The Cyclopedic Education Dictionary

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The Cyclopedic Education Dictionary CAROL SULLIVAN SPAFFORD ED.D. AUGUSTUS

J.ITZO PESCE D.ED.

GEORGE S. GROSSER PH.D.

Delmar Publishers

Albany Bonn Boston Cincinnati Detroit London Madrid Melbourne Mexico City New York Pacific Grove Paris San Francisco Singnpore Tokyo Toronto Washington

Contents Y I

A

B C D E F G H I

J K L M N 0 P

Q R S T U V

w X Y Z Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8

1 26 38 68 85 102 112 119 131 147 149 150 162 178 187 194 230 231 246 281 297 300 307 312 313 313

Abbreviations in Education, 315 Legal Terms and Issues Related to Education, 351 MARCS and MAPP, 363 Computer Terms, 369 Important Federal Legislation, Milestones, and Reports which Relate to Education Affairs in theUnited States: Past and Present, 399 Supreme Court Decisions Related to Education, 403 Sample Individualized Education Plan (IEP), 405 Sample Literacy Activities, 411 V

Preface Welcome to a challenging profession in which you must consider many facets and conditions associated with your field. When entering the education realm you must become familiarized with the vocabulary of the profession and be knowledgeable of the subject-matter of yourcareer if YOU are to optimally serve studentsin your charge. We believe that this dictionary will give you an excellent introduction into the field of education as well as a resource upon which you can rely throughout your studies from thebaccalaureate to the doctoral levels. The information provided here can answer most questions you may have about the meaning of a word, phrase, legal ruling, medical term, name, testing terminology, and abbreviation important to an educator’s background. Educators increasingly need to build their knowledge base in a society that is experiencing a rapidly changing information base and is still rooted in many philosophical and psychological schools of thought from previous generations. This dictionary is a one-of-a-kind resource in that there are several terms that integrate numerous disciplines important to the field of education in one reference guide. There is no other resource of its kind in the education realm. The prospective teacher/learner/ practitioner may consult this guide whether studying physiology; psychology; education; current issues; law; special education; early childhood, elementary, secondary, or middle school education; philosophy; math; reading; literature; language arts; or other courses related to the pedagogy ofthe profession. Key terms and concepts are explained in easily-understood language which can in turn be used to assist parents, students, other professionals, and nonprofessionals when needed. Schools today differ from those as few as 10 years ago. There are more and more emphases placed on ”inclusionary practices” and “mainstreaming efforts.” The advent of important federallegislation (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the 1975 P.L. 94-142, and IDEA of 1990) as well as individual state initiatives (e.g., Chapter 766 in Massachusetts) redefined how children with special needs are educated. Instead of substantially separating those with special learning needs from nondisabled learners, educators are now trying to provideinclusive learning experiences within the regular education setting whenever

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possible. YOU might wonder what quality integration is, how mainstreaming and inclusion effortsare similar and how they are different, what practices can be used to enhance integrated classroom environments, what legal precedent has been set for suchpractices, and just what some of that confusing language means (i.e., ”decentralized school model,” ”individualization,” “cultural compatibility,” ”empowered school communities,” etc.). Appendix 1, Abbreviations in Education, will help you decipher this educational Morse code and will be useful throughout your entire career as such acronyms always have a wayof cropping up during a report, conversation, and in reading materials. Appendix 2, Legal Terms and Issues Related to Education, provides valuable information for all educators who must address suchissues as ”What are theschools’ legal responsibilities in regard to assessments?” “What does thelaw say regarding thecopying of materials, television shows, and videos?“ “Who sets standards for curriculum according to the law?” ”What do school systems need todo before students are expelled or suspended?” ”Just howfar can students go in regard to the freedom of speech?” “What about locker searches-are these legal?” and ”Can teachers strike?” Please always keep in mind ”the presumptionof innocence,“ ”probable cause,“ and “beyond a reasonable doubt” before someone is charged with an infraction or offense. Effective teachers rely on systematic and reflective thinking about appropriate instructional strategies and practices. Appendix 3 entitled MARCS and MAPP allows educators to extend their knowledge base by identifying important components toan action-based research classroom (e.g., mathematics). Ideas for portfolio inclusions focus on special sensitivity to ethnic minority students and those factors that help personalize the learning experience for all students. Computer logos such as ”Internet,” ”RAM,” ”CPUs,” ”CRTs” ”Software,” “Megabytes“ and ”Gigabytes,” “e-Mail,“ ”Muppet Learning Keys,” ”Mouses,” “CD-ROM,” ”Fortran,” ”Laser Printers,” and ”Digitized Speech” can be found in Appendix4, Computer Terms. You’ll be pleased to know that ”Worm Disks” are far different than the literal translation. When you hear ”wizzeewig!!” don’t call an ambulance! You’ll also find that ”Handshaking”via the computer is actually a part of computer ”Protocol.” Before you begin to hyperventilate or get “ANSI” after reading this computer jargon, jump to Appendix4 to find these technical terms described in easy-to-understand and remembered language. YOU will find that the ”virtualreality” of our appendix is thatit is very “user friendly.” It is estimated that there will be at least 1 billion users of the Internet worldwide by the year 2000. There are several web sites we have listed that would be of interest to professionals using this dictionary. For example, under the “College” entry, students and parents are provided information regarding how toaccess web sites for college alternatives,

