The Australian Guide to Careers in Music

music The Australian Guide to Careers in

music The Australian Guide to Careers in

Michael Hannan

MUSIC COUNCIL

OF AUSTRALIA

UNSW PRESS

A UNSW Press book Published by University of New South Wales Press Ltd University of New South Wales UNSW Sydney NSW 2052 AUSTRALIA www.unswpress.com.au © The Music Council of Australia 2003 First published 2003 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Hannan, Michael, 1949– . The Australian guide to careers in music. Bibliography. ISBN 0 86840 510 8. 1. Music — Vocational guidance — Australia. 2. Music trade — Vocational guidance — Australia. 3. Musicians — Employment — Australia. I.Title. 780.2394 Design Di Quick Printer BPA Cover The Queensland Orchestra, Chief Conductor Michael Christie Photo Mark Burgin/The Queensland Orchestra

contents Preface

viii

Acknowledgments

Electronic dance music DJ 56 Backing musician 58 Musical director 60 (of a solo artist and backing band) Session musician 61 Conductor 62 Orchestral musician 66 Chamber musician 70 Classical singer 72 Defence force band musician 75 Accompanist 76 Repetiteur 77 Ballet pianist 79 Community musician 81 Busker 83

ix

Chapter 1 1 Introduction Chapter 2 4 Composition

Songwriter 5 Electronic dance music composer 8 Jazz composer 10 Contemporary classical composer 12 Community music composer 15 Educational music composer 16 Dance theatre composer 17 Musical theatre composer 18 Screen composer 21 Interactive multimedia composer 24 Advertising music composer 26 Library music composer 28 Arranger (popular music) 30 Orchestrator 32 Music copyist 33

Chapter 4 85 Production

Chapter 3 35 Performance

Original band 36 OTHER

ORIGINAL MUSIC PERFORMERS OF

CONTEMPORARY POPULAR MUSIC

Pop singer 39 Children’s music group 40 Electronic dance music performer 41 Jazz performer 43 Folk and multicultural performer 45 Musical theatre performer 47 Cabaret performer 48 Cover band 50 Tribute band 51 Piano bar performer 53 Karaoke compere 55

38

Record producer 86 Programmer 88 Remixer 89 Recording engineer 90 Mastering engineer 94 Studio manager 95 Maintenance engineer 97 Music production company 98 Live sound business 99 Sound and lighting hire coordinator 102 Tour manager 103 Sound designer (theatre) 104 Stage manager (opera and musical theatre) 105 FILM

AND TELEVISION SOUND AND MUSIC

PRODUCTION

106

Music supervisor 107 Music editor 109 Film sound recording, editing and mixing 110 Music video clip director 115

Chapter 5 117 Instrument making and repairing

Traditional musical instrument maker 118 Experimental musical instrument maker 122 (incorporating sound sculptor) Electronic music/software instrument maker 124 Woodwind and brass instrument repairer 126 Piano technician 128 Electronic equipment repairer 129 Chapter 6 131 Broadcasting MUSIC RADIO

172 Member services director (APRA) 173 Print music manager (AMCOS) 174 COLLECTION SOCIETIES POSITIONS

175 Trade union secretary

Presenter 133 Music director 135 Program director 137 Producer 139

175

Chapter 8 177 Retailing and wholesaling

140 Presenter 140 Supervising producer 142 Head of programming (or program director)

R E C O R D R E T A I L 178 Record store sales assistant 178 Record store owner/manager 179 Manager of a chain record store 181

MUSIC TELEVISION

Chapter 7 145 Music business

R E C O R D C O M P A N Y P O S I T I O N S 156 Artist and repertoire (A&R) manager Label manager 159 Promotions director 160 Sales director 161 New media director 162 Sales representative 163

Managing director 165 Copyright/royalties manager 166 Licensing manager 167 Production music manager 169 Hire library manager 170 Performance promotions manager 171

OTHER

132

Artist manager 146 Music lawyer 148 Music accountant (business manager) Booking agent 150 Music merchandiser 152 Promoter 153 Venue booker 155

M U S I C P U B L I S H I N G C O M PA N Y P O S I T I O N S

149

157

143

M U S I C R E T A I L A N D W H O L E S A L E 182 Music store sales assistant 182 Music store owner/manager 183 Music equipment product manager 184 (wholesale) Internal sales manager (wholesale) 185

Chapter 9 Te a c h i n g

187

Studio teacher 188 Owner/manager of a music teaching 190 business employing teachers Director of a conservatorium centre 192 Primary school music teacher 193 Instrumental teacher (peripatetic 194 [travelling]) High school music teacher 196 Head of music — private high school 199 Teacher (TAFE institute) 200 Head Teacher (TAFE institute) 201

164

University music academic

202

SUPPORT POSITIONS IN A MUSIC SCHOOL

205

Administrative assistant 205 Technical officer (audio) 206 Technical assistant 207 Booking officer 208 Concert Organiser 209

249 Venue manager OTHER

Music therapist

Freelance music journalist 211 Music critic (classical music) 213 Editor of a music magazine 215 Music biographer 217 Music researcher (academic) 219

Music librarian 257 Orchestral librarian 259 Music manuscript archivist Sound archivist 262 Music curator 263

RESEARCH

224

Chapter 11 226 Arts administration

Art form or arts section manager 227 (government arts funding organisation) Arts funding project officer 229 Arts development officer 230 Manager of a music service organisation 231 Director of a music industry advocacy 233 organisation P O S I T I O N S 234 CEO (chief executive officer) 235 Artistic administrator 236 Orchestra manager 238 Operations manager 239 Development manager 240 Marketing manager 242 Education manager 243 Financial manager 245

253

Chapter 13 256 Libraries, archives and museums

O T H E R A R E A S O F M U S I C - R E L AT E D

M U S I C P R E S E N T I N G O R G A N I S AT I O N

250

Chapter 12 252 Music therapy

Chapter 10 210 Writing and research

222 Arts industry research consultant 222 Music textbook writer 223 General editor of a music reference book

F E S T I V A L P O S I T I O N S 246 Artistic director/CEO 246 (chief executive officer) Producer 248

261

Appendix 1 265 Essential skills

Business and administration skills Musical skills 269 Stagecraft skills 271

266

Appendix 2 274 Music training opportunities Bibliography

281

preface >T

he director of the Music Council of Australia, Dick Letts, invited me to write this book because of my involvement in a broad range of musical genres and related activities. I accepted the contract because I have for a long time been concerned that music training has focused on only a few broad categories, ignoring the duties and skills involved in the hundreds of other specific types of work to be found in the industry. I am primarily interested in the creative, performance and production side of music, but I’m also mindful of the business, administration, media and other sectors. In my work as a tertiary educator I have often wondered what industry we are training musicians for. Is it the industry where many musicians are trained for the few vacancies in orchestras and opera companies available each year? Is it the industry that is only interested in the few original bands or other types of recording artists that manage to achieve record sales and airplay success in what seems like a bizarre kind of career lottery? Or is it a broader industry, with many different ways for an individual to make a living? Or are we training musicians because we believe philosophically that the chance to study music at university should be given to all those who can demonstrate that they have developed a reasonable level of practical music skill or creative flair, regardless of the relevance of our programs and the job prospects of our graduates?

It is fair to say that my own musical education was not at all concerned with preparing me for a music career and that the curriculum did not engage with the realities of music industry survival.While I was studying at the University of Sydney there was no mention of the business side of being a musician, and no study of the dominant genre of the time, rock music. Ironically, while I was doing the research for my PhD in musicology, I was forced — for financial reasons — to engage in a wide variety of freelance work in the commercial music industry, thus beginning an intensive period of on-the-job training. Being thrown in at the deep end is one way to learn, but it is more enjoyable and less stressful to be well prepared. These experiences also taught me that unless you are very lucky, and able to concentrate on just one aspect of music, a living in music might involve a portfolio of different but related musical endeavours. Incidentally, I believe that my own subsequent career — as an academic and music educator — would have been quite different had I not been forced to work in many different parts of the music industry in that period of my life. It is my hope that this book will give the reader a clear idea of what goes on in the different sectors of the music industry and will clearly outline what skills and training are required for the various possible careers in music.

acknowledgments >I

would like to acknowledge the input into the writing of this book of Dick Letts, executive director of the Music Council of Australia (MCA). The book was Dick’s idea, and can be seen as a kind of extension of his own book, Your Career As A Composer (Allen & Unwin, 1994). As the commissioner of my book, he worked closely with me to establish its structure and content, and also provided astute editorial feedback as the drafts of each chapter were produced. I would also like to thank Rowena Cowley, who started the project and had written some entries for the performance chapter before I took it over. The entries for orchestral musician, chamber musician, conductor and vocalist are as written by Rowena — they have been slightly modified to fit with the format we eventually decided upon. My partner, Sue Boardman, helped me immeasurably during the project, not only by providing support throughout the research and writing process, but also by conducting many telephone interviews on my behalf. My thanks go also to my employer, Southern Cross University, for granting me special leave for six months to work on the project. Without this time to concentrate exclusively on the research it would simply not have been possible to undertake it. I would also like to thank Southern Cross University for allowing me to use its library, technical and communications resources.Appreciation is also due to my university colleagues and students for putting up with me during the writing period. It is difficult to give one’s full attention to administrative minutiae and lecture preparation when working on a project of this scale. Most of my colleagues and some students also contributed by graciously granting interviews in their areas of expertise.

Many people working in diverse areas of music helped me by filling in a questionnaire or giving an interview. I thank them profusely for generously giving their time, knowledge and insight. Most of these people are acknowledged in the text of the book under the relevant entries, but I would like to list them all here as well: Peter Martin, Jim Kelly, Richard Herczeg, Fred Cole, Janis Balodis, Matt Robison, Dave Bramagh, Nicolette Boaz, Rik Cole, Sean Peter, Peter Winkler, David Matthews,Warren Burt, Sam Menzies, Ben O’Hara, Elizabeth Lord, Gary Dionysius, Wernher Pramschufer, Leigh Carriage, Scott Tinkler, Tony Gould, John Buckley, Justo Diaz, John O’Donnell, Daryl Buckley, Carl Cleves, Parissa Bouas, Nina Harris, Guy Strazzullo, Jill Stoll, Jim Arnold, Rebecca Vouden, Dene Olding, Jennifer Bates, David Brennan, Prudence Dunstan, Richard Gill, Philippa Paige, Nathan Waks, Peter Jenkin, Merlyn Quaife, Sue Edmonds, Mic Deacon, Michael Worthington, Tim Carlyle, Stuart Batten, Tim Parker, Michael Hayes, Phil Winters, Andrew Lancaster, Christine Woodruff, Murray Free, Mickie Levis, Peta Winters, Damien Reilly, Jon Pinkerton, Graham Caldersmith, Jamie Robertson, Greg Schiemer, Linsey Pollak, Harry Vatiliotis, Terry Magee, Ros Bandt, Doug Eaton, Paul Brent, Charlie Fox, Stephen Quinn, Simon Mumford, Mary Datoc, Stuart Matchett, Richard Porteous, Richard Wilkinson, John Crawford, Maureen Cooney, Arnold Frolows, Andrew G, Ben Richardson, Gary Thorpe, Rob Logan, Sara Caffrey, Sebastian Chase, Fiona Gunn, Simon Moor, Alan Gordon, Bernard Kirkpatrick, Beth Appleton, Suzanne McAlary, Scott Kinlyside, Ian Wallace, Fifa Riccobono, Katherine Staples, Paul Casson, Mark Williams, Shane

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

Simpson, Brian Quinn, Nick Taylor, Belinda Yates, Richard Mackie, Owen Orford, Chris Latham, Brendan Meek, Sally Howland, Fiona Loader, Paul Baylis, Caroline Tully, Marshall Cullen, Angela Glaister, Luke Eaton, Grant Hilton, Matt Day, Ian Harvey, David Lacey, David Ewing, Ron Brady, Pat Smith, Vicki Trevanion, Margaret Howard, Kenn Seally, Jude Magee,Annie Mitchell, Suzanne Wright, Sean Rankin, Mark Gordon, Francis Douglas, Dave Tucker, Tess Parker, Claudio Pompili, Marion Webb, John Whiteoak, Lesley Sly, Terese Radic, Jon Fitzgerald, Paula Sacco, Matthew Connors, Samantha Clode, Peter McCallum, Sandra McColl, Dick Letts, Michael Barkl, Philip Hayward, Chris Gibson, Karl Neuenfeldt, Tony Grybowski, Malcolm Hill, Lyndon Terracini, Kurt Olofsson, Rose

Pearse, Margaret Moore, Kathy Knott, Martin Buzacott, Brendon Hulcombe, Donna Greaves, Maureen Frame, Liz Terracini, Nadeyn Barbieri, Elise Curtis, Terry Noone, Peta Williams, John Davis, Sue Coull, Denise Grocke, Prue Neidorf, Mary O’Mara, Ross Harvey, Michael Lea, Robyn Holmes, Meredith Lawn, Caroline Waller, Judith Foster, Peter Cox, Anna Chernik and Grace Koch. In addition, I would like to thank Mark Isaacs, Gerald Krug, Belinda Gillam, Howard Manley, Graham Strahle, Robert Constable, Matthew Farrell, Catherine Thelfall, Helen Lancaster, Andy Sugg, Chris Wainwright, Kerry Cooper, Sean Bridgeman, Llew Kiek and Katherine Kemp. These people kindly provided me with valuable feedback on various parts of the text.

Chapter 1

Introduction he purpose of this book is to provide a guide to careers in music, covering all job classifications that contribute to the production or dissemination of music. The intention of the guide is to help readers to understand the range of choices available and their implications, and to find a direction which fits their abilities and interests. It is not in any way intended as a career training manual. Before this book was researched and written, no comprehensive guide to careers in music existed for the Australian context. The materials available through Commonwealth government sources are extremely limited in scope. The Australia Council has published a detailed careers guide for ‘serious’ composers, but this covers only a small fraction of job classifications. For the most part, tertiary music institutions offer courses which appear to be designed to do one of two things: produce a small number of explicit career outcomes — concert soloist, concert composer, jazz musician, school music teacher, audio engineer — or impart a general education in music with no specific outcome. It is fair to assume that most students — and, indeed, most music professionals — have not considered the range of possible careers in music, the nature of career opportunities and structures, and the best preparation for them. Indeed, without this publication, there would be no way of doing so other than by an extraordinary amount of individual research. Many people finish a specialised training in performance only to find themselves, some years later, by a succession of chance events, doing work which is at a great remove from their training and may not be especially personally satisfying. Others find themselves stuck in a job which does not suit them but

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

have no real idea of the alternatives. This careers guide will dramatically increase the awareness and knowledge of people interested in a career in music, and allow them to take a more intelligent approach to their professional choices. This book reveals the possibilities for specialised training in various disciplines through its breakdown of the skills and knowledge required for each job, and alerts institutions to some needs or possibilities for curricular extensions that they may not previously have considered. It may, indirectly, result in a greater range of instructional offerings in music and related fields. The music industry is made up of many different activities interacting with each other in many ways.At its core is music making itself, represented by performers, composers, and other people involved in the actual music-making process, such as record producers and audio engineers. The range and variety of music making in contemporary society is vast. The most pervasive form is pop music, which one hears principally through the broadcast media (radio, TV, the Internet) and in the form of products and services for sale (CDs, performances, etc). But popular music comes in many different genres, and it is distributed in many different formats (over the radio, in venues, etc) according to the demographics of consumption.At the other end of the spectrum is classical music, which differs from popular music in terms of its financial base — it is heavily subsidised by government and has considerable corporate sponsorship — as well as in other ways. While there are similarities between the operation of the two broad genres, the requirements for professional involvement are fundamentally different in many respects. One could say, however, that there is a continuum between these two extremes. Some popular music genres try to be innovative and challenging and thus become marginal in the broader scheme of things; classical music at its extreme can also be very obscure (contemporary classical music, for example), but it is now thinking

more about how to become accessible to a larger audience. Some classical music events (Opera in the Park) and musical acts (Jane Rutter) clearly aim to attract a broad audience. One of the aims of this study is to focus on this continuum.Where most books about the operation of the music industry tend to be limited to a particular view of it, this book is decidedly broad. Equal attention is given to orchestral music, rock music, electronic dance music, jazz and community music, to name just a few examples. Cover bands are included along with original bands. No distinction is drawn between the activity of the opera diva, the Elvis impersonator or the busker. The editorial policy is that if you can make money from a particular musical occupation, regardless of how much, it is worthy of inclusion. The main focus is on activities that are directly dependent on a knowledge of music itself, even if they are not concerned with making music. Thus radio programmers may not be musicians, but they have to have a thorough understanding about what music will be suitable to play in the radio format they are programming for. Instrument makers may or may not be practising musicians, but they need extremely good ears to determine, during the design and testing processes of their craft, what is working and what is not working for each instrument. This book has thirteen chapters, each dealing with a different area of the music industry.The categorisation has been made to broadly reflect the different sectors of the music industry, but some of the distinctions are a little artificial. The chapter headings are composition, performance, production, instrument making, broadcasting, music business, retailing and wholesaling, teaching, writing and research, arts administration, music therapy and libraries, archives and museums. It has been difficult to make these divisions work, because some occupations clearly cross over.There are, for example, many kinds of performers who also compose, the obvious ones being songwriters in original bands.And

INTRODUCTION

there are many occupations designated as composing where performance and production are also required: film composers, for example, traditionally conduct their own scores, and many songwriters perform on and produce their own recordings. However, the problems this crossing over could cause have been overcome by the very structure of the book.When dealing with the career of songwriting, for example, the job description and the list of skills needed refers to these additional requirements. The reader can then turn to the relevant other sections of the book to get further information about those skills: that is, what is required to be a good performer, engineer and producer, for example. The following aspects of each occupation identified in the book are covered: • a detailed description of the work involved; • the skills required to do the job, including desirable personal traits or qualities; • the career structure in the relevant sector, including the possibilities for upwards or sideways moves, national and international prospects, and remuneration; and • training needs or prerequisites. When describing the work involved, I have tried to provide as much detail as possible, so that the reader has a full picture of what is required on a day-to-day basis and of what the more long-term prospects might be. The description of the skills required sometimes overlaps the job description, but often the skills are not always intimately connected with the job title. For example, freelance musicians of all kinds need a variety of business skills so that they can make their work profitable. Many of these skills are generic: small business management, project management, strategic management, negotiation, networking, and business communication. To avoid having to explain the details of what is involved in these types of skills many times over, the book contains an Appendix devoted to generic skills — those related to business and those related to music.

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Occupations that involve working for a salary usually have career pathways. These are explained for the various kinds of organisations in the music industry. Although a career structure may exist in an organisation, it is not always the case that people work their way steadily up through the ranks. In an industry where all sorts of combinations of talent, image, self-promotional flair and luck can lead to success, there are no rules for advancement. Many industry professionals also have no inclination to seek advancement along these pathways. Creative people do not necessarily make good managers, especially if their personal identity resides in their creative lifestyle. A good recording engineer, for example, does not necessarily want to become a studio manager, even if it is an obvious career progression. Training is a controversial topic in the music industry. Often the best kind of training is not provided by an institution such as a conservatorium, university or private school; it is gained on the job or in an apprenticeship. Even if there is some benefit in receiving formal training, that training is not always available in the form that best serves the kind of employment being sought. Specialist courses available through Australian training institutions are presented in a list form in Appendix 2. I have tried to be as accurate and inclusive as possible in this list. I would strongly advise people seeking training for a particular career to do further research on the options listed, to find out more about the suitability of the courses and the credentials of the trainers (website addresses of the training institutions are provided). Although I have drawn extensively on my own experience, and on the literature already available on many aspects of this work, it would not have been feasible to undertake a project like this without consulting with people working in all parts of the music industry. Some of these responded to questionnaires aimed at a number of job categories they have been associated with; others were willing to be interviewed either in person or over the phone.

Chapter 2

Composition his chapter deals with occupations related to composing and associated activities, such as arranging and copying. The first part of this chapter is concerned with occupations in the field of popular music: songwriter and electronic dance music composer. Descriptions of the occupation of jazz composer and that of contemporary classical composer in its various facets come next. The chapter then turns to compositional occupations that are part of larger art forms, including musical theatre, dance theatre, screen composition, and music used in advertising and interactive multimedia products. The chapter concludes with composition support occupations — arranger, orchestrator and copyist. Some related creative occupations in music, such as record producer, programmer and remixer, are presented in Chapter 4: Production because of their audio production focus.

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COMPOSITION

SONGWRITER

A songwriter composes the words and the music (melody and chords) of commercially released songs. Most successful songwriters usually arrange and produce their work to some extent, or do so in collaboration with other creative music personnel, such as arrangers, programmers and producers. Songwriters need professional outlets for their work. Those who perform in bands or solo will earn performing right royalties. Those with record and associated publishing deals will earn royalties from sales of recordings. Every time a song is broadcast (on radio, Internet radio or television), or performed in a professional venue (such as a concert hall, club or pub), the songwriter can claim a performing right royalty (a share of the licence fee paid by the venue or broadcaster to the Australasian Performing Right Association Pty Limited (APRA). APRA is a collection society. This means it collects fees on behalf of its members — music publishers and composers — and distributes these fees to its members. Songwriters and other types of composers need to register all their works with APRA and report any performances of their works. If a record company releases a song, it must pay a royalty up front to another collection society, the Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society Limited (AMCOS) which represents music publishers. This royalty amounts to 8.7% of the Published Price to Dealer (PPD) for the number of records the record company manufactures. If, for example, a record company manufactures 1000 copies of a CD of original songs which it intends to sell to record stores for $20 per copy, it must pay AMCOS $1740.This money is distributed to the relevant music publisher members of AMCOS and the songwriters are paid their share of

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this money by their publishers, according to an agreed split. Some songwriters (including some of those who perform their own music) try to interest other performers in recording their songs, particularly artists who do not write and record their own material. They do this by ‘pitching’ the songs to publishers, producers and/or the artists themselves. Some songwriters work on assignment, writing songs for artists for particular projects or for films — this last is usually to a brief and on a tight schedule. The brief, which will come from the director or producer, will tell the composer what the song should be conveying and what style/genre it should be in. It is common for songwriters to collaborate with each other. Sometimes composers work with lyricists to create songs, but it’s just as common to find a number of composers contributing equally to the process of combining lyrics and music. In an original band there are usually a few band members who do most of the writing (of words and music), but the material is invariably honed by the whole band into a particular form, texture and sound. Often, if a band is committed to a long-term career, the songwriters in the band agree to share the song royalties equally among all the members of the band, to avoid the discontent that inevitably arises from inequitable income distribution, and in recognition of the variety of other contributions band members make. Using modern communication technologies, songwriters can live anywhere in the world and still deal with their publishers, and pitch to producers and artists. However, many songwriters gravitate to large cities that have strong songwriting business and production infrastructures — Los Angeles, Nashville, New York and London, for instance. In Australia the main centres are Sydney and Melbourne. Skills

Effective songwriting involves combining two crafts: lyric writing and melodic/ harmonic structuring. To write good lyrics

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

you have to have a good knowledge of the lyric-writing techniques that are used in a wide range of songs. Being able to make your audience relate easily to the experiences expressed in a song is essential. Of course there are different audiences for different genres, and audiences have different expectations for music of different genres — songwriters need to be keenly aware of the kinds of subjects and attitudes that different audiences can and wish to relate to. The inclusion of a hook, usually a lyric line or something else in the song (a catchy melodic phrase or rhythm, or a distinctive sound quality, for example) that can be remembered easily, is critical in the songwriter’s craft. Lyric writers must understand the craft of putting words together, including the use of rhyming schemes and other poetic devices. Knowledge of typical song structures is essential. Most songs consist of verses and a chorus, plus other common types of sections, such as an introduction (intro) and a prechorus (the build-up between the verse and the chorus). Some songs contain a middle eight section (essentially a section with different melody and chords following a number of verses and choruses). Songwriters need to understand how all these types of sections function together to create a song, including how the music of the chorus should contrast with that of the verse and how long it should take to get to the first chorus. Songwriters need to be able to write memorable melodic lines and understand chord progressions. In some genres of songwriting, ‘groove’ creation may replace the importance of the harmonic structure. In order to present songs in a form that is likely to succeed with publishers, producers and recording artists, songwriters should, ideally, develop some skills in music production — a home studio is very useful for this. Production skills include arranging, the choice of instrumental or synthesised sounds, the use of effects, the creation of grooves and the honing of hooks so that they are more memorable. Allied with

production skills are audio engineering skills, including getting the best sound onto tape and mixing it in such a way that everything is balanced, audible and properly imaged, so that the individual instruments and voices appear to be positioned appropriately in the mix — left, centre, right, forward, back, etc. In some genres, such as dance pop, computer-based music programming skills are also needed. The more of these skills songwriters develop, the better chance they have that their songs will be noticed and taken up by publishers and producers. On the other hand, there may be some producers who do not wish to receive demos that are highly produced; they may prefer a rawer product that they can put their own production stamp on. Either way, songwriters need to be able to present demos that have a high standard of both performance and production values. Bands and other performance acts may also attract the attention of publishers and secure a publishing deal if they are seen to be successful at drawing crowds at important venues; this indicates that they have the potential to be successful as recording artists. To maximise their incomes and avoid being exploited, songwriters need a good understanding of copyright, publishing contracts, licensing arrangements and royalty collection. If they are working as co-writers or in a band they need to establish clear agreements with their collaborators about the distribution of income from the cowritten work. Small business management skills are a given in any freelance operation. The main business aim of songwriters is to get their songs recorded by artists who are able to sell records (including themselves, if they are a viable recording act).The best way to achieve this is to secure a publishing deal with a publisher that is prepared to promote their work to record companies and recording artists, and exploit their copyrights in other ways (such as licensing the works to films, television, computer games, advertisements, etc).

COMPOSITION

Prospects

Getting a start as a songwriter is difficult. Until songwriters have a network of contacts capable of connecting them to important industry people, it will be a struggle to get noticed and have songs considered by the right people. Original bands, singer/ songwriters and other performance combinations have a distinct advantage over songwriters who don’t have a performance career. If the performing act is viable — as demonstrated by the fact that it can pull a live crowd at a recognised venue — or if recordings the person or group has already made fit into a genre that appears commercially viable, they have a good chance of attracting the attention of record companies who may be willing to invest in their potential. If there is no act to sell, the task is more difficult. Songwriters will still need to produce good demos to pitch to the relevant industry personnel. This may involve hiring musicians to perform on the demo recordings. Other ways to get noticed are through songwriting contests and songwriting showcases that are attended by industry personnel. Ultimately, an independent songwriter’s career depends on having songs on records that sell a lot of copies. Usually this means getting songs recorded by high-profile recording artists (or artists soon to become successful), through either a publisher’s or the songwriter’s own pitching efforts. The income from songwriting can be small if there are only limited sales of recordings; it can be immense if the song is a hit. If a song is successful with one recording artist and has general appeal, it may be covered by a lot of other recording artists, thus increasing its generation of royalties. Another way for songwriters to increase their income is through having their recorded songs selected for use in movies. Apart from the royalties from the synchronisation licence, there is a possibility of substantial royalties from the sale of the soundtrack album. For an artist who is relatively unknown, the inclusion of his or her song

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along with those of more famous artists on the soundtrack can be of enormous benefit. Performance royalties from the use of music on television or radio can also be substantial, especially if a song is very well suited to particular events or occasions. Some successful songwriters are able (if they feel so inclined), to license their hit songs for use in advertisements. Hit songs can also make money if they are made available in printed form.There is still a reasonable market for sheet music, and the educational market for arrangements of popular songs for concert band, stage band, choir and the like is quite substantial. In short, songwriters need to base their careers on maximising the royalty and licensing potential of their copyrights. Training

Songwriters are often self-taught. In the oral traditions of contemporary popular music this is done by informal listening and analysis of the musical genres that are part of one’s cultural identity and by the songwriter’s own experiments with song creation, often in collaboration with the other members of a band. There are, however, many skills relevant to the profession of songwriting that can be formally taught: the craft of lyric writing; song chord and melody structuring; arranging and sequencing; audio engineering; and marketing and small business management skills, for example. Songwriters who are looking for a course of study should make sure that the teaching staff in any course they are considering have industry credibility as songwriters and that the course covers all these aspects of the craft. In Australia, courses covering contemporary popular music songwriting skills are available in most of the TAFE systems and in specialised tertiary music courses (see Appendix 2). Comment M AT T R O B I S O N ( T R I P L E J ‘ U N E A R T H E D ’ WINNER [SYNAPSE]):

‘Join a band, or position yourself somewhere [to be in connection with an audience], or

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

join community radio where you can play your songs, or DJ at a club where you can play your own songs. If you want to be a songwriter you’ve got to be able to play your songs in some form to other people.’

ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC COMPOSER

Electronic dance music is a catch-all term for genres such as techno, house, trance, drum and bass, and hip hop (the full list of genres is too long to include here). Composers of this music usually work in studios (typically in home studios), using electronic sound sources such as synthesisers (including vintage analogue models) and computers with various kinds of software, including sequencing, sampling, sound generation, and hard disk recording applications. Some electronic dance music composers reject the use of computers and only use analogue devices. Vocals are used in a very small number of the subgenres (eg hip hop, HiNRG, rare groove), although it is common to sample single lines of dialogue from old movies and other sources. Most of the genres are characterised by a repetitive beat, usually above 120 bpm (beats per minute) — some subgenres used for chill-out parties are slower — and most tracks have a regular kick drum sound on every quarter-note beat (four-on-the-floor). The textures are complex overlays of repeated and subtly developing loops. The focus is on rhythm, texture and timbral (tone colour) manipulation rather than on melody and harmony. Although some genres use limited cyclic chord progressions, it is more typical for the music to have a single tonal centre (or to change tonal centres every so often). Electronic dance music compositions are often pressed as vinyl as well as CDs, and are played by DJs at dance parties, raves and in dance clubs. Other recording formats, such as DAT (digital audio tape), are also used by DJs in some genres. Recordings are also available for sale. The more popular dance music recordings are available through record chains, but there are also stores that specialise in dance music recordings. In Australia there are

COMPOSITION

no commercial radio stations that feature dance music genres and only a handful of community radio stations devoted to it. Electronic dance music is often composed by DJs or by composers working in collaboration with DJs. An experienced DJ who composes has a very good idea of what is going to appeal to a club or party audience (often referred to as ‘the dance floor’), and is therefore likely to be better (than the nonDJing composer) at making aesthetic decisions about what kind of kick drum sound is going to work and what the mix should sound like. Of course DJs can play their own tracks whenever they work, thus ensuring that their compositions get heard and that they get feedback from the dance floor. However, there is a problem with doing all this in Australia — we have only one vinyl pressing plant and no history of cutting dance music vinyl. And the cost of making dub plates (a single vinyl pressing) is also prohibitive. Of course it is also possible to play CDs rather than vinyl, but mixing the two formats is difficult because the sound and the technical set-up of the two can be incompatible. Electronic dance music composers often form collectives with DJs, producers and party organisers. Some composers also play live at parties, clubs and special events. On stage they usually use keyboard synthesisers, sequencers, samplers, mixers, turntables, electronic drum kits and other electronic devices. The use of acoustic instruments is rarer (see Chapter 3: Performance for separate entry: Electronic dance music performer). Skills

Electronic dance music composers work entirely in the electronic music domain, so they must have a high level of proficiency with electronic music equipment and software.They also need to create a home studio — these days this is usually based around a computer plus software such as sequencing, hard disk recording, sampling, sound producing and sound manipulation applications. The electronic dance music composer’s stu-

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dio used to be based more on hardware such as sound modules, samplers, analogue keyboard synthesisers and mixers. A mixture of these two types of studios is often used. Electronic dance music composers need to develop a keen ear for the sounds and sound patterns that are used in making tracks. The various common ingredients include drum patterns, bass line patterns, other types of loops, arpeggiated patterns, all kinds of effects and other kinds of sound transformations. In addition, these composers need skills in mixing, including the use of EQ and effects such as reverberation, delay and echo. Like all composers, the electronic dance music composer should be intimately aware of the kinds of work being done in the field, in order to be able to stay ahead of the game in this most rapidly changing set of musical genres. The same applies to keeping up with the technological developments in music hardware and software. Composers also need to network with DJs in order to persuade them to play their tracks and with record companies and producers to secure releases. Prospects

In Australia the sale of dance music records is dominated by overseas artists, particularly from Europe (especially the UK) and the US. Most DJs play a high percentage of their sets using this imported material. It is difficult to get your tracks played by DJs, and even harder to get them recorded for release by major or large independent record companies. A successful album-length CD for an Australian release might sell around 3000 units — in a standard 80/20 publishing deal, and where the wholesale price of the CD is $20, the songwriting royalties going to the composer would be $4176: 3000 copies x $20 (PPD) x 0.8 (publishing split) x 0.087 (mechanical royalty) — see earlier explanation of royalties — but additional income would theoretically flow to the artist (usually the composer is the artist in this kind of music). This amount varies depending on what sort of record deal the artist has.

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Most of the high-profile Australian electronic dance music composers are also involved in other income-earning activities related to their work. Many work as DJs, others as audio engineers, others as producers or administrators for a dance music record label or in record shops and record distribution organisations. As mentioned above, many electronic dance music composers join dance music collectives. These function as a kind of cottage industry, usually involving a record label, an e-commerce website and the organisation of parties and other events.This kind of cooperative arrangement is likely to yield more income for a composer than working in isolation will. The prospects for significant success as a recording artist are greater in Europe and the US than in Australia, but it is a very competitive field even there. Training

Electronic dance music composers are usually self-taught, but they could benefit from training in audio engineering and electronic music production. Any course that specialises in audio production and electronic composition with a dance music focus would be appropriate. Comment D AV E B R A M A G H ( D A N C E COMPOSER):

MUSIC

DJ

AND

‘In order to keep the sounds fresh, composers have to keep up with the latest overseas records, which is difficult in Australia. They should send their recordings to New York or London to get them mastered, because specialist dance music mastering engineers do a far better job.’

JAZZ COMPOSER

Jazz, in its many subgenres — traditional or heritage jazz, modern jazz, modal jazz, jazz fusion, and experimental jazz, for example — is essentially an improvised performance medium. But almost all jazz performances have a composed element that forms the starting point for the improvisation.There are degrees of formal composition involved. The most basic, and indeed the most common, is the ‘head’. The head usually comprises a melody (a tune), rarely more than 32 bars in length, with a basic chordal and rhythmic structure. It is often not arranged to any great extent. In fact it is common for all the melodic instrumentalists (and vocalists, if any are involved) to play the head in unison.The head is followed by a series of improvised sections based on the chord structure of the head and perhaps some of its melodic or rhythmic characteristics. In this format, the composition also ends with the head. Thus the series of improvised sections are framed by the head. There is a tradition in jazz performance to use standard tunes, often popular songs of the Tin Pan Alley era, as heads. The classic heads of the great jazz musicians like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie are also used as performance vehicles for contemporary performance. There is also a tradition of composing new heads based on the chord changes of these standards. Although heads are usually known to improvising musicians in their basic format — a tune with chords — they are often more elaborately arranged for recordings. Though other forms of jazz composition are more completely written, all subgenres have a strong improvised element. In jazz ensembles with a large number of players (and

COMPOSITION

more than two or three soloists) it is usual for the music to be more fully fleshed out. In these kinds of ensembles the players typically read from charts. Some jazz composers have ventured into more extended forms of jazz composition, sometimes using the classical music concerto form as a model. Indeed there are works that have been written for jazz musician(s) and symphony orchestra or jazz combo with big band. Another variation is the tradition of jazz fusion, which has incorporated stylistic aspects of Latin, African, Rock, Indian and other musical cultures into the composition and improvisation of jazz. Skills

The composition of heads, more extensively arranged tunes or extended jazz forms is almost exclusively practised by jazz performers as a vehicle for their own performances or recordings.Thus it is true to say that the first essential skill of a jazz composer is a complete understanding, through practical experience, of the art of jazz performance. Part of the excitement of the performance of a head is the striving by the musicians to play difficult lines in perfect unison. Thus writing a good head involves being able to write an engaging melody with very challenging performance properties. Scott Tinkler (jazz trumpet soloist) says that a good head ‘will contain elements of surprise and a quality of rhythmic and intervallic angularity’. For Tinkler the head should contain ‘the seeds to inspire and generate the improvised sections that follow’. Tony Gould (jazz pianist) suggests that ‘a good head has an element that hasn’t been done before — some kind of unexpected direction melodically or rhythmically’. For jazz composition that involves substantial arranged elements, composers need a thorough understanding of all the conventions of jazz composition structures, rhythm section practices, and horn section writing conventions, including a familiarity with individual instrumental and vocal idioms and a command of complex extended chord

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voicing practices. Jazz composers need to be able to transcribe and analyse recorded (and notated) arrangements. More extended compositions, particularly the concerto-like structures that have been employed by some composers in this field, require many of the skills the contemporary classical orchestral composer needs, plus those of the jazz arranger. As with all freelance musicians, jazz composers need skills in small business management, plus the ability to promote their own work and to maximise the income from their own copyrights. Prospects

Jazz composition is almost always a byproduct of a jazz performance career. Although the focus of jazz is on improvised performance, the jazz musician is unlikely to develop a significant professional profile and identity as a live performer and recording artist without also being a composer. Indeed, performance and royalties from the sale of recordings are an important source of income for creative musicians, so it is not good business for jazz musicians to rely too much, in either their performance or their recordings, on compositions by other musicians, despite this being a fundamental performance practice in the genre. Some jazz musicians have more flair for or interest in composition and arrangement than others, of course. Depending on their abilities as improvisers, these musicians are more likely to achieve success in the genre and are more likely to be a leader in a band situation. The likelihood of a jazz musician’s compositions being performed and recorded by other jazz musicians is low unless he/she has at least a high national profile, and ideally an international reputation as a recording artist. Thus the main source of composition income for jazz musicians is the performance and other royalties that flow from their own performances and recordings. After classical music in its various forms, jazz has traditionally been the most successful musical genre in the public arts subsidy

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stakes. Most of the government funding for jazz has tended to be for support organisations, concert series, festivals or tours, but the opportunity exists for creative jazz musicians to apply for funding as composers.

CONTEMPORARY CLASSICAL COMPOSER

Training

Jazz training is performance based, but all the university programs in jazz involve intensive jazz theory and jazz arranging components that are relevant to the development of jazz composition skills (see Appendix 2). Comment J I M K E L LY ( J A Z Z

G U I TA R I S T A N D R E C O R D I N G

ARTIST):

‘Jazz musicians should write and perform one tune every week in order to develop and refine their skills, and they should strive to create memorable, beautiful melodies, not just focus on the groove and the blowing opportunities.’

The main activity of this kind of composer is writing music for classical musicians, including solo performers, chamber groups (such as string quartets, piano trios, string trios, etc), instrumental ensembles, orchestras, choirs, opera companies, contemporary music theatre companies and dance companies.The work is usually commissioned, although composers often write music as a favour to an individual or group, or just because they want to write a particular kind of piece. Some composers direct their own ensembles and may write uncommissioned music for these, but it is also possible that they or the group may obtain grants for writing the pieces. Examples of this kind of group in Australia are Topology (with composer Robert Davidson) and the David Chesworth Group. There are a number of specialised areas of contemporary classical music composition, including electro-acoustic music and experimental music. Contemporary classical composers often also compose in other forms, especially if the income they can make from their main compositional area is not enough. Examples of this may include writing music for synchronisation with film or television, or writing incidental music for theatre. Skills

The skills needed for composition are determined by the type of music being composed. The skills needed for neo-classical orchestral composition are different from those required for so-called minimalist composition or serial composition, for example. The theory and practice of harmony and counterpoint, however, are generally regarded as critical to all forms of compositional craft. Composers must acquire the skill of

COMPOSITION

idiomatic writing for voices and instruments (writing material that fits comfortably with the standard technique of the particular instrument or voice), including the ability to write for particular performers. The knowledge of what certain kinds of players are comfortable with in particular situations is critical to the composer’s craft. For example, if a composer is writing for a symphony orchestra and knows that the piece will be getting only a small number of hours of rehearsal, then the composer must be able to gauge how difficult the writing for particular instruments can afford to be if the performance is to be a success. Composers working in music theatre and opera must know how to write for operatic voices, including the ranges of the various voice types, and must have a feeling for the accentuation of words, and sensitivity to the meaning the librettist is trying to convey; above all, they must ensure the audibility of the text. Composers need to have a sense of the dramatic high points of the piece, of the emotional contour of the libretto, and its proposed theatricalisation, so that they can structure the music to reflect these features. It is crucial for the music theatre composer to accept that the music to be composed is only one element in a complex interplay of theatrical elements. There is no room for composers or librettists to get too precious about their work and see it as a masterpiece that cannot be tampered with when the piece goes into production. Establishing regular communication with the librettist and the director during the development of the piece is the best way to avoid problems relating to collaborative interaction. It is essential for contemporary classical composers to develop new musical materials and new ways of ordering musical material. The pursuit of originality and innovation and an artistic vision are highly valued in this tradition. Many successful composers have developed and refined a unique set of compositional procedures and gestures that gives their works a recognisable individual stylistic stamp. Composers working in the electro-

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acoustic field need to be skilled in all aspects of music technology, including audio engineering and sound synthesis. They also need to have high levels of computer literacy, including advanced programming skills.Those working in the field of experimental music need skills in computers, music technology, and improvisation. Above all, they must be able to conceive of new ways to create, organise and present sounds and other media. For concert composers, the main technologies that need to be mastered are music score publishing applications such as Finale and Sibelius. If composers are not prepared to go down the computer-generated score path they need to develop a stylish hand for copying their own scores (and parts). Although this kind of composer is principally concerned with writing scores for live musicians, the process of composition can be aided by the use of sequenced electronic music. There is also a market for sequenced scores in a contemporary classical vein for theatre, particularly modern dance theatre, where the cost of using live musicians is prohibitive. Composers need to be able to do effective self-promotion. This principally involves being able to persuade musicians and organisations to commission and/or perform their work. It also means being able to persuade radio presenters to broadcast their work. For this they need good networking skills, good marketing strategies, and negotiating skills. It is essential for composers know how to maximise their royalty income. They need to be diligent in registering their works with the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) and in reporting any performances of their work. Freelance composition is essentially a small business operation. Thus composers need all the skills related to business planning, business communication, business technologies and bookkeeping, plus an understanding of relevant taxation laws and of the contracts associated with their work. Another essential skill is writing grant applications. Composers need to learn to write applications that articulate the worth of

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the project, address the published criteria and contain a realistic budget. They also need to liaise effectively with staff at grants organisations such as the Australia Council. Prospects

Contemporary classical composers are freelancers. Their career progress is usually related to their ability to win commissions for composing and arrange for performances of their works by recognised performers and performance organisations. In the beginning of their careers they usually do not get commissions. Their progress at this stage is measured by the performances of their works they are able to organise — either setting up their own concerts or convincing other performers to play their music. In the experimental area particularly, composers have to invent their own opportunities, and commissions are often brokered through a variety of sources, such as radio, visual arts, and multimedia organisations. Composers who have gained a professional profile through performances, prizes and commissions may ultimately be successful in receiving fellowships for extended study or to enable them to devote themselves full-time to their work. Composers who have achieved significant success, particularly in the orchestral field, may be able to get a contract with a publisher specialising in contemporary classical music. However, according to Latham (2001), ‘few composers have enough activity to justify representation by the major publishers, given that they need to share a large proportion of their income with the publisher’. The income for a contemporary classical composer in Australia probably ranges from zero for those who are yet to have a work commissioned to $50,000 for a very successful composer in a good year (this figure does not include income from non-composition activities or composer fellowships). Generally, the career prospects for contemporary classical composers are not particularly good. Only a small number are able to make a decent living solely from composing for the concert

hall and other closely related compositional activities. Most rely also on income from other sources, such as performing, conducting, university lecturing, high school teaching, journalism, arts administration and activities unrelated to music. The specialised area of electro-acoustic music is generally associated with university music programs and can be viewed as a form of academic research as well as creative music making (see Chapter 10: Writing and research). Composers working in this field are also often involved in developing music software and hardware (see Chapter 5: Instrument makers and repairers). Training

Composers usually develop an interest in writing music in their teenage years, either independently or as the result of contact with a teacher at high school. Specialised study is the predominant method of training in this field of composition. Most tertiary music programs offer undergraduate and postgraduate study opportunities (see Appendix 2), and many of them have high-profile composers on the staff. Composers working in the experimental field are often anti-institutional. For this creative field, composer Warren Burt considers most music degrees ‘unhelpful because of the conservative indoctrination you’re likely to get from your teachers, and the troglodytic notions they usually have about history and theory’. Private study or apprenticeship with a recognised composer is an alternative and desirable method of training for all varieties of composition in this general area. Many of the essential skills of compositional craft can only be gained through selfdirected study, including the detailed analysis of relevant repertoire and practising what one has learnt in the process. Residencies, work experience or mentorships with orchestras, ensembles and music theatre companies are valuable additions to formal and informal study.

COMPOSITION

COMMUNITY MUSIC COMPOSER

A community composer writes and directs music for amateur musicians, usually as part of a community arts initiative of a local municipal council (see Chapter 3:Performance,which deals more fully with the job category of community musician). Often the job of community musician also includes writing and directing music, together with the organisation and administration of all the community music activities on the council’s schedule. There are, however, composers who specialise in this kind of work without getting too involved in administration (although it is probably difficult to avoid having to do a substantial amount of organising of the actual participants in a particular project). The job of community composer is sometimes called composer-in-residence; this label can also apply to composers who are attached to professional music groups, such as symphony orchestras, or entrepreneurial organisations, such as Musica Viva. A composer-in-residence might also be attached to a high school concert band or a youth orchestra. In these cases the job is similar to community musician, but there might be a higher and more consistent level of musicianship among the participants and a different kind of agenda underlying the project. Skills

A composer writing music for amateur musicians in a community context needs to be able to communicate well with the participants to find out what kind of piece they would like written for them and their audience.The work will invariably reflect cultural interests and community themes. It is essential for the composer to get a feel for the nature and level of musical ability of each of the participants.The challenge is to come up with something that both fulfils the needs of the participants and matches the abilities of the composer.

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The community composer needs to have a wide range of compositional skills as well as conducting and/or direction skills. The composer may also have to write lyrics, because there is often no funding for a lyricist or librettist. Depending on the specifications of the project, the composer may also be required to facilitate a group composition by the participants. Excellent interpersonal and other communication skills are needed to be successful in this field. Prospects

This kind of work is funded though government arts funding organisations at both the state and the Commonwealth level, and by local government contributions. Through the Australia Council, composers can apply for funding from both the Music Board (particularly if the composer is highly skilled and experienced) and the Community Cultural Development Board (which has more community-based criteria). Training

For this genre it is desirable to have received training in teaching, performing and musical direction as well as in composition.There are some traineeships and mentorships available through state community arts networks. Comment PETER WINKLER (ARTISTIC B O N D I Y O U T H WAV E ) :

DIRECTOR,

‘Those of us who work in both the community music and the mainstream music sectors know that community music is every bit as fulfilling as mainstream commercial music work, if not more so. It is more to do with the actual music and less to do with the hype, fashion and money games in the commercial music world. On the other hand, it’s good to keep an oar in the water in the music industry if for no other reason than it reminds you of how good working in community music really is. Maintaining a balance of community and professional music work also enables one to keep abreast with career opportunities in the music industry and offer advice to aspiring musicians in community projects.’

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EDUCATIONAL MUSIC COMPOSER

or community concert band to find out more about what is involved and get some pieces performance tested. Prospects

An educational music composer writes pieces intended for the educational market. These are principally sold as printed scores and, in the case of music for concert band, stage band and the like, performance materials (parts) as well. Some composers of other genres of music (jazz, rock, contemporary classical for instance) also contribute works in this category. Composers of published educational music (or music aimed at a younger performer or level of performance) write music at various degrees of difficulty, based on their research into the requirements for the different categories in this field. Some composers, for example, write solo instrumental and/ or vocal music that is suitable for selection on syllabuses for grade exams run by music examination organisations such as the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB). Another activity is the production of graded books of pieces suitable for study, from beginner level upwards. Skills

Composers of educational music need to be able to write music that is consistently at the difficulty level of particular examination grades. To get a feel for this it helps to be or have been a private music teacher preparing students for these exams. Alternatively, seek the advice of experienced teachers. Composers interested in the lucrative concert band and stage band market have to develop appropriate levels of skill in orchestration and be able to write in the range of styles traditionally used in these kinds of groups. It helps if you can write good tunes and create dramatic textural contrasts that make the music fun to play. To practise this kind of composition, get attached to a school

This area of composition represents a career option for a composer in its own right.There is a big market for instrumental and vocal music (in all combinations) that is aimed at specific levels of skill and is presented in a graded way. Although there are some Australian publishers specialising in this field, including Brolga Music,Allens Publishing and Yamaha (Aust.), most of the large-scale publishing activity occurs in the US.When pitching a concert band piece to a publisher, composers ideally need a demo recording as well as a professional-looking computer-generated score. Many composers (whatever the genre) are not particularly interested in this field, and are therefore turning their backs on a potentially lucrative source of income and a way for their music to become known to a generation of young musicians. Training

Composers working this field need to have highly developed skills in the particular styles and levels of difficulty of the music they are writing. Much of this training can be gained from composition programs in tertiary music schools, but the specifics of orchestrating for concert bands and show bands are not usually taught in these kinds of courses. Comment R A L P H H U LT G R E N ( 2 0 0 1 ) :

‘At present the estimate of bands in Queensland schools alone is around one thousand. With an average of thirty-five students per band, that is a huge area of opportunity. There are also the multitude of orchestras in schools and the community. Each would perform at least once a year, and if each played one Australian piece, consider the return in sales and royalties to the composer.’

COMPOSITION

DANCE THEATRE COMPOSER

A dance theatre composer writes music to be choreographed for live (or filmed) dance theatre performances. Usually this is done to a brief from the choreographer, who would specify the subject matter, mood(s), duration, and sometimes even internal qualities and timings of sections. The extent of the brief depends on how much detail the choreographer has developed for the dance piece before engaging the composer or on an agreement at the pre-commissioning stage. At one extreme the composer may be given carte blanche, and at the other he/she may be required to write music for a dance piece that is already totally choreographed. In the latter case this is only possible if the choreography has been matched to a strict number of beats at an even tempo (or a coherent set of tempo changes). There are many parallels between choreography techniques and compositional techniques, which augurs well for a strongly integrated collaboration between composer and choreographer. Common to both forms are the structuring devices of contrast, variation and repetition; the idea of a counterpoint between different performers (seen musically as canon, polymetre, groove, for example); the subdivision of the performers into duos, trios, quartets, etc; the notions of accentuation, phrasing, syncopation, augmentation, diminution, and retrograde motion; and even abstract qualities such as lyricism. Choreography also employs movement qualities (jerking, leaping, sliding) and visual patterns (circle, cross, star) that can be translated into musical ideas (such as a melody, motif, rhythm or chord progression that is used as the raw material for composition). Improvisation, as a creative practice, provides a common ground for all choreographers and some composers. In fact many

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choreographers encourage their dancers to play a significant role in the creative process in a workshopping environment.This is perhaps similar to the way songwriters in a band might work with their performing colleagues. Improvisation is a feature of all modern dance training — dance companies often hire improvising musicians to work with them during their improvisation sessions. Composition for modern dance theatre has historically been split between composers from the contemporary classical tradition and those from the popular music tradition. In recent times there seems to be a preference for composers who work in the electronic dance music field. Skills

Composers for dance theatre must be able and willing to work to a brief from the choreographer. Ideally, these composers will have an interest in dance techniques and choreographic practices, so that they can communicate with the choreographer clearly about what is required for the meshing of the two forms. Because of the budgetary limitations of dance theatre productions, the most common form of music score for modern dance companies is prerecorded and electronic. This means that composers interested in dance theatre composing should have well-developed skills in audio engineering, electronic music and theatre sound design. Prospects

The opportunities for a composer interested in writing music to be choreographed are reasonably good at the entry level. There are many choreographers who welcome the chance to collaborate with a composer rather than using already composed and recorded music. Getting funding for dance score commissions is highly competitive, but the large modern dance theatre companies — such as the Sydney Dance Company, Leigh Warren Dancers, and Chunky Move — have active commissioning programs. Some high-profile composers, such as Iva Davies (Icehouse) and

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Carl Vine, established their careers writing music for the Sydney Dance Company. The commissioning fees for dance scores are negotiable, but are usually subject to the same fee schedule guidelines as concert music. Performance royalties are lucrative, particularly if the works are toured extensively.

MUSICAL THEATRE COMPOSER

Training

A composer working in theatre and music theatre is likely to also be involved as a lyricist, musician, musical director and sound designer. According to musical theatre composer Sean Peter, the role of the composer is to provide a musical and/or sonic identity for the theatre work, often in collaboration with the director or writer. The composer’s role will be different for each job. Sometimes it can be as little as a couple of cues for scene changes in a play. Some works might be essentially plays with a few songs and other musical cues interspersed. A musical may have a balance of songs and dialogue.An opera, or its popular equivalent, is entirely sung. The composer in a musical theatre work is usually commissioned to write the music for a show. Composers with an interest in theatrical writing can also develop their own show, then try to interest a theatre company in staging it. Before the composer accepts a commission there will be discussion about who the collaborators in the show will be, and what the music production budget will be. The main collaborators for the composer are the writer of the book (the theatre term used to describe the play’s text; it may or may not also include lyrics for songs), the lyricist (if used) and the director. First, the composer and the writer need to develop a good relationship, because ideally, the composer will have some significant input into most areas. First, the composer needs to have input into the development of the book — this provides the overall structure of the show and determines where the music goes. One of the major tasks at this stage is spotting scenes that could be musicalised. A good relationship between the writer and the composer is essential. It is also essential that whoever writes the lyrics (the composer or a writer)

There are limited training opportunities in Australia for composers interested in writing music for dance.Tertiary institutions that offer dance as well as music composition programs provide a potentially fruitful learning environment for dance composers. Alternatively, a composer attachment to a dance company would provide excellent on-the-job training opportunities. Comment CHOREOGRAPHER WENDY MORROW (1989):

‘In the collaboration between composer and choreographer there needs to be that willingness to open out and be affected by the other artist, not merely to do your own thing and put up with the other and hope that it works. It certainly takes an enormous amount of honesty and courage from both parties, because you are revealing your soul as an artist to the other art form, though, of course, you are also attempting to create something far greater than your own individual voice.’

COMPOSITION

has some understanding of musical word setting, as the words will eventually have to be sung. The composer’s work is made easier if the roles are cast before the show is written, as this allows the composer to write for the individual abilities and styles of the singers/actors. Being involved in the actual casting/audition process is especially valuable. Once the book is complete, the concentrated work on the score begins.The schedule is often tight for this. Ideally, the composer should be given the chance to work to a reasonable routine. The composer needs to develop an overall shape for the music in the show and then work on the individual songs, interludes and underscoring (instrumental background music in theatre and film rather than music used to accompany songs). Often the composer may make an electronic backing track for the songs: this is the easiest way to deliver the music to the performers. Often the cast will rehearse to these backing tracks. As with opera and contemporary classical music theatre, there may be a period of workshopping to iron out any problems with the structure of the work, the suitability of the work for the performers, and the mechanics of staging it. Depending on the budget and/or style of the show, the music accompanying the singers might be prerecorded backing tracks, a mixture of prerecorded and live musicians, or all live musicians. If the music is live and the budget is substantial, an orchestrator and music copyist might be needed. This could also depend on the tightness of the schedule. Many composers prefer to do their own arranging and orchestration. If the music in the show is to be prerecorded, the composer will usually fully score it and work out a schedule for the recording sessions. Composers need to establish a network of session musicians they can rely on to play well and work efficiently in the studio. Establishing an ongoing relationship with an audio engineer is also advisable, in order to

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get good results in the minimum amount of studio time. Mixing down the recorded music often also involves decisions about theatre sound design (such as speaker placement: see Sound designer (theatre) in Chapter 4: Production). The rehearsal period often leads to changes to the music, but these changes will be minimal if the accompaniment has been prerecorded by that time. Skills

Musical theatre composers need to have a broad range of general compositional skills as well as specific theatre songwriting skills. Songwriting for musical theatre is different from popular music songwriting. It is focused on the ability of the lyrics to convey precise narrative meaning. Songs are used to establish characters, to convey the characters’ feelings and their feelings about other characters, and to advance the action in close relationship with the overall dramatic shape of the work. The song lyrics in musical theatre tend to be much less ambiguous than in popular songs, but there is a great deal of scope for clever and witty approaches to lyric construction. A musical theatre composer needs to have a firm grasp of the standard forms of theatre songwriting as practised by the historically important figures in the profession. The ability to write purely instrumental music for overtures, dance sequences and interludes is also important. Arranging and orchestration are essential skills, both in the live music and the computer music domains. These skills involve understanding the arranging requirements of a broad range of contemporary and historical popular music genres plus traditional orchestration. Music production skills such as audio engineering for recordings and live sound are also highly desirable. Skills in conducting, musical direction and performance are required for live theatre music as well as when recording music for a musical theatre production. Composers should be able to teach their music to the cast and provide accompaniment for rehearsals

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(including rehearsals where choreography is being taught). Music theatre composers need to have a good knowledge of theatre practices so that they fully understand their own role and can identity and solve problems that may occur during the collaborative process.According to Sean Peter, the composer needs to be supportive, friendly, positive but also assertive in the collaborative process. Other personal qualities needed are focus, drive and commitment, even when the pay is low. Like most freelance composers, the musical theatre composer will need skills in small business management and self-promotion similar to those of the contemporary classical musician. For more detail, see the section on business skills in Appendix 1. Prospects

There is no normal sequence in the career structure of a musical theatre composer.The theatre composer might begin by providing music for amateur productions, unpaid, and then progress through professional involvement with small theatre companies (theatrein-education shows, for example) to work with more established theatre companies. With luck, this would lead to collaborating with high-profile directors and writers and eventually the chance to secure interest by major companies in staging works devised entirely by the composer. The fees available for this kind of work range from very low (in the hundreds of dollars only) to around $20,000 per show plus a percentage of the box office. Long-running musicals, particularly those successful on Broadway or London’s West End, can result in very high income (over $100,000) for the composer. Most of the work in musical theatre is in large cities that support major theatre companies, but there is also a considerable amount of professional or semi-professional theatre activity in regional areas. Successful composers can get work nationally and internationally if they are prepared to travel. It is relatively easy to get experience in this field if you have the necessary skills, are

prepared to work cheaply, and have your own basic music production equipment. After that, your advancement depends on what sort of professional reputation you develop, the network of industry contacts you maintain and your ability to selfpromote, gain grants and find other sources of income. Because the remuneration is low, theatre composers need to be dedicated to their art and sure that that is what they wish to devote their time to. As is the case with most freelance composers, other related work may be needed between musical theatre jobs. The versatility required for working in this field may prepare the music theatre composer well for other fields of music composition and production. Work in other kinds of theatre production roles (stage manager, assistant director, for example) may also be available, depending on the composer’s background and interests. Training

Because of the collaborative nature of musical theatre, it is difficult to provide an ideal training environment. Actual work experience is the best form of training. There are no Australian training programs dedicated to musical theatre composition. However, there are many relevant skills that can be honed in training institutions — composition, songwriting, arranging, orchestration, music production and music technology skills, to name just a few. Training and/or experience in professional theatre as a writer, actor, musician, musical director, sound technician or in any other production role would provide a useful background for an emerging theatre composer. Comment SEAN PETER (MUSIC

T H E AT R E C O M P O S E R ) :

‘You should be sure that you have a real love for music theatre, as the financial rewards could be a long time coming.You’ll need to be driven by the reward of creating good product and collaborating with other people. That said, if you love music and theatre … what other job could you want?’

COMPOSITION

SCREEN COMPOSER

The term ‘screen composer’ covers both film and television. The difference between writing music for films and for television programs is not great, but it does involve dealing with a different network of professionals and different budget levels. Television usually involves writing more music (in relation to the length of the program) than film, and having a schedule of deadlines relating to the production of the various episodes of a series. As a result, screen composers often specialise in one or the other.This is especially true in Los Angeles, where the size of both industries is enormous. There is also some specialisation within genres. Apart from fictional projects in both film and television, there are also documentaries of various kinds: nature, science, travel, marine, sport, lifestyle and culture, to name just a few categories. Screen composers also compose music for use in corporate videos. Composing music for interactive multimedia is dealt with separately below. A screen composer writes music to synchronise with film and video. This may be diegetic music (intended to be part of the realistic narrative action of the film) or, more usually, non-diegetic music (to underscore the action and create moods). In Australia, where film budgets are small and the percentage of the total film budget allocated to the music budget is smaller than in Hollywood, the film composer may also take on other film music production roles, such as music supervisor, music editor, orchestrator and copyist. These roles are dealt with separately below. Music is used for a variety of purposes in film: to create a sense of location, period or genre; to support the action (for example in chase scenes) and sometimes to provide a contrasting counterpoint to the action; to link one scene to another (this is important,

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because film editing is abrupt by its very nature); to introduce scenes by creating a mood; and to underscore scenes (with or without dialogue). The positioning of the music cues in a film can provide an additional level of structure in the film, particularly if there is a conscious development of musical ideas associated with different aspects of the narrative. Diegetic music, because it is part of the action, is primarily designed to provide a sense of geographic and cultural location (such as the use of jazz for a New York club scene or Arab styles for a Middle Eastern market scene), but it can also provide the viewer with a sense of spatiality. For example, if the music is meant to be coming from behind a wall, it will be processed to remove the high frequencies, in order to give a realistic impression of how it would be heard from the point of view of the characters in a scene. The music for film is mostly written and recorded very late in the film production process. In scenes where the intention is to cut the film to the music, the composer may be involved earlier in the process, but generally music cannot be accurately synchronised with the film until the final edit of the film is complete. This means that the film composer’s work is usually done to a very tight schedule. All the music has to be planned, written, recorded, mixed and dubbed in the space of three to six weeks. This is a daunting task, especially for a feature film that has more than an hour of specially composed music in it. Before the final cut of the film is made, the composer may have seen a script of the film and will have discussed the style of music required with the director and/or producer of the film. In fact film composers are often chosen for a project on the basis of the kind of music they are able to write. In some instances the director might supply the composer with a ‘temp track’, a temporary overlay on the film of music already commercially available on CD. This is intended to give the composer some idea of what kind of music the director might like for the score. Once the final cut is complete there is a ‘spotting session’, attended by the composer

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and the director, and perhaps other members of the film production team. The purpose of this is to determine where the music (both specially composed and sourced from other recorded repertoire) is to be placed in the film. The start and end points of the music cues are noted, as are any requirements for ‘hitting’ the action — synchronising particular musical accents with particular frames of the film. The composer needs to get a very clear idea of what the director wants in order avoid having to rewrite the music because the director is not happy with what has been written. The composer (in collaboration with the director) then needs to develop a concept for the score. This means choosing a style of music appropriate to the narrative context of the film. It also involves developing specific thematic material for the film. Film scores often take advantage of the structuring potential of the music underscore (the music that is used as background to scenes but which is not part of the narrative). Themes are often attached to particular characters, events and symbolic objects in the narrative. The underscored music for a film is written with precise timings so that it will synchronise with the film. These timings are calculated in relation to the frame count (‘footage’) in the film, or the composer (in a small-budget film) or music editor (in a bigbudget film) uses specialised software in conjunction with the timecode stamped on the film. In the Australian film industry the composer usually manages the music budget of the film. In films with substantial budgets, the budgetary and licensing roles are generally handled by a music supervisor. The budget must cover the composer’s fee, any subcontracting for composition, orchestration and copying, and the hiring of the musicians and the recording studio. The music budget also covers the licensing of existing music, including the diegetic music and any songs that are used non-diegetically. If existing compositions need to be re-recorded, the cost of this must also be covered by the budget, in addition to

the licensing costs. The budget for licensing and re-recording existing music determines what is possible in the way of employing instrumental players to record the underscore that is to be composed. The score might include music which is electronically produced by the composer, or music that is written for live musicians, or a combination of the two.The latter is common in low-budget films and in television; combining one or two live musicians with MIDIbased electronic orchestration is a low-cost solution that still allows the music to have a fresh-sounding acoustic quality. The composer is usually responsible for all these areas: preparing the score and parts, hiring the musicians and recording studio, conducting the various cues of the score using a click track (a steady recorded beat that the players play in time with, much like a metronome), often while watching the relevant section of the film, supervising the mixdown of the cues, re-recording or remixing any of the cues required by the director, and sometimes supervising the mixing and dubbing of the various sound elements on the film. Some of these tasks would be undertaken by a music editor if one has been contracted to the film (see Chapter 4: Production). Skills

Because directors and producers are not necessarily good at articulating their musical requirements for the film, the film composer must be able to communicate with them in non-technical terms to find out what their specific requirements are in relation to music styles and techniques. The ability to establish good communication with the other members of the film production team (particularly the film editor, sound editor and music supervisor [if relevant]) is highly desirable. It is also essential to be able to write music in a broad spectrum of styles. The required styles of music for a given project may need to be researched and ‘reproduced’ (by writing something similar) through a process of analysis of scores and/or recordings. It is also essential to understand the

COMPOSITION

conventions of film composition, and to be able to compose the kinds of cues associated with different genres of film. Ideally, a film composer needs to be able to write for orchestra and to be able to draw on orchestral music styles that have been used throughout the history of European and American (particularly American film music) orchestral composition. In the popular culture era, songs have been a constant feature of films. Indeed, some films now use songs exclusively, because film and soundtrack albums can be effectively cross-marketed. So film composers also need to be able to write and arrange songs in the various genres of popular music. Allied to this skill are the associated skills of music production and arrangement using sequencing, synthesis, samples and loops, and working with improvising musicians in the recording studio. Film composers need to be able to accept not producing large-scale compositions or even short pieces that are structurally resolved. Film music cues are often short, with indistinct endings and beginnings and structures that are tied to the cuts in the film and the rhythm of the shoot.These rather difficult conditions are made worse by the fact that a large amount of music has to be produced in a very short time. Film composers must be able to produce very professional-sounding cues very quickly — they will never have the luxury of being able to work on them until they feel they are perfect. Film composers need to be conversant with the technologies associated with film music production, mixing and synchronisation. Ideally, they will have their own studio and use that for a large proportion of the work they do.This is a large capital infrastructure investment, but it ultimately increases the composer’s personal income by minimising recording costs. It does, however, require a commitment to learning the technology of recording and mixing and staying abreast of technology developments. Film composers need to have strong musical direction skills in order to be able to get accurate performances from the musicians playing the score, and a good sound onto tape.

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They should also be competent conductors or, alternatively, able to communicate their wishes to a contracted conductor. Film composers need small business management skills, in particular to manage the music budget of a film composition project. Knowledge of composition, performance, and recording and licensing contracts is essential. They also need a large network of professional associates (musicians, engineers, audio producers, etc) to generate employment for them and to facilitate the music production process. Prospects

Production of feature films in Australia is limited, so the amount of work available is small. A small group of composers seems to control most of the work at the higher level of the profession. Most composers entering this area start by writing scores for television documentaries and genres such as surf films. The best way to get a start is to volunteer to write music for student filmmakers in the various film schools (VCA [Victorian College of the Arts], Swinburne, AFTRS [Australian Film, Television and Radio School], for example). It is essential to develop a highly professional show reel to pitch to producers, music supervisors and directors. It would be rare for a composer to pocket more than $20,000 for the composition of a film score. Since most film and television production takes place in capital cities (the exception is Warner Brothers on the Gold Coast), most of the major work opportunities are also in capital cities. However, some regional areas have strong documentary filmmaking profiles. For example, northeastern NSW has a strong filmmaking community, creating film music composition opportunities for those with the skills and the inclination. With the advent of timecode stamping and other technological features of film music production and synchronisation, it is not really necessary for a film composer to live and work where the film is being made.At the highest level of this profession, however, composers move around a lot. Many Australia-

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based film composers commute to Los Angeles and other centres for specific projects. Screen composers with orchestrating skills may supplement work writing film scores with work orchestrating film scores (see Orchestrator below).

INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA COMPOSER

Training

Composers in this field write music for nonlinear audiovisual media such as CD-ROMs, websites, computer games and video games. The work is similar to that of a screen composer in that music is used to enhance images and to emphasise narrative events. The principal difference arises from the non-linear aspects of the media. In computer games, for example, where there are multiple potential narrative pathways, organising the music to achieve structural coherence through all the possibilities presents a significant challenge. In addition, the complete range of functions of film music are not available. According to Björn Lynne (Team 17 Software), ‘in the movies the music suggests what is going to happen, not what has already happened. In games, when the bad guy appears around the corner and starts shooting at you, it’s really too late to say anything about it musically’. Another distinguishing feature of these new media is the relatively short sound files and reduced sound quality available; achieving higher sound quality and longer sequences of music would mean sacrificing the level of interactivity. In other words, there is a significant limitation placed on the creativity of the composer for interactive multimedia music compared with the composer of film and television music. In addition, many of the methods of implementing the soundtracks of interactive multimedia products involve computer programming.

The Australian Film, Television and Radio School (AFTRS) offers a short course (3 months) for a handful of composers who have established compositional abilities. Some university music departments cover this kind of training, but not as a dedicated course. Comment PETER BEST (1995):

‘… the biggest single difference between an Australian film composer and a film composer in almost any other place is that the Australian film composer has to do everything for him or herself. I go to the meetings, spot the picture, I work out my own click track, I play most of the sequenced stuff, I conduct if I’ve got musicians, I write the parts myself, I go to the mix — I do everything myself. If you look at a Hollywood picture, those duties are spread among anything up to twenty people.’

Skills

Composers of music for computer and video games need the same sort of creative and collaborative skills that film composers and film sound designers need.They also need a thorough grounding in games technology. They must understand the different technical

COMPOSITION

requirements of the various gaming platforms, including RAM availability, sampling rates, looping capabilities and file formats. The advantages and limitations of music systems used in games — DirectMusic, tracker, audio streaming, general MIDI, redbook CD audio, for example — must also be understood. Games composers are just as likely to approach their work from a computer programming perspective as from a conventional creative musical background. They do, however, need to be able to write music in range of contemporary popular styles, including conventional symphonic soundtrack styles and fantasy and sci-fi movie styles. With websites and CD-ROMs, composers must be able to work within the even more limiting frameworks of available web technologies and programming protocols. Prospects

This is a growing field, and it will continue to expand as the supporting technologies become more conducive to the creative manipulation of sound. Games composers are well placed to move into more conventional soundtrack media such as film and television, especially considering possible future developments in mainstream interactive media. As games composers are sometimes skilled in other aspects of games development, sideways career moves are possible to other aspects of games production — direction, producing, graphic design, programming, project management and quality assurance, for instance. Training

Apart from training or experience in popular and commercial music composition and music technology, the most appropriate kind of training for interactive media composition is in games technology. Comment B J Ö R N LY N N E ( T E A M 1 7 S O F T WA R E ) :

‘I have to stay sharp, keep practising, and keep on my toes, because there’s a lot of great talent out there, and they are all after my job! So

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there’s no time to sit back and relax. That’s another reason why I am doing my CD albums as well, in addition to the game soundtracks. I don’t want to lose track of things by only doing game soundtracks and nothing else, as then I feel I will lose my “edge”. I have to keep one foot in the world of game music and the other foot in the world of “real” music, in order to avoid losing perspective and falling behind. As for the future … well, let’s just get these Worms 2 and Pinball Addiction soundtracks done first! No, maybe I’ll be writing some stuff for TV or something? I don’t know. All I want to do is to be able to write music every day, and make a living from it.’

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ADVERTISING MUSIC COMPOSER

This job is usually known as music supplier, and sometimes as jingle writer, music person, music production house (even if a sole operator). The music supplier writes the music for advertisements that appear on radio and television, usually working for advertising agencies, with a separate contract for each job. Sometimes the advertiser will contract the supplier directly; this happens most often with small companies which don’t do much advertising through an agency. A music supplier sometimes works as a sole trader, or in some kind of partnership with a number of other composers or other music or media industry operatives. Some successful music suppliers have set up large companies (production houses, sometimes called jingle factories) employing a number of composers, programmers and engineers as well as finance, marketing and sales personnel. An example of this in Australia is Song Zu, which also supplies other kinds of music to the media industry, including music for film and television. Advertising agencies rarely employ composers as part of their creative department. Music suppliers need to establish good professional relationships with the creative directors of a number of advertising agencies, people they feel comfortable working with and with whom they have a good rapport. This can help provide some continuity of work in a freelance industry. The agent can trust in the quality and style of the composer’s work, and will more than likely call on him/her to supply music for a particular assignment, or at least to submit a speculative jingle (spec) in competition with a number of other composers, which might lead to winning the contract.

Music suppliers work to a brief provided by the client (the advertiser) through the agent.This includes the name of the business and/or product to be advertised, the advertising demographic (who it is targeting in relation to age, culture, gender and economic status), the budget for the work (which will depend on a number of factors, including whether the advertisement is used locally, regionally or nationally), a description of the product and the business and what aspects of both the client wishes to emphasise in the campaign (such as available locations for purchase, price, competitive features); examples of the client’s current advertisements and other advertising copy; a description of the formats required (radio, television, different lengths of ads, different version of the ads, etc); the musical style or styles considered appropriate; and any ideas the creative department might have for the new advertisement. Armed with this information and the vibe put out by the creative director, the music supplier has to come up with a concept for the jingle. Various techniques are used to develop the lyrics: finding a slogan or hook, repetition of the main points, emphasising the selling points of the product, attacking the competition, appealing to some defining predilection or image preferences of the target audience.The best ads also have some element of humour or cleverness about them. The advertisement needs to be musically distinctive, and it needs to appeal to the tastes of the target audience. It also needs to sound as professional and glossy as possible. Skills

Music suppliers need to be able to write advertising slogans and lyrics that cover all the requirements of the client’s brief and to be able to set already existing lyrics to music. They need to understand the broadcast specifications for advertisement (the required durations) as well as the standard structures (in radio it is common, for example, to have singing, followed by voice over, then ending with singing).

