brown, Christy. "Literary Images of Intercultural Relationships Between Westerners and Middle Easterners." Inside the Mixed Marriage: Accounts of Changing Attitudes, Patterns and Perceptions of CrossCultural and Interracial Marriages. Ed. by W.R. Johnson & D.M. Warren. Lanham: University Press of America, 1994 Bruccoli, Matthew J. (ed). Dictionary of Literary Biography. Yearbook 1988. Detroit: Gale Research, 1989 Brugman, J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984 Buck, Claire (ed.). Bloomsbury Guide to Women's Literature. London: Bloomsbury, 1992 Cachia, Pierre. "The Assumptions and Aspirations of Egyptian Modernists." Islam; Past Influence and Present Challenge, Ed. by Alford T. Welch and and Pierre Cachia. Edinburgh: University Press, 1979 Camera D' Afflitto, I. "La vita di un Arabo in Israele: II pessottimista di Emil Habibi." Studi Arabi-Islamici in Onore di Roberto Rubinacci nel suo Settanesimo Compleanno. A cura di C. Sarnelli Cerqua. Naples: Istituto Univeritario Orientale, 1985 Camera D'Afflitto, I. "Tradizione e innovazione nella narrativa araba contemporanea." Un Ricordo che non si Spegne: Scritti di Docenti e Collaboratori dell 'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli in Memoria di Alessandro Bausani. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, Dipartimento di Studi Asiatici, 1995 1996 Choukri, Mohammed. "Being and Place." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Cohen-Mor, D. Yusufldris: Changing Visions. Potomac: Sheda Press, 1992

Cooke, M. & Wollacott, A. (eds). Gendering War Talk. Princeton: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Arab Women Writers." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Cooke, Miriam. "Death and Desire in Iraqi War Literature." Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Roger Allen, Hilary Kilpatrick and Ed de Moor. London: Saqi Books, 1995 Cooke, Miriam. "Men Constructed in the Mirror of Prostitution." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. "Wo-Man, Retelling the War Myth." Gendering War Talk. Ed by M. Cooke and A. Wollacott. Princeton: University Press, 1993 Cooke, Miriam. Women Write War: The Centring of the Beirut Decentrists. Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1989 Dadoo, Youssef. "Cross-Cultural Fertilisation and Najib Mahfuz." Culture: Unity and Diversity. Proceedings of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies... 1994, the University of Manchester. Durham: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1994 Dawarah, Fouad. "A Journey in the Mind of Naguib Mahfuz on his 50th Birthday." Naguib Mahfouz: Nobel 1988. Ed. M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 De Moor, Ed. "Egyptian Love in a Cold Climate: Egyptian Students in Paris at the Beginning of the 20th Century." The Middle East and Europe: Encounters and Exchanges. Ed. by Geert Jan van Gelder and Ed de Moor. Amsterdam; Atlanta GA: Rodopi, 1992 Delgado, Pilar Lirola. Aproximacion al teatro egipcio moderno. Grupo de Investigation Estudios Arabes Contemporaneos Universidad de Granada 1990 Douglas, Allen & Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. "Literature and Politics in the Arab Novel: A Conversation with Emile Habiby: The Arab Novel Since