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locations, financial aid, SAT preparations, etc. Also, the Orton Dyslexia Society (ODs) links to other national learning disability organizations on the Internet and provideslistings of resources and a bulletin board where questions can be posted and answered. As of 1994, WebTV became available to television users who can now dial-up access to the World Wide Web via their television sets. On February 8, 1996, President Clinton signed into effect the Telecommunications Act of 1996 SO as to provide the opportunitiesfor every classroom and every child to be connected to the Internet. Read about the nation’s technology goals and exactly what ”technology literacy” is within Appendix4 as wemove into the twenty-first century. Descriptions of new technological devices are presented thatcan assist and improve thelife situations of friends, colleagues, students, etc. For example, did you know that closed-circuit television (CCTV), versabraille systems, viewscans, braille embossers, optacons, seeing-eye-dogs, sonic guides, sonic pathfinders, talking books, talking programs, echo speech synthesizers, Hoover canes, large-print books, MIT braille embossers, and laser canes are all technological tools that can assist blind and visually impaired individuals to adapt to academic and social situations? This dictionary might give those who are interested and in aposition to assist some ideas as to what is available technologically for individuals with varying special needs to includethose with visual disabilities. You might be wondering what federal guidelines allow expenditures for educational tools for individuals with disabilities. There are a bewildering number of federal laws (e.g., P.L. 90-170, P.L. 91-230,P.L. 101476, P.L. 101-336, etc.) and related amendments that impact all school-age individuals. We have listed the major educational legislation by public law in the ’7’’’ section of this dictionary. Appendix 5 lists important Federal Legislation, Milestones, and Reports which relate to Education Affairs in the United States, past and present. A number of studies, reports from foundations and governmental agencies, and legal rulings have greatly impacted our educational system. Perhaps you have heardof the national reports,A Nation ut Risk, the Carnegie Foundatiolz Report on Secondary Education, the Hohms Group, or the College Board Report but were not sure of the point of each. Many such references have been provided and are cross-referenced with other important information. Additionally, several social issues and reforms have been identified and defined in a nonjudgmental mannerSO that the reader receives just the facts. Appendix 6 lists Supreme Court Decisions Related to Education. Read on and try to decipher the following message (believe it or not, this conversation could very well happen tomorrow in one of ourschool corridors!):