COMPOSITION

They also need to know about all the latest fashions and trends in national and international culture as well as about important recent historical events — all these can influence the lyric writing with reference to different audience demographics. Music suppliers are required to write music in any style, including the latest styles. They therefore need to be able to research the stylistic and production requirements of musical styles by transcribing and analysing recordings.They also need to be able to write lyrical, musical, and timbral hooks as well as memorable melodies. MIDI programming and associated production skills are standard skills of the contemporary music supplier, as is the ability to work effectively in the recording studio, including the ability to plan recording session schedules for various versions of an advertisement. It is critical for music suppliers to develop and maintain a network of session musicians, singers and recording engineers who can record at a high professional level. Allied skills are arranging and writing charts for studio musicians (if the advertisement music is not electronically produced) and providing musical direction for players and singers in the studio. The ability to produce mixes suitable for broadcast on different broadcast media is also required. In order to get work, music suppliers must be willing and able to network with CEOs (chief executive officers) and creative directors of advertising agencies. Maintaining professional (and social) relationships with a number of creative directors or CEOs is a crucial part of getting regular work. Music suppliers also need to develop and update demonstration tapes (show reels) in both audio format (for radio advertisements) and video format (for television advertisements).These should include professional work already done by the composer or production house, and should cover a variety of musical styles and advertised products. Highly developed communication skills are needed for briefing sessions with clients and agents.

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Because getting work depends a lot on speculative submissions, it is vital to be able to produce low-cost specs that sound impressive and to pitch the spec to the agent and/or client. Budgeting is an important aspect of individual advertisement writing assignments, especially considering the complex package of arrangements and mixes that is usually required. Like all freelance composers, music suppliers need skills in small business management, marketing, promotion, contracts, licensing, finance, etc. Prospects

Although this is a competitive field, it may be easy enough to get some work if you have the necessary skills, but it is very challenging to build a career from it. Often, people entering this field have developed an industry profile in rock bands or other popular music genres, such as electronic dance music or film music. Some come from the agencies; they may be advertising copywriters who have musical skills and collaborate with an arranger. Freelance advertising composers need to have had actual advertising work in order to construct a professional demo tape, but when they start out they may have to compose fake jingles to get a demo tape together. It helps a lot if music suppliers have their own production facilities. A lot of small recording studios in regional centres get into this business. Alternatively, the novice who has programming and lyric-writing skills can try to get work with a jingle factory. Regional work is low paid, but it’s good experience. In a capital city, an individual (rather than a team) considered successful would earn between $60,000 and $120,000 per year. A successful music supplier may be in a position to expand his/her business from sole operator or partnership to a large production house like Song Zu, or even to an advertising agency like MOJO. Music suppliers usually develop a range of skills similar to those of film or theatre

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composers and/or musical directors, and would therefore be able to move reasonably easily into these jobs.

LIBRARY MUSIC COMPOSER

Training

There is no dedicated formal training available for music suppliers. Work experience or employment in a production house is a good way to enhance and refine the basic skills that are needed for entry into the industry — songwriting, composing, arranging, musical direction, music technology, music business, and interpersonal communication. Training in songwriting, arranging and audio production is advisable. Training in advertising copywriting would also be useful. Comment PETER MARTIN (FREELANCE SUPPLIER):

MUSIC

‘Don’t compromise on the ideal singer for the job; keep up with the latest and greatest in the talent pool; and be clear in your mind about the desired musical outcome — but flexible enough to change it.’

Library music is an additional source of income for composers who write instrumental music for commercial use. Library music is usually produced by a department or subsidiary of a music publisher. It is a cost-effective alternative to commissioning a specially written score for film, radio, television and advertising productions. A library music CD is usually a compilation of short recorded musical pieces which follow a certain theme or concept, such as easy listening, ethnic music, action music, themes for movies, themes for jingles, guitar moods, etc. Each CD contains a variety of music, packaged in a way that will grab the attention of someone looking for a particular kind of music. Some CDs are compilations of the works of one composer; others are of works by different composers. Sometimes one track from one composer is on several different compilation CDs. Library music CDs are purchased by media production companies or broadcasters, who develop a large collection of them for use when background music is needed for a media product or broadcast. When they are used, a fee is collected by AMCOS and paid to the writer and publisher. The use of library music has declined somewhat in the past decade, because of the development of cheap home recording studios. It is now more economically feasible for even low-budget productions to commission specially composed music. With the decline of library music, a market for sample CDs has emerged. A sample CD consists of collections of sounds and rhythm loops which can be loaded into a sampler and used by composers in a MIDI-based production studio.

COMPOSITION

The most effective library music companies are multinational music publishers, because they can market their products worldwide. Skills

A composer of library music must be able to produce high-quality recordings of wellcrafted pieces. As the most successful library music is recorded using live musicians, arranging and music chart writing skills are required. Composers need to be able to write to a brief when specific kinds of work are commissioned by a music library company.These skills are similar to those associated with screen composition.The ability to write music that has convenient edit points is another useful skill. Prospects

Library music companies commission work from well-known composers and arrangers. They pay for the studio hire and session musicians. A typical deal for a composer is 50/50 on royalties, usually with no advance. There are three sources of income: mechanical royalties on the sale of the CDs, mechanical royalties on the use of a track for a media product, and performance royalties for broadcasts of the finished media product. Often the mechanical royalties are reduced if there is a third party promoting the library music products in another territory. Lesser-known composers may be able to get a deal based on recordings they have already made, or if they submit an impressive show reel of appropriate music. The work is not particularly lucrative and often the royalties are not paid to the composer until up to two years after a track is used. However, royalties may continue to roll in for many years. The royalties on a whole CD might generate $1000 to $5000 in a good year. Training

The training needed is similar for that of a screen composer (see Screen composer above).

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Comment PETER MARTIN (FREELANCE COMPOSER):

MEDIA

‘[Composers need to] make sure the library music company has credibility with international media production houses. Otherwise your work will not be placed widely enough to make it financially worthwhile.’

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ARRANGER (POPULAR MUSIC)

An arranger reworks an existing composition into a different instrumental or vocal grouping, often adding distinctive compositional features to the piece.Arrangers are involved in the following kinds to work: •

•

•

•

•

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enhancing the work of recording artists by providing charts for rhythm sections, and horn and string ‘sweeteners’; writing charts for performing artists who work in situations where there are house bands (such as in large service clubs or on television variety programs), or who have a budget to tour with their own extended bands; helping inexperienced songwriters structure their compositions by writing chords to go with their melodies and programming electronic backing or writing charts for a demo recording; writing versions of existing popular songs for big bands and other chart-reading ensembles for live performance; writing versions of popular songs or other existing compositions for print publication, including for the educational market; and transcribing existing arrangements or improvised solos for performances or print publication.

It is common practice for contemporary classical composers to arrange their own compositions in order to take advantage of performance and recording opportunities, especially once their careers are established and their services are in demand. An arranger working exclusively with electronic musical instruments is known as a programmer. Because of its strong audio production basis, this occupation is dealt with separately (see Chapter 4: Production).

Skills

Arrangers of contemporary popular music require an intimate technical and stylistic understanding of the genres of popular music they are working in. This includes the ability to transform a song from its basic form of melody, lyrics and chords into an authenticsounding performance or recorded track in a particular style by writing parts for drums, bass, rhythm guitar, keyboards and other backing instruments if relevant to the style (pedal steel guitar for country music, for example). Also, arrangers must be able to ‘sweeten’ this rhythm track arrangement by writing parts for horn sections (three or more saxophones, trumpets and trombones in various combinations) and string sections (usually ten or more violin, viola, cello and double bass players in various combinations), or by writing synthesised equivalents of these groups. Harmony vocals may also be required. In order to be able to do all this, arrangers need to know and be able to reproduce the kinds of grooves, riffs, licks, stabs, pads and countermelodic devices specific to different styles of music, such as rock and pop in their numerous forms, country, R&B, funk, soul, reggae, jazz, fusion, various types of Latin music, dance pop, etc. They also need to be able to research the arranging requirements of styles they are unfamiliar with, using aural and score analysis to understand what is required. Very high levels of aural recognition ability are required for this. Idiomatic writing skills for the instruments used in the various styles (writing material that fits comfortably with the standard technique of the particular instrument or voice) is also essential, including a strong knowledge of the harmonic voicings that are usually used for instruments such as guitars and keyboards, as well as for horn and string sections and voice groups. Arranging also requires a significant creative input. The skilled arranger will try to make the work sound stylistically convincing without resorting to clichés, and will incorporate melodic, harmonic and other textural components to make the arrangement sound

COMPOSITION

musically distinctive. Original music might also be added for introductions, instrumental breaks and endings. Arrangers who work with inexperienced or non-literate songwriters will often need to troubleshoot the overall song structure as well as details of the melodic line and chord progression as presented by the composer. This can require great diplomacy on the part of the arranger — there may be real deficiencies in the work that need to be sorted out before going into the studio. Arrangers working for the educational market need a keen sense of the performance standard of the young musicians the arrangements are being written for. Arrangers working in the classical music area do work similar to those who deal with contemporary popular music. Typical contracts might involve arranging existing songs (popular or art) for classical music ensembles such as choirs, or arranging existing instrumental music for other groups of instruments. In this type of work the arranger’s skill is to either to simplify textures that are complex (arranging an orchestral piece for chamber ensemble) or to contribute textural elements such as countermelodies (in arranging a song originally written for piano and voice for an eight-part vocal ensemble). Because arrangers are adding a level of creative input into a musical work, their work has copyright implications. Arrangers usually work for a fee (an agreed fee or an hourly rate), but it may be also wise, in instances where a recording is likely to generate significant sales, to negotiate points on royalties as well as a fee. They have copyright in the arrangement unless their contract gives it to their employer. Generally, the business and self-promotion skills essential for an arranger are similar to those necessary for other freelance creative musicians. Arrangers involved in transcribing work need superior aural recognition skills: the ability to hear individual instrumental lines (including chordal voicings) and write them down in a coherent way using the notation

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conventions of the applicable music genre. This can mean rounding off rhythms and pitches to the nearest practical unit or using invented or common-use symbols to indicate unusual techniques. Transcribers need an excellent understanding of the performance practices of the genres being transcribed. Prospects

Skilled arrangers have quite a few avenues for obtaining work, although much of this work is now being taken over by programmers and producers who have a home studio or better and offer a similar service. Usually arrangers are composers who have developed a particular inventive facility for and efficiency in this kind of work. Their work opportunities may spread across the creative spectrum into advertising, film and musical theatre, and they may become musical directors for recording artists and backing bands. Some record producers are recruited or rise from the ranks of arrangers. The fees for doing this kind of work range from about $40 per hour to $120 per hour, depending on the skill and reputation of the arranger. Training

Skills in arranging are taught as an integral part of composition and songwriting in jazz and contemporary popular music courses. Comment ANNIE MITCHELL (FREELANCE ARRANGER) (ON ARRANGING OTHER SONGWRITERS’ SONGS FOR RECORDINGS):

‘This is a very useful skill to have. There are plenty of songwriters, but few who can transcribe their own work, arrange it and make charts for it.’

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ORCHESTRATOR

of class (the Opening Ceremony of the 2000 Olympic Games, for example). The term ‘electronic orchestrator’ is sometimes used to refer to programming synthesised orchestral textures on computer systems (see Programmer, in Chapter 4: Production).

An orchestrator is an arranger for symphony orchestra.A lot of work for orchestrators does not involve the same degree of artistic freedom an arranger might exercise — there is generally not much room for changing the form, groove or harmonisation. For example, film composers often use an orchestrator because they do not have time to devote to the orchestration on the tight film production schedule they are working to. Some film composers (particularly if they are themselves skilled orchestrators) provide the orchestrator with a very detailed piano score, often on three staves, with all the different musical lines and instrumentation indicated. In this case the artistic licence of the orchestrator is severely limited. Other film composers, particularly those with less orchestration ability, might give the orchestrator freedom to select the instrumentation of solo lines and instrumental combinations, and also to incorporate additional lines into the music. The occupation of orchestrator is mainly associated with film music, particularly the Hollywood tradition. In Australia, very few films have had a sufficiently large budget to warrant the use of a full orchestra, and until recently there have been no sound stages for high-quality recording of orchestral film music. The availability of orchestral musicians has also been limited by the schedules of the symphony orchestras; these orchestras were, in any case, traditionally hostile to the idea of engaging with this kind of work. That has changed in recent times, at least partly because the public subsidies for the government-funded orchestras have declined. There are other jobs for orchestrators in theatre music and music for public events, where orchestras are thought to add a touch

Skills

Orchestrators working for film productions need to have extensive experience in this craft, because they will have very limited time in which to complete the work.They have to be able to work very fast and very accurately, and often to a brief supplied by the composer. Orchestrators working in this field have to know everything there is to know about the routines of orchestration: how to write for every instrument of the orchestra, including subtleties of technique and performance practice; how to write for sections of the orchestra, including the balancing and blending of instruments and the various kinds of doubling (players of saxophones, for instance, ‘double’ on clarinet and flute) required; how to achieve interesting combinations of sections and contrasts between sections; how to write countermelodic material; how to create dramatic flourishes and climaxes; and how to achieve the wide range of moods in the film music vocabulary. Contemporary orchestrators also need to be able to use the latest technologies for producing scores, although some might argue that writing a score by hand is still just as quick as using computer applications. Prospects

The prospects for orchestrators of film music are limited in Australia because few films involving orchestral scores are made here. This situation may improve now that we have high-quality sound stages and because symphony orchestras are increasingly willing to perform this kind of work. As with film composers, however, Australiabased orchestrators can always travel to large filmmaking centres such as Los Angeles to look for work.

COMPOSITION

Training

The craft of orchestration can really only be learnt by doing orchestrations and then hearing them played by an orchestra. Since student composers very rarely get their music played by orchestras and professional composers are rarely commissioned by orchestras, it is a difficult craft to learn and to gain confidence in. The analytical study of scores by acknowledged masters of orchestration such as Berlioz, Richard Strauss, Mahler and Ravel is recommended. For film composers, a study of the great film orchestrators is also recommended. Most music programs that train contemporary classical composers have units in orchestration, but unless there is an opportunity for the students to hear their exercises played, their effectiveness is limited. For composers with ambitions to write orchestral music for the concert hall, work as a film music orchestrator presents an ideal opportunity to hone skills.The chance to hear orchestrations performed immediately after writing them provides ideal feedback. Comment D AV I D M AT T H E W S ( C O N C E R T

COMPOSER AND

F I L M M U S I C O R C H E S T R AT O R ) :

‘An orchestrator needs the skills to re-create the orchestral technique of particular composers. Carl Davis would show me a page of a score by Richard Strauss and tell me that he wanted that sound for a particular cue.’

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MUSIC COPYIST

A music copyist produces the parts (that is, the individual music lines for instruments) from a music score, in preparation for a performance or recording session. The work is typically done for arrangements of popular music or jazz, for film scores, or for contemporary classical orchestral and ensemble works. Traditionally this work was done by hand, but now it can also be done by using computer music notation applications. To a lesser extent, music copyists are also in demand as producers of computer-based scores. In this type of work the copyist takes the original handwritten score of a composer and enters the notation into a music notation computer program (the most professional of these are Finale and Sibelius).Then, through a process not unlike desktop publishing for text-based works, the copyist produces a publication-ready score. Production of scores is also done in conjunction with publishers of printed scores; here it overlaps with the role of the music editor. The two roles of the computer-based copyist — the production of parts and of scores — are invariably combined, as it is fairly straightforward to ‘extract’ the parts from the score in music notation applications. Skills

The copyist needs to have a thorough grounding in the conventions of music notation as developed by music publishers over the last century. Indeed, where the composer does not fully understand the conventions, the copyist is expected to edit what is presented in the score so that the performer will be able to play what is on the page. Editing is also expected for obvious mistakes that are sometimes missed by the composer when writing the score.The copyist working by hand needs

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to have developed stylish music handwriting, although in some professional circles it is mandatory that all the straight lines are ruled. When writing out parts, it is also essential to have achieved a uniformity of size and proportion similar to that of published music. This is important because most of the parts produced are sight-read, not memorised, and the performer does not have time to adapt to any idiosyncratic or inconsistent notational practices. The copyist also needs to take account of page-turn possibilities and lay out the music accordingly. As there is generally a tight deadline, particularly with film scores, copyists need to be able to work quickly and efficiently and to be good at checking their own work. Failure to get the parts absolutely correct can result in a waste of expensive rehearsal or recording time. For computer-generated scores and parts the copyist needs the same skills as for handwritten work, with the possible exception of drawing skills. In addition, a thorough understanding of the music notation software application being used, and a facility to develop new symbols where required, are essential. As freelancers, music copyists need to have good skills in small business management, professional networking and self-promotion. Prospects

Copyists have traditionally come from a composition or session music background. Once it was a profession where a reasonable living could be made if one had an extensive network of contacts. It was also done by mus icians as a sideline. With the advent of computer-based arranging in record production and the decline of live club and television orchestras, the demand for copyists has decreased. The advent of computer-based score generation has also made it easier for composers to produce their own scores and parts. They can bypass the copyist altogether. However, many composers are computer illiterate or do not wish to engage with computers; these now use computer-based music copyists to produce their scores and parts. In

the past they would have only used a copyist for the parts. Copyists learn a lot about arranging and composition in the course of their work, so these careers represent possible moves for a copyist.The advent of computer-based music printing has made it easier and cheaper to publish music as a small business. The skills learnt from DIY music publishing could easily be applied to desktop publishing generally. Training

Most programs that train composers or jazz arrangers provide a solid professional grounding for a copyist.

Chapter 3

Performance his chapter covers a range of musical styles and functions relating to music performance. It begins with a discussion of some broad popular genres of music that usually involve the performance of original music written by the performers and/or their production collaborators.This collection of categories includes original band, pop singer, children’s music group, electronic dance music performer and jazz performer. The diverse field of folk and multicultural music (involving a mixture of old and new compositions) is then introduced. The chapter continues with the discussion of job categories associated with the performance of historical styles of popular music. Here the music is usually written by songwriters the performers have no direct collaboration with.This collection of job categories includes musical theatre performer, cabaret singer, cover band, tribute band, piano bar performer, karaoke compere and electronic dance music DJ. Support performance roles in popular music production are then discussed. These jobs include backing musician, musical director, and session musician. Classical music performance is then introduced.This area covers the roles of conductor, orchestral musician, chamber musician, classical singer, and defence force band musician. Supporting roles in classical music performance, including accompanist, repetiteur and ballet pianist, are then discussed. The chapter concludes with a description of the jobs of community musician and busker.

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ORIGINAL BAND

An original band is a group of musicians with a long-term commitment to writing, performing and releasing recordings of their own songs. Original bands have formed the backbone of the international music industry since the Beatles, and they chart the history of rock music in its various manifestations, including folk rock, progressive rock, hard rock, country rock, punk rock, heavy metal, glam rock, alternative rock, and so on. Original bands usually have one or more songwriters, but the whole band is invariably involved in the arrangement and production of the song. To be successful, original bands must make music that appeals to the youth culture of the time and place where they are working. Skills

Original bands often do not have the same playing skills that backing musicians or even cover bands have. They are instead intent on creating their own individual sound, repertoire, image and attitude. Even so, many original bands have started out playing covers or a mixture of covers and originals. To achieve success, though, the musicians in an original band must be good players (and singers) within the terms of their own creative vision. This includes being able to play in tune and in time, and being able to play stylistically appropriately within their chosen genre of music. Ideally, they should develop their own kind of exciting virtuosity as performers. They must also be able to write song lyrics that connect to their audience’s interests, and music that emotionally moves and physically energises their audience.They need to develop a strong stage act that demonstrates their energy and their commitment to inspiring their audience. The con-

cept of planned stage movements is anathema to many original bands, but moving well on stage requires as much planning and practice as playing the music does. This side of the work includes having a stage plan and knowing where you are on stage in relation to the lighting plot. The band also needs to rehearse the timing of the performance, so that they can manage the gaps between songs and entrances and exits from the stage efficiently. Performers must learn to communicate with their audience by talking to them in a natural, but fluent and entertaining way, and they need to be able to deal with unrest or aggression from the crowd. They have to be able to look good on stage, and to appear confident and believable as performers. Bands that are starting out also need a range of business skills. These include small business management (for the day-to-day running of their operation), project management (for planning tours or special events), strategic management (for setting their career goals), networking (for getting gigs and other business opportunities), and promotion (to make sure as many people as possible attend their gigs and buy their records; and to get DJs to play their records on radio). Once a band is in a position to afford a manager, a lot of these responsibilities will be passed on, but the band members need to understand and be able to carry out these management tasks anyway (see Chapter 7: Music business for information on the business associates of successful original bands). Technology skills are essential for members of an original band. These include the ability to operate and maintain the equipment being used on stage and in rehearsals — musical instruments, amplifiers, signal processing gear and public address systems. Being able to record rehearsals and performances in order to assess performance quality is advisable. Musicians also need the technical knowledge and diplomacy skills to be able to communicate their stage sound and lighting needs to technical crew. Being aware of and active about relevant occupational health and safety issues is also crucial; band members

PERFORMANCE

need to avoid injuries that might result from lifting, falling, tripping, electrocution, noise levels, repetitive strain, stage movement, substance abuse and driving. Warming up routines to minimise strain from muscular exertion on stage are essential. Prospects

There are various stages of professional progress for an original band. Unknown original bands can rarely compete as entertainers against cover bands for pub gigs, the staple employment of the original band. Establishing a regular following of fans is essential to turn the tables. If you can demonstrate that your original band can pull a crowd, there is more likelihood of the band getting gigs in local pubs and clubs.The next stage is usually to make a record as a promotional tool (and also for sale at the gig). The idea is to try to get airplay on radio stations. For original bands, airplay on Triple J has been a reliable way to gain a wider audience, which makes touring outside the band’s local area more financially viable.The band should also be attempting to get support act gigs with a high-profile band on a tour. It is at this stage that the original band will be looking for a manager and a deal with a record company. Once the band has signed a record deal and a record has been released (possibly with a music video clip), a huge effort has to be made touring and doing media interviews in order to make sure that the record sells and gets airplay. If the record is not successful the band will probably lose money. They will have been paid what’s called an advance — money paid up front against money that will be earned by the record — but if the record has not recouped that money, the band will owe the outstanding money to the record company, and the record company will think twice about making and releasing another record. If the record is successful, it may then be a good time for the band to tour internationally as well as continue to tour nationally, in the hope of significantly larger record sales. Significant sales (in the hundreds of thousands or above) in the

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international market will yield very large financial rewards for the band. Success breeds success, but original bands will still need to commit to years of hard work to maintain their position in what is an extremely competitive and fickle marketplace. Generally, the success rate of original bands is not high. If musicians are unsuccessful after a few years of commitment and hard work, they may be forced to look for a steady income from a diversity of other musical enterprises or to establish a career in another field altogether. Training

There is a school of thought that believes that original bands will lose their edge if they submit themselves to formal musical training, that the special raw quality they have will be ironed out of them by the -discipline of instrumental and/or vocal training. Having said this, a great deal can be gained from training in a variety of aspects of the original musician’s craft. There are business skills that are essential for the original band starting out without a manager. There are technology skills relating to the operation of stage equipment, sound reinforcement equipment and recording studios. And many original bands now incorporate electronic music elements into their live and recorded music. This kind of training is available in a few university programs, many TAFE institutes and some private music schools (see Appendix 2). If people in original bands do choose to study music in a training institution, they should make sure that the teachers of performance, songwriting and production have relevant music industry experience and that the school is appropriately equipped.

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

OTHER ORIGINAL MUSIC PERFORMERS OF CONTEMPORARY POPULAR MUSIC here are various formats for artists performing original popular music. Apart from original bands, the main format is the singer-songwriter, who may or may not use a band.This format is particularly applicable to country music, where solo artists are more common than bands. Many solo country music artists use backing bands (see Backing musician, below). This makes their operation different from the original band — the expenses involved in putting on performances will be somewhat higher. The backing band is usually paid a flat fee by the artist; they don’t share in the profits (or the losses). The solo artist also needs to provide charts for the backing band and pay the band for rehearsals. Apart from these differences, the solo original artist will need to take care of business in much the same way as the original band. Other models for the performance of original music include duos such as Savage Garden. With this kind of ensemble there is often an electronic backing element to the act. As songwriters, pop duos in general are interested in using pop backing that is based on sequencing and sampling. As such, they need excellent programming skills (see Chapter 4: Production).

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PERFORMANCE

POP SINGER

The most successful of the pop music singers who do not perform their own songs have all received media exposure in another entertainment format beforehand.The classic example of this is the television star who crosses over to mainstream popular music. Kylie Minogue, Jason Donovan and Natalie Imbruglia established their careers as television soap opera stars, and Tina Arena and Jamie Redfern established theirs on the Young Talent Time television program. In attempting to succeed as recording artists, these performers have the benefit of already being well known. It is easier for them to get media coverage, and the songs they sing are usually tailored by their producer towards a broader market than those of original bands or singer-songwriters. If they do not write their own material, however, they miss out on the publishing royalties from record sales. If they are famous and able to sell a lot of records, though, they are often in a position to do a royalty percentage deal with the songwriters whose music they record. They may also be taken on by a publisher with a view to developing their songwriting skills in collaboration with another songwriter signed to that publisher. Another persistent formula in pop music performance has been the ‘manufacture’ of pop groups. Historically the most famous example was 1960s group The Monkeys, formed in the same way as a movie or a television series is cast.The modern-day revival of the practice was stimulated by the phenomenal success of the Spice Girls in the early 1990s. Since then a series of girl, boy and mixed groups has appeared in the pop charts. A feature of these groups is the casting of people with different stereotyped looks — the aim of this is to appeal to a very broad range

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of audiences. Most of these groups feature dancing as much as singing. They usually don’t feature instrumentalists. Performers in all these pop categories often have a wide range of entertainment skills derived from previous work experience and training. They are more likely to be experienced dancers and actors as well as singers, and are able to appeal to a broader audience. Their music is aimed at the young teenage market, but it also has appeal for older audiences. In managing their careers, however, they need essentially the same skills and professional support as artists who write and perform their own music.

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

CHILDREN’S MUSIC GROUP

After the major success of the children’s group The Wiggles, there has been more attention given in the entertainment industry to this field of activity. Many groups have attempted to clone The Wiggles but there are others who have, more sensibly, tried to understand the phenomenon and develop their own approach. Children’s music groups target the 2 to 6-year-old demographic. After that age, children are more likely to be interested in pop stars such as Britney Spears. The groups are mostly employed to do shows by shopping centres, preschools and playgroup associations (usually for their fundraising activities), and by community festivals run by city councils.The standard show of 30 to 45 minutes is based around the singing of songs, but also involves acting and dancing. The playing of instruments, particularly instrumental solos, is not featured. Because it is a daytime activity and the performances are short, it is typical for groups to perform more than one show per day, sometimes in locations at some distance from each other (Tamworth in the morning, Armidale in the afternoon, for example). As an example of the possible workload, The Wiggles, early in their career, were doing 500 shows a year. Apart from the live performance aspects, professional children’s music groups are involved in the making and marketing of recorded products — CDs, videos and audio cassettes — as well as other kinds of merchandise. The live show typically changes with each new album produced. Usually a show has a general theme but is subdivided into smaller sections of two or three subject-linked songs in consideration of the attention span of audience members. Songs are invariably no more than two and a half minutes long, have

nursery rhyme-like melodies and familiar chord changes; they usually include some kind of physical action that is performed as part of the song. Some songs are used to introduce characters in the show. Because the group usually needs to present several shows in different venues in a day (and because of the associated limited set-up time), the entire show, including sound system, musical instruments, costumes, sets, props and merchandise, needs to fit into a van or (for interstate engagements) an aircraft container. Skills

Skills in singing, dancing and acting and the ability to perform with energy and enthusiasm are essential. In order to be able to predict the success of songs and staging ideas, group members need to understand the psychology of the target age group, and be able to respond to and learn from audience feedback. Understanding the songwriting craft appropriate for this kind of work is essential. The approach to songwriting is more akin to writing a theatre show than writing individual songs, because each album must provide the basis for a show. To make the enterprise viable, it helps if the members of children’s music groups have the skills to make their own sets, props and costumes themselves — otherwise they need sufficient start-up funds to have it all made. Skills in small business management are also essential. Because of gruelling travel and performance schedules, it is important that people doing this kind of work genuinely enjoy it. Prospects

To get started in this field, a group of likeminded suitably skilled people need to come up with an original concept.They need to be highly committed to the project, because performance fees will not be very high until the act becomes established. Starting rates are around $500 per show, considerably more than for rock bands starting out. However, compared with rock it is a small

PERFORMANCE

industry, and one where professional career support is not very developed — there are few agencies and management companies that handle this genre. Children’s music groups are better off doing their own management than working with agents and managers from more mainstream music genres. The main record company for the genre is ABC Records, but Festival/Mushroom Records and BMG are also involved in this field. Training

Some kind of training in singing, acting, dancing, and songwriting is required.Training in early childhood development — or perhaps just being a parent! — would provide an understanding of the way young children think, a useful asset in this kind of creative work. Comment BEN O’HARA (THE FLOWERPOT GANG):

‘You need to work hard, but not to take it too seriously.We’re doing it because it’s fun — it’s hilarious. But you also need to be very professional in your approach to the business and to the quality of your work.’

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ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC PERFORMER

An electronic dance music performer produces music live in one or more electronic dance music styles, sometimes solo and sometimes in a band. Although the dominant live presentation format for electronic dance music is via the DJ, live music soloists and bands are also incorporated into some dance club or dance party events.Typically they will perform in a room or other kind of space devoted to live music, Alternatively, a performance might occur during a break in the DJing schedule. Unlike an instrumental band, an electronic soloist or band can fit into a small space, making it possible to perform in venues that are not feasible for larger groups (cafés and small clubs, for example). A typical format is a two-member ensemble with one person handling a sequencer and a mixing console and the other person playing a sampler and synthesisers. Since the mixing aspects are central to the creative process, the front-of-house mix is usually done from the stage (in larger venues with bigger budgets the stage mixer might send a sub-mix to a front-of-house mixer in the body of the room). Other formats might include a singer (rapping, singing, speaking, imitating drum grooves), an electronic drum kit player, or a turntablist (providing breaks, scratches and intros and outros). A new range of dedicated dance music synth devices has emerged for live electronic dance music performance. Instrumentalists from other styles of popular music are also sometimes recruited, but unless they are conversant with the textures and structures of dance music they may find it difficult to adapt. Some live performance groups also use prerecorded DATs or CDs to play along with, but this practice is generally looked down on by the live electronic music community.

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The music is essentially improvised, using some basic principles of construction. The players may use a number of preprogrammed rhythm patterns to form the basis of the textures.The process involves real-time electronic manipulation of sounds, as well as additive and subtractive texture-creation methods. The appeal to an audience is that it sees electronic music being produced live on the spot (normally DJs only play records). The band is also able to respond musically to the mood of the dance floor in much the same way as a DJ does by selecting particular records to play. Just as an electronic music composer structures a track in the studio, the electronic band attempts to produce a structurally satisfying experience for the audience. Skills

Live electronic dance music performers must have a highly developed understanding of the operation of electronic music equipment, including mixing consoles; a thorough understanding of the textural requirements of particular styles of electronic music; improvisational skills, including the ability to interact appropriately with other musicians in structuring a performance; and the ability to respond musically to the mood of the dance floor. Small business skills and self-marketing ability are also critical skills for freelance electronic dance music performers. Prospects

In Australia is it easy to get work as a live electronic dance music solo performer or band. Compared with the oversupply of DJs, there are few live musicians working in this field. If a musician develops a compact equipment rig it is possible to travel reasonably cheaply to different cities and regional dance party events. The fees range from around $300 to $1500, or more if the artist has worked overseas or has chart success. To achieve significant success, performers need to travel overseas and perform in cities such as London, Manchester, Amsterdam, Detroit, Chicago, or New York.

Training

Musicians wishing to specialise in electronic dance music performance may be able to do this as a keyboard synthesiser major in a contemporary popular music program. Alternatively, studying electronic dance music composition is an option, as the core technology operation and programming skills needed will be available in such a course (see Chapter 2: Composition). Comment D AV E B R A M A G H ( D J MUSICIAN):

AND ELECTRONIC

‘If you do the same kind of thing each performance, industry people start to get interested, but if you don’t keep changing you don’t get as much interest from the audience.’

PERFORMANCE

JAZZ PERFORMER

Jazz performers usually work in small ensembles, typically of three to six players.There are some larger groups, but they are generally considered uneconomical without some kind of subsidy. Big bands which involve up to 20 players are now virtually nonexistent. Some jazz ensembles include a vocalist, but it is more typical for them to be entirely instrumental. Jazz is an art form which attracts a small specialist audience. Most capital cities in Australia have one or two venues dedicated to jazz and related musical genres, and there are quite a few festivals that feature jazz (Wangaratta, Fremantle, Bellingen). Jazz is usually also represented at major capital city festivals. Jazz attracts musicians who wish to work in a musical form that focuses on composition and improvisation within complex harmonic and rhythmic structures.At the same time, it is a genre that is rooted in a repertoire of ‘standards’ that some audience members expect to hear when attending a jazz performance. Skills

It is essential for jazz musicians to possess a highly developed instrumental (or vocal) technique, excellent listening and transcription skills, and a thorough theoretical understanding and practical application of the musical language of the genre. Jazz musicians are expected to be able to sight-read musical charts fluently, to memorise standards, and generally to be able to fit into any professional situation that may arise in the genre. It is also advantageous to be able to write original music and arangements. The best jazz musicians are distinguished by their ability to improvise without relying

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overly on pre-learnt routines.As with composition generally, jazz improvisers are expected to develop an original ‘sound’ which makes their music instantly recognisable to the listener. Although consideration of the subtleties of stagecraft is generally low on the list of priorities for jazz musicians (with the exception of jazz vocalists), players do need to be able to project intensity, excitement and commitment to the audience. Jazz musicians require well-developed self-promotion and small business management skills for the successful management of their careers. Prospects

Jazz is highly competitive because the audience is not large and there are always many improvising musicians striving for recognition in the field. As a result, only the cream of musicians are able to make some kind of living from it. Most are forced to also play in other situations, such as backing cabaret artists and playing sessions for recording artists, two fields that are themselves also on the decline. Teaching also sustains many jazz musicians. As an art form, jazz has achieved only a fraction of the level of government subsidy and public sponsorship that classical music has achieved. However, grants for concerts, professional development, recordings, festivals and tours are available to assist some of the most respected, the most innovative and the most promising players in the field. Jazz musicians who wish to make a career exclusively in the genre probably need to make their mark in the international arena — in the US (particularly New York), Europe (especially Germany and Scandinavia), Japan and South Korea. The fees for jazz musicians range from around $50 to $200 for pub or club gigs to several thousand dollars for major festival appearances. Training

Specialised courses in jazz performance are available at a number of tertiary music schools

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(see Appendix 2). Despite the institutionalisation of jazz training, learning jazz performance craft remains a very individual process, requiring long and intensive periods of selfdirected study and practice as well as years of public performance experience. Many Australian jazz musicians aspire to work with a jazz mentor, preferably one based in New York. Comment SCOTT TINKLER (JAZZ

TRUMPET SOLOIST):

‘Practise hard, practise things you like to practise, play things you like. If something interests you and you want to be good at it then practise it really hard for a long time — concentrate on it for weeks and weeks until you really understand it. I think sometimes people practise a little bit of this, a little bit of that, and they don’t necessarily master one thing. It could be a tune, a harmonic progression you might like, and if you really like that sound, you should practise and practise it around in every key until it permeates itself into the way you play. Once you’ve really mastered that, you should look at starting to change it in some way.You don’t want to just scratch the surface, you want to get really, really deep into all those things, so that it affects your style as an individual. And if you like someone, listen to all the music, learn to play all those solos. That will give you a strong grounding technically as well as aurally. Now it may take five years before that starts to affect you on a personal level, and gets out of your playing and affects you more as an individual, but you have to go through those things; you can’t sit back and wait, you have to attack the situation. And I think that’s what all the players that I respect the most have done: attacked those situations, sat down and looked at themselves and gone “OK, I need to do this, I need to practise that.” I’ve often done gigs when I was younger, and just gone “OK that’s it, I have to do it, I can’t put it off any longer, I have to sit and learn that scale, I can’t bluff my way through that change any more.”You have to bite the bullet and take responsibility for each of your actions. And that’s where it

comes back to being your own teacher. You can’t go to someone else and say “I want to learn how to do that, teach me.”You have to say: “I’m learning how to do that, can you help me?”’ LEIGH CARRIAGE (JAZZ

VOCALIST):

‘Just try to be yourself, because usually that’s the most unique thing about you, and that’s what will last the longest. Secondly, you’re performing with one of the muses, so don’t forget to enjoy it. And then I think with singers today, we have to be more diverse than we think.Thus having an open mind towards other genres of music would be practical in this country, where rock music and pop music are financially more beneficial. I would suggest that if you are going to be a jazz vocalist, you would need to find a good practitioner who not only knows how to improvise and teach that, but who can also teach you physiology and let you know a bit about the anatomy of your own instrument.’

PERFORMANCE

FOLK AND MULTICULTURAL PERFORMER

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the various multicultural venues and support organisations in the capital cities. In addition, these musicians perform at ethnic clubs and private social functions linked to their cultural heritage. Skills

A range of musical activities revolves around the folk and multicultural music festival circuits in Australia.These include original music performed in a folk style, traditional AngloIrish folk music, immigrant Australian musicians performing music of their own cultures and Australian musicians performing cover versions of the traditional music of Europe (particularly Eastern Europe), Central America, South America and East Asia. In addition, there is cross-cultural music played by ethnic musicians and musicians who have learnt the relevant performance traditions. Cross-cultural experimentation is also featured at folk festivals. In this genre musicians from different cultural backgrounds create experimental music with improvisation as a major component.The range of musical combinations and sources of musical inspiration and identification is very broad. Folk musicians performing original music and the folk music of other countries work as solo artists, duos, a cappella groups and bands. Their lyrics are usually socially conscious, although a range of topics is possible.There is a protest wing to this movement which is based not on creating a professional career but rather on creating awareness about certain issues and performing at rallies and blockades. At the entertainment end of the spectrum there is the folk festival circuit (in Australia and internationally) and venues that specialise in folk and cross-cultural music. Solo folk performers have increased in general popularity in the 1990s with the international success of DIY artists (people who operate outside mainstream industry by forming their own record company, for example) such as Ani DiFranco. Musicians performing the traditional and folk music of their own cultures gravitate to

For traditional music performers, skills in performance are often gained though immersion in the cultural life of the traditional community, including extensive experience performing with expert practitioners. Many folk artists are interested in crosscultural approaches to their work and in performing folk music of other cultures. For this they need to be able to research the music, and they need to learn to perform it in a stylistically convincing way, or at least to give a fairly accurate rendition from a non-specialist perspective. Knowing the language of the other culture is particularly useful when performing the music of that culture. As a cross-cultural performer, it is fundamental to develop technical mastery of an instrument or as a singer, and to maintain that level of technique through practice.Advanced understanding of a variety of non-Western as well as Western musical theories and performance practices is also required. Some folk and multicultural artists may have record contracts, but generally the field is not regarded as commercially viable by the music industry. So artists in this field need a broad range of skills if they are able to make a living or part of a living from the activity. They need to be able to write songs, arrange music, perform live, research music, record and produce CDs, organise the distribution of their recorded product, secure gigs, and organise and manage tours. For these business activities, small business management, negotiation, professional networking and interpersonal and business communication skills are essential. Promoters at major folk and world music festivals prefer acts that are versatile enough to do concerts, workshops, children’s performances and storytelling. Stagecraft, stage energy, acting and teaching skills are all required. As

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with most contemporary performers, skills in music technology, particularly PA system operation, are desirable. Prospects

It is difficult to get well-paid work in this field. At the major festivals many performers start out busking, then progress to performing on a small stage for little or no fee. As they become better known their fees increase.The fee structure is based on quality of performance, profile of the artist and popularity with the audience. Fees are generally low, but can be negotiated up to $1300 per performance if the act is in demand. Generally, artists need to have a CD for sale in order to appear for a fee at folk and world music festivals.The sales of CDs at festivals can be healthy, but the proceeds are often directed towards the production of the next CD. There is a lack of good management for folk music artists in Australia. This makes organising tours, particular overseas tours, difficult. Immigrant musicians may be able to tap into the performance programs promoted by the various multicultural music centres in capital cities. Most of these organisations receive funding from government granting bodies. Other related income-generating activities include teaching and running music workshops and community choirs. Training

There are not many institutional opportunities for training in traditional styles of music in Australia. Certainly there are very few tertiary music institutions or private schools that feature offerings outside the classical, jazz or rock genres. Some university music departments with an ethnomusicology focus offer performance training and experience in traditions such as Javanese music or Ghanaian music. The Australian Institute of Eastern Music (based in Sydney) teaches various Eastern music traditions. There are also a few schools that offer training in select-

ed traditional Aboriginal musical genres for Indigenous Australians. In any case, the best way to learn to play the traditional music of a culture is to travel to the source of the music and spend lots of time absorbing the culture generally as well as learning musical technique and repertoire. The skills involved in playing traditional music are usually passed down from generation to generation. In many genres of traditional music (such as those of India or Japan) they require a lifelong regimen of training and practice. Folk performers are most often self-taught or learn their craft from other members of their community. However, the range of skills required to be professionally successful indicates that a course in contemporary popular music that covers business, technology, songwriting, arranging, musicianship and performance skills would be beneficial. Comment JUSTO DIAZ (MUSIC DIRECTOR OF THE BAND PA PA L O T E A N D M U S I C C O O R D I N AT O R F O R C A R N I VA L E , T H E N S W G O V E R N M E N T ’ S M U L T I C U LT U R A L A R T S F U N D I N G B O D Y ) :

‘Traditional music is a difficult field, but your commitment is to your art form, so it doesn’t matter how difficult it is. I still might have problems finding work as a performer, but I’ve had lots more opportunities than most musicians or artists of non-English speaking background (NESB). It’s very hard for them to communicate (language skills could be a problem), and to get access to funding. Without employment and without funding, there’s no way you can maintain anything, because talented traditional musicians have to look for other types of work. The problem is not only for NESB musicians but for musicians in general, as there is a lack of music venues and government strategies to protect the fragile live music scene. Australia is losing a generation of musicians who could have contributed to the cultural wealth of the country, who could develop the new Australian music, because eventually Australia will have to fuse and present a local musical

PERFORMANCE

content that is a consequence of all these internal movements, migrations and crosspollinations.’ G U Y S T R A Z Z U L L O ( C R O S S - C U LT U R A L M E N TA L M U S I C I A N ) :

EXPERI-

‘Work as hard as you can.Try not to leave any holes unplugged when learning. Be patient and apply a good amount of humbleness even when you know you are good — it will keep you sharp and open to new knowledge. Try to be aware of cultural differences when interacting with musicians from cultures different from your own. An allembracing attitude often creates positive outcomes.’ CARL CLEVES (CONTEMPORARY SINGER/SONGWRITER):

FOLK

‘Folk audiences tend to be excellent, and much more attentive than rock audiences. It is the sense of community and self-empowerment that makes the folk circuit so special.’ PA R I S S A B O U A S ( C O N T E M P O R A R Y SINGER/SONGWRITER):

FOLK

‘Folk audiences are very discerning.They seek depth and honesty, and love to participate.’

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MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER

A musical theatre performer is a person who performs on stage in musicals and similar kinds of productions. Usually the performer works for an established theatre company or theatre promoter, but it is also possible for performers to develop their own shows on a smaller scale — for performance in a theatre restaurant situation, for example. Getting a part in a musical involves auditioning for a particular role or for the chorus. The work involves a period of intense rehearsal followed by a performance season. A season may involve up to 8 performances a week, and may be a period of weeks, months or even years if the show is a box office hit. Performers in lesser roles are usually required to understudy a more prominent role in case one of the main performers becomes ill or otherwise unable to perform. Skills

Musical theatre performers need skills in singing, acting and dancing. Performers need to be able to vary their style of singing according to the style of musical theatre (Gilbert and Sullivan, classic Broadway shows, contemporary rock musicals, neo-operatic shows, etc). Some shows or roles may be more focused on dancing skills or character acting skills.A full range of dancing styles such as tap, modern and jazz may be required for some shows, such as Singin’ in the Rain. A great deal of performance discipline is required. Musical theatre performers are expected to play their parts in a more or less identical way for each performance, but they are still required to approach each performance with enthusiasm and energy, regardless of how long the show has been running. Because of the demanding schedule of performances, musical theatre artists need to

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pay particular attention to maintaining their fitness and health (including vocal health), and to be able to plan each day around the fact that they will be required to put their maximum energy into a night-time performance. A vibrant stage personality is essential. Musical theatre performers also require skills in self-promotion and small business management. They should develop a good relationship with an agent to maximise their chances of employment. Prospects

This is a very competitive field of performance. There are very few big-budget shows, but there are other professional opportunities with smaller theatre companies, and in tourist resorts, theme parks, theatre restaurants and some cruise ships. Many performers get their start working on amateur or school productions. The fees for professional theatre range from award wages (performer grade 1 earns $640 per week) to contracts that pay $3000 per performance for musical theatre stars. Training

The training regime for musical theatre performers is varied, to take account of the singing, acting and dancing aspects of the craft. Degree courses are available in a number of Australian tertiary institutions (see Appendix 2). Comment ELIZABETH LORD (MUSIC FORMER):

T H E AT R E P E R -

‘Be confident of your own stage of development, where you are up to. Just do what you need to do to be comfortable. Listen to all advice but just take in what you really feel is true, what rings in your heart, what speaks to your intuition (“That works, that doesn’t”). Find a good teacher, someone you have a great working relationship with, where you can feel the changes in a short time after working with them.’

CABARET PERFORMER

In Australia, cabaret performers are usually solo singers who work the service club circuit and perform for mostly middle-aged or older audiences. If they have had a substantial career as a singer-songwriter they may be able to perform repertoire largely based on the recorded output of their own work. But as the kinds of audiences for whom they play enjoy standards from a broad sweep of popular music history, their repertoires usually reflect these audience preferences. Some cabaret performers specialise in particular song repertoires. Solo singers working in this field have usually developed a show or a number of different shows that cater for a range of audiences. The development of a show involves writing or commissioning arrangements that can be played by the cabaret performer’s own backing band, or by backing bands employed in-house by the venues that contract the cabaret artist. The charts need to be flexible enough to be played by a range of differentsized bands, from the basic piano, bass and drums combination to larger ensembles that include a horn section. Cabaret performers are expected to be able to entertain the audience through storytelling as well as through singing. Audiences are particularly interested in hearing stories about the artist’s career and the background of the songs being performed. Skills

Cabaret artists need to be extremely accomplished performers of the style or styles of music they sing, and must have excellent stagecraft skills. The ability to communicate personal and topical stories to an audience in a friendly and warm manner is essential. Being able to read audiences and understand

PERFORMANCE

what kinds of music and entertainment they will enjoy is also very important (singers who have their own bands can make some adjustments to their plan between sets). The ability to ‘talk through’ the written charts with the musicians before the performance is critical, as there is rarely an opportunity to rehearse. Cabaret artists must also be able to communicate well with a backing band during a performance — they need to be able to give clear signals, par ticularly about tempo, tempo changes and endings. Similarly, they need to be able to communicate with sound and lighting crew about the technical requirements of the performance. Prospects

The main outlets for cabaret performers are sports and service clubs and television shows that feature musical acts. To get this kind of work you need to already have a profile as a performer; this usually comes about through success as a recording artist. In fact artists and bands that have had very successful recording careers in their early days are often able to extend their performing careers by working the club/cabaret circuit. Fees per performance can range from a few hundred to several thousand dollars, depending on the venue capacity and the profile of the artist. Training

There are no music training programs specifically devoted to the preparation of cabaret artists. However, performers who are able to get this kind of professional work on the club circuit are usually very experienced and successful performers. Training in musical theatre (see above) may be useful, but cabaret work also involves direct verbal contact with the audience, and the ability to make the audience relate to the performer in a personal way.Thus some kind of public speaking training may be useful.

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Comment ELIZABETH LORD (CABARET

PERFORMER):

‘For me personally a lot of the performing side has come naturally. I love performing. I love being on stage. I’m so much more comfortable being on stage than in the audience. I like the power and the feeling of being able to call it as I see it. I hope that when my performance is over, the audience will be warmer for that moment — they may have shed a tear, and they may have learnt something new about me and about songwriters.’

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COVER BAND

A cover band plays popular music originally composed and recorded by other musicians, particularly very famous hits of past or present eras. A band hired as a cover band is expected to perform music that is easily recognised and loved by the audience. Original music by the band will not be included in the program, although a few original songs can be sneaked in. Cover bands that play contemporary era music are the most economically viable bands of all; an original band will only be as successful if it has achieved record sales and airplay prominence in its own right, which is the case for only a small percentage of original bands. Cover artists also perform in smaller combinations, such as a singer accompanying himself/herself on keyboard or guitar or a duo of singers who also play guitar. These smaller combinations will have difficulty reproducing the sound of the original recorded track, but they at least keep to the idea of performing a familiar popular music repertoire, and that is the crux of the success of all cover work. Another increasingly familiar adaptation of the formula is the solo singer with sequenced synthesiser backing. This approach to cover performance has been given a boost by the availability of realistically arranged general MIDI sequences of popular song recordings on the World Wide Web. Skills

The classic cover band philosophy is to imitate the exact sound of the original. Although this approach is not universal, it plays a big part in the craft of a cover band. To achieve this, the individual musicians in the band need to be able to work out exactly what the original band members are play-

ing and then play it precisely, including with the correct inflexions and timbre. This requires superior aural skills and a high degree of familiarity with the technology and techniques of tone colour creation/ re-creation. The cover band usually has a large repertoire, perhaps 300 or more songs that relate to their focus, which will itself be determined by the audiences they play to or the requirements of the venues they play in. Most of this repertoire is rehearsed and memorised. In this field, performing with energy and conviction seems to preclude the use of charts. Cover bands are also expected to cope with all sorts of song requests — it is regarded as a sign of failure if a particular cover band is unable to play a request that is part of the repertoire it is expected to know. Cover bands can often play requests even if they have not rehearsed that particular song.There is an expectation that some kind of performance can be got together on the basis of some familiarity with the requested song or some sketchy charts that are kept as fakebooks (a collection of music charts consisting of the melody, lyrics and chords of a song). Pulling this off requires a great deal of knowledge of and familiarity with the popular music repertoire plus an ability to play an improvised arrangement and communicate well with the other players in order to scramble through the performance. Cover bands are expected to extend and update their repertoire as new popular music appears, which means they regularly need to transcribe and rehearse new songs. Cover bands are essentially an entertainment package, so as well as their musical skills they need stagecraft skills, including movement and acting, and the ability to communicate well with their audiences both on and off stage, particularly if they have a residency and a regular clientele. Like most artists who contract their services to venues, cover bands also need skills in small business management, marketing and promotion.

PERFORMANCE

Prospects

Although cover bands are the most common form of musical entertainment worldwide in hotels, clubs and resorts, the fees they are contracted for are not substantial. Because they do not generally release records, they have no chance of advancement through sales or airplay royalties. In addition, as the live music scene has been contracting (at least partly as the result of the introduction of poker machines into venues), the work available has been diminishing. Experience in playing with a highly skilled cover band may lead to other kinds of work, though, including the possibility of being co-opted into a successful original band if there is a vacancy. Cover bands may play gigs for as little as a few hundred dollars, but may also receive in excess of $1000 per performance — it all depends on the type of venue and the size of crowd the band is able to attract. Training

Cover band musicians need good performance technique and good ears to be able to perform a large repertoire of contemporary popular music. Most of these skills can be acquired through private study and self-initiated study. However, the more cover band musicians know about contemporary music theory and a diversity of contemporary performance styles, the easier this job becomes (see Appendix 2).

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TRIBUTE BAND

A tribute band is a cover band devoted to the repertoire of one famous band and attempting to not only sound like that band but also to imitate its members visually through costume, movement and other performance activities. Some tribute bands even try to recruit performers who have the same physical characteristics as the original band members.This kind of act is growing in popularity. When the original band retires from the performance circuit or becomes inaccessible because of its international touring or recording schedule, a demand for good imitators grows. It is not uncommon for tribute bands to become more popular than the bands they are imitating — they sometimes do better at the box office in the same city. This can probably be explained by the fact that most of these tribute bands have young members who put a great deal of effort into entertaining their audiences — the original artists may well be jaded by this time. The attitude of the original bands to their tribute imitators is often mixed, but the phenomenon has flourished, mostly because it generates significant performance royalties for the songwriters of the original band. Solo tribute acts such as Elvis impersonators are also very popular. Skills

The skills of the tribute band (or soloist) are similar to those of a cover band, but they usually make a greater effort to sound as similar as possible to the original band. In some cases this extends to using the exact instruments and sound equipment models that the original band used. Tribute bands research the band they are imitating and try to copy everything about

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the performance practice, from the exact sounds of the instruments and voices to the way the melodic lines are phrased. The stage movements and gestures of the individual members of the original band are imitated, perhaps even exaggerated for theatrical effect. Musicians in tribute bands therefore need to have better stagecraft skills than their cover band or original band colleagues. In some bands there is a strong element of (humorous) parody in the way the material is presented. Tribute band shows often involve audience interaction. Prospects

Tribute bands do not usually issue recordings; their main activity is live theatrical shows. Although they are usually based in large cities, there is a possibility for significant national and even international success. The originators of the Abba tribute band, Bjorn Again, have made the concept into an international operation with a number of Bjorn Again line-ups performing in England and continental Europe, often to stadiumsize audiences. The business generated by Bjorn Again is worth many millions of dollars per year. Training

The training needed for this kind of work is similar to that for a cover band. In addition, training in acting and movement may be required if the original band was notable for its theatricality. Comment WERNHER PRAMSCHUFER (PURPLE, THE DEEPEST TRIBUTE, 1985–90):

‘The band toured Australia playing the biggest venues, and we did eight tours of New Zealand. It was the full theatrical production — the big hair, the smoke [machine] and the lights. The sound was indistinguishable from the real thing — note for note, nuance for nuance from the Deep Purple albums. The musicians were the best I could find. My keyboard player was a lunatic who’d

pick the keyboard up and play it with his tongue, and then set the thing on fire. The lead singer would climb up pillars and swing, curse and play drumsticks on people’s heads. We had a real show.’

PERFORMANCE

PIANO BAR PERFORMER

Piano bar performers sing popular songs while providing their own accompaniment (ideally on a grand piano) in a restaurant, pub, club, hotel restaurant (or other entertainment space), resort, cruise ship or casino.They may also be hired for special functions such as weddings and anniversaries. The repertoire is usually wide-ranging, limited only by the style preferences and skills of the performer and the requirements of the venue. It may be that the performer sings the classics of the Broadway musical era (songs by Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, Richard Rogers and George Gershwin, for example).Additionally, or alternatively, the repertoire might cover the rock music era, particularly tuneful ballads by artists such as Billy Joel, Carole King, Elton John, the Beatles, and more recent popular classics. Piano bar performers are expected to be able take requests from the audience. Piano bar management often give performers a brief relating to dress standards and other standards of personal behaviour. This kind of work is available in all places, but more is available in large city hotels and in resort areas. Some piano bar jobs don’t require singing; instead, they require the ability to play flamboyant piano arrangements of Broadway musical and jazz standards and other popular songs. Other jobs don’t require a piano at all — the piano is replaced by a guitar. In these cases, all the other principles apply, but the repertoire would be more focused on guitarbased jazz, folk or rock standards. Skills

Piano bar performers will be more successful if they have a large memorised repertoire — 200 to 300 songs that can be performed well

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and with an appropriate stylistic interpretation. Performers need to maintain (and keep organised in an easily accessible filing system or book compilations) a library of other songs in sheet music, lead sheet, or lyrics-withchords format in order to be able to perform particular songs if requested. Performers need to expand their repertoire constantly and to keep abreast of the latest popular songs. The greater the stylistic range and number of songs in the repertoire, the wider the range of work available. In the case of special functions, performers need to be able to quickly learn any songs specially requested for the occasion, and generally be able to understand and work to a brief, including dress requirements, PA system supply and, in the case of highly organised functions, the running sheet of the proceedings (where the music sets are timed to accommodate speeches, meal courses, presentations, etc). The skills helpful in developing a repertoire or being able to play requests (at times based on snippets not always tunefully hummed for the performer by patrons) include the ability to learn songs by ear (through listening to recordings), the ability to transcribe lead sheets (or write even more detailed charts) of songs, the ability to sightread sheet music, to develop or improvise piano accompaniments from chord charts, and to interpret the phrasing and articulation of vocal lines in a way appropriate to the song’s genre. A well-developed vocal and piano technique is expected, but in situations where backing tracks and MIDI files are accepted and encouraged (to satisfy the musical tastes of the venue or the patrons), the piano skills may often be minimal. Piano bar performers need to be able to operate and troubleshoot a vocal PA system. It is a very good idea for them to own their own gear; then they can easily load and set up in any type of venue. Being able to cope calmly with unfavourable working conditions such as out-of-tune pianos and faulty PA systems is a definite advantage. Learning how to interact well with the piano bar audience is essential. This can be

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challenging when the punters are drunk or uncivil. For performers who have a residency in a venue, it is important to give the regular customers a little special treatment by making an effort to remember their names and play their favourite songs. Managing time is also important, especially for performers doing gigs in a range of locations. Knowing how long it takes to get to the venue and set up by the designated time is essential. Performers must be prepared to work late nights. Piano bar performers need small business management skills. They also need self-promotion skills if they are to get regular work — a package that includes a demo tape of a live performance plus other promotional materials, including a song list or sets of song lists appropriate for different kinds of gigs, is a good idea. Prospects

It is possible, if you are a good performer, to make a decent living from this kind of work in capital cities throughout Australia, particularly if you are also prepared to make an effort at self-promotion. Big hotels and the casinos are more upmarket, have better work conditions (for example a PA system and a good in-tune piano) and pay better. Many piano bar performers aspire to working entirely in this kind of situation. Possible career moves would be to stage performance in musical theatre, work in overseas venues and a recording/songwriting career. Work is usually first obtained by auditioning for talent agents or the venues themselves. If the artist is talented, his/her reputation will spread by word of mouth. If work is slow, the performer needs to make regular telephone contact with agents and venues to see if there is any work available or coming up. This can be a soul-destroying business, so persistence is needed. Knowing other performers who respect your standard of performance can result in being offered deputising work, or recommendations to employers.

In Sydney, restaurants generally pay $120 to $180 for a 3–4 hour call playing piano alone or piano/vocal. Generally the singer has to provide his/her own PA. Hotel rates can vary from $150 to $200, with parking at the entertainer’s expense.The Sydney Casino pays around $250 for 3–31/2 hours’ work, depending on the room. All equipment is provided, but not parking. Service clubs vary from $150 to $300 for 3–4 hours; there is often a little extra financial consideration when the gig starts at a very late hour. There is lucrative work available on cruise ships and resorts, but the contracts are usually for quite a while (6 months is common) — this is not always suitable for artists who have families, or who have other employment and other commitments. Training

Piano bar performers need training in piano and vocal technique and performance practices, as well as in the aural and notation skills needed to develop and maintain an extensive repertoire. It is possible to teach yourself all these skills, but performers more often acquire them through good private teachers or by studying an appropriate contemporary music performance course which covers stagecraft skills and image development skills. Attending a tertiary contemporary music or jazz course may be just as important for networking as for learning relevant performance skills. Comment NINA HARRIS (FREELANCE

PIANO BAR

PERFORMER):

‘Really love what you do and be stimulated enough to keep working at it. Never be satisfied with your level of achievement or think you’re as good as you ever will be. You’ll never be truly fulfilled if you do it only for the money. Don’t gauge your success by how well people show their enjoyment or appreciation. Unless it’s a cabaret situation, audiences may be reticent about applauding, but may pluck up the courage to thank you or congratulate you as they leave.

PERFORMANCE

‘Keep your repertoire moving so you don’t get bored or stale. Play the music you love and don’t try to second guess an audience. They’d rather hear you do what you’re really passionate about than what you think they expect to hear. However, if you wish to get tips, do your homework and be able to play the really obvious favourites (classic hits) when asked. ‘If you stop enjoying it, don’t keep doing it. At the very least, take a break from it until you feel that you have something to offer or, ideally, can’t wait to get back to it.’

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KARAOKE COMPERE

Karaoke is a form of entertainment where members of an audience sign up to sing on stage accompanied by specially made backing recordings of songs that are synchronised to an on-screen presentation of the lyrics and an accompanying video clip. The audio and video are encoded on a laser video disc or DVD.The discs, each of which has 20–30 songs on it, cover famous artists as well as compilations of styles and periods. Around 30 discs are usually available for a show. The role of a compere of a karaoke show is to enthuse the audience members to participate, manage the list of performers, introduce each act, operate the relevant disc, and perform some songs, particularly at the beginning of the night, when people are more reluctant to perform. The compere may also sing harmonies with some participants, particularly if they are shy about performing alone. Some clubs and pubs feature karaoke entertainment and have their own installed equipment system. Alternatively, there are companies that hire out karaoke equipment and discs to karaoke comperes and venues. Karaoke is also a popular form of entertainment for private parties and wedding receptions. Some karaoke venues offer cash prizes, so the show becomes a kind of talent contest. Karaoke competition enthusiasts often specialise in particular artist impersonations (Buddy Holly, Bing Crosby, Elvis). Skills

Karaoke comperes need to be good entertainers and able to sing a broad range of popular songs. They should also be able to improvise harmonies to any song chosen by a participant, even if the song is unfamiliar.

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The main skill, however, is to be able to motivate individuals or groups to participate, particularly at the beginning of the night, when they are sober. Being able to manage the proceedings efficiently is important.This includes developing strategies to control individuals who want to continue performing beyond their turn, or who are rowdy. Audience misbehaviour is often a problem at the end of the evening, when many individuals have drunk too much and do not wish the show to end. Karaoke comperes also need to be able to set up a PA system, lighting and related equipment. Prospects

This job represents another source of income for the solo vocal entertainer.A compere usually earns around $100 to $200 per show; the earning potential is better if you own your own equipment ($350 to $550 per show). Comment REBECCA VOUDEN (FREELANCE

KARAOKE

COMPERE):

‘To be good at it you have to love it and be a real entertainer.’

ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC DJ

Electronic dance music DJs perform at dance parties or dance clubs, playing a series of vinyl, CD or DAT recordings for the audience to dance to. Most DJs specialise in a particular style of dance music (or a variety of interrelated styles), so they are often employed at clubs or club nights that feature a specific genre. The DJ’s technique involves the seamless transition from one recording to another using beat matching, which is essentially a technique of varying the speed of two consecutive records so that their tempi (beats per minute, or bpm) are the same, making sure their beats (usually determined by the kick drum at the beginning of a bar) are synchronised, and then fading from one to another in a variety of ways. This process requires the use of two turntables or other types of music playback, a special mixer and a set of headphones. More elaborate techniques, such as ‘breaking’ between two records, or ‘scratching’ the new record in, or key matching, are also used. The art of the DJ is to play a set of tracks that creates a coherent structure or ‘journey’ from the start of the set to the end. Although DJs may have an idea of the record selection and order of playing in a set, they respond to the mood of the crowd as the set progresses. The success of a DJ is measured by the extent to which dancers are attracted onto the dance floor and stay there for the duration of the set. DJs usually have a large collection of recordings relevant to the genre or genres they are working in. They transport their records in roadcased ‘boxes’. Each box contains several hundred records, usually organised according to rhythmic and textural energy (from mellow to hard).

PERFORMANCE

Many DJs are also dance music composers (see Chapter 2: Composition) or remixers (see Chapter 4: Production). They use their own material in their sets in conjunction with the other recordings in their collection. There is a trend in DJing in the UK that involves four turntables: two the smooth transition of tracks, one for scratching and another for samples. This will make the DJ’s act more akin to live music performance.

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engage with the particular direction the set is taking; and building up intensity over a period of time before bringing it back down towards the end of the performance. Being able to set up, operate and troubleshoot the standard hardware of the DJ booth is also necessary. As a freelance artist a DJ must acquire the usual skills of small business management, selfpromotion and networking in the relevant parts of the music industry.

Skills

Dance music DJs need a comprehensive knowledge of the recorded repertoire of the genres of dance music they are working in. This involves buying records, networking with other DJs, and talking to distributors to determine what the latest trends are. Because the records selected determine whether or not people want to hear a DJ’s set, picking trends is a critical skill. DJs must be able to analyse the individual recordings of their collection to determine their compatibility with one another in terms of style, feel, timbre, structure, tempo and tonal centre. DJs must have the technical and physical skills to manipulate records according to the performance practices of the genres they work in. If they fail, for example, to beatmatch properly (creating double beats), the dancers may leave the dance floor. In addition to cross-fading, there are a number of techniques for moving smoothly from one track to the next, such as using equalisation to wind out the bass end of one track while winding in the bass end of the new track. Using techniques that no other DJ is using is important, because it can form the basis of a DJ’s individual reputation. Artistically, DJs need to be able to put together a structurally satisfying set while being sensitive to the feedback they receive from dancers on the dance floor. There are some subtle skills involved in keeping the attention of the dancers. These include picking up the vibe of the previous DJ to create some continuity between the two sets; changing the mood of the music gradually so as not to alienate the listeners; getting the dancers to

Prospects

Since the late 1980s, when electronic dance music began its rise to mass market popularity, the DJ has been elevated to the equivalent of a pop star performer. Some famous DJs, such as Norman Cook (aka Fatboy Slim) and Paul Oakenfold, command five-figure fees at large dance venues and events. However, there are so many DJs trying to gain work and recognition that at the lower end of the remuneration scale they may work for as little as $20 per hour. More typical would be a $300 fee in a city club and $1000 at a big rave event. DJs with overseas experience are able to charge higher fees. It is not unusual for a DJ to become involved in the creative side of dance music as a composer or remixer and to issue albums of sets or mixes. Many high-profile DJs also own their own labels. A popular alternative is to join a collective of DJs, composers, visual artists and event promoters. Training

There are some short courses run by private training organisations that cover the technical basics of DJing — the use of the standard equipment and the manipulation of records. However, all prospective DJs need to develop a collection of records and an individual style of stringing them together.There is no substitution for on-the job experience in this area. Most DJs start out practising in someone else’s bedroom on someone else’s turntables. Watching other DJs work and ‘hanging out’ with experienced DJs provides invaluable experience.

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Comment D AV E B R A M A G H ( P R O F E S S I O N A L D J ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSICIAN):

AND

BACKING MUSICIAN

‘Get good turntables, headphones, and an ear plug for the ear not listening to the monitoring headphone. Keep buying new tunes, and try to take in as many styles as possible.’ A backing musician plays in the band accompanying solo artists or other non-band acts. Many successful recording artists in the country, pop and heritage rock genres use backing bands.The focus is on the artist, not the backing band, but some backing musicians may be given featured soloing roles in a show. Some club venues, television programs and cruise ships have resident backing bands who are required to provide backing for all the solo artists on the entertainment schedule. Skills

Backing musicians are usually highly skilled and versatile musicians. Some can provide accompaniment across a wide range of styles: rock, pop, country, cabaret, funk, disco, gospel, blues, R&B and jazz. Others specialise in a particular style, such as country. Superior instrumental and/or vocal technique (‘chops’), performance style understanding and ensemble skills are needed no matter what genre of music is being played. Backing musicians are usually excellent sight-readers (covering a range of fully notated and chord/rhythm charts), as they often have to be able to play note-perfect with little rehearsal time. The exception to this is those few musicians who are selected for their virtuosic improvisational skills in interpreting chord charts (for example pedal steel players in country music). Generally, backing musicians have to be quick learners and adaptable, because last-minute changes are often made to the format of a song or program. In some contexts, such as in clubs and television, backing musicians use charts, but they may also be required to memorise the music they play — on a tour, for example. Some players may also be required to play improvised solos of a virtuosic nature as a feature of the shows they are working in.

PERFORMANCE

Backing musicians may also be selected because of their ability to provide backing vocals while playing their instrument. Being able to ‘double’ is also expected of certain kinds of players — saxophone players, for example, usually play clarinet and flute as well as all the saxophones. The stagecraft skills required of backing musicians are usually limited, but they must dress appropriately, make efficient entrances and exits to and from the stage, look as if they are enjoying what they’re doing, communicate appropriately with the other musicians and the artist, and observe any protocols required by the artist. These may sometimes involve acting or movement. Backing singers, on the other hand, will be required to move and act on stage with energy and finesse, and may also be required to learn choreographed movements. Backing musicians must have good aural and transcription skills. Many of them are also skilled arrangers. As with all freelance musicians, skills in small business management and self-promotion are essential. Prospects

Backing musicians usually come from a background of intensive study of performance technique and styles of playing. Many of them have mastered a variety of music genres but prefer to play jazz.Their careers are sometimes balanced between well-paid jobs as a backing musician for famous recording artists and making their own less well-paid music in jazz bands. Experienced musicians with good chops can make quite a good living as backing musicians, particularly if they remain loyal to a high-profile performer. There is a variety of work in Australia, including backing bands for Australian recording artists of past decades, heritage rockers such as John Farnham, and a broad range of international recording artists of bygone eras who tour Australia but cannot afford to bring their own backing musicians. These artists cover styles including blues, R&B, gospel, soul, folk, country, disco, cabaret and jazz, as well as the staple pop and rock

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genres. Backing musicians can also get work with currently charting solo artists. In Australia, most of these artists work in country music, which has a large touring circuit. There is also some work touring internationally with high-profile Australian recording artists. The number of resident backing bands in clubs and television has decreased greatly over the past two decades, but there are still some of these jobs. Backing musicians usually enter the field through playing in other ensemble situations, such as jazz bands, big bands or cover bands. Progress as a backing musician would be measured by the profile of the artists the musician works with and the amount of work and rate of pay they are able to command. The career path from there depends on the kinds of additional skills the musician is prepared to acquire. Direction and arranging skills would allow the musician to work as a musical director for an artist. Increased versatility, particularly with the latest styles, techniques and technologies of popular music, could lead to being an elite session musician. Focusing on the creative aspects of music could lead to work as an arranger and producer for recording artists. All these possible careers are dealt with below. The rates of pay vary from award rates (the base rate is $96 for a 3 hour call, from 7 pm to 10 pm) up to $500 per performance, depending on the status of the backing musician and the profile of the artist being backed. Training

The degree of performance skill needed by a professional backing musician working with high-profile recording artists can only be acquired after many years of intensive instrumental (or vocal) training and practice combined with study of the stylistic aspects of music across a broad range of musical genres. The levels of musicianship, sight-reading and improvisation required are covered well by jazz courses. The stylistic versatility is catered for by contemporary music courses that train performers (see Appendix 2).

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MUSICAL DIRECTOR (OF A SOLO ARTIST AND BACKING BAND) The musical director of a popular recording artist directs the backing band and provides creative and other support for the artist, such as selecting and rehearsing the backing band.The musical director conducts or otherwise directs the rehearsals and performances, often from the piano. Although some artists use musical directors who play other instruments, it is more usual for the musical director to be a pianist. The musical director is sometimes also the arranger of the charts, and works with the artist as an accompanist during the pre-rehearsal stage of the show. Skills

Musical directors need all the skills of a backing musician, plus ensemble direction and conducting skills. Most musical directors also have excellent arranging skills.They also need leadership skills and a range of musicianship skills — such as understanding the performance practice of all the instruments being used, and being able to hear and provide solutions to any problems in the ensemble and individual playing — and the ability to get the musicians to work well together. The musical director also acts as a gobetween for the artist and the backing musicians. This requires good interpersonal and communication skills and a large measure of diplomacy. A musical director needs a large network of professional associates to draw from when organising backing bands. Prospects

For a musician who has all the required skills at a high level, it is not difficult to rise in this field. However, the field is small, because not many artists can afford to hire backing musicians and a musical director.

Depending on the profile of the artist, a musical director can earn in excess of $1000 per performance. Training

The training requirements for backing musicians also apply to musical directors. Experience playing in backing bands, arranging music for bands, and directing bands is also very useful.