1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 El-Alim, Mahmoud Amin. "The Search (The Road)." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Ayoubi, Hachem. "Zur sprachlichen hintergrundigkeit im werk Ghassan Kanafanis." Manner unter Todlicher Sonne: Ghassan Kanafanis Werk Heute. Hrsg. W. Fischer. Wurzburg, Ergon, 1995 El-Enany, R.M. "Cities of Salt: A Literary View of the Theme of Oil and change in the Gulf." Arabia and the Gulf: From Traditional Society to Modern States. Essays in Honour of M.A. Shaban 's 60th Birthday (16 November 1986). Ed. by I.R. Netton. London: Croom Helm, 1986 El-Enany, R.M. "Najib Mahfuz in Search of the Ideal State: A Critique of his Rihlat Ibn Fattuma." Golden Roads: Migration, Pilgrimage and Travel in Medieval and Modern Islam. Ed. by I.R. Netton. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993 El-Enany, R.M. Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning. London: Routledge, 1993 El-Rai, Ali. "The Tragedy of the Individual Self in Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Shamy, Hasan M. "The Traditional Structure of Sentiments in Mahfouz's Trilogy: A Behavioristic Text Analysis." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "Narrative Form in Mahfouz from The Thief and the Dogs to Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 El-Zayyat, Latifa. "On Political Commitment and Feminist Writing." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Elad, Ami (ed). Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Fredericton, N.B.: York Press, 1993 Elkhadem, Saad. History of the Egyptian Novel: Its Rise and Early Beginnings. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1985 Elmessiri, A.M. "Arab Drama." The Reader's Encyclopedia of World Drama. Ed. by John Gassner and Edward Quinn. London: Methuen & Co. 1969 Elyas, Adel A. The World of Naguib Mahfouz. Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, 1980 Enani. M.M. "Novel Rhetoric: Notes on the New Languages of Fiction in Naguib Mahfouz." Nagib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Enani, M.M. (ed). Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Ende, W. "The Palestine Conflict as Represented in Contemporary Arabic Literature." The Contemporary Middle East. Hrsg. G. Stein/U. Steinbach. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1979 Fahndrich, H. "Beschleunigung durch Reden: zur Dialogverwendung bei Nagib Mahfuz." Gesellschaftlicher Umbruch und Historie im Zeitgenossichen Drama der Islamischen Welt. Hrsg. J.C. Burgel & S. Guth. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1995 Gabrieli, Francesco. "Influssi della lirica e narrativa Araba in Europa." Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Vorderen Orients: Festschrift fiirB. Spuler. Hrsg. H.R. Roemer u A. Noth. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981 Galvez Vazquez, E. "El faraonismo como leit-motiv en la literatura egipcia." Mundo Arabe/ Mundo Hispdnico: Creatividad e Historia: Homanaje a Marcelino Villegas. Al- 'Alam al-Arabi/Al- 'Alam alIsbani: al-Ibda' wa 'l-Tarikh. Madrid: M. A.E. Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Inteniacional, Instituto de Cooperacion con el Mundo Arabe, 1993 Gassner, J. and Quinn, E. (eds). The Reader's Encyclopedia of World Literature. London: Methuen & Co., 1969

Ghanayim, Mahmud. "Macrocosm and Microcosm in Najib Mahfuz's alBaqi nim al-Zaman Sa'ah." Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ami Elad. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1993 Ghattas-Soliman, S. "The Two-Sided Image of Women in Season of Migration to the North." Faces of Islam in African Literature. Ed. by K.W. Harrow. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1991 Ghazoul, Ferial I, et al. (eds). The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994 Ghorab, Nevine. "The Influence of the English Novel on Naguib Mahfouz." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Gibb, H. A.R. Studies on the Civilisation of Islam. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1962 Gonzalez Reboll edo, V. "Al-Sudd de Mahmud al-Mas'adi: El Hombre entre la Fe y la Duda, Entre la Esperanza y la Accion." El Maghreb: Coordenadas Socioculturales. C. Perez Beltran & C. RuizAlmodovar (eds.). Granada: Grupo de Investigation Estudios Arabes Contemporaneos, Universidad de Granada, 1995 Habib, Mustafa. Cultural Life in the U.A.R. Cairo: U.A.R. National Commission for UNESCO, 1968 Hafez, Sabry. "Food as a Semiotic Code in Arabic Literature." Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Ed. Sami Zubaida and Ruben Trapper. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994 Hafez, Sabry. "The State of the Contemporary Arabic Novel: Some Reflections." The Arab Cultural Scene. Ed. by C. Hourani. London: Namara Press, 1982 Harlow, Barbara. "Readings of National Identity in the Palestinian Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar. 1992

Harrow, K. "Camara Laye, Cheikh Hamidou Kane and Tayeb Salih: Three Sufi Authors." Faces of Islam in African Literature. Ed. by K.W. Harrow. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1991 Harrow, K.W. (ed). Faces of Islam in African Literature. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1991 Hasem, Malak. "The Sense of Ending in The Day the Leader was Killed." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Emani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Hashemi, Alamgir (ed). The World of Muslim Imagination. Islamabad: Gulmohar, 1986 Heinrichs, W. et al. (eds). Festschrift Ewald Wagner zum 65. Geburtstag. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1994 Hmarneh, Walid. "Some Narrators and Narrative Modes in the Contemporary Arabic Novel." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: DarMahjar, 1992 Hussein, Taha. "A Work of Modern Arabic Fiction: Al-Midaq Alley." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Hussein, Taha. An Egyptian Childhood. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1980 Igonetti, G., & Sergio. M. "Una novella satirica di Taher Wattar." Studi Arabo-Islamici in Onore di Roberto Rubaianacci nel suo Settantesimo Compleanno. A cura di C. Sarnolli Cerqua. Naples: Istituto Univeritario Orientale, 1988 Ismail, Abd al-Monem. Drama and Society in Contemporary Egypt. Cairo: Ministry of Culture/ Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 1967 Jacobi, R. "Allgemeine Charakteristik der arabischen Dichtung." Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Band II: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Jad, Ali. Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 1912-1971. London: Ithaca Press, 1983

Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. "The Arab Laureate and the Road to the Nobel." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Local Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Johnson-Davies, Denys. "Women Writers in the Arab World." The Arab Cultural Scene. Ed by C. Hourani. London: Namara Press, 1982 Kamel, Salwa. "The Structure of Time in A Very Good Morning to You and Qashtamar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Khashabah, Sami. "Naguib Mahfouz and His Cairo." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Khoury, Moussa. "Salvation and the Negavist." Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Ed. by Trevor Le Gassick. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Kilpatrick, Hilary. "The Egyptian Novel from Zaynab to 1980." The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Volume 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press, 1992 Kilpatrick, Hilary. The Modern Egyptian Novel: A Study in Social Criticism. London: Ithaca Press, 1979 Klein, Leonard S. (ed). Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. New York: Ungar, 1993 Kodama, M. Individuals and Community in Midaq Alley: Social Dynamics in the World of Naguib Mahfouz. Niigata: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, International University of Japan, 1991 Laguer, W.Z. (ed). The Middle East in Transition. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958 Lama, Graciela de la (ed). 30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa. Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1982 Landau, Jacob M. Studies in Arab Theatre and Cinema. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1958

Lawall, Sarah. "Naguib Mahfouz and the Nobel Prize: Reciprocal Recognition." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Le Gassick, Trevor (ed). Critical Perspectives on Naguib Mahfouz. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1991 Le Gassick, Trevor. "An Analysis of al-Hubb taht al-Matar (Love in the Rain), a Novel by Najib Mahfuz." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: Aris & Phillips, 1975 Le Gassick, Trevor. "The Arabic Novel in English Translation." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA.: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Leward, Ernest (ed). Cry of Home. Tennessee: University Press, 1972 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "A Muslim's Pilgrim's Progress: The Rihla of Ibn Fattuma." Golden Roads: Migration, Pilgrimage and Travel in Mediaeval and Modern Islam. Ed. by I.R. Netton. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. "The Thief and the Dogs: Art and Reality." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1989 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. The Arabic Novel in Egypt 1914-1970. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1973 Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa. Women in the Arabic Novel in Egypt. Cairo: Quaderni dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E., 1976 Makar, Ragai, N. Modern Arabic Literature: A Bibliography. Lanham, MD., & London: Scarecrow Press, 1998 Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. "Mahfouz's Dreams." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by M. Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. Men, Women and God(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab Feminist Poetics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995

McDonald, M.V. "Recent Egyptian History in Two Novels of Nagib Mahfuz"Actas XVI Congreso UEAI. E. Vaquez de Benito, M.A. Manazano Rodriguez (eds.). Salamanca: Agencia Espanola de Cooperation Internacional, Consejo superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Union Europeenne d'Arabisants et d'Islamisants, 1995 Mehrez, Samia. "Re-Writing the City: The Case of Khitat al-Ghitani." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Mehrez, Samia. "Respected Sir." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Mikhail, Mona N. "Man and the Sea: Interetextual Perspectives in Idwar alKharrat's Turabuha Za'faran." The Arabic Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. "De nuevo singularidad polemica y permanencia de Tawfiq al-Hakim." Exploraciones y literatura neoarabe. Madrid: IHAC, 1977 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. Exploraciones y literatura neoarabe. Madrid: IHAC, 1977 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. Literatura arabe de hoy. Madrid: Editorial Cantarabia, 1990 Montavez, Pedro Martinez. Preface a la traduction espagnole: Sherezada. Madrid: Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islamicos 1977 Moosa, Matti I. The Early Novels of Naguib Mahfouz. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994 Moosa, Matti I. The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction. Washington D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1983 Moreh, Shmuel. "The Beginning of the Egyptian Novel and the Influence of the Maqama and Risalat al-Ghufran." 30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa. Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1982