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“An ADHD student has been referred toa SPED program for aCORE or TEAM evaluation. The TEAM must convene in order to prepare for a test work-up that will result in aDSM-IV diagnosis, anIEP, and placement in some PP status. We’ll need GE, GP, %ile’s, and stanines from an IQ test, the WRAT-R, the KeyMath-R and the GMRT’s tests in order to determine appropriate curriculum materials . . .” Appendix 7 is a sampleof an IEP (Individualized Education Plan). Teachers are also askedto analyze curriculum materials and might not always be sure of the differences among some novel teaching techniques and ideas. Clarification is within reach of this dictionary!You must not forget some of the philosophical positions that have impacted current teaching practices like perennialism, essentialism,realism, behaviorism, existentialism, progressivism,and reconstructionism. We have provided a tie-in between an easily understood definition of terms and the expectations of a teacher who practices thebasic tenets seenin these positions. Research has shown thateffective schools depend upon teachers collaborating with students, parents, administrators, community members, and other professionalsfor optimal learning outcomes tooccur. The entry “effective schools” details those important characteristics required for ”best teaching practices/leaming”to occur. Such entries as ”grants” allow teachers to explore resources/avenues availablefor professionals in the field. After studying this dictionary such questions can be raised as, “What is the meaning of teacher and student empowerment?”“How have Supreme Court rulings impacted our educational system?” “What are teachers’ legal rights and responsibilities?” “Howcan time-honored philosophical positions be updated to current teachmg practices?” “What is the difference between affective and effective teaching?” “What are someof the organizational arrangementsin the schools?” ”What are some different teaching strategies used toteach reading?” ”What are some current education trends that mustbe assessed for effectiveness in years to come?” “What are the brain-behavior pattern relationships in such disorders as depression and schizophrenia?” “Whatis the difference between whole language techniques and phonics?” ”Whatis the difference between inclusionary practicesand mainstreaming?” ”What are the different types of hearing problemsand can they be corrected?” “Howcan the current DSM-IV classification system be useful for teacher/educators when categorizing personality disorders?” ”Whatis portfolio assessment?” Appendix 8 includes sampleLiteracy Activities for early education and technology literacy for all levels. Although ethics, values,and values clarification have been defined, it is incumbent upon the reader tobecome involved in ethical discussions (and concerned with ethical dilemmas) after forming opinions, attitudes, and beliefs with an informed eye. We hope that we have provided a solid

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foundation for the educator whowishes to become immersed in such issues of the times. Most importantly, it would be incumbent upon the reader to form a philosophy of education that will guide one to practices that optimally meet the needsof the students we serve. Our philosophy of education is to address the needs of the whole personin a comfortable and intellectually stimulating learning environment so that the emotional, social, academic, and psychological well-being of the individual are considered and addressed. You will see such definitions as “personal wellness” and ”teacher effectiveness” keying in on strategies/qualities required to accomplish this end. This dictionary provides one avenuefor the practitioner in the field to identify and think about a philosophy of education to buildon as well as questions, issues, information, and values of the education profession so as to better promote the concept of the ”whole person.”

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Acknowledgments *.

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We would like to acknowledge the special efforts, support,and guidance of Jay Whtney, editor and friend, from Delmar Publishers. He was always pleasantly accessible and taught us the fine points of an educational publishing ”reading road map.” To him we areespecially grateful. Additionally, the wonderful team of Erin O’Connor Traylor, developmental editor;Karen Leet, Production Manager; Glenna Stanfield, Senior Editorial Assistant; and Bill Brottmiller, Team Leader,provided us with invaluable advise, timely deadlines, and always a helping hand when needed. They’re the best! We are deeply indebted to thefine professionals at Shepherd Incorporated and in particular, Chris Trakselis, Project Editor,for expert technical efforts throughout manuscript preparations.Kelly Bechen provided outstanding copy editing support. We need to give special acknowledgement to Andre Houleand David Pino, our research assistants, editorial/computer consultants, and friends. Their input, expertise, patience, and high level of competence resulted in a timely completion of the final manuscript. We would like to credit Andre with the introduction of a new word,synthisophy, that we believe may be quite relevant to the field of education. We would also like to thank theMiguel Roman Family, Henry Benjamin, Dr.Paul Desmarais, Jim Sansalone, Dr. Me1 Williams, Dr. Margaret Cassidy, Georgia Parafestas, Ben Swan, Dr. Bryant Robinson, Dr. Ann Courtney, Dr. Barbara Dautrich, Opal Dillard, Stacy Sevigny, Linda Anzalotti, Theresa Fiorentino, Carol Malinosky, Catherine Sargent, Anneta McCabe, Bob McCullum, Nancy Cabana, Dr. Cheryl Stanley, Naomi m i t e , Ann Koenig, Dr. Bernie Berenson, Dr. Chris Ying, Kathy Sullivan, Dr. Candy Budd-Jackson, Mary Frances Peters, John and Cloratha Coleman, Sarah Shapiro, Edwina Grimaldi, Judy Dumont, Mary Lantz, Diane Arnold, Rosalie Tobia,Michelle Hervieux, Taniesha Burton, Kim Scofield, Jennifer Black, Mike Taylor, Danielle Burch, Cory Hulsebus, . Richard Hanson, Megan Mantenuto, Neta and CliffordMaddox, Donna &hen, Kathy Meadows, Jackie Mitchell, Lucretia Polemeni, Eileen Donahue, Tim Dominick, Lorraine Collins, Michelle LaVallee, the Lavins, Ed Hall, Rev. Hugh Bair, Dina and Barbara Rossi, Mary Stacy, Lisa Nettis, Elda Sarah Morgan, Faye Morris, Diane Chira, Barbara Stewart, Melanie