PERFORMANCE

SESSION MUSICIAN

These musicians are also referred to as studio musicians and session players (or session singers). Session musicians record music in the studio for albums and singles, advertising jingles, prerecorded backing tapes for theatre productions and screen soundtracks. They are usually hired by the producer or composer as individuals on the basis of their reputation. If a section, such as a string section, is hired, it is usually an agent/booker who selects and/or manages the musicians. Sometimes an existing orchestra or chamber group might be contracted for a recording session. Session musicians fall into two categories. The first is the creative player who is expected to work with other musicians in a rhythm section to create the foundation groove of a track from a basic chord chart, or to perform improvised overdubs on an already recorded rhythm track. The second is the performer who is an excellent sight-reader — these players are used when there are fully notated parts. The first category of session musician usually comes from a jazz or popular music background; the second probably has a classical music background (or maybe a jazz horn section background). Most of the best session musicians are based in cities with large music and media industry infrastructures. In Australia, Sydney is the biggest centre, followed by Melbourne. Internationally, the biggest centres are Los Angeles, New York, Nashville and London. Skills

Session players have to have the highest possible levels of instrumental (or vocal) skill. Most will need to be excellent sight-readers to be able to play exactly in tune and exactly in time (including being able to maintain a metronomic tempo). There is absolutely no

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room for any kind of imperfection in professional recording. In the creative category, the session musician needs to have all the skills of the backing musician (see above) and more. Session musicians who work on the latest commercial records and the latest advertisements have to be up to date with techniques and performance styles in all contemporary popular genres of music, even ones they don’t personally like.This also involves understanding the latest technologies for producing contemporary sounds, such as signal processing devices and other gadgetry associated with particular instruments. Session players are expected to be able to give a record a special sound, a contemporary edge, or a dazzling quality of virtuosity. As studio time is expensive, good session musicians need to be able to record the music in the shortest (reasonable) time possible. Recording a whole rhythm track or improvising a solo in a few takes requires great concentration and nerve. Session vocalists are often asked to sing a series of harmony parts by ear. This means they need an exceptional ear and memory, excellent musicianship, and superior vocal control. There is no time to experiment. Each overdub needs to be performed in one take, if possible. Prospects

Session playing as a profession has declined dramatically over the last 20 years because of the introduction of electronic forms of music production — sequencing and sampling technologies, which emerged in the early 1980s, now offer a cheaper alternative for popular music record producers and composers of advertising, film, television and theatre music. Before that, studios and record companies often employed in-house session musicians for pop music recordings.The most famous of these were with the Motown and Stax record labels. In contemporary pop music, electronic programming has become the norm. It is fair to say that the programmer has all but replaced the session musician. However, although there are far fewer musicians employed in this field now, players

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with superior skills can still earn a good living as session players. At the upper end of music production there are still many projects that rely on the magical quality that brilliant musicians bring to a recording. The going rate for session musicians in Australia is around $100 per hour on a minimum 3 hour call. Training

The creative session musician needs to undergo performance training in a broad range of popular music styles.Although specialisation is possible, the most successful session musicians have a broad range of performance skills on their instrument/s or as vocalists. Although musicians need a great deal of professional performing experience before they can expect to get regular well-paid session work, the groundwork could be laid through performance training in jazz and contemporary music courses. Orchestral session players need the same training as orchestral musicians, plus experience working in a commercial recording environment.

CONDUCTOR

Conductors direct orchestras, orchestras with soloists, choirs (with or without accompaniment), operas, musical theatre, and some chamber ensembles.This is usually done from the podium at the front of the stage or orchestral pit. Most conductors direct a variety of ensembles, but some develop careers with an emphasis on a specific area — orchestral, opera, early music (usually 17th to 18th century) or choral music, for example. They are responsible for determining and communicating the overall style and intention of the works they conduct, first to the performers in rehearsal and then to performers and audience during a performance. Conductors read all orchestral (and vocal) parts (in the form of a full score) at once.They may learn a score by reading silently or by playing the score at the piano. They may also listen to past performances of the work. In rehearsal they are responsible for determining phrasing, articulation, dynamics, intonation, tempo and tone quality for all instrumental parts. They determine the balance of orchestral sections and soloists, or orchestra and stage in opera.They also clarify with orchestral section leaders any specific techniques for individual instruments (such as bowing, or playing on or off the string for stringed instruments). This requires detailed knowledge of the technical and tonal capacities of all the instruments (or voices) used. They must also communicate the structure of the work, and the emotional and/or intellectual impact they believe the composer intended (or their own interpretation).When rehearsing with singers, conductors are responsible for communicating their ideas about the text being sung, and about how to make sure that the text is heard.

PERFORMANCE

In performance, conductors indicate by gesture to performers the things discussed and practised in rehearsal. Conductors who have ‘resident’ positions with a company may also have administrative work to do.This may involve choosing repertoire, scheduling rehearsals and performances, hiring musicians, and a variety of other tasks. Conductors may be part of public relations for their employers. They may have to give interviews to the media. They must be able to speak clearly about the history and style of the work they are directing (conductors need musicological skills) and about the performers they are working with (which may involve diplomatic skills). Conductors almost always travel for at least part of the year. ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR

Almost all conductors who are not opera specialists or choral specialists are orchestral conductors. They prepare and perform works with orchestras as above.They specialise in the symphonic repertoire, which may include concertos, ballet and opera suites, and major orchestral/choral works. Orchestral conductors are often instrumentalists themselves, and are expected to have a very detailed knowledge of instrumental techniques. OPERA CONDUCTOR

Opera conductors have all the responsibilities of orchestral conductors. In addition, they must conduct the principal singers and the chorus on stage, and sometimes ‘offstage’ performers such as chorus or sections of the orchestra. They are expected to know something of voice technique, particularly as it relates to the orchestra.They must have a knowledge of the European and Slavic languages used in the operatic repertoire. Piano skills are essential, as conductors may be required to coach singers individually. Opera conductors also have to work closely with stage directors. Richard Gill (freelance conductor) notes that if the conductor can ‘work with the director, from day

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one, you will get a very good show’.The conductor must ‘keep the integrity of the music at the forefront’, since ‘the work is the superior being, and the musicians, the conductor and the director are all there because of the work’. The conductor must begin rehearsals ‘absolutely in command of the material’. This means learning the orchestral and vocal scores at the piano, translating the text if necessary and checking orchestral parts for articulation and bowing. Conductors may need to compare various editions of the work that is to be performed. Opera rehearsal periods usually follow a set structure. In Australia, there may be five weeks to prepare a new production, with slightly less for a ‘revival’ of a previously performed production. This begins with about two days of rehearsal with the singers, repetiteurs and language coaches. Conductors then attend all ‘floor’ or production rehearsals while preparing the orchestra (usually three to four rehearsals).The final stage of preparation is dress rehearsals with piano (including technical rehearsals), stage orchestral rehearsals, Sitzprobe (singers and orchestra only), and general dress rehearsals. OPERA CHORUS MASTER

Chorus masters (the term for both men and women) train the chorus of an opera company. This will always be an adult chorus, but sometimes there is a children’s chorus as well. The skills needed are similar to those of opera conductors, as opera chorus masters often do some stage conducting.The chorus master has particular responsibility for the internal balance of the chorus. Chorus masters may also be involved in scheduling rehearsals and in general auditions. CHORAL CONDUCTORS/DIRECTORS

Choral conductors/directors are usually specialists in choral work. They require a detailed knowledge of the singing voice, its development, and its use in choral work. In Australia, choral directors work with major

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choral societies, major church choirs, community choirs, children’s choirs, youth choirs, and small professional ensembles. Choral conductors/directors may work with adult or children’s choirs, or a combination of both. Since many choral directors work with children’s voices, they must know about the developmental stages of children’s and adolescent voices in both males and females. Since choral singers are often not professional, choral directors are often music educators in some form, teaching their singers sight-singing and some vocal technique. The choral repertoire includes some pre-17th century repertoire, which is usually without instrumental accompaniment. This is usually sung by chamber choirs, and may be a specialist area for choral directors. Another genre of unaccompanied choral music is the a cappella gospel choir. Many choral conductors are also orchestral conductors. Skills

Conductors need to be able to learn full orchestral/vocal scores quickly, often from memory; to communicate musical intent verbally and through gesture in rehearsal and through gesture only in performance; to communicate musical style, including historical performance practices; to communicate superior musical skills relating to intonation, phrasing, articulation, dynamics, tempo, tone quality and balance; to demonstrate detailed understanding of orchestral instrument techniques; to demonstrate understanding of singing voice function in vocal music; to understand and communicate about text in vocal music; to communicate an understanding of the composer’s emotional/intellectual intent to performers in rehearsal and to performers and audience during performances; and to quickly assess the acoustic characteristics of different performance and recording venues. Opera conductors need to be able to play the piano well, and to have superior sight-reading

skills. Conductors of non-professional ensembles need to be able to assess the suitability of works (with regard to technical difficulty, for instance). Conductors need to be able to work well with a wide range of people, including players and singers, soloists, agents, entrepreneurs and administrators; and to communicate clearly in at least several European languages. Organisational skills are needed for networking, schedules, travel and music learning. Research skills are essential for an understanding of performance practice and performing editions. Self-promotion skills are needed for finding performance opportunities and maintaining a career profile. Physical fitness, appropriate grooming and stagecraft skills are also required. Prospects

In Australia, there is no real career structure for conductors. There are few professional positions, and these are often filled by overseas conductors. Conductors often move into the field from careers as instrumentalists, including pianists, at least partly because the leadership demonstrated by a conductor requires both very superior musical skills and personal maturity. Most conductors in Australia begin by conducting amateur and/or youth performances.This requires extremely good organisational and entrepreneurial skills: you need the ability to make opportunities for yourself. ‘Advancement for a conductor,’ says Richard Gill, ‘comes in the quality of the work that you do: working at a higher level, with better standards.’ Generally,‘in this country, you have to be prepared to do a lot of things which lead to what you want to do’. In Europe and the US, conducting careers can be more structured. In Germany, for instance, an opera conductor may begin as a chorus repetiteur, then move up to being a solo repetiteur, then chorus master, then resident conductor, then freelance conductor. For orchestral conductors, there are also conducting competitions and workshops,

PERFORMANCE

which may lead to assistant conductorships with orchestras, or even to guest conductorships. The most senior positions for conductors include chief conductor of a major orchestra, music or artistic director of an opera company, and freelance conductor (working through an agent), working with symphony orchestras, and opera and ballet companies, nationally or internationally. Choral conductors tend to have easier access to early opportunities, since there are more amateur choirs than orchestras. They may begin with school and university groups, or church choirs, and progress to semi-professional or professional groups. There may be some opportunities for conducting for people who teach at universities or in schools with performing ensembles. It is clear that conductors need to be strong personalities with a great deal of drive and determination if they are to survive the limited opportunities and intense competition. Once a professional beginning has been made, conductors (like all performers) must accept that their work is constantly assessed for quality. The fees for conducting range widely, depending on the status of the engagement and the performer. Conductors who wish to gain experience may work with amateur or semi-professional groups without pay or for honorariums. The annual salary of an opera chorus master ranges from $45,000 to $65,000. Freelance conductors working through an agent command fees ranging from $500 to upwards of $5000 per performance.The contract salary of a chief conductor of a major orchestra is comparable to those of senior business executives (between $200,000 and $600,000, perhaps — in the US and Europe, high-profile orchestras pay more than $1,000,000 per year for their chief conductors). At the highest level, this is a national and international job. Freelance conductors need to work nationally, and to travel internationally if required. Many orchestral and some choral conductors who live in Australia also work internationally.

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Training

Conductors need to be highly trained musicians.They should be imaginative, independent, self-confident, and in excellent health. They must be able to sustain these qualities while patiently building their reputation. Both formal and informal study are valuable. Students may choose to complete tertiary music courses to a Masters level or higher, but they should work with a conducting teacher and actually do as much conducting as possible. Australian tertiary music schools offering conducting programs are listed in Appendix 2. Symphony Australia runs an annual training program for aspiring conductors that includes working with highly reputed conducting teachers such as the Finnish maestro, Jorma Panula. Specialist summer schools for choral conductors are held annually in Melbourne and every two years in Brisbane. Comment RICHARD GILL (FREELANCE

CONDUCTOR):

‘The most important thing I can say is “Don’t give up”, because there will be people who will put you down every inch of the way. You could say “It’s unfair, I never get a go, nobody listens to me, I never get any performances” — there are always buckets of excuses, particularly in this country, and if you take that path, then you deserve not to work. ‘You have to say “Life’s hard, it’s going to get harder” and go for it. You have to keep working, keep trying, keep practising, keep learning, pester people, bother people, talk to people. If you worry about the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, you deserve to be hit! You just have to keep on going and develop a very tough hide. ‘[When you are working,] you have to have very good psychological skills, to know when to stop and when not to stop anything: rehearsal, talk, conversation.You have to be able to suss out how people are feeling, whether it’s a good day or a bad day, but at the same time not to give in; to push without pushing over, to extend without

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tiring, to encourage without flattering, and to criticise without condemning. You have to be very secure, because you are not there to be liked. You have to serve the score, notwithstanding how people may react, at the same time allowing them to react, always looking for something that can come from them which will enhance what you do with the score.’

ORCHESTRAL MUSICIAN

In Australia there are professional symphony orchestras in each state capital. There are also separate orchestras which play primarily for opera and ballet performances in Sydney and Melbourne. Sydney is also the base for the Australian Chamber Orchestra. There are a number of other professional orchestras, such as the Australian Brandenburg Orchestra and the Australian Pops Orchestra, but they do not offer full-time employment. There are semi-professional and amateur youth orchestras, chamber orchestras and symphony orchestras in major cities and regional centres.They may be associated with universities, or with communities, (the Kuring-gai Philharmonic Orchestra, for instance). Orchestras include players of string, woodwind, brass and percussion instruments, harp, and at least one piano — or harpsichord in the case of an early music orchestra. Symphony orchestras may have over a hundred players; chamber orchestras and early music orchestras may have from about 15 to 40 players. Orchestral players play in sections, which may be as large as 18 violins, or as small as two flutes. Each section has a principal player or players (depending on the size of the orchestra) and tutti players, who make up the rest of the section. Symphony orchestras are directed by a conductor; chamber orchestras may work without a conductor, with direction from either the concertmaster (the leader of the first violins) or the harpsichord (in early music). Early music orchestras mainly play orchestral repertoire from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. Playing this repertoire almost always involves the use of original instruments or copies of them, and can require techniques

PERFORMANCE

and styles that are very different from those used in modern symphony orchestra playing. Orchestral players are expected to play at a consistently high level, and to blend and balance with other players at the direction of the conductor. They play live concerts and make audio and video recordings. Being in an orchestra can involve travel for at least part of the year. CONCERTMASTER

The concertmaster, the leader of the first violins, leads the whole orchestra, and is the first point of communication between the conductor and the orchestra. Concertmasters are required to play at the level of a soloist. Nathan Waks (co-principal cellist with the Sydney Symphony Orchestra) comments that ‘the way the orchestra sounds is partly related to the conductor and partly to the way the concertmaster plays (although the conductor has more influence)’. The concertmaster tunes the orchestra before they play, plays first violin solos, and is the most important arbiter, besides the conductor, of unanimity and style. Concertmasters attend all auditions. Because of this responsibility, concertmasters work fewer hours and are paid more than other principals.They are, in some orchestras, considered a link with management. PRINCIPAL PLAYER

The number of principal players in a section depends on the size of the section and the size and wealth of the orchestra. The Sydney Symphony Orchestra, for instance, has three levels of principal: principal or co-principal (equal to each other), associate principal (only a subtle distinction from principal) and assistant principal. The Australian Opera and Ballet Orchestra has principals and associate principals, and there is effectively little difference between them. Wind and brass sections may have one principal or two co-principals, with specific principal positions for players of, for instance, piccolo.

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Principal players must play at a very high level. This, according to Nathan Waks, means ‘paying attention to a lot of detail; not just whether you make a good sound or play in tune or how rhythmic you are, but what the quality of sound is and how perceptive you are about nuance and how well you play and blend with other people’. Principals are required to maintain their own playing standards (they are not supervised by anyone for standard of playing as tutti players are). Orchestral solos are important, but they are not the largest part of the job. Principals play slightly fewer calls (rehearsals and performances) than tutti players. Principal players are responsible for making sure their section is working together. They may lead the section, or sit with a coprincipal. Nathan Waks comments that principals must be ‘doubly sure of their own part’. Principals have to determine details relating to their own instrument. String principals, for instance, determine bowings within the parameters established by the conductor. The conductor may have expressed a preference for hearing something a certain way, and it is the principal’s job to interpret that into a bowing that works — this includes how long a note should be, which part of the bow to use, fingering and vibrato. Principals generally lead by example. Nathan Waks says that ‘this is normally done without talking — the other players have to be aware, and to watch and listen to what the leader is doing. If I hear something wrong, I will address the section, not the individual, so that everybody’s clear. The conductor will often see that there are differences. It depends on how much rehearsal there is, and who the conductor is.’ Principals are an important part of the auditioning process, and of the supervision of younger players and players on trial periods. They help these players by listening for their problems and helping resolve them. They also have administrative tasks, such as meetings to discuss the rostering of players in the section (each player can only work a set number of rehearsal calls per year).They may

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also be members of the orchestra’s artistic or management committee. TUTTI PLAYER

A tutti player is a member of an orchestral section. Some tutti players always play with others (usual for strings); others often play one to a part (winds, brass, percussion). Players must be able to sight-read, learn quickly, and ensure that they have prepared their parts well for rehearsals and know the orchestral repertoire. Players must be able to hear their parts as part of the overall sound of the orchestra. Tutti players must have a solid technique, so that they can adapt very quickly to the artistic directions they are given.These directions may cover tempo, bowing and fingering, articulation, dynamics, intonation and tonal blend. Players must be able to fit in with the section principal, and with the other players in the section. This involves observing the way the conductor and principal players are working, and passing on information or directions to other players. Tutti players do not play all rehearsals or performances. They are required to play a set number of rehearsals and performances per year, spread evenly throughout the year. In an orchestra such as the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, tutti players have a ‘call ceiling’ of about 300 per year. Players may rotate their seating positions in their section. String players, for instance, may change every two weeks, or more often if there are several different programs within the space of a week.This enables all the members of the section to have close contact with the principal players, and to get to know the playing of their colleagues. Tutti players may also be elected to artistic and management committees for the orchestra, and may be involved in the rostering process. Skills

Orchestral musicians need a comprehensive knowledge of the orchestral repertoire.They

must be able to play with technical assurance at a consistently high level, to read orchestral parts at sight, to learn music quickly and independently, to listen critically and adapt to a wide range of musical styles and performance practices, and to match tone and intonation to members of the section and the larger ensemble. They need to be highly professional in terms of punctuality, preparation and presentation, to be able to work closely with colleagues in rehearsal and performance, to adapt to the musical and management styles of a range of conductors and section leaders, to communicate well verbally when required (as in education programs), and to manage a flexible schedule, frequent performances, and travel. Prospects

Orchestral players are usually advanced players by the end of secondary school. They should make every effort to know how they compare with other players of their instrument and age before making the decision to become professional players.They usually complete a tertiary degree before auditioning for orchestral positions. During secondary and tertiary studies, players may participate in school, university, community or national orchestras such as youth orchestras. Entry to these groups is usually by audition. These orchestras are a good way for young players to learn the orchestral repertoire and ensemble skills. Players audition when a position in an orchestra is advertised. The audition process involves playing both solo and orchestral excerpt repertoire (the latter is selected by the audition panel and supplied to the candidates several days before the audition).Auditions are decided by peer assessment (principal and tutti players of the relevant section) and are open to all Australian musicians. Where there is no one of the required standard in Australia, the auditions are opened up to international applicants. To ensure fairness, players perform behind screens during most stages of auditions. Panel

PERFORMANCE

members vote by secret ballot for the candidate of their choice. Candidates who are shortlisted may be required to play without the screen in the final stage of assessment. If a player is accepted into an orchestra, there may be a trial period, usually 12 months. During this time, players are given feedback from the section on all aspects of their work; they are required to implement changes (if needed) within the trial period. Players who are accepted into an orchestra are usually not subject to formal ongoing assessments, but principal players and conductors observe their work. Most orchestras have mechanisms for dealing with players who are not able to maintain an appropriate standard of playing. Tutti players may audition for a principal player’s position, but such progression becomes more unlikely with increasing age. Orchestral players have a relatively secure career, provided they continue to meet the standards required by their orchestra. As young players’ training nears completion, they should begin to audition for positions as they become available. They should recognise, however, that competition for positions with professional orchestras is very tough. There are relatively few professional orchestras in Australia, and positions in them come up infrequently. This means that orchestral players, like all musicians in Australia, should be prepared to be adaptable and resourceful in their professional lives. They may find work as casual players in the professional orchestras, as chamber musicians, band members, or as session musicians in other commercial music areas. They may also choose to pursue instrumental or classroom teaching, if they are qualified. Some players may be capable of being conductors at some level. Skills can be honed by further study, perhaps in Europe or America. In England or Germany, for instance, there are many more orchestras, and it is possible to build a career there, subject to working visa requirements. Early music players, in particular, will find more work in their field in Europe.

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The length of orchestral players’ careers is affected by their health and their ability to maintain the required playing standards. Teaching qualifications (and a commitment to developing young musicians) may be useful later in a career. Some musicians also find alternative careers in areas such as music administration. In Australia, depending on the orchestra, the starting salary range for tutti orchestral musicians is between $34,000 and $61,000 per year; for an associate principal player, between $45,000 and $70,000; and for a principal player, between $49,000 and $72,000. The position of concertmaster is a negotiable contract position which may pay more than $100,000 per year. Training

Orchestral players generally begin training quite early. String players often begin before the age of five, woodwind and brass players later, since these instruments require a greater level of physical maturity. It is very important that early teaching establishes a basis for solid technique. According to Philippa Paige (violinist, Sydney Symphony Orchestra), players considering an orchestral career should be at 8th Grade to A. Mus. A standard (in the Australian Music Examinations Board system) by the end of high school. Personal prerequisites for instrumentalists include intelligence, good physical coordination and natural musicality. American string teacher Don McInnes emphasises the importance of determination. Students should have enough solo experience to know that they can perform and communicate without undue stress and nerves. Ensemble experience in school or youth orchestras and at music camps can be invaluable. In particular, the Australian Youth Orchestra provides a high standard of training and performance experience, including international touring. A degree course in music is the norm for orchestral players. This gives them an understanding of the historical and theoretical context of the repertoire. Philippa Paige notes

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that it can also provide ‘further options if you want to teach or take another path in creative life’. Many orchestral players complete a Master of Music degree or a Doctor of Musical Arts. The ability of a tertiary music program to train orchestral musicians effectively depends on its being able to provide expert tuition in the full range of orchestral instruments, having enough students of orchestral instrument to be able to field a full orchestra, and having a talented and experienced musical director/conductor on staff. A tertiary music school that can establish strong industry links with an orchestra is in an ideal position to provide work experience and mentoring opportunities for its students. Australian tertiary music institutions offering classical music performance training are listed in Appendix 2. Nathan Waks emphasises the need to choose the best teacher available. Students should talk to their peers, recent graduates and other professionals about the best teacher for them. This can be an important factor in choosing an institution to study at. Some of the professional orchestras have developed mentoring programs which are intended to pass on the skills of orchestral technique to young players.

CHAMBER MUSICIAN

Comment

Chamber music repertoire is often defined as music for any group with fewer than 20 players. Most chamber ensembles have three to six members, with some expanding to as many as nine members. Because of the smaller size of the ensemble, chamber music is often played in smaller venues than orchestral music. Chamber ensembles almost always play one instrument to a part.They are usually unconducted: the musicians take individual and collective responsibility for musical decisions. Dene Olding (violinist, the Australia Ensemble) suggests that chamber musicians are ‘a cross between a soloist and an orchestral player — individual, but able to be subservient at other times’. Most professional chamber ensembles in Australia are in major cities. At the national level, ensembles give capital city and regional city tours. Some also tour internationally. Established chamber ensembles usually also make recordings of the repertoire they have built their reputation on.

P H I L I P P A P A I G E ( V I O L I N I S T, S Y D N E Y SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA):

Skills

‘If you have doubts about whether you want to do this or something else, consider doing something else. If you decide to do it, keep playing solo and chamber repertoire as well, because it keeps you alive artistically, you can hear your own sound, and you can hone your intonation and ensemble skills.’

Chamber musicians need to be able to play with technical assurance, musical understanding and imagination at a level comparable to a soloist, and to play as a member of a team. They need excellent musical skills relating to musical style and performance practice; and superior musical skills relating to intonation, phrasing, articulation, dynamics, tempo, tone quality, balance and musical structure. According to Dene Olding, they must also have a ‘balance of ego and teamwork’. Chamber ensembles specialising in contemporary classical repertoire require skills beyond those required for the standard repertoire. They need highly developed reading skills, including the ability to play, with great

PERFORMANCE

precision, music demonstrating extremely difficult rhythmic and metric complexity. The music often includes techniques and effects that are not part of the standard range of techniques, as well as directions for improvisation and theatrics. Chamber ensembles specialising in ‘authentic’ performance of early music (that is, from the Baroque or Renaissance periods) are expected to be able to research the performance practice of the music they perform. They need skills in the styles of ornamentation and improvisation used in the period. As chamber music performers are often involved in a business enterprise with a team of colleagues, they need good interpersonal communication skills, business skills, and organisational skills in relation to contacts, schedules and travel. They also need research skills (for organising and understanding repertoire) and self-promotion skills (to generate performance opportunities). Prospects

Chamber musicians do not have a hierarchical career structure. Ideally, the esteem in which they are held depends on the quality of their work. Membership of a longstanding and much-recorded ensemble such as the Juilliard String Quartet or the Beaux Arts Trio, would indicate a position of prestige in the field. Chamber ensembles can have careers at a national or at an international level. A small number of Australian ensembles work at an international level. There are several chamber ensembles in Australia, such as the Macquarie Trio and the Goldner Quartet, that also have paid residencies at universities. Most ensembles are paid by fee for individual concerts. The level of payment can range from about $1000 to about $10,000 for an internationally renowned ensemble. The kind of living earned therefore depends on the number of concerts performed. The Australia Ensemble, for instance, plays over 100 concerts per year.This can mean three to four concerts a week at times, and up to five months of touring (including international

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travel) per year. Most ensembles would have to perform at least 60 concerts a year in order to survive. Training

As with orchestral players and soloists, aspiring chamber musicians should demonstrate early mastery of their instrument. The comments under Training in the entry for Orchestral musicians (above) are equally applicable here. In addition, chamber musicians need to develop their ensemble skills within the context of the type of chamber music they have chosen to play. Comment D E N E O L D I N G ( V I O L I N I S T, ENSEMBLE):

THE

AUSTRALIA

‘The career of a chamber musician is even harder than that of a soloist, since artistic and personal common ground must be found.’

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CLASSICAL SINGER

lieder and other art songs, concert arias and oratorios. The concert repertoire is also sung in the original language of the text. CHORAL SINGER

Classical singers sing, usually without amplification, with accompaniments ranging from piano to small groups of instruments to full symphony orchestras. They sing in several music styles, with texts in languages such as English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and the Slavic languages. Singers present the composer’s text and music to the audience. In opera, they also create and present characters on the stage. Singers perform live — in concerts and opera — and for audio and video recordings. They may be asked to be part of marketing and publicity for both performances and recordings. Most professional singers are required to travel for at least part of the year. Voice type and quality, or fach (the standard term in Europe), determine the kind of music singers specialise in. Some singers sing a wide range of music, while others specialise in, for instance, the music of the 19th century. OPERA SINGER

Opera singers perform the operatic repertoire, which ranges from the 17th to the 21st century.They usually perform with orchestra, in fully staged productions, often in the original language of the work. Opera singers must be actors as well as singers. David Brennan (freelance opera singer) suggests they should be masters of ‘theatre arts’, including ‘character analysis, text analysis, make-up skills, dance and some athletic skills’. CONCERT SINGER

Concert singers sing solo recitals with accompaniments ranging from piano to small groups of instruments to chamber orchestras to full symphony orchestras. They perform music ranging from folk songs and madrigals to

Some churches employ singers to be part of a choir that is integral to the ceremonial activities of the church.There are also a few secular choirs operating on a full professional basis in Australia. Some concert/opera singers may specialise in early music. This generally involves mostly 17th and 18th century music. There are important differences in style in this field, and some differences in vocal technique. Skills

Classical singers need to be able to sing with technical assurance at a consistently high level; to learn music quickly and independently; to hear and adapt to a range of musical styles; and to communicate text and character, where appropriate. They must be familiar with at least English, Italian, French, German, and Latin, and have a passing acquaintance with Spanish and the Slavic languages.They must be able to express dramatic meaning, and be familiar with dance and movement for stage purposes. They also need to be professional in terms of punctuality, preparation and presentation. Organisational skills are needed for networking, schedules, travel and music learning. Research skills are an essential part of understanding performance practice and performing editions (publications of music scores that focus on trying to achieve the most accurate version of the composer’s original intentions and provide documentation about the variants of the score that appear in other editions). There are sometimes dozens of versions of a particular score — a performing edition will help you sort out which is the best to use. Classical singers, like other musicians, also need self-promotion skills so that they can find performance opportunities and maintain a career profile. Physical fitness, appropriate grooming and stagecraft skills are also required.

PERFORMANCE

Prospects

After classical singers complete tertiary study, they usually need a period of further private study before their voice is sufficiently mature to be able to work professionally. They often need to work in some other field while they continue to study singing. Aspiring singers should expect to be working in the field only by their late twenties. Singers who wish to specialise in oratorio, recital or early music work will most likely perform professionally only part-time. Singers need to be well organised and entrepreneurial in their approach to finding work. At advanced levels, an agent will be helpful. Jenny Bates (freelance concert singer) comments that in the field of concert singing there is little alternative to gradually building a reputation: ‘All jobs, however small, should be executed to the best of your ability, because you never know who is listening and observing — maybe your future employer.’ Singers who want to make a career in opera need to be very committed — it is highly competitive at both the national and the international level. A typical career structure for singers is movement from graduate and postgraduate study (which may be specific to opera performance) to work as a member of the chorus or as a young artist in an opera company. In Australia and North America, companies offer young artists opportunities to understudy major roles, or to perform with touring companies, while continuing their education in voice, language and stagecraft. Singers may then progress to performing understudy or ‘cover’ roles, and small principal roles with the opera company. Some choristers also cover principal roles. Another route to work as a singer is through singing competitions. There are a number of scholarships available for study, mostly outside Australia, for young singers who are successful in such competitions. Still another way of working as a singer is to be a part of a professional vocal ensemble,

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usually singing repertoire such as madrigals and newly composed music. There are few such opportunities in Australia, more in North America and Europe. In Australia, capital cities are the main places of employment. Sydney is currently the main location for full-time singing work, with either Opera Australia or the vocal ensemble The Song Company. Regional cities can be a source of some work, especially for recitals, chamber music and touring opera companies. At the appropriate level of merit, this is a truly international field, centred in North America and Europe. Cities such as New York, London, Paris and Berlin are the most important operatic centres. Many Australian singers work internationally: some are based in Australia, some in Europe or North America. International work may be affected by whether or not singers can get working visas for the places they wish to work in. Prudence Dunstan (freelance opera singer) also notes that they need to commit to staying overseas for some time to get work there; this can be expensive unless the singer is the recipient of a scholarship. Singers who have some experience as performers often become voice or stagecraft teachers as well as performers. Some singers have become directors of operas, opera schools and music schools, or have become agents. Singing skills can also be used in music therapy. It is also possible to use classical training to sing jazz, cabaret and music theatre repertoire. One of the most important tips for aspiring singers, as for any performers, is to make every effort to see and hear the best singers, and to listen to recordings of a broad vocal repertoire. Only by being aware of the standard in the field can students know what to aim for. In opera, the salary range for principal singers is from approximately $36,000 to $51,000 per year. Casual or part-time rates are slightly less than the above for both rehearsal and performance. For a full-time

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chorister, the salary ranges from approximately $32,500 to $43,000. If a chorus member is covering a principal role, the increase in fees varies with the size of that role. For concert singers, fees can range from zero to about $3000 per concert. They are negotiated between the artist or agent and the concert entrepreneur. Some church choristers are paid a small annual fee, typically around $2000. Training

Singers should have an excellent voice, a positive nature and good general intelligence. The ability to read music and play an instrument, especially keyboard, is highly desirable. Studying music and taking part in performing ensembles and musicals at secondary school is also desirable. In some cases, since singers’ voices do not make their quality clear until the late teens, it may be appropriate for an aspiring singer to undertake tertiary study without the musical training mentioned above. Most tertiary institutions which offer courses for classical singers offer preparatory classes for such students. There is usually some opinion in the field as to where the best training is available at any given time (which university, which teachers). Students should talk to people in the profession and recent students, who may have an opinion as to where is best. There are many training opportunities in North America and Europe.There are publications (such as Guide to Performing Arts Programs, by Muriel Topaz et al.) which provide guidance as to which universities or music schools are best for singers, but the most important choice may well be which voice teacher you go to. Again, students should talk to others in their field about possibilities; it may be a good idea to go to the cities where you propose to study and take a sample lesson from several possible teachers. Most tertiary-level classical music schools or programs in Australia offer training for singers.

Comment J E N N Y B AT E S ( F R E E L A N C E SINGER):

CONCERT

‘It’s important have a fall-back career and the ability to do a variety of work in the field.You also need to be interested in a wide range of ideas, cultures and artistic pursuits.’ D AV I D B R E N N A N ( F R E E L A N C E SINGER):

OPERA

‘For opera singers, a broad education is important, since theatrical ability depends heavily on an ability to analyse text and character. Being a singer is a wonderful profession for the right person. It can, however, involve a lot of travel, performance stress and personal challenge. You need to be strong, healthy, determined, and really love the work if singing is to be the profession for you. Most singers who make a career express a need to sing and perform.’

PERFORMANCE

DEFENCE FORCE BAND MUSICIAN

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Suitably skilled defence force musicians who aspire to band direction and management may be allowed to undertake an officer training program. The salary range for a musician is from $32,000 to $52,000 per year. Training

A career as a musician in one of the defence force bands is an excellent option, particularly for performers who are committed to working full-time and seek job security.Army, Navy and Air Force bands (in addition to police bands) collectively employ many hundreds of musicians. Defence force musicians work full-time at music. When they are not performing at various official ceremonies, functions and public concerts they maintain a rehearsal schedule similar to that of a symphony orchestra. Band members are also expected to manage the operational and promotional aspects of the band’s activities under the delegation of their commanding officer. Skills

A high standard of musicianship is required for this work. Versatility is an advantage, because armed forces bands are required to perform in a wide variety of styles, from brass band marches to big band jazz. Ideally, players in these bands need advanced skills in reading music and improvisation.They also need to be able to perform while marching. The ability to write band arrangements is a useful skill. Musicians are not exempt from the standard recruitment requirements for armed service personnel.They are tested for physical fitness, aptitude and psychological suitability, and subjected to security and police checks before being accepted. Prospects

Entry to one of the defence force bands is by music performance audition and standard recruitment testing, or through training at the Defence Force School of Music. Career progression is by promotion to higher ranks. Promotion is based on annual evaluation of performance.

Applicants for recruitment in defence force bands are expected to have already achieved a high standard of performance for their instrument (or voice). The required level of competence for Defence Force School of Music entry is AMEB Grade 7. The required entry level standard for the Air Command Band (which does not use the training services of the Defence Force School of Music, except for Band Officers) is A. Mus.A. Although the standards for entry described above are set at Grade 7 and A. Mus. A., this does not mean that applicants have to hold these certificates. It is merely a rough guide to the standard of playing required. Once recruited, musicians have to do the standard enlisted personnel basic training before they start work as a musician. In-service training is also available in the form of clinics and workshops run by leaders in the field of concert band and big band music. Comment JOHN BUCKLEY (AIR COMMAND BAND DIRECTOR):

‘I really enjoy the job. For example, in the year 2000 we were parked in the arena of the Olympic Games, involved in the Closing Ceremony, and involved in the Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the Paralympic Games.We got to play eight concerts to thousands of people throughout the Games, and not long after that we found ourselves in the mountains of East Timor, playing for the United Nations troops and thousands of Timorese people. It’s always a different place, different people, different audiences, and different music. There’s always something interesting happening around the corner. That’s a very satisfying part of the job.’

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A C C O M PA N I S T

An accompanist plays the piano for individual soloists (instrumental or vocal), ensembles and choirs. The professional accompanist usually has a number of regular clients, but also works on one-off jobs for concerts, examinations, eisteddfods and other competitions and auditions. Harpsichordists, organists and even classical guitarists also act as accompanists. The same principles of employment, job skills and career structure apply to all these musicians. Skills

An accompanist needs a highly developed piano technique, similar to that of soloist, in order to be able to cope with often extremely difficult piano parts in the solo instrumental and song repertoire. A high degree of musical empathy, musical insight and flexibility, as well as stylistic breadth and depth, is required to match the needs of the wide range of soloists and groups accompanists encounter. Because accompanists are often employed on a one-off basis, they must be excellent sight-readers and able to learn pieces very quickly for a concert or competition. Sometimes there is no rehearsal time — the accompanist must be able to sightread to almost a rehearsed performance standard. Accompanists often also need to be able to work with a conducted group, such as a choir. When working with singers, it is useful to be able to help them with the pronunciation of foreign language song lyrics. Some work with vocalists may require the ability to transpose at sight and to reduce scores at sight (choral music rehearsals for which there is no piano part, for example). With Baroque music, accompanists may need to be able to improvise over a figured bass (a bass line that has numbers written

underneath, indicating the type of chord to play). Generally, accompanists should have a broad knowledge of the classical music repertoire and its performance practices. If they are involved with singers performing popular music, they need to understand that music’s notation conventions; playing from a chord chart may be required. Accompanists need good interpersonal skills, because their clients are not always very good players or singers, and they may have personality traits that do not appeal to the accompanist. An even temper and extreme patience are required to produce the best possible outcome for the client. Nerves of steel are needed in concert or other performance situations if the client loses his/her place in the music — the accompanist has to be able to make the necessary adjustments to save the performance from disaster. At the other end of the professional spectrum, accompanists need to demonstrate high performance standards to complement the talent of concert soloists. Since accompanists are usually freelance musicians, they need small business management skills and good self-promotion and networking abilities. Prospects

The prospects for an accompanist in Australia are quite good, because there is a marked shortage of very good practitioners. There is a certain attitude among good solo pianists that it is demeaning to be an accompanist, but in actual fact very few concert pianists have the high levels of sight-reading and other performance skills needed to be successful in this field. Apart from the top professional level, working with instrumental and vocal soloists, there are literally hundreds of opportunities for accompanying students doing exams, as well as choirs and theatre groups. Some tertiary music institutions also employ accompanists to play for students having lessons. Possible career pathways include specialising in vocal accompaniment, leading to the job of repetiteur in an opera or dance company. Accompanists, particularly

PERFORMANCE

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repetiteurs, often become conductors because of their abilities in directing musicians and experiencing and interpreting vast amounts of repertoire. The base rate of pay for accompanists in Australia is $37 an hour, but hourly rates up to $50 are usual.

REPETITEUR

Training

A repetiteur is a pianist who works as an accompanist and vocal coach for an opera company. The work also extends into private and tertiary music institution vocal coaching and accompanying. In the opera company context, the repetiteur plays for all the music, coaching and dance rehearsals. Other duties include conducting for rehearsals and performances if there is a backstage choir, band or soloist. For performances, a repetiteur may also be required to play backstage musical effects (thunder sheets, bells, etc) or to play keyboard instruments (piano, organ, harpsichord continuo, celeste) in the pit orchestra.The repetiteur accompanies artists who are auditioning for the company and may conduct chorus calls and warm-ups. If the company is putting on concert performances the repetiteur would provide piano accompaniment. Work is available in opera companies and in tertiary music schools with opera departments. There are opera companies in major cities throughout the world, and in Europe there are often companies in smaller cities as well. Repetiteurs are also employed by dance companies. A dance repetiteur accompanies the rehearsals, including during the development of choreography, and may also play keyboards in the orchestra for performances.

Advanced training as a pianist is required, but experience on the job is the best training for an accompanist. Doing as much work as possible in as many different work situations as possible is essential from the start.There are a few tertiary music courses that offer specialist training for accompanists; this is mostly at the postgraduate diploma or masters degree level (see Appendix 2) Comment JILLIANNE STOLL (HEAD QUEENSLAND):

OF MUSIC,

OPERA

‘Surely there is no greater joy than to be making music WITH someone. The likelihood of a pianist ever “making it” as a soloist is virtually nil. So one must consider either teaching or accompanying as a career path. Just think about the diversity of musicians/singers that one can play for: individuals, big groups, small groups, theatre/ballet groups … a rewarding collaboration, both musically and socially! Accompanying is fun — so become an accompanist. You won’t regret it.’

Skills

Repetiteurs need a broad range of performance and musicianship skills.They need good piano technique, excellent sight-reading skills, and to be quick learners.They have to be able to follow a beat, accompany singers (including conducted music), transpose music at sight, understand conventions of scoring, reduce orchestral music to a keyboard part at sight, reduce accompaniments and orchestral

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reductions further, and reduce vocal lines, ensembles, and chorus parts.They have to be able to cue singers and prompt in rehearsals and performances. Facility with foreign languages, especially the languages most commonly used in the standard opera repertoire (Italian, German, French and Slaviclanguages) is essential. This includes understanding the nuances of meaning and pronunciation necessary for correct interpretation of the repertoire. When accompanying, they need to be able to play and sing simultaneously, sing parts that are missing, and play the piano as if simulating the orchestra, including interacting the way an orchestra would with a singer. For the Baroque repertoire they need skills as a continuo player, to be able to interpret figured bass in a stylistically appropriate way (particularly in recitative), and proficient harpsichord technique. Conducting technique is also essential, as are a strong knowledge of the repertoire and its performance practice and a love of imparting artistic knowledge. Repetiteurs need teaching skills for the coaching, training and direction aspects of the job. They also need good interpersonal and communication skills, an even temper and patience, and the ability to stay calm in crises. Dance repetiteurs need almost the same levels of performance and sight-reading skills as opera repetiteurs. They must also have a thorough understanding of choreographic practices and dance techniques, because they may be required to return to a section of a score identified only by the name of a step — they therefore should be able to annotate scores with the correct ballet terms.

rect pronunciation and emphasis. This work can be done in private practice or in a tertiary music institution’s vocal or opera department.The starting position for a repetiteur in an opera company is as a trainee. In the opera company context, the career path of a repetiteur can move in a number of directions. Those interested in administration may move into the job of Head of Music, a position that also may involve being a repetiteur and training repetiteurs. Those interested in conducting may become chorus master and advance from there to the role of conductor and musical director. Many opera conductors started their careers as repetiteurs. The salary for a trainee repetiteur is $70 to $80 per 3-hour call as a casual; for an experienced repetiteur, it is a minimum of $105 per 3-hour call. For a full-time load (10 calls per week) the base salary is $870 per week, but up to $1200 is negotiable. There is currently no problem getting work if you are talented and experienced, despite the fact that the combined opera companies in Australia only employ around 16 people as repetiteurs.The range and level of skills required means that not many musicians are good enough to be repetiteurs. In Australia there is actually a shortage of experienced repetiteurs — they are sometimes recruited from overseas.Apart from jobs with opera companies, there is work coaching and accompanying in some tertiary institutions. In addition, many semi-professional and amateur choirs employ accompanists. Large ballet or modern dance companies that use orchestral accompaniment usually employ dance repetiteurs. The salaries are comparable to those of opera repetiteurs.

Prospects

Training

Pianists with an interest in becoming repetiteurs can gain experience by working with individual singers, choirs and amateur musical theatre companies, and playing for exams, lessons, competitions and concerts. Coaching singers is the next stage of development. Here the focus is on teaching the singers to sing the right notes and the words with cor-

It is not necessary to have a specialised degree in accompanying — work experience is the best kind of training.The more accompaniment one does the better, but experience is particularly important for working with conducted groups. Language skills can of course be gained separately from musical training. An accompaniment specialisation

PERFORMANCE

in a music performance degree or a postgraduate accompaniment or repetiteur course provides an ideal foundation. Several Australian tertiary music institutions offer training, mostly at postgraduate level (see Appendix 2). Some opera companies have work experience or on-the-job training schemes. Many pianists interested in this career also study internationally at postgraduate level. Comment JILLIANNE STOLL (HEAD QUEENSLAND):

OF

MUSIC, OPERA

‘This is an extremely rewarding career. The variety of skills required make for an interesting time in the rehearsal room.The interaction between repetiteur, conductor, singers, directors, orchestras, etc is exhilarating. Making music together is very satisfying. Having the opportunity to play instruments other than piano is great.To be part of a performance involving up to 150 other people is amazing. There is always a lot to think about and do simultaneously. So you must have nerves of steel and be able to keep very calm.’

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BALLET PIANIST

A ballet pianist plays the piano for ballet classes. There are two main kinds of activity. The first is rehearsing for dance syllabus classes and then accompanying the individual performers for the subsequent exams. Set pieces of music are used for the various grades. The second is playing for open class, where the music is free, not prescribed.These classes, held in ballet schools and companies throughout the world, are designed for warm-up, practice of technical routines, and general fitness development. The various technical exercises are done in the same general order in ballet classes the world over, but there are variations within each exercise according to the teacher’s perceived requirements on any given day. The ballet pianist must quickly find appropriate music to fit what the teacher requires for a particular exercise. For example, the teacher may request a particular dance rhythm (a waltz or a tango, for instance) at a particular speed, or may not request anything at all because he/she knows the pianist will be able to find something that fits. The pianist can select existing music from the classical, popular musical, or jazz standard repertoire, or improvise music in the style and tempo required, particularly if there is no piece of sheet music at hand that fits the brief. If a particular composed piece is chosen, the pianist may have to adapt its bar structure on the run to make it fit with the standard 8-beat phrase structure used in ballet classes. Musicians playing for other types of dance classes, such as contemporary, tap and character, have the same kinds of duties. Drummers and guitarists, as well as pianists, are sometimes employed in contemporary dance.

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Skills

Advanced piano technique and musicianship skills, including sight-reading, memorisation, improvisation and stylistically appropriate expressivity, are essential. Other skills include being able to keep strict time, provide a strong rhythm for the dancers, follow the movement of the dancers, be instantaneously responsive to the teacher’s directions, and generally be musically adaptable. Just as ballet teachers, choreographers and dancers should strive to understand musical structures, ballet pianists need a thorough understanding and appreciation of ballet, including knowing all the common dance movements and their names. For the syllabus classes and exams, dance pianists need patience and endurance — the job requires long hours of playing sometimes tedious and repetitive music, often on substandard pianos. A good sense of humour is an advantage. Prospects

This kind of work is challenging, and not all otherwise competent pianists are able or willing to develop the particular skills required.There is consequently a shortage of good ballet pianists. Work is available in ballet companies, tertiary dance schools, private dance schools, and for accompanying at examinations. Larger companies may employ on a full-time basis. A standard fee for a freelance ballet pianist is around $25 per hour. The skills involved in ballet pianism are transferable to a large range of other professional performance opportunities. Training

There is no training program specific to this job. Obviously a degree in piano performance would be a satisfactory preparation for the performance of composed pieces, but the improvisational and interactive aspects of the work and familiarity with dance practice need to be developed as well. Observing some ballet classes would give a potential

ballet pianist some insight into the specific skills required. On-the-job experience is needed to develop these skills. Comment GARY DIONYSIUS (FREELANCE

BALLET

PIANIST):

‘Pianists interested in trying this type of work should start with syllabus classes. The open classes are far more challenging, so you need to try it out for a while, and be patient to see if it appeals to you.You need to be able to feel the movement and have a love of dance.’

PERFORMANCE

COMMUNITY MUSICIAN

Working as a community musician involves inspiring and assisting people in a particular location (or number of different locations) to create and perform music — the objective is to enrich their personal lives and reinforce their local or ethnic cultural identity. In this process, connections are established with physical location, local history, community events, and the cultural background and social priorities of the participants. Community musicians often work for an organisation (such as a local municipal council) that provides infrastructure for individual creative and performance projects through an arts officer. Most community musician positions involve creative music skills and administration of a program of community music activities. The administrative component usually involves planning short-term and long-term projects, designing projects, writing funding applications, budgeting, recruiting staff if required, collating documentation and writing reports, and perhaps even consulting on the design and development of new community facilities. The hands-on work involves faceto-face work developing music with individuals, conducting rehearsals and producing live concerts. It may also include engineering recording sessions and producing CDs (overseeing artwork as well as audio production). Community music positions are available in regional areas as well as capital cities. Their existence depends on the commitment and energy of community individuals and organisations to secure the funding, promote the value of the activities and make it all work for the community.

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Skills

Community musicians need a variety of practical musical skills — the more the better, really, to cover the interests of the likely participants in a range of community music projects. Ideally, they should be able to sing well and play a range of instruments, and to have creative music skills such as improvisation, composition, songwriting and instrument making. They should have a broad knowledge and appreciation of different styles of music and different musical cultures. For contemporary popular music projects, skills in audio production (such as sound recording and PA system operation) are also important. Community musicians need excellent communication skills, because they have to deal with participants, funding organisations, government officials, and the community they are working in.These include conflict resolution and counselling skills. They need to be able to inspire people to express themselves through music. In structuring music projects, they must also be able to take account of the differing skill levels of the participants and to communicate musical information and directions to people with little prior musical knowledge. So considerable flexibility is needed, as well as the ability to revise the projected outcomes of projects. A strong commitment to the philosophy of community arts is important. Administration skills — budgeting, report writing, grant submission writing, fundraising, project planning and management, time management and office communications — are essential. Good promotion and marketing skills are also needed, to interest organisations in funding projects. Prospects

There is no formalised career structure in this field.The positions are in organisations such as municipal councils and community arts bodies, and depend on the ability of these organisations to obtain external grants from state and federal arts funding sources, gain sponsorships

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from local businesses and raise money from their own activities.The salary will depend to a large extent on the amount of money the organisation has raised, and so may change from year to year. Newcomers to the field will find it difficult to get well-paid work. Many community artists get experience on the job as volunteers or on low pay. Once they have some experience they may be in a position to apply for project grants (as individuals or through their organisation) which will employ them. There are very few substantial ongoing jobs available. The experience and skills gained from this kind of work may equip community musicians for contract work in private organisations such as early childhood centres, preschools, senior citizens centres and nursing homes. Alternatively, they may be able to use the skills developed in community projects to gain work in more mainstream areas of the subsidised arts industry or in the commercial music industry. It is usual and advisable for community musicians to be able to work in other areas of professional music. First, they may need to supplement their incomes, but their status as community arts workers would also be enhanced by this more mixed kind of employment profile. The experience and skills gained as a community musician are also a strong foundation for arts administration in community or regional settings. Training

Any kind of formal or informal music training is beneficial, particularly in singing, instrumental performance, musical direction, composition and music technology. Teacher training is also very useful, as the job essentially involves inspiring and helping people realise their music performance and creative potential. For those who also do a large amount of organising and management, a course in arts administration may be useful. Getting an apprenticeship with an experienced community musician provides

invaluable training. There are some traineeships and mentorships available through state community arts networks. Some tertiary music courses have a community music component. Comment PETER WINKLER (ARTISTIC Y O U T H WAV E ) :

DIRECTOR,

BONDI

‘Community music is one of the most challenging and enjoyable careers in the music industry. As it is not commercially driven [but] more related to the process of creativity, it is more open to experimentation and the development of innovative processes and outcomes. Community musicians often find themselves learning much from a wide variety of participants and their musical styles, concepts and creativity.’ SUE EDMONDS (COMMUNITY

MUSICIAN):

‘My work as a community musician began when the Community Arts Officer of the Tasmanian Arts Council told me to be one, and apprenticed me to visiting artists for a year. Then we developed programs for Tasmania — touring and in arts centres. I learnt [how to make] basic ocarinas, skin drums, and sound sculptures. These new skills, enhanced by knowledge of banjo, guitar, ukulele, etc, have enabled me to work for organisations and on self-directed projects. It’s great — if you get a chance, do it!’

PERFORMANCE

BUSKER

Buskers play music or entertain in other ways in a public place. The most common locations are markets, festivals, shopping malls or other spaces where there is plenty of footpath space. Music buskers look for a place that has good resonant acoustics so that they will be easily noticed and clearly heard by the onlookers and passers-by. Some music buskers use battery-operated amplification to make sure they can be heard. Busking is done with the expectation that the passers-by will stop to listen and then make a cash donation to the performer. Places where there are people already assembled, such as outdoor dining areas, are also popular. Some buskers use ‘bottlers’ to go through the crowd soliciting contributions. Others ‘bottle’ the crowd themselves after each set and have a collection tray or hat in clear view while they are performing. Busking is generally done on the initiative of the performer, but some organisers of markets and malls, etc encourage buskers because they enhance the festive quality of the space and thus attract shoppers and diners. Some city authorities regulate busking — licences are required and there are rules for where, when and how busking can be done. In most countries it is legal to busk without a work permit visa, so busking is a handy way for talented tourists to earn some money.The best places to busk are European countries such as Ireland and Germany. It is a very popular activity in Scandinavian countries during their summer festivities. Japanese cities (particularly Tokyo) are reputed to be the most lucrative places to busk. According to busker Sam Menzies, busking in Australia is hard work because Australians think of buskers as beggars rather than as legitimate workers.

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Skills

Buskers need to have an interesting, perhaps even novel, act and form of presentation, including visual considerations such as costume, make-up and movement. Buskers need to be confident, accomplished performers and rehearsed enough to be able to play and dance while making eye contact with the crowd all the time. They should stand up, perform with animation and appear happy by smiling constantly. This will make the crowd happier and more inclined to be generous with their money. Performance skill and energy are required to hold a crowd once it is gathered. Crowd interaction is also expected: getting the crowd excited by heckling them and joking with them works well. In choosing a space to perform, Sue Edmonds recommends that buskers develop an ‘acute awareness of public places and how people interact in those spaces’.There is only a short time to turn a passer-by into an audience member. Sensing when it is best to move to a different location is also important. If you are relying on the income, Sam Menzies suggests that a good deal of selfmotivation is needed, because there is no boss to tell you what to do and when to do it. Persistence is also needed, because it often takes long shifts to make the amount of money you require. He recommends spending several hours in the one spot to get a good feel for the crowd and a good interaction going with it. Prospects

It is possible to make a reasonable living from busking if the act is good and the conditions are favourable. A good busker in a favourable location and season can generally earn at least a few hundred dollars a day ($200 or $300). There have been reports of buskers making $6000 a week in Tokyo. Training

There is no formal training for busking, but obviously any kind of performance training can be put to use in a busking act. Learning

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how to busk well involves observing how successful buskers go about their work, what their strategies for communicating with the crowd are, and how they manage to get people to donate money. Comment SAM MENZIES (BUSKER):

‘Since busking, I felt capable of achieving any career path I chose. I knew that if I stood out there in the sun, rain or snow long enough, sooner or later my pockets would be full of change. It also helped me look at money and success differently. Often I would play the best set musically that I had ever done, but not make a single dollar, while in other sets I struggled through every song and got showered with money.’ SUE EDMONDS (BUSKER):

‘To busk one needs to be committed to it for several hours at least in order to get the feel of it. It is a wonderful way to get an idea of the place — and make a few dollars. It’s like a hobby, though it’s serious business when you do it.’

Chapter 4

Production his chapter is mainly about audio production, a broad area of activity concerned with the amplified or recorded presentation of music and other art forms involving sound. It covers the creative and technical side of record production, including producing, programming, remixing and recording engineering. It then deals with live sound engineering for concert music and related sound reinforcement situations (sound engineers prefer the term ‘reinforcement’ to ‘amplification’ because what they do doesn’t necessarily make things louder). This is followed by sections dealing with production in theatre and film.

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RECORD PRODUCER

Record producers manage the organisational, budgetary and artistic aspects of the making of a record (CD). In some instances the producer is paid a fee (usually with an agreed number of percentage points of the royalties as well) and the record company manages the budget for the production. Alternatively, the producer will manage the total budget, inclusive of his or her fee; in this case the producer acts as a project manager, and is responsible for booking the studio time, the musicians, the engineers, the arranger(s), the programmer(s), additional instruments and equipment, and paying for the tape stock and other incidental expenses of the production. In the case of an artist who is not a songwriter, the producer would also be responsible for choosing the repertoire in collaboration with the artist and negotiating the licensing of the material. Producers emerge from a number of different backgrounds. Some producers have a comprehensive background of being an artist, songwriter, arranger, and audio engineer. Others come from one or other of these backgrounds. Some producers are tastemakers in the industry, such as DJs working in radio or television or radio programmers. Apart from the organisational aspects of the recording project, the producer is responsible for the artistic processes and outcomes. Some producers, depending on their skills and temperament, take a dominant role in determining the arrangements and sound of the recording. With artists and bands that have their own artistic product, it is more usual for a producer to take a facilitating role, providing support, guidance and artistic advice for the artist rather than taking the creative lead. At the start of a project the producer sorts through the material to be recorded to try to determine the most suitable songs to use.The

pre-production period involves working this material into some sort of shape for the recording. Depending on the type of artist, it might also involve writing or commissioning charted or programmed arrangements. In the case of a band, the songs selected may be taken through a workshopping process. The producer acts as catalyst for this developmental period, spurring the artist(s) on, trying not to interfere with the process unless there is an impasse, and trying to encourage ideas from all the musicians involved, sometimes acting as a mediator if some members of the band are dominating the process at the expense of others. Refining the material is the objective at this stage, including rehearsing it properly in order to avoid wasting expensive studio time when it comes to the actual recording. In the studio the producer manages the schedule of the recording, including organising the order of the overdubs (additional parts that are recorded over the rhythm tracks) and making sure in advance that there are enough tracks on the multitrack tape or hard disk available for the planned arrangement of each song. The producer must choose suitable session musicians and other creative personnel for the project — this can mean organising a different creative team for each song.The producer and the engineer(s) should be well prepared when the musicians arrive at each session, so that time is not wasted. The producer must make sure that the best possible sounds are put to tape or disk — in terms of both performance quality and audio quality. Although the process should be well planned, there also needs to be flexibility in dealing with the creative processes that sometimes happen in the studio itself or changes to the arrangements or players that become necessary as recording progresses. Once the music is recorded, the producer takes charge of the mix-down sessions (see Recording engineer, below). The producer (sometimes in consultation with the band/artist) then works on the order of tracks and may supervise the mastering, which is usually done by a specialist mastering engineer (see below).

PRODUCTION

Skills

Record producers need a range of musical, technical, personal, business and management skills. Even if producers are not performing or composing musicians, they must be intimately aware of the style of music being produced and the latest ideas involved in its production, and they must have a strong instinct about what musical and production features will appeal to the target audience. Producers of classical music records must be able to read music scores and have an understanding of the performance practices of the period of music being recorded. Producers also need to be able to choose appropriate engineers, arrangers, programmers, session musicians and session singers, particularly when it is a non-songwriting artist who is recording. Producers need to understand recording processes. They may not be engineers, but they must be totally familiar with the technical aspects of recording music, including understanding recording and signal processing equipment, studio protocols, and all the latest production trends. A mixture of patience and perfectionism is required in getting good sounds and performances recorded. The history of production is largely charted through its innovations, so producers must strive to incorporate new musical and technical ideas into their recordings. Because the producer is fundamentally a facilitator, highly developed interpersonal skills are required, including knowing when to intervene in the creative process or encourage experimentation, when to allow things to progress in a natural way, and when to promote a more structured studio routine. Personal attributes that are necessary include confidence, the ability to encourage and enthuse the people you are working with and to be constructively critical without upsetting or demoralising them. When dealing with a band, the producer needs to be able to mediate any creative disputes which may arise and discourage any overindulgent

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or petulant behaviour. Other project management skills that producers need include drafting and managing a budget, contracting and managing a creative team, scheduling and organising rehearsals, tracking (recording all the different layers of a multitrack recording) and mixing sessions, managing quality control, and reporting to the client (usually a record company). Prospects

Most producers have a background in one or more of the areas relevant to the job when they enter the field. Because of the wide range of skills needed, however, good producers are rare. Novice producers are likely not to make much money until their records are successful. Producers are usually paid a fee per song plus a royalty rate. According to Simpson (2002), ‘novice producers may get less than $500 a track, but the fees for established producers range generally between $1200 and $3000’. Producers who have a hit record or series of hits are likely to be in a better bargaining position for their next job. Very successful producers can command a royalty of up to 4% of the retail sale price of a record, but 1% is more common. Training

Producers need to be trained in as many of the constituent skills of the job as possible, and to have considerable professional experience in relevant parts of the industry. Courses in audio engineering and production are probably the most useful training programs for this field (see Recording engineer, below). Comment RICHARD PORTEOUS (COUNTRY PRODUCER):

MUSIC

‘Do it. Just do it. Just work with people. If you’ve only got access to a tape recorder, do it on a tape recorder. Just start by organising music and making music happen. You don’t need any formal training to be a producer.You don’t really need masses and masses of money, but being able to convince other people to put money in is a useful skill.A lot of the skills

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of being a producer are social skills.You also need musical knowledge to be able to know what you want, and know how to get an artist to produce their best.

PROGRAMMER

J O N AT H O N B U R N S I D E ( P R O D U C E R / E N G I N E E R ) (2001):

‘As a producer I have to make sure that the band and I have the same vision before we start. Then I try to get the best possible performance out of them. I do a lot of arranging, decide the approach, the schedule, and I am answerable for the budget.The engineer very much determines the sound. I like to do both jobs because I know what I want and how to get it.’

Programmers are arrangers employed in record production, and working exclusively with electronic sounds. Many forms of recorded pop music use only electronic sounds for the backing of the singers. The programmer is responsible for choosing all the sounds, including drums, bass, percussion, keyboards, strings, horns and other instruments and effects; and for using these to create an arrangement in the style of music involved, making allowances for any intended overdubs of solo voices and harmonies, and instrumental solos and effects. See also Arranger (popular music), in Chapter 2: Composition. Skills

Programmers need to find or create new and interesting sounds that will make the track stand out from other competing productions. To do this they need a highly developed command of the techniques of sound synthesis, sampling, looping and signal processing as well as access to a studio of soundproducing hardware and software and to a large library of sounds. In addition, they have to be able to arrange music competently within the particular style of the track, preferably with an inventive flair to ensure that the arrangement is distinctive. Skills in sequencing and hard-disk recording techniques as well as audio engineering are also essential. Ideally, programmers should be aware of the recent history of record production and of the arranging techniques used for different styles of popular music, including the latest styles and sounds. Many advances in programming come about through combining the musical features of a number of different styles, so a broad knowledge of

PRODUCTION

popular music history is an advantage. Developing a superior ear for musical timbre and texture is essential. Freelance programmers need to have the usual skills in small business management, professional networking and self-promotion.

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REMIXER

Prospects

Programmers mostly work on a freelance basis, but also may be employed by record production houses, jingle factories and the like. Programmers earn between $40 and $120 per hour. Training

Relevant training is available in courses that feature contemporary popular music composition and production (see Appendix 2).

A remixer is a DJ or programmer who reworks existing popular music recordings into formats that are designed for specialised markets.The idea is to cater for different formats (such as radio, dance floor, chill room, home stereo), and for different dance music styles (such as house, jungle, trip hop). The practice has now spread to non-dance genres such as alternative rock. Remixers usually take the vocal tracks from the multitrack format of the original recording and completely rebuild them using their own grooves, harmonies and arranging ideas. The tempo of the song is often also changed, using time compression technologies. Skills

Remixers need a good understanding of the production subtleties of the musical style they are working in, and the ability to work creatively in that medium. Advanced technology skills similar to those of the programmer are also required. Prospects

Remixers are usually freelancers who are commissioned by record companies and production houses. The fees for a remix can range from $1000 to $15,000, depending on the professional profiles of the artist and the remixer. Training

Training to be a remixer essentially involves working in the field for many years in order to get a feel for the subtleties of commercial appeal for the various genres. The training requirements and opportunities for DJs, producers, and programmers are all relevant.

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Comment M AT T R O B I S O N ( F R E E L A N C E

REMIXER):

‘You have to be able to see the exciting bit of the music, to be able to look at something and not be afraid to take out what other people might consider the important parts of it. And you have to be able to look at it very laterally. So you go in with a rock song, but it doesn’t have to stay a rock song. It could become anything. The skill is being able to take those bits and pieces and reassemble them into something else.’

RECORDING ENGINEER

Recording engineers make recordings of music in a studio or in a live performance situation. Most of the activity of recording engineers takes place in a recording studio environment. Engineers may be employed in-house on a salary basis, but most are freelance operators who work in a number of different studios. The work that freelance engineers get is client driven, unless a client has no engineer in mind when booking a studio (in which case one of the regular engineers working at that studio will be assigned to the job). Generally, contemporary solo artists, bands and other musical ensembles gravitate towards engineers who have gained a reputation for recording a particular style of music (alternative rock, country, jazz, classical, for instance). There is a growing number of engineers who also operate as producers. This is because of the increasing availability of hard-disk recording and editing systems. It is fair to say that with the current digital recording technologies and associated production practices, a producer needs to have the skills of an engineer. It is now therefore common for the two roles to be combined. When engineers work with producers, they are responsible for getting good sounds on tape or disk, but for the more creative aspects of production, engineers follow the directions of producers. Before the session the engineer should attempt to find out exactly how many people and which instruments will be involved in the recording.The engineer should explain to the musicians exactly what is going to be happening in the session. Some musical groups may have their own ideas about how the session will run. The engineer typically suggests that the

PRODUCTION

musicians bring in CDs which demonstrate the kinds of sounds they are interested in getting on their own recording. From experience with particular studios, the engineer will know whereabouts in the room the instruments should go to achieve the kind of sounds the musicians are looking for — there may be four different possible positions for a drum kit, and each will correspond to a different recorded drum kit sound, for example. By using acoustic baffles or reflective surfaces, the acoustics of a room can be altered to compensate for a lack of reflections or to reduce the natural reflections. Once the instruments are placed, the engineer will select the best microphones for the sounds that are sought. The engineer needs to be efficient in setting up headphone monitoring for the musicians with their own preferred mixes. If this is handled well, it sets a good vibe for the session. The methods of tracking (recording) to multitrack tape or hard disk vary. Generally it is considered preferable to have everyone playing together, but the engineer may concentrate, for example, on getting the bass and drums sounding good together first. After the basic recording of all the players is made, overdubs may be needed for parts that need redoing or for extra parts that have been planned. Often a different instrument will be used to replace an already recorded instrumental part. Overdubs are often used to enhance a recording by adding unusual sounds or instruments. Examples of this include the use of analog synthesisers and vintage processors. It is very fashionable to use modified equipment to achieve very distinctive (unlikely) sounds. For popular music styles, most of the recording time is spent getting the solo vocal as perfect as possible in terms of intonation, timing, diction and energy level. This may mean redoing it many times or compiling a single track from a number of separate takes or drop-ins. The traditional method of linear multitrack recording is to lay down ‘bed’ tracks followed by overdubs. However, with digital hard-disk recording/editing it is possible to

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work in any order. For example, it is common to begin with a basic sequenced backing track and to work initially with the solo vocal part. An instrumental arrangement is created once the vocals are complete. It is also usual to record direct to a hard disk and use the digital editing and other facilities to rearrange the track. Mixing, the next stage of the process, typically takes just as long as the tracking (recording), unless the production elements of the music are kept to a minimum. Mixing may start during the recording, particularly if you are working in the digital hard-disk domain. Mixing involves balancing the instruments and voices according to standard principles, but also taking the client’s tastes into consideration. There are a number of approaches to this, including starting from the individual drums of the kit and working up from there, or starting with a basic set-up of all the instruments and voices and refining them with reference to each other. Solving clashes in frequency content between the elements creating the texture is part of the mixing process. This is usually done by reducing frequencies of an instrument which might mask other instruments, allowing the sweeter tones of the masked instrument to emerge. This process can make an instrument sound unattractive if heard alone, but in the context of the mix it solves the problem. Another of the jobs of the engineer is to create a stereo image, panning the individual sounds left, right or centre and placing them in different acoustic spaces through the use of effects. Standard effects techniques are commonly used — a range of certain delay or reverb effects on a snare drum, for example — but the choice is also a matter of taste. Hundreds of effects devices are available. The hardware hasn’t changed much over the last 20 years, but every now and again a new device appears. Effects are used, essentially, to give the mix depth and dimension, to colour instruments, to position them in an artificial space or to invent new sounds. Because there are infinite possibilities inherent in the mixing process, it is often

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difficult to finalise it. Within reason, the engineer will usually keep working on the mix until the client is satisfied. A second opinion from another engineer (if available) is often sought. It is standard practice to mix to both DAT 1 and /2 inch analog tape. A number of versions of the mix are often done, including a vocalup mix and an instrument-only mix.The former may be useful in the mastering stage and the latter is often used for television performances (where the backing musicians mime — because it’s too hard to set up the band to get the same quality sound as the recording, or there is not enough time to do it). Skills

Knowledge of the style of music the engineer is working on (including characteristic sounds, techniques and performance practices) is essential.This means being aware of a range of practitioners in the style and even specific tracks of landmark albums. Being able to sympathise with the style of music being recorded is important. It may be better for an engineer to turn down a job if he/she has no empathy with the music. Many of the best engineers have musical backgrounds as performers and/or composers. Practical music experience gives them an understanding of musical processes, and may also help them communicate with the clients. Engineers must be aware of their own hearing deficiencies (if any) — if they know that there is a dip in their hearing at a certain frequency they can compensate for it. Apart from musical aural skills, an engineer needs to be able to discern resonant frequencies in order to be able to filter them out. This is a fundamental audio engineering skill, and it is even more critical in live sound engineering and mastering. To be a successful engineer you must have highly developed interpersonal and communication skills. It is important to be able to make musicians and corporate clients feel comfortable and relaxed in the studio, and to make clients understand what is a realistic objective for the time booked.

Engineers also need to understand the operation of all the equipment and software likely to be encountered in any professional studio environment. Although some engineers do not have advanced audio electronics skills, it is useful to have some knowledge in this field — an understanding of the rudiments of sound signal paths and the balancing of line levels, for example. If something goes wrong in a session (such as unwanted electronic noise), the engineer needs to be able to fix it. The same is true with computers. A knowledge of operating systems as well as software applications is desirable. As most recording engineers are freelancers, it is also critical that they are able to market their services and run their own small businesses. Prospects

Having a successful career as a recording engineer depends on making good recordings and being able to market yourself professionally.To build a reputation, an engineer must do a lot of work, preferably in different locations. Many believe that being based in one city is too limiting. Getting work experience in a studio in London or Los Angeles, for example, even as an assistant engineer, helps build a reputation in Australia, especially if the work involves recording famous artists. Having engineered commercially successful records is a surefire way to advance your career. Focusing on a particular style of music, especially a commercial style such as pop, alternative rock or country, is a good move, and will most likely lead to becoming a producer/engineer in that style. Other sideways career moves include working with live sound in concerts or theatre, or working in media such as film, television and multimedia (see separate job categories covering these fields). A typical rate of pay for a recording engineer working freelance is $200 per day. Producer/ engineers with a high industry profile charge much higher fees, often around $5000 per song (a song might take three days to record).

PRODUCTION

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Training

Comment

Almost all recording engineers begin their careers as assistant engineers.This designation once represented a paid position in its own right following a period of unpaid apprenticeship. Now it is generally an unpaid position, although some studios might be in a financial position to pay an assistant engineer a small amount once he/she has demonstrated aptitude and commitment. The duties of assistant engineers initially consist of everything that needs doing in the studio complex — cleaning the windows, sweeping the floor, cleaning out the refrigerator, and taking care of food and drinks for the clients. They will also be required to do whatever the engineer conducting the session asks. This may include setting up microphones, aligning and operating the 2-inch analog tape machine and/or maintaining the computer, making back-ups of data and saving settings on the mixing console. Assistant engineers are expected to work long hours, to do what they are told and, depending on the relationship with the engineer, not to offer any opinions about the proceedings unless asked. It is important for assistant engineers to develop good rapport with the engineers they are working for — if they do, there is more chance that the engineers will spend time explaining and demonstrating aspects of the operation of the studio to them. Eventually they may be offered some engineering jobs. Even if the prospective engineer has done the relevant training and has lots of the relevant skills, a period of informal apprenticeship as an assistant engineer in a professional recording studio is still required. However, studios tend to take on assistant engineers on the basis of their knowledge of and commitment to being a recording engineer, so it is advisable for someone planning to enter this field to do some post-secondary training. There are specialised courses for recording engineers in some tertiary music programs, TAFE institutes and private schools (see Appendix 2).

MICHAEL WORTHINGTON (ROCKINGHORSE STUDIOS):

‘The majority of the good engineers I know were musicians before becoming engineers. Being a musician helps a lot in communicating with clients.You have to be able to relate to the musicians’ needs and make them feel good and confident about themselves and what they’re doing in the studio. Communication opens up a very big door towards a creative vibe. If an engineer can make this connection, the whole process is more productive and enjoyable.’

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MASTERING ENGINEER

Mastering is the last stage of preparing a recording. A mastering engineer takes the final mix of a recording and processes it to remove frequencies that stand out too much and boost frequencies that are not prominent enough. This is generally done in a dedicated studio that has the accurate monitoring facilities needed for this task, as well as specialised equipment for the mastering process. The high-end mastering studios usually use far superior versions of signal processing devices than the ones recording studios use. These devices are cleaner and quieter, and are used in matched pairs, to prevent the stereo image deteriorating. Whereas digital processors are common in recording studios, mastering studios typically use the more expensive analog versions of these devices as well. Small high-quality mastering consoles (sometimes custom designed) are used when specific functions that are not available on standard mixing consoles are needed. Although recording studios are equipped with many of the processing tools used in mastering studios, recording engineers should resist the urge to apply them at the mixing stage. The mastering engineer needs a clean, high-resolution mix to work on at the mastering stage. Doing the mastering in the same studio that the mix was done in, or having it done by the same engineer who did the recording/mixing, is regarded as unwise. Although it is now possible to master in home studios, the results are invariably poor, because low-cost systems are technically not up to the task and the operators usually do not have the necessary specialised skills. Mastering engineers need to do several separate things. On the one hand, they need to be able to divorce their attention from the individual layers in a mix and hear the track as

a single entity. On the other hand, they may also attempt to boost or decrease the levels of certain instruments, vocal parts or effects that are found to be at an inappropriate level in the mix. Mastering engineers may also adjust the levels between tracks, finetune the fade-outs and fade-ins, and determine (usually in collaboration with the artist or producer) the length of time between tracks. Some albums use cross-fading between tracks, which is also facilitated by the mastering engineer. Another kind of work available to a mastering engineer is the remastering of existing recordings for reissue (usually on CD). Often the sources of this compiled material are poor-quality copies, because the licence holder for the material has been unable to get hold of the original master tapes. Sometimes the format of the source material is vinyl, or even shellac records.The sound of the tape copies is invariably dull and needs to be expanded, equalised and compressed to give it the tone and clarity that listeners have become accustomed to. In the case of vinyl source material, there are usually lots of crackles that have to be removed. The mastering engineer responsible for working on compilations of single artists or multi-artist album reissues might also have to decide on the order of the songs. Skills

Mastering engineers must have excellent hearing skills and an intimate understanding of any deficiencies in their own hearing in order to be able to compensate for them. Unlike freelance recording engineers, who may be able to specialise in a limited number of musical genres and styles, mastering engineers need to have a good understanding of the sonic requirements of virtually every kind of music. Certain kinds of music favour certain frequency bands, and mastering engineers need to be aware of the particular sonic characteristics of different genres. Allied with this skill is the need to be able to recognise and respect the artistic needs of the clients (usually musicians and producers).