Moreh, Shmuel. "Traditionalle und neue Formen der Dichtung in der Gegenwart." Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Band II. Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Moreh, Shmuel. Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1988 Mosharrafa, MM. Cultural Survey of Modern Egypt. London: Longman, 1947 Naguib, Nagi. "Der verlust des vaters." XXIII Deutscher Orientalistentag... 1985 in Wurzburg: Ausgewahlte Vortrage. Hrsg. E von Schuler. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1989 Naimy, Nadeem. Mikhail Naimy: An Introduction. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1967 Netton, I.R. (ed). Golden Roads: Migration, Pilgrimage and Travel in Medieval and Modern Islam. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993 Nijland, K. "Het vaderland in de arabische emigrantenpoezie." De pen en het Zwaard: Literatuur en Politiek in het Midden-Oosten. Red. G.J. van Gelder en E. de Moore. Muiderberg: (Midden-Oosten en Islam Publicaties, Nr 6), 1988 Nisbet, A.M. (ed). Maghrebine Studies Conference. Kensington, N.S.W., n.p. 1980 Nuin, M. "El recurso al pasado: una creativa utalizacion de la historia por Najib Mahfuz." Mundo Arabe/Mundo Hispdnico: Creativdad e Historia: Homenaje a Marcelino Villegas. Al- 'Alam al- 'Arabi/Al'Alam al-Isbani: al-Ibda'wa 'l-Tarikh. Madrid: M.A.E. Agencia Espanola de Cooperacion Internacional, Instituto de Cooperacion con el Mundo Arabe, 1993 Paz, Francis Xavier. "Woman and Sexual Morality in the Novels of Nagib Mahfuz." Actes IV Congresso de Etudes Arabes e Isldmicos. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1977 Peled, Mattityahu. "Sahar Khalifah's ' Abbad al-Shams: A Feminist Challenge." Writer, Culture, Text: Studies in Modern Arabic Literature." Ed. by Ami Elad. Fredericton: York Press Ltd., 1993

Peled, Mattityahu. "Sexuality in Jabra's Novel: The Search for Walid Mas'ud." Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R. Allen, H. Kilpatrick and E. de Moor. London: Saqi Books, 1995 Peled, Mattityahu. Aspects of Modern Arabic Literature. Louvain: Peeters, 1988 Peres, Henri. "Essai sur les editions successives du Hadit 'Isa ibn Hisham de Muhammad al-Muwaylihi: remaniements de texte et corrections de vocabulaire et de style." Melanges Louis Massignon. Damas: Institut Francais, Vol. 3, 1957 Petracek, K. "Volkstumliche literatur." Grundriss der arabischen philologie. Band II: Literaturwissenschaft. Hrsg. H. Gatje. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1987 Philipp, T.H. Gurgi Zaydan, His Life and Thought. Wiesbaden: Steimer, 1979 Qadi, Wadad (ed). Studia Arabica et lslamica, Festschrift Ihsan 'Abbas. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1981 Ra'i, ' Ali. "Arabic Drama Since the Thirties." Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Vol. 4: Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by M.M. Badawi. Cambridge: University Press 1992 Ra'i, 'Ali. "Some Aspects of Modern Arabic Drama." Studies in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R.C. Ostle. London: 1975 Ramos, Calvo A. "Vision de Espana en la literature arabe contemporanea." La traduccion y la criitica literaria: Actos de las jornadas de hispanismo arabe (Madrid, 24-27 de mayo 1988) Ed. F. de Agreda. Madrid: Instituto de Cooperation con el Mundo Arabe, 1990 Ramsay, Gail. The Novels of an Egyptian Romanticist: Yusuf al-Siba 'i. Stockholm: Universitet, 1996 Sakkut, Hamdi. "Najib Mahfuz and the Sufi Way." The View from Within: Writers and Critics on Contemporary Arabic Literature. Ed. by Ferial J. Ghazoul and Barbara Harlow. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994