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Jennings, Manisha Lalwani, Liz Pappalardo, Renaldo Vega, Alvin Marsha and Tulius Frizzi, Alan LeBlanc, Elise Blanken,Mauricio Hernandez, Beth Jones, Diane Cohen, Lena Lefebvre, Janet Scott, Eva Soalt, Jodi Nomi, Lisa Sotirion, Elliot Best, Eric Butler, BenMathis, Simme Matlock, Dr. Joy Fopiano, Mildred McKenna, Howard Cherry, Marie Stevens, Marcie Gruskin, the Netkoviks, Stephanie Wilson, Susan Blackington, Arlene McKenzie, Khan Tai, Meredith Boone, Stephen Freed, Harold Collins, The Bartolomeis, Phil DiPietro, Carol Doty, Eve Green, Aleyda Torres, Jeanne Kinney, Mary Broderick, Miriam Santiago, JO-JO Wooden, James Hector, Joanne Guiel, Marie Smythe, Kim Stone, Bill Daley, Harry Orr Gonzalez, Huelette King, Ester Figueredo, Kim and Julie Leonard, Debby Lavendar, Mary Anderson, Eileen Pisarski, Daquall Brown, Charlie and JudyCollins, Flo and Bill Checile, Nellie Duong, the Furlanis, Sharonda Sanders, Robert Chagnon, Linda Lee, ValerieChurch, Sonya Martinez, Rene Sandoval, Brian Welch, Ester Figueroa, Mary Louise Rutherford, CathyTorres, Tyron McAllister, Tony Mason, Justin Dalessio, Forrest Traylor, Marie Baez, Kathy Lynch, Dr. Jeannette Goggins, Diane and Richard Cole, Celia Cauley, Marjorie Zackheim, Anouk Ewald, Scott Anderson, Ingrid Cuevas, Carrie Sarkozi, Doris Simmonds, and Doris LeBlanc (students who ”never gave up”), Jennifer Stevens, Tina Toohey, Megan Thomas, Betty Bonfitto,Jeanne Hebert, Henry Renelus, Edna Proulx, Leticia Matos, G. Oliver Layne, and Debby McCarthy for their inspiration throughout this project. Special recognition should be given to Betty Gandy-Tobin who was our primary computer specialist. Betty was instrumental in organizing and editing new entries. We could always counton her to meet deadlines with outstanding results. We‘re proud of her. On a personal note, the first author would like to give a special note of thanks to Aida King (a great teacher!), the VNA, Sister Mary Caritas, The Sisters from St. Thomas, the Trembles, and the D’Amours. Finally, we would like to thank those special individuals in ourlives who provided inspiration, guidance, and a helping hand: close family members Ken, Kenny, Irene, Rose and Jim, Gerry, and Richard Spafford; Edward, Yvonne, and Joseph Pesce, and Denise Boratgis; Edward and Eleanor Hickey; Louis and Edith Pesce, and especially Grace Pesce; Richard, Carol, Janice, Pat, and George Sullivan; and Eleanor Grosser-all of whom were especially supportive and helpful. They’re the best! We hope that this dictionary will provide you with a vehicle for reflective thinking in your chosen field of study. The authors may be contacted on the Internet at: [email protected]. Our best to you and your families! Happy Reading!