PRODUCTION

They must also be able to understand the requirements of all the different formats (radio, home stereo and car stereo, for example) in which the record will be heard. Finally, mastering engineers must have detailed knowledge and experience of the specialised tools of the trade, such as multiband compressors, limiters, equalisers, spatial enhancers, exciters, and the vast array of processing options available in the digital domain. Prospects

Mastering is a specialised and highly paid field of audio engineering. The best engineers can earn up to $100 per hour. Hiring a dedicated mastering studio is also expensive (around $100 per hour), because of the high cost of all the specialised equipment. Training

Most mastering engineers begin their careers as recording engineers and gravitate to mastering when they realise they have the ears and the temperament for this kind of work. Comment MICHAEL WORTHINGTON (ROCKINGHORSE STUDIOS):

‘I found I had an aptitude for this genre of engineering, starting with something that people have put a lot of time, money and passion into, and taking it to a level they hadn’t thought possible. A lot of music these days is mixed in home studios and might have been put through some pre-mastering processes. This can hinder the mastering process. If the music has been mixed properly in a professional studio, the mastering session becomes an enjoyable experience for all. Original mixes can seem lifeless in comparison with the mastered version. Sessions never go for more than a day, so there is a definite sense of completion for both the client and myself.’

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STUDIO MANAGER

Studio managers are responsible for the dayto-day running of a recording studio or studio complex.This involves taking care of the studio bookings, including the booking of engineers, producers and musical equipment, communicating with clients, and organising the routine maintenance of the equipment and buildings. Managers are also responsible for financial management, including invoicing the clients, keeping the books, and generally managing the cash flow of the business. The manager should also take care of the marketing of the business by networking with record companies, media production companies, advertising agencies and other major sources of work. It is important that these clients know what the studio or studio complex is capable of.The manager not only informs the clients of all facility upgrades, but also invites input into facility development from major clients. The markets for ancillary services such as mastering, programming, duplication (where you burn a limited run of CDs from a CD) and replication (where a so-called ‘glass master’ is made and the CDs are processed from this — used for large runs) should also be targeted. The manager would also usually be involved in commissioning advertising artwork and placing advertisements in the music and local press to maximise the range of possible clients — unsigned bands or anybody who thinks they might make a recording. Skills

Customer relations and business administration skills are essential. Studio managers also need to understand the operation from the ground up so that they can communicate

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appropriately with the clients (including record companies), the engineers, the pro ducers, the musicians and the other staff. Studio managers should have had practical professional experience as engineers, and need to be able to troubleshoot equipment systems and make minor repairs. Prospects

A recording engineer with an inclination towards business management and dealing with people is well suited to this job, although many engineers would not be attracted to this kind of work on a long-term basis. Successful studio managers may be able to progress their careers by moving to increasingly bigger and more prestigious studio complexes or to large broadcasting organisations. Some studio managers move to other management jobs within the music industry — into record companies or media organisations, for instance. The annual salary may range from $40,000 to $100,000, depending on the professional experience and engineering profile of the manager and the size of the studio. Training

A studio manager needs to have had significant experience working in a recording studio environment and/or other sectors of the music industry. Business experience or qualifications are an advantage. Comment MICKEY LEVIS (TROY HORSE

PA R T N E R ) :

‘You need endurance. Because the studio runs such long hours, quite often you have to be in there at the end of the night and back at the start of the day. And it’s never-ending. You have to have good problem-solving skills, both with people and with equipment. You need to know how to get on with both of those. We use mostly freelance engineers. You’ll get a call in the middle of the night and they’ll be having a problem. You have to be able to work out what’s going on over the telephone just to try to save yourself having to drive in at 4 am to see what they’re doing or

what’s gone wrong. Sometimes you do have to drive in if it’s an actual equipment breakdown, but most of the time they’ve patched something wrongly. So fault-finding skills are very important. They’re probably the main skills.That and getting on with the people.All recording is very much a communication job. The musicians are trying to communicate what they want recorded, and you’re trying to understand what they’re wanting in order to make that actually turn into music.’

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MAINTENANCE ENGINEER

repairs; to understand audio wiring practices for professional and domestic installations; and to hand solder with a high level of reliability. More general requirements include good oral and written communication skills, analytical and problem-solving skills and office administration skills.

Maintenance engineers are employed by large recording studio complexes or work freelance, travelling to different studios. Most professional studios do not have an in-house maintenance technician but rely on the manager and recording engineers to carry out routine maintenance such as the alignment and calibration of recording machines and the checking of cables and tie-lines. Maintenance technicians are responsible for repairs and maintenance related to electronic and electro-mechanical audio, music and testing equipment; and for subcontracting electrical, plumbing, acoustic and specialist repairs (re-lapping of tape machine heads, for example). They coordinate the schedule of maintenance services and activities. They carry out regular maintenance activities such as alignment, calibration and cable checking. They design equipment layout, connection and function, and carry out modifications to equipment.They test equipment prior to purchase. Administrative aspects of the job include preparation of project costings, specifications and tender documentation; maintenance of databases, manuals and supplier lists; storage of components, materials, spare parts, manuals, accessories and tape stock; ordering and supply control; and compliance with occupational health and safety legislation. Maintenance technicians also liaise with recording engineers, studio clients, suppliers, tradespeople, contractors and consultants. They may be required to support and/or assist in the recording process.

Prospects

Skills

Maintenance technicians need to be able to disassemble and assemble equipment of a diverse nature; to analyse and locate a fault (electronic/electro-mechanical) and make

Audio electronics is a very broad field, and recording studio maintenance technician is a competitive and specialised job in the field. There are similar jobs in the theatre, radio, television and telecommunications industries, the electronics/electrical repair industry, sound reinforcement companies, audio installation companies, and companies involved in the import, distribution, manufacturing and sales of audio products. Opportunities for advancement to management positions occur only in large organisations such as studio complexes, production companies, entertainment centres and media organisations. The salary for a maintenance technician is between $30,000 and $45,000 per year — it’s higher for management positions. Many maintenance engineers operate as contractors or consultants with their own businesses. Training

The basic training is a trade certificate in audio electronics. A degree in electronics is another route to this career.Work experience in large studio complexes, venues or production companies is essential.

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MUSIC PRODUCTION C O M PA N Y

Production companies are studio-based organisations which search for talent to develop, with the objective of gaining a record deal for the artist(s) and then securing chart success. Often they are attached to commercial recording studios. They function like record labels, but without the manufacturing, marketing and distribution sides. Most production companies are searching for potential pop artists, either solo singers or singing groups. The idea is to spend time producing good recordings for artists who have potential as singers, movers, and stage personalities. Production companies are usually run by a team of people, each of whom specialises in a different aspect of the production process — songwriting, programming, producing, grooming and deal making, for instance. Skills

The skills of running a production company include talent scouting, artist packaging, artist grooming, and pop music songwriting, programming and production. Keeping up with the latest pop records and being able to analyse how they are made is important. Being able to interest major record companies in the product is essential. Prospects

The speculative nature of this work means that it is usually done in conjunction with other more stable income-generation activities, such as studio hire and hiring out the services of engineers, programmers and producers. Achieving chart success will attract increasingly more suitable artists to the business.

Training

Considerable experience working generally in the popular music industry and specifically in a recording studio environment is needed for this kind of work. See other relevant sections of this book for more detail about the skills involved in songwriting, programming, production, etc. Comment WERNHER PRAMSCHUFER (SONGWRITER RECORD PRODUCER):

AND

‘There’s the money side and the creative side, and the two must never cross.There’s many an artist I’ve worked with for nothing because I thought they were absolutely talented. The fact that they never did anything doesn’t faze me, because I still believe they are brilliant and wonderful musicians and deserve every help we can give them.’

PRODUCTION

LIVE SOUND BUSINESS

Live sound businesses are usually contracted by concert promoters or bands or other music groups. Other opportunities for work also include theatre productions, conferences — any event requiring a public address system. There is a lot of equipment involved in even a small-scale operation. The amount used depends on the kind of music, the size of the venue and the estimated size of the audience. Equipment needs to be kept in good repair and stored ready for loading into a truck or van. The process of loading, travelling to the venue, unloading and setting up may need to be started from 8 to 12 hours before the beginning of the show. Time for rectifying any technical problems (such as equipment damaged in transit) and doing the sound check for the performers must be built into the schedule. After the show the equipment is dismantled, loaded back into the vehicle and returned to its storage space. Before the next engagement, the equipment must be checked for damage (and repaired if necessary) and cleaned. There are a number of distinct roles in a basic live sound operation. The role of the front-of-house (FOH) mixer is to create quality sound for the audience, and to achieve a balance, volume and frequency response appropriate to the style of music. This is difficult, because it often involves a compromise — the mixer is trying to please the audience, the promoter and the musicians, all of whom may have different notions of what the music should sound like. The front-of-house operator usually supervises the entire audio crew, though some owner/operators prefer to do foldback mixing. As supervisor, the front-ofhouse operator needs to have a thorough

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understanding of the whole system and its components, not just the front-of-house part of it. The role of the foldback mixer is to organise the on-stage mixes for all the performers, making sure that everybody on stage is hearing what they want and need to hear. Foldback mixers also have a challenging job, because they need to focus on a lot of individual musicians’ requirements at the same time, to interpret the interpersonal dynamics of the ensemble (and to work out priorities accordingly), and to solve feedback problems. Foldback that works well makes the front-of-house job easier. The role of the audio stage hand is to set up microphones, run the leads, secure the leads, help the performers set up their equipment (if they want help), make changes to equipment set-ups between acts and make mechanical and technical repairs and changes on stage as required during the performance. In addition, the person who owns the business (usually one of the operators) will have a range of business and employment responsibilities related to the effective and legal operation of the business. Sticking to the occupational health and safety rules is critical in this kind of work, because accidents are likely otherwise. Owners will need appropriate insurance cover for workers compensation and public liability. All employees must be properly trained and supervised. Some parts of the operation (lighting companies, riggers, etc) may be subcontracted. Another important role is that of systems engineer. This is a designated job in large production companies and for large productions. A systems engineer writes the specifications for a particular live music or music theatre production job. This involves knowing what kind of system is needed for a particular venue and audience size and knowing how all the elements of the system fit together. Systems engineers need to have a rigger’s ticket or know enough about rigging (and employ a rigger) to be able to

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design the suspension of lights and speaker boxes.A systems engineer may also double as a front-of-house engineer. There are a number of specialist areas of live audio production. These include audio production for theatre and for conferences. Theatre sound is dealt with towards the end of this chapter under Sound designer (theatre). In a conference situation, the audio crew is usually briefed by a conference organiser or technical director — such a person, unlike someone working in the music industry, may not have a good understanding of the requirements. Sound systems may be needed in several different venues, and in a number of different microphone configurations — lecterns, panels, banquet tables and for individual audience participation (usually a radio microphone passed around). Splits for sound recording by the audio operator and the press may also be required. Playing tapes or CDs on cue is another common requirement. Skills

Live sound production is physically demanding work, involving very long hours, often in very bad working conditions. Perseverance and physical and mental stamina are needed. People working in this area must love their job — which is essentially supporting the performances of others, providing a tangible artistic component of the production — because they will get little recognition. According to Tim Carlyle (owner, Sound Solution),‘When you do a good job, nobody notices.’ People working in this field need to have good musical, technical, interpersonal and business skills. Being able to mix music well, which is part of the job, means understanding what is involved in different styles of music and having a good ear, in order to be able to make the music sound the way it should. They also need enough musical knowledge to understand what is happening on stage in terms of the interplay of the instruments and voices, the structure of the music, and when certain musical parts need to be featured. Having a

good enough ear to identify resonant frequencies and therefore avoid feedback and related problems is essential. Live sound crew also need appropriate technical knowledge and practical skills.These include pre-production (planning exactly what equipment is needed for each engagement), understanding the acoustics of different venues (reflection, reverberation time, absorption coefficients), assembling complex audio and lighting systems in an efficient and safe way, operating and repairing equipment, troubleshooting technical problems as they occur (and quickly!), and providing artistically pleasing sound according to the needs of the client. Interpersonal skills are critical.The foldback engineer in particular needs to be able to react quickly to the requests of musicians about the mix they are receiving through their foldback monitors. This requires good public relations skills and a calm temperament, because the person will need to deal with conflicting requests from musicians, operational problems, supervise the audio crew on stage and respond to the directions of the FOH mixer simultaneously. Stage hands also need to be able to react quickly to the demands of the performers and to problems as they arise, both before and during a show. The FOH mixer often also has to deal with conflicting demands — from the audience and the promoter (and sometimes the musicians). There are often mixing problems because musicians on stage play too loud through their on-stage amplifiers (usually the guitarist wants to sound louder and turns up his amplifier, something the foldback mixer has no control over). The front-of-house operator needs good diplomacy skills to convince some musicians that they need to make adjustments to their settings; sometimes the musicians too need these skills to ensure that they get foldback that will allow them to play at normal volume. In a conference situation, a great deal of focus is needed to effectively combine the amplification of speakers, live recording, and

PRODUCTION

recordings that are to be played. This is a less predictable environment than a professional concert, and the sound operators need to be very good at responding calmly and cheerfully to last-minute requests from the organisers. Owning a live sound business involves all the skills necessary in any small business — office management, taxation, insurance and other legislation compliance, contracts, staff recruitment, management and leadership of employees, and marketing of products and services. Maintaining a client base involves being able to establish and maintain a good professional relationship with each client. As the technology of production sound and lighting is constantly changing, operators must also be prepared to invest in new knowledge (and equipment) if their businesses are to survive. Prospects

Getting a start in live sound usually means carrying equipment and slowly building some skills by working — for little (or no) money — for a small live sound operator. Live sound engineers may then opt to invest in their own equipment and transport in order to set up their own business. An alternative for engineers who wish to develop a career in live sound is to try to become employed in one of the very large production companies or to move into the theatre sound area. Although it is advisable for live sound engineers to gain skills in all aspects of the operation of a production company, it is also possible to advance one’s career by specialising in a particular style of music as a front-ofhouse engineer.Although the role of foldback engineer is probably equally critical, it does not offer the same opportunities for developing a high profile in the field. Live sound engineers need a good professional reputation and a good network of contacts if they are to develop a career working with high-profile acts. Engineers with significant professional experience may be interested in moving into

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the management areas of large production companies.There are a number of jobs there, including general manager, administrator, office manager, hire manager, service manager, tour manager and systems engineer. At the lower end of the market the fee for live sound crew is $150 to $300 (per person) a day, depending on the number of hours involved and the type of gig. Experienced engineers working regularly with high-profile artists command higher fees. Training

As there are many different parts of this job, it takes a long time to become competent through on-the-job learning, even when this is backed up by training. Working in a range of venues and other performance environments helps people gain the necessary knowledge and experience. Apart from the technical training, there is also the need to understand music. A background as a musician, combined with continuing study of different styles of music and musical practices, is desirable. Training in live audio engineering is available in a number of tertiary institutions (see Appendix 2). In choosing a course, make sure that the teachers have relevant professional backgrounds. Comment M I C D E A C O N ( D E A C O N T R A D I N G C O M PA N Y ) :

‘Take on many different roles in a variety of musical genres to broaden your experience and knowledge base. Explore the different avenues requiring sound technology, such as contemporary music, theatre sound, film sound, festivals, conferences and corporate work, to realise your individual skills. Above all, be reliable, listen to all styles of music, and protect your ears.’ T I M C A R LY L E ( S O U N D S O L U T I O N ) :

‘The aim of the live sound operator is to be transparent — so that the performer doesn’t realise you’re there and neither does the audience.’

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SOUND AND LIGHTING HIRE COORDINATOR

Hire coordinators must be able to design an appropriate system for any occasion, taking into account the size of (and other relevant details about) the venue, the ensemble and the audience, and to calculate an appropriate quote. Good business administration skills are, of course, also required.

As well as providing sound and lighting operation services to promoters, bands, theatre companies and other events, many live sound production companies also hire equipment to individuals and organisations that then operate the equipment or systems themselves. The customers make a booking for the items they need and collect them from the production company. The hire coordinator must prepare the equipment according to safety regulations and also set up and stick to a strict maintenance schedule to ensure the maximum life for each item. This usually involves dismantling equipment, cleaning it, reassembling it, then testing and tagging it. A large inventory of sound production and lighting equipment is required to make such a business viable. Because hiring companies are major purchasers of sound and lighting equipment, it makes sense that they also sell equipment that is supplied by major equipment companies. This type of business is sometimes also involved in installing sound and lighting systems in public and private buildings/spaces — public address systems for clubs, train stations, factories, supermarkets, schools and the like. It may also include installing theatrical sound and lighting systems for stages and other performance spaces in schools, theatres and clubs.

Prospects

Skills

Hire coordinators need to have a comprehensive knowledge of the company’s inventory, and to keep up with the latest products. They must also be able to maintain equipment properly by using repair and cleaning regimes. Understanding and implementing safety regulations is mandatory.

People attracted to this kind of work normally come to it from an interest in live music production. A career may begin in a small company that sources its equipment from larger companies. A developing career might involve later seeking work with one of the large companies that import or build sound and lighting equipment. Training

Qualifications or equivalent professional experience in audio electronics and business administration are required. Comment T I M C A R LY L E ( S O U N D S O L U T I O N ) :

‘To gain an understanding of a piece of equipment it’s a good idea to pull it apart and then put it back together. Most jobs are easy to fix, because a simple problem has developed (such as loose connectors).’

PRODUCTION

TOUR MANAGER

Tour managers are responsible for managing tours of musical acts. Their duties include organising the accommodation, travel and ground transport for the artists and crew. After the promoter or act books the venues for the tour, the tour manager takes over the liaison with the venues on matters such as the times for the performances and sound checks, the in-house production facilities, venue access for loading, any restrictions caused by government regulations, and agreements about payments from pre-sales and door sales. In addition, tour managers organise the artists’ rider (food, drinks and other backstage requests). Tour managers also determine what kind of equipment needs to be acquired for each venue, based on venue size and the equipment the venues already have, and are responsible for coordinating the activities and movements of artists, road crew, sound, lighting, rigging and stage management personnel. Skills

A tour manager needs excellent skills in negotiation, budget management, administration, communication, troubleshooting, time management and crisis management. Because the work involves the specification of equipment for each venue and the supervision of the process of transporting, setting up, operating and dismantling what can be complex lighting, sound and other stage equipment, a background in live sound engineering or theatre production is helpful. The tour manager needs a large network of contacts in concert production in order to be able to hire suitable people and source equipment. The tour manager also has to be able to deal with artists’ egos and maintain a harmonious working environment.

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Prospects

The usual background for tour managers is live sound engineering, with significant experience in touring. Some tour managers have a background in artist management or some other music business occupation. Tour managers usually work as independent contractors. Some promoters employ their own tour management staff. Experienced tour managers may be able to work internationally, although this is difficult because of the contacts needed to operate efficiently. A sideways move for a tour manager would be into major event management. Tour managers working in Australia earn between $200 and $350 per day. Good tour managers can get as much work as they like to take on. Training

The skills needed for this job are usually acquired on the road, on the job. Anyone working on a tour can observe first-hand what a tour manager does, so road crew or sound and light technicians are in a good position to learn the job. There are some training courses that may help prepare a person for tour management. These include courses in project management and small business management. Comment M I C H A E L H AY E S ( I N T E R N AT I O N A L

TOUR

MANAGER):

‘It can become very tiring, because basically you’re the person that anyone with a problem comes to, and it’s up to you to sort it out. That can wear you down after a while. People only come and see you if something’s wrong. You have to try hard not to become frustrated with that. It’s not physically the hardest job on the tour, but it would be the longest hours. You need to be calm and logical in solving problems and to have good time management skills. Common sense is the major prerequisite.’

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SOUND DESIGNER (THEATRE)

Sound designers collaborate with the director and other creative personnel in a production to provide the sonic/musical identity for a theatre work. They also help the director in matters of sound and music during the technical production period. Sound designers edit and compile sound effects for specific cues in a show, and often write some music cues (for productions which have no contracted composer). In a show with a composer, the sound designer will collaborate with the composer to help achieve the composer’s vision for the show. The sound designer determines the specifications for the sound equipment for the production, making sure the installation does not interfere with lights and other design elements of the show. This involves determining the position of speakers (including stage speakers), microphones and cable runs. Usually, all ongoing sound problems during the production period are the sound designer’s responsibility. Depending on the size and budget of the production, the sound designer might also be involved in installing the equipment and mixing the show. In large productions these roles would be taken by other workers and the sound designer would have more administrative and project management duties. Skills

A thorough understanding of the physics and physical nature of sound, combined with competence in the use of relevant audio equipment, is essential. Amplified sound is difficult to manage in the theatre — all extraneous noises (hisses and hums) need to be eliminated from the system, because they conflict with the spoken word.

A wider range and number of microphones and microphone techniques (for example hanging, plate, boundary and body) are used in the theatre, to conceal the fact that sound reinforcement is taking place at all. Sound designers need good professional experience of theatre and music repertoire and performance practices, since part of the job is to mediate among people from the three different areas of collaboration: audio, theatre and music.They must also be willing collaborators, particularly in relation to interpreting the director’s or composer’s instructions about the kind of sonic mood or quality that is desired. Sound designers working in large productions may also need good planning and project management skills. Prospects

Sound designers may rise from the ranks of theatre sound operators or technicians, or they may come from the ranks of theatre composers who have a strong audio technology background. In order to be offered this kind of work, a sound designer must have a lot of experience in the field already or have done sound design as part of a composer or sound technician’s brief. The director, or the production manager, or even the casting agent, may choose the sound designer for a production, so aspirants must develop a broad network of contacts in order to increase the chance of being contracted. The standard contract fee for leading theatre companies is around $4000 per show (this may cover up to six weeks of rehearsals, and technical runs, and monitoring the sound quality for every performance once the show begins). The sound design budget for one of the larger musicals may be a lot more (up to $10,000). If a production tours, there may also be an ongoing royalty (the initial fee covers the initial season, and the royalty covers the tour).

PRODUCTION

Training

Training as a sound technician and experience in a range of theatre and music productions are essential. Training as a composer is also desirable. Comment SEAN PETER (FREELANCE

SOUND DESIGNER):

‘Take every gig you can, and remember you are there to collaborate on the director’s vision for the project.’

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STAGE MANAGER (OPERA AND MUSICAL THEATRE) Stage managers in opera or musical theatre productions coordinate all the activities on stage and all the technical operations (lighting, sound, etc), and liaise with the various departments (costumes, props, etc) to ensure the smooth running of the performance. Stage managers also facilitate any changes to the production ordered by the director. What distinguishes the role of stage manager of a music theatre production from that of a non-music theatre production is that the cues of the show are called with reference to the music score. Another opera production job classification that requires score-reading ability is surtitle operator (the person who projects the English translations of the individual lines of libretto text for productions where the opera is sung in the original language). Skills

Stage managers need good people skills, because they need to work with a range of performers — singers, conductors, orchestral musicians, dancers and actors (including children) — plus the director. They need to study the show and have a good understanding of its construction and flow. Although a detailed technical knowledge of sound and lighting systems is not necessary, it is certainly useful to have some knowledge of these areas and to be able to convey technical directions from the director and designer to the crew. Stage managers of opera and musical theatre need to be able to read a score, and they need to understand the culture of opera and musical theatre. A knowledge of the repertoire and of opera etiquette is also expected.

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Prospects

Stage management in opera and musical theatre is a specialised job. Not many positions are available nationally, so the field is very competitive. It is usual for stage managers to do unpaid work before they get paid positions. Jobs that lead to the position of stage manager include assistant stage manager and deputy stage manager. In some smaller companies, stage managers are contracted for the rehearsal period and performances of various productions rather than employed full-time. There are some full-time positions in large organisations such as Opera Australia. Stage managers who wish to advance their careers typically move from smaller companies to larger companies. Experienced stage managers may move into production managing, which involves administration, planning and budgeting. Stage managers are paid award wages ($630 per week). Training

Courses in stage management are available in training institutions that specialise in drama and theatre. A stage manager for opera and music theatre also needs training in music theory in order to be able to read a score. Comment P E TA W I N T E R S ( S TA G E QUEENSLAND):

MANAGER,

OPERA

‘It’s a really interesting field to work in because nothing’s ever the same. That’s what keeps me going with it.You have to be prepared to work long hours and to work quite hard.That’s one of the worst parts of the job. And be prepared to keep at it. If you don’t get work here, you might get work somewhere else, so be prepared to move interstate.’

FILM AND TELEVISION SOUND AND MUSIC PRODUCTION here are many production roles involved in film and television sound and music. The roles of screen composer, orchestrator and copyist are dealt with in Chapter 2: Composition.The roles dealt with in this section are music supervisor, music editor and a range of job classifications in sound (sound supervisor/sound designer, dialogue recordist, boom operator, dialogue editor, dialogue re-recordist, dialogue mixer, music editor, sound effects recordist, effects editor, effects mixer, and (final) mixer).

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PRODUCTION

MUSIC SUPERVISOR

A music supervisor advises the producer and director of a film, television, or commercial production on all aspects of music.The music supervisor’s job may include any or all of the following roles: administering the music budget, selecting the recorded (source) music, carrying out all the negotiations for the licensing of recorded or already-composed music that is to be used, matching existing songs with performers, and commissioning new songs/music (keeping in mind soundtrack cross-marketing potential). Not all Australian film projects employ a music supervisor. If they don’t, other members of the production company take on the work a music supervisor would do. In the US the licensing aspects are often considered a separate job. Music supervisors are, ideally, employed in the early stages of a production, preferably before the budget is locked in.The job initially involves analysing the script to determine where music is needed. Music is sometimes specified in the script, but often the music supervisor has to decide where music is either necessary or desirable. After this, the music supervisor consults with the director and the producer about what kind of music they want for each spot. The music budget should also be discussed and settled at this point. The music supervisor may also be involved in selecting a composer and negotiating the composer’s contract. Once the composer is selected and contracted, the music supervisor may get involved in spotting the composed music cues and organising the recording and mixing sessions. If there are live music scenes in the film, the music supervisor manages the casting of the players (who may need to be able to play instruments in order to mime to the soundtrack convincingly), the composition and/or

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arrangement of the music, the recording session (using musicians who can play in the required style), and the rehearsal of the actor/musicians to the recorded track. The music supervisor would also attend the shoot to ensure that the performance looked convincing, and negotiate the associated licenses, contracts and releases. Another important part of the work is finding suitable and affordable pieces of recorded music. The music supervisor researches and selects recordings and then clears their suitability with the director. Once pieces are approved, the next task is negotiating the copyright licence and the recording licence. This process can be frustrating, because the copyright owner may not give permission to use the piece, or may wish to receive a fee which is not possible within the music budget. In these cases the music supervisor has to start the music selection process all over again. The music supervisor also negotiates movie soundtrack deals. For films that involve a diverse collection of songs from many different artists and record companies, this is a major task. Skills

Music supervisors need to be highly organised in order to deal effectively with the detailed administration relating to the music used in a film. They need to have a practical understanding of copyright law, as well as good interpersonal communication, negotiation and persuasion skills. As a lot of correspondence is involved in the work, good writing skills are also needed. Music supervisors also need a great deal of persistence — finding the right music and getting the necessary licences can be slow and laborious tasks. A comprehensive knowledge of music of many styles and periods is useful, but being able to research and source appropriate music is more critical. The ability to network with publishers, musical experts and other relevant sources of information about music and music recordings is essential. The music supervisor must understand,

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both aesthetically and technically, how music works with film, and be able to interpret and carry out the wishes of the producer and director. Music supervisors operating as freelance consultants also need small business management and self-promotion skills. Prospects

The few music supervisors working full-time in the Australian film industry are overworked, which indicates that there may be some opportunities for newcomers. More opportunities are available in the television and the advertising industries. Music supervisors are usually contracted on an hourly basis.The fees range from $50 to $100 per hour, depending on the person’s experience and the budget of the project. Work in advertising is more lucrative. Training

No specific training programs are available in this field. People who want to be music supervisors should have a love of music and film and should consider training in a number of areas, including music copyright, business administration, communications and research (mostly tracking down music recordings and copyright owners). Comment CHRISTINE WOODRUFF (MUSIC

SUPERVISOR):

‘Don’t think it’s a glamorous job. There’s a lot of tedium.A number of people have said they’d really like to do what I do, and I say “What is it that you think I do? If you think that I sit around all day listening to music and watching films and say ‘Oh yes that piece of music will go nicely in there’, that’s about 10 percent of what I do.” If you are interested in administration, negotiation, and communication, and if you want to do that in an area that you love, then this is a good thing to do. It’s not a purely creative area. It is oriented towards the business side of film production. I do contracts, I do budgets, I do cue sheets and soundtrack album agreements. There’s a lot of negotiating, writing, budgeting and keeping track of things.

‘With the film industry, it doesn’t matter whether you are going to be a music supervisor or a hairdresser — in order to get work you have to just say “Here I am!” and keep persisting with all the production managers and producers round town until they give you some work.’

PRODUCTION

MUSIC EDITOR

Music editors act as a bridge between the technical and artistic aspects of film music production. Assisting the film composer is a central part of their job. The music editor takes notes during the spotting session, works out click tracks, books session musicians, schedules the recording of the music cues and keeps records of the various takes and proposed edits. As the composer is sometimes not involved in the final mixing stage of the soundtrack, the music editor often represents the composer at these sessions. The music editor also fits the source music (already composed and recorded music) to the film. This may involve liaising with the film editor to provide more precise edits to allow for better synchronisation of the music to the film; it may instead involve using time compression to achieve the same result. The editor works closely with the music supervisor to make sure that all the source music is properly documented and timed once it is edited to the film. The music editor may also be involved in selecting temp tracks and dubbing them onto the film. A temp track is a selection of already recorded music pieces synchronised temporarily to the film to give the director some idea of what effect certain types of music will have. Skills

A music editor must have a good ear for music, a broad knowledge of musical styles, and the ability to follow a (fully notated) music score. A strong understanding of filmmaking aesthetics, processes and technologies is also required. In particular, it is essential to have a thorough practical understanding of the technology of film music and

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sound design.This includes knowing how to operate industry-standard sound editing and synchronisation software. The job also requires a high level of organisational ability. A music editor needs good interpersonal communication skills, including the ability to work effectively and efficiently with a wide range of film production personnel — producers, directors, editors, music supervisors, sound designers, composers and engineers. A music editor is expected to be able to smooth out any differences that may arise between the composer and the director. Being able to deal with stress without losing concentration is essential. Prospects

The role of music editor is a relatively new one in the Australian film industry. It is developing largely as a result of the expectations of US film producers who are working in Australia.The idea of using a music editor on big-budget Australian projects is also catching on. Entry to the field is usually through existing roles such as sound editing, music recording or technology-based music composition. The work is usually contracted on the basis of hourly rates, which are generally around $50 per hour. It can be lucrative work, because the music editor may be expected to work very long hours over extended periods of a film’s production and post-production schedule. Training

Training or professional experience in sound engineering, technology-based composition or film sound post-production is recommended. Work experience or trial employment with a company specialising in music editing is the best way to enter the field. Comment SIMON LEADLEY (MUSIC D I G I TA L ) :

EDITOR,

TRACKDOWN

‘A person planning to enter this field might have the editing skills, but there are also

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specialist things they need to be able to do, including organising sessions and dealing with people.The client has to feel confident that you have had the experience. It’s not just about technical things. As with recording engineers, if you don’t have the necessary experience, the moment you come up against a bump you begin to panic. It’s just a normal human reaction. The whole project may fall in a heap, especially if the client starts to worry whether you can actually do the work.’

FILM SOUND RECORDING, EDITING AND MIXING In Australia there is a considerable movement of film sound personnel among the various roles in film sound. The industry is so small that it is virtually impossible to be just a dialogue recordist or just a sound effects editor. Thus there is movement of personnel between production and postproduction sound roles and between sound for film and sound for television.The multiskilling in film sound has also been stimulated by the technological revolution. In the digital multitrack hard-disk recording and editing environment, sound editors are often more involved in mixing than they were when mixing multiple units of sprocketed magnetic film containing separate sound elements was the system in use. SOUND SUPERVISOR/ SOUND DESIGNER

Often a film will have a sound supervisor or a sound designer, a person in charge of the overall sound concept and sound quality control of a film. According to Marc Mancini (1985, p. 361), they ‘guide the sound of a motion picture from beginning to end, interpreting the director’s expectations, “hearing” the script or storyboards, coordinating with the composer and sound editor, contributing to the mixing process, even ensuring [that] what is heard in the theatre is of optimum quality’. The sound supervisor will sit with the director in a spotting session and discuss and devise a sound concept for the film, then have to explain the agreed concept to the various editors concerned with sound. Often this involves creating a comprehensive sound world for something that has to be completely imagined (an alien planet, for example), but more often it involves the re-creation of the

PRODUCTION

sound worlds of a palpable set of locations and situations. Because sound supervisors have a coordinating role with all the sound elements of a film, they will be involved in all the premixing sessions for sound effects, music and dialogue. With music and sound effects being developed in isolation from each other and often at cross-purposes, this can be a critical role. If the director does not wish to be too involved with the final mix, the supervising sound editor may assume the director’s creative role in this crucial process. Other roles include assisting with decisions about which pieces of dialogue need to be re-recorded, and the scheduling of the mixing sessions. DIALOGUE RECORDIST

Recording dialogue takes place in three situations: outdoor locations, indoor locations, and controlled studio environments. For outdoor and indoor locations, the dialogue recordist has to deal with background noise, a problem which is much reduced in a studio environment. Dialogue is usually recorded with a single directional microphone on a boom just above and in front of the heads of the actors. If two or more microphones are required because the distance between the actors is too great for a single microphone on a boom, the alternating sound of the dialogue on each microphone is cross-faded through a mixer to avoid a jump in the level of ambient sound. Recording to a multitrack tape recorder on separate tracks is a better solution to this problem. The placement of microphones is critical in creating a sense of the space in which the shot is made and of the kind of shot it is (close-up or long shot, for instance). Other kinds of microphones are sometimes used for particular situations. For example, an omnidirectional microphone may be needed for outdoor shots where it is impossible to position the microphones directly over the

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actors’ heads. More convenient chest microphones are often used in cheaper television productions because sound quality is not so critical with television speakers. When recording dialogue on location, separate recordings of the background sound of the location are made, for use later in postproduction to smooth over any unevenness in the dialogue tracks. BOOM OPERATOR

The boom operator or (boom swinger) moves the single microphone used to record dialogue according to which actor is speaking. This involves keeping the microphone out of the frame of the camera and ensuring that the microphone is uniformly positioned for every actor. DIALOGUE EDITOR

The role of the dialogue editor is to make the dialogue seamless, removing any unevenness from the picture edit — different shots in a dialogue sequence will have different sound levels and ambience qualities, which creates an uneven sonic effect when moving from one shot to the next — and making the film coherent to listen to. It is very technical and time-consuming work. Dialogue is recorded in small pieces, according to the number of takes for each scene. The background noises may be different for different takes and different shots (closeups). The job of the dialogue editor is to clean up the sound and smooth over the changing background sounds by using the sound from alternative takes, or additional sounds, to hide any disjointedness. Essentially, it involves deconstructing and then reconstructing the reality of the scene. The dialogue recorded with the film shoot is combined with post-production rerecording (or ‘looping’) of replacement dialogue. During shooting it may be decided that the dialogue of a whole scene will be

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replaced in post-production. This happens mostly for outdoor locations — these can be essential to the visual narrative of the film, but are often very noisy. In these cases the sounds recorded on location become a guide track. The actors are brought back into a dubbing studio or stage, and while watching the relevant images and using the location sound as a guide, they re-do their dialogue, repeating each segment until it is properly synchronised with the image. DIALOGUE RE-RECORDIST

The job of re-recording dialogue is a specialised one, because the dialogue has to have an ambience that is as close to that of the location dialogue as possible. This is difficult to achieve in a studio environment. According to Stephen Hanzo (1985, p. 405), ‘a good looping job requires a stage large enough to accommodate panels simulating hard or porous wall surfaces and also large enough to allow varied microphone placement so that the perspective implied in the shot can be matched, and “recording booth acoustics” avoided’.

MUSIC MIXER

The role of a music mixer is similar to that of recording engineer (see earlier in this chapter). SOUND EFFECTS RECORDIST

Film production companies and film post-production companies usually have a large library of sound effects. Mancini (1985,p. 366) reports that Disney’s library consists of 28,000 sounds. Despite this, new sounds are constantly being created for particular projects. For example, for the film Babe 2, Phil Winters was contracted to record all the animal sound effects (excluding animal speech). This involved three months of field recording of different animals, the creation of a huge library, putting sounds up against images for the approval of director George Miller, and then refining the ones selected. EFFECTS EDITOR

DIALOGUE MIXER

The original dialogue sound, as well as the replaced dialogue recordings, appears under the faders of the dialogue mixer. So when doing the dialogue premix in the theatre, the dialogue mixer would be able to compare the original with the re-recording. At this stage the director can decide whether or not it is possible to salvage the original dialogue. Once all the dialogue and associated sound elements are in place, it may be possible to use some location dialogue that on the day of the shoot the director had deemed unusable. At the dialogue premix, 10–15 tracks of production sound that has been split out and separated (that is, put into a form suitable for mixing) gets ‘folded down’ to about 3 or 4 tracks, ready for the final mixdown.

The effects editor is responsible for establishing the particular sound world and spatial quality of each scene. This involves sounds associated with the narrative action of the film (footsteps, doors slamming, gun shots, etc) and the sound atmospheres used to locate a scene spatially (crickets, the sea, sea birds, garden sprinklers, traffic noise, etc). Every different space has its own ambience, even if there are no obvious sounds in it. Thus recordings of various empty rooms and other spaces (car interiors, lifts, corridors, etc) are used to create and emphasise these differences. Each new scene involves a new sound ambience, but sequential scenes are often closely related to each other — they may take place in adjacent rooms of a house, for example. In these situations the effects editor layers up individual sound effects and

PRODUCTION

processes them in different ways to create a realistic sound continuum. The effects editor also has to consider the impact of different cinema sound formats (IMAX multichannel system, 5.1 surround sound, 4-track dolby stereo, 2-track stereo, for instance) on the effects planning. The effects are layered up with that in mind. Planning the use of faders and panners in premixing may be necessary as well. EFFECTS MIXER

With contemporary digital multitrack systems, much of the work of the effects mixer can be done by the effects editor. Even so, there are complex sound mixing processes to be undertaken in the effects premix. For example, if a car is moving from left to right on the film image, a mono single-source car sound passing on a track will be panned by the effects mixer from left to right in the premix. It is too time-consuming to do this kind of mixing in the final mix. MIXER

With the ‘folding in’ of sounds in the various premixes for dialogue, effects and music, the aim is to create a manageable number of tracks for the final mix. There may be up to 200 tracks of sound being presented at the final mix. In the lead-up to this the various premixes are examined by the director and other decision makers in order to plan in detail what should happen at the final mix. The final mix takes place in a theatre, to simulate the cinema presentation environment. In Australian film production there are usually two people used to do the mixing.The Hollywood film production process usually uses three people: a dialogue mixer, an effects mixer and a music mixer. Handling so many tracks is not as daunting as it once must have been, because powerful automation facilities are now available on mixing consoles such as the Harrison.

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Skills

All film sound personnel should know how to ‘read a film’, to be able to fully comprehend the narrative structure and understand how it may affect the audience. An understanding of the theory of sound in film is essential, including the relationship between the speech, effects and music elements, and how sound effects and music can ‘focus attention, define space, establish locale, create environment, emphasise and intensify action, depict identity, set pace, provide counterpoint, create humour, symbolise meaning, unify transition, and evoke atmosphere, feeling and mood’ (Alten 1999, p. 196). Sound supervisors or editors working in sound design must be able to understand the director’s concept of the film and translate this into a sound concept. Phil Winters (effects editor) gives an example of a director at a spotting session who says, ‘There is X amount of time and X numbers of dollars, and the whole film needs to be placed on a far-off alien planet with sci-fi sound design, with the whole surround sound experience for the audience, and we want it to sound red.’ The sound designer or editor has to be able to work from this brief and produce a sonic concept that can be presented at a screening for the director a short time later. Sound editors need a good aural memory if they work with a sound library: knowing what is in the library will allow for more creative combinations of sounds to produce a certain effect. Phil Winters cites a case where he mixed the sound of a lion roaring with the sound of a V8 engine to make the engine sound ‘more organic’. Sound recordists need a thorough knowledge of the operation of different kinds of recording equipment, particularly microphones and microphone placement. Sound editors need to be able to operate all the equipment and software used in postproduction, particularly hard-disk recording and editing systems, sequencers, samplers and signal processors. Sound mixers in film sound require the

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same skills as recording engineers (see earlier in this chapter). There are, however, additional specialised skills relating to the requirements of film, particularly in the area of spatial placement and movement of sounds and synchronisation of sound to image. Prospects

The career sound production person in film usually begins as an assistant. After the training period, it is important to gain a lot of professional experience and build a reputation in one or more of the areas described above. A broad network of professional contacts is needed to develop a career. Investing in relevant equipment systems is recommended, as it strengthens the chance of being contracted and being remunerated well through equipment hire fees. Recordists, for example, might invest in their own microphones and field recorders; post-production personnel might invest in their own digital hard-disk editing systems. This strategy may eventually lead to film sound professionals being able to establish their own production company. Because of the irregularity of work in movies, it is a financially insecure career. It is also a very demanding job, because it requires periods of intense production where people work long and irregular hours. The industry has minimal regulation and the union is fairly powerless. Many sound production workers suffer serious work-related stress. As a result, there are not many people over the age of 45 doing this kind of work. This situation has been exacerbated, to some extent, by the introduction of digital sound technologies into film sound production. As film producers have become aware that sound editing is now less labour intensive, they have reduced the time allowed for it. Job satisfaction is affected by this in two ways: the sound design team’s thinking time is reduced, and more people are required to operate in workstation isolation on small

segments of a film. Doing sound for television, where the employment contract is ongoing and the hours regular, is a more secure and less stressful option. Training

Most of the training for film sound is done on the job.Typically, a post-production company will hire an assistant (or junior) who will be apprenticed for four years. The apprentice will then learn the basics of editing and operation of equipment though working closely with experienced editors and engineers. The assistant initially does all the menial work and is gradually given more and more responsibility. There are a number of training institutions in Australia that specialise in production training for the film and television industry (see Appendix 2). Comment PHIL WINTERS (EFFECTS

EDITOR):

‘It’s a disease … like being an actor, you just have to do it. If you’ve got it, it’s hard to shake. You never feel you’re ever paid enough; and you don’t feel your work gets recognised enough by the producers.They don’t appreciate the 30 hours of sound design that’s gone to create the sound of the hero’s car.’

PRODUCTION

MUSIC VIDEO CLIP DIRECTOR

Music video clip directors are contracted by a record company or an artist to devise a concept for a music video and to direct the production. Although the music video clip genre is essentially a promotional tool for selling a record, it is also considered an art form that allows for considerable creative expression. Once the director has an idea for the clip that is acceptable to the record company or artist(s), the director meets with the producer to devise a budget. Usually a cinematographer and designer of the director’s choice are assigned to the project at this stage. The shoot is then planned. Because Australian budgets for music video clips are small, the shoot is usually done over one or two days. Music video clips may feature the artist or band in concert, or may involve the artist(s) working with actors and dancers to create a narrative or expanded performance context. Skills

Music video clip directors need to have a professional background in film (or video) production. Experience as a cinematographer and in film post-production is advisable. A good knowledge of how film works with music is also required. In particular, an understanding of popular music performance practices and song structures is recommended. An analytical appreciation of the historical and contemporary styles of music video is useful. Music video clip directors need excellent people skills, because they must gain the trust of the artist(s). Most musicians are used to the idea of performing on stage, but a different (perhaps more flamboyant) approach

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may be needed for a clip, and they may find this challenging initially. The director also needs to be able to help the musicians achieve the appropriate style and intensity of performance without making them look ridiculous to their audience (or, indeed, to themselves). Although the producer is responsible for budgets and planning, the director also needs to have good organisational skills. For successful career management, music video clip directors also need skills in negotiation, self-promotion and small business management. Prospects

There is not much of a professional music video clip industry in Australia, because of the size of the music industry and the low production budgets. The prospects are better overseas — in Europe or the United States, where budgets are bigger. Generally, professional music video projects in Australia are undertaken by short film makers and directors of commercials. It is usual to get a start in the field by working for little or no fee. Film makers who want to get work as a music video clip director should send a music video show reel to record companies. Recognition as a video clip director usually comes only when a high-quality music video is given high rotation on music television stations and programs. Significant success with a music video may lead to more mainstream film directing projects. The US director Spike Jones, for example, started his career in this field. Generally, the director’s fee is pegged at 10 percent of the budget of the production. For low-budget clips, however, the director’s fee is one of the first things to be cut. Training

To gain the necessary skills, a prospective music video clip director should do a general film making course (there are no full-time courses specialising in music video clip production).An aspiring director may be able to

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do work experience with directors who specialise in this field. Comment ANDREW LANCASTER (MUSIC

VIDEO

DIRECTOR):

‘It’s an area of film making that can be innovative and give you a lot of creative freedom. However, it is important to strike a balance between what you as the director would like to achieve artistically and what the band and record company would like to achieve as a representation of their music. Music videos are being taken more seriously as an art form now — they are included in some film festivals. Record companies are looking for more than shots of the band playing. More clips are being made where the artist is not featured. It is more about a concept and a look that seems to work with the style of the band and the feel of the music. Just make sure everyone — the band and the record company — knows what you are doing. Make it clear what they are going to get. Music videos invariably have to look fairly slick, so it is important to have a good team working for you, especially a cinematographer and designer who can enhance the look of your concept. Try to do something simple, original and within budget.’

Chapter 5

Instrument making and repairing rofessor Michael Atherton, in Australian Made … Australian Played: Handcrafted musical instruments from didjeridu to synthesizer (1990), documents the diversity of musical instrument making in Australia, with chapters on makers of pianos, violins, guitars, orchestral instruments, organs, folk instruments, early music instruments, experimental instruments and electronic instruments. The field appears even more diverse when we consider the range of approaches of instrument makers: they may be replicating existing designs, refining existing designs, developing new designs that extend the capabilities of instruments, hybridising instruments, inventing new instruments, experimenting with the development of instruments as artworks or installations, or, in the case of electronic instruments, designing hardware or software or a combination of both. Within the limitations of a book like this it is not feasible to deal with all the possibilities and combinations in this field as separate categories. Rather, under some broad headings, I will attempt to deal with all the techniques and career issues of the field.

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The first broad category is makers of traditional musical instruments, whether these are copied from existing instruments or extended or varied in some way while still maintaining the integrity of the original concept.This field covers instruments for the early music movement (Renaissance flutes, recorders, harpsichords, viols), orchestral stringed instruments (violins, cellos), and instruments used in European and nonEuropean traditional (folk) musics. The second broad category is makers of experimental musical instruments for use in individual compositional, performance and/or installation activities.This field is distinguished from the first in that the maker is usually the player (or working with a group of players) and the production centres on one-off unique instruments. Often these instruments combine traditional instrumental design ideas with electronics.The field of sound sculpture is incorporated into this category. The third broad category is makers of electronic musical instruments. Activity in this category has evolved from building instruments based on hardwired electronic circuitry into creating instruments based on computer software applications. This category overlaps to some extent with the second category, but it is presented separately here because its primary objective is the production of devices and software that can be used or adapted by other composers and/or performers or incorporated into commercially available sound recording technologies. In addition to musical instrument makers, this chapter also deals with the occupations of piano technician, instrument repairer (woodwind and brass) and electronic equipment repairer.

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TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER

Traditional musical instrument makers work from existing instrument design plans, or derive designs from actual instruments, develop their own designs along traditional lines, or develop new designs that modify or improve the qualities of the type of instrument being made. Makers who are involved in producing early music instruments are usually trying to produce instruments that are as close to the original models as possible. They usually do a great deal of research — visiting museums to take measurements and make drawings of period instruments and working with other historical documentation — then apply principles of reverse engineering to produce their instruments.This is difficult for Australian makers, because there are no museums here that have extensive early instrument collections. For some instrument types, notably steel-string guitars and other fretted folk instruments, design plans of instruments made by famous companies (such as Gibson or Martin) are available for purchase through instrument-making suppliers such as Luthiers Mercantile International (in California). For Western European classical music instruments that have a long history, such as those of the violin family, there is not much room for radical variation in design, particularly as far as the look of the instrument is concerned. There is a conservative expectation that a certain size and shape as well as traditional construction materials will be used for these instruments. Other instruments, such as acoustic steel-string guitars, have experienced a history of experimentation with size, shape and materials. Where there is an evolving creative music tradition, in contrast to a static

performance tradition, there is a greater possibility of developing new ideas by taking advantage of technologies that didn’t exist at the time an instrument first appeared, and perhaps even introducing radical design elements.Wayne Stuart, for example, has developed the bridge agraffe, a way of coupling the grand piano strings to the soundboard with a vertical rather than the traditional horizontal offset. This promotes a sound quality which has demonstrably more clarity and sustain than the conventional grand piano. Stuart recognises that ‘composers and musicians who want to say new things need fresh sound options to facilitate that’ (Artforce, Winter/Spring, 13). Another notable example is Greg Smallwood’s revolutionary system of ‘lattice bracing’ for the acoustic guitar, which incorporates carbon fibre strips. This represents a major breakthrough in improving the resonant responsiveness of the guitar. Apart from the activities relating to copying existing instruments and experimenting with design features, instrument makers, sometimes in conjunction with acoustics engineers, also research materials and appropriate thicknesses. As part of his guitar and violin-making practice, Graham Caldersmith, who has a background in physics, conducts frequency response analyses of the musical instrument bodies, which he describes as being ‘like voice traces, so that you get a characteristic shape from each instrument and you can correlate that in detail with the quality of the perceived sound when it’s played’. Although Caldersmith recognises that ‘some makers have no respect for scientific methods’, he says ‘there are others who find that it’s useful to have all this background research because it just gives you more information from which you can assemble your own personal tradition of instrument making’. Many instrument makers import timber — cut to appropriate-sized blocks and sheets — from specialist instrument-making suppliers, or direct from sawmillers. There are some Australian suppliers of instrument

I N S T R U M E N T M A K I N G A N D R E PA I R I N G

timbers. In some cases the timber needs to be further seasoned. Violin maker Harry Vatiliotis, for example, seasons the timber he imports from Germany for a further 8 years before he uses it. As timbers traditionally used for instrument making (such as the endangered Brazilian rosewood) become less available, makers are forced to experiment with alternative timbers.Australian native timbers have become popular with Australian instrument makers and even some overseas ones. Michael Atherton’s book provides a list of 40 Australian native species that have been used regularly. The process of making acoustic stringed instruments involves starting with blocks or sheets of timber and working them to appropriate shapes and thicknesses. Power tools are usually used (although some purists reject this practice) to cut out the basic shapes. To work the materials into the required shape and thickness, various planes, chisels, knives, scrapers, files and sanders are used. The sides of instruments have to be curved using dies (moulds). Either traditional or modern finishes are applied. Woodwind makers use a lathe to shape the outside of the instrument and a gun drill or shell auger to make a hole through the length. If the bore is conical, a special reamer is required. If the instrument has keys, they are either cast or forged, or fashioned from blocks or sheets of metal. Other types of instrument making involve leatherwork (for bagpipes), elaborate wood carving (for the ‘roses’ of lutes, and the ‘scrolls’ of viols), metal illustration engraving (on banjos and dobros), and landscape painting (for the undersides of harpsichord lids) Acoustic instrument making is best done in an environment with low humidity. Instruments made in a humid environment may crack or split when taken to a dry area. Skills

All forms of acoustic music instrument making involve woodworking skills such as carving and turning. In the case of stringed

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instruments, to achieve the optimum resonance for the tops and backs, it is important for the maker to be able to judge the relationship between density/weight and required thickness. Harry Vatiliotis stresses that as an instrument maker you ‘need a good eye.You need to be able to conceive the shape and produce it, and to be able to see it developing as you go. You have to be able to remember from one instrument to the next and work out what works for you.’ Guitar maker Doug Eaton suggests that having a good touch for using tools (as distinct from working solely with the eye) is also highly desirable, as is having a feel for the particular type of wood you are working with, and knowing how far it can be stressed. Eaton suggests that ‘a high level of mental concentration, to avoid ruining the materials being worked’ is also needed. Metalworking skills are also required. For a start, all instrument makers need to be able to make their own special tools. Flute maker Terry McGee notes that ‘at every turn of making an instrument you suddenly realise that there would be a better way to do it, but that it would require you to stop making the instrument in order to make a new tool’. Making keys for woodwind instruments requires skills in forging and shaping metal. Instrument makers also need to be able to sharpen their tools really well so that they do not drag and tear the wood, and to be able to prepare and apply appropriate finishes to their instruments. Terry McGee suggests that instrument makers need an ‘inquiring nature and scientific doggedness in order to find out the things that aren’t right, and to make them right. Otherwise, you are going to make instruments that aren’t very good.’ Instrument makers who are also players have an advantage, because they can act as demonstrators (at stalls in festivals, trade shows and conferences, for example), but there are a few reputable instrument makers who do not play at all. For some instruments it is necessary for the maker to be a player —

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for recorders and flutes, for instance, makers need to play so that they can finetune (voice) the instruments. Prospects

As most instrument makers are committed to producing instruments that are superior to anything that a factory can produce, instruments are generally made individually (or in some cases in pairs), so that attention can be paid to the detail. This explains why most musical instrument-making operations consist of one person; it is difficult to see how such operations could be expanded without a reduction in product quality. The success of the enterprise depends, therefore, on the ability of the maker to establish a reputation for superior work, maintain a consistent flow of orders, and be able to command an appropriate price for the product. After being able to demonstrate excellence as an instrument maker, one sure way to gain and maintain a good reputation is to have high-profile musicians play and promote your instruments. It is fair to say that the demand for Greg Smallman’s classical guitars was greatly enhanced by the fact that John Williams championed them. Similarly, the late Fred Morgan’s instruments were used extensively by the famous Baroque performer Frans Brüggen.Wayne Stuart’s concert grand pianos have been heavily endorsed by many of Australia’s most prominent pianists, including Roger Woodward, Michael Kieran Harvey and Ian Munro.Without that support it is difficult to see how such an expensive handmade instrument could have succeeded, despite its quality and uniqueness. Harry Vatiliotis reports that his instrument-making career burgeoned in the 1970s when prominent violist Robert Pickler recommended that all his students place an order for a Vatiliotis viola. As Australia is a small market, it is difficult for more than a few high-quality instrument makers of each instrument type to survive. For high-quality instruments (particularly those that are not commonly made) there is, however, considerable international market

potential. For example, Terry McGee, who makes 19th century transverse flutes that are used in contemporary Irish folk music, has had significant sales success and advance orders through his website, mainly from buyers in the United States. Australia has had a history of producing high-quality early music instruments for the international market, with Fred Morgan leading the way in the early 1970s. A very successful instrument maker may earn in excess of $80,000 per year, but many struggle to maintain a decent living from their business. It is common for instrument makers to supplement their incomes by doing instrument repairs. Any time spent doing repairs, however, is time taken away from making instruments, and this can be disruptive to the process. Training

To get started as an instrument maker it is advisable to have training or experience in woodworking, particularly cabinetmaking. Generic courses in wood turning, wood carving, French polishing and metalworking are also useful for anyone considering instrument making. Some instrument makers take on apprentices either formally or informally, but it is hard for them to provide a thorough training service without taking too much time away from their own work. Because the activity is based around individuals making instruments one at a time, there is little work that an apprentice can do to make up the training time spent by the maker in the workshop context. However, a lot of instrument makers have got their start by sitting with experienced makers, observing their work, asking questions, and helping out with routine tasks, as an adjunct to their own instrument-making practice (most people who decide they would like to make musical instruments have some experience in making other things, such as furniture, and may have tried their hand at instrument making before seeking the advice of a professional instrument maker).

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There are no full-length courses for traditional musical instrument makers in Australia. There are, however, a number of overseas music instrument-making programs. There are famous violin-making schools in Newark (UK), Mittenwald (Germany) and Cremona (Italy). The London School of Furniture instrument program specialises in early music instruments such as recorders, harpsichords, lutes and viols. There is a guitar-making school in Devon (UK), and there are several in the United States. The World Wide Web is a good starting point for information on instrument making. Terry McGee’s site (www.mcgee-flutes.com) is a good example of a site devoted to instrument making. Professional development and research in instrument making is an activity that the Australia Council Music Board supports. Applicants would, however, need to have some profile as instrument makers before they could expect to be successful in a grant application. Comment H A R R Y VAT I L I O T I S ( V I O L A

MAKER):

‘Try a few, rush them through, make them up. It’s only a bit of wood. It doesn’t matter how slow you go, you’ll still make the same mistakes, whether it’s over a year or over a month. Get stuck into it, keep a mental picture of what you are doing, and you’ll acquire the skill. If you make 12 in a year you’ll learn in a year. If you make one in a year, it’ll take you 12 years.You have to make enough of them to consolidate what you’ve learnt.’ TERRY MCGEE (TRANSVERSE

FLUTE MAKER):

‘Learn the instrument. If you can’t play it you would be at a disadvantage.You need an inquiring mind. Don’t be satisfied with any aspect of what you are doing. Ask yourself: can I make it better, can I make it quicker? Make your own tools in order to make the instruments better. Every instrument I make I reckon is better than the one before it, sometimes by a big leap, sometimes by a small leap.’

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MAKER):

‘It comes down to enthusiasm and dedication. If you have enough fire in your heart to do it, and you have the will to persevere, then it really is worth going overseas to learn. There are six to eight-week courses in the US that stuff you full of information and you come home with two or three guitars under your arm and you’ve virtually started on a lifetime experience. Otherwise, try to gather a few tools together, decide what it is you want to make, then ask a few questions of instrument makers. Get some books on the subject and study them, and try to get a plan drawing for the instrument you want to make. In Australia that is as good a method as any to start off in the craft.’

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EXPERIMENTAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER (INCORPORATING SOUND SCULPTOR) The origins of this practice lie as much in theatre and visual arts as in music. In fact the field incorporates a high degree of cross-art form activity. The seminal figures informing this broad genre include Percy Grainger, John Cage and Harry Partch. Grainger was a pioneer of ‘music machines’ and ‘free music’. Cage is influential because of his philosophical ideas about music and his awareness of sound in the environment, and also for his non-conventional instrumental use, such as the prepared piano, the ‘construction in metal’ series and various electronic music practices. Harry Partch’s innovative sculptural designs for his unique instruments and his use of microtonal tunings based on whole number ratios have inspired many of the exponents of this instrument-making category. This field is dominated by musicians who construct unique instruments, compose music for them, and then perform the music. The music is often improvised, using either free approaches or techniques derived from world music. There is a strong crosscultural performance element in the approaches taken by artists such as Linsey Pollak, Sarah Hopkins and Ros Bandt. Humour, gesture, movement and acting are features of the performance style in a lot of the work presented. Instruments in this genre may be adapted from conventional instruments (such as Jon Rose’s various constructions using violins and Juliet Walker’s trumpet-like forms), derived from existing instrumental acoustic principles (as in Colin Offord’s various mouthbow instruments), based on household objects (such as Ros Bandt’s flagongs or Ernie Althoff ’s potlid gamelan), constructed from cheap, readily available

materials such as polypipe or plants (as in Sarah Hopkins’ ‘whirly’ instruments and Linsey Pollak’s Art of Food) or they may combine physical instrumental ideas with electronics (such as Matthew Hoare’s Thwoppers).The instruments may also incorporate loudspeakers or interactive triggering devices for the replay of prerecorded sound sources, including field recordings, compositions or samples (such as Bandt’s disappearing languages piece, ‘Speak Before It’s Too Late’ and Linsey Pollak’s children’s show, ‘Play Pen’). An extension of the making of new instruments or sculptures is the act of making or recording music in sites chosen for their particular resonant qualities — where the space itself becomes an extension of the instruments being used (such as Bandt’s various cylinder projects and Rod Berry’s ‘(I heard) YOUR FOOTSTEPS’). Sound sculpture is closely allied to experimental music instrument making.This genre is perhaps more connected to the visual arts traditions of installation and time-based arts than it is to music, and the public funding of it is often from visual arts sources. Artists working in this field make objects or create installations that are ‘exhibited’ in galleries or public spaces, although they may also be ‘played’. The visual aesthetic quality of the work and the spaces it is shown in are critical ingredients of the practice. As in many other areas of postmodern visual arts, there is a deal of cultural theory underpinning a lot of the work produced. In Australia, one of the leading exponents of sound sculpture is Ros Bandt, who has also written extensively on the topic in cultural and arts practice journals. The field of experimental instrument making is also sometimes associated with community-based activities, either where the maker has provided a sound sculpture for community members to play or interact with (such as Ros Bandt’s ‘Sound Playground’) or where the participants actually make the instruments under the guidance of the artist/maker (such as Linsey Pollak’s ‘Humarimba’).

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Skills

As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, this field often combines the skills of instrument making, composing and performing. This means that skills associated with all three of these musical activities may be needed. Visual imagination and advanced design skills are required, as well as the instrument making skills outlined for the traditional acoustic musical instrument maker (woodworking, metalworking, etc). For sound sculpture, welding and other more robust construction skills are also required. Many experimental music artists incorporate music technology into their craft, usually by embedding speakers, contact microphones or MIDI triggering devices into their instruments — a knowledge of acoustics, sound recording, sound amplification and MIDI systems is generally associated with this field. Some experimental music instrument makers devise and build special electronic circuits for their instruments or create various sound spatialisation formats by using multiple speaker arrays. As many artists working in this field are making work which incorporates found or bought consumer items, plus domestic building materials such as polypipe and natural materials such as bamboo, knowing what is available, where to buy it and what its physical properties and dimensions are is very useful. It is important to be able to make connections between the kinds of materials that could be used for a particular project and what is available. As the instruments or installations themselves invariably have striking visual qualities, so also do the players of them need theatrical skills, so that the actual performance becomes physically and visually interesting. Projects involving a lot of interaction with people, both in the planning and the execution stages, require advanced organisational and administrative skills. Artists working in this field need to be able to inspire people, interact well with them, and be culturally sensitive. Those working with installations in public sites must understand the politics of that space (what you can get away with with-

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out offending the people who usually use the space), and the permits and consents needed for particular projects. Prospects

This somewhat esoteric field is difficult to survive in, and persistence is required. Linsey Pollak, who started doing this kind of work in the 1970s, concedes that for him ‘it was a hand-to-mouth existence until nine years ago’. Now he is touring regularly overseas and has a range of different projects booked over the next few years. Although it is possible for experimental instrument makers/players to get work at festivals and with entrepreneurial, cultural and community organisations in Australia, there is no real touring circuit in Australia that compares with the opportunities in Europe. As a result, some Australian makers/players, such as Jon Rose, have based themselves in Europe, where there is a sizeable audience for experimental arts. One problem identified by both Pollak and Bandt is that many people interested in the field (including those deciding on funding) expect experimental artists to continue to innovate. Thus it may be artistically problematic for artists to continue to exploit ideas they have successfully initiated, because they should be moving on to new projects. Ros Bandt experienced this with her ‘Sound Playground’ installation. After a year of doing professional workshops on the site she felt she needed to divert her energies elsewhere, but the project could easily have continued to generate income if she had chosen to stay with it. Similarly, Linsey Pollak admits that his entertaining ‘Art of Food’ theatre show, which involves making musical instruments out of vegetables on stage and playing them, could continue to be lucrative for years, but he knows he will tire of doing it eventually. Apart from income from performances and workshops, other sources of income are from grants and commissions. Because of the crossover nature of the genre, grants are as likely to come from the visual arts, new media arts, community arts or even theatrical arts

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areas as from music; and commissions may come from galleries, cultural organisations, municipal councils and radio stations. Training

Instrument makers/performers need to combine the technical skills of instrument making with those of experimental performance, composition and music technology. Some exponents of this field have an educational background in science or visual arts rather than in music. Music degree courses that specialise in music technology and encourage experimentation in music are an appropriate form of initial training. On top of this, technical training relevant to making instruments (or sound sculptures) is needed (industrial design, woodworking, metalworking). Comment LINSEY POLLAK (INSTRUMENT

C R E AT O R A N D

ARTIST):

‘You really just have to follow your passion. For me it’s never been a situation where you can plan a career. I’ve been lucky enough that that has just happened for me. If you’re really passionate enough and have got the stamina to hang in there, that’s probably the most important aspect. You really have to want to do it, and love to do it. And I do feel that you don’t really need to compromise in what you’re doing.You need to stick with what you really love, and then it’s a matter of finding the right people to help you develop the skills that you need.There’s no sure way necessarily.’ ROS BANDT (INSTRUMENT

MAKER):

‘It’s not possible for me to separate the laboratory from my musical research. I have a studio full of power tools. There’s the technological side and there’s the research side. My laboratory of practice is interdisciplinary in the extreme. It includes electronics, carpentry, metallurgy, earthmoving, anthropology, archaeology, satellite links, and early music. A critical part of my research that you wouldn’t get from a university is to actually consult the keepers and caretakers of the site you are using. I wouldn’t go there unless I was invited.’

ELECTRONIC M U S I C / S O F T WA R E INSTRUMENT MAKER

This field of instrument making is largely carried out by electronics engineers, or by composers who have had training in electronics and computer programming and whose creative work is tied to the invention of sound producing, manipulating or organising devices. The activity can be purely research oriented, or aimed at developing commercial products. There is a long tradition of the invention of music hardware and software by electronic musicians. The rate at which this developed increased dramatically when lowvoltage semiconductor circuitry replaced valve-based electronics. From this shift in technology came dedicated computer chips for synthesis and signal processing as well as software-based instruments designed for use with personal computers. Music software developers have used programming languages such as Assembler, Fortran, C, Forth and Lisp, and have also developed musicspecific languages such as Music4, C-Mix, Groove, HMSL, Cypher, Gendy and Csound. In addition to sound synthesis and sequencing, their projects have encompassed interactive sound installations, interactive improvisation, audio spatialisation, algorithmic composition, gestural interfaces, hybrid technology interfaces, and networked performance interfaces. (All computer-based electronic instruments (synths) begin as software which is then turned into a chip to become hardware. Nowadays, with powerful personal computers, one can dispense with the hardware and just run the software. The term ‘software synths’ is common, but as some of these applications are used for processes other than sound synthesis, it has also become common to refer to them as software instruments.)

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Skills

Electronic and software musical instrument makers must have a strong background in audio electronics, acoustics, and software development.They should have a creative, scientific disposition and be prepared for failure in their experimental work. They must keep pace with the latest developments in their field and spend considerable time learning new technologies and programming languages.The ability to network with colleagues in relevant fields of research and development, and with specialist technology users in the music industry, is essential. Ideally, they need to be flexible, and willing and able to allow others to build on their work, either in collaboration with them or through delegation or suggestion. The reverse of this is that as they conduct their work within the context of perpetually changing technologies — evolving computer architectures, interface protocols, storage formats, the Internet, wireless communication, etc — they must also be able see ways in which their own inventions can interface with or take advantage of these developments. They must be able to raise the capital necessary for their work; this is usually done by getting grants (in the case of those working in universities or government-funded research organisations) or persuading people to invest in their work. For those music technology inventors not involved in professional music making, some kind of background in creative music across a broad genre base is highly desirable. Prospects

Both within the context of university research and within the business sector there are good prospects for music hardware and software instrument makers with skill and creativity. The field is an expanding one, particularly in the area of software instruments.The extent to which music is made through electronic means has increased dramatically as the sound quality of music hardware and software has improved. Because commercial as well as noncommercial users of music technology are

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always looking for new sounds and new production and presentation technologies, the field will continue to flourish. Apart from commercial applications, there are many opportunities in the field of pure research — it is always possible for researchers to find an area that has not yet been explored. The salaries for university academics are given in Chapter 9: Teaching. The salaries for software engineers working in the audio electronics industry are considerably higher. Training

In Australia there a number of university music courses that have specialisations in computer music composition with a focus on the programming aspects of music synthesis and related technologies (see Appendix 2). Aspiring hardware/software instrument makers need to make sure that the curriculum of the course they are intending to study covers the relevant skills. Degrees in audio electronics, computer science, software engineering, or related fields are alternative forms of training for this occupation. For non-academics, work experience in commercial audio electronics is essential. For academics, periods of industry secondment are highly recommended. Comment GREG SCHIEMER (LECTURER IN COMPUTER M U S I C , S Y D N E Y C O N S E R VAT O R I U M O F MUSIC):

‘I am concerned about the support available from the tertiary music system in Australia for this field. However, you can still learn in a non-academic environment. Some of the most important things that are turning up today looked like a backwater 30 or 40 years ago. Nothing is feral, and everything should be feral at the same time, because really it has been the ferals like Harry Partch who have blazed the trail. Giving away an idea to someone else is not a big deal, because there is plenty else to work on. Hanging on to ideas is counterproductive in an age where there are so many ideas.The best thing to do is to give

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them away and let someone else run with them. That’s exactly what Barry Vercoe did with Csound. He put it in the public domain, let people use it. There are hundreds of people who have subsequently contributed to its development as a result.’

WOODWIND AND BRASS INSTRUMENT R E PA I R E R As mentioned earlier in this chapter, some makers of acoustic instruments such as violins and guitars also operate repair businesses. For woodwind and brass instruments, however, there are specialised repairers who are not involved in making instruments. Most of the repairs involve servicing, mainly the replacements of parts such as pads, felts and corks — these wear out or fall off even if the instrument is well looked after. For brass instruments, the servicing usually entails cleaning out the pipes that are hard for the owner to get to. Repairers also take out dents and straighten instruments that have been accidentally damaged. Because of the large number of instrument types and models in use in orchestras and bands, repairers must stock a comprehensive selection of spare parts. Hundreds of tools are also required to do this work. These include screwdrivers of all sizes, grips, pliers, dozens of files, reamers, hammers, mallets, burnishers, mandrels and soldering equipment. A lathe is needed for making obsolete parts — and for making specialised tools. Skills

Repairers need good hand–eye coordination and metalworking skills. Even the wood used for clarinets is so hard it has to be treated like metal.The job requires patience and determination as well as a methodical approach to carrying out particular tasks and solving problems. As many of the tools needed to carry out the work are not standard, it is essential to be able to design and make tools for particular functions. The usual small business management skills are required for repairers who have set up their own business.

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Prospects

Instrument-repairing businesses in large cities often employ a number of repairers on salary, but most repairers work as singleoperator small businesses. This is particularly the case in smaller cities, where there is not enough repairing work to warrant employing people. Competent instrument repairers are in high demand in large city repairing businesses. Setting up a business costs more than $25,000, for the tools and the minimum stock of spare parts. It takes some time to get established in a new location, because professional musicians are naturally wary of entrusting their instruments to someone they don’t know. Once established, business is easily acquired by word of mouth, but basic advertising through the Yellow Pages is probably also a good idea for general business expansion. If the service a repairer provides is satisfactory, clients tend to stay with that repairer. Many repairers charge by the hour, plus the cost of parts. A typical charge would be $40 per hour. High-profile repairers who have a large number of professional clients usually charge much higher service fees, particularly for expensive instruments owned by top players. A re-pad on a clarinet, for example, may cost between $180 and $700. Many repairers also get involved in selling instruments and accessories (such as reeds, mouthpieces, straps, etc), but doing this on a small scale means the profit margins are very small indeed. In Australia, many repairers are also professional or semi-professional musicians. They see repairing as a day job that is less physically and mentally exhausting than teaching. Training

There are no training courses available in Australia. However, it may be possible for an aspiring instrument repairer to become apprenticed to a large city-based firm while doing a correspondence course from overseas. In the UK there are quite a few training programs for instrument repairers. Some of

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these, such as the London College of Furniture and the school at Newark Upon Trent, also teach instrument making, but others, such as Merton College (near Wimbledon in London), only train repairers. The practical workshop training starts with clarinets, which have the simplest mechanism of all the woodwinds.Trainees learn to take the instrument apart in an orderly manner, to check the soundness of the instrument (whether the pillars that support the mechanism are tight and the springs are going to last), to change the pads and ensure a hermetic seal, to replace the corks, to tighten the keywork so that when the instrument is reassembled there’s no lateral movement, and to put it back together making sure it is airtight. Trainees then move on to saxophones and to making parts such as keys. It is not essential for a repairer to be able to play the instruments.Various more reliable methods can be used to test instruments once they have been repaired. Comment JAMIE ROBERTSON (INSTRUMENT

R E PA I R E R ) :

‘It’s quite a satisfying job, especially if you can go out at night and witness the players you’ve repaired for playing in an orchestra or a jazz band and it sounds good. Less so for repairing school band instruments, which makes up 90 percent of the work. Not many of these clients really appreciate what you do. For some part of your career you’d have to work in some prestigious place (like the West End in London) and get some credit for your labours and toils. It’s not particularly well paid, especially for the non-professional instruments. If you are repairing a good instrument owned by a player whose livelihood depends on having the instrument in excellent condition, then the player is prepared to spend a bit more money. And these players may have their instrument in for maintenance once a month or so. They keep on top of it. The further away you get from this level, the less people care. They usually leave the repairs until the instrument is completely unplayable.’