Samaan, Angel Botrus, "Linguistic Features and the Point of View in Miramar." Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel 1988. Ed. by M.M. Enani. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, 1988 Semah, David. Four Egyptian Literary Critics. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974 Sherif, Nur. About Arabic Books. Beirut: Beirut Arab University, 1970 Shivtiel, A. "Arabic Idioms and the Text: A New Aspect in Literary Analysis." BRISMES: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies (in association with AFEMAM). Proceedings of the 1989 International Conference on Europe and the Middle East... Durham... 1989. Oxford: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1989 Siblot, P. "Quels publics, quelles strategies discursives." Des nouveaux enjeux culturels au Maghreb. Ed. J-R. Henry, et. al. Paris: CNRS, 1986 Siddiq, Muhammad. "Jabra Ibrahim Jabra and the Novel of Subjective Aesthetics." The Arab Novel Since 1950: Critical Essays, Interviews and Bibliography. Cambridge, MA: Dar Mahjar, 1992 Smith, Charles D. Islam and the Search for Social Order in Modern Egypt: A Biography of Muhammad Husayn Haykal. Albany: University of New York Press, 1983 Somekh, Sasson. The Changing Rhythm: A Study in Naguib Mahfouz's Novels. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973 Stagh, Marina. The Limits of Free Speech: Prose Literature and Prose Writers in Egypt under Nasser and Sadat. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Oriental Studies 14, 1993 Starkey, P. "The Four Ages of Husayn Tawfiq: Love and Sexuality in the Novels of Tawfiq al-Hakim." Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature. Ed. by R. Allen, H. Kilpatrick and E. de Moor. London: Saqi Books 1995 Starkey, P. From the Ivory Tower: A Critical Study of Tawfiq El-Hakim. London: Ithaca, 1987 Stein, G., and U. Steinbach U. (eds). The Contemporary Middle East. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1979

Stewart, Philip. "An Arabic Nobodaddy: The Gebelawi of Naguib Mahfouz." The World of Muslim Imagination. Ed. by Alamgir Hashemi. Islamabad: Gulmohar, 1986 Stienen, P. "Themes in Saudi Women's Literature." BRISMES: Proceedings of the 1991 International Conference on Middle Eastern Studies, SOAS, London... 1991. Exeter: British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 1991 Szabolcsi, M., et al. (eds). Change in Language and Literature: Proceedings of the 16th Triennal Congress of the Federation Internationale Langues et Litteratures Modernes... Budapest, 1984. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1986 Vatikiotis, P.J. Nasser and His Generation. London: Croom Helm, 1978 Vatikiotis, P.J. (ed). Egypt Since the Revolution. London: Allen & Unwin, 1968 Vial, C. "La vie d'un village du delta dans les annees trente, d'apres al-ard." Hommages a la Memoire de Serge Sauneron 1927-1976, II. Egypte Post Pharonique. Le Caire: Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale (Bibliotheque d'Etude LXXXII), Vol. 82,1979 Von Grunebaum, G.E. Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity. New York: Vintage, 1964 Welch, A.T. and P Cachia (eds). Islam; Past Influence and Present Challenge. Edinburgh: University Press, 1979 Wessels, A. A Modern Biography of Muhammad: A Critical Study of Haykal's Hayat Muhammad. Leiden: E.J. Brill 1972 Wicp, S.T. "Der Palestinenser in literarischen werk Ghassan Kanafani." Akten des VII. Kongresses fiir Arabisk und Islamwissenschaft, Gottingen, 15. bis 22. August 1974. Hrsg. von A. Dietrich Gottingen, 1976 Wielandt, R. "The Problem of Cultural Identity in the Writings of al-Tayib Salih." Studia Arabica et Islamica, Festschrift Ihsan 'Abbas. Ed. Wadad Qadi. Beirut: American Unviersity of Beirut, 1981

Wild, S. Ghassan Kanafani, The Life of a Palestinian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1975 Williams, Caroline. "Place and Time in Mahfouz's al-Qahira." Naguib Mahfouz: From Regional Fame to Global Recognition. Ed. by Michael Beard and Adnan Haydar. Syracuse: University Press, 1993 Zeidan, Joseph Tufeek. Arab Women Novelists: The Formative Years and Beyond. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995 Zubaida, S., & R. Trapper (eds). Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris, 1994

Copyright © 2000 by The American University in Cairo Press 113 Sharia Kasr el Aini, Cairo, Egypt 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018 www. aucpress. com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Dar el Kutub No. 8390/98 ISBN 977 424 502 4 Printed in Egypt

The Arabic Novel Bibliography and

Critical Introduction 1865-1995 Hamdi Sakkut In Six Volumes

Volume Six Novels arranged chronologically from 1981 to 1999 Novels arranged geographically Bibliography

The American University in Cairo Press Cairo • New York