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About the Authors Carol Sullivan Spafford isEducation Chair and Associate Professor of Psychology and Education at American International College in Springfield, Massachusetts. She has been involved with college accreditation programs at several colleges and is active in a numberof professional organizations including theMassachusetts Reading Association, serving asCo-President of the local Pioneer Valley Reading Council. Dr. Spafford was recently named to Who’s Who in the East and has published several articles and books in theareas of learning disabilities and education. She has presented workshopsat the National Orton Dyslexia and NCTM conferences. Augustus J. Itzo Pesce is Director of Special Education and Associate Professor of Psychology and Education at American International College in Springfield, Massachusetts. He was a former Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent, Director of Special Education, and Principal. Dr. Pesce serves as an educational consultant and member of a site-based management team for a local public school. He hasbeen a featured speaker at several local and stateconferences and is a member of Phi Delta Kappa, and the Divisions of Teacher Education and Learning Disabilities (DLD) of the Council for Exceptional Children. George S. Grosser isAssociate Professor of Psychology at American International College in Springfield, Massachusetts. Named to Who’s Who in the East, he is the author or co-author of seven books and over 25 journal articles. Dr. Grosser has been actively researching and writing about the natureand causes of learning disabilities for several years. He serves as the chair and a committee member for several doctoral committees. He is a member of the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Psychological Society, and the Division of Learning Disabilities, Council for Exceptional Children. Previous to his educationcareer, Dr. Grosser was a distinguishedscientist.

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Dedication This book is dedicated to Ken Spafford, Grace Pesce, Eleanor Grosser, Miguel Roman, Tim Sunstrom, Carrie Sarkozi, Doris Simmonds, Doris LeBlanc; and our children, family, students, mentors, and colleagues.

Ability grouping The placement of students into homogeneous groups in .. knows as the result of experience. accordance with their intellectual or Philosophers who subscribedto materialism in metaphysics and empiricism in academic abilities. Such placement can epistemology would say that only these result in tracking. things can be true; they would deny any Ability tracking SEE: Appendix 2: Legal credibility to the truthof a priori ideas. Terns and Issues SEE: a priori ideas, empiricism, epistemology Ablation The removal of a part of the A priori ideas Those things we know nervous system. This may be done to a because we are born having a human lower animal for research on brainbrain; the self-evident truths. The posbehavior relationships.This may also session of a priori knowledge is a neces- include the removal of any other partof sary assumptionof an idealistic metathe body through surgical means. physics, the idea that reality is by nature Abnormal behavior Behavior that is mental or spiritual.Kant attempted to not in line with what is considered describe a priori knowledge in detail. appropriate or average within a group Empirical philosophers such as Hume, however, had no use for this concept. In or society atlarge. epistemology, a priori ideas are compati-ABR SEE: Audito y Brainstem Response ble with the methodof rationalism. SEE: Absence seizures Temporarymental a posteriori ideas, empiricism, epistemology, inattention in the formof epileptic idealism, metaphysics, rationalism seizures that occurs for brief periods of time (usually less than 30 seconds) and AAC SEE AugmentativeCommunication that may occur dozens of times per day. Abasement The condition of feeling humiliated or lower in rank, prestige, or Sometimes called petit mal. Absences,excessiveschool SEE self-esteem. Appendix 2: Legal Terms and Issues Abasia Motor incoordination as it concerns walking.An inability to walk as a Absolute standard A measurement standard whereby arbitrary points are result of impaired coordination. set for obtaining different letter grades. ABC model A system of behavioral For example, if a 2.0 (generally a“C” analysis that examines three components; namely, antecedents to the behav- average) cumulative average is set as passing for college graduation, cumulaior, the actual behavior, and the behavtive averages falling below that point ioral consequences. “fail” and averages falling above “pass.” Abduction A term used in physical Absolute threshold The least amount therapy to indicate movementof a leg or of sensory stimulation that can be arm away from the middle of the body. detected. For example, the soundof a Aberration A severe straying from ticking watch at a distance of twenty feet what is considered normal. from thelistener. Another example Ability A student’s or person‘s capacity would be the sightof a candle flame at to effectively perform tasks or skills 1.5 miles. already learned.SEE: aptitude Abstract A short summation of a