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PIANO TECHNICIAN

large array of specialised tools is also required, and all must be well maintained. Skills

A piano technician tunes and repairs pianos. This involves travelling to the pianos and maintaining a workshop for more substantial repairs and restoration activities. When technicians get to the piano to be tuned, they first assess the condition of the piano, take up the slack, if any, in the action, do a pitch raise if the piano hasn’t been tuned for some time, and then tune it. An average tuning takes between an hour and a quarter and two hours. Remedial work may be necessary to deal with problems such as vermin attacking the felts. Other work may also be recommended, such as regulation of the action.This involves ensuring that the hammers are the correct distance from the strings, adjusting the lost motion, adjusting the let off, adjusting the point at which the hammer is caught, ensuring that the key tops are level, and adjusting the key dip and the key drop. Some clients are interested in restoring their pianos to as-new condition. Also, many piano technicians buy up old pianos, restore them and then sell them. The reconditioning process falls into four main stages: replacing the key-tops and refurbishing the action, restringing the instrument, repairing or reshaping the bridges and the sound board, and case refinishing (the case is the wooden external part of the instrument; refinishing means applying varnish, French polishing, etc to this). Piano technicians must maintain an adequate supply of spare parts, as many parts need to be ordered from overseas — they can take several months to arrive. And it is not always possible to purchase a new part; it may be necessary to make it, so a store of materials is needed for this, including the many different thicknesses, textures and densities of felt. A

Piano technicians must have a finely attuned ear.They also need to be manually dexterous, mechanically adept, methodical, and good at problem solving. They need extreme patience to learn how to do the job and then to do it.The ability to work under adverse conditions (for example working in schools when there are children playing nearby) is essential. Skills in woodworking, tool maintenance and French polishing are necessary; welding is useful. Because most work comes by telephone contact, piano technicians need to have a good telephone manner. In general, good customer relations is needed to build up and maintain a business, particularly as a lot of the work is done in the private homes of clients. As the job involves making a number of ‘house calls’ each day, piano technicians need to be able to accurately estimate travel time and job completion time (taking into consideration the known condition of the piano and how much time a particular client may expect to spend conversing with the technician). The usual small business management skills are also required. Prospects

Piano technicians should attempt to establish a business in a geographical area where there is not too much competition and there are sufficient people with pianos. They need to advertise to get the business started, but it will build up its own momentum by word of mouth if the technician provides competent service. It is possible to tune three to five pianos in a day. Tuning fees for a house visit range from $90 to $120, depending on the time required to do necessary repairs or raise the pitch (if necessary). Piano technicians who have a full-time schedule of tunings may need to subcontract the repairs that have to be done in the workshop.

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Training

Currently the only form of piano technician training in Australia is completing a four-year apprenticeship. Piano technicians need an educational background appropriate to the needs of the job. A good selection of high school subjects might be mathematics, physics, woodwork and metalwork. If the technician intends to do piano restoration, training in French polishing is also necessary. Comment FRED COLE (PIANO

TECHNICIAN):

‘If you don’t have a lot of patience, don’t even think about it. It’s also very hard on your back and shoulders, so if you’re not strong physically you could have problems later.’

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ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT R E PA I R E R

Electronic equipment repairers cover a range of products. At the high end there is broadcast television and professional audio and video servicing. At the low end there is consumer electronic equipment such as videos, televisions, hi-fi and electronic music equipment. Some operators cover all professional and consumer equipment; others specialise in one or the other. Repairers usually work in businesses that employ a number of electronics technicians. A repairing business needs a shopfront for the receiving and returning of equipment to be serviced and a workshop in which the repairs are done. The workshop is equipped with testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, multimeters, power suppliers, laser power meters (for CD players) and more specialised equipment (usually PC-based) for the repair of MIDI equipment such as electronic keyboards and sound modules. Most electronic instrument repairers are aligned with particular equipment manufacturers or importers, and act as service centres for equipment under warranty. In this context the manufacturers provide the repairer with full service manuals and diagnostic software for all their equipment models. They may also provide specialised training for the technicians. These arrangements are set up when repairers make approaches to manufacturers or local retailers. Alternatively, retailers may approach repairers to establish a service centre for the products they sell. The work of a repairer involves diagnosing electronic and mechanical problems in an item of equipment and being able to follow that diagnosis through to a repair. The process usually also involves making an

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estimation of the cost of the job, liaising with the customer about whether to proceed or not, and ordering the parts if they are not in stock. Skills

Electronic equipment repairers must possess good electronics theory knowledge and good mechanical skills.They must be able to diagnose problems quickly and efficiently. This is not a clear-cut skill, as often the repairer will discover a particular component that is malfunctioning (or broken) and replace it, only to find that other components are also faulty. Experience is needed to be able to predict what the chain of problems is likely to be in certain models. It is important for technicians to be able to build on their knowledge to make subsequent repairs more efficient. Good communication skills are needed for the customer interface, especially about whether or not the repair should proceed, given the other problems that might surface. Ideally, a technician working in a repair business should be able to do a job competently without any supervision. The owner/manager of the repair operation needs to have all the usual skills of small business management, including diplomacy skills when dealing with customers (and manufacturers), and skills in managing employees’ workloads. A highly developed instinct for knowing when a piece of equipment is economical to fix (or not) is essential. Prospects

The costs of setting up a business are in the general order of $50,000 for test equipment and $20,000 for a stock of spare parts. Buying an existing repair business involves paying for goodwill as well. This kind of business is becoming increasingly difficult to sustain because electronic equipment is becoming cheaper and therefore more disposable. For example, it is now possible to buy a reasonably good video recorder for less than $200, but to do

anything other than minor repairs on a video recorder may cost just as much. Warranty work, which therefore accounts for an increasing proportion of business, attracts a flat fee from the manufacturer.This may be profitable if the repair is very minor, but is just as likely to be uneconomical if the problem takes a long time to sort out. Training

To do this kind of work, appropriate qualifications are not mandatory, but most electronic equipment technicians have a TAFE trade certificate or diploma course that qualifies them as a ‘radio fitter mechanic’. There are two options for training. One is to be apprenticed for four years, doing study at night or using time off work — one week in every three weeks, for example — to study.The other is to do a full-time TAFE course for three years followed by a year of supervised work experience. Comment T I M PA R K E R ( O W N E R / M A N A G E R , P R O T E C H ) :

‘Any technician thinking of going into business should buy an existing business rather than starting your own. You then have an instant customer database and goodwill as opposed to the many years that it takes to build that up from scratch. It’s hard work to convince people to use your services rather than your competitors.’

Chapter 6

Broadcasting he principal jobs relating to music in radio exist in the programming area of a radio station’s activities. These are presenter, music director and program director. Radio stations that make programs for broadcast also employ producers. There are three main sectors of music radio in Australia: commercial radio, public radio and community radio. The requirements of the principal music jobs within these sectors vary somewhat, but there are also strong similarities. The differences will be dealt with within generic job category entries rather than as separate entries. Although there are many other jobs in radio that may well require knowledge of music, they are not dealt with in this book because of space limitations. For example, station managers of music radio stations should know their product well, but because of the business administration aspects of the job, they are usually recruited from the sales side of the business. In commercial radio, sales managers, sales representatives and traffic managers also need to know about their station’s music format and its associated demographic, but their main focus is on selling and programming advertising, not the specifics of the music content of the station. There are also production jobs associated with in-house preparation of commercials in commercial radio.These jobs require a mixture of skills that are dealt with in detail in other parts of this book, such as record producer and recording engineer (see Chapter 4: Production). In addition, radio stations employ maintenance engineers. This job is similar to the maintenance engineer of a recording studio (see Chapter 4: Produc tion), but covers transmission technologies as well as studio production.

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It is common, particularly in small radio stations, for employees to take on multiple roles. In regional commercial radio, for example, the program director is invariably also the music director as well as one of the daily presenters. Presenters are also often involved in producing programs. Even in a large metropolitan radio station the music director, for example, may also have on-air or assistant program director responsibilities. Music television has a similar range of jobs. The main difference is that live television shows involve a television crew (director, assistant directors, camera operators, lighting operators, audio and vision mixers, floor manager, etc).These jobs are more relevant to a book on careers in the media and television industry than one on the music industry.The only music television job categories dealt with in this book are presenter, supervising producer and head of programming (equivalent to program manager in radio). In a sense, there is a direct correspondence between a producer (or program maker) in music television and a producer in music radio: the job involves selecting music content (video clips or live acts), organising interviews with artists and fans, and writing a script. Interaction with live audiences is the only component usually not found in radio program making. The field of music broadcasting is expanding with the development of Internet radio.This field is still in its formative stages (mainly because there isn’t a workable business model for advertising revenue yet), but it promises to increase the number of jobs available in the music broadcasting field. Internet music radio combines music radio and music television functions through the use of streaming audio and video. It is less

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segmented and more flexible in its programming because it has a global reach. The idea of a breakfast show, or drive-time, for example, is meaningless if the audience is in many different time zones. While the Internet radio field is expanding because of new technologies, employment in the conventional radio field is contracting because of the use of networked and automated programming.

MUSIC RADIO

BROADCASTING

PRESENTER

On-air personnel in radio are referred to as presenters or announcers. The term ‘DJ’ is sometimes used, but in contemporary music parlance the term ‘DJ’ refers principally to performers who work at dance music events, and manipulate the records that they play (see Chapter 3: Performance). The job of a presenter is to create a seamless performance of all the prerecorded and spoken elements of the program being presented. In commercial radio, where strict playlists apply, the exact sequence of music tracks, prerecorded advertising and spoken texts is prescribed, and the presenter is required only to introduce the music tracks, read texts of commercials, community announcements and promos, and take on-air calls from listeners (usually for competitions or requests). Non-commercial radio is less rigid in terms of the prescribed programming. The presenter may in fact be the programmer and producer of the program being presented. In some instances the program of music will be devised by a producer, and the presenter will be guided by the background information supplied for each track. However, many radio presenters do their own research for what they say about the music and artists they present. This means that a large part of the work of a music presenter is gaining deeper and wider knowledge about the music genres relevant to the programs they are presenting. Keeping up to date with new releases is particularly important. There is a trend in radio, especially for prime-time show such as a breakfast show, to use co-presenters, in which case the job also involves improvised interaction between the presenters.

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Skills

A passion for and knowledge of music, particularly in the genres being presented, is essential. Without these qualities it is difficult to project the expected degree of confidence and authority. Music radio presenters also need good research skills so that they can gain the knowledge and understanding of the music, musical culture and even current affairs they need. They need interviewing skills so that they can interact effectively with artists and listeners on-air, and excellent live reading skills, including knowing the correct pronunciation of artists’ names and song titles. Although radio is about communicating to a large audience, presenters need to be able to make individual audience members feel as if the presenter is talking just to them — a warm and generous personality is essential. Presenters have to be able to talk about topical events and to connect with the audience by talking about themselves (their backgrounds, emotions and experiences). A rich and resonant-sounding vocal quality is also expected (although electronic manipulation of vocal tone is a possible solution for presenters who don’t have naturally attractive vocal tones). Because technical problems can occur while on air, presenters need to be able to think on their feet and to improvise; those who are co-presenting need to be able to improvise entertaining dialogue. As modern radio stations are highly computerised, presenters must be able to operate all the relevant studio equipment and computer applications competently. Production technology skills, such as sound recording and editing, are also useful. Prospects

It is very difficult to get professional work in this highly competitive field. A typical route is through volunteer work in community radio. The skills gained doing this may lead to the opportunity to gain work in small regional commercial stations or a public radio station such as SBS or Triple J. Presenters who do get professional work can

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expect to do an apprenticeship involving night shifts. If talent and individuality are evident, presenters may be able to move to daytime shifts and then on to larger radio stations. Recruitment is usually not through advertisement. Information about available jobs is principally gained through networking once one is in the system. Before getting a job, try to make personal contact with potential employers. People wishing to enter or advance in the field need a highquality demo tape of their work for presentation when applying for a job. Above all, they have to demonstrate to potential employers that they are very keen to succeed in radio. In recent years music radio has been recruiting media personalities as presenters, particularly for prime-time slots. A background as a television comedian is typical for these appointments. Depending on the range of skills a presenter has, sideways moves may be made into other areas of a radio station’s operation, such as production, sales and middle management. It may also be possible to advance to the position of music director and program director. Training

The best kind of training for a career in radio is experience in as many areas of the radio station as possible — production, engineering, presenting, sales. While hands-on experience gained as a volunteer is the usual preparation for this work, various types of qualifications are useful adjuncts. A typical education and training preparation for a career in radio is a communications degree with a major in radio production. Apart from practical radio skills, this kind of qualification provides a broad perspective in terms of critical thinking and cultural and media theory. There are a number of tertiary-level training programs for commercial radio (see Appendix 2).

A few areas of professional radio presentation may require a music qualification — presenters for ABC Classic FM, for instance, generally have a degree in music. Comment PA U L B R E N T ( T R I P L E J

PRESENTER):

‘I would say that if anyone wants to get involved with radio, if they’re going to study any kind of course whatsoever, the best bet is to have some kind of practical component aside from that, such as volunteering a couple of days [a week] at your local community station. Work out some way of actually getting around the studios, around the equipment and around the people, because when you’re actually looking for a job, it doesn’t really matter where you studied, or what you studied, or how well you did; in a lot of ways it comes down to how you sound, what you know, and how well you can do it.’ RICHARD WILKINSON (2GF PROGRAM DIRECTOR AND PRESENTER):

‘Work as hard as you can. Read as many newspapers as you can from front to back, read them every day onto a cassette and listen back to them. It sounds a bit boring and a bit time-consuming, but: No. 1, your reading will improve; No. 2, you’ll hear how good or bad you sound — the imperfections in your voice; and No. 3, you’ll know what’s going on in the world, and that’s the most important thing — to know what’s happening.’ SIMON MUMFORD (MUSIC TRIPLE M [SYDNEY]):

DIRECTOR,

‘You have to have passion for the job and be willing to do anything for it. If we’re hiring someone young, they have to be multiskilled, probably go on air and do other types of work. Eighty per cent of it is going to be attitude. Nowadays we look for someone who’s going to bust their guts because they want to achieve in radio, and be great at what they do.’

BROADCASTING

MUSIC DIRECTOR

A music radio director receives recorded music products from record companies and individual artists, shortlists them for the playlist, and decides, in consultation with the program director and other radio station personnel, what will go on and off the playlist. The music director works with the program director to formulate a strategy for the station. In commercial radio this involves securing a target audience for the music format of the station.A format is an often narrow range of music styles that will appeal to a particular audience demographic. For example, the ‘adult contemporary’ (or A/C) format features pop music standards and is aimed at the 25–49 age group. The playlist must appeal to the audience to which the advertising is aimed, because if the audience tunes out, the advertising will not reach the target audience, the advertisers won’t keep on advertising, and soon there will be no radio station. Other forms of radio operate on similar principles, but the music is programmed with less rigid research methods.Triple J, for example, uses a playlist with a wide variety of popular music styles aimed to appeal to a young audience. ABC local radio plays a broad range of music styles designed to appeal to an over35 regional audience.This network employs a music director and a music consultant to choose the playlist, which is then sent out to its 9 metropolitan and 48 regional stations. ABC Classic FM plays mostly 18th and 19th century classical music.This station does not use a playlist. Many of its presenters select material themselves for their own weekly programs. In-house programmers are employed for daily programs such as the breakfast, morning, and ‘end of the day’ slots. Metropolitan commercial radio stations

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and Triple J hold weekly meetings with major and independent record company representatives. At those meetings these representatives pitch their new releases to the music director on the basis of their perception of the station’s music format and the station’s history of playing certain established artists. The music director also deals with unsolicited recordings. The music director shortlists the best of the submitted records on the basis of their format and their musical and production quality. The shortlisted records are then presented at a music meeting attended (usually) by the music director and the program director, as well as other station personnel such as presenters. Each week two or three records may be selected for the playlist — an equal number of records already on the playlist will be removed. Decisions about the level of rotation (number of times the track is played each day) are also made. Music industry people (record company representatives, producers and band managers) are usually invited to attend these meeting to get a feel for the station’s format and the selection process. The music director uses a programming software package (‘Selector’ is the most common brand) to determine the daily sequence of tracks (broken down into hourly ‘clocks’) on the basis of their high, medium or low rotation. Coded information about each record (artist, title, style, date of release, genre, loudness, tempo, duration, etc) is used to avoid ‘clashes’ in the sequencing of tracks (such as the same artist occurring twice consecutively) and to ensure that any one track is not played at the same time each day. The music director is also responsible for monitoring music research, which is carried out on a regular basis by commercial stations. This research takes the form of telephone surveys (where listeners respond to music ‘grabs’), focus groups and listener advisory boards. Other duties may include filing Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) reports and other administrative tasks, and being involved in promotional and artist development projects.

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Skills

A detailed knowledge of and passion for the music field is essential. A music director needs to have good ears (able to hear the detail of what’s happening in the music and be discerning about music and production), and a finely honed instinct about what music is appropriate for the station, in terms of both style and production quality. In the case of commercial stations, it is critical to have a good feel for the stylistic boundaries of the format. An instinctual understanding of the musical preferences of listeners of the station is essential. As music directors deal with programming staff, station colleagues and music industry people, they also need good interpersonal communication skills. Knowledge of the programming software and other office administration computer applications is also needed. They need networking skills, both in terms of the music industry and in dealing with other radio colleagues (such as other music directors in a particular radio network). Energy, commitment and passion for the job are essential. Prospects

Music directors are usually recruited from the ranks of presenters. Most people in this job also do other work in the station, such as being a presenter or assistant program director. The opportunities for advancement in radio are reasonably good once a person has a presenting job and has proved his or her worth and commitment. With training and experience, advancement can occur at a young age. Positions such as programmer or assistant music director lead to the position of music director. Sideways moves into sales or promotion are also possible. Some music directors aspire to the position of program director. Others, because of their broad experience of dealing with music, artists and music industry personnel, may choose to move sideways into some other aspect of the music industry.

Recruitment for jobs in radio is mainly through the professional network, though some advertisements do appear in broadcasting trade magazines and web-based online information services. The salary range for a music director/presenter in a regional station is between $25,000 and $40,000 per year; in a metropolitan station it’s between $50,000 and $80,000. Training

Most radio personnel enter the field as presenters. For training prerequisites see entry for Music radio presenter (above). Comment ARNOLD FROLOWS (MUSIC TRIPLE J):

DIRECTOR,

‘You’ve just got to be convinced that that’s what you want to do, and then you will find a way. For me I was always going to have something to do with music and that just started with being a record collector when I was a kid and spending all my pocket money on that. And I was determined to get into a position where I would be close to music, to get cheap records. And it just went on from there. I was only ever going to do something that had to do with music. And of course the thrill of working in a record store wore off fast, and I realised that there was a big bad industry out there that I wanted to get into, so eventually I ended up in radio via the music business.’ SIMON MUMFORD (MUSIC TRIPLE M [SYDNEY]):

DIRECTOR,

‘Be willing to work hard, and you have to enjoy it, you have to love it. If you don’t, if you’re halfhearted, and if your personal life is important to you to the extent that you only want to work eight hours a day, radio’s not for you. Everyone works the hours required to get the job done, and to do the best possible job you can do.’ R I C H A R D P O R T E O U S ( M U S I C C O N S U L T A N T, ABC LOCAL RADIO NETWORK):

‘You need to listen to a wide variety of music in the job I’m doing. It’s important to

BROADCASTING

know what is good in the various formats and also to be able to recognise quality. For example, you have to know when somebody’s singing out of tune; you have to know when the lyrics are ridiculous; and you have to know when the prod-uction is really boring. It’s essential to be able to feel those things on behalf of the audience.’

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PROGRAM DIRECTOR

A program director sets the strategic vision for the station, and has editorial responsibility for the output of the station. This includes the station’s sound and every department’s role in the station’s sound. For music stations, the music content is the most important aspect of the sound, but consideration is also given to news coverage, sports coverage, station IDs, promotional giveaways, advertising (in the case of commercial radio) — in fact, anything that goes to air. Some program directors are also responsible for the output of other services, such as the station’s website. The program director is ultimately responsible for devising or facilitating new ideas to make the station sound fresh and competitive. In commercial radio, all aspects of what goes to air must be highly focused on the demographic of the station. This means that in addition to the music, the content of the news, and the kinds of prizes awarded in promotional giveaways, for example, must appeal strongly to the target audience. The program director manages the onair, programming, production and research staff, and provides feedback on the quality of the programs to the presenters and producers. The program director also manages the budget for the station’s programming, including salaries, expenses and fees. Handling listener feedback, and public relations in general, is another of the responsibilities of the program director. Skills

A broad experience of the radio industry is required, including knowledge of production, programming, presenting, research, promotion and sales.A broad knowledge of music and the music industry is assumed.

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Program directors need excellent interpersonal communication and leadership skills to manage the programming, research and presenting staff; they have to be able to persuade on-air staff to change their approach if necessary. The ability to provide constructive criticism of the work of presenters is essential. In commercial radio, it is essential to be able to understand the audience and to communicate this understanding to the presenters. Marketing and market analysis skills are also required. Business administration skills are useful for the budgeting, planning and reporting aspects of the job. Prospects

The job of program director is highly competitive — there are few jobs and many who want them. A program director’s effectiveness is measured by ratings in large markets and by advertising sales in smaller markets. Moving up the ranks in larger markets depends on winning ratings. The usual progression to this position is presenter, music director, assistant program director, then program director. For a program director, promotion to the next level of station manager is unusual. Recruitment to that position generally comes from the sales side of the industry rather than the programming side. It is possible for program managers to make sideways moves to jobs in other media, or to corporate, radio, and television consultancy. The salary range for this position is $60,000 to $70,000 per year for a regional station. For the major city stations, salaries range up $200,000. Salaries for group program directors of major networks are much higher still. Training

In addition to the training detailed under the entry for Music radio presenter, training in communications is advisable. Much of this job is concerned with either providing critical

feedback to presenters or writing reports and memorandums to staff and management. Formal training in marketing and market research may be useful for the commercial radio sector. Comment ROB LOGAN (PROGRAM 2 D AY F M ) :

DIRECTOR,

‘Listen, learn, then develop your interpretation of each facet of radio; and share your vision.’ CHARLIE FOX (PROGRAM DIRECTOR, THE BASEMENT STUDIO INTERNET RADIO):

‘It’s a rewarding field; it’s a great lifestyle if you like music, because you’re so closely associated with the music industry.You have to work very well with the record companies, be aware of trends. There’s a lot of networking involved.You have to spend a lot of nights out seeing bands, having record companies woo you and take you around. It’s also a very stressful job because of the ratings. One time I thought I would die waiting for a ratings phone call, my heart was thumping so badly. You’re under a lot of pressure.When it’s going well, it’s fantastic, but as soon as the ratings start to slip and you have competitors come to town, it gets very, very stressful.’ S TUART M ATCHETT ( PROGRAM

DIRECTOR ,

T RIPLE J):

‘Get experience in as many facets of radio as you can, because later on it will always help. Just doing one bit of it can end up limiting your career options later on, whereas trying as many different things as you can allows you to change directions later on.’

BROADCASTING

PRODUCER

A producer of programs (sometimes called program maker) decides the content of a radio program, writes the text for the announcer and directs the show. Radio programs are either produced live-to-air, or prerecorded and edited for later broadcast. There are various types of involvement of a producer in a music radio program. In some areas of radio the music is preprogrammed and the presenter supplies his or her own text. In other areas the presenter may act as a producer, selecting the music and devising the text. At the basic level of involvement of a specialist producer, the producer will select the music content and provide the presenter with a text. At the other end of the scale a documentary or documentary series may involve extensive research on the part of the producer, plus organising interviews with artists and experts and making studio recordings of music performances. There may also be elaborate post-production of the written and recorded material. Skills

Producers of music programs need a thorough knowledge of the area of music in which they are operating and a broad general understanding of music genres and the music industry. They need highly developed skills in research, scriptwriting, interviewing and directing. A strong technical knowledge of recording and editing is useful. Prospects

There is limited scope for work as a producer in commercial radio (except for the production of commercials). Playlist-generated programs don’t really need producing. Some stations have special programs, for example Triple M’s ‘Homegrown’, which require a

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producer.The ABC networks all have a range of programs which require a producer. These range from ABC Classic FM prime-time programs, which are researched and selected by an in-house programmer/producer, through to ‘The Music Show’ (on ABC National), which is the only predominantly talk-based music program on the ABC. The salary range for a music radio producer is from $30,000 to $70,000 per year. Training

People who make programs need to have a thorough knowledge and technical understanding of the field they are working in.This may be through specialist degree study or selfeducation in the field. The training should involve the research and critical thinking skills needed to develop ideas for programs. Community radio can provide opportunities to make programs and learn about all aspects of radio. Technical training in audio recording and editing is useful. Comment MAUREEN COONEY (MUSIC A B C R A D I O N AT I O N A L ) :

PRODUCER,

‘If people are interested in this sort of career, I think there is a great advantage in having volunteered in a community radio station for some practical experience about radio, about broadcasting, about how recordings are made, how CD programs can be presented, and how music can be selected. These things can be learnt fairly easily. However, as far as professional work is concerned, the ABC, as a creative organisation, should always be seeking people with fantastic ideas and a real interest in communication, because, strictly speaking, your ideas, your knowledge and your aptitude for broadcasting are the most important aspects of this kind of work.’

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MUSIC TELEVISION

PRESENTER

A music television presenter is an on-air performer who introduces video clips, interviews artists and fans and interacts with live audiences (on some shows). In the case of request shows (Channel [ V ] ’s whatuwant Live, for example) there is a considerable amount of interaction with the viewers through telephone, email and fax. As with radio presenters, some music television presenters may also produce the programs they present (select the music videos, organise the interviews, write the spoken texts and the interview questions). Presenters spend some of their working days researching the artists they are playing or interviewing.They also need to liaise with the production staff before going on air. In the case of co-presented shows, a considerable amount of pre-planning is needed to make the on-air dialogue sound natural and coherent. Skills

A music television presenter requires skills in television performance, including the ability to speak fluently and authoritatively while appearing relaxed and casual. The presenter needs to have a credible image for the audience profile and the type of music being presented. A presenter needs a clear understanding of the culture of the audience in order to be able to communicate with them in the most effective and engaging way. Effective presenting requires good preparation.This means that the presenter needs to research the music and artists being presented, and also needs a broad current and historical knowledge of relevant genres of music and of musical culture. Strong interpersonal communication skills are required for dealing with artists, audience members, production crew, music

BROADCASTING

industry professionals and people working in other media. Technical production skills may be useful. Prospects

As dedicated music television stations are a relatively new phenomenon in Australia, many of the presenters and other personnel have been recruited from radio. So one way to prepare for a job as a presenter on music television is to gain significant experience as a radio presenter. Music television stations may also respond to proposed ideas for shows that involve the producer as a presenter. Aspiring music television presenters need to develop a video demo tape and, when applying for a specific job, they need an image that is appropriate to the audience of that program. Information about jobs in this industry is disseminated largely by word of mouth and on various trade websites. A full-time employee can earn upwards of $50,000 per year in the cable/satellite sector. Training

At the moment, training and professional experience as a music radio presenter provides the most useful grounding for a career as a music television presenter (see Music radio presenter). Training or experience in theatre performance may help with the verbal and visual aspects of television. Comment ANDREW G (PRESENTER, CHANNEL [V]):

‘Know your music. Know why music is the way it is. Know what Kraftwerk have to do with Public Enemy.You have to know what relevance music today has to music in the past.You have to know why Rick Rubin is such a big deal as a producer. You have to know, when a band gets picked to play at Radio City Music Hall, why that’s relevant. You have to know who the Saints are, who Birthday Party is, and that Nick Cave used to be in a band. You have to know that

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[Alien Ant Farm’s version of] Smooth Criminal is a cover.You have to know where it all came from in order to understand where it is now, because the people that you’re talking to are in bands, because they love music, and they’re bigger music fans than you are. The job is a lot of work, but also a lot of fun. So enjoy it.’

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SUPERVISING PRODUCER

A supervising producer works with producers on the running of their shows, with on-air presenters on their presentation skills, with the production co-ordinator on the detailed day-to-day work on shows (such as booking guests, doing rundowns, etc), and with production crews (cameras, sound, lighting, staging, director, director’s assistant, technical director, floor manager) to make sure each show turns out to be what it was meant to be. If shows involve a live band performance, the supervising producer liaises with the artist or manager on production requirements, staging, gear hire and schedules. Long-term planning of shows and staffing are other aspects of the job. Supervising producers need to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and the personnel involved in them, through a mixture of ratings, viewer feedback and professional judgement. The supervising producer may also occasionally be involved in interviewing artists off-camera and operating a camera on shoots, as well as in a variety of other practical tasks. Skills

Supervising producers need a broad knowledge of all aspects of the job so that they can communicate effectively with technical and production staff. This includes a basic handson understanding of music production, audio production, lighting design and operation, camera operation and editing.They need skills and experience as a producer (idea development and scriptwriting, for example), organisational skills, interpersonal communication skills and staff management skills. Program and performance evaluation skills are critical to the job — providing constructive critical feedback to the on-air talent is essential.

Prospects

This field of work is highly competitive. Most people work their way up through lower-level jobs such as production assistant and then gain experience as a producer. It is possible to start as a producer if you come from other creative areas, such as scriptwriting, journalism, etc. Recruitment is by word of mouth. It is important to be able to demonstrate the skills, commitment and energy required to do the job well. In cable television the prospects for advancement are excellent. There are also professional opportunities in other related professional areas, such as video production, advertising, film making and scriptwriting The salary range for this kind of job is $50,000 to $150,000 per year. Training

As with all areas of production, there is no substitute for extensive hands-on experience in the job — audio and video production would provide a useful practical skill base. Media or communications courses give an excellent grounding in critical thinking and writing as well as in media theory. Hands-on training in audio and video production would provide a useful practical skill base. As supervising producers develop ideas for music programs, they need extensive knowledge and understanding of relevant areas of music — there’s no substitute for the hard slog of watching and analysing hundreds of music video clips, documentaries and other types of programs, listening critically to hundreds of CDs and reading lots of trade magazines and books. Comment BEN RICHARDSON (SUPERVISING CHANNEL [V]:

PRODUCER,

‘I couldn’t have dreamed of a better job. As a journalist I was quite despondent about how media organisations work, and the limited freedoms and opportunities for creativity. I fell into the job, but even when I wasn’t working, I was always writing, shooting and dreaming.’

BROADCASTING

HEAD OF PROGRAMMING (OR PROGRAM DIRECTOR)

The head of programming for a music television station decides what content will be shown and manages the process. Content includes music video clips, live performances, interviews and on-air promotions. The head of programming devises and project manages the on-air promotions for the channel and manages the production teams. The job also involves liaising directly with record company executives and/or band management regarding their artists’ involvement with the station. It involves meeting with the other departments at the station to develop ideas for marketing, publicity, and promotion, and involvement in the overall management of the station. Skills

A high level of energy, passion and commitment is needed for this job, because the job requires long hours. The head of programming needs a good understanding of how music television works, including a detailed knowledge of what is involved in presenting, producing and technical production. Advanced project management skills and strong interpersonal communication skills are also necessary, because the job involves dealing with many different projects simultaneously. Being able to prioritise well is an essential skill. Marketing and promotional skills are also crucial. Prospects

This kind of work is difficult to get. People are recruited by networking as well as by advertisement, and advertised jobs at any level generate hundreds of applications.

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There is a high burnout rate. Most of the people in this industry are young. The average age is about 26; senior management are generally around 35. The usual progress to this senior position would be through jobs such as programmer, producer, presenter and assistant program director. Sideways moves are possible into broader entertainment genres, film, and creative development work for television channels. Salaries range from $70,000 to $150,000 per year. Training

Extensive experience in a broad range of relevant skills (presenting and producing, for instance) is expected. Degrees in communications and/or marketing also provide a suitable grounding. Comment M A R Y D AT O C ( H E A D CHANNEL [V]):

OF PROGRAMMING,

‘If you love what you’re doing, and you get paid for what you’re doing, it’s a real bonus; I sometimes pinch myself because I can’t believe I’m getting paid for what I’m doing. The key to it is be prepared to work hard; be prepared to do a lot of the shitty parts of the job that will stand you in good stead. Management then say, “Well you’re keen, and therefore we’ll push you through to higher levels.”’

Chapter 7

Music business his chapter principally details the jobs of the main business associates of recording artists. It begins with artist manager, the closest business associate of an artist, and progresses through the following professional areas: music lawyer, music accountant (or business manager), booking agent, music merchandiser, promoter and venue booker. A number of record company positions are covered, including A&R manager, label manager, promotions director, sales director, new media director and sales representative. A number of music publishing jobs are then dealt with, including managing director, copyright/royalties manager, licensing manager, production music manager, hire library manager and performance promotions manager. A few of the jobs available in copyright collection societies are also included — member services director (APRA) and print music manager (AMCOS). The chapter concludes with an entry for music trade union secretary.

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

ARTIST MANAGER

In Australia, most artist management companies represent only a small number of artists. Often only one artist is represented, particularly if the artist is at the beginning of a career. A manager’s job is to represent the artist in the different sectors of the music and media industries — it’s a very hands-on and time-consuming role. Artist managers establish their own businesses independent of the businesses of their represented artist(s). The manager is responsible for negotiating contracts with agents, record companies, publishers and merchandisers on behalf of the artist, and for maintaining day-to-day dealings with these organisations in order to foster the interests of the artist.The manager liaises with specialists such as intellectual property lawyers and accountants for advice on contracts and other business issues. In supporting the artist the manager also liaises with promoters, producers, tour managers and production crews. The manager is also responsible for coordinating media appearances for the artist. Managers advise their artists on all aspects of their career development. Some managers provide more input into the artistic side of career development than others. They may, for example, be involved in the production of recordings or in grooming their artists for stage and media appearances. As the artist’s career develops, the manager will be involved in the renegotiation of existing contracts and/or the development of new opportunities, often in international contexts. Some managers representing artists outside the mainstream music industry may also be involved in entrepreneurial activities, such as promoting concerts and marketing selfproduced CDs.

Skills

Artist managers need the full range of small business management skills. They need good interpersonal communication skills, so that they can communicate effectively with people at all levels of the industry, and good written communication skills, because they may need to write press releases and other materials. Knowledge of the workings of all the different facets of the music industry that affect artists is essential. Although managers should consult lawyers when negotiating their artists’ contracts, they need to have a good idea of what the different kinds of contracts should include. Although many managers come from a performance or production background, managers do not need to have practical musical skills.An ear for quality in the artist’s genre is, however, very important. Managers also need to understand the specific market the artist is working in and other markets that the artist could develop a profile in.This involves knowing the characteristics of different audiences and their preferences in terms of live and recorded music, which in turn means knowing how to research musical trends and markets. Even though managers need to be passionate about the work of the artist(s) they are representing, they also need to be able to look at the work in a critical way. The manager often acts as a buffer between artist(s) and the critical responses of audiences, promoters and the like, and has to be diplomatic when letting the artist(s) know about changes to material or performance or image that are needed. Prospects

A surprising number of people start out in artist management simply because a band has asked them to become its manager. Some people become artist managers after involvement in another aspect of the industry, such as music journalism, concert production, record production or tour management. Managers who are successful with unknown artists often then take on other

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more successful acts. The experience gained from being a manager may lead to work in other sectors of the industry, such as publishing or recording. The income of a manager is usually a percentage of the gross earnings of the artist, typically between 15 per cent and 20 percent. So managers’ incomes are entirely dependent on the financial success of the artist(s) they manage. There may be some salaried positions in large management companies. Training

The ideal background for a manager is a broad range of practical experiences in the music industry. However, training in a variety of relevant business and legal skills is also advisable. General small business management courses are available in TAFE institutes. More specific music management courses are also available in TAFE institutes and a few universities (see Appendix 2). As with most areas of the music industry, work experience and mentoring opportunities are available with a number of management companies; they are also coordinated through the International Music Managers’ Forum (IMMF). Comment MARSHALL CULLEN (MANAGING DIRECTOR, MARSHALL CULLEN MANAGEMENT):

‘It really is a very hard job. One day you find yourself almost the parent figure to the band, and the next day you have to walk into an American record company cold and talk up your act. It’s just such a huge range of skills, and it’s certainly not something you can read about in a book, do a few courses, and expect to have success in. It’s really very much a practical hands-on kind of profession. And I think you probably have to do a lot of other things first in order to be successful at this. It’s not a first-step kind of job.’ ALAN GORDON (AUTHOR, MUSIC INDUSTRY MANAGEMENT):

‘I think that for the generation coming through it is important that they get the

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training and educational background. The opportunity to work your way through the industry is diminishing.There will always be a place for that sort of path, but I would be advising managers coming through either to take a TAFE or a university course, at least a TAFE course on small business management. While artists can put up all sorts of reasons why they don’t need to know about all this boring stuff, the manager is the one who is paid to make sure the business is being run on sound financial and legal lines, particularly making sure that tax is being paid. I think that managers need to network as much as possible via personal contacts and also through industry associations such as the International Music Managers’ Forum.’

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MUSIC L AW Y E R

Music lawyers in private practice deal with all sectors of the Australian music industry, including individuals (artists, composers, producers and arrangers from all genres of music) and organisations (record companies, publishers, management companies, booking agencies, film and video production companies and advertising agencies).They may also deal with the Australian interests of overseas artists and companies. Many music lawyers also deal generally with the entertainment and arts industries. The work involves negotiating agreements (management, publishing, record, merchandising, and sponsorship contracts, etc), settling disputes relating to agreements and ownership of copyrights, and dealing with litigation relating to copyright infringement. Music lawyers also advise artists on business structures. The standard music agreements offered by publishers, record companies and other music industry operatives are complex and difficult to comprehend without specialist legal advice, so it is prudent for an artist to seek the services of an experienced music lawyer before entering into any of these kinds of agreements. Skills

Music lawyers need a strong grounding in commercial law and intellectual property law.They also need a comprehensive understanding of how all the various sectors of the music industry operate and interact. Music lawyers need to understand the practical concerns of all the parties to an agreement before they can get a clear idea about what is achievable in the agreement; they need to understand the position of both sides in order to do their job effective-

ly. This involves being a good listener. They won’t be effective lawyers for their artist clients if, for example, they don’t understand how the record company that wants to sign an artist operates and what its needs are. In order to get the best possible deal for an artist, a music lawyer must be able to operate strategically. Prospects

It is difficult for a law graduate to move straight into this area of law, because there are relatively few firms specialising in it.The usual route is to start in the general commercial law field, then move to a firm that specialises in intellectual property. Music lawyers get work on the basis of the quality of their representation — that is, by reputation — rather than through marketing campaigns. After successfully representing small clients against large music industry companies, some lawyers find themselves in demand from those same large companies. Apart from law firms, there are some jobs available to law graduates in large corporations such as record and publishing companies and in copyright collection societies. However, even large companies often outsource their contract and litigation work to specialist law firms. A law degree and relevant industry experience are a good professional grounding for other industry roles, such as management. Although many artist managers in the US are lawyers, this training background is not common in Australia. Solicitors working in the music law area charge between $200 and $400 per hour.The salary range of a solicitor employed by a music law firm is $35,000 to $125,000 per year (the difference relates to experience and responsibility — generally what the lawyer is worth to the firm). Training

After getting a law degree, a person who wants to become an intellectual property lawyer should seek employment with a medium-sized commercial law firm where he/she

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will be able to learn the intricacies of company law, finance, contracting, industrial relations, venture structuring and other relevant aspects of law.Although most commercial law firms do not deal much with intellectual property, this kind of work provides an ideal grounding for that specialisation. In addition to this background, music lawyers must have a strong understanding of how the music industry functions. Employment in the industry, for example with a record company or publisher, would be invaluable. Comment S H A N E S I M P S O N ( P R I N C I PA L , S I M P S O N S SOLICITORS, AND AUTHOR, MUSIC BUSINESS):

‘If I weren’t working in this particular area, it’s unlikely that I would be a lawyer. I think that there are two parts to being a happy lawyer: one is enjoying the process of law, and the other is the application of it to a sector of the community that is important to you. And I think if you have both those things you have a chance of being fulfilled. ‘It’s essential that you have a strong network, and you can develop that in all sorts of ways, from going to conferences to belonging to professional associations — links of any kind. All my colleagues have very different approaches to these things. There’s a few that don’t bother to join anything outside their practice. There are others like me who think that it’s [important to join these groups —] it’s important to your business and important to put something back into the industry that you’ve gained so much from. ‘It’s impossible to become expert in anything, including being a music lawyer, without lots of practice. And you worry a lot more about the first management agreement you negotiate than the hundredth (by the hundredth you are probably dry retching). In that way it’s no different from playing a piece of music in public. The first time is a bit nerve-racking, but by the hundredth time you are wondering what that fellow in the second row is drinking.’

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MUSIC ACCOUNTANT (BUSINESS MANAGER)

All businesses require the services of a chartered accountant to give them business advice. Because each type of business has its own peculiarities, it is not surprising that some accountants have specialised in the arts. The work involves preparing tax returns and financial statements, business plans, applications for finance, advice on export market incentives and arts grants, and valuations. Accountants may advise artists on statutory requirements, on business structuring, on issues to do with intellectual property that need to be considered in the business structuring process, and on business planning generally. They are also involved in royalty and ticket audits, and often provide financial advice when it comes to contract negotiations (recording, publishing, merchandising, etc). For more established artists, they also provide advice for overseas activities, particularly business structuring from a tax point of view. This involves assessing the tax regimes of relevant countries to see how they interact with Australian taxation laws. Skills

Accountants need an accountancy or commerce degree and tax agent registration. Membership of one of the professional bodies, such as the Institute of Chartered Accountants, is also required. Music accountants need to know how the various sectors of the music industry operate and interact in order to be able to offer effective business planning advice to musicians. A good understanding of different musical genres and their respective commercial viability is also important — these things change constantly, so music accountants need to have a network that will help them stay up to date with all this.

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Accountants need good interpersonal communication skills: they need to be able to extract the information they need from their clients, and they need to be able to communicate their advice in plain English to clients who are not familiar with business concepts.

BOOKING AGENT

Prospects

Booking agents are engaged by an artist or an artist’s manager to seek out, negotiate and contract performance engagements for the artist. The difference between an artist’s manager and booking agent is that the manager is concerned with developing all facets of the artist’s business, but the booking agent is solely contracted to find performance engagements. However, the agent does have a vested interest in the success of the artist in areas other than performance. Booking agents develop a database of types of performance engagement opportunities relevant to the artists they represent. In any given territory there will be a certain number of promoters and venues whose activities need to be documented and analysed. The agent’s database should list venues according to capacity, the kinds of shows (genres of music and other entertainment) available on each day of the week and at different times, the kinds of liquor licences available (including the possibility of underage audiences), and other distinguishing features, such as whether the venue is mainstream or hip. It is important for agents to be able to accurately match their artists to the types of engagements available. Agents also need to be able to identify venues that will have career development potential (they may pay more money, for example). Apart from work with venues and tour promoters, booking agents also seek out other opportunities for artists, such as festivals, special events and corporate appearances. There are essentially two levels of booking agent: regional booking agents, who work in defined geographical areas, and

There are very few accountants who specialise in the arts — because the market in Australia is small. However, it is possible for accountants to develop an arts-based practice gradually, so that music clients (or clients from other artistic fields) become a growing proportion of a general commercial practice. Establishing this kind of specialised business may be a slow process. At the start, an accountant may have to take on clients who are at the beginning of their careers. After the business is established, most new business comes by referral from people in the industry. Apart from working in an accountancy firm, an accountant interested in working in the arts may also be able to work in music businesses such as record companies and publishing companies, and in presenter organisations such as orchestras and major venues. The salary range for an accountant is $35,000 to upwards of $100,000 per year depending on age, qualifications and reputation. Training

Having qualified as an accountant, a person interested in this field must become familiar with all the relevant aspects of the music industry. Comment B R I A N Q U I N N ( A S S O C I AT E , B D O K E N D A L L S ) :

‘You need to have an interest in the industry to make it your specialty. That’s the main thing. I find it satisfying because I have that interest. Professionally the industry can take you into some complex areas that you may not have otherwise visited.’

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national booking agents, who represent high-profile artists and book national tours. The national agent will generally collaborate with a number of regional agents to organise touring, or, alternatively, will deal directly with a national circuit of venues. Agents who are successful do it by making sure that filling up the unbooked dates of their artists is a priority. The onus is on the agent to come up with an idea or an option for filling those dates, particularly if any are prime dates such as Fridays or Saturdays. The agent must ensure that all confirmed engagements are contracted in an appropriate written form. At the simplest level, this could be an exchange of emails. More detailed contracts are used for bigger shows. The agent also needs to negotiate the arrangements for an engagement and make sure they are all confirmed in writing.These include when the artist and technical crew will have access to the venue, how much noise can be made at what times during the set-up, what kinds of facilities are available for use at the venue, the exact performance times, the payment arrangements, and any other details. The agent then needs to make sure all relevant parties know all these arrangements. When the engagement is a tour, its logistical success depends on all parties being precisely informed of schedules and operational details. It is the agent’s responsibility to ensure that a suitable amount of artist promotion material — posters, photos, bios and logos, for instance — is sent to the venue as soon as the engagement is confirmed, and that a record is kept of what was sent and how it was sent. Finding and recruiting suitable artists to represent is another important activity for an agent. This involves networking and talent scouting. Most new clients are referred by industry contacts. Skills

Agents need to be able to research venues, audiences, promoters and artists, so that they can determine market opportunities.

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They also need to love the genre(s) of music they represent. Agents have to be prepared to be active in the music scene — to attend shows, to read street magazines and to network within the industry. They need to develop an instinct about the potential of the new artists they see performing and to be able to document the sizes and types of audience they are attracting. Agents need to be excellent communicators and negotiators. In approaching a promoter or venue, the agent must be enthusiastic about the artist without overstating his or her potential drawing power. It is better to downplay the box office potential than to risk future business with the promoter by talking the artist up too much. This means that agents need to be able to accurately predict audience sizes and advise on appropriate ticket prices. Agents also require strategic planning skills for their artists. Artist career development is usually based on making progress in stages, over a number of years. Contingencies such as success (or otherwise) with record sales need to be built into the planning. Agents with their own business need the full range of small business management skills. Prospects

People trying to establish an agency business need to start on a basic level — they will not be able to contract established artists. One pathway into the field is through managing an artist or band that is starting out. Finding and negotiating work for an artist will provide valuable experience, and will help establish the essential network of venue and other industry contacts. It will also help build the aspiring agent’s professional reputation. Another area of relevant experience is work as a venue booker.This would give the agent an idea of the relationship and dynamics between bands and venues, as well as knowledge about ticket pricing and deal structures. Another avenue into agency work is to get work with an agency business. Unpaid

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work experience or in-house training with an agency may lead to paid employment if a person is able to demonstrate commitment, energy, industry knowledge and flair for the work. As agents work on a percentage of the gross fee for the engagement (usually 10 per cent), an agency business’s development depends on being able to attract or develop artists whose fees are substantial. This is why agents have a considerable interest and involvement in the career development of the artists they represent. Employees of booking agencies typically earn between $400 and $500 per week. Training

On-the-job training is the norm for agents, because they have a very practical set of tasks, such as negotiating engagements by telephoning venues and analysing all the venues in the territory they are operating in. Some formal training courses, such as marketing and communications, may provide a grounding in the skills needed. Comment OWEN ORFORD (MANAGING

DIRECTOR,

T PA ) :

‘I love doing what I’m doing and I couldn’t do anything else. I love being a part of that spark when a band starts to take off and you’ve been instrumental in directing that career, building it up in a live sense. I’m proud as anything to represent major names that were built up from $150 bands to $150,000 bands. The excitement level is in the initial stages for me, in that early part of it. And I love the fact that there are many things that an agent can do.At some stage we are adviser, we are pseudo band manager, we are gig seeker, we are publicists for the act on a basic level, and in some cases we even negotiate record deals or broker management deals.’

MUSIC MERCHANDISER

A music merchandiser designs and manufactures products featuring the brands of artists, venues, festivals and special events. Typical products include T-shirts, hats, key rings, badges, posters and programs. These products are generally sold at the venues when the artist is performing, but they may also be available through retail outlets, by mail order or through websites. The sale of merchandise is often handled by the artist’s own business enterprise. If it is financially viable, merchandisers also provide retail services at shows, including on national tours. Storage of merchandise is another service provided by most merchandisers. A merchandiser may design the products or license designs created by other designers, depending on the needs of the client. Generally the work involves developing ideas in collaboration with the client, designing and manufacturing the products, and distributing them to the client or to where the events are taking place. Manufacture usually involves printing facilities — the core of the work is printing, including screen printing (embroidery is also big) — but may include other plant. Other plant might be simple devices like badge-making machines. Some larger merchandisers might actually make the clothes, hats, etc that they print on. Skills

Merchandisers working in the music industry need to be able to come up with novel ideas for brand-based designs.To do this, they need a good understanding of popular culture and, in particular, the graphic cultures of different music genres.They also need to network well with potential clients. Skills in graphic design and associated computer applications are essential, as is the

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ability to work out methods of printing effectively on a range of surfaces. Merchandisers need the full range of small business management skills, including retailing skills.

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PROMOTER

Prospects

Graphic designers who want to move into this field need a network of contacts. Initially, a music merchandiser may need to approach artists or artist managers at shows. If the artist does not already have a merchandising contract, it may be possible for the merchandiser to strike a deal. After a reputation is established, work comes by referral. Income from this field depends on the volume of work, which itself probably depends on the reputation of the company. There are also merchandising opportunities in other areas, such as sports and other types of creative activities, such as movies and books. Training

There are no courses designed specifically for music merchandisers. Training in graphic design is the basis for this kind of work. To work in the music area, designers need to know what musical imagery is associated with different genres — this knowledge can best be acquired through research and practical experience. Training in small business management, especially marketing, is also advisable. Comment PA U L C A S S O N ( M A N A G E R , MR MERCHANDISE):

‘It’s very time consuming obtaining new sources of business and getting to know the right people when you first start, but once you have picked up a few customers, a lot of new work is by referral. At the same time, it’s actually quite enjoyable. For most of the bands and events I have set up a merchandise package for, I’ve actually attended one of their shows and spoken to their managers. Another way of letting people know about it is by advertising in the right areas.’

A promoter (or entrepreneur) is a music industry operative who contracts artists and organises tours, concerts or special events using those artists. The job involves liaising with artists, artists’ managers, booking agents, record companies, tour managers, venue operators, transport companies, accommodation outlets, equipment hirers, ticketing agencies, publicists and the media in order to make festivals, tours, and one-off performance projects happen. The field ranges from large companies that organise international tours for big-name artists through to small regional companies that promote domestic acts. Smaller companies often collaborate with larger companies in organising the regional sectors of tours. Venues and festivals also act as promoters. Skills

Promoting music events is financially risky, so promoters need to use a high level of business acumen when they select artists and venues, price the tickets and choose a marketing strategy. These business skills need to be complemented with an understanding of artistic and industry matters and audience demographics. The work is based around project management. Promoters need excellent interpersonal communication skills, including the ability to deal with many people intensely for a short period of time. Crisis management skills are also essential. Promoters also need to be able to negotiate a wide range of industry contracts, and they need a network of contacts covering virtually all sectors of the music and media industries. Attention to detail is also essential — nothing should be left to chance when organising complex events or series of events. Creativity and skill are needed for the effective marketing of events.

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Prospects

Developing a business as a promoter is difficult. Successful progression depends on establishing a good reputation as an organiser and as a business person. It may take some time before national booking agents will be prepared to collaborate with a new promoter. So the promoter’s reputation needs to be established on a local level. However, if a promoter is prepared to work hard and develop all the necessary skills, knowledge and contacts, business advancement opportunities are quite good. As a competent promoter has to develop a strong understanding of the industry as a whole, sideways career moves to management, booking agency, production and other industry areas are possible. Apart from going into business as a promoter, it is possible to work for larger companies as an employee. Usually entry to the field is by unpaid work experience. Once a person has shown their job commitment and skill, the progression of paid jobs goes all the way from receptionist to personal assistant, to general manager. Salaries for these positions range from $20,000 to $100,000 per year, depending on the job responsibilities and the scale of the business. Another suitable background for getting work in a large company is experience as a venue manager, venue booker or tour manager. As with all businesses, promoters strive to make a profit, but they can also lose money if events are poorly attended or other aspects of planning go wrong. Training

On-the-job experience is the best training for this kind of work. However, training in event management or arts marketing will provide a suitable grounding in many of the necessary skills. Comment SUZANNE MCALARY (MANAGING FRONT):

DIRECTOR,

‘If you are new to it, it is difficult. Like anything, if you show a bit of get up and go, and

you persevere, then you can get there.When I started working in the industry back in 1989, all I had were skills as a journalist. I just picked up the phone and started ringing people.After a few years it wasn’t necessary for me to be hunting down the acts because the acts were hunting down me to tour up this way [in North Queensland].’ C A R O L I N E T U L LY ( G E N E R A L M A N A G E R , M I C H A E L C H U G G E N T E R TA I N M E N T ) :

‘That moment before the act comes on the stage and everybody’s screaming, and you know you’ve had something to do with everyone feeling absolutely brilliant, there’s nothing that compares to that feeling. That’s why I’m here — for those goosebumps. I can’t compare it to anything. It’s what I live for.’

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VENUE BOOKER

Venue bookers are employed by venues such as clubs and hotels to coordinate their entertainment. The job involves seeking out and contracting musical or other entertainers appropriate to the entertainment policy of the venue.The job may also involve devising and coordinating events on special days of the year (Melbourne Cup Day, Anzac Day, St Patrick’s Day, etc) and booking pay TV sporting events appropriate to the interests of the patrons. The booker is also responsible for publicising the entertainment schedule. Bookers sometimes deal directly with local or national booking agents and sometimes book artists directly, so they need a network of contacts in the music industry. Bookers also need to know what is available locally, so they may need to attend shows in other venues. The booker is responsible for negotiating the engagement details — such as performance fees, publicity, in-house technical services and times of set-up, sound check and performance — with the agent, the artist or the artist’s manager. The booker is responsible for quality control of the entertainment. This may involve providing feedback to the performers and technical crew and collecting opinions from venue patrons. Skills

Venue bookers need high levels of interpersonal communication skills, because they deal with artists, artist management, booking agents, venue management and venue patrons. A knowledge of the operation of the music industry, including an understanding of the going rates for different sorts of acts and acts of various degrees of success, is

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essential. A booker needs good negotiating skills to secure artists at an appropriate price. Venue bookers must understand what musical genres suit the entertainment policy and the customer demographic of the venue, and assess the quality of particular artists in any of those genres. Effective networking is required to access the kinds of artists the venue wants. As bookers are responsible for the staging of the entertainment, they need to understand the technical requirements of performance, including sound and lighting requirements. Venues need to comply with legislation relating to music performance, so the venue booker needs to understand the legislative requirements in the relevant areas — occupational health and safety issues relating to mains power, rigging, and noise levels, for example. Bookers need administrative skills because they need to manage budgets, schedule entertainment and organise publicity. When they engage artists who are not local, tour management skills may also be needed. Prospects

As the number of large-scale hotel and club venues offering live music is declining, the prospects for full-time work as a venue booker are very limited. The job is more usually merged with other roles now, such as venue manager or bar manager. In other words, a full-time employee who does the venue entertainment bookings is likely to have other employment duties besides this. Some venues use a contracted consultant (often referred to as venue consultant) to book the entertainment. Some booking agents also act as venue bookers for particular venues, a practice that can involve a conflict of interest when their responsibilities to their contracted artists are considered. The experience and industry contacts gained as a venue booker may provide a grounding for work in other areas of the music industry, such as booking agency and artist management.

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Training

There is no specialised training for venue bookers operating in clubs and hotels. Most tourism and hospitality management courses do not deal specifically with the skills and issues of venue booking, although they generally include useful units of study such as event management. Courses in hotel management and music business would provide some of the skills needed. Practical involvement in music performance or production in relevant genres may provide the necessary skills — being able to tell if the music is good or not and whether it will be appropriate for the venue. Comment BRENDAN MEEK (VENUE H O T E L , B Y R O N B AY ) :

BOOKER,

BEACH

‘It’s vibrant, it’s very rewarding if things go your way. It’s satisfying to see the result of your efforts — when the place is full of people having a great time and appreciating what is on stage, the whole thing is coming together, the bar is ticking over, the musicians are having a great time (and being paid what their services are worth), and the venue is making money. It’s win–win all round.’

RECORD C O M PA N Y POSITIONS

he degree of job specialisation in the record industry varies enormously from company to company. At the top end, there are around 30 management positions listed for each of the major record companies included in the Australasian Music Industry Directory. On an independent label, most of the functions carried out by this large number of specialists are carried out by a much smaller number of people. There is not room in this book to provide detailed entries for all the different job classifications found in this sector. The job categories selected include artist and repertoire (A&R) manager, label manager, promotions manager, sales director, new media director and sales representative.

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ARTIST AND REPERTOIRE (A&R) MANAGER

Artist and repertoire managers are responsible for finding new artists to be signed, developing the artists’ material for recording, selecting items to be recorded and selecting producers, engineers, studios and musicians for the recording.The whole process is carried out in close collaboration with the artist and the artist’s manager. The process is largely one of facilitation, of helping the artists find the right people to work with and realise their full potential when recording. Some approaches to this process are more interventionist than others. Some commercial pop music labels, for example, try to mould their artists to match the current trends in popular music. The A&R manager has a strategic role in planning the artist’s recording career, including achieving a balance of songs on an album, selecting the singles to be released and the timing of releases, and determining the potential of the artist in various territories. The A&R manager also has a major role in liaising with other areas of the record company, such as the managing director and the heads of promotions and marketing, to ensure that they remain enthusiastic about the signed artists. A large part of the job is seeking out new talent by going to live shows, either on spec or after recommendation by a talent scout or an industry colleague. To find new talent, A&R managers also listen to solicited and unsolicited demo recordings by unsigned artists. Skills

A&R managers must have good people skills, because they need to relate productively to the artists, their management, production personnel, and other record company

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departments.They need to be good communicators, have patience, and be able to be both flexible and firm in relation to artistic decision making.Team building and management skills are needed for effective artist development and production projects. A&R managers need ‘good ears’ — the ability to spot the commercial potential of a musical act even when it is heard in a raw (unproduced) form. They also need to have extensive knowledge of what is happening, both here and internationally, in the relevant genres of music and a comprehensive knowledge of the music scene in the city where their operation is based. In addition, they need to understand song structure and be aware of current record production technology. Underlying all these skills is the ability to know what appeals to both mainstream and niche markets. Specific musical and technical skills are useful, particularly in relation to composition technology and the recording process. It helps to be able to communicate with the artist on cultural, musical and technical levels. Financial skills are needed for managing recording project budgets and understanding the business potential of the artists being signed. A&R managers should have a good idea of how contracts are structured, even though artist contracts are negotiated with the business affairs section of a record company. Generally, A&R managers need to have a good idea of the operation of all the departments of their record company and of how A&R can work effectively with them. Personnel management skills are required for managers working in large A&R departments. Prospects

A&R is regarded as one of the most glamorous areas of employment in the music industry. Since only the large record companies have dedicated A&R positions, though, it is difficult to find employment in this area specifically. But since A&R is a central function of all record companies, many people

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working for independent labels are fulfilling this function as a part of a larger suite of duties. Despite the legal requirements for advertising vacant positions, recruitment is mostly done through networking, and often from within the record company itself. A&R staff are selected on the basis of their skills rather than on the basis of formal qualifications. Experience working in an independent record company could be an advantage. Other backgrounds which may provide a suitable grounding are artist management, production and DJing. Some large record companies employ junior A&R staff such as talent scouts and assistant A&R managers in addition to the position of A&R manager. Because the field is so popular, it is even difficult to find unpaid work experience in A&R. It is possible for an A&R manager to advance to the role of managing director (CEO) in a record company (Festival Mushroom’s Michael Parisi is a recent example). Other higher positions available in some companies are ‘director of Australian music’ and ‘general manager’. Advancement may also be possible in the overseas headquarters of the multinational record companies, where A&R plays a more major role than it does in Australia (remember, Australian major record company branches use local A&R staff for only approximately 20 per cent of their volume). The salary range for A&R management positions is $50,000 to upwards of $100,000 per year. Training

Although some major record companies have a policy of employing graduates on their management staff, formal qualifications are not normally associated with preparation for the A&R role. Extensive knowledge of the music scene and the ability to spot the commercial potential of artists and of particular songs are attributes that are not easily taught. However, courses in music production,

music business and communications could provide a useful grounding for some of the more general skills that A&R managers need. Comment PA U L B AY L I S S ( A & R M A N A G E R , B M G AUSTRALIA LIMITED):

‘If you’ve gone out and you know every single band that is playing around at the moment, and you go to an A&R person and say there are these two bands you should go and sign and these are the reasons why, then that is going to have a lot more impact than anything you might have achieved academically or might have had in the way of music experience. ‘In A&R it can be very adversarial, particularly in dealing with a certain kind of manager.You have to be pretty thick-skinned, you have to be pretty tolerant, and you also have to be prepared to stand up for yourself when you need to. If you’re a sensitive soul, it’s not an area to go into. You also have to be prepared for long hours, and it does totally dominate your life. It’s difficult to work in A&R and not do it almost 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. And if you’re not the kind of person that lives and breathes music like that, then A&R is probably not the right area for you.’ SIMON MOOR (HEAD OF A&R, EMI MUSIC A U S T R A L I A P T Y LT D ) :

‘Get the best music knowledge you can. If you want to do A&R it’s all about music. A good MD won’t care whether you can look at a profit and loss sheet and work out what’s going on, or whether you can put a contract together.Those things can come. It’s all about good music knowledge, understanding why certain song structures work, and understanding different genres.’

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LABEL MANAGER

The label manager coordinates all aspects of the production of records on a particular label. This includes managing the budgets for record production artwork and marketing, coordinating the signing of contracts and organising recording sessions and photo shoots. Depending on the size of the company, the job may involve managing large numbers of projects simultaneously. On smaller labels the label manager may also have A&R responsibilities. Generating additional product ideas, such as compilations, is another aspect of the job. Skills

This job is based around project management skills, including the ability to schedule many projects simultaneously. It is essential to be able to work to multiple production deadlines. Advanced skills in office administration, oral and written communication, industry networking, budgeting and financial management are required. Because label managers deal with artists, they need tact and diplomacy — artists often have a different perspective from the manager on what is required of them. The label manager must have a thorough appreciation of and commitment to the genres of music that the label deals with. It’s useful to also have some technical knowledge about recording and production in order to understand the needs of the artists when setting up recording sessions. Prospects

The comments about recruitment noted above under the job category A&R manager also apply to this field. The record industry usually recruits at a junior level and people work their way up within the organisation.

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Often, paid employment opportunities follow a period of volunteer service. Networking is essential for finding out about jobs. Progress towards the position of label manager may be through jobs such as production coordinator and production manager. From the position of label manager it may be possible to advance to be head of the label. This experience would also prepare someone to start their own label. The salary range for a label manager is $35,000 to $70,000 per year, depending on the size of the label, and whether or not there are business success incentives. Training

The most effective training available for this position is on-the job experience in a record company combined with formal training in whatever specific skills are considered necessary. These skills vary according to the size of the label and the specific duties of the label manager within that setting. Training in project management, audio production, public relations, graphic design and office administration would all be useful. Comment SARA CAFFREY (LABEL MANAGER, ABC CONTEMPORARY MUSIC):

‘I wouldn’t work in any other industry. If you love music it’s definitely the place to be. My advice is to keep at it and you can pretty much get anywhere.’

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PROMOTIONS DIRECTOR

The promotions director usually reports to the CEO, and is responsible for controlling the promotions department of a record company. Essentially this involves gaining exposure via broadcast and printed media for record releases by artists signed to the label. The promotions director manages the staff responsible for informing media of the record company’s new releases and, in the case of radio and television, the merits of including these new releases on their music television stations and playlists. The promotions staff are responsible for getting live performances, interviews and stories about artists into the media. The promotions director works closely with the marketing department to coordinate the marketing and promotion of artists and products. A significant part of the job involves liaising with artists and their managers — promotions staff need to understand these people’s artistic vision and satisfy them that they are getting the attention and respect they and their music deserve. Skills

The promotions director needs advanced skills in strategic planning, interpersonal communication, public relations and staff management. Other essential people skills include reasoning, flexibility, diplomacy, and the ability to remain calm under pressure. Promotions managers need significant musical knowledge so that they can relate effectively to artists, journalists, music radio and television programmers and the media generally.

Prospects

For information about starting a career and career advancement in the record industry, see the entry for A&R manager above. Promotions staff may have a marketing or sales background, or may have had professional experience in music retail, artist management, performance, or other sectors of the music industry. Sideways career moves from record promotions may be possible to radio or television, because record promotions involves an intimate understanding of these media and the maintenance of a large professional network of contacts. The salary range for a director of promotions is $80,000 to $120,000 per year. Training

Training in the record industry is usually done on the job. Qualifications in business administration or marketing would be a suitable basis for many aspects of this job. Comment MALCOLM HILL (DIRECTOR OF PROMOTIONS, E M I M U S I C A U S T R A L I A P T Y. L T D . ) :

‘Enjoy it, be happy in it.You’ll never be able to fake it, because people are too aware of what’s going on around them. It’s not the business where you can just come up with the figures and make it look good; you have to live the business and be reliable and respected by the people you interact with. If you can do that, you’ll probably have a very good career. It certainly helps to be able to relate to everybody in the media on a fairly high level with regard to musical history and what’s happening now, and also to be able to communicate where you’re trying to go with your artists and why you’re trying to do certain things with them.You have to be able to keep everybody happy. The media who are exposing your artists have to be happy with the manner in which you have conducted the promotion.’

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SALES DIRECTOR

The sales director reports to the managing director, controls the national sales division of the company, and leads a team consisting of the key account managers (who look after the large accounts such as chain record stores) and the national field sales managers (who in turn manage the sales representatives). The sales manager also manages the call centre where orders are placed. A large part of the job is communicating with the sales staff on sales, marketing, promotion and competition issues, and liaising with the company’s other departments in order to coordinate advertising and promotion with sales. The sales manager ensures that sales targets are met and that stock is maintained to the required levels. Skills

Sales directors need excellent personnel management skills because of the number of people involved in sales and the complex national logistical aspects of the sales process. They also need excellent interpersonal communication skills, because they deal with all levels of staff, plus retail clients and artists. They need a high level of understanding of all aspects of selling — the product, the market, merchandising, finance, profits, losses, margins, returnability, and return of sale. A detailed knowledge of music is not required, but it is important to have a good overview of music and an understanding of music trends. Sales directors and other sales staff increasingly need to know about Internet selling and the technologies of online purchasing and product downloading. People employed in this area have to be prepared to work long hours, including going to shows at night.

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Prospects

The record industry usually recruits sales staff from the music or media industries, or from music retailing. Jobs are advertised both internally and externally. The prospects of getting casual work at the lowest level of call centre operator are reasonably good, particularly at peak periods. Casual work may lead to full-time work. The opportunities for advancement are good for those who show commitment and talent. Progression is through state-based sales representative to sales supervisor to state sales manager to national sales director. It is possible for a sales director to become the CEO of a record company. Sideways moves into other departments (such as marketing) are also possible. People with computer skills and e-commerce experience will be in increasing demand as this selling format develops and expands. There is a broad salary range in the sales area — pay depends on experience and performance. Training

In this field there is a consensus that the best training is on the job. It is not possible to get a good feel for it without doing it. However, training in marketing would provide a good basis. Record companies often provide inservice training for their staff: usually short courses in relevant administrative subjects. They realise that training in new media technologies will be increasingly important as the way products are sold and distributed changes. Comment M A R K W I L L I A M S ( N AT I O N A L S A L E S M A N A G E R , E M I M U S I C P T Y LT D ) :

‘Personally, I think it’s a great job to be in. I would imagine 95 percent of the population would love my job. You get to travel the world, you get to control multi millions of dollars, to meet people from Paul McCartney and The Living End right through to some

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new band that hopefully in three years will be totally recognisable.There’s a lot of hard work: the old days of sex, drugs and rock ’n roll are definitely over in the music industry.You have to have a passion for it. You have to do the hard yards to start with. For example, a rep could be out on the road for two years in forty degree heat thinking “I’m just sick of putting up merchandising bins, and sick of trying to find a parking spot in a Westfield, I’m out of here.” But if you persist, normally the fruits of your work will come through. If you get into it and you like it in the first couple of years, I’d be surprised if you didn’t make a career of it.’

NEW MEDIA DIRECTOR

A new media director is responsible for online business development. This involves a number of activities, including the development of new business models, the marketing and promotion of artists and products through new media such as the Internet, and integrating these activities with conventional marketing and promotion techniques. Essentially, the job involves looking for new ways of benefiting the record business through new technologies. One of the major concerns of the record industry is looking for secure ways to sell music in downloadable formats. Thus a new media director’s job involves staying abreast of any developments in this field and informing other departments within the organisation of them. Skills

New media directors need extensive experience in the record industry, particularly in marketing, promotion and sales. They need be able to devise and develop ideas for using new media for marketing and promotion, and to communicate with experts in new media technologies so that these ideas can be turned into reality. It is essential to be able to envision ways in which partnerships with new media businesses may lead to opportunities for both partners, and to be able to broker these kinds of partnerships. New media directors need a comprehensive understanding of the available new media technologies and an extensive network of contacts throughout the new media. Excellent written and oral communication, negotiation, facilitation and problemsolving skills are also required.

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Prospects

People in these positions are likely to have been recruited or promoted from other areas of a record company, such as marketing, promotion or information technology. For information about starting a career in the record industry, see the entries for A&R manager and Sales director above. Training

Training in the record industry is usually done on the job. It would be appropriate for a new media director to have worked in the marketing or promotions areas of a record company. A qualification in marketing, or, more specifically, in online marketing, would be an advantage in this field.Training in information technology would also be useful. Comment BETH APPLETON (NEW M U S I C P T Y LT D ) :

MEDIA DIRECTOR,

EMI

‘I started off as an administrative assistant for EMI [in the UK] seven years ago. Specific to this role, you need business acumen, organisation skills and an understanding of strategy and how new media marketing strategies fit in with the long-term goals of the company.You also need a tremendous amount of enthusiasm and drive.’

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SALES REPRESENTATIVE

Sales representatives of record companies or record distribution companies manage the accounts of customers such as record stores, department stores and other outlets for the sale of records. For each record release they are briefed by the label manager and the marketing staff, typically about a month before the release date.Their task is then to create awareness among their retail clients about the product and how it will be marketed and promoted, including information about expected airplay and artist touring schedules.As the release date approaches, they continue to liaise with their clients and then take orders for the product. The job also involves coordinating in-store appearances of the artists whose records are being promoted, and negotiating with the label managers to fund the signage for these events. Sales representatives also deal with retailers — when they require additional information about products, or have problems with missing or damaged orders or with shipping or returns (unsold products the retailer is permitted to return). Skills

Selling ability is not the most important skill in this job, because the record companies are generally marketing products that are available from no other source. If, for example, a retailer wants to source the latest Björk CD, it will only be available from Universal. The main skills are people skills. Sales representatives have to be able to provide excellent briefings to retailers on what is available and how it is being marketed.They also need to ensure that the ordering, invoicing and shipping processes are trouble-free. To do all this well they need to understand how record retail functions. They may also need project management skills for organising in-store promotions.

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Prospects

Most record company sales representatives are recruited from the retail sector. It helps to have had experience working in both independent and chain stores. It is also possible to be recruited from clerical positions within the record company itself, typically from the sales or marketing departments. Usually sales representatives begin their sales work in the record company’s call centre, making phone sales to stores that are not big enough to warrant a visit from a travelling sales representative. From the call centre they graduate to being on the road, dealing with the larger stores. Further promotion might be to sales manager, state sales manager, national sales manager, and finally director of overseas and national sales. Alternatively, sales representatives may move sideways to other record company jobs, such as label manager or promotions manager. Training

There is no training available specifically for this field of work. As implied above, the best training is working in record retail. This will give you an understanding of the business of record retailing and bring you into contact with all the record company sales representatives who deal with the store you work in, so that you can see what they do and how they operate. Some of the major record companies provide in-house training for their sales employees. Comment TIM WEST (SALES RECORDS):

R E P R E S E N TAT I V E ,

SHOCK

‘The first thing I recommend is to go to your local record store and harass them to death to get a job — even if it’s just a Thursday night/Saturday job — and then work your way up.That’s how I started: at 20 hours a week, and then a full-time position came up, and I moved through to full-time assistant manager, and then manager.You’re more likely to get a casual job through an independent retail store. Go to a small indie and then work your way through to working for a chain. I think it’s good to do both — they do operate differently and it’s good to see both sides of the coin.’

MUSIC PUBLISHING C O M PA N Y POSITIONS usic publishers administer the copyrights of composers and lyricists. Between them they cover all genres of music.They are also actively involved in promoting the use of the music whose rights they control. They sign composers to publishing agreements that are based on a percentage of the royalties and fees collected. Most publishers also act as agents for the catalogues or libraries of publishers and production companies based in other countries. Publishers tend to be smaller operations than record companies. Some record companies include publishing in their operations. These include majors such as EMI, BMG and Universal, but also smaller publishing companies such as J. Albert and Sons. Some publishers — Boosey & Hawkes, Music Sales and Allans Publishing, for example — specialise in classical or educational music. For these publishers, and a few others, the sale and hire of printed music, one of the traditional activities of music publishers, is central to their operations. However, most contemporary publishers focus on the royalties generated from recordings (including those used in film and television productions) rather than the sale or hire of printed music. The jobs available in music publishing include managing director, financial controller, administration manager, licensing manager (including print, film and videosynchronisation and theatrical divisions in large companies), copyright/royalty manager and production music manager. Some of the larger publishing companies employ A&R managers, who have a similar talent discovery and development role as their record company counterparts. Classical music publishers also employ a variety of people relating to their sheet music and music hire operations. These include performance pro-

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motions manager, hire librarian, publications manager, sales and marketing manager, and warehouse manager. As with the section on record company job categories, there is not enough space to detail every position in a music publishing company here — I have included entries for managing director, licensing manager, copyright/royalty manager, production music manager, performance promotions manager and hire library manager.

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MANAGING DIRECTOR

The managing director (MD) of a publishing company reports to the board of directors and supervises all the company departments. The managing director is responsible for corporate governance, budgets, strategic plans, operating plans, internal communications, marketing and personnel relations. Skills

A passion for and understanding of the music represented by the company is essential. MDs need extensive experience and ability in all aspects of a publishing operation; they need skills in financial management, oral and written communication, human resource management, leadership, facilitation and strategic management. In publishing companies that are combined with record companies, extensive knowledge and experience of both areas is needed. Prospects

The field is very competitive. When jobs are advertised there is usually a large number of applicants. Entry to the field is usually at a junior level. It is then typical for employees to work their way up through the ranks. In companies that have international operations, this may mean moving to branches in other countries in order to gain promotion. Management experience across the various divisions of a music publishing company would be a significant advantage for people aspiring to the position of managing director. Salaries for this position depend on age, experience and ability, plus the size of the publishing operation. The range is between $100,000 and $200,000 per year. Training

As most music publishers recruit at a junior level and then provide on-the-job training,

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the qualifications required for entry vary. Classical music publishers generally expect an applicant to have a degree in music and experience working in music publishing or a related part of the music industry. Within music publishing generally, an applicant would be expected to be able to demonstrate a good knowledge of relevant repertoire and of the operation of the music industry. A degree in law or business may be useful for promotion later in a music publishing career. There are no degree courses specifically for music publishers. There are, however, many courses offered by TAFE institutes, private training providers and a few universities that are focused on music business management (see Appendix 2). These programs include significant content on copyright, contracts, licensing, and other topics relevant to music publishing. Comment RICHARD MACKIE (MANAGING DIRECTOR, BOOSEY & HAWKES AUSTRALIA):

‘When potential new employees are being interviewed, it is important that they demonstrate that they have a particular passion and interest in music, no matter what the genre, and that they are interested in further training and a career, and are not just looking for a job in publishing as a last resort. To some, getting a foot in the door at any level, irrespective of their qualifications, can often give them the opportunity to look around at what is going on in the many departments that make up the publishing business before they decide where they think their talent can be best exploited, and where they can gain the most experience. Sometimes they can surprise themselves and reveal a natural talent in leadership skills, and therefore advance very quickly. Others are quite content to specialise and do extremely well in a particular discipline. Regardless of the task they are performing, it is their attitude to their work and colleagues, their ability to never stop learning and their level of persistence that invariably best determine the direction their career takes, particularly when the opportunities arise. And they most definitely will arise.’

COPYRIGHT/ R O YA L T I E S MANAGER

Copyright/royalties managers administer copyrights which are either owned by the company or owned by sister companies or affiliates around the world. Their responsibility is to ensure that record companies are paying the royalties that are due from sales.There is a lot of paperwork involved in the process. Record companies are required to send out ‘enquiry notices’ to all the major publishers, to enable the publishers to claim the works they control and collect the royalties for any sales of those works. Copyright royalty managers maintain a database of titles (the larger companies have hundreds of thousands of titles) and use this database to help establish the ownership of copyrights.They also make enquiries to other publishers (including affiliates) and to the collection societies. The situation is complex, because many writers change publishers every few years. To establish copyright ownership, the copyright/royalty manager must supply supporting documentation.This is essential when dual claims are made. Skills

Strong interpersonal communication skills are needed for dealing with record companies, other publishers, other organisations within the industry and the public. Disputes over copyright ownership need to be dealt with tactfully and firmly. Copyright/royalties managers need good research skills so that they can trace titles and establish who owns which copyrights. They must fully understand publishing contracts and Australian copyright law, and know quite a lot about copyright law in other territories. They need computer skills, for a range of office administration duties as well as for

MUSIC BUSINESS

maintaining the database. Publishers typically use mainframe computers with customdesigned database software. Copyright/royalties managers need to be well organised and be good at detail, particularly when balancing the royalty ledger. The ability to meet deadlines is crucial, as there is often considerable pressure to have the royalties paid on time. Prospects

Many people working in this position have started as office assistants and worked their way up through the ranks. It is possible for an experienced person working in this area to advance to the position of managing director. A sideways move may be possible to a collection society such as APRA (Australasian Performing Right Association) or AMCOS (Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society). The salary range for a copyright manager is $50,000 to $60,000 per year. Administrative assistants in this area may earn between $30,000 and $40,000 per year. Training

See Managing director above. Comment F I O N A G U N N ( C O P Y R I G H T / R O YA LT I E S MUSIC SALES):

MANAGER,

‘I really think they should look at doing some kind of course, because it certainly is more favourable. It’s all about having a bit of common sense. You can’t come into the industry thinking you are going to meet all these famous people, because it just doesn’t happen like that.You have to have a cool attitude towards work. It’s a job that you go to and you do.’

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LICENSING MANAGER

Licensing can be broken down into a number of specialised positions, depending on the size of the corporation.A large company may have separate positions in print licensing, film and video synchronisation licensing and theatrical licensing. Smaller companies may combine these areas into one job. Licensing covers recorded music used in films, television programs, commercials, stage productions, corporate videos, CD-ROMs, digital and Internet delivery, as well as the duplication of printed music for schools, churches, choirs and ensembles. A licensing manager administers licences from the company’s publishing catalogue, which is usually made up of a number of different sub-publishing agreements. There are two aspects of licensing: the copyright in the work and the copyright in the recording. If the publisher is also a record company it would be dealing with both aspects. The job involves pitching material that is in the company’s ‘catalogue’ (material that the company has a licence to sell the use of) to prospective clients. This ranges from material suitable for specific jobs to the general promotion of the catalogue. The licensing manager fields inquiries and gives quotations for using songs or other kinds of musical works (subject to the approval by the original publisher and the songwriters). If the client wishes to proceed, the licensing manager negotiates on the client’s behalf with the publishers and the songwriters to find a fee that is mutually agreeable.The licensing officer then issues contracts and collects the agreed fee. Often a television company, film production company or similar organisation will ask the licensing manager to search the company’s catalogue to discover titles that could be suitable for their various musical requirements.

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Skills

The licensing manager needs a thorough knowledge of the music in the publisher’s catalogue — this can be a daunting requirement, considering the vast historical and stylistic range of most catalogues. A good understanding of copyright is required, including copyright provisions in other countries and developments in new technologies and media delivery formats that affect rights. A licensing manager needs excellent oral and written communication skills, and good negotiating skills. It is essential to be able to act as an effective mediator between clients and the represented copyright owner concerning fees for particular uses. Finding solutions that are acceptable to both parties is the essence of the job.When an agreement cannot be reached, the licensing manager should be able to present the client with a cheaper alternative from the catalogue. Excellent office administration skills, including competence with office computer applications and the company’s database software, are also needed. The ability to work under pressure is essential, as client queries are often urgent. Prospects

The opportunities in this job category are limited, simply because of the small number of publishing companies that have dedicated licensing positions (around 10 in Australia). The recruitment methods and advancement opportunities outlined above for other publishing jobs also apply to this job. In addition, however, professionals who have worked in the music licensing area in the film, television, theatre and advertising industries (on the other side, so to speak) are suitably qualified for this kind of work. Sideways moves from publishing into these industries, for example to the job of music supervisor in film (see Chapter 4: Production), are also possible. The salary for a licensing manager ranges from $50,000 to upwards of $100,000 per

year. Supporting positions for this field start at around $30,000. Training

See Managing director, above. Comment B E L I N D A YAT E S ( C R E AT I V E S E R V I C E S EMI MUSIC PUBLISHING A U S T R A L I A P T Y LT D ) :

MANAGER,

‘It’s a very interesting area, because one minute you are working on a film (they take a couple of years, during which we could be sourcing music) and the next minute you’ll be working on ads (which happen fairly instantly). We’re dealing with our local writers directly, and negotiating with big film companies, television stations and radio stations.You need to have a sense of humour, to be an organised person, and to be able to time-plan, because everybody wants everything yesterday. You need to be able to juggle a lot of different things at one time and jump from one thing to the next.’ ANGELA GLAISTER (LICENSING J. ALBERT & SONS):

OFFICER,

‘Licensing can be a very rewarding job. The projects can be fun to work on, and to see them finished and attend the openings is very inspiring.You come across some great people in this position and work with just as many.’

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PRODUCTION MUSIC MANAGER

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company to other fields such as copyright management and licensing. In some companies this position is combined with the licensing manager position. The salary for a production music manager is between $30,000 and $60,000 per year. Training

Production music (sometimes called library music, media music or mood music) is recorded music that is produced specifically for general use in television, radio, advertisements and corporate videos.The repertoire is organised on CDs according to musical moods, styles, genres, periods and instrumental groupings. The difference between this kind of music and that handled by licensing managers (see entry above) is that this music has a pre-cleared rate (the licence to use it will be a set fee rather than one that needs to be negotiated) and is licensed through AMCOS. The role of the production music manager is to distribute and promote production music CDs handled by the publisher to potential clients, and also to advise clients on production music tracks that are available for specific projects. Skills

A production music manager needs good oral and written communication skills and the ability to market the company’s range of mood music products to media companies and production companies. An understanding of musical styles and the relationship between musical styles and particular media uses is essential. The production music manager has to be able to match individual tracks of music in the recorded production music catalogue to the specific needs of clients.This requires good aural recognition skills and a thorough knowledge of the catalogue. Prospects

See other publishing job categories above for information about recruitment and career development in publishing. People working in this area could move sideways in the

Musical training, either formal or informal, would help provide the necessary knowledge of the repertoire and the ability to match particular items of music to client requests. As the job involves marketing the products to companies, some kind of business training would also be useful. Comment K AT H E R I N E S TA P L E S ( P R O D U C T I O N M U S I C M A N A G E R , B O O S E Y & H AW K E S P T Y LT D ) :

‘It’s fulfilling.You get to meet a lot of people and hear a lot of musical styles that you wouldn’t otherwise listen to. You get a great insight into how things work as far as advertising and production go.’

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HIRE LIBRARY MANAGER

In a classical music publishing company the hire library manager is responsible for overseeing the operations of the hire library — the scores and parts of the orchestral, opera, ballet and band music repertoire available for hire. In Australia, the few music publishing companies operating in this category usually represent other publishers’ catalogues as well as promoting their own catalogues. The hire library manager is responsible for negotiating the hire fees for the music in the library that is used in performances and recordings. There is a range of pricing schedules; prices depend on the type of organisation or performance (educational, professional, amateur, for example). Grand Right performance royalties (relating to theatre shows or large-scale choral works) are negotiated through the hire library — these generally depend on box office receipts. Other aspects of the job may include ordering scores and parts from overseas companies, liaising with copyright owners, organising the collection, promoting the collection, and managing library and warehouse dispatch staff. Skills

A good knowledge of the classical music repertoire, plus an understanding of orchestration and instrumentation, is essential. Hire library managers also need to be computer literate, because they work with office applications and library management software. Hire library managers must have good oral and written communication skills, good business negotiation skills, and knowledge of copyright legislation.

Prospects

The general remarks made about recruitment and advancement for other publishing positions also apply to this position. There are relatively few positions available in hire libraries because there are not many hire libraries operating in Australia. One way into this kind of work is through employment in one of the orchestral libraries maintained by major orchestras and Symphony Australia (see Chapter 13: Libraries, archives and information services). However, there are still very few opportunities available. People working in this music publishing area may be able to move sideways into copyright, licensing and production music, or into orchestral management (see Chapter 11: Arts administration). Training

A music degree is essential for this field. Qualifications in business administration or management would also be an advantage. Comment B E R N A R D K I R K PAT R I C K ( H I R E L I B R A R Y B O O S E Y & H AW K E S P T Y LT D ) :

MANAGER,

‘It can be very interesting, because you deal with a range of people, including national treasures like Peter Sculthorpe.You have the opportunity of talking to these people on the phone and meeting them. You’re kept abreast of all major performances of contemporary and standard orchestral repertoire from professional symphony orchestras, festivals, opera and ballet companies, to amateur and community music makers. And there’s always the perks — free tickets to this and that.’

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PERFORMANCE PROMOTIONS MANAGER

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Promotions managers need to be able to nurture the composers they represent — assisting in their professional development, bolstering their confidence and being a calming influence in stressful situations such as premieres. Prospects

For classical music publishers, the performance promotions manager’s role is to look after the interests of the signed composers and to persuade presenter organisations (such as orchestras and festivals) to perform their works, and to commission the composers to write new works.This means building strong professional relationships with artistic directors, artistic administrators and soloists. The promotions manager also promotes the general repertoire in the publisher’s catalogue and provides advice to concert and special event programmers.The role may also involve negotiating and preparing composer contracts and organising orchestral part copying.

The main requirement for this kind of job is knowledge and understanding of the classical and contemporary classical repertoires and of the operation of the concert industry. In Australia the scope of employment in this field is limited. People who want to advance in the field need to try to work for overseas companies which have larger promotional operations. Promotion to senior management in music publishing is also an option for advancement.A sideways move into some area of arts administration, such as festival management, is also feasible. With the digitisation of the music industry it is likely that in the future, promotions managers will also need relevant computer skills.

Skills

In order to be able to represent the publisher effectively, the promotions manager needs to have a comprehensive knowledge of all the repertoire represented by the publisher, including details of instrumental and vocal groupings used and any other performance requirements.This entails thousands of hours of listening and score study, a commitment to keeping up with new works as they appear, and constant networking with Australian and overseas publishers and composers. Promotions managers need good communication skills and confidence, because they have to convince conductors, artistic directors and the CEOs of large presenter companies to program the works of contemporary composers and other works in the publisher’s catalogue — their own musical taste and discernment is an important factor in this. They also need to understand what kinds of works will fit the requirements of particular companies or festivals.

Training

A strong background in the technical aspects of music composition and performance is recommended. Tertiary training in classical music provides the necessary starting point for developing the extensive knowledge that is needed — this can only be gained by longterm systematic study of the recorded and published repertoire. Comment C H R I S L AT H A M ( B O O S E Y & H AW K E S P T Y LT D ) :

‘You probably want to be very interested in people who make stuff. I like composers — I find them interesting people — and I admire people who make things; to me making culture is a really valuable and important thing to do with your life. And if you’re interested in that idea of a living culture as opposed to a museum culture, then you’d be very interested in this kind of world. I know about what will become the classics of our time. I and a

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few other people who promote these things know this, but generally this information is probably ten years ahead of society; society won’t know who its great composers are until a bit of time’s gone by. So that’s interesting; that’s something that’s curious. The main thing you need to cope with is knowing an unbelievable amount of detail. I just remember seeing these geese being force-fed in France with all this corn.The goose livers get really fat. [With this job] it’s just like that; you open your mouth and someone has to forcefeed you with music for a number of years.’

COLLECTION SOCIETIES POSITIONS

ollection societies such as the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), the Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society Limited (AMCOS) and the Phonographic Performance Company of Australia Limited (PPCA) employ a considerable number of people in their operations.APRA, for example, employs about 180 staff in Australia and New Zealand, of whom about 150 are based in the head office in Sydney. Basically, collection societies issue licences for the use of music, collect licence fees and distribute them as royalties to music copyright holders. Again, it is not possible to document every position, or even all the key management positions, within these organisations here. A sample of two positions has been included: one at director level, the other at manager level.

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MUSIC BUSINESS

MEMBER SERVICES DIRECTOR, APRA

The member services director (APRA) is responsible for four areas of the operation of the organisation: writer services, general; writer services, film and TV; publisher services; and communications and public affairs. Each of these areas is administered by a manager who reports to the director of member services. The first three of these areas are principally concerned with collecting data relating to ownership of works and personal details of members, processing memberships (of writers or publishers) and maintaining details of changes in copyright ownership. The fourth is concerned with internal communication with staff, external communication with media (and public affairs in general), and the APRA website. Apart from information management, this area of APRA also has an educational role: to ensure that members fully understand the processes, services and facilities of APRA and the practical effects of copyright. Skills

The member services director needs highlevel skills in office administration, personnel management and public relations, including information technology skills — for data management, communication networking, website development and administration. As the organisation is principally concerned with licensing, a knowledge of copyright law is important. Because the job involves providing services to publishers and composers, understanding the music industry and an appreciation of the work of creative musicians is important. Most employees in these organisations have a practical background in some aspect of music.

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Prospects

This field is competitive. Jobs are advertised both internally and externally. The size of APRA (including AMCOS, which is administered by APRA) means that there are good opportunities for advancement. The licensing and copyright focus of the work means that career moves to music publishing are possible. Training

There is a range of training options that are useful for this level of management — degrees in business administration, accountancy and law, for example. Comment S A L LY H O W L A N D ( D I R E C T O R M E M B E R SERVICES, APRA):

‘I think I have the best job at APRA, so I’m very fulfilled and satisfied. Often the job can be overwhelming, and it’s always demanding. I think one of the great things about working at APRA is that we are a responsive organisation to our members’ needs.We’re progressive. We obviously have to be responsive to legislation, but it’s very dynamic, and the structure under our CEO’s leadership is great — he’s a very proactive and progressive boss, always looking at ways of improving business. The music industry has been generally criticised in the past about being a bit slow to embrace technology, but I would say we’re quite the opposite.’

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PRINT MUSIC MANAGER, AMCOS

The print music manager is responsible for administering copyright licences for material that is used for educational purposes in educational institutions. These include licences for photocopying music, and licences for making recordings (either live recordings or dubbing from commercial recordings). The job also involves giving advice to educational institutions — and to the whole musical community — on copyright issues that relate specifically to print music. The print music manager fields public inquiries about individual pieces of music and refers people to the relevant publisher when a licence is not available through AMCOS. Initiating investigations in reported cases of copyright infringement is also part of the job. Skills

The print music manager needs good written communication skills — a great deal of written advice on copyright matters is given. Oral communication skills are needed to deal with telephone inquiries. Interpersonal communication and training skills are needed for the educational aspects of the job. Office administration skills, including database management and budgeting, are also required. The job requires a very good understanding of music copyright and music licensing, and of the legal processes involved in copyright infringement investigations. Musical knowledge is useful when handling inquiries about specific pieces of music. Some inquiries, such as those about whether a piece of printed music is an original or an arrangement, may involve a more detailed theoretical understanding of music.

Prospects

This is a very specialised position, requiring fairly specific skills. Jobs in this field are advertised internally and externally. Advancement from this position (to director level) is very difficult because of the scarcity of jobs. Sideways career movements to other collection societies, publishing companies that deal with print music or into legal practice (if the manager has a law degree) are possible. The salary range for this position is $50,000 to $75,000 per year. Training

An ideal training background for this position is a degree in music education and a law degree. The law degree is probably not necessary if knowledge of music copyright is acquired by some other means. Comment FIONA LOADER (PRINT AMCOS):

MUSIC MANAGER,

‘It’s very rewarding. There’s lots of variety. It’s great, because you feel like you’re helping people, you’re helping composers and publishers, you’re helping the process of distributing royalties, you’re helping protect the rights of composers, so you feel like you’re doing good for the music community. One of the great things about the position is dealing with such a wide range of people: from a 5-year-old who’s looking for a piece of music to a 90-year-old who’s singing in an over-60s choir. We also deal with professional musicians and symphony orchestras. For this job I think you definitely need office skills — you need to be able to use computers, and have a knowledge of databases — but you also need some kind of background in music or at least a strong interest. I think some kind of music qualification is an advantage.’

MUSIC BUSINESS

OTHER

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TRADE UNION SECRETARY

In Australia, musicians are represented by two main trade union bodies: the Musicians Union of Australia (MUA), which represents musicians generally, and the Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA), which represents orchestral musicians and performers in theatre, television and film. For the purposes of this job category, the position of secretary of the MUA is discussed. The Musicians Union of Australia is a federation, with a branch in every state. Each of the branches has a secretary (effectively the executive officer), a committee and other office bearers.This structure is repeated at the federal level.The state branch secretaries form the federal executive. The federal secretary is the executive officer of the national body. Trade union secretaries are involved in the day-to-day running of the union, principally in the area of industrial relations.They maintain awards and pursue beaches of awards. They have an advocacy role in relation to all aspects of industry practices and government policies that affect musicians. They are also involved in providing advice to industry training bodies. Skills

A musicians’ union secretary has to have a thorough understanding of all aspects of the music industry. A good understanding of industrial relations law, contract law and intellectual property law is also required. Skills in oral and written communication, leadership, office administration, networking and advocacy are essential. Because membership is not compulsory, the secretary also needs to be good at promoting the relevance and value of unionism, so that the union can not only maintain its existing membership, but also attract new members.

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Prospects

Most music union officials were professional musicians before they became union officials. Besides a handful of office workers, the positions of state and federal secretaries are the only paid positions in the union. The positions are gained by election. People generally get involved in the union because of their commitment to the organisation and its principles rather than as a career move.To become a branch secretary, a person would usually have spent a significant period of time doing volunteer work for the union on one of the branch committees. Generally, the federal secretary would have had a background as a state branch secretary. Having spent time in this role, there may be opportunities for movement into other types of management or advocacy positions. The salary range for a union secretary is $50,000 to $60,000 per year. Training

The best preparation for this kind of work is extensive experience in the industry plus a good understanding of industrial relations. The Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) provides courses in industrial relations and advocacy for people involved in running unions. Comment T E R R Y N O O N E ( F E D E R A L S E C R E T A R Y, MUSICIANS UNION OF AUSTRALIA):

‘Musicians need a union, and musicians need to be in the union. Anyone that’s at all interested should get involved, because the experiences they will get at the branch committee level will be invaluable for them in their careers. You get an understanding of how things work and great networking opportunities. So go for it.’

Chapter 8

Music retailing and wholesaling here are two main areas of retail relating to the music industry. The first involves selling recordings through record shops and other outlets, and the second involves selling musical instruments, audio equipment and sheet music through music shops. Other related areas include selling products such as audio (hi-fi) equipment, televisions, video recorders and DVD players in home entertainment stores; and music magazines, sold through newsagents or by subscription.This chapter is limited to a discussion of occupations in the two main areas.

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RECORD R E TA I L

RECORD STORE SALES ASSISTANT

Record sales occur through four principal types of retail outlet: small independently owned record shops, specialist record chain stores such as Sanity and HMV, general retail chain stores such as K-Mart, and online retail stores such as Chaosmusic.

A sales assistant in a record store helps customers with their purchases of CDs and other products. This may involve consulting various catalogues (including online ones) to find out if a product is available, helping the customer find a particular item in the shop, discussing the product, finding the disc behind the counter (in most stores the actual CDs are not kept in the displayed CD cases), helping the customer listen to the recording before buying it, selling the product and taking orders for items not held in stock. Sales assistants also have other duties, such as cleaning and tidying the shop, arranging merchandising displays and advertising posters, checking and processing stock on receipt, and placing stock on the shelves. In some stores the sales assistant may also do the product ordering. Skills

Sales assistants need good interpersonal communication skills so that they can relate in a friendly and helpful way to customers. Patience is needed to deal with more difficult customers.They need good organisational and multitasking skills for busy periods. Personal qualities such as enthusiasm, dedication to work, punctuality and good grooming are also necessary. They may also have to dress to match the type of music being sold. Sales assistants need to know the product their store sells in order to be able to help customers. This applies whether they work in a store that sells all kinds of music or one that specialises in particular niche markets. Prospects

In privately owned record stores, people often get sales jobs if they visit the shop a lot and show that they have knowledge, enthusiasm

R E TA I L I N G A N D W H O L E S A L I N G

and commitment. They may also get paid work after a satisfactory period of volunteer work or work experience. In record chain stores the process is more formal. People who want sales assistant jobs have to fill out an application form and attach a résumé. These applications are kept until a position falls vacant; the store will then go through the shortlisting and interviewing process. It is common for a person to get a start in the industry as a casual employee during peak periods, such as preChristmas. Prospects for promotion to store manager and beyond in a chain store are good if the employee demonstrates the required skills and personal qualities. Training

No specific training is required for this entry-level job, but previous experience in some form of retail and a demonstrated knowledge of the genres of music covered by the store would be an advantage. Comment D A LY S H I L L ( PA R T- T I M E R , S A N I T Y [LISMORE]):

‘You have to be able to work with people, and have a natural flair for relating to customers. Some people find this difficult — they’re the people that find this job hard.We get very busy at times, so you have to be able to keep your head while doing several things at once, all the while keeping your customers happy. It can be a challenging and stressful job — but it’s also rewarding and lots of fun.’

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RECORD STORE OWNER/MANAGER

This position involves establishing premises in a suitable location (or taking over an existing business), assessing the competition and the market, and providing an appropriate service for that market. Different locations will provide different opportunities. In the inner city it may be possible to specialise in a narrow range of music genres, but in a suburban or regional area it may be necessary to both service the general market and specialise in musical genres that are not covered well by competitors. Record store owner/managers are responsible for the financial management of the business, the recruitment of employees, the ordering, control and pricing of stock, the development of marketing initiatives, the training, supervision and rostering of staff, and the staff payroll. Owner/managers are also usually involved in selling products in the shop. In specialist stores a large part of the manager’s time may be taken up answering customer queries and searching online for obscure records that customers have asked for. Skills

Interpersonal communication skills are essential for dealing with customers, suppliers and staff.The full range of small business management skills is also needed. Owner/managers need a high level of product knowledge, especially if the store specialises in particular genres — an excellent memory for information about individual products and recording artists is an asset. They also need to understand the national record market and the market for their own store; it is important to know what records to stock and what not to stock.

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The owner/manager of a record store needs to have a working knowledge of online databases (for product searches) and of retail computer systems. The ability to create an appropriate image and atmosphere for the store is also vital. Prospects

Small record stores are competing with large record chain stores and large general retailers that stock records. In order to be successful, they need to capture a segment of the market not held by these larger organisations. They cannot compete with discount outlets on prices, so they must rely on providing a range and level of services that counterbalance the price factor. The business is financially difficult because the margins are low. It is also necessary to keep a comprehensive range of stock covering many periods and genres of music. Around $70,000 to $100,000 needs to be invested in stock to make the business viable. Training

Training in small business management is essential. Experience in some form of retail or some relevant aspect of the music business (with a record company, for instance) would provide a useful grounding. Knowledge of music is important. Comment G R A N T H I LT O N ( O W N E R / M A N A G E R , S O U N D WAV E S [ B Y R O N B AY ] ) :

‘You need to be able to present yourself well, and to be able to communicate well with the public. It’s not easy dealing with the public. You certainly need to have a good sense of humour and you need to have some patience, because they try you, believe me. You need to have a good grasp of the English language — there’s a considerable amount of writing work to be done, so you need to be able to communicate on all levels through email and fax.You need to have a good grasp of maths, because you are

dealing with a lot of money. You need to know how the receipt format works, how the computers work, and then you really need to put some work into the genre side of it. The presentation of the shop is very important: make sure that the shop is displayed well and you have a good vibe happening. That’s something we are very strict about. It’s a matter of being proud about what you are doing.’ D AV I D L A C Y ( O W N E R / M A N A G E R , M U S I C BIZARRE [LISMORE]):

‘I think there’s a lot of misunderstandings about what retail, what selling to people, is all about. It’s a strange thing, because no one wants to be sold to, but they do want to be sold to as well. Customers are looking for sympathetic people who can figure out what they want for them, without actually seeming to. Customers are a strange breed. I’m the same myself. If the salesperson asks if I need any help, I say, “No, I’m fine.” Communication skills are really important for anyone doing a job like this. And there are different ways that people sell. Some people can sell to a customer once, and then the customer is resentful about what’s been done to them and never wants to go back. That’s happened to everyone at some time or another. You need to avoid applying any sort of pressure, and at the same time, if you don’t offer people help, they get disgruntled. There are retailing courses available, but I don’t know how you actually teach that stuff. Some people just seem to have that skill, or have developed it. Maybe training in communications would be useful, rather than directly teaching people to sell.’

R E TA I L I N G A N D W H O L E S A L I N G

MANAGER OF A CHAIN RECORD STORE A record store manager working for a record chain has responsibilities similar to those of the owner/manager, but also reports to more senior management personnel in the company. Day-to-day duties include training staff, managing staff, merchandising the products (using promotional displays, etc), ordering stock, controlling stock, banking, checking wage claim forms, maintaining the store, liaising with higher-level management and liaising with stock distributors and record companies. The manager is also involved in staff recruitment processes. Although this type of store tends to sell mainstream products, the store manager is also required to research the market for other types of recorded product within the geographical area of the store. The manager is expected to meet the company’s prescribed sales targets on a daily, weekly, monthly and yearly basis. Skills

The skills required for this position are similar to those for the Record store owner/manager (above). Strong interpersonal communication, personnel management, marketing and business systems skills are required, plus good product knowledge. Being able to work under pressure is essential for meeting sales targets and handling customers and administration in busy periods. Prospects

The prospects for this kind of work are good for people who are able to demonstrate the required skills, enthusiasm and dedication to hard work. Most managers in this industry started out as sales assistants. Career advancement from store manager to area manager,

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state manager and other higher administrative positions within a company is possible. See Record store sales assistant entry for recruitment — the same formal application procedures are used at this level. Training

Training in business management, retail, music industry studies or communications is useful for this industry. Experience in some form of retail area is an advantage. Knowledge of the recorded music repertoire, however it is acquired, is valuable. Comment L U K E E AT O N ( M A N A G E R , S A N I T Y [ L I S M O R E ] ) :

‘There’s quite a lot of pressure to sell, so if you are not comfortable with that, it’s probably not a position to go for.And there can be a lot of work pressure, especially pre-Christmas, so you have to be able to stay calm. Ask yourself why you want to do it. Some people have a misconception about the job.They think you just stand around listening to music all day, whereas in fact you’re working at a hundred miles an hour attending to customers and doing paperwork.’ NOTE

For information about the wholesale record industry see Sales director of a record company and Record company sales representative (Chapter 7: Music business).

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MUSIC R E TA I L AND WHOLESALE

MUSIC STORE SALES ASSISTANT

Retail music stores supply the needs of a wide variety of musicians, from beginners to professionals. They generally sell a large range of musical instruments and accessories (including electronic instruments), amplifiers, PA systems and processing equipment, music software and printed music. Large music stores in cities often have specialised departments to deal with classes of instruments (pianos, organs, orchestral and band instruments, guitars, synthesisers and sound modules, for example). Many music stores also run music tuition programs covering the main instruments involved in their business, and possibly other subjects, such as music theory and music technology. The teaching staff of these schools are usually selected from local professional musicians (see Chapter 9: Teaching).

Sales assistants in a music shop help customers with the purchase of musical instruments, instrument accessories (such as strings, straps, drum heads, metronomes, etc), audio equipment and sheet music. This involves demonstrating sound equipment or musical instruments, explaining their specifications and features (including the compatibility of items of equipment in equipment systems) and discussing different brand options. The job may involve unpacking and assembling items of equipment, learning how to operate them, and displaying the items in the shop. Sales assistants also need to set up instruments (stringing guitars, for instance), troubleshoot faults and do basic repairs to products. Liaison with product specialists and salespersons from wholesale suppliers is another aspect of the work — sales assistants need to understand the range of products and the operation of products. Skills

Sales assistants working in music stores are generally required to have musical performance skills in at least one of the products being sold (MIDI gear, guitars, organs, etc). Other useful skills include music literacy and familiarity with electronic equipment and music computer applications. Sales assistants need good interpersonal communication skills so that they can relate appropriately to all customers, from beginners (and the parents of beginners) to professional musicians. Personal qualities such as enthusiasm, dedication to work, punctuality and good grooming are also required.

R E TA I L I N G A N D W H O L E S A L I N G

Prospects

The prospects for finding work in this area are good for musicians, particularly those who can play a variety of instruments. Success in this area may lead to work as a department head of a large retail music store (specialising in sales of particular products, such as pianos or organs) or to work in the wholesale sector, in the fields of customer support, product specialisation or product management. Training

Training in music performance in one of the main areas of music retail — keyboard, guitar or music technology — is essential. Experience or training in marketing or retail would be an advantage.

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MUSIC STORE OWNER/ MANAGER

This job involves establishing premises in a suitable location (or taking over an existing business), assessing the competition and the market, and providing an appropriate service for that market. Music store owner/managers are responsible for the financial management of the business, the recruitment of employees, the ordering, control and pricing of stock, the development of marketing initiatives, the training, supervision and rostering of staff, and the staff payroll. Owner/managers are also usually involved in selling products in the shop. A major part of this job is keeping abreast of product lines (particularly new product lines) and assessing their viability for the store’s customers. There are limitations on what a retailer can sell — some wholesale suppliers have exclusive distribution contracts with particular retailers — so the owner/manager must be able to research products that are competitive alternatives to the ones that are unavailable. In the case of a music store that also involves a music tuition service, the owner/manager is also an owner/manager of a music teaching business (see Chapter 9: Teaching). Skills

Owner/managers need good interpersonal communication skills for dealing with customers, suppliers and staff, and the full range of small business management skills. A high level of product knowledge is required, ideally including the ability to play a selection of musical instruments, to repair instruments, to understand music technology and to read music. Owner/managers also need to be able to research and assess product lines for possible

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inclusion in the store’s stock. This involves reading trade magazines, interpreting supplier product information brochures and networking with product specialists, other retailers, professional musicians and music teachers.

MUSIC EQUIPMENT PRODUCT MANAGER (WHOLESALE)

Prospects

This type of business requires a large amount of capital to start — a typical shop display of keyboard instruments (pianos, organs, electric pianos, synthesisers), electric and acoustic guitars, bass guitars, drum sets, band instruments, stringed instruments, instrument accessories, sound amplification and sound processing equipment, sheet music and educational publications is very expensive. Training

A combination of training in small business management, experience in retail and experience in the music industry as a performer or music technician is the ideal background for this kind of business. Comment RON BRADY (OWNER/MANAGER, LISMORE MUSIC):

‘Really it’s a situation of the more you put into it, the more you’re going to get out of it. We try to work on an incentive basis. Staff might get over and above the award wage if they are doing the right thing. If you play an instrument you have a better chance of getting work.’

A product manager working for a music equipment wholesale company is responsible for maximising the sales of a group of related products (such as woodwind and brass instruments). This principally involves ordering, forecasting requirements to meet sales targets, measuring market size, marketing and promoting the products that have been ordered or brought in (preparing advertising materials and organising promotional activities), and ensuring that the sales representatives and the retail outlets have the necessary skills and resources to maximise the products’ potential in the marketplace. Skills

Advanced skills and experience in marketing and knowledge of and empathy for the product are essential. Good interpersonal communication skills are needed, as are project management skills, for organising promotional activities. Staff management skills are also required. Prospects

To reach this level in music wholesale, three to five years’ experience in the industry is usual, starting from sales, internal sales (see entry following) or customer service. Recruitment is by advertisement and interview. It is possible to gain advancement to a higher level position from this position. Alternatively, it may be possible to gain advancement by moving to a larger company within the same field. Salary packages for this job are usually around $75,000 to $80,000 per year. Training

A marketing qualification such as a business degree with a marketing major is required.

R E TA I L I N G A N D W H O L E S A L I N G

Some kind of experience in music is preferred. Comment IAN HARVEY (EXECUTIVE OFFICER, A U S T R A L I A N M U S I C A S S O C I AT I O N , A N D M E R LY P R O D U C T M A N A G E R , YA M A H A AUSTRALIA):

FOR-

‘You have to recognise that it’s not a 9 to 5 job. One year I was doing some major promotional events involving 26 weekends away in the year. You need to be out there and involved in these activities. The people are consuming the event after hours and you need to be there after hours too. So anyone thinking you can roll up at 9 o’clock and leave at 5 o’clock would be well advised to think again.You have to be able to put your feet in the shoes of the ultimate customer, buying the product, and look to see what they want and need from the product. That takes time to learn. You need time to research that, either through formal research or by getting on a shop floor and finding out what actually happens. Some formal research is also required.’

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INTERNAL SALES MANAGER (WHOLESALE)

An internal sales manager is based at the headquarters of the company, and is principally responsible for supporting retailers. The job involves taking orders for stock, providing promotional materials, and answering questions about products (relating to specifications, prices, availability, compatibility and the like). Inquiries that are highly technical will be referred to product specialists or technical staff. Internal sales personnel also help the travelling sales representatives of the company with orders and information. In addition, internal sales personnel take telephone inquiries from end users about products and retail locations. Skills

Good interpersonal communication (particularly telephone communication) skills are needed for this job. Internal sales managers also need good product knowledge, the ability to keep up to date with all new products, effective learning skills — so that they can take full advantage of demonstrations and hands-on practice with items of musical equipment — and office skills. Prospects

A person in this job would be expected to have some kind of background in sales and marketing and to have a thorough knowledge of the product range. A background in music retail would be appropriate. Recruitment is by advertisement and interview. There are good opportunities for advancement in the sales area or other areas of the industry, especially marketing and administration. Employees who demonstrate a flair for the technical aspects of a product may be able to become product specialists.

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A typical salary range is $30,000 to upwards of $40,000 per year, depending on experience. Training

Training in music, music technology and marketing are useful. On-the-job training is a feature of this occupation, as it is necessary to learn to use products as they appear on the market. Comment M AT T D AY ( I N T E R N A L S A L E S A N D M A R K E T I N G R O L A N D C O R P O R AT I O N ) :

MANAGER,

‘I’m one of the lucky few who gets to work in an industry where it’s one of your passions. People expect you to work hard and put a lot of effort in, but it’s also rewarding. Everyone here is into it, and there’s a general good vibe about the place. It’s a good industry to work in, and I’ve had an opportunity to get out there over the last couple of months and meet people in retail, and people in different sides of the industry. Everyone’s pretty cool. It’s a great industry and there’s lots of opportunity to move within it. And if you’ve got a bit of the gift of the gab and you can talk to people and keep things organised, then you should definitely go for it.’

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Chapter 9

Teaching his chapter begins with a description of music teaching jobs in the private sector and then covers employment categories in public institutions such as primary schools, high schools, universities,TAFE colleges and conservatorium centres.At the end of the chapter a number of representative teaching support positions in universities are described. Similar support positions exist in large post-secondary private and public training organisations. The precise job names and descriptions in public organisations such as schools and TAFEs vary from state to state. There is not enough space in this book to deal comprehensively with these variations. However, the information here gives a fair picture of the general job categories.

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STUDIO TEACHER

The most common form of music teaching is conducted by instrumental or vocal musicians in their own home, a rented studio, or in the homes of their students. Other forms include teaching individual students at private schools, where the arrangement is with the students rather than the school (even though the school provides the teaching space). An alternative to teaching privately is working in a studio business owned by someone else or for an organisation such as a school or conservatorium centre. Studio work involves teaching individual students, from young age to mature age, in lessons that are usually half an hour to one hour per week. Some teachers may work with small group classes for practical or theory tuition. There is a variety of approaches taken to teaching — the approach will depend on the needs of the students (or their parents’ wishes) and the teaching philosophy of the teacher. Teaching may include preparing students for formal examinations through the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB) and other examining bodies, or preparing senior high school students for the practical or theoretical exams of the Higher School Certificate (or equivalent Year 12 exams), or it may be less focused on formal achievements and more on an exploration of a variety of musical experiences, including creative work such as improvisation and composition. In the past, most private teachers focused on classical music, but in the last 20 years there has been a trend towards accommodating the musical tastes of clients through the introduction of popular music of various kinds. Some teachers still spe-

cialise in a particular genre, either because they are themselves stylistically restricted or because they are able to maintain an adequate number of students within that genre (jazz, classical, pop/rock, for example). Specialisation is often taken further by teachers using well-known teaching methods. In voice teaching, for example, there are a number of famous methods of training, developed by teachers such as Seth Riggs, Jo Estill, Richard Miller and others. Teachers who advertise themselves as using these methods have done specialised training and pay a franchising fee. Apart from the actual music lessons, studio music teachers also help their students select repertoire by researching appropriate material and its commercial availability. Some teachers organise recitals to give their students the chance to perform to a private audience of parents, friends and fellow students. Self-employed music teachers must acquire and maintain appropriate equipment, usually including a good in-tune piano (or keyboard), other instruments as appropriate, audio playback equipment (ideally with pitch-shift capabilities so they can play along in tune with tapes or CDs, and perhaps some kind of audio and/or video recording set-up to facilitate learning feedback. For popular music, having a drum machine is advisable. For teaching a popular style of singing, a karaoke system and/or general MIDI system which includes a microphone is useful. A library of relevant scores, recordings, backing tracks, videos and books is an advantage. For studio teachers working for teaching businesses or training organisations the duties and skills are similar. However, depending on the policies of the institution, the teachers may be required to use particular syllabuses, methods of teaching and assessment criteria. They may also be required to attend staff meetings and professional development sessions. There may also be personal behaviour and dress requirements.

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Skills

Prospects

Studio music teachers need a strong grounding in the technique of their instrument (or voice) and the ability to impart this to their students, through explanation and demonstration. Being able to understand the needs (in terms of teaching approach) of different age groups is essential — teachers need to be able to use a variety of ways of getting a technique or concept across. The ability to diagnose technical problems and deal with them successfully is also important. Teachers involved in preparing students for exams need to be able to teach specific skills at the required levels. They should have a thorough practical understanding of the performance practices of the different musical styles and periods being taught, including the skills involved in improvisation, ornamentation, chart reading, phrasing, articulation, and subtleties of rhythm, pitch and tone colour. Teachers of solo instruments and voice should be able to play keyboard accompaniment during lessons.A practical knowledge of music technology (being able to use equipment systems such as vocal PAs and MIDI sequencing) is also desirable, especially for teachers involved in popular music tuition. In order to keep students engaged and enthusiastic, music teachers must provide stimulating yet musically appropriate instruction. This involves being sympathetic to different types of personalities and understanding what is required to motivate or encourage them. A genuine love of teaching and working with young people (and mature people, as the case may be) is crucial. Patience, understanding and calmness are also required, as teachers must be able to deal with upset or fractious students, and irate, concerned or overly ambitious parents. Self-employed studio music teachers require skills in small business management. Employed studio teachers must to be able to work under supervision and to follow prescribed curriculum directives. This involves learning how the culture of the organisation works and being willing to fulfil the expectations of the employer.

This field of employment is easy to enter. Anyone can set up a practice — there is no regulation of the industry. As a result, it is sometimes difficult for students to know if they are receiving competent instruction. Ultimately, however, the success of a music teaching business will depend on the reputation of the teacher, which is based on client satisfaction and results in examinations and competitions. At the upper end of the spectrum it will depend on the ability of the student to find professional employment. Suitably qualified and/or highly rated performers are often sought after as part-time teachers by university music departments and private music schools. Some of the larger teaching organisations also employ them as full-time lecturers (see University music academic and TAFE teacher below). The rates of pay for studio teachers employed by businesses or training institutions vary from around $25 per hour to $70 per hour, depending on the type of organisation. The income for a private teaching studio business depends on the number of students taught (a large business might have 50 or more students, each taking weekly half-hour lessons) and on the fees charged. Fees are determined by the market and by the reputation of the teacher. In Australia, professional fees range from as little as $30 per hour up to $100 per hour. Some self-employed studio teachers also wish to be examiners in organisations such as AMEB and ANZCA. This can bring extra income, but the work may interfere with the running of their own teaching businesses. Training

Ideally, a studio teacher should have received professional training — a performance degree or other recognised qualification. As good performers are not necessarily also good teachers, though, some kind of teacher training is also needed. When employing studio teachers, most music training institutions insist on appropriate qualifications, particularly if they are

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required to do so for the accreditation system under which they work. However, significant industry experience (rather than official qualifications) also gets some teachers work in accredited teaching institutions. Some organisations may insist on training for specific methods of music teaching (Suzuki or Yamaha, for instance). Comment J U D E M A G E E ( P R I VAT E

PIANO TEACHER):

‘Some private teachers demand hours of practice and sitting for exams (high pressure), while others see it as giving children and adults the opportunity to explore music and their own creativity, to be entertaining, and to obtain maximum enjoyment from minimum effort.’ R O B Y N E G A N ( P R I VAT E

PIANO AND ORGAN

TEACHER):

‘Unfortunately, most of your income is only generated outside school hours. The work is very time consuming if it is to be done properly. However, it is also extremely rewarding and most enjoyable.’ N I N A H A R R I S ( P R I VAT E

SINGING TEACHER):

‘It can be a most rewarding career if you love music, like helping people, enjoy communicating and sharing knowledge and have patience.’

OWNER/MANAGER OF A MUSIC TEACHING BUSINESS (EMPLOYING TEACHERS) There are quite a few privately owned music schools in most large cities in Australia. The most common kind of business is the music school that operates as an additional service of a retail music store that specialises in the sale of instruments, audio technology and sheet music. There is an obvious symbiosis between these two kinds of operation. The store acts as a kind of recruitment centre and shopfront for the school, and the students of the school invariably become ongoing customers of the store for whatever equipment, sheet music and consumables they need. Another format is the music school attached to a recording studio complex. Here the students are likely to be studying audio engineering, songwriting and music production. Some private music schools have been set up as a collaborative business enterprise among a number of music teachers. This arrangement allows for the sharing of premises and facilities. These kinds of businesses may or may not employ additional teachers. Most music teaching businesses offer instruction in the full range of instruments used in popular music (guitar, bass, drums, keyboards and sax) and/or the instruments commonly used in classical music (violin, cello, flute, clarinet, trumpet, trombone). Voice training in a variety of styles is usually also available. The range of instruments covered reflects a combination of market demand and the availability of teachers. Music schools often run group classes in instrumental instruction and music theory, and ensembles such as choirs. Some of the larger schools also offer award courses, either as part of their efforts at gaining accreditation, or on licence from other institutions that have accredited awards.

TEACHING

Managing a private music school involves acquiring suitable premises, recruiting suitable teachers, timetabling individual lessons and group classes, supervising the teaching program, recruiting students through advertising and other promotional activities, organising the collection of fees, maintaining the financial accounts, complying with health and safety legislation and with various taxation and insurance obligations, maintaining good relations with clients and workers, and forward planning. Skills

Managers of private music teaching businesses need highly developed interpersonal communication skills — they need to get on well with the clients, and get the best out of their employed teachers.They need effective recruitment techniques so that they find good staff, and they need to provide appropriate professional development and other kinds of motivation such as incentive schemes for their staff. It is essential that music school managers fully understand the core of their business — professional musicianship, music pedagogy and curriculum development. They need to research the interests and needs of their client base and act on what that research tells them, create a good learning environment (and facilitate student networking and collaboration), and always provide well-maintained equipment. They also need small business management skills, particularly for the planning and day-to-day financial aspects of the business. It is important to understand the market and the competition and develop strategies for staying competitive. Training

Small business management, practical music performance and teaching are all relevant training areas. Experience working in a range of business situations is advisable.

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Comment M A R K G O R D O N ( PA R T N E R , E A S T C O A S T ACADEMY OF MUSIC):

‘You need to work very hard — it won’t just happen by itself. It is important to create an open-minded creative environment and to have fun doing what you are doing. Otherwise it will be too stressful.’

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DIRECTOR OF A C O N S E R VAT O R I U M CENTRE

In New South Wales there are 14 regional conservatoriums. They are partly funded by the NSW Department of Education and Training, but rely principally on fees from students. Other states have similar organisations. These institutions are similar to private music school businesses, but they are non-profit operations. Some of them offer a broader range of courses in the arts, and some offer vocational award courses as well as non-award group and individual classes. Most of them also run performing groups. The major music schools (large tertiary music schools such as the Queensland Conservatorium of Music, the Newcastle Conservatorium of Music, the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, the Canberra School of Music, etc) also have continuing education annexes that offer similar services — they teach anyone from the community who wishes to study practical music; often their lecturing staff ’s duties include teaching university students and community students. Many of these organisation have a parttime director. The director is the artistic and business head of the conservatorium centre, and reports directly to a board of directors.The director’s role is usually similar to that of the head of a university music school — it covers strategic management, financial management, organisation of programs of study and public concerts, curriculum design, fundraising, recruitment, supervision and professional development of staff, market research and marketing, client relations, community relations, compliance with legislative requirements and general administrative duties. If the organisation is offering award courses, the director would be responsible for managing the accreditation process and liaising with VET (Vocational Education and Training) officials about assessment and other monitoring

provisions. In larger institutions there is a chance that routine duties can be delegated. In smaller institutions the director may also teach, and direct ensembles. Skills

The director must demonstrate academic and artistic leadership as well as advanced skills in business administration. In particular, the director needs marketing and fundraising skills, and to be able to design and implement appropriate musical training programs and community services (running choirs, putting on concerts, etc). Prospects

Opportunities as a director of a regional conservatorium music centre appear fairly regularly. There seems to be a high turnover — the position is very demanding and the remuneration on offer in most centres is low.An obvious career path exists from community musician to director of a regional conservatorium centre, although sometimes people with more mainstream professional profiles have been recruited. The salary ranges from part-time ($10,000 per year) to full-time (up to $80,000 per year), depending on the size of the organisation and its success in attracting grants and sponsorships. Training

Ideally, a conservatorium centre director will have a tertiary music qualification or equivalent experience and well as a tertiary business administration qualification or equivalent experience. Comment C L A U D I O P O M P I L I ( F O R M A L LY D I R E C T O R W O L L O N G O N G C O N S E R VAT O R I U M O F MUSIC):

OF

THE

‘A high-level professional musician may have difficulties with the organisation’s communitybased Board of Governance, comprising wellmeaning music-loving citizens. You need broad musical sympathies that encompass vigorous championing of vocational and community music education.’

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PRIMARY SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHER

Full-time specialists in music in the state primary school sector are employed in Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia and the ACT. In other states, though the classroom teacher is responsible for teaching the music curriculum and providing practical musical experiences for the students, there may be part-time music specialists employed as well. Throughout Australia, some private primary schools also employ music specialists. It is not possible to provide a comprehensive survey of the different approaches of the various state systems and in private schools here; the information provided relates to the Queensland state system. A full-time primary school music teacher is usually attached to one or more schools, depending on the size of the schools (larger schools may have one fulltime teacher). Each class receives a half-hour of instruction per week. A typical workload is 36 lessons per week.The curriculum is based around singing, but also includes basic music theory, listening skills, and practical experiences in movement and tuned percussion (such as glockenspiels and xylophones). The syllabus is loosely based on the Kodaly Method. Primary school specialist music teachers are expected to direct a number of ensembles in the school, typically choirs. Membership of ensembles is in some cases restricted to academically able students, as they need to be released from class for instrumental lessons; in others, whoever wishes to play in the band will have an opportunity to do so. There is a broad range of timetable arrangements made to allow for music lessons and band practice — including the whole school doing music at the one time, or children being taken out of class individually or in small groups for instrument lessons, and band practice being outside

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class times (at lunchtime, for instance). Some schools put on a musical each year.The practice for this may be incorporated into the weekly classes or may involve taking students out of class or using lunchtimes. The specialist music teacher is also responsible for coordinating the visiting instrumental teachers, helping them recruit students and communicating with parents on matters relating to this (permissions, choice of instrument, etc). Skills

This work is challenging, because so little time is spent with each group that it is difficult even to learn individual students’ names. Classroom management is the essential skill, including the ability to get the students to settle down quickly. The better this is handled the more time is available for the actual lesson. Getting the students to participate involves motivating them, while taking care not to get them over-excited. The music teacher needs to be able to sing well and confidently in order to lead the classroom groups and to ‘sell’ a song to the class. Knowledge about how to care for the voice is important, because teachers are constantly alternating between talking and singing, often for several hours at a stretch. Being able to play the piano or guitar well to accompany songs is an important — if not essential — skill. There is a large recorded repertoire available on CDs, both with the melody part and without, which allows teachers to demonstrate the song and to play back the accompaniment alone, but it is preferable for teachers to supply the accompaniment themselves — this is a better motivator for students, and allows the teacher to choose material that will appeal to the students. In this regard, knowing the current pop hits is an advantage. The teaching of theory and aural skills — and these are required — is perhaps the most challenging aspect of the job. In the brief time available it is difficult to make significant progress with these difficult (and largely unappealing) aspects of the curriculum.

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Prospects

This specialisation is often a sideways career move in primary school teaching (see Training section below). People who are good at this job may also have the skills to move into children’s entertainment on television. The salary is the same as that of a primary school teacher ($35,000 to $45,000 per year). Training

A 12-week course is available for qualified primary school teachers who wish to convert to special music teachers. To qualify for the training there is a theory/aural test and a practical audition. Besides primary teacher training, the ideal training or professional experience for this kind of teaching is any vocal music entertainment field. Some kind of vocal projection training is also advisable. Comment V I C K I T R E VA N I O N ( S P E C I A L I S T T E A C H E R , Q U E E N S L A N D S TAT E SYSTEM):

MUSIC E D U C AT I O N

‘Teachers [should] learn to play a harmony instrument well, to the point that they don’t have to look at what they are doing with their hands. Being able to play a number of instruments and being able to sing convincingly makes a teacher a good role model for developing the students’ interest in music.’

INSTRUMENTAL TEACHER ( P E R I PAT E T I C [ T R AV E L L I N G ] )

In Queensland all state primary (grades 5–7) and secondary school students have the opportunity to receive instrumental tuition in group classes. In other state systems there are various arrangements for this kind of activity. It is also a common practice in private schools. This type of tuition is provided by specialist performance teachers who visit a selection of schools on a weekly basis. In a large school, a particular instrumental teacher may do as much as two full days of classes per week. At the other extreme, some percussion specialist teachers visit ten different schools in a week. Instrumental teachers either specialise in one of the main orchestral groupings (woodwind, brass, percussion and strings) or teach all the instruments of a concert band (multi-instrument teachers). In collaboration with the specialist music teacher, the instrumental teacher is responsible for recruiting students for these (noncompulsory) classes. The selection usually involves the classroom teacher (and/or the instrument teacher) testing for musical aptitude using a range of criteria, including pitch discrimination and timbre preference (by playing various instruments, or recordings of various instruments, and asking students what sounds appeal to them). The instrumental teacher then arranges for the students to try various instruments, to determine what may be the most physically suitable and comfortable instrument for each individual. Letters are then sent to parents with a report of what instruments the teachers believe the student should learn to play. There is then a meeting with parents to finalise the matter. Although the perceived aptitudes and preferences of the students are the main consideration, another factor in the allocation of instruments is the balance of instruments needed to form

TEACHING

concert bands. In primary schools in other states there are likely to be less formal processes — students decide what they’d like to play and try out for that with the instrument teacher.The teacher then picks who will play what according to a number of criteria: physical size (this determines the ability to manage some instruments), ability to make a sound on a chosen instrument, what instruments the band or ensemble is short of, what instruments the school has on hand, and so on.The following week the students start lessons. Instrumental teachers teach in group classes of up to four or five students. In small schools the teacher will need to teach all the instruments of a concert band — flute, clarinet, saxophones, trumpet, trombone, tuba and percussion. Larger schools may be able to engage teachers who specialise in brass, woodwind or percussion. Some schools run string ensembles and employ a string specialist. The focus is on instrumental technique (such as tone production), scales and arpeggios, reading skills and group playing. Students taking these classes are expected to participate in the ensembles run by the school (such as concert bands) — sometimes as soon as they start learning the instrument.The teaching in the group classes is oriented to this goal. Instrumental method teaching books are often used, and repertoire is introduced in a carefully graded way. The instrumental teacher may also take the concert band (or in some cases string ensembles) in a 45–60 minute rehearsal — these sometimes take place before or after school hours. State high school instrumental classes operate more or less in the same way, except that the day is divided formally into class periods of (usually) 40–45 minutes. Most private high schools run similar programs to state high schools. However, in private schools the students usually pay the instrumental teachers directly for individual lessons, and the school funds the ensemble groups. Public school students also pay for their lessons, but they pay the school, not the teacher, and the Department then pays the teacher award rates.

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Skills

Instrumental teachers must be able to provide instruction in all or at least most of the usual instruments in the chosen orchestral instrument category. A brass specialist, for example, should be able to teach trumpet, trombone and tuba. Multi-instrument teachers need to extend this skill to cover all the instruments in a concert band. Instrumental teachers need to be able to impart practical knowledge by explanation and demonstration. Some classes often involve more than one instrument (the flute and clarinet players may learn together, for example). Practical teaching skills are stretched in these kinds of situations, particularly when differently transposing instruments are taught together (such as flutes and clarinets, for example, where the note names that the two instruments play are different: when the flutes are playing a C the clarinets will be playing a D to hear the same note). An understanding of how to communicate with and motivate young children and teenagers is essential. Good communication with teachers in the different schools is also important — it often involves negotiating a rotating timetable to minimise disruption to students’ general academic program. Instrumental teachers need to be flexible so that they can maintain harmonious relationships with the classroom teachers. Being able to deal with the demands and expectations of parents is also a factor. In Queensland, the instrument teacher can report directly to parents on the progress of a student (via a written report); it may also be necessary for the teacher to contact parents if a student is not practising or is exhibiting bad behaviour in class. In other states, these matters — progress reports and disciplinary or practice issues — are raised with the student’s class teacher or the teacher in charge of the school’s music program, and passed on to parents that way. Prospects

This kind of teaching may be chosen by musicians who would rather specialise in performance training than teach classroom music.

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Other options for musicians trained for this kind of work include working for private music schools, in community music, or in their own teaching practice. The starting salary for a full-time instrumental teacher is around $35,000 per year. Working in private schools means payment on a per lesson basis.Teachers who work parttime are paid at a casual teacher’s rate for the hours worked. Training

For full-time (or fractional) permanent employment in the state system, a Bachelor of Music degree in music performance and a Bachelor of Education are required. If a person has music performance qualifications but has not acquired an education qualification, it is still possible to get work as a casual teacher. Comment S E A N R A N K I N ( I N S T R U M E N TA L T E A C H E R , Q U E E N S L A N D S TAT E E D U C AT I O N S Y S T E M ) :

‘You have to enjoy working with young people and their crazy parents. Because parents have to pay extra for these classes it’s a money issue — you have to be able to perform, and the students have to be able to perform, so there’s pressure there. So you have to be able manage people, you have to be able to communicate well with both students and parents. Learn to be flexible and patient. Don’t expect geniuses to come out of the program.’

HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHER

High school music teachers teach non-elective (compulsory) and elective students. Non-elective programs are for all high school students, usually in the first year (and sometimes second year) of high school.They cover a range of musical practices and knowledge at low skill level. Elective programs are for students wishing to concentrate on music as a school subject. These programs usually cover a broad range of styles of music (and related topics) as well as integrating theory, performance, composition and music technology. If a school has a small student population, it may have only one music teacher. In these circumstances it is common for the music teacher to be required to teach more than one course in a single classroom at one time (in senior high school music in New South Wales there are different courses available: Music 1 (doesn’t involve much theory) and Music 2 (has a strong classical music theory and history component). Music teachers may also be required to teach another subject, although it is more typical for them to teach only music. All high school teachers are required to participate in organising or coaching a school sport. Playground duty is another compulsory activity. Apart from teaching, high school music teachers are expected to provide music performance items for school functions such as ceremonies (Anzac Day, for instance), assemblies, concerts and fundraising events.Teachers are also expected to run a variety of noncompulsory groups, such as choirs, concert bands, show bands, rock bands, folk groups and the like.They may also be involved, either singly or in a team, in producing larger-scale events such as musicals, and are expected to organise school excursions to concerts, shows

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or exhibitions. In collaboration with music teacher colleagues in other schools in the area, they may also organise inter-school music events and study groups. It is common for music teachers to contribute to community events (particularly in regional areas) either by performing music, conducting student groups, or judging talent competitions. Generally, high school music teachers would be allocated around 20 hours per week of face-to-face teaching. In addition to this they may spend ten hours rehearsing and organising musical groups. Also, preparing classes, and devising and duplicating printed resources for the students takes considerable time. Teachers have to follow their state’s music syllabus, which means they have to write a program of what they plan to teach and keep a register of what they actually have taught. Skills

Ideally, high school music teachers have a broad range of musical skills that cover a number of different musical styles and instruments. In practice, most graduates of music degrees have focused on a particular style (classical, contemporary classical, jazz, or popular, usually) and one or two instruments. In order to be more useful to their students, it is important for music teachers to expand their skills in terms of instruments and styles. Many schools do not have a program of one-on-one or group instrumental instruction. Thus, in order to get any kind of ensemble performance going, class music teachers sometimes have to be able to get their students started on band instruments that they don’t know how to play themselves, so a basic knowledge of how to get a reasonable sound and specific pitches on different band instruments is invaluable. There is general agreement that good piano or keyboard skills are necessary, although being able to play another harmonic instrument, such as guitar, is a viable alternative.

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Skills in setting up and operating music equipment such as synthesisers, PA systems and music computer applications (such as sequencing/recording, notation, aural training, and synthesis programs), are essential.This is particularly important in schools that specialise in popular music genres. General office computer skills such as word processing, email and using the web are also essential. Because there are so many choirs in high schools, teachers should be able to sing well and confidently, and conduct a choir. Conducting and/or directing skills (as well as the ability to sing lines to the instrumental players to indicate phrasing, articulation, etc) are also needed for concert bands and other instrumental ensembles. Apart from practical music skills, teachers should have a strong command of the theory of music, including historical principles, harmony, arranging, composing and analysis. Ideally, theory and theory applications should be understood from a variety of stylistic perspectives (classical, jazz, popular, world).They also need a good grounding in educational theory to make sure that the teaching methods they use are effective. High school music teachers need highly developed interpersonal skills. It is essential that they relate well to teenagers and their culture and interests. Being able to understand and respond to the group dynamics of a classroom or playground situation in an assertive way is essential. Classroom discipline is one of the biggest challenges of being a teacher, probably never more so than when teaching compulsory music classes. Interpersonal skills also come into play in dealing with colleagues and parents. Gaining the support of parents is critical for the success of the music group performance program, because students may have to devote extra time outside school hours to rehearsal, travel and performance. Music teachers have a number of management roles, including managing the music budget, fundraising (to buy and maintain equipment and library resources), coordinating instrumental teachers (particularly

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in private schools), writing reports and participating on management committees. Because of the many hours music teachers spend running music ensembles, their involvement in other administrative roles (as year advisers, for instance) is usually limited. As mentioned, coordinating/coaching a sport is a duty of all teachers, so being skilled in one or more sports is an advantage. Prospects

Opportunities for work as a high school music teacher are good. Not many music teachers are promoted to higher levels, however; this may be because they spend so much of their non-teaching time running music ensembles that they do not have the opportunity to gain the necessary experience in administrative roles within a high school. The promotion steps are to head teacher, then to deputy principal and then to principal. To become a principal requires getting another qualification, such as a Masters in Educational Administration. Taking on a head teacher role means providing leadership and supervision across all the art forms taught in the school. In New South Wales the salary of a high school teacher is in the range of $31,885 to $58,692 per year. Training

Some institutions offer a four-year Bachelor of Music Education as a teaching qualification. Until recently, aspiring high school teachers usually did a specialist degree in music (approved by the relevant state authorities) followed by a one-year Diploma of Education (with a curriculum specialisation in music). More recently this package has evolved in some institutions into a four or five-year double or combined degree in music and education. All teacher training courses have a strong practice teaching component. In addition to this qualification, experience directing group musical activities such as choirs and concert bands is recommended. Working with young people in youth groups of any kind is also recommended.

Comment MARION WEBB (HIGH SCHOOL T E A C H E R , N S W D E PA R T M E N T AND TRAINING):

MUSIC OF

E D U C AT I O N

‘No one goes into it with all the skills — it becomes a lifelong education path.You need to become as much of a general practitioner as you can, continually working on broadening your experience.’

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HEAD OF MUSIC — P R I VAT E HIGH SCHOOL Many private high schools have highly developed programs of music instruction and maintain diverse student music ensembles. The job of the head of music is complex: it usually involves managing large numbers of part-time as well as full-time staff, organising one-on-one music tuition for large numbers of students, supervising non-elective and elective music programs, teaching classes, rehearsing ensembles, organising student music performances for many different events and ceremonies, fundraising, student recruitment activities, organising and conducting excursions, being on various committees and other administrative duties. Some schools also offer vocational awards (usually TAFE-style certificates). In addition to running and teaching the vocational program, the head teacher’s duties in this area include getting and maintaining the school’s accreditation, recruiting and interviewing teaching position applicants, organising external assessment and negotiating work experience opportunities for students. Skills

In addition to all the skills required for the job category of High school music teacher (see above), heads of music require high levels of managerial and administrative skills. They must act as an advocate for the music program when resources within the school are being allocated, and they must have fundraising skills — expensive music equipment (sometimes even building infrastructure) may be impossible for the school to fund without additional support. Prospects

High school music teachers with experience working in the private school sector would

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qualify for appointment to a head of department position. Heads of department may aspire to executive roles within the system (such as deputy principal), particularly if they are highly qualified and have had appropriate management experience. The salary range is $60,000 to $70,000 per year. Comment FRANCIS DOUGLAS (FORMER I N A P R I VAT E S C H O O L ) :

HEAD OF MUSIC

‘Extreme patience and diplomacy are required. We’re expected to be magicians rather than musicians.’

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TEACHER (TAFE INSTITUTE)

Administrative and leadership skills may be required if there is no Head Teacher for music at a particular TAFE college. Prospects

The music training offerings of the TAFE sector in Australia have, with a few exceptions, concentrated on contemporary popular music (see Appendix 2). TAFE teachers deliver courses that are part of accredited TAFE programs. The programs are competency based, and class teaching and assessment are focused on these competencies. Full-time teachers deal with a broad range of modules — they can be related to performance, composition, musicianship, music business, music technology, communication theory and technologies, and a range of other professional skills. Teachers may also be required to coordinate work experience, field trips, and special projects such as recordings and performances. Most TAFE teachers also have some administrative responsibilities; more if there is no Head Teacher (see Head Teacher [TAFE] below). Skills

Most full-time TAFE teachers will need a broad range of practical musical skills in a number of different musical styles, as well as skills in music technology, music theory, and music business. Industry experience is expected for the vocational programs — if you teach the contemporary music courses, for example, you would be expected to have worked in the industry as a performer, audio engineer or songwriter or in several of these areas, depending on the focus of the course. Skills in teaching, such as lesson planning and assessment, are crucial. Teachers also need excellent interpersonal communication skills so that they can motivate their students and work well with their colleagues.

Musicians with tertiary qualifications and industry experience are eligible to be appointed as TAFE teachers. Progression in the system is to Head Teacher then to Institute Manager (a non-teaching position). In Queensland the progression is to Principal Teacher 2, Principal Teacher 1, Program Manager and Head of Faculty. NSW TAFE salaries for the position of teacher range from $49,237 to $56,516 per year. The part-time rate is $48.65 per hour. Training

Relevant tertiary qualifications or equivalent industry experience and a teaching qualification (Diploma of Education or equivalent) are required. Part-time teachers working for TAFE have to do a short teacher training course. Comment M A T T R O B I S O N ( P A R T - T I M E TA F E

TEACHER):

‘Teaching is what you make of it, and it’s all in the preparation. You have to look at it as your career path, and realise you owe it to your students to do the best possible job you can.And that means a lot more hours preparing a lesson than actually delivering it. Sometimes I do more than four times the hours preparing the lesson than the hours of the class.You can get an incredible buzz out of giving a good lesson where the students have not only learnt, they’ve also enjoyed themselves and come out of it with a positive experience. I don’t think we are there to teach pure information — we have to teach enthusiasm as well. If you can’t teach enthusiastically, I think you’ve lost you battle before you’ve even started.’

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HEAD TEACHER (TAFE INSTITUTE)

The step above teacher is called Head Teacher in New South Wales and Principal Teacher in Queensland. Head Teachers lead a team of professional teaching and support staff. Their duties consist of teaching, management of financial, human and physical resources, liaison with the community and relevant industry bodies in the planning and implementation of courses and services, compliance with legislative requirements and policy directives, and general administration. Skills

Head Teachers must demonstrate a high level of teaching competence, a thorough knowledge of (and technical expertise relevant to) current syllabuses, educational leadership, the capacity to lead a team of professional staff, and sound administrative, interpersonal communication, negotiation and teamwork skills. Prospects

Head Teachers are usually recruited as fulltime teachers, then promoted after experience (often 5 years), providing a position is available. Promotion to Head Teacher and the higher position of Institute Manager is competitive, because there are very few positions at those levels. The salary range for Head Teachers in New South Wales is $60,520 to $65,757 per year. Training

The qualifications required for Head Teachers are the same as for TAFE teachers: a degree in the discipline and a teaching qualification. However, many TAFE Head Teachers also hold higher degrees (a PhD in musicology, a PhD in ethnomusicology or a Masters in composition, for instance). While

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TAFE colleges are looking for industry experience first, they do expect a higher degree for Head Teacher positions. Comment MICHAEL BARKL (HEAD TEACHER, I L L A W A R R A I N S T I T U T E O F TA F E , GOULBURN):

‘Compared with being a full-time teacher, a Head Teacher does less teaching and much more management. One has to be prepared to be fully engaged in the process of implementing TAFE policies (such as discipline), processes (such as particular delegations), to manage recruitment and all financial resources for a teaching section, to achieve set performance and productivity targets, and to provide educational leadership. Usually, the freelance nature of the performance sector of the music industry does not attract people with the temperament that suits large and heavily regulated organisations, so individuals wishing to move from that part of the industry to a Head Teacher’s position should be mindful that management skills will need to be developed and applied in the job constantly.’