A posteriori ideas The things one

research article, including the problem ideas

A posteriori

- Abstract

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m

Abstract concept

- Academic tasks

under investigation, the research method employed, the data, and the conclusions.An abstract of an article often appears in a brief paragraph as a research summary. Many education/ psychology associations/publications print such abstracts for the benefit of the reader who is then able to determine whether or not obtaining the full manuscript would fulfill an education/ psychology need (e.g., when preparing a master’s thesis or doctoral dissertation). Abstract concept A product of the abstract reasoning process, which involves the selection of one particular aspect of a perceived stimulus, thinking about this one feature, and remembering both the perception of the feature and the results of the thoughts about this feature at future times. Such a feature may be stated in general terms so that it may be applied to a great many objects or stimuli. Abstract reasoning The ability of a student or other person to think about known facts, concepts, ideas, and information in order to infer additional ideas that are reasonable and probable in nature. Abstraction A straightforward threestep process as follows: 1. the student focuses her/liis attention on some feature or experience; 2. the student holds onto this experience or feature as the immediate object of thought, and 3. the student is able to recall this feature or object of thought at a later time. Abulia An absence or an inability to control one’s will. A loss of ability to make decisions or initiate action. Academic aptitude A student’s or person’s ability or capacity to effectively master a school or academic program that is yet to be presented or taken. SEE: nptitude, ability Academic disciplines The different branches in academia that deal with the acquisition of knowledge. For example, in some Western societies, such disciplines include the study of English, math, science, art, music, and history.

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Academic freedom The freedom of a teacher to present and discuss subject matter in such a way that is deemed appropriate by the teacher without the interference of administrators. Academic freedom is a privilege and those who have been given this privilege should consider the law, community standards, morality issues, developmental appropriateness, and curriculum standards within the school district. Academic learning disability A condition that causes great difficulty for a student or person when learning to read, spell, write, or compute arithmetically. Academic learning time The time consumed by students when learning material successfully. Academic learning times differ depending on the age, developmental levels, achievement level, intelligence, and so on of the learner. Individuals with learning disabilities, for example, may require accommodations that would permit extended learning times during the school day because cognitive processing speeds/abilities may be impaired to some degree. Academic plateau The tendency for students with some learning problems to reach a plateau in academic achievement before high school graduation (e.g., the mentally retarded frequently do not go beyond a concrete level of functioning). Academic socialization The procedures used to teach children how to be students and the ways in which children are taught to value learning. Academic support Support that is considered part of the regular classroom curriculum, including supportive services for the major goals of the school or system. Academic tasks Work that a student is required to complete, including coverage of content materials. Academic tasks include the necessary mental steps (problem-solving procedures, making inferences, using deductive logic, etc.) to complete assigned work. Examples of academic tasks would include a measurement problem in math, completing a spelling exercise, performing a science

Academic year

- Achromatism

Accountability 1.A monetary term experiment, giving anoral speech, conreferring to expenditureof funds per versing in a foreign language, andSO on. pupil for optimal learning to transpire Academicyear Generally speaking, the and 2. a professional understanding regular school year, normally from Septhat an educator should be able to at tember through June in elementary, midleast verbally explain his/her actions dle, and secondaryschools and Septemwith regard to any aspectsof job ber through May at the college level. performance. Current trends indicate that the school Accreditation An approval given to a year will be expanded to 1Y0 or more school by an outside agencywhich certidays in the not-too-distant future. fies that the school or agency is able to Academy 1. A term used to describe a deliver the typeof education or program school usually above the elementary it was designed to provide.For example Ielrel, that is, at the high school or colthe New England Association of Schools lege level; frequently, a private high and Colleges would accredit a local school or prepardtory (prep) school. high school or college in the State of 2. A term used to describe an early Massachusetts. American secondxy privateschool. Acculturation The process of acquirAcalculia SEE: d!/scnlculin ing the predominantcharacteristics of ACALD Association for Children and the dominant culture (