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UNIVERSITY MUSIC ACADEMIC

University music faculties (including conservatoriums), schools and departments employ academic staff in a wide variety of musical disciplines. These include musicology (and other forms of music research), performance, composition, music theory, music technology, music education, music therapy and music business. All academic staff in music institutions are required to contribute to the institution in the areas of teaching, research, service to the community, and service to the university (including administration). Teaching duties involve preparing lectures, tutorials, seminars or workshops, faceto-face (and sometimes external and/or online) teaching, setting and marking assessment tasks and examinations, general consulting with students, and formally evaluating teaching and learning effectiveness. Full-time music lecturers are usually required to do between ten and twenty hours of face-to-face teaching per week, depending on the perceived amounts of preparation and assessment required for the types of teaching they are doing and on their level of administrative responsibility. There are around 26 undergraduate teaching weeks per year in most institutions. Teaching duties also cover the supervision of postgraduate research students throughout the year (this is done individually). Unit coordination is another typical responsibility of academic staff.This involves liaising with all the staff involved in teaching a specific unit of study, writing and distributing the unit statement, collecting and pro cessing the marks of all the assessment components, and advising and counselling students enrolled in the unit. Most full-time academic staff are required, from time to time, to develop curricula. This a big job: it

involves research into the relevant competencies, market analysis, industry liaison, academic and technical staff liaison, surveys of comparable courses, resource analysis, policy compliance, and preparing, defending and rewriting submissions. Tertiary music academics are also expected to develop their own personal portfolio of research or research-equivalent activities (such as professional performance and composition). What they do in their research work, unlike what they do in their teaching, is generally not determined by the institution (see Music researcher [academic], in Chapter 10: Writing and Research). Service to the community is usually measured by the academic’s involvement in organisations related to the discipline they work in. In music this typically includes voluntary membership of the boards of performing arts organisations, or performing without fee in fundraising events. Most music academics are also involved in organising and performing in institutional concerts and other events which are open to the public. Service to the university usually involves being a member of various committees and performing administrative roles. Within schools and departments themselves there are usually quite a few advisory committees — for general administration, academic matters, concert activity, research, infrastructure and marketing, for example. Within the wider university community there are committees concerned with academic governance, policy development and resource allocation. Working on university committees often involves hundreds of hours per year: there are agenda papers to be read, meetings to be attended (monthly, usually) and submissions to be prepared. There has been a trend in recent years for academics to be expected to do increasing amounts of administration. Generally, senior academics (professors, associate professors and senior lecturers) are expected to have higher administration loads than junior academics, but in many departments all academics are

TEACHING

involved in administration to some extent. In some instances, administrative roles are rotated, so that high-performing academics have a chance to concentrate on their research and/or creative work. Administrative roles include head of school/faculty, chair of school/faculty board, course coordinator, director of research, director of teaching and learning, department head (strings, brass, composition, etc), student recruitment coordinator, international student recruitment coordinator, facilities coordinator, visiting artists coordinator, and library acquisitions coordinator. Skills

Tertiary music academics need a wide range of skills in research, teaching and administration. Academic research skills in the field of music are dealt with in Chapter 10: Writing and Research. In a university music context, composition and performance are regarded as the equivalent of research.These skills are dealt with in Chapter 2: Composition and Chapter 3: Performance. Teaching skills in a university context are expected to be informed by the latest research and technologies. They involve critical and contextual discourse relating to particular fields of study. The study of performance is traditionally informed by research in historical performance practices, musical analysis and pedagogy. The study of composition is treated both experimentally and in relation to the analysis of relevant contemporary and historical repertoire. It is also tied into the creation and exploration of new technologies for generating and organising sound. The study of music theory involves applying various recognised analytical models to the repertoire being studied, and also forming understandings based on more individualistic approaches. The study of musicology involves skills in interpreting historical documents, both musical and non-musical. The study of ethnomusicology involves understanding the complex issues relating to engaging with musical cultures outside one’s own, and the

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techniques and technologies for studying them. Teaching skills are made up of several strands: a broad understanding of the subject being taught, the ability to write lectures which combine factual, critical and contextual content, the ability to demonstrate and explain advanced practical skills in areas such as performance, improvisation, composition, musicianship, music technology and music pedagogy (theories and methods of music teaching), the ability to inspire students to appreciate new ways of looking at music and to motivate them to try to make their own discoveries. Excellent interpersonal communication skills are needed, as academic staff must interact with students and understand their individual needs, collaborate with colleagues in creating a suitable learning environment for the students, and participate in various levels of institutional governance. Full-time music academics also need administrative and organisational skills relating to strategic management, budget management and project management, backed up by office administration skills and competence in office computer applications such as word processing, spreadsheets, databases, website design and networked applications specific to the running of the university (databases of student records and financial functions such as payroll and purchasing, for example). Prospects

A typical career path for a university music academic often begins with part-time work as a tutor or lecturer (while enrolled in postgraduate study). Another possible starting point is spending a year or more as a postdoctoral researcher. As a rule, academics do not qualify for full-time employment until they are awarded a Masters degree. Some of the larger (more prestigious) universities only rarely appoint academics who do not have a doctoral degree (usually a PhD — officially a Doctor of Philosophy, but the work can be done in almost any field).There are exceptions to this trend when the

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academic has substantial industry-based experience in a vocational training area (such as playing in an orchestra or professional composing), which is often the case in music: some artists with a high professional profile and exceptional practical expertise do not hold postgraduate qualifications. Exceptions will probably made to the higher degree rule for performers or composers with high industry profiles. Apart from qualifications, full-time appointments are usually based on research or research-equivalent publications, plus experience and demonstrated excellence in teaching. For higher-level appointments a track record as an administrator is also a factor. Promotion within the system is on the basis of job performance in teaching, research, service to the community and service to the university. In most universities, research output is the main criterion for promotion. There are five levels of employment: A (Lecturer A), B (Lecturer B), C (Senior Lecturer), D (Associate Professor) and E (Professor). Senior administrative positions such as Dean, Pro ViceChancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor are accompanied by the title of professor but involve salary-package contracts at a higher level than E (Professor). Salary ranges for the five levels vary slightly between institutions because they are subject to productivity negotiations. However, as a general rule they are approximately as follows: A ($35,000 to $50,000) B ($50,000 to $65,000), C ($65,000 to $75,000), D ($75,000 to $90,000), and E ($100,000 to $105,000) per year. Part-time teaching rates vary from around $50 per hour to $110 per hour, depending on the type of teaching. Training

As mentioned above, a doctoral degree, usually a PhD, is the benchmark qualification for academics. In the music area, other doctoral qualifications, such as Doctor of Musical Arts, Doctor of Creative Arts and

Doctor of Music, may be considered more appropriate to practical areas of tertiary music training. All universities offer the PhD degree. Although the main work of an academic position is teaching, universities have never insisted on academics having any teacher training qualifications. It is clear, however, that training in teaching skills is desirable. Comment M E R LY N Q U A I F E ( S E N I O R L E C T U R E R I N VOICE, UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE):

‘I enjoy my role as an educator, always have. I have always taught voice alongside my performing career and enjoy imparting my knowledge and experience. I get frustrated by uncommitted, unfit students, but when you see students blossom it is wonderful.’

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SUPPORT POSITIONS IN A MUSIC SCHOOL

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ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

An administrative assistant in a university music school may have a range of duties, such as managing staff recruitment, preparing staff contracts and making variations to contracts, monitoring wage claims, managing staff induction, advising academic staff and students on university policy and procedures, assisting in budget management by providing reports and checking the accuracy of financial data, monitoring areas of expenditure such as printing, telecommunications and consumables, getting quotes and writing requisitions, helping staff with travel arrangements, preparing internal financial transfer documentation, invoicing, approving suppliers’ invoices for payment on receipt of goods, coordinating the updating of entries in publications, compiling reports, representing the music school on administration committees, organising music school meetings and conferences, preparing agendas and taking minutes at official meetings, maintaining files, implementing the school’s administrative systems, and responding to telephone and written enquiries. In some music schools, administrative staff may also be involved in course coordination (a process involving giving advice to students on their course of study) and student enrolments. Skills

Administrative assistants need highly developed office management, interpersonal communication, financial management and office computer skills. A knowledge of music culture and empathy with creative and performing artists is desirable.

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Prospects

To work as an administrative assistant in a music school you need to be qualified in office administration. Payment would normally be in the Higher Education Worker (HEW) 5 range, around $40,000 per year. Progression to higher salary levels would probably mean moving out of the music school and into a more central administration role. Training

A TAFE certificate in office or business administration is the minimum training requirement for this kind of position.

TECHNICAL OFFICER (AUDIO)

A technical officer working in a music school, particularly one with a music technology focus, is responsible for routine maintenance of all the equipment systems, devising operational protocols and safety guides, conducting demonstrations of the safe use of the equipment, providing general technical support and advice to staff and students about the operation of and application of music studio and computer laboratory technologies, providing advice for the development of facilities, researching new technologies and getting quotes for new equipment. The technical officer will normally work closely with the school’s director and other key academics. The job description and skills listed for Maintenance engineer (in Chapter 4: Production) are also relevant to this job. Skills

The essential skills for this job are maintaining and repairing items of electronic and computer equipment, designing and installing complex studio systems, writing safety and operational guides and troubleshooting breakdowns of electronic equipment and music software. Technical officers must have good organisational skills and be able to work unsupervised. They need good communication skills, because they deal with academic and other technical staff (and students), and have to negotiate the priority of repair work. They also need thorough knowledge of the latest developments in the music technology field, and the ability to maintain a network of contacts for major repairs and parts supplies of electronic, computer and acoustic musical instruments.

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Prospects

There are not many technical officer positions available, but the skills are transferable to other maintenance and related jobs in the music and audio electronics industries. Setting up an audio repair business or becoming a systems engineer in an audio production company are possible career moves. Payment for a technical officer position would normally be in the Higher Education Worker (HEW) 5 range, around $40,000 per year. Training

As this position essentially involves repairing electronic and computer equipment, a trade certificate in electronics is essential. Further training in computer hardware and software is desirable.

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TECHNICAL ASSISTANT

A technical assistant provides support for the day-to-day operation of the music school. This involves setting up rooms according to specific staff and student requests, checking the working order of technology and music equipment systems in each room, setting up furniture and equipment for performances and other special events, liaising with the technical officer(s) regarding equipment repairs that need to be done, liaising with the building staff about any maintenance problems relating to lights, doors, air conditioning, and any damage to the building, and advising academic and technical staff on ways to make the operation of the facilities more efficient. The technical assistant may also be required to help the technical officer(s) or other staff members with clerical and organisational tasks. Skills

This job requires a good understanding of the operation of all the different equipment and equipment systems in a music school, because a major part of the job is helping academic staff and students with that equipment. Being able to make basic repairs to equipment is an advantage. Strong organisational and interpersonal skills are needed to coordinate the complex operation of a music building. Technical assistants need to be able to work efficiently and effectively under stress, because the technical assistant is the person who gets the first call if something has gone wrong with the equipment. Prospects

Depending on qualifications and experience, progression to technical officer may be an option. The knowledge of electronic and computer equipment required for the

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job may mean that a move into the live production area of the music industry or the audio/electronics retail industry is also feasible. Payment for this kind of position would normally be in the Higher Education Worker (HEW) 3 range, around $30,000 per year.

BOOKINGS OFFICER

Training

A bookings officer is a technical support position involving the management of room bookings, key issue and equipment loans. In many music schools there is a complex of specialist studios, laboratories, practice rooms and other facilities that are available to students for practice and for set assignment work. Not all students are always eligible to use every room, though, so a computer-based or manual booking system that contains all student names, their room eligibility and the number of hours they have been allotted for each studio is needed. There also needs to be a protocol for gaining access — by keys or swipe cards — that meshes with after-hours security and associated safety requirements. The booking officer also lends equipment and other items to students. In the case of equipment, it must be checked before pick-up and after return to monitor its condition and to make any repairs that are required, especially those that involve safety (particularly with electrical equipment). The bookings officer also organises the necessary safety training for after-hours access and dispenses a number of standard forms relating to borrowing, fault notification and other requests. The way the official school timetable interfaces with the bookings for nonscheduled activities by students, staff and visitors is also managed by the bookings officer.

Ideally, a technical assistant should have some training relating to the operation and maintenance of electronic equipment. A trade certificate in electronics or a related area would be an advantage.

Skills

Highly developed interpersonal skills (including diplomacy) are required in this job, as it often involves competing demands of students, academic staff and technical staff, and insistence on sticking to institutional policies and procedures.

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The job requires the ability to write instruction manuals and standard forms in an unambiguous way and competence in office management. Bookings officers also need to be able to lift equipment safely and check the safety of equipment. Being able to devise improvements to the booking process, particularly as demands and technologies change, is also essential. Prospects

There are not many booking officer positions available, but the skills required are transferable to other administrative and/or technical jobs within the music school environment. Payment for this kind of position would normally be in the Higher Education Worker (HEW) 3 range, around $30,000 per year. Training

Office management essential.

qualifications

are

Comment T E S S A L I E PA R K E R ( T E R T I A R Y BOOKING OFFICER):

MUSIC SCHOOL

‘It requires someone who has good multiskilling abilities and good human interaction and organisational skills.’

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CONCERT ORGANISER

The duties and skills for this kind of position are similar to those of venue manager (see Chapter 11: Arts administration).

Chapter 10

Writing and research his chapter covers professional occupations in music writing and research, including freelance music journalist, classical music critic, music biographer, music researcher (academic), arts industry research consultant and music textbook writer. It also includes entries for editor of a music magazine and general editor of a music reference book.

>T

WRITING AND RESEARCH

FREELANCE MUSIC JOURNALIST

Freelance music journalism is widely practised in Australia. Although some specialist music magazines have staff writers, the range of music and musical practices covered by newspapers, general magazines and music magazines is so diverse that most of the writing is done by freelancers who have specialised knowledge of particular musical genres or other aspects of music (such as music technology).The main forms of writing are record reviews and interview-based stories about particular artists. Other types of articles written are concert reviews, book reviews, and stories about music industry events, trends and issues. Some magazines aimed at musicians also feature reviews of musical equipment and articles about performance, composition and technology. Freelance music journalists who make all their income from writing invariably work for more than one magazine. Successful freelance journalists usually have a number of regular columns in different magazines or newspapers. An exception to this is the classical music critic (see below). Another avenue of work for freelance journalists in the classical music field is writing program notes and performance season brochure copy for organisations such as Symphony Australia. Freelance music journalists liaise with their newspaper or magazine editor to get a clear idea of the article or review to be written.They will be given a topic, a certain word length and a particular style of writing, the latter determined by the editorial policies of the magazine. In the case of issue-based stories, the editor may stipulate a particular angle or set of ideas to be dealt with.

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Skills

Freelance music journalists must have good knowledge of the repertoires and creative and performance practices of the musical genres they specialise in. In order to be able to assess whether a recorded track or performance is groundbreaking or interesting (or not), the music journalist needs to be able to place it into some kind of historical context and understand how it has been constructed.This involves an ongoing and extensive program of critical listening. Relevant practical skills in music performance, composition and production are also an advantage. Although specialised knowledge is not as crucial when doing interview-based stories, informed interviewing will usually produce more interesting information, and a better response from the interviewee. In order to extend their knowledge base, music journalists need to maintain a network of contacts whose knowledge about particular areas of music is extensive and reliable. Freelance music journalists must be able to write in particular styles for particular magazines or newspapers. This involves studying the types of musical terminology that readers of a particular publication expect, and also understanding what level of technical or critical language the readers will be able to understand, and how much explanation will be needed to describe the sound world of a specific artist or genre. Music journalists must be able to meet the deadlines set by their editors and to present their text with accurate facts and spellings and the agreed word length. They need to eliminate, as much as they can, any need for rewriting or reorganisation by the editor. Demonstrating reliability in these matters will win the trust of editors and help develop productive working relationships. Skills in office computer and communication technologies such as word processing, data management, emailing, financial management and online information retrieval are essential. Being able to touch type is also necessary. Freelance music journalists must be able

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to cost a job accurately.This involves understanding how much time will be required to do the necessary research, conduct and transcribe the interview(s) and write the article to the agreed word length.They may have to negotiate a special rate if a job involves extra time. As with all freelance work, small business management and self-promotion skills are essential, including the ability to plan for lean periods (such as January). Prospects

Journalism training and work experience are not essential for freelance music writers, but the experience of writing for a newspaper should provide an excellent grounding in how to write tightly, accurately and quickly on a regular basis. Alternatively, people interested in becoming music journalists might start out by writing concert and record reviews for the street press for no fee. Having well-written reviews and articles published will eventually create a profile, and this may lead to paid work with established music magazines or newspapers. Progress usually depends on the quality and character of the writing, not on qualifications. In order to earn an income, freelance journalists need to get regular work from a number of newspapers and magazines. One way to increase the income from an article is to syndicate it. However, it is difficult to sell the same article to competing magazines, particularly in a small marketplace like Australia. When interviewing an artist for a particular assignment, it may be possible to ask extra questions to cover a number of other possible articles: the one interview could generate material suitable for a newspaper story, a general music magazine, a specialist magazine for performers, and a magazine focused on music technology, for example.With issues-based articles it may be possible from time to time to recycle a lot of the ideas in an updated form. Depending on the amount of freelance

work available, freelance music journalists may need to supplement their income by doing related work such as subediting for a newspaper. This kind of work also hones their techniques of economy, speed and style. Compared with a salaried position, a career as a freelance music journalist offers more options for pursuing other professional interests. It also offers more lifestyle choices — freelancers don’t have prescribed work schedules, and because they work from home, they can work anywhere. The award rate for freelance music journalism is 68 cents per word (negotiable). Some newspapers and magazines pay less. Training

It is not necessary to have trained as a journalist to get work as a freelance journalist. Anyone with the specialised knowledge and appropriate writing skills may be contracted to write music articles and reviews. There are many journalism courses available in Australian universities.These provide a very broad grounding in writing techniques and technologies, media analysis, critical thinking, cultural literacy, project management, and ethical and legal issues related to writing. The path to professional journalism is usually through a cadetship with a newspaper. Although it is possible to get a cadetship without already having a degree, the trend is for newspapers to take on graduates, though not necessarily journalism graduates. Cadets are usually recruited through a written exam and a series of interviews. According to Lesley Sly (freelance music journalist), ‘You learn better on newspapers — you really learn quickly. It’s a bit like the difference between rehearsing and performing. You can rehearse forever but it doesn’t have that same edge as when it’s public.When you’re working for a newspaper and you have your work published every day, your standards have to go up quickly.You really learn much faster. But it depends on what you want to do. Even if you want to be a freelance music

WRITING AND RESEARCH

writer, to be a cadet on a local paper for a year would give you a good background.’ Some of the large city newspapers (the Sydney Morning Herald, for example) also offer subeditor training programs to applicants who can demonstrate advanced writing skills and other relevant aptitudes. For people who want to write about classical music, the National Music Camp (run by the Australian Youth Orchestra) runs a short course called Words About Music. Comment L E S L E Y S LY ( F R E E L A N C E JOURNALIST):

MUSIC

‘Know your stuff, be accurate, and be fast. If you have all that you’ll probably succeed as a freelance music journalist. You have to do quite a lot of planning: it’s really like running any small business. And like any other trade, you have to have knowledge of your craft; and depending on how much natural talent you have, it will take you less time to acquire that craft. Most people become good writers by doing a lot of writing.’

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MUSIC CRITIC (CLASSICAL MUSIC)

A classical music critic attends concerts and music theatre productions and writes critical opinion reviews (often called crits or notices), usually for publication in a daily newspaper. This is a specialised area of the category Freelance music journalist described above. Usually a music critic only writes for one particular newspaper, and that newspaper expects to have an exclusive professional relationship with the critic.The regularity of reviews by a particular reviewer promotes the idea of the music critic as a print media personality. Readers are drawn to the writing style and critical preferences of particular critics. According to Peter McCallum (music critic, Sydney Morning Herald), ‘Critical comments — at least in newspapers — don’t tend to carry much weight if done on a one-off basis. Readers prefer a writer they know, and against whom they can measure their own response (which may range from always taking a certain writer as a guide, to being careful to avoid anything a certain critic praises).’ Some large newspapers have a number of music critics, headed by a chief music critic, who is usually responsible for the allocation of the concerts and other events to be covered. Music critics usually cover most of the events staged by major performing arts organisations such as opera companies, symphony orchestras, chamber music promoters, established ensembles and festivals. It is assumed that these events are of most interest to the readership. Critical coverage may also be given to smaller, more specialised ensembles and soloists. Most newspaper critics have an interest in reviewing new works by established and up-and-coming composers, especially if they are commissioned or publicly funded. A music critic liaises with the arts editor or chief music critic about the schedule of

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events to be reviewed, and with the subeditors about the final length of the review. Reviewers are expected to comply with the general style guide of the newspaper they write for, but they are also encouraged to develop a distinctive personal approach to their craft. For classical music concerts, the focus of a review is usually on the artistic worth of the performance, though reviewers may also choose to discuss the historical background and/or critical significance of the works being played. For music theatre reviews, the narrative structure is generally outlined, and aspects of staging, such as acting, movement, set design, costumes, lighting and special effects are also considered. For reviews of new works, the emphasis is on contextualising and critiquing the composition itself, as well as assessing the performance. Newspaper and magazine reviews of concerts and other music events are typically 250–600 words in length; feature reviews may be slightly longer. Where there is a season of performances of the same concert or music theatre program, the critic may be expected to write the review immediately after the first performance, for publication in the next morning’s newspaper. In these circumstances, there is usually an hour or less to write the review in order to meet the copy deadline. Skills

A classical music critic needs a thorough knowledge of the standard repertoire of European classical music and of the different performance traditions of this repertoire, as well as an understanding of the repertoire and techniques of contemporary classical music (particularly that of Australian composers), and the performance practices of different eras of Western European music (such as Baroque and Renaissance music). As with all forms of journalism, a music critic must be able to write well in an idiom and tone suited to the tradition of newspaper music criticism, and be able to explain specialist music concepts to a non-specialist readership.

It is also essential to be able to work to an exact word limit and to write to a very tight deadline. Prospects

With few exceptions, music critics are freelance journalists working for the award rate (68 cents per word); high-profile critics may be able to negotiate higher rates. Although this is a difficult area to break into, there is a shortage of appropriately skilled music writers who are willing to take it on as a career. To acquire the necessary skills, aspiring music critics should consider writing concert, record and music book reviews for free for magazines and student newspapers. Many of these publications have a high standard of journalism and production, despite their amateur or semi-professional status, and are thus able to offer an appropriate level of editorial guidance. Once a music critic has been given some work by a professional newspaper or magazine, it is possible, if the quality and character of the writing are maintained, that the work may continue on a regular basis for many years. Even so, the amount of casual work available is rarely enough to sustain a career, so most music critics do other (often unrelated) kinds of journalism to supplement their music review work, or work in related areas, such as music broadcasting or academia. There are a few chief critic jobs, but they are only available in some of the major broadsheets. This person is responsible for coordinating the other writers and deciding what is to be reviewed. Training

There are no formal prerequisites for this kind of work. Most newspaper editors hire on the basis of experience and evidence of writing style. A deep knowledge of music, repertoire, performance and composition is important — few music graduates have this after a single degree, though some talented writers may be hired at this level if they display promise. An

WRITING AND RESEARCH

honours or higher degree in musicology is recommended, to cover the required historical, analytical and critical skills and the knowledge of repertoire, but it is possible for a musician to learn what is needed through private study or as an adjunct to the tertiary study of performance and composition. Classical music reviewers must learn to write well in an appropriate style.This can be done through practical experience, including journalism or writing about music for a nonspecialist readership. Comment PETER MCCALLUM (MUSIC MORNING HERALD):

CRITIC,

SYDNEY

‘Australian music always needs good writers, to encourage discussion and debate. I would encourage all interested musicians and writers to pursue that interest. Use your contacts to find out how to get published. Gain wide listening experience and musical knowledge so that you can provide something useful and interesting to readers who may not have the time to study music as much as they might like to.’

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EDITOR OF A MUSIC MAGAZINE

It is the editor’s job to produce the best possible magazine within the available budget and to ensure that all production deadlines are met. At the forefront of editorial consideration is the target audience for subscriptions and other sales. The editor manages staff, commissions articles from freelancers and selects already written articles from a range of sources, and writes articles. This is done according to an editorial policy developed in collaboration with the publishing company. Some magazines may also have an editorial committee that is managed by the editor. Dealing with stakeholders is another aspect of the job. These include record companies, artist managers, publicists and promoters who are attempting to get media coverage of their artists and/or events. The editor has the ultimate responsibility for everything that goes into the magazine — text, artwork and layout. Organising each issue involves keeping track of what material has been received, what material needs to be subedited, and what pages have been sent to the printer. An editor liaises with the journalists about the focus and length of each article and may suggest or make changes to what is submitted. The editor also coordinates the planning of future issues of the magazine. The editor typically writes an editorial piece at the beginning of the magazine that describes and comments on some of the main features of the issue, and usually also writes some articles and/or reviews. In some small-circulation magazines, the editor may also take on other roles, such as designer and manager of distribution and sales.

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Skills

Editors must have a comprehensive know ledge of the subject area(s) covered by the magazine and the market for the magazine. They also need to keep up to date with global trends in the musical field. Editors need to be highly organised, able to work with a team of people and able to delegate, so they need excellent interpersonal communication skills; they also need advanced writing and editing skills. Editors must develop a large network of freelance journalists who can work to a brief and to a deadline. It is also essential that they make sure that reviews of products and services are fair and accurate — the magazine must maintain a good business relationship with advertisers. Editors need to be able to work to a tight budget without compromising the quality of the magazine. In order to effectively manage the various specialist staff involved in a magazine publishing operation, editors must understand the whole publishing process.

focused. This is usually gained from many years of professional involvement with the relevant industry sectors either as a journalist, a business operative or a performer. Ideally, editors should have training and experience in both journalism and business administration. Comment SAMANTHA CLODE (EDITOR, JUICE):

‘The first thing I’d say was to make sure you know music — just listening to what’s on the mainstream radio isn’t enough.You really need to be obsessed with music and to be going out and seeing live bands. Know what’s happening overseas. You definitely need to read music press from all around the world and keep track of that; you also need to practise writing, maybe be willing to go in there and work for free and throw as much writing to people as possible in the hope that some of it sticks. A lot of determination and willingness to do pretty much anything in order to start out can go a very long way.’

Prospects

M AT T H E W C O N N O R S ( E D I T O R , T I M E O F F ) :

There are few full-time jobs available in large-circulation music magazines and street music press in Australia. Editors of music magazines have usually had a long and successful record in music journalism or on the business side of publishing music magazines. However, they may also be recruited because of their background in other areas of the music industry — they may have specialised knowledge relevant to the focus of the magazine. Experience as a subeditor may also lead to appointment as an editor. The salary for an editor of a music magazine ranges from $40,000 to $70,000 per year, depending largely on the circulation of the magazine.

‘Apart from knowing music inside out, be determined, and don’t get disheartened if it takes a while — and think outside the box. When I left university, the Daily Sun paper closed the same week in Brisbane, so as well as there being a bunch of new journalism graduates on the street, there were something like a hundred unemployed journalists kicking around Brisbane, and no job opportunities, so I just packed my bag and went overseas and found work over there. And that’s a good way of doing it. I went to the UK and they seemed to like Australians as workers over there. It’s easy to find work. There are a lot more job opportunities. And when you do come back you’ve got this experience from the other side of the world that looks impressive. Don’t limit yourself to what’s in your own backyard. Be prepared to do things like go overseas or go and work out on a regional newspaper for a while.’

Training

An editor of a music magazine needs to have a vast knowledge and understanding of the subject areas upon which the magazine is

WRITING AND RESEARCH

MUSIC BIOGRAPHER

Musical biographies are usually about performers or composers. In the case of popular music they are sometimes about bands. The aim of a biography is to present a description and critique of a person’s (or a band’s) life and work against the social, cultural and historical background of the time and place they lived in. Good biography focuses on the subject’s motivation and develops a specific angle on what the life of the musician or band was about.This is particularly important if there are already many books and articles written on the subject (such as there are on Beethoven or the Beatles). A biographer goes through a number of stages in researching a book. These include a literature search to find any existing writings either directly or tangentially about the subject of the book; a search of official records of births, marriages and deaths relating to the subject and relevant family members; a search for privately or publicly held documents such as letters, press clippings, manuscripts, notebooks, photographs and diaries; interviews with the subject (if still alive); interviews with the family, friends and professional associates of the subject (if still alive), or with his or her descendants; visits to the places where the subject lived and worked; searches of newspapers for reviews of the subject’s work; and critical analyses of the works and/or recordings (particularly if this is one of the features of the study). Creating a timeline of the subject’s life is the next stage. This involves assembling all the collected documentation about the individual’s life, including when important people enter and exit, and incorporating the influential cultural and historical events of

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the various periods of the subject’s life.This process may reveal gaps, especially if the subject’s life is not already well documented. Further research or explanation of these gaps may be needed. The next stage is creating a structural plan for the book, then writing it — this means turning the collected documents and notes into chapters, according to the structure that was chosen. The writing may require a number of drafts, each refining the style and tone more. And, of course, the structure may be revised as well. Skills

To write an engaging biography one has to have a strong interest in the subject and a deep curiosity about human nature and human motivation. Biography writers also need to understand the structural and stylistic nature of biography — they need to have read and analysed many biographies. The field is opening up considerably in terms of both style and purpose, and there is room for innovative approaches.They also need good writing skills; this takes study and practice. As biography is a branch of history, knowing about history and about historical methods (tracking down, then analysing and questioning the evidence) is invaluable. The field of music biography also assumes a knowledge of musical history and historical methods, as well as techniques of musical analysis and/or criticism relevant to the musical genre of the subject. Authors need research skills, particularly skills in accessing and analysing existing publications and documents. If all or part of the available sources for a particular biography are in a foreign language, it may be necessary to learn that language. Photographic skills are an advantage. Because getting a licence to publish photographs from public and private archives can be expensive, it is useful to be able to take photographs of photographs in private collections such as those of the subject (if still alive) or the descendants of the subject.

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A biographer must understand the business aspects of this kind of writing — getting contracts, commissions or grants to do the work, and knowing enough about copyright law to make sure that the necessary permissions for using other people’s material are sought and given. Prospects

There are a number of ways to fund the writing of a biography. Experienced researchers or writers can sometimes get grants or fellowships, through academic or cultural sources. Such grants may even allow the biographer to employ a research assistant to handle a lot of the routine investigative work. Some cultural organisations or publishers commission biographies from recognised and suitably qualified writers. In the case of publishers, the writer is then usually paid an advance against royalties and a brief, including the word length and the focus of the book, will be negotiated. Writing a biography on spec is risky, because the author may not be able to get a publishing contract even when the work has been written.Writers who intend to do this should at least get some idea of what approach to the proposed subject of the book various publishers may be interested in before they start. Training

Most biographers of classical musicians have an academic background in musicology, perhaps with some experience in classical music journalism. For popular music biography the usual background is popular music journalism. Experience with the writing techniques needed for full-length biography may be gained by writing entries for biographical dictionaries of music or music encyclopedias, or feature articles for magazines. For writers of classical music biographies, a degree in music history or historical musicology is advisable. Degrees in music theory, composition (or even

performance) may also be appropriate, especially if the biography has a critical or analytical focus. The formal study of history and historical research methods is also strongly advised. Many music departments offer musicology courses which are an appropriate starting point for a career in music biography. However, when it comes to writing style, music journalism training and experience might help more than academic research writing. Comment THERESE RADIC (BIOGRAPHER HEINZE):

OF

BERNARD

‘You have to be interested in psychology, interested in why they did whatever they did. If you don’t have the natural curiosity — it’s really a taste for gossip — you’re not going to get very far with it. First thing you have to do is say, “What’s behind whatever this person is doing?”, not just see what it is that they’ve done.’

WRITING AND RESEARCH

MUSIC RESEARCHER (ACADEMIC)

Music research in academia falls into a number of different categories, but since the career structures and funding mechanisms are essentially the same for each category, they will be dealt with here under a single heading. The academic study of music in universities dates back to medieval times, when music was considered one of the four sciences, along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. In modern times, the study of music as a liberal arts discipline did not gain much ground until the 20th century. The field of musicology, based on the reverential study of the work of the ‘great’ Western European composers, was the first approach to emerge. This spawned the idea of comparative musicology, where scholars studied ‘primitive’ genres of music, with a view to developing an evolutionary theory of Western music. The work done in this area eventually led to the development of ethnomusicology, which is based on anthropological fieldwork and the practical study of non-Western forms of music. Musicology itself also split into two basic areas: historical musicology, concentrating on historical documentation of musical practices and the creation of editions of music, and systematic musicology (or music theory), specialising in the development of analytical approaches to study of the Western music repertoire. The field of music education research grew out of psychological theories of learning as applied to music, and from it has come the field of music cognition, which is concerned with the human perception of sound and music. Composition, although essentially a creative practice, gained academic research status with the development

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of computer music hardware and software and mathematical approaches to the generation and analysis of music. Music performance also sometimes has a strong research basis.The study of performance practice is a kind of applied musicology — it involves studying treatises and other historical documents, with the aim of performing music in the way it was performed when and where it was composed. The academic study of popular music developed in the 1970s, as a cross-disciplinary combination of sociology, media studies, ethnography, cultural studies and, to some extent, musicology. In recent times, cultural approaches have also been applied to Western classical music (rather than analysing the music scores, researchers now also investigate its meaning to its ‘consumers’). Other areas of music research include music medicine, music therapy and the physics of music. Skills

The skills of academic research are gained by progressing through undergraduate, honours and higher degrees for particular disciplines. All academic researchers should understand the ethical standards required for research. In the case of research involving human subjects, researchers must respect their participants’ rights of confidentiality and privacy, ensure that their consent to participate is informed, and be sensitive to cultural issues, such as issues about ownership of the data being collected. Generic research skills — particularly the ability to think critically, logically and creatively — are also necessary. Researchers also need to network with other researchers in the field and across disciplines in order to establish research collaborations, find publishing opportunities and generally expand their knowledge and skills. Researchers, particularly those involved in collaborative research or employing research assistants, need project management and personnel supervision skills. They also need expertise in relevant technologies, including accessing online databases and

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using office, data management and data processing software. A high degree of self-motivation and determination is also crucial. The teaching and administrative duties of an academic take a lot of time and energy, so it is often difficult to find the motivation to do selfinitiated work as well. Ethnomusicologists must have the skills to negotiate their entry to, and continued presence in, the musical culture they are studying. After doing their fieldwork, they need to be able to transcribe and analyse their field recordings, and to build theories about what the music means to the people who make and participate in it, and how the musical culture studied compares with other musical cultures. The skills involved in music education research are principally those associated with the social science disciplines, particularly psychology. Music education researchers need a thorough understanding of the theories of learning and development, a practical grasp of the main techniques of social science research — experimental design, survey techniques, and the statistical methods associated with these, and qualitative methods of case study, ethnography, critical action research and reflective journalling. Within the university context, composition is widely accepted as research-equivalent. Some university composition practices, however, involve research in the traditional sense.These practices are particularly associated with electronic and computer-based processes of generating sounds and sound constructions. In addition to traditional techniques, composers working these areas must have a strong background in the physics of sound, methods of electronic sound synthesis (including learning programming languages for sound synthesis), and algorithmic methods of processing and organising sounds.They also need a range of practical skills, such as audio engineering and audio electronics. In addition to recordings of compositions, the publication outputs of this kind of music researcher may be

journal articles and hardware or software patents. Performers who are involved in the ‘authentic’ presentation of earlier forms of music must study original manuscripts and the relevant literature of performance practice (both historical treatises and contemporary scholarly works) and apply the concepts that they learn to their repertoire. Music academics working in this field may write articles about this process, or they may present their research findings in the form of performances and/or recordings. Research in popular music involves not just musical texts but also the analysis of institutions, business practices, audiences, and discourses about popular music and culture. These are studied from a variety of academic perspectives, including cultural, social, economic and political. Apart from the skills of doing research, all researchers need to be able to apply successfully for grants — they need to be able to make a good case for the uniqueness of the project, present the project aims, background, description and methods in a way which will be understood by non-specialist as well as specialist members of grants panels, and present an accurate and reasonable budget and budget justification. Grant applicants should show their applications to a number of peers before they submit them, get feedback on them, and revise them where appropriate. Some academics take on the editorship of a refereed journal (usually an unpaid position). This requires professional editing and desktop publishing skills, a broad knowledge of the field covered by the journal, and the development of a large network of contributors and peer reviewers. Prospects

Academic research is usually done as an essential part of a university academic appointment. Theoretically, lecturers and professors are expected to spend 30 percent of their official working time on research; and their promotion in the university

WRITING AND RESEARCH

system is dependent to a large extent on their output of research, their ability to obtain external research grants, and the number of postgraduate research degrees they supervise to completion. Research publication outputs are traditionally books, book chapters, articles published in peerreviewed journals and some other kinds of academic writing. However, in the field of music there has been a gradual acceptance of artistic forms of publication, such as scores issued by music publishers and recordings issued by commercial record companies. Although most university professors are expected to teach undergraduate courses, there are some whose exclusive brief is to conduct research and supervise postgraduate research students. These researchers are given the opportunity to concentrate on research because of their high profile as researchers and their ability to obtain substantial research grants. There are a number of research fellowships available. These jobs are usually for a limited period (3–5 years) and have salaries in the level A to level E range, which allows these people to devote themselves full-time to research. For information about academic salary levels, see University music academic above. (The Australian Research Council now has research positions to professorial level.) Academics in universities are generally allowed to engage in research consultancy for the equivalent of one day per week. These contracts are usually with industries relevant to the discipline. They are mostly organised through the university’s commercial research company, which typically takes a percentage of around 10% of the contract fees (although there is quite a range of policies across the sector). The academics doing the research can have the remainder of the contract fee paid to them as a kind of additional salary, but many use the money for travel to conferences or other research expenses (field trips, equipment, etc), because then it is not subject to income tax.

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Training

Becoming an academic researcher in music requires university study in a music discipline at undergraduate, honours, masters and/or doctoral levels. Scholarships for masters degrees by research and doctoral degrees are available to students who show great promise at the honours degree level. Fellowships are also available for postdoctoral study. Ongoing training, either formal or informal, may be needed to keep in touch with new research methods and theories or to branch into interdisciplinary areas. Comment P H I L I P H AY WA R D ( P R O F E S S O R O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y M U S I C AT M A C Q U A R I E UNIVERSITY):

‘Since there are so few people employed in my type (and level) of job I would say that a very high degree of long-term career effort, commitment and (dare I say) “extreme” determination are needed. Despite all the difficulties, I feel massively privileged to work in the area and position I do. I find the job uniquely stimulating and exciting and I sincerely hope that it is eventual mortality (rather than enforced retirement or illhealth) which concludes my employment in this field.’ KARL NEUENFELDT (INDIGENOUS MUSIC CENTRAL QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY):

RESEARCHER,

‘This area of research is challenging but very stimulating on a personal and professional level. One needs to be eclectic and be able to appreciate the social, cultural and economic contexts in which indigenous people make music. If someone wants to stretch beyond their cultural “comfort zone”, the research can be life-changing — and that’s a rarity and should be celebrated.’

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OTHER AREAS O F M U S I C - R E L AT E D RESEARCH

ARTS INDUSTRY RESEARCH CONSULTANT

Some non-liberal arts areas of music research include music medicine (which concentrates on physical and psychological problems faced by musicians as a result of their work practices), and acoustics engineering (which is concerned with the design of performance spaces, recording studios and musical instruments). It is not within the scope of this book to deal with these areas of research. The former is practised primarily by medical science researchers, the latter by physicists. Researchers working in these areas may have chosen to focus on them because of an interest in music.

Research is an important field of activity in the arts and entertainment industries. In Australia, research projects are regularly initiated by government agencies such as the Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA) and the Australia Council for the Arts, and by music industry organisations such as the Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA), the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), and the Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society (AMCOS). Most of these projects are aimed at understanding how particular industry sectors have responded to changes in new technologies, consumer trends and government policy. The research results are used as indicators of what changes are needed within the industry to maintain its viability, and as evidence in advocacy campaigns with governments, and government and industry agencies. Companies involved in the music industry sometimes commission research in order to improve their market position. Much of the research in this area draws upon datasets from databases maintained by the large arts industry organisations and by organisations such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). In addition, quantitative and qualitative data is gathered for specific research into audience access, attitudes, preferences, tastes, habits and consumption patterns. Some of this research consultancy is conducted by prominent arts industry academics whose disciplines are more likely to be management, marketing or economics than liberal arts. Other research is contracted to research consultancy companies.

WRITING AND RESEARCH

Skills

Arts industry research consultants need a broad understanding of how the music industry and the arts and entertainment industries in general operate. Statistical and related skills, including research design, survey methods, questionnaire design, attitude measurement, sampling techniques, hypothesis testing and data analysis, are central to this kind of research. Qualitative research methods such in-depth interviews, focus groups and discourse analysis are also used. In studies that involve the interpretation of financial data, skills in economics are required. For research relating to government policies and legislation affecting the music industry, such as regulation/deregulation of international trade, broadcasting licences, local content quotas, public subsidy, copyright and censorship, a background in intellectual property and business law is useful. Prospects

Industry-based arts research is a growing field, probably due to the dramatic effects of globalisation, the convergence of the entertainment, publishing and information technology industries, and the changing patterns of entertainment consumption. Research consultancy fees range between $50 to $200 per hour, depending on the discipline and the market. Training

Research training and experience in the methods described above are required. The most relevant degrees and higher degrees available are in the social science, management and economics disciplines.

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MUSIC TEXTBOOK WRITER

Textbooks are a form of academic writing, and are aimed at all levels of the education (and self-education) market. In music they cover areas of study such as history, rudiments, harmony, counterpoint, ear training, score reading, orchestration, arranging, improvisation, performance, songwriting, lyric writing, composition, music technology and music business. Often these books are accompanied by tapes or CDs of music examples. Some of them have accompanying ‘workbooks’ — these are an optional extra — that give the student (additional) practice in the skills being dealt with in the book. Writers of music textbooks usually develop the textbooks out of their own teaching or other professional practices. Skills

Textbook authors need a thorough knowledge of the field of study, and the ability to communicate this knowledge in a clear, logical and stimulating way; they also need an understanding of the principles of curriculum design, and the ability to organise the material and exercises in a graded sequence that conforms with official curriculum requirements (if they are writing texts that deal with school/university curriculums). If authors are using recorded musical examples or other copyrighted materials, they need to get the necessary copyright clearances and/or licences for those materials. Prospects

If the uptake by educational institutions is substantial for a particular product, textbook writing can be a very lucrative sideline for educators.

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To get a publishing contract for a textbook, a writer needs to have a track record as an educator and/or an education writer and a clear idea of the market for the book. Ideally, the author should get expressions of interest from a substantial number of schools, colleges and universities — this will help convince a publisher of the commercial viability of the project. A case should also be made for the uniqueness of the product from the point of view of content and approach. If the textbook is successful, the publisher may expect the author to produce new editions on a regular basis to take account of new knowledge, technologies and approaches to the subject. Self-publishing is also an option, but this means doing a substantial amount of market research, promotion, sales and distribution yourself. Training

Writers of textbooks need to have academic or professional credibility in the subject area — preferably both.Their training and experience should relate to the field covered by the textbook. Comment JON FITZGERALD (AUTHOR, POPULAR MUSIC THEORY AND MUSICIANSHIP):

‘Consider the idea of what the market is, and if it’s a small market where you know it, then consider the direct publishing route, because through a publisher you are only going to get a small percentage. I think that as soon as you have the potential for this to be a worldwide thing, something that every bookstore wants to stock and that has a really general market, then you would have to go with a publisher, because the distribution overseas would become very difficult. But because my textbook is fairly specific and we’re still aiming it directly at certain places, we haven’t seen the need to move to a publisher.’

GENERAL EDITOR OF A MUSIC REFERENCE BOOK In music encyclopedia, music dictionary and other reference book projects — projects which involve a large number of contributors — the publisher appoints a general editor with research expertise in the range of topics covered by the publication.The general editor will usually have a significant role in determining the concept, content and structure of the book. The role can include researching and writing a brief for each topic and finding suitably qualified people who are willing to do the writing. In some cases, some aspects of dealing with the contributors are handled by a managing editor, who also acts as the style editor. Once a contributor has submitted an article, the general editor reads it for coherence and accuracy and makes further suggestions about possible improvements. Where a contributor, for whatever reason, refuses to do any further research or writing for a particular article, the general editor may have to complete the task.The general editor may also be required to research and write articles for which no suitable contributors were found, and where a commissioned writer fails to deliver. If a submitted article is not satisfactory, the general editor must quickly locate another writer or research and write it himself/herself. The general editor is required to correct the proofs (the laid-out pages) of the publication during the production process. Skills

Depending on the development stage of the reference work, the general editor may need creative flair to devise or flesh out the project concept. The general editor must have adequate grounding in the subjects covered by

WRITING AND RESEARCH

the work — this may include a broad coverage of music genres, cultures periods and geographical locations, and an understanding of music composition, performance, production and business practices. Advanced research skills in the areas of music analysis, criticism, biography, history and social and cultural theory are required. Summarising skills are required for writing the briefs for the contributors and the many additional articles and bridging sections that may be needed.The general editor must either have or be able to develop a large network of researchers and industry experts, and be able to promote the project well enough to attract contributors who are prepared to write articles for low pay (10 cents per word is typical for contributors; the editor is paid a fixed contract fee). General editors also need highly developed interpersonal communication skills. They need to be able to cope with the stress of publication deadlines and the failure of some contributors to meet their agreed deadlines or deliver competent pieces of writing. Skills in project management are also crucial. Prospects

General editors of a music reference work usually work for a fixed fee for the delivery of the manuscript over a set number of years or months. These deals usually do not include royalties from the sales of the book. Researchers who take on this kind of work should recognise that there are likely to be problems caused by the unreliability of some contributors. They must try to quote for the job accurately — they need to cover the costs of their own time and their overheads. If the job takes longer than expected, as it often will, they might otherwise find that they are struggling financially while still having to work on the book. Even if all goes to plan, these kinds of contracts are usually not lucrative; researchers often take them on more for career enhancement than for personal monetary gain.

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Training

This kind of project should not be attempted by anyone who does not have vast experience and knowledge of the subject area, relevant research methods, and professional writing and editing practices. A double major in musicology and history would be an appropriate undergraduate degree. A research Masters degree or PhD somewhere in the subject area covered by the reference book is highly recommended, but these projects often deal with a broader survey of music than is covered in most postgraduate research. A background as a music critic or in some other field involving a broad knowledge base would be an advantage. Comment JOHN WHITEOAK (GENERAL EDITOR, C U R R E N C Y C O M PA N I O N T O M U S I C A N D DANCE [CURRENCY PRESS, FORTHCOMING]):

‘Take legal advice to check the contract out and think about the implications of it. Consider, for example, what is realistic within the time frame and the budget, what happens if you don’t finish on schedule, and what control you have over the process and the material generated by the contributors and yourself.’

Chapter 11

Arts administration he field of arts administration (also known as arts management) covers occupations relating to arts funding and arts policy advice, management of arts service organisations, and management of presenting organisations. There are arts funding and policy advisory agencies at federal and state levels. The federal body is the Australia Council for the Arts; the states are represented by the NSW Ministry for the Arts, ArtsWA, Arts Tasmania, Arts Queensland, Arts South Australia, Arts Victoria, Arts ACT and Arts NT. There are a number of community cultural organisations that also administer grants. Within these organisations there is a range of job categories. The Australia Council, for example, has an art form development division (covering the various arts disciplines), as well as divisions of Audience and Market Development, Policy Communications and Planning, and Finance and Services. In the art form development areas (such as music, theatre, visual arts/craft, etc), there is a manager, project officers at various levels, an office administrator and an administrative assistant. Apart from the last two categories, these positions assume a background in the relevant art form as well as experience in arts management. The positions in the other divisions may involve different kinds of training or employment backgrounds. For example, people working in Audience and Market Development may have a background in marketing; those in Policy, Communications and Planning may have a background in research, public policy or public relations; and those in Finance and Services may have a background in accountancy,

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human resource management or information technology. The state-based arts funding and policy bodies are much smaller, but involve similar positions. There are a number of different kinds and sizes of music service organisations. Some of these cover specific musical genres (such as jazz, contemporary popular music or youth orchestras). The Australian Music Centre, for instance, although in reality providing support principally for contemporary classical composers, has a broad stylistic brief and provides a wide range of services (library and information services, membership services, advocacy, publishing, music retail, concert promotion, education, etc). The positions available in these sorts of organisations reflect their size and diversity of activity. Some service organisations are more community based. Some municipal councils and community cultural centres, for example, employ an arts development officer to stimulate and provide support for arts activities in their communities. Performance organisations for classical music and some other genres can be very small (some chamber music ensembles may have one person doing administration parttime) or very large (the Sydney Symphony Orchestra employs over 50 people in orchestra administration). As there are many position titles in this field, I have limited the coverage to a few key kinds of job categories. These are CEO (general manager or managing director), artistic administrator, orchestra manager, operations manager, development manager, marketing manager, education manager and financial manager. I have also included entries for music festival artistic director/CEO, music festival producer and venue manager. As festivals and venues are also presenters, presenter job categories such as marketing manager, development manager, financial manager, artistic director, producer, marketing manager, development manager and financial manager also apply.

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ART FORM OR ARTS SECTION MANAGER (GOVERNMENT ARTS FUNDING ORGANISATION) Arts funding organisations involve peer assessment of grant applications, and the development of policies to support arts practice. Typically this process is carried out by a team of administrators led by a manager.The manager’s role is to provide leadership, management and supervision of staff, to develop and manage a budget, to implement the various funding programs and policies of the section, to provide advice to the funding body and to government on arts development and other policy issues relating to the arts, and to liaise with other parts of the organisation and with industry stakeholders. Skills

Art form managers in arts funding organisations need to have a background in the art form and a passion and commitment to it, so that they can understand their clients’ work and needs. They also need high-level skills in oral and written communication, interpersonal communication, staff management, research techniques, data analysis, budget drafting and analysis, report writing, problem solving, conflict resolution, negotiation, project management, time management, resource management and office computer applications. They need to be able to listen, laugh at themselves, make hard decisions, cope with a high-pressure work environment, maintain integrity in the bureaucratic context, think creatively, deal with change, and maintain their work schedules.The ability to deal with hostility from unsuccessful grant applicants is also essential. Prospects

Arts funding organisations usually have a hierarchy of positions. However, to become an art form manager it is not necessary to progress

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through this hierarchy. Jobs in other areas of arts management may provide a suitable background for this job. The salary range is between $70,000 and $80,000 per year. Training

As indicated above, a person working in this job should have a background in the particular art form area of the job. This normally means having a specialist degree in the art form (a Bachelor of Music, for example), an arts degree with a major in the art form, or a profile as an artist. There is specific training for arts management in Australian universities (see Appendix 2). The Australian Youth Orchestra, as part of its National Music Camp, runs an excellent short course. The course covers arts administration and concert production. The practical component is the coordination of the concert activities of the camp. Despite the existence of these courses, many people find work in arts management without arts management qualifications. Most people doing tertiary arts administration courses are already working in arts management and are studying in order to increase their chances of career advancement. Because of the varied nature of the field and the fact that the available training options are not specific to any one field (such as orchestra management), on-the-job training is still quite common. Comment P E TA W I L L I A M S ( M U S I C B O A R D AUSTRALIA COUNCIL):

M A N A G E R AT

THE

‘It’s fantastic, challenging, heartwarming, frustrating, demanding, depressing, awful, wonderful, exhilarating, all at once. It’s worth it.You can make a difference, even if it is in a small way — by helping an applicant understand what it all means, contributing to policy development or a change in focus of a policy, even through it’s [just] wording … having an idea which grows into something meaningful. Even the little things make a difference. But it’s important to remember why you are doing it, as the

paperwork can be overwhelming — and for me, it is for the music, and for the immensely talented musicians (creators and performers) we have in this country who make our lives so much richer through their creativity and work. It can be such an honour and a privilege being involved in arts funding.’

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ARTS FUNDING PROJECT OFFICER

Arts funding project officers perform most of the routine work in arts funding organisations. This includes communication with the grant applicants before they apply, to make sure they understand the application process; processing the applications and the support materials in preparation for the assessment meetings; helping the people involved in the grant assessment process by providing additional information; responding to feedback from clients about the granting process; developing policy ideas and proposing and drafting initiatives; conducting public information sessions; participating in cross-art form and cross-division committees relating to administrative process and policy; conducting research and preparing reports in policy areas; and helping the manager prepare agenda papers for meetings. Skills

As mentioned above, project officers in arts funding organisations need to have a background in the art form area they are employed in, and a passion and commitment to it so that they can understand their clients’ work and their artistic and/or professional needs. They also need excellent oral and written communication skills, because much of their time is spent talking to clients who are trying to either understand the application process or come to terms with why they have not been successful.This requires a good measure of tact and understanding, the ability to give encouragement and to provide constructive feedback. They also need skills in office administration, including computer applications, research techniques, data analysis, budget analysis, report writing, problem solving, project management and time management. It is essential that they be able to work in a high-pressure environment and to tight schedules.

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Prospects

Entry into this field of employment can be at the junior level (assistant program officer) or, more usually, on the basis of prior experience in other areas of arts management, such as an art form service organisation, community arts organisation or performance organisation. Some temporary jobs might also be available; this on-the-job experience would improve a person’s chances of getting a longer contract. People can gain promotion in arts funding organisations, advancing (in the Australia Council, for example) from assistant project officer to project officer, to senior project officer and beyond. A career move to a higher position in another arts management organisation is more usual, though. Training

See the entry for Art form or arts section manager (above) for information about arts management training. Comment KURT OLOFSSON (PROJECT AUSTRALIA COUNCIL):

O F F I C E R AT T H E

‘One of the things I find most satisfying about the work I do is having direct contact with a huge and ever-expanding range of artists, and when I get the opportunity, becoming familiar with their music. When you start in arts administration, whether it is an organisation, ensemble or group, regardless of your age or experience, your work is likely to include menial tasks.You’ll be doing filing, answering phones, photocopying, mail, etc. These tasks are important, as they help the organisation run smoothly, and by doing them in an efficient and positive way you can demonstrate your commitment to your duties and to the organisation. It also helps you in getting to know the “nuts and bolts” of the organisation. Working effectively in a team environment is important, as is meeting deadlines. Taking pride in all areas of your work makes you a valuable team member, earns respect from your colleagues, and will enhance your prospects for promotion and/or doing more interesting work.’

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ARTS DEVELOPMENT OFFICER

Arts development officers (sometimes called community cultural development officers) are often employed by local government or community cultural centres to provide support for local arts activities. These jobs are found in regional areas as well as in some city areas. They may actually involve a wide geographical coverage.The job basically involves working with communities in partnership with local government to develop cultural activities, and providing an advocacy role with funding bodies. Development programs include arts education, staging arts and cultural events, organising visiting artists (including providing workshop activities), managing public facilities for the arts, and providing assistance to professional artists with their careers (by helping them prepare grant submissions, for example). The brief usually covers artistic support and experiences for different sectors of the community, including children, adolescents, the aged, multicultural groups, people with disabilities and other disadvantaged groups. It may involve planning and developing local facilities such as venues, facilitating linkages among community groups, generating a consultative framework for a project, preparing a business plan and developing projects.

ment skills, office administration skills and office computer application skills are required. Although these kinds of jobs are based around facilitation and administration, it is ideal if arts development officers can also contribute practically to a number of art form disciplines. Skills as a performer or creative artist can be used to motivate the people in the local community. Technical knowledge (of theatre sound and lighting, for instance) is very useful.Versatility and adaptability are key qualities for success. Prospects

The pathways to this kind of work can be through arts management work or through practical involvement in community arts projects (even if these kinds of work were on a voluntary or low-paid basis). Either way, proven skills of facilitation, administration and project management are required. Evidence of commitment to community arts is also expected. Salaries range from $38,000 to $48,000 per year, depending on the responsibilities of the position and the qualifications and experience required. Training

The range of professional and personal skills required to do the work effectively means that on-the-job training is the preferred option. However, the arts management training courses discussed at the beginning of this chapter would certainly be useful. It is also a good idea to acquire practical, critical and business skills across a number of art forms (such as visual arts, music, theatre, dance).

Skills

Comment

A broad knowledge of the arts and culture industries is required. It is also essential be able to liaise effectively with diverse stakeholders, including different kinds of community arts groups, local, state and federal government arts organisations and other relevant agencies. Strong oral and written communication skills are needed in order to negotiate and advocate, and to write reports and grant submissions. Project management skills, financial manage-

PETER WINKLER (ARTISTIC Y O U T H WAV E ) :

DIRECTOR,

BONDI

‘If you find it hard to get a start, be brash — invent or borrow a good-sounding project and sell the idea to an organisation in order to gain some experience and prove your capacity in the field. If you feel you have interest and skills in this area, offer to do one project for an organisation and show its potential. Then launch your own career path.’

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MANAGER OF A MUSIC SERVICE ORGANISATION The music service organisations in Australia vary greatly in function and size. Basically they provide professional support for their members, including networking, training, information and advocacy services. Some of them, such as The Orchestras of Australia Network (TOAN), provide service to organisations, but most are focused on the needs of individuals as well as the welfare of their specific industrial sector. The size of these organisations varies greatly. Many of them, for example the state-based jazz service organisations, employ only one person on a part-time basis. Others, such as the statebased contemporary music industry associations, are a bit better resourced. Some organisations, such as the Australian Music Centre (AMC), are relatively large, with about seven full-time staff. Managers of these organisations are responsible for ensuring that the needs of the individual members and other clients are met, and that the services provided are appropriate to the needs of the client base as a whole. Because the scale and scope of these organisations varies greatly, it is difficult to describe a role such as manager. In some cases the manager (often referred to as a coordinator) may be involved in all the menial as well as the specialised activities of the organisation — from filing to writing and editing a newsletter. In other cases the manager takes a supervisory role for functions of the organisation that are carried out by specialised staff. In all cases the manager reports to the board of the organisation and organises meetings of the board and its subcommittees. The manager is responsible for business management, strategic planning and policy

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research and development, for liaison with government departments and agencies, industry organisations and the corporate sector, and for fundraising (sponsorship and private support). In the case of organisations with more than one employee, the manager would also be responsible for human resource management, staff supervision, facilitation and supervision of team projects, conflict management and compliance with legislation relating to employees. Skills

A thorough understanding of and commitment to the artistic field of the organisation is crucial. The role requires excellent people skills, including empathy (personal and artistic), sympathy and diplomacy. Involving staff, client groups, and stakeholders in the processes and decisions of the organisation is vital, so being able to build relationships on the micro and macro levels is fundamental. Managers need excellent oral and written communication skills, creative thinking and problem-solving abilities, and negotiation and advocacy skills. They also need skills in business administration, financial management, strategic management, project management, human resource management and marketing. A passionate commitment to industrial and cultural development is critical. Managers need patience as well, because these kinds of organisations tend to make only a gradual impact on the health and direction of the industries they serve. Prospects

This field of professional activity seems to be expanding. A good example is the introduction of state-based music industry associations in the last decade. Many of these have increased their staffing during that period as government funding agencies and industry stakeholders realise the benefits of such organisations to the industry, the economy and society. People who want to get employment in an arts service organisation often do

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volunteer work for one first.This gives them skills and experience, and allows them to get a feel for the organisation and the people involved with it. Demonstrating ability to work willingly and enthusiastically will greatly improve a volunteer’s chances of paid employment. It is possible to rise to a manager position in an arts service organisation from the ranks of the organisation, but it is probably more typical for someone who has employment experience in some other arts management or service occupation to be employed in this position. The salary for a service organisation manager is in the range of $40,000 to $50,000 per year. Training

Training or equivalent professional experience in the particular discipline of the service organisation (orchestral music, contemporary music, new music composition, or jazz performance, for example) is essential in order to understand the clients, their work, their professional needs and the structure and dynamics of that industry sector. The best way to gain the necessary administrative and communication skills is to become involved in a practical way with a relevant organisation or to initiate events in support of a local music scene (organise an annual festival or a weekly gig, perhaps). Taking an arts management course such as those described in the first entry of this chapter is another way to train, especially since these courses usually have structured work experience components. Comment J O H N D AV I S ( G E N E R A L M A N A G E R , AUSTRALIAN MUSIC CENTRE):

‘Make sure you are passionate about what you are doing, respect and care deeply about the people you work with, and also those you are working for/on behalf of — even if this sometimes presents a challenge — and develop a focus and resilience so that you

don’t just survive, but thrive during the hard times. There are no easy times, but there are many joys!’ ROSE PEARSE (MANAGER,

MUSICNSW):

‘Call me, that’s my advice; and not just me, call any of the state organisations and let them know you are interested; because if you are serious about it, there are opportunities.’ OTHER EMPLOYEES IN A MUSIC SERVICE ORGANISATION

As stated earlier, many of the music service organisations employ only one person. Those that employ more than one worker tend to focus their workers’ duties on the functions of the organisation that would most benefit from specialist staffing, such as project manager, publications coordinator, marketing manager and information services manager. It is not possible to deal with these kinds of service organisation positions individually here. They are essentially subsets of the work that the manager would do in a smaller organisation. For further relevant information relating to the duties and skills of some of these kinds of positions, see Marketing manager, in the section relating to jobs in performance presenting organisations (below), and Project management, in Appendix 1. Information in the Manager of a music service organisation entry about prospects and training also applies to these job classifications. The salary range is $25,000 to $50,000 per year, depending on experience, length of service and level of responsibility.

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DIRECTOR OF A MUSIC INDUSTRY ADVOCACY ORGANISATION In Australia the field of music industry advocacy is principally undertaken by organisations representing particular industry sectors and, to a more limited extent, by service organisations. Examples of the former include the Australian Record Industry Association (representing the major record companies), the Association of Independent Record Companies, the International Music Managers Forum (Australia), and the Australian Music Association (representing music instrument and equipment manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers). The Music Council of Australia is an organisation representing a broad range of music sector interests. The principal duty of the director of a music industry advocacy organisation is to manage the organisation, to implement the vision of the board of directors of the organisation and to help the board develop policies that support the interests of the industry sector(s) they represent. Advocacy organisations develop policy positions and articulate these in written and oral forms to relevant authorities, professional organisations and the public (through media campaigns). Developing policy has several steps: first, generating or accessing various kinds of data; second, analysing and synthesising the data; third, formulating and presenting research findings. This process never really stops — it goes on continually, because policies need to respond to changes in the industry (or in the legal framework, or in some other area that affects the music industry). If existing or proposed legislation, or the actions of other industry players, threaten the interests of the sector the advocacy organisation represents, the organisation may also take legal action.

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Skills

The director of an industry advocacy association needs a thorough knowledge of the economic, legislative and cultural foundations of the music industry and related industries (such as media, telecommunications and information technology). The director should also have a vision for the development of the music industry, a vision which takes into consideration the effects of technology, business, cultural and political trends. In order to develop policy positions, the director must have good skills in research and data analysis relating to demographics, markets, economics and public policy. Advocating a policy position, once that position has been developed, requires being able to plan strategies and tactics, write submissions, deal with the media, and be persuasive in person. The director of an industry advocacy association needs to create and maintain an active network of colleagues — people in the industry and the media, and relevant decision makers (up to the highest level possible). Legal skills are an advantage, especially if the association is heavily involved in legal action. The director of an industry association also needs managerial and financial skills appropriate to the needs and size of the organisation. Prospects

Because there are very few advocacy organisations in the music area, there are also very few jobs available. The most suitable preparation for this kind of work is employment in the relevant sector of the industry — the best is probably work with industry associations or government arts policy or funding bodies. Depending on the size and financial clout of the industry sector, the salaries may range from $30,000 to more than $150,000 per year.

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Training

There is lots of relevant training for this kind of work: music, music business, economic research, public policy, law and management. The more of these areas covered the better. Comment DICK LETTS (EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, MUSIC COUNCIL OF AUSTRALIA):

‘This work is most suited to passionate movers and shakers with broad vision. It’s not a job in which it is enough to simply keep the wheels turning. Despite the passion and belief, it is not unusual to fail, because many of the decision makers whose support is needed won’t care or won’t understand. So an assured calm and resilience is a great advantage. This is a rather unusual mixture of qualities.’

MUSIC PRESENTING O R G A N I S AT I O N POSITIONS

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CEO (CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER)

The CEO of a music presenting company (organisations such as symphony orchestras, festivals and venues) is responsible to the company’s board of directors for the implementation of the board’s decisions. Working closely with the artistic director, the CEO is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the company, for corporate governance, for reporting to the board, for overseeing the development of budgets, strategic plans and operating plans, and for internal communications, marketing, fundraising and personnel matters. The CEO has to manage and motivate a team of specialist administrators, plus the artists for whom the company exists.The CEO needs to form and maintain a broad range of business, cultural and arts industry relationships. Although the job of publicising the company will be principally the responsibility of a marketing or public relations manager, the CEO will also liaise extensively with the media. As many music presenting organisations employ large numbers of performers and administrative staff, the CEO, on behalf of the board, may also play a significant role in labour negotiations. Skills

CEOs of music presenting companies need to be multiskilled: they need to be good at leadership, oral and written communication, financial management, human resource management, strategic management, marketing, sponsorship development, audience development, industry networking, public relations, and contract negotiation. They must also have good technical and repertoire knowledge of — and passion for — the relevant genre(s) of music, and a thorough understanding of the operation of the industry, particularly in the areas of arts funding,

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performance venues, touring, recording and broadcasting. An inclusive, fair-minded and adaptable management style — CEOs need to work with administrative, technical and artistic staff — is essential.There will be long office hours, evening and weekend performances, and public relations events associated with the job, so stamina and commitment are also needed. Prospects

There are very few high-level positions in this field. It is possible to work your way up through performance presenting organisations, moving from smaller to larger companies. It is also possible to enter the field via specialist fields such as artistic administration, arts marketing or arts development. Experience as part of the executive team of a large organisation could prepare a person well for a CEO position. There has been a trend in recent years to recruit people from the corporate sector to be heads of large arts organisations.This can be problematic if the recruit is unable to provide informed artistic leadership. The salary range for a CEO of a music presenting company is from $40,000 per year for small companies to more than $100,000 per year for large companies. Training

CEOs need extensive experience in arts company management, and may also benefit from having qualifications in music performance or composition, arts administration, business administration or other related fields. Comment TONY GRYBOWSKY (CEO, AUSTRALIAN YOUTH ORCHESTRA):

‘I suppose the challenge that I found is that the career does blur the area between your work and your recreation — I’ve always loved music and performance and the broader arts, and as you go on in your career, you might find that you’re working

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all week and you might be invited to an event or a function or a performance and then elect to go to another two, and you might be out three or four nights in one particular week. So what’s work and what’s recreation? That can become for some quite stressful, because it feels as if you’re never actually away from it. So being aware that you are going into that from an early stage and always managing and balancing and having contrasting things in your life is, I think, very important. A few people I know have simply burnt out because they feel that they are working all the time.’

ARTISTIC ADMINISTRATOR

Artistic administrator is a senior management position in a presenter organisation. With advice from the artistic director and others, the artistic administrator’s primary responsibility is planning for the organisation’s future seasons — selecting artists and repertoire, scheduling the season, developing artistic policy (directions, focuses of repertoire, audience development projects, etc), and coordinating all the artistic components of the operation (helping the artistic director, helping with performers’ needs, helping with the marketing and education projects, etc). The artistic administrator deals with all requests for engagements that come in from individual artists and agents, negotiates the engagement of artists, supervises the preparation of contracts, and deals with any changes to agreements, including repertoire changes. The job also involves liaising with other artistic organisations whose work is essential to the operation of the company, and providing advice to other sections of the company (such as the marketing, operations and education divisions); the job may also require helping put together the brochures, programs and other advertising materials used to market the company. The artistic administrator attends all performances and many rehearsals in order to be able to provide quality control feedback to the conductor/artistic director (on comparative volume levels of musicians and singers, for instance). Skills

An artistic administrator must have an extensive knowledge of the repertoire, solo artists and conductors that are appropriate to the company. A thorough knowledge of

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relevant performance practices and a good ear are also essential. Artistic administrators need good organisational skills, including the ability to deal with many tasks simultaneously. They also need to be good at written and oral communication, negotiation, diplomacy, crisis management, public relations and team building. The ability to deal with extreme pressure and be a calming influence on artists and other company members is vital. The job involves considerable influence on the repertoire choice, so it is also important for the artistic administrator to be able to prevent individual preferences and prejudices interfering with professional artistic judgements. Prospects

The principal requirement of this kind of work is extensive knowledge of repertoire and artists and of the operation of the industry. One route has been employment in the publications section of Symphony Australia, which prepares the program notes for the six major orchestras it serves. The intensive administration and internal networking aspects of the job of artistic administrator are a good grounding for the job of CEO of a music presenting organisation. The salary range for this position is $50,000 to $80,000 per year. Training

Most artistic administrators have a degree in music, and perhaps some kind of qualification in arts administration. Formal training is, however, no substitute for the extensive self-education that is required to gain the necessary repertoire knowledge for this job. As with most arts administration jobs, extensive experience working for organisations that present music would also be expected. Comment MARTIN BUZACOTT (ARTISTIC ADMINISTRATOR, THE QUEENSLAND ORCHESTRA):

‘There are a few ways into it. The best way

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is to make yourself known in areas where repertoire is concerned. I would recommend that people try to get into writing program notes, giving pre-concert talks, hosting concerts, writing reviews, all those kinds of things that deal with repertoire and establish links between different works. Inevitably your name will become known around the traps. What is required is a generalist knowledge. There is a market for this kind of knowledge.’

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ORCHESTRA MANAGER

A typical salary range for this position is $45,000 to $85,000 per year. Training

Orchestra managers are responsible for the day-to-day running of the orchestra, and for looking after the needs of the musicians, conductor(s) and soloists. In consultation with the artistic administrator or the artistic director, they are also involved in the scheduling, rostering and supervision of rehearsals, performances and recording sessions. Orchestra managers organise the audition and recruitment of contracted and casual players, and usually supervise the assistant orchestra manager and the orchestral librarian(s). Depending on the administrative structure of the company, the orchestra manager may also be responsible for the technical production and staging crew. The orchestra manager usually reports directly to the CEO. Skills

Orchestra managers need exceptional skills in leadership, diplomacy, negotiation, staff supervision, oral and written communication, office administration, human resource management, project management, crisis management and time management. They also need musical skills — extensive knowledge of the repertoire presented by the company (operatic or orchestral), and the ability to read and interpret a full score. Concert production skills, including an understanding of audio and lighting technologies, may also be required. Prospects

Many orchestra managers gain entry to the field through junior positions, such as assistant orchestra manager, assistant librarian and stage manager. Some orchestra managers have risen through the ranks to become the CEO of a music presenting company.

Most orchestra managers are music graduates who have decided on a career in arts administration. A suitable short course in arts administration is available through the National Music Camp, administered by the Australian Youth Orchestra. Volunteer work or work experience with professional music presenting companies or involvement in concert management in tertiary music schools also provide good training. Comment TONY GRYBOWSKY (CEO, AUSTRALIAN YOUTH ORCHESTRA):

‘It’s very much a facilitator’s role. You have to be able communicate very effectively with people, be a very efficient and effective administrator, and you have to have a knowledge of music, to be able to read scores when there are off-stage bands and instruments.You need a handle on all that in advance of taking on the job.’

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OPERATIONS MANAGER

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resolution, is recommended. Practical experience in music performance and/or concert production would be an advantage. Comment B R E N D O N H U L C O M B E ( O P E R AT I O N S M A N A G E R , AUSTRALIAN CHAMBER ORCHESTRA):

The operations manager reports to the CEO, and is responsible for the planning, negotiation, budgeting and execution of the entire company’s activities, including all arrangements for the company’s domestic and overseas tours and for tours by visiting artists. An operations manager supervises staff responsible for the travel, transport, production and staging requirements of the company. Skills

Operations managers need exceptional skills in interpersonal communication, project management, business administration, crisis management and time management. They also need experience in professional music performance and music production, so that they can understand and prevent problems before they occur. The job involves very long hours, so exceptional energy and fitness are required. Prospects

Generally, work in this area provides a good grounding for employment in larger companies or for other roles in arts administration (though perhaps not those that require experience in marketing and/or fundraising). Substantial experience as an operations manager may be suitable preparation for being the general manager of a music presenting company. A typical salary range for this position is $45,000 to $85,000 per year. Training

Training in business management, with emphasis on finance, leadership, communication, strategic planning and conflict

‘In my view, an operations role is there to make day-to-day problems disappear — to stay in front of the moment and create a problem-free path for the operations of the company while pushing ahead with new opportunities. For those interested in undertaking a career in arts management, I would suggest that no amount of arts management study is a substitute for volunteering or getting part-time work in an operations role in an arts company. The ideal situation, in my view, would be formal study in arts management or business, coupled with practical experience in a professional arts organisation.’

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DEVELOPMENT MANAGER

A development manager (sometimes called a sponsorship manager) working for an arts presenting organisation is responsible for bringing in revenue from sources other than ticket sales. There are a number of key areas, including: •

•

• • • •

•

corporate sponsorship: cash, contra (you do something for me, I do something for you) or in kind (something that the organisation needs, such as equipment, is supplied rather than the cash to hire it or buy it); sale of hospitality packages (essentially dining and wining before and/or after shows); supporter packages; grants and donations; bequests; special fundraising events, which may or may not be organised by the friends of the organisation or the organisation itself; and revenue from the hire of the ensemble for corporate functions, etc.

The development manager reports to the CEO and is part of the management team which develops strategy, planning and policy for the organisation — with particular responsibility for fundraising and sponsorship strategy, and for coordinating the fundraising and sponsorship activities. The core activities of the job include researching potential partners, sponsors and donors, making sponsorship pitches to corporations and individuals, negotiating sponsorship contracts, and maintaining existing partner and sponsorships relationships, including overseeing the corporate entertainment program.

The job also involves maintaining contribution records, writing grant applications, working with various committees, managing the budget of the development division, managing the development section’s staff, liaising with the marketing division, the board of directors and the CEO, and preparing reports. Skills

Development managers need to have a thorough understanding of the corporate world — they need to be able to talk that language, and to develop and maintain relationships with corporate partners and sponsors. The ability to sell the idea of sponsorship to a client is essential. In order to do that well, development managers need a thorough understanding of the arts product they are seeking sponsorship for, the ability to match that product with the right sponsor, and the ability to articulate ways in which sponsorship will benefit the sponsor. Contract negotiating skills and patience are also essential, as is being able to deal with rejection, particularly in times when getting sponsorships is difficult. Development managers need excellent personal presentation skills, including the ability to speak well in public and to use applications such as PowerPoint. They also need lots of tact and diplomacy, especially when dealing with donors and potential donors who are making their wills and bequests, and when working with volunteers. Highly developed skills in written and oral communication, public relations, budget management, personnel management, strategic management, event management, office administration and networking are required. Prospects

This kind of work is available in various kinds of not-for-profit organisations that depend on government grants and public generosity to flourish — sporting, charity, and community organisations (including

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arts-based community organisations). In arts and sports organisations the field ranges from community and amateur organisations through to the professional and elite end of the scale. This means there are many opportunities, some paid, some unpaid, to get experience. Some people may come to it via arts administration, having worked in smaller organisations where they had a full range of arts management duties and finding that they have a talent and inclination for development work. In large arts organisations such as opera companies and symphony orchestras there are various jobs within a development unit, all overseen by a development manager. More people with business backgrounds seem to be moving into development management positions in large arts organisations. Arts companies seem to have realised that they need to become more commercially oriented, and that they need commercial partnerships and sponsorships. Success in this field might provide a suitable background for more senior jobs in arts management. However, unless a development manager has had training in the relevant art form itself, the opportunities for advancement to CEO level are limited. Advancement is more likely to be through moving to a larger organisation in the arts or in other fields involving fundraising. Fundraising is also a business activity in its own right, so going into business as a fundraiser — or working for a fundraising company — is an option. Salaries for development positions vary from state to state. Entry level is around $30,000 to $35,000 per year. Senior management positions generally range from $70,000 to $80,000, with a ceiling of $100,000. Training

A proven track record in getting sponsorship from the corporate sector is essential for this kind of work.

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Most advertisements for development positions do not specify formal qualifications. However, people working in the sponsorship area for arts companies may have qualifications in public relations, business administration or arts administration. Business qualifications are increasingly expected for senior positions in this field. Qualifications in the relevant art form would be advantage; alternatively, know ledge and passion for the relevant art form would be expected. Some courses in fundraising are available (at Queensland University, for example). Comment K AT H Y K N O T T ( D E V E L O P M E N T QUEENSLAND ORCHESTRA):

MANAGER,

THE

‘If you are passionate about it, it can be fabulous. There’s a saying: the secret of success is to make your vocation your vacation. In other words, if you love what you do, then it’s a joy to come to work. But I think that with the very special nature of having to go out to some extent cap in hand to corporates, you need to have a thick skin; you need to be resilient; to have a high degree of tact; and you certainly need to be able to bounce back from the increasing number of noes from our corporate brothers and sisters. ‘Go into the job with your eyes wide open. Don’t expect it to be easy; keep an open mind; collaborate, don’t compete, with other arts organisations; don’t be afraid to ask for help from your artistic peers when you need it; and network as much as you possibly can.’

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MARKETING MANAGER

The marketing area of arts presenter administration covers marketing, ticket sales, publicity, public relations, imaging (what you do in your advertising to attract sales), and audience development. The marketing manager reports to the CEO, and is responsible for strategic planning to maintain audiences and develop new audiences, and for promotion of the organisation and its core products. Generating revenue from box office sales (including subscriptions) and meeting sales targets are central to this job. The marketing manager leads a marketing team, defines the marketing division’s goals and performance indicators, manages the marketing budget, develops and implements marketing strategies and campaigns (including advertising, direct mail and media promotion), and liaises with the media regarding feature stories, press conferences and general coverage. Depending on the size of the organisation, the role may also involve producing graphic design and text for advertisements, programs, brochures, tickets, press releases, newsletters and web pages. The marketing manager must work closely with the other main divisions of the company, and develop effective relationships with outside organisations such as advertising agents, media companies, designers, printers and arts funding agencies. Skills

Marketing managers need skills in marketing arts products, particularly subscriptions — they need to understand marketing principles and market research techniques. They must be able to meet their sales targets. A strong affinity with, and understanding of, the arts product is essential. Marketing

managers who work with orchestras are expected to know the orchestral repertoire; those who work with arts festivals are expected to have a broader experience of music and theatre. Marketing managers also have to be creative in selling products and ideas, and in developing a corporate image, and they need a good understanding of the principles of advertising copywriting and design. As with all management positions, energy and commitment, plus excellent skills in oral and written communication, team building, negotiation, budgeting, office administration, project management, strategic management and public relations, are essential. Prospects

The large arts presenting companies are relying more and more upon revenue from box office, so the marketing area of arts administration is becoming more important. Small arts presenting companies often combine marketing with other functions, such as sponsorship development, general arts administration and even production management. Larger organisations, such as orchestras and opera companies, have senior management positions that require qualifications and experience in marketing rather than in arts administration. These positions are highly sought after — the successful applicants are often from the corporate sector. Opportunity for advancement within a company from an executive marketing position is limited, because usually the next rung — general manager — requires people who have music as well as arts management training and experience. So to advance their careers, marketing managers may need to move to larger arts organisations or into the corporate sector. The salary range for marketing manager in a small company may be $35,000 to $50,000 per year; for an executive position in a large company the range is $60,000 to $90,000.

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Training

People applying for executive positions in this field require a Bachelor of Business with a major in marketing, plus many years of experience in marketing. A background in arts marketing, including the marketing of subscriptions and audience development research, would be an advantage. Higher qualifications, such as an MBA (Master of Business Administration ) or DBA (Doctor of Business Administration) with a focus on the arts industry, would improve an applicant’s prospects. In smaller companies where marketing is often just part of a person’s duties, a qualification in arts administration plus experience working for presenter organisations may be enough. Comment MAUREEN FRAME (MARKETING MANAGER, THE QUEENSLAND ORCHESTRA):

‘Marketing is such a defined profession.When you become a professional arts marketer you tend to stay in the industry, but you might move from ballet to opera to orchestra or whatever. In an arts organisation like an orchestra, you most often lose your junior marketing staff because they need to experience somewhere else before they can make the leap to be the actual marketing manager.’

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EDUCATION MANAGER

Education managers are employed by symphony orchestras and some other performing arts organisations, such as Musica Viva. The education program of an arts presenting organisation is seen as an adjunct to audience development: it’s an effective way to help school students (and adults, to a lesser extent) appreciate the art form, and therefore perhaps attend music events more frequently. Education programs are also used to encourage and develop new talent. The education manager coordinates the education program and oversees the various education projects of the company. These typically include series of performances for different age groups. The manager coordinates the repertoire and bookings for these performances. The largest and most established education program in Australia is at the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. There, the education manager is also responsible for forming an orchestra of tertiary music students that performs many of the schools concerts. In this context the education manager takes on many of the roles of orchestra adminis tration, including orchestra management, operations management, marketing and fundraising. There are also many educational activities in regional areas. These involve arrangements for personnel and equipment transport, student billeting and hotel bookings for musicians and staff. Schools concerts may involve producing training packages (booklets with accompanying CDs) relating to the repertoire played. These packages are sent to the participating schools for use before the concerts.The education manager coordinates the writing, design, editing, copyright clearance, printing (or duplication), and distribution of these

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materials. In addition, the education manager may also organise seminars to guide the teachers (and senior students) through the material, give pre-concert speeches about the repertoire, and interview artists involved in the program. The education manager is involved in coordinating young artist development projects, including mentorships with orchestral members, work experience with the orchestra and training programs run by soloists, conductors and composers. Skills

People in education positions with music presenter companies need to have a thorough understanding of the K–12 school music syllabuses. They also need to know how best to mesh their work with the audience development strategies of the organisation. An education manager needs to have extensive experience in school music teaching, and excellent skills in oral communication (including public speaking), written communication (including preparing reports and publications), fundraising (including writing grant applications and brokering corporate sponsorships), operations management, office administration, networking, personnel management and budget management. Appropriate musical knowledge in the relevant genre is also required (for an orchestra, this would be repertoire knowledge and score-reading skills). Prospects

People can move into this area of arts administration from a variety of avenues, including high school music teaching (the most common path), writing about music, desktop publishing and multimedia, and arts administration generally. As with many areas of arts administration, initial contact with the area may be through volunteer work and becoming part of the network of arts administrators in Australia. The field is very competitive, from entry level through to executive level. People working in this area may be able to advance their

careers by moving into other areas of arts administration (such as tour management or artistic administration), or by moving into other areas of corporate training. The salary for entry level education personnel is around $35,000 per year. The salary range for an education manager is $55,000 to $65,000. Training

Most education personnel in music presenter companies have a background in high school music teaching and some consultancy experience within the education system — they generally have a music degree and a graduate diploma of education. But as the job involves producing publications, and complex arts administration duties, qualifications and/or experience in a broader range of arts activities are also expected. Comment M A R G A R E T M O O R E ( E D U C AT I O N M A N A G E R , SYDNEY SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA):

‘It’s very challenging, but it’s also incredibly rewarding. It’s a very varied career, as it incorporates something that you love doing. You work with interesting and talented people, which is an added value, and you are doing something that benefits other people. You’re actually creating something, which means you experience a feeling of creativity as well as a feeling of ownership. I feel very proud, particularly of things like the Sinfonia program that I’ve been responsible for. And I get a lot of satisfaction out of seeing the people whose training I’ve coordinated actually performing with the big orchestra.The work with the kids in the country is always rewarding, because they don’t have a lot of opportunity and you are providing something that’s really like gold to them.’

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FINANCIAL MANAGER

The financial manager/chief financial officer of a music presenting company reports to the CEO and is responsible for managing the financial affairs of the company. The financial manager usually undertakes the role of company secretary. The role involves preparing budgets, financial statements and regular financial reports, and handling account payments, the company payroll, deposits, tax reports and other day-to-day financial matters. Company secretarial duties include preparing for and attending monthly board of directors and audit committee meetings, preparing the agenda papers and minutes for these meetings and ensuring that required reports are submitted to government agencies such as ASIC, and submitted on time. Awareness of corporate governance processes is an essential part of this role. The financial manager works with the executive team to draft the annual budgets of each division, to establish budgetary policies, and to forecast the long-term operational and capital budgets for the company. Liaison with funding bodies over the financial condition of the company is another important duty. The financial manager also coordinates the information systems requirements of the company, supervises contract work such as maintenance to buildings, and supervises the finance staff. Skills

Financial managers require skills in accounting, budgeting, information systems, staff supervision, and oral and written communication. Experience in an arts organisation is an advantage. Experience in a commercial environment can also be of benefit.

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Prospects

Large organisations such as orchestras and opera companies employ full-time financial managers, but even the smallest companies require the services of an accountant to manage their financial accounts. It is particularly important — in terms of ongoing government subsidies — that arts companies can prove they are in sound financial condition. Arts funding organisations such as the Australia Council also employ accountants to monitor the financial status of their clients. Some arts administrators with an accountancy background have taken up CEO positions in arts organisations (Derek Watt, the Managing Director of Symphony Australia, for example). Salaries for financial managers range up to $90,000 per year. Training

A financial manager in an arts presenting company needs to have a degree in accountancy and be a member of a professional accounting body. Experience working in the corporate sector and/or the arts industry is expected. Comment MALCOLM BECKWITH (CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER, THE QUEENSLAND ORCHESTRA):

‘As a Chartered Accountant and Chartered Secretary with extensive experience in commerce, my position as CFO with The Queensland Orchestra is my first foray into the arts. My strong commercial and accounting background, together with interpersonal skills gleaned from working with people from a diverse range of industries, compensated for knowledge gaps in the arts environment. In addition, the existing network of finance officers from other state-based orchestras provided me with practical assistance when requested. Thus far, my role has proven to be both interesting and challenging.’

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FESTIVAL POSITIONS

ARTISTIC DIRECTOR/CEO (CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER) Large festivals in Australia use one of two management models. The first model uses an artistic director who is also the CEO; the second uses an artistic director plus a general manager. The artistic director/CEO of a festival is responsible (to the board of directors of the festival company) for devising a vision or philosophy for the festival and then finding or devising projects that will work within that philosophy and the budget of the festival. Having decided what the events are, where and how they are to be staged and who will be involved in them, the artistic director then delegates the details of the organisation of the event and associated contract negotiations to a producer. A large part of the job is finding appropriate sponsors for the various events and projects; this is usually done with a development manager. The artistic director also networks with funding bodies at international, national, state and municipal levels, in an attempt to maximise the income for the festival.The job also involves establishing strong relationships with the media, in order to get publicity for the festival. The artistic director/CEO also manages the staff who have responsibility for the marketing, development, production and finance areas of the festival. Skills

Music festival artistic directors have to have an extremely wide artistic experience and understanding within the general musical focus of the festival. They have to be able to sell the festival to the public through the media, and to be able to communicate the philosophy of the festival to governments and sponsors. This may be difficult if the festival’s

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vision does not match well with prevailing political and cultural agendas. Once the artistic director is appointed it is usually less than two years until the event — this is not a long time in terms of engaging artists and experienced technical staff (such as lighting designers), who may be booked up years in advance. Because there is generally little time to find the right administrative, technical and artistic people for a festival, artistic directors must have a lot of contacts in the industry: they must know people who can do specific jobs well, and be aware of artists (internationally, nationally and locally) who match the festival’s vision. Artistic directors of music festivals need good financial skills and nerves of steel. As a festival is a one-off event, taking place over a short time-span, it is common for things to go wrong (due to lack of experience with particular venues, sponsors, etc compared with the ongoing, stable activities of permanent arts companies) — outdoor events may need to be cancelled because of weather; sponsors may withdraw; and contractors may suddenly go out of business. All of these will have an impact on the budget. Prospects

Opportunities for artists or administrators to become artistic directors of festivals, particularly for major festivals, are rare. On the one hand, becoming a festival director is sometimes a one-off appointment — a person may be chosen because of their high artistic profile rather than their experience running (smaller) festivals. On the other hand, it is fair to say that mastering the role probably takes several festivals. If a festival is (financially) successful, the board of directors is likely to ask the artistic director to do the next one.There may also be international opportunities to direct festivals based on the financial and artistic success of an Australian festival. Some festival directors, such as Anthony Steel, Robyn Archer (who is also a performer) and Jonathan Mills (who is also a composer), have made careers in this field in Australia.

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Training

The best training for this role is years of experience in the arts industry in as many different areas as possible, including as an artist, in arts administration and in public relations. Comment LY N D O N T E R R A C I N I ( F E S T I VA L D I R E C T O R , Q U E E N S L A N D B I E N N I A L F E S T I VA L O F M U S I C ) :

‘Do it — because it’s tremendously exciting and wonderfully stimulating; and I think you actually can make a significant contribution when you’ve got a fair bit of money to play with. But for the lead-up time, particularly for the last six months, forget about having a life.You don’t have one. And also, you have to be prepared to wear anything that goes wrong, and then you wear the responsibility for the financial loss, which can be quite massive at times. That makes your job prospects even slimmer.’

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PRODUCER

the technical operation, and also to gauge audience reactions. After the show the producer will stay around to make sure the artists are looked after in terms of transport and other arrangements. Skills

A producer working for a festival is responsible for all the administration related to the artistic program. The producer works with the artistic director researching artists, negotiating fees, choosing and booking venues. Determining how the artists match the festival theme(s) and the festival’s corporate sponsorships is an important part of this process.There will be daily contact between the two regarding the current state or stage of each project. Producers then work with the selected artists to compile a list of all the technical requirements of their acts. The producer may also be involved in seeking sponsorship, putting together information and support material for programs and other publicity materials, writing grant applications relating to individual events and communicating regularly with community organisations, sponsors and venues. The producer also helps with the logistical aspects of the overall festival, such as what events are on each day and how those events interrelate. When the festival is on, the producer looks after the artists, arranging all the travel, accommodation and ground transport, and scheduling all the payments that are to be made. The producer attends rehearsals to ensure that there are no technical, artistic or personnel problems. If there are, it is the producer’s responsibility to sort them out. The producer also coordinates any open rehearsals, preparing the artists and speaking to the visitors about the show. The producer will also be at the venue before the performance to ensure that all aspects of the running of the show are in order backstage and front of house.The producer will usually attend the show to evaluate the quality of the performance and of

Festival producers need advanced skills in project management. Interpersonal skills are essential, because they deal with everyone: artists, agents, technicians, administrators, venue personnel, sponsors, government officials and funding agencies. As the work involves concert and theatre technologies, it is an advantage to have a strong technical background, for example in stage management. Producers need to be able to quickly solve technical, logistical and human conflict problems — a good-humoured, calm and logical personality is essential. Producers need lots of physical and mental stamina during the festival period because they work very long hours then. They also need good oral and written communication skills, because they will be writing proposals and grant applications, and negotiating employment contracts and sponsorship deals. The full range of arts administration skills, including financial management, is expected. Prospects

It is difficult to get work as a festival producer because there are very few positions available. The usual route to this kind of work is through stage management or working as an administrator for an arts presenting organisation. Available jobs are usually advertised. The most comprehensive job listing is Dramatic Online (www.dramaticonline.com). Opportunities for advancement from producer are to executive positions such as artistic administrator or general manager of an arts presenting company. Event management is another avenue of employment. As festival producing jobs usually involve seeking and negotiating sponsorship, another avenue for career change is the development area of arts

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administration or charity work. The salary range for a festival producer is $40,000 to $55,000 per year. Training

Training and work experience in both arts administration and stage management is advised. Stage management courses are available through QUT, NIDA, VCA, WAAPA and other university schools specialising in theatre and acting. See the entry for Art form manager (above) for information on arts administration courses. Comment NADEYN BARBIERI (PRODUCTION AND QUEENSLAND B I E N N I A L F E S T I VA L O F M U S I C ) :

DEVELOPMENT MANAGER,

‘I think it’s a fantastic job, and it’s what I’ve always wanted to do. I feel lucky to be able to do it, and I actually look forward to coming to work each day. I must say that I do spend a lot of time here. My advice for people planning to enter this field is be professional, be keen, and network.’

OTHER

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VENUE MANAGER

Venue managers are responsible for the bookings of a venue or venue centre (made up of several venues). This involves marketing the venue, liaising with a range of clients (including regular users and promoters of one-off events), negotiating hire fees, and looking after the needs of the hire clients.Venue managers may also work closely with the venue’s artistic director or programmer on the development of a program of events promoted by the venue itself. The venue manager must make sure the venue is profitable, ensure the artistic quality of the venue’s offerings and meet the needs of community groups. Other management duties may include business forecasting, financial reporting, pricing, strategic planning, staff supervision, business opportunity expansion, venue use analysis and maintaining best practice in venue management (keeping tabs on what other similar venues are doing and taking advantage of the experiences of colleagues). The venue manager maintains a close relationship with clients to ensure that their needs — in terms of technical production, house services and box office — are met.The venue manager liaises closely with other venue departments (technical production, venue programming, for example) to ensure the smooth running of the venue. The competitive market for venues, particularly in large cities, means that the venue manager is also involved in getting individuals and performance organisations to use the venue. Skills

Venue managers need skills in interpersonal communication, office administration, diplomacy, marketing, promotion, budgeting,

negotiation, networking, event management and benchmarking. They also need to be able to use event business management software. Knowledge and understanding of theatre and concert production and programming is also required. Venue managers must be able to balance artistic, commercial and community values. Fundraising skills are an advantage. Prospects

There are many — and many kinds of — music venues, from large entertainment centres, capital city arts complexes and regional arts centres through to theatres, clubs, university unions and community centres. Some people enter the venue management field via related fields such as theatre and concert production, stage management, box office management, venue programming, tour management or event management. Alternatively, venue managers may be recruited from other areas of arts administration, such as arts marketing. In a large organisations it may be possible to progress to a higher position, such as CEO/Artistic director. For information about jobs in this field, check Dramatic Online (www.dramatic online.com — you can only check for jobs if you subscribe to this service [$50 per year]) — or network with members of the Venue Management Association. The salary range for a venue manager is from $35,000 per year in small venues to $80,000 in large capital city venues. Training

Specific training for venue management is provided in the Public Venue Management School, which is run by the Venue Management Association. This is a short course — two stages, each of five days. Many of the skills required for venue management are dealt with in arts administration courses (see Appendix 2). Volunteer work experience in venues is the usual method of entry to the field.

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Comment ELISE CURTIS (VENUE MANAGER, QUEENSLAND PERFORMING ARTS CENTRE):

‘Certainly having a background in production or a qualification in business or arts administration is going to be a big help as the industry becomes more and more competitive.You need to be energetic, dedicated, and flexible in your approach. If you have a creative mind or you are an ideas person, that is an added advantage. It is an exciting industry to work in, with constant variety. No two days are the same!’ L I Z T E R R A C I N I ( P R O J E C T M A N A G E R , N O R PA [NORTHERN RIVERS PERFORMING ARTS]):

‘Just get in and try to learn as much as you can. But it’s not a 9 to 5 job; it’s something that you’re really going to have to put 120% into. You have to like working with the general public. To each hirer, their event is the most important occasion. They’re presenting it in your venue, often with little experience, so they depend on you and your staff to provide the right advice and assistance to ensure that the event issuccessful. Venue management in regional Australia can also be very rewarding in terms of providing a community with an exciting performing arts program that they would otherwise not have access to, and a centre which is the focus of the development and coordination of cultural and artistic activities for that community.’

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Chapter 12

Music therapy

MUSIC THERAPY

MUSIC THERAPIST

‘Music Therapy is the planned and creative use of music to achieve therapeutic aims with children and adults who have particular needs in areas of psychological, socio-emotional, physical, sensory and intellectual problems’ (Australian Music Therapy Association Inc., 1994). Music therapists work in a variety of situations, including with children in special education programs in schools, with children in hospitals, with mental health patients, with older adults who are in nursing homes or who have dementia, with people in palliative care, with people in prisons, with victims of abuse, with women in childbirth, with premature babies and their mothers, and with community groups that have special needs. The work of a music therapist involves assessing the needs of the client, designing a therapy program to meet those needs, implementing the program and evaluating the success of the program, and making changes as necessary to make sure the client is progressing. One of the basic tenets of music therapy is that a client does not require music skills in order to participate. There is a range of activities and strategies for the different circumstances in which music therapists work. For example, with groups of children in special education the therapist may be aiming to develop their communication skills, their ability to be part of a group, their ability to share, to wait and to take turns, or their reading and writing skills. How you work with individuals in special education is determined by what each person’s particular needs are. For example, the therapist might use verbal and non-verbal strategies to develop communication skills. Working with children who have no verbal

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skills, the music therapist might use music to help them learn to support and develop their vocalisations. A music therapist working with someone who is dying in a palliative care ward may use song(s) as a means of expressing the inexpressible — perhaps using already existing songs to help the person express what they would like to say to their family, or perhaps co-writing a song that reflects a feeling or experience in the person’s life, with the idea that that song will continue to have meaning for the family after the person has died. In psychotherapy and counselling generally, music therapists might use music as a vehicle for exploring emotions, feelings, and unresolved tensions. Improvisation might be used as a means of expressing feelings that the person is not able to speak about — expressing something non-verbally can lead to being able to express it verbally later. People with dementia often seem to be living more in their past than in the present — songs from the period of their lives they have gone back to invariably trigger memories. Patients with dementia who are in care may not talk much or interact with other nursing home residents or the staff, but they will often become quite verbal and lucid when they participate in music making, if the music is familiar to them. As dementia progresses, there is an increasing loss of skills (such as self-care, verbal interaction, singing, etc). Rhythm tends to be the last remaining skill, and music therapy activities, particularly rhythm work, provide support and comfort to people who are becoming increasingly confused and bewildered. Much of the music therapy work done with children in hospitals deals with the feelings and emotions related to being in an unfamiliar place and being subjected to physically invasive procedures. Children may be comforted simply by hearing something that is familiar to them. Skills

Music therapists need a wide range of practical music skills. Being able to play a

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portable instrument is essential.The training mainly focuses on guitar, but instruments such as piano accordion are also suitable. Keyboard skills are also required. Music therapists must acquire a large song repertoire, with songs in a variety of styles. Developing and memorising repertoire that it is appropriate to different age groups and types of clients is important. Being able to write songs in a variety of styles and to arrange music for specific purposes, including for groups, is also essential. Music therapists must be able to engage clients in music improvisation as an expressive or interactive process. Learning tonal, atonal, modal and pentatonic improvisation using keyboards, voice, percussion and any other instrument that the therapist is able to play is an important part of the training. Music therapists must also have a strong theoretical understanding of different areas of disability and of various approaches — cognitive, humanistic and behavioural, for example — to development. They must also understand music’s physiological effects (with respect to galvanic skin response and heartbeat, for instance) and psychological effects (such as to sell products or to make the audience feel a certain way about a dramatic film sequence). Music therapists work with groups and individuals, so they need good interpersonal communication skills. They must also be competent in client evaluation, program design, implementation and evaluation, as required by professional guidelines. Music therapists who are starting and/or developing a private practice need small business management, professional networking and self-promotion skills. Prospects

Some music therapists are in private practice full-time, and have rooms where their clients see them. Most do a mixture of private practice and working for organisations one or two days a week. There are very few fulltime jobs available in organisations. The

contract work that is available is mostly in government-funded bodies such as schools and hospitals. Part of the mission of music therapists is to convince organisations to incorporate music therapy into their programs. This involves therapists identifying the kinds of organisations that would benefit from music therapy and then marketing the idea to them, finding ways of showing them how music therapy would be of value to them. Strategies used to do this include offering to do a workshop or lecture for the staff, presenting some research, or running an actual session, so that staff and management are able to see exactly what the value of music therapy would be to their organisation. The Australia Music Therapy Association Inc. provides a job register for people looking for work, and gives employers contact details of people who are registered music therapists.The Association recommends a fee of $60 per hour, but the fees actually paid to music therapists range between $25 and $60 per hour. Training

Music therapy training involves a mixture of specialised study in performance, psychodynamic frameworks (strategies for bringing feelings to the surface), working with groups and individuals, music therapy methods and techniques, songwriting, arranging and improvisation, together with units in social work, psychology, health and special education. A vital feature of the training is supervised placement in a variety of clinical practice situations. There are two main ways to qualify as a registered music therapist in Australia — as an undergraduate music student doing a music therapy major in a music degree or as a music graduate enrolled in a postgraduate diploma in music therapy. Although there are fewer than 300 Registered Music Therapists (RMTs) working in Australia, there are many other musicians who call themselves music therapists working with people with special needs.

MUSIC THERAPY

These people, although they may have admirable intentions, and may perhaps be doing good work, are not trained in assessment, program development or evaluation. Comment SUE COULL (MUSIC

THERAPIST):

‘Anyone who has an aim to share music with other people and to help them might want to think about becoming a music therapist. If you ask me my ideal job, this is it. I am using my music skills, my love for music, and my desire to help others achieve their maximum potential. I make music all day long, and there are observable benefits for the children with whom I work.’

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Chapter 13

Libraries, archives and museums his chapter deals with music-specific jobs available in libraries and other information services, as well as institutions such as archives and museums. The chapter includes entries for music librarian, orchestral librarian, music manuscript archivist, sound archivist and music curator.

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LIBRARIES, ARCHIVES AND MUSEUMS

MUSIC LIBRARIAN

Some of the larger universities in Australia have separate music collections or music branch libraries. These libraries employ one or more librarians who specialise (or who wish to specialise) in music. Other universities incorporate their music collections into the general collection and may not employ a specialist music librarian. Music librarians are also employed in the national and state libraries. The Australian Music Centre (AMC) employs a number of staff in its library, some of whom are also involved in managing the information services of the Centre, which are based around extensive files of information about composers and their works. A music librarian’s job is to provide library and information services for clients ranging from the general public to the specialised researcher. In the case of university libraries, the clients are mostly music academics and music students. In universities, the main roles of a music librarian are helping with individual reference inquiries, providing information access training, particularly for new undergraduate and research students, developing the music collection and services in collaboration with the academic staff, and carrying out administrative tasks relating to the branch library. Some branch libraries may also be involved in cataloguing. If cataloguing is performed centrally, the music librarian provides specific advice for this function, as well as about music cataloguing policy. The cataloguing of music collections is a complex process. Usually books, scores, music instruction publications, serials and recordings are catalogued in discrete blocks. According to Hack and Schwegel (1994: 121) ‘the issue [for scores] is to find a system

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that will allow a patron to find material organized by composer (all of Bach’s works together in one place), by medium (all the works for flute and harp in one place), and by form (all the sonatas in one place). There is also the practical difficulty of accommodating such a wide array of formats — from miniature to full-sized orchestral scores — in a single sequence.’ Cataloguing is further complicated by the fact that individual pieces of music may have alternative titles (often in different languages). In addition, the cataloguing detail required for printed anthologies of pieces and sound recordings is often extensive. A music librarian may be required to provide advice on scores, recordings, books and manuscripts offered as gifts to the collection. This involves evaluating the material, usually in collaboration with academic staff or other experts, assessing the costs of cataloguing and housing the materials (and then applying for the necessary funding) and dealing with the donors. Skills

Music librarians need a broad knowledge of music — tertiary music study is required. They should be able to read music, understand music terminology from a wide range of music genres, and be able to do basic translations from foreign languages such as German, French and Italian. They need to be able to understand different printed music formats (performance scores, study scores, vocal scores, sheet music, arrangements, excerpts, parts, transcriptions, editions and anthologies), and they need to know about sound recordings and other non-score based material. Depending on the focus of the collection and the research interests of the clients, very specialised knowledge of particular kinds of music may be required (early music, ethnomusicology, popular music, etc). Music librarians also need tertiary qualifications in library science, because they need skills in researching, cataloguing,

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library management, library information systems, office administration, copyright, accessing online databases, collection development, information access training, knowledge management, website development and service evaluation. Because a large part of the work involves interacting with clients, skills in interpersonal communication are also essential. In the case of information services such as the Australian Music Centre, skills relating to other parts of the operation — such as publishing and marketing — may also be required. Prospects

There are not many jobs as specialist music librarians available in Australian universities and public libraries. However, there is no reason why a music graduate interested in becoming a music librarian should not train as a general librarian, with the idea of moving into the more specialised field when a job becomes available. Jobs in orchestral libraries are another option (see separate entry in this chapter). The starting salary for university librarians is about $35,000 per year. A manager of a large library can earn up to $150,000. As librarianship is now a branch of information technology, a possible career move for a librarian is to start an information brokering business. Training

Perhaps because the field is a small one, there are no specialist music librarianship degrees or postgraduate courses in Australia. Because music librarians need to have a broad technical, cultural and historical knowledge of music, people wishing to enter this field of employment should undertake a music degree followed by a postgraduate degree or diploma in library and information studies, rather than a general librarian undergraduate program. Postgraduate courses in library and information studies are available at numerous tertiary institutions.

Specific music librarianship skills may be developed by networking with the members of the Australian branch of the International Association of Music Libraries (IAML). There are about 50 members working in a variety of music libraries around Australia, and a national conference is held every two years. Comment MARY O’MARA (FORMER MUSIC UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND):

LIBRARIAN,

‘Get the music degree first, then become a librarian, but leave your options open. I’ve always been quite concerned about people who say they’d like to work in a music library, or they’d like to be a music librarian. I don’t think anybody can have that luxury now. I think the idea is to get into a library, to get that library background, and combine it with your music background when you can.’ JUDITH FOSTER (LIBRARIAN, AUSTRALIAN MUSIC CENTRE):

‘If it’s something that you are passionate about, it’s a rewarding area to work in. It can be very interesting because you are dealing with such a broad range of people: students, teachers, performers, composers; all sorts of people come into the library.’

LIBRARIES, ARCHIVES AND MUSEUMS

ORCHESTRAL LIBRARIAN

In Australia the National Music Library, operated by Symphony Australia, acts as a service centre for the six major orchestras that Symphony Australia works with, each of which also has its own library staff. The National Music Library also provides a hire service for other Australian orchestras. It employs a library manager, a senior librarian to look after the needs of the major orchestras, and a librarian to manage the hire service. It also employs two library assistants. In addition, there is a position called music editor, essentially a copyist whose job is to prepare the parts for the music that is commissioned, either electronically or by hand (see Copyist, in Chapter 2: Composition). The library manager’s job is to manage the library’s staff, ensure that the needs of the network orchestras are met, oversee the budget (including the purchase of music), the stocktake, the development of the library’s collection and the cataloguing, and keep abreast of developments in music librarianship, copyright laws and music publishing. The librarian in charge of acquiring music for the orchestras liaises with all the publishers and their agents and either buys orchestral scores and parts or hires them. The hire librarian manages the requests from non-network orchestras for the hire of scores and parts. Within the orchestras, the orchestral librarians have a number of roles. These include ordering music they don’t already have from the National Music Library (about a year in advance of the scheduled performance); managing their own library collections; checking the ordered material when it arrives to ensure that there are no missing parts or pages; keeping to the

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schedule of preparing the material for all the concerts in the season; and photocopying practice parts for the musicians as well as additional scores for the producer and technical staff (as required). The orchestral librarian also oversees the marking the bowings of string parts. This applies to parts that are not already marked, such as new parts, or parts that are hired and have been marked by other orchestras. The concertmaster usually marks the part for the first desk of the first violins. The markings for the other first violin desks are then copied in by the orchestral librarian. The other string section leaders progressively do their bowings on the basis of the first violin part, and the librarian ensures that all the other parts are marked up accordingly. When excerpts of works are programmed, the librarian prepares the score and parts of the selection by photocopying and binding them. Skills

Orchestral librarians must be able to read music and understand all the notational aspects of orchestral scores, including the terminology, symbols and abbreviations associated with instruments and instrumental techniques (these will be in several major European languages). They also need to understand the literature describing the orchestration of standard works and different editions. In the National Music Library, the librarian ordering scores from publishers needs to be familiar with all the different editions of works, plus their sources and availability, and to liaise with conductors, artistic administrators and soloists to make sure that the desired edition is ordered. It is useful for an orchestral librarian to have a background in string playing in order to understand bowing directions. Although formal qualifications in music are not necessary, experience as a classical music performer is considered very useful. Orchestral librarians need good organisational skills to create and maintain the

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roster — any oversight or mistake may cause havoc to the schedule once rehearsals for a particular work begin. Some jobs — the library manager’s position at Symphony Australia, for example — require higher levels of administrative skills. As the field becomes more technologised, skills in information management may also become a standard prerequisite. Prospects

There are very few jobs available as an orchestral librarian. Some librarians begin by doing some form of work experience or volunteer work in an orchestral library. It is also possible to move sideways, from another job in orchestra administration. Once in the job there are very few prospects for advancement except sideways again, into other orchestral management or arts administration positions. A move into commercial hire libraries run by music publishers is also possible (see Hire library manager, in Chapter 7: Music business). The salary for an orchestral librarian ranges from $35,000 to $45,000 per year. Training

Formal qualifications are not the norm in this area. As stated above, a music degree is not really necessary, but relevant musical skills and experience are.A qualification in librarianship or library technology would be useful. Comment CAROLINE WALLER (LIBRARY N AT I O N A L M U S I C L I B R A R Y ) :

MANAGER,

‘You need to know that there are not a lot of jobs in orchestral music librarianship or in music librarianship in general. The best way to go is to be really interested in it and take the initiative to go and visit the orchestras or the National Music Library. Make yourself known, do voluntary work or do work experience.There are different ways to get into the field. Symphony Australia encourages movement of staff between different departments and between orchestras, so opportunities arise for professional development.’

ANNA CERNIK (LIBRARIAN, SYDNEY SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA):

‘You have to be prepared to work pretty well on your own. It’s a bit of a thankless job: you don’t really know how your work is appreciated, except when you make a mistake. Only occasionally do we get feedback from the players.You have to be self-motivated, initiate things, and think about what’s happening on stage so that you can make it easier for the players. You can’t be waiting for someone to tell you what to do — you have to think about it yourself.’

LIBRARIES, ARCHIVES AND MUSEUMS

MUSIC MANUSCRIPT ARCHIVIST

A music manuscript archivist is likely to be found only in a state or federal library, such as Sydney’s Mitchell Library or the National Library of Australia in Canberra.These libraries collect the personal papers and music manuscripts of Australian composers, including living composers who have a significant public profile. They are also interested in collecting complete sets of historical records from important music organisations. The job of a music manuscript archivist involves locating potential acquisitions, assessing the suitability of the material, acquiring the material, arranging for it to be valued, sorting through it, ordering it, describing it, entering information into a database, liaising with donors and authors on restrictions to be placed on certain items, liaising with conservators relating to repairs, housing the material, assisting researchers and other interested parties in accessing it, and liaising with copyright owners about the use of the material in publications. The sorts of materials collected include any items that document a composer’s career: original music manuscripts that show the whole process a composer goes through (sketches), rough drafts of works, completed manuscripts before they go to a publisher, correspondence — particularly professional correspondence to other musicians or music industry organisations and personal correspondence — photographs and other relevant printed material (such as concert program notes and posters). Published scores by the composers and other published material in their libraries may also be sought. Skills

A music manuscript archivist working in Australia needs a thorough knowledge of Australian music history, and skills in music

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reading and analysis. Often, when a collection is acquired, one page of a piece of music is in one box and the rest of the piece is in another box. Being able to make sense of all the pieces requires musicological detective work. The same kinds of skills are required to match sketches with the works they eventually became. Archivists need to be sensitive about the content of private correspondence, because they must determine whether or not restrictions should be placed on access to it. Information management skills are required for the cataloguing aspects of the work. Excellent interpersonal skills are needed for dealing with potential donors, donors, archive clients and other professionals in the archive environment. Prospects

There are only a few jobs available in this field, mostly in large state and federal libraries. Training

A honours degree or research degree in musicology, together with a Graduate Diploma in Archive Administration, would be usually required. Comment MEREDITH LAWN (MUSIC MITCHELL LIBRARY):

A R C H I V I S T,

‘You need to apply for a generic archivist position but then go in there and persuade the organisation that you have specialist musical skills that are needed.’

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SOUND ARCHIVIST

There are sound archives in libraries, museums, research institutes, universities, radio stations and record companies. Australian institutions that employ sound archivists include ScreenSound, the National Library of Australia and the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Sound archivists locate collections, assess them, make selections of recordings for preservation, digitise collections, identify and describe collections, catalogue them, make them accessible to researchers and other clients, and write guidebooks to collections. They may also act as producers of commercial recordings issued by the institution they work for. Some of them are also involved in field recording. Sound archivists usually work with audio technicians, who manage the technical side of processing the recorded material in the archive. Skills

Sound archivists must have a thorough knowledge of the styles of music in the archive. Fundamental skills, such as being able to identify the start and finish of items in recorded song repertoires, together with more advanced skills in analysis, classification and documentation, are required. They need advanced written and oral communication skills, because part of their job is to publicise the work of the archive through printed and recorded publications, seminars, lectures and/or websites, and excellent interpersonal skills, because they also need to deal with clients, donors and colleagues. They also need to be good at networking and research so that they can locate collections and related information.

When the archives include indigenous or other culturally sensitive materials, the archivists need to know how to behave appropriately when dealing with the material and with clients. A thorough understanding of the ethics of archival research and public access is also required, including knowledge of copyright and moral rights legislation. Sound archivists need to stay abreast of the latest technologies in audio playback, recording, manipulation and preservation. Because they need to supervise sound technicians, they need to be very familiar with sound recording processes, specifications and standards. Management skills relating to budgets and personnel may be required, depending on the level of the position. Prospects

There are not many jobs in sound and audiovisual archives.To get into this field it is advisable to have some experience in broadcasting, librarianship, ethnomusicology or folklore, as well as the required qualifications. Training

Sound archivists should have an academic or professional background in the field(s) of music covered by the collection(s) they are dealing with. In addition, they need a qualification accepted by the Australian Society of Archivists. The Australian Society of Archivists (ASA) has a mentor scheme for archivists. Comment GRACE KOCH (AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER STUDIES):

‘I’m an aural person, I’m sensitive to sound, I love sound; it’s a major area of perception for me. I never get tired of listening to music and speech. That’s important. But you have to make sure you get a qualification in music and in archival management. Then you can write your own ticket.’

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MUSIC CURATOR

The curator provides advice on the conservation of items in the collection, which may involve outsourcing restoration work and monitoring it to ensure the integrity of the original object, answers inquiries about the collection from the general public and assists researchers.

Music curators work in museums and libraries that have music or performing arts collections. In Australia the main collections are held in the Powerhouse Museum (Sydney), The Performing Arts Museum (Victorian Arts Centre), the Queensland Performing Arts Museum, and the National Library of Australia (Canberra). Music curatorship covers a range of specialisations such as music manuscripts, printed music, recorded music, musical instruments and music technology, plus theatrical areas such as costumes and sets. The music curator’s main activities are planning and producing exhibitions and managing collections. Putting together an exhibition involves sourcing lenders, contacting them and making loan arrangements, developing storylines and content, and writing labels and other documentation. The music curator often works as part of a team of curators — the others may well work in areas such as social history and decorative arts. The music curator is also responsible for developing and maintaining the music collection. This involves seeking out items that are covered by the collection policy but not currently represented in the collection, and making judgements about the suitability of potential acquisitions. In the case of musical instruments, the curator may also be involved in commissioning instruments from highly regarded instrument makers. To increase awareness about a collection, curators display items, write about them, and create web access to them. Curators often also organise concerts — or other types of events, such as conferences and workshops — to highlight and publicise collections such as music scores or musical instruments.

Skills

Music curators need a broad knowledge of music history and of creative and performance practices relating to the field of music covered in the collection (musical instruments, popular music or indigenous music, for example), plus specialist museum management skills. Curators also need to function effectively in a bureaucracy, work with museum personnel in other areas (such as design, conservation, publishing, printing, events, and public programs) and deal with lenders, donors, dealers, other museums, the public and the media, so they require excellent interpersonal skills. Curators produce reports, catalogues, and articles for conferences and journals, so they need good writing and research skills. Curators may be involved in many projects simultaneously, so good organisational skills are essential. Prospects

Music curators in museums must have qualifications in the subject area of the collection as well as in museum studies or a similar discipline. In addition, experience working in a museum is usually expected.Volunteer work is a common way to gain experience — most museums rely on volunteers for their operation. There are very few jobs in this specific area, so it may be advisable for those who wish to be music curators to try to get more general work in a museum and then wait for a music curatorial job to be advertised. Alternatively, a person in a more general museum job may be able to press for more specialised involvement in the museum’s music collection.

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Training

The standard training for a curator is a tertiary qualification in the subject area plus a graduate diploma or masters in museum studies or a related area, such as heritage studies, curatorial studies or conservation. Because the competition for these jobs is increasing, a research degree, preferably a doctorate, in the relevant area of interest may also be helpful. Comment M I C H A E L L E A ( C U R AT O R , P O W E R H O U S E MUSEUM):

‘The main thing is to obtain music (or popular music/popular culture) qualifications and certainly to get a museum qualification. If you have the opportunity to do volunteer work, make the most of that.’ P E T E R C O X ( C U R AT O R , P O W E R H O U S E MUSEUM):

‘Temporary jobs come up on a project basis, and this can lead to other projects; you can build up your experience to get into a position to apply for permanent jobs.’

Appendix 1

Essential skills hroughout the text of this book, references have been made to the skills that are essential for particular job categories. As it is unrealistic to write at length about these skills every time they appear, it was decided to add an appendix which briefly explained the skills most often referred to. Even so, many of these skills are far too complex to describe in a paragraph or two. My objective is to provide some information that can form the basis of further investigation. Many of the skills dealt with below, such as networking, small business management, project management, sight-reading, performance practice and improvisation, are in fact the subject of whole books. The bibliography of this book lists further resources for learning about many of these skills.

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BUSINESS AND ADMINISTRATION SKILLS

A range of skills in office technologies, including the use of word processing, databases, spreadsheets, email and web browsers, is essential. PROJECT MANAGEMENT

SMALL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Though there are some people working for multinational record companies and major arts organisations, most music industry operatives are working in a small business. Many have their own small businesses. Freelance composers, performers, music producers, music writers and instrument makers all operate small businesses. Getting into small business involves working out what kind of legal entity is appropriate, developing a business plan (particularly if finance needs to be raised) and doing market research. There are many aspects of operating a small business that need to be always under control: sales promotion, pricing, merchandise control, accounting, cash flow reporting, strategies for increasing profits), taxation, insurance and computing systems. If the business employs staff, the business also needs recruitment procedures, job descriptions, training plans, and information about appropriate wages and industrial relations arrangements. Small business management is complex, but there are many books and courses available (including free guides provided by state governments). OFFICE ADMINISTRATION

The skills of office administration revolve around the management of communication, data and personnel.Accordingly, office administration also requires highly developed organisational skills, including filing, maintaining databases, and scheduling appointments and meetings. Good oral and written communication skills are required for giving advice to other workers, handling outside inquiries, taking minutes at meetings and writing reports.

Project management skills are essential for people involved in the music industry. Typical music industry projects are organising tours, concerts and festivals, making records, releasing records and making video clips. Project management involves establishing aims and objectives, liaising with clients and sponsors, assigning tasks, splitting up tasks into manageable units, sequencing tasks, allocating resources to tasks, estimating and budgeting (time and money), managing risk, quality control, monitoring progress, solving problems, contingency planning and evaluating. Project managers need skills in planning, coordination, leadership, team building, facilitation, advocacy, conflict resolution, resource estimation, budgeting, networking and evaluation. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

Strategic management means following the strategic plan of the business, government department or government-funded organisation.The strategic plan specifies the organisation’s objectives and lists the methods and policies the body will use to achieve those objectives. Creating the plan generally starts with a comprehensive analysis of the organisation in relation to its industry, its competitors, and the policy and cultural environment in which it exists. CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Good crisis management means being able to stay calm and act appropriately when something goes wrong, and quickly coming up with alternative courses of action.This is critical for people working in live performance, or on projects where meeting deadlines is important.

ESSENTIAL SKILLS

TIME MANAGEMENT

Skill in time management is essential for musicians, because their careers involve conflicting demands. Being a good musician means spending a lot of time maintaining your performance skills, creating original works and mastering constantly changing technologies. But success also depends on spending time on self-promotion and business administration. Time management involves setting objectives, determining priorities, and carrying out tasks in a systematic way. Successful time management means allocating time to particular tasks realistically, being well organised, managing interruptions, delegating effectively (where possible) and accessing information efficiently. COMMUNICATION SKILLS

The essence of good communication, both oral and written, is sending clear messages, providing enough information but not getting bogged down in detail. With oral communication, positive body language is important, including making eye contact with listeners. Active listening is also crucial — this includes the listener not becoming distracted or interrupting. Communication channels should be kept open; messages that come in, on email or voicemail, for example, should be responded to promptly. If differences of opinion or problems relating to the behaviour of certain people arise, they should be brought out into the open, and an attempt should be made to resolve them through negotiation or mediation. People working together in a business or other organisation should try to develop good relationships with each other — the relationships need to be based on mutual respect. Strong professional relationships are more likely to stand up to tough words or bad news. The proceedings of formal meetings,

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particularly any decisions made, should be documented. In the case of a more informal meeting between two or more people, a brief note (letter or email) to confirm any decisions that were made should be sent very soon after the meeting. Good writing skills are needed for the creation of reports, business proposals, grant applications and press releases.Writing is similar to explaining something verbally, but without the advantage of body language, voice tone, and interaction with the listener. As with speaking, the writer should first consider who the audience is and what the intended outcome of the piece of writing is. Effective writing uses short sentences and doesn’t put too many ideas into one sentence. A logical flow from one sentence to the next, and from one paragraph to the next, is essential. Headings and subheadings are useful to clarify the content areas and the direction of the writing. WRITING GRANT APPLICATIONS

Most granting bodies give applicants a format for the application, with headings such as ‘title of project’, ‘description of project’, ‘aim of project’, ‘significance of project’, ‘background of project’, ‘methods to be used’, ‘budget’, ‘budget justification’, and key personnel biographies. When applying for grants (or jobs), the important thing is to respond to each of the assessment criteria as well as possible. Talking to the administrators of the grant is the best way to clarify what the assessment criteria and other administrative requirements are, and to get a clear idea of the expectations of the selection committee. If you are unsuccessful, try to get feedback about what was wrong with your application. Anything you learn will improve your chances with future applications. NETWORKING

Networking means making contacts and communicating with others in order to facilitate creative and/or business opportunities.

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In any field, professional people need contacts among their peers, and among people working in related areas. For example, musicians need to be able to call on the services of other (like-minded) musicians, and people working in other sectors of the industry, such as music production (engineers, producers, etc) and music business (agents, promoters, venues, publishers, record labels, the media, etc). Professional networks interconnect, so your own contacts will give you access to other contacts. To create a network you need the respect of your peers, a personal style that is attractive to others and, above all, the initiative and persistence to make and maintain contacts. Joining professional associations, attending music seminars and conventions (which often include ‘schmoozing’ sessions), and doing volunteer work for organisations and companies in your field of interest are the best ways to begin to create a network. SELF-PROMOTION

There’s an old industry adage that no-one is going to knock on your door to give you a break. Most successful people in the music industry are actively involved in selfpromotion, whether they are in business themselves or working in organisations. Networking is an obvious form of self-promotion, particularly with people and organisations that are in a position to do business with you. Keeping your network informed of activities and new products and services is essential. This can be done by emails, mailouts, phone calls, organised meetings, industry conventions and social activities. A website is another powerful self-promotional tool, because it has can promote you beyond your network. Generating media publicity is another aspect of self-promotion. Radio interviews, television appearances, news stories, feature articles and reviews are the main forms of media publicity. If you cannot afford a publicist, you will need to negotiate all these kinds of publicity personally. This is an essential, but time-consuming activity.

NEGOTIATION

Negotiating skills are important when setting the terms and conditions of individual contracts or enterprise bargaining agreements. They are also used in conflict resolution. The essence of negotiation is that both parties have a stake in the outcome. Successful negotiators identify their goals, recognise the legitimacy of the other party’s needs, are sincere in seeking a solution, are prepared to spend the time required, are adequately prepared for the negotiation (facts and figures, legalities, etc), are able to state their own position without offending the other party. They are often able to persuade the other party to accept their (the negotiator’s) position — but they also recognise that compromise might be necessary.

ESSENTIAL SKILLS

MUSICAL SKILLS

SIGHT-READING

Sight-reading is the ability to play fully notated music scores and parts, or various kinds of musical guide charts (such as chord charts) with little or no preparation. In a professional context, a high level of accuracy is expected. In the classical music field, accompanists, choristers and orchestral musicians need highly developed sight-reading skills. The same is true for backing musicians and recording session musicians in a wide variety of commercial music styles. This skill requires regular practice, familiarity with the style of music being performed, and instant recognition of the typical patterns (melodic, chordal, rhythmic) and notation conventions (such as signs and directions) of particular styles. In the case of charts used in jazz and many forms of popular music, being able to improvise in the style of the chart is considered part of sight-reading. Similarly, for music from certain periods of classical music there is an expectation that if you can sight-read you can also improvise (continuo playing in Baroque music, for example). Accompanists and repetiteurs may also be required to sight-read reductions of full scores and to transpose keyboard scores into other keys at sight.

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wind band musicians. Memorisation skills are a combination of tactile memory, analytical memory and visual memory (where there are scores or charts). Being good at memorisation requires meticulous preparation and ongoing practice of the works concerned. Confidence in one’s ability to memorise is also essential. TRANSCRIPTION

Transcription is the process of notating a piece of recorded music for the purpose of making a performance chart. Members of a cover or tribute band may transcribe the original recording so that what they play is almost identical to it. Alternatively, arrangers may be contracted by an artist or band to notate exactly what is played on a particular recorded track. Another motive for transcription is to analyse the music. Jazz musicians, for example, often transcribe improvised solos by famous players because they want to understand the principles underlying those improvisations. Good transcribers have high-level aural recognition skills and a thorough knowledge of the notation conventions of particular musical genres. A similar process — but without notation — is used by a variety of musicians who do not read music. By listening to a recording many times, many musicians can work out (exactly) what is being played and how to play it.They do this by aural recognition of typical patterns in particular styles and by a process of experimentation, usually involving playing along with the recording.

MEMORISATION

PERFORMANCE

Memorisation of music is required in a wide range of musical styles: classical music soloists have traditionally been expected to play from memory, and memorisation is the norm in rock, country and related popular music genres. Backing musicians may be required to memorise their parts, particularly if they are playing in a long-running show, but usually they are exempted from this requirement. Playing from memory has never been a requirement for choral, chamber, orchestral or

PRACTICE

In notated music, ‘performance practice’ means the way players interpret what is written in a score by adding subtleties of rhythm and melodic embellishments, and by making decisions relating to tempo, dynamics, phrasing, articulation, timbre and other aspects of musical expression. Notation in most musical traditions is regarded as a mere guide for what is actually performed. The specific performance practices for particular

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genres and repertoires are usually passed from one generation of musicians to another by imitation and by discussion with teachers and peers. Musicians can also learn about performance practice by reading historical treatises and through the recordings and writings of performers. Performance practice as a concept also applies to oral music traditions, particularly those that feature improvisation. In order to be a successful performer in a specific musical genre, you need to be able to understand and put into musical practice all the improvised musical gestures and rhythmic intricacies that are typical of that genre. IMPROVISATION

Improvisation, the systematic invention of music in real time, is a feature — to varying degrees — of many forms of music. The jazz and Indian classical music traditions, for example, are based on the practice of improvising; the various styles of rock have improvisatory elements, such as freely interpreted embellishments of the basic chordal framework and improvised instrumental solos. Various early European music genres also have elaborate improvised embellishment. Being able to improvise in a particular musical tradition requires a thorough grounding in the theory of that genre, advanced (real-time) aural recognition skills, and many years of disciplined involvement in performance practice analysis, systematic practice, and rehearsals and performances with other musicians.

practice also needs to be coordinated or mediated by a musical director. ENSEMBLE

‘Ensemble’ refers to the way in which groups of musicians synchronise and blend when playing together. The successful blending of sounds requires a high level of communication and understanding among the players with regard to performance practice, dynamic balance, tone colour blend, tempo changes, tempo gradations and textural groove. This last category is particularly pertinent when the performance practice involves subtle variations in the relative lengths of notes. Impeccable ensemble work is achieved by years of rehearsal and performance (as in the case of string quartets and veteran rock bands), but good ensemble work is also expected from scratch groups of professionals. Substantial performance experience from all the players is usually needed if they are to achieve excellent ensemble qualities. REHEARSAL

Efficient and effective rehearsals are critical to professional success for musicians involved with ensembles. Rehearsal technique involves being able to take direction and to work as a member of a team. Musicians are expected to be appropriately prepared for rehearsal and to work as cooperatively as possible with the group. Rehearsals should be structured so as to make the best use of the time available. REPERTOIRE

MUSICAL

KNOWLEDGE

DIRECTION

Most forms of music performance require substantial repertoire knowledge. In genres where memorisation is essential (classical music soloists, for instance), maintaining a significant repertoire takes a lot of time and requires great focus on the part of the performer. Being able to recall hundreds of songs is essential for entertainment contexts where the audience can make requests. In genres where memorisation is not required (such as orchestral music), musicians

The job category of musical director is dealt with in this book with reference to music theatre, cabaret, and conducting generally.The skills of musical direction are, however, applicable in many musical contexts. All music played in groups needs to be directed by someone who is able to make decisions relating to tempo, balance, phrasing, cueing and other aspects of performance. Group decision-making with respect to performance

ESSENTIAL SKILLLS

need to be familiar with the repertoire so that they can prepare for performances efficiently. The term ‘repertoire knowledge’ is also used in the context of programming for concerts, radio and the like. Artistic administrators and programmers must have a great knowledge of the relevant genres — including knowledge of the instrumentation and duration of particular works — so that they can put together suitable groupings of pieces.

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STAGECRAFT SKILLS

COMMUNICATION WITH AUDIENCE

Performers in many genres of music need to be able to talk naturally and fluently to their audiences. They need to practise fluency, timing and pacing. Content is also important: performers should be aware of what is entertaining, and/or affecting or useful for the audience of the genre they are working in. In contemporary classical music they may, for example, attempt to explain something about the piece that will help listeners understand it when it is played. Singer/ songwriters often need to be able to tell an anecdote relating to the writing of the song. Making eye contact with an audience is also essential. This can be difficult when the stage lighting blinds the performer to the audience. COMMUNICATION WITH PERFORMERS

All genres of music demand effective communication among players. It is essential for good ensemble work, but also because audiences respond well to signs of enthusiastic and enjoyable interaction among players. Communication among players is often restricted because of the stage etiquette for particular genres. GROOMING

All genres of music performance involve dress and grooming standards. Alternative rock bands of the early 1990s, for example, were expected to wear faded flannel shirts, ripped jeans or baggy shorts, boots or tennis shoes and long hair. Failure to comply with the code invariably spoils the effect for the audience.

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STAGE ETIQUETTE

All genres of music performance involve a set of rules (some quite loose) for behaviour on stage, including how to enter the stage, how to exit the stage, how and where to sit or stand on stage, how to move on stage, and how to communicate with the audience (including how to acknowledge applause). The soloist or the leader of an ensemble may have special responsibilities, including talking to the audience, calling for solos from individual musicians, and introducing the players individually to the audience. Musicians working in particular genres must understand what is required in terms of stage etiquette.

closely connected to performance energy — performers can create excitement and tension if they take musical, physical, emotional or verbal risks. MOVEMENT

Musicians must understand the stage set-up requirements of the genre they are working in. This means presenting the sound and lighting crew with a plan of where every item of equipment is to appear on stage. In the case of sound, this includes specifications of microphones and monitors and any special signal processing (effects) required. Depending on the genre, lighting specifications may also be provided by the artists, including precise areas of the stage to be lit in particular ways. In order to communicate effectively with the stage, sound and lighting crew, musicians should learn the language of sound and lighting, so that they can explain what they want in the correct technical terms.

There is a history of movement/dance allied to the evolution of many musical styles.The more the performers know about this history, the better will be their understanding of how the music should be played. Stage movement is also a feature of musical performance, particularly for soloists, bands, backup singers and conductors. Movement requires coordination: the body must visually follow the music at an appropriate intensity level. Although many performers appear to improvise movement, most stage movement requires planning and rehearsal. For singers this also includes hand movements and movements associated with using microphones and microphone stands. The singer’s body needs to make a connection with the song if the singer is to be able to convey the emotional or narrative message of the song, so the planning of physical gesture is paramount. Performers should try to avoid unconscious, nervous, movement-related habits creeping into their performances. Coordination of movement is often expected in group performance. Examples of this include string section bowing in orchestral performance and moves for backup singers.

ENERGY

ACTING

Audiences expect music performers of all genres to exhibit energy in their performances.This may come from movement, but it is also required in performances where movement (other than that required to play the instrument or sing) is not an overt factor. In these cases energy may appear in the form of emotional intensity, or as the creation and maintenance of a sustained mood. Performers have to learn to create their own energy and to control the energy contour of a performance. Performance risk taking is

Singers often perform songs whose subject is outside their own experience — they need acting skills to make the audience believe in the performance. Also, many songs, or interpretations of songs, have a subtext. Acting skills may be necessary to bring this out. Acting skills are also required to control the look of a performance. Audiences focus on what performers look like, and music is marketed visually. A sense of visual style is necessary in all forms of music performance.

STAGE SET-UP

ESSENTIAL SKILLLS

FITNESS

Physical fitness is necessary for movement, breath control, strength and stamina in performance. Some types of performance are more strenuous than others, but all require some degree of fitness.This is particularly the case when musicians are performing daily in seasons or on tours. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Music performers need to do the warm-up and cool-down exercises that are necessary for the style of music they are performing. They also need to understand the legislation relating to occupational health and safety in the music industry, particularly in relation to using mains power, lifting and climbing on stage equipment, and noise levels. Musicians need to find ways to overcome performance anxiety and other stresses related to the profession.They should be aware of the many lifestyle hazards associated with their working conditions — substance abuse, unhealthy diet, unsafe sex, dangerous crowds, passive smoking and long hours of road travel.

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Appendix 2

Music training opportunities

elow is a list of major areas of music and related training for which degree-level training is available in Australia. The full names of the institutions and their URLs (website addresses) are provided. Further below is a list of training opportunities at diploma and certificate level. The websites are the best source of detailed information. University and other institutional URLs are often changed in restructures; those here are correct at the time of printing. You can also access the main pages of all Australian universities through the Australian ViceChancellors Committee (AVCC) website: www.avcc.edu.au/australias_unis/individual _unis/.

>B

MUSIC TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES

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Institutions that grant degrees in music and related areas (undergraduate and postgraduate combined) CLASSICAL

MUSIC PERFORMANCE

ANU, UNE, NewcU, AIM, AICM, UNSW, SydCon, USyd, UWS/Pen, WIMA, UOW, NTU, QldCon/B, QUT, UQ, CQU/M, USQ, JCU, Elder, UTAS/H, ACU/SPC, Melba, MonCl, RMIT, UMel,VCA,WAAPA, UWA CONTEMPORARY

CLASSICAL MUSIC COMPOSITION

ANU, UNE, NewcU, AIM, AICM, UNSW, SydCon, USyd, UWS/Pen, UOW, QldCon/B, QUT, UQ, CQU/M, Elder, UTAS/H, Mon/Cl, UMel,VCA,WAAPA, UWA, Melba MUSIC

TECHNOLOGY/ELECTRO ACOUSTIC MUSIC

ANU, NewcU, SydCon, UWS/Pen, UOW, QldCon/B, QUT, Elder, Mon/Cl, UMel,WAAPA MUSICOLOGY

ANU, UNE, NewcU, UNSW, SydCon, USyd, UWS/Pen, UOW, QldCon/B, QUT, UQ, Elder, ACU/SPC, Mon/Cl, UMel, UWA ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

UNE, UNSW, SydCon, Elder, Mon/Cl, UMel POPULAR

MUSIC THEORY/RESEARCH

UNE, SCU, USyd, UNSW (English Dept), Macq, QldCon/GC, Mon/Cl, UTS MUSIC

E D U C AT I O N R E S E A R C H

ANU, UNSW, SydCon, Mon/Cl, RMIT, UMel, UWA, NewcU M U S I C E D U C AT I O N

ANU, UNE, UNSW, SydCon, WIMA, NYU, QUT, USQ, Elder, UTAS/L, Mon/Cl, RMIT, UMel,WAAPA, UWA, ACU/AC, NewcU E D U C AT I O N

WITH A MUSIC STRAND

CSU/B, CSU/WW, CSU/Alb, SCU, ACU/MSMC, UOW, NTU, ACU/AC, UBall, LaT/B, MonU/Ch, MonU/F, DeakU/G, DeakU/B, ACU/SPC, CUT, JCU, UTAS/H, UWS/N E D U C AT I O N ( E A R LY

CHILDHOOD)

Macq, CSU/WW, QUT, UTAS/L, UMel, USA/M, MonU/F, CUT, CQU/R, UWS/N CHURCH MUSIC

NewcU, AICM MUSIC MINISTRY

WIMA OPERA

SydCon, QldCon,VCA,WAAPA A C C O M PA N I M E N T / R E P E T I T E U R

SydCon, QldCon, JCU, Elder,VCA, ANU, USQ COMMUNITY MUSIC

UNE

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MUSIC

THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC PRODUCTION/AUDIO ENGINEERING

SCU, AIM, Macq, UWS/Pen, QldCon/B,QldCon/GC,WAAPA CONTEMPORARY

POPULAR MUSIC PERFORMANCE

SCU, AIM, AICM, Macq,WIMA, QUT, JCU, UTAS/L,WAAPA, CASM CONTEMPORARY

POPULAR MUSIC COMPOSITION/SONGWRITING

SCU, QUT,WAAPA, QldCon/GC, CASM SCREEN

C O M P O S I T I O N / M U LT I M E D I A

AFTRS, QUT MUSIC

INDUSTRY/MUSIC BUSINESS/MUSIC MANAGEMENT

RMIT,VU ARTS

A D M I N I S T R AT I O N / M A N A G E M E N T

AIM, CQU/R, UMel,WAAPA, UTS I N S T R U M E N TA L

MUSIC PEDAGOGY

ANU, UQ, USQ, UMel,WAAPA, NewcU JAZZ

PERFORMANCE/ARRANGING/COMPOSITION

ANU, UNSW, SydCon, Qld/Con/B, CQU/M, Elder,VCA MUSIC

THERAPY

UQ, UMel, UTS, UWS/Pen GUIDED IMAGERY

AND

MUSIC

UMel M U S I C A L T H E AT R E

AIM, CQU/M, CQU/R, UBall E X P E R I M E N TA L / S O F T WA R E

INSTRUMENT MAKING

QUT, SydCon, UWS/Pen CHORAL CONDUCTING

ACU/SPC, UQ C O N D U C T I N G ( P O S T G R A D U AT E )

UQ, Elder, Mon/Cl,VCA, NewcU T H E AT R E P R O D U C T I O N

QUT, NIDA,WAAPA,VCA. UOW, UBall INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIAN MUSIC

CASM A B B R E V I AT I O N S

AColl

OF MUSIC DEGREE GRANTING INSTITUTIONS

(WITH URLS)

Avondale College (Cooranbong, NSW) www.avondale.edu.au/frame.phtml ACU/AC Australian Catholic University (Ballarat,Vic) www.acu.edu.au/fas/index.html ACU/MC Australian Catholic University (Brisbane, Qld) www.acu.edu.au/fas/index.html ACU/MSMC Australian Catholic University (Strathfield, NSW) www.acu.edu.au/fas/index.html ACU/SPC Australian Catholic University (Fitzroy,Vic) www.acu.edu.au/fas/index.html

MUSIC TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES

AFTRS AICM AIM ANU CASM CQU/M CQU/R CSU/Alb CSU/WW CUT DeakU/B DeakU/G ECU Elder JCU LaT/B MacqU Melba MonU/Ch MonU/Cl MonU/F MurdU NewcU NIDA NTU QldCon/B

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Australian Film,Television and Radio School (Ryde, NSW) www.aftrs.edu.au/ Australian International Conservatorium of Music www.aicm.edu.au/ Australian Institute of Music (Sydney, NSW) www.aimusic.com.au Australian National University (Canberra, ACT) www.anu.edu.au/ITA/music/ Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music (Adelaide University, Adelaide, SA) www.adelaide.edu.au/wilto_yerlo/CASM/ Central Queensland University (Mackay, Qld) www.edca.cqu.edu.au/cqcm/ Central Queensland University (Rockhampton, Qld) www.edca.cqu.edu.au/ Charles Sturt University (Albury, NSW) www.db.csu.edu.au/division/marketing/PR_Menus/PR_Menusp7.htm Charles Sturt University (Wagga Wagga, NSW) www.db.csu.edu.au/division/marketing/PR_Menus/PR_Menusp7.htm Curtin University of Technology (Bentley,WA) www.curtin.edu.au/ Deakin University (Burwood,Vic) www.deakin.edu.au/ Deakin University (Geelong,Vic) www.deakin.edu.au/ Edith Cowan University (Mt Lawley,WA) www.ecu.edu.au/ses/ Elder School of Music, Adelaide University (Adelaide, SA) www.music.adelaide.edu.au/ James Cook University (Townsville, Qld) www.jcu.edu.au/school/comvat/comvat.html La Trobe University (Bendigo,Vic) www.latrobe.edu.au/bendigo/ Macquarie University (Ryde NSW) www.ccms.mq.edu.au/ Melba Conservatorium of Music ((Richmond,Vic) home.vicnet.net.au/~melba/ Monash University (Churchill,Vic) www.education.monash.edu.au/ Monash University (Clayton,Vic) www.arts.monash.edu.au/schools/music/ Monash University (Frankston,Vic) www.education.monash.edu.au/ Murdoch University (Mardoch,WA) www.murdoch.edu.au/ University of Newcastle (Newcastle, NSW) www.newcastle.edu.au/school/conservatorium/ National Institute for Dramatic Arts (Kensington, NSW) www.nida.unsw.edu.au/ Northern Territory University (Darwin, NT) www.ntu.edu.au/lba/music.html Queensland Conservatorium of Music-GriffithU (Brisbane, Qld) www.gu.edu.au/school/qcgu/

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THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

QldCon/GC Queensland Conservatorium of Music-GriffithU (Gold Coast, Qld) www.gu.edu.au/school/qcgu/ QUT Queensland University of Technology (Kelvin Grove, Qld) www.creativeindustries.qut.edu.au RMIT/B Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Bundoora,Vic) www.rmit.edu.au/ RMIT/M Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Melbourne,Vic) www.rmit.edu.au/ SCU Southern Cross University (Lismore, NSW) www.scu.edu.au/schools/carts/contmusic SydCon Sydney Conservatorium of Music, Sydney University (Sydney, NSW) www.usyd.edu.au/su/conmusic/ UBall University of Ballarat (Ballarat,Vic) www.ballarat.edu.au/arts/ UCanb University of Canberra (Canberra, ACT) comedu.canberra.edu.au/courses.cfm?TP=UG UMel University of Melbourne (Parkville,Vic) www.music.unimelb.edu.au/ UNE University of New England (Armidale, NSW) www.une.edu.au/music/m_home.htm UNSW University of NSW (Kensington, NSW) www.arts.unsw.edu.au/music/ UOW University of Wollongong (Wollongong, NSW) www.uow.edu.au/crearts/ UQ University of Queensland (St Lucia, Qld) www.uq.edu.au/Music/ USA/M University of South Australia (Magill, SA) www.unisa.edu.au/del/ USQ University of Southern Queensland (Toowoomba, Qld) www.usq.edu.au/faculty/arts/music/ USyd University of Sydney (Darlington, NSW) www.arts.usyd.edu.au/departs/music/MusicHome.html UTAS/H University of Tasmania, Conservatorium of Music (Hobart,Tas) www.music.utas.edu.au UTAS/L University of Tasmania (Launceston,Tas) www.perform.utas.edu.au/ UTS University of Technology (Sydney, NSW) www.uts.edu.au UWA University of WA (Nedlands,WA) www.arts.uwa.edu.au/MusicWWW/ UWS/Pen University of Western Sydney (Penrith, NSW) www.uws.edu.au/arts/ VCA Victorian College of the Arts (Southbank,Vic) www.vca.unimelb.edu.au VU Victoria University (Sunbury,Vic) www.vu.edu.au/ WAAPA Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, ECU (Mt Lawley,WA) waapa.cowan.edu.au WIMA Wesley Institute for Ministry and the Arts (Drummoyne, NSW) www.wesleymission.org.au/wi/

MUSIC TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES

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Institutions granting other awards (Certificates, Diplomas, etc) POPULAR

M U S I C S T U D I E S I N V O LV I N G P E R F O R M A N C E , C O M P O S I T I O N , P R O D U C T I O N , A N D M U S I C

INDUSTRY STUDIES

AIC, BHI, BRI, CASM, CIT, CMC, CUT/K, EPC, GOI, GSI, IIT, JMC. NCI/G, NCI/W, NMI/C, NMI/G, NRC, NTU, OIT, RIT, SBI, SIT,TQI,VUT,WBI,WIT,WSI MUSIC

INDUSTRY/BUSINESS/MANAGEMENT

SSI, HIT/N, HIT/W SOUND

PRODUCTION/AUDIO ENGINEERING

BRI, JMC, SAE/C, SAE/H, SAE/M, SAE/P, SAE/S, SAE/SK,WIT,TTL, NMI/C,VU, MCT, RIT CLASSICAL

MUSIC PERFORMANCE

WIT,WSI, Melba STUDIO TEACHING

CUT M I L I TA R Y

BAND PERFORMANCE

DFS A B B R E V I AT I O N S

AIC BHI BRI CASM

CIT CMC CUT/K DFS EPC GOI GSI HIT/N HIT/W IIT

OF OTHER AWARD GRANTING INSTITUTIONS

(WITH URLS)

Aboriginal and Islander College of Music (Perth,WA) www.abmusic.org.au/ Box Hill Institute of TAFE (Box Hill,Vic) www.bhtafe.edu.au/bhi/Courses/CreativeArtsDesignAndFashion.htm Bendigo Regional Institute of TAFE (Bendigo,Vic) www.britafe.vic.edu.au/ CASM) (Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music) (Adelaide University,Adelaide, SA) www.adelaide.edu.au/wilto_yerlo/CASM/ Chisholm Institute of TAFE (Frankston,Vic) www.chisholm.vic.edu.au/ Central Metropolitan College of TAFE (Leederville,WA) www.yourcentral.tafe.wa.gov.au/CollegePortal/default.asp Curtin University of Technology (Kalgoolie,WA) www.kalg.curtin.edu.au/music/cmusindskbody.html Defence Force School of Music (Macleod,Vic) www.defence.gov.au/army/dfsm/ Eastern Pilbara College of TAFE (Port Hedland,WA) www.hedland.edu.au/html/entry_port_hedland.html Goulburn Oven Institute of TAFE (Wangaratta,Vic) www.gotafe.vic.edu.au/ Great Southern Regional College of TAFE (Denmark,WA) www.gsrc.wa.edu.au/ Hunter Institute of Technology (Newcastle, NSW) www.hunter.tafensw.edu.au/ Hunter Institute of Technology (Wyong, NSW) www.hunter.tafensw.edu.au/ Illawarra Institute of Technology (Goulburn, NSW)

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JMC NCI/G NCI/W NMI/C NMI/G NRC NTU OIT RIT SAE/C SAE/H SAE/M SAE/P SAE/S SAE/SK SBI SIT SSI TQI TTL VU VUT WBI WIT WSI

THE AUSTRALIAN GUIDE TO CAREERS IN MUSIC

www.illawarra.tafensw.edu.au/ JMC Academy (Sydney, NSW) www.jmc.net.au North Coast Institute (Grafton, NSW) www.nci.tafensw.edu.au/ North Coast Institute (Wauchope, NSW) www.nci.tafensw.edu.au/ Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE (Collingwood,Vic) www.nmit.vic.edu.au/courses/performing_art/default.htm Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE (Greensborough,Vic) www.nmit.vic.edu.au/courses/performing_art/default.htm Northern Rivers Conservatorium Arts Centre (Lismore, NSW) www.lis.net.au/~nrcac/index.html Northern Territory University (Darwin, NT) www.ntu.edu.au Onkaparinga Institute of TAFE (Noarlunga, SA) www.tafe.sa.edu.au/institutes/onkaparinga/about/dirmess.shtml Regency Institute of TAFE (Salisbury, SA) www.regency.tafe.sa.edu.au School of Audio Engineering (Camden Park, SA) www.sae.edu School of Audio Engineering (Hobart,Tas) www.sae.edu School of Audio Engineering (Milton, Qld) www.sae.edu School of Audio Engineering (Perth,WA) www.sae.edu School of Audio Engineering (Surry Hills, NSW) www.sae.edu School of Audio Engineering (St Kilda,Vic) www.sae.edu Southbank Insitute of TAFE (Brisbane, Qld) www.sbit.qld.edu.au/site/ Sydney Institute of TAFE (Eora Campus, Redfern, NSW) www.sit.nsw.edu.au/ Southern Sydney Institute of TAFE (Gymea, NSW) www.ssi.tafensw.edu.au/ Tropical North Queensland Institute of TAFE (Cairns, Qld) www.tnqit.tafe.net/ TAFE Tasmania (Launceston,Tas) Victoria University (Sunbury,Vic) www.vu.edu.au/ Victoria University of Technology (Sunbury,Vic) Wide Bay Institute of TAFE (Maryborough, Qld) widebay.tafe.net/ Western Institute of TAFE (Orange, NSW) www.wit.tafensw.edu.au/ Western Sydney Institute of TAFE (Nirimba, NSW) www.wit.tafensw.edu.au/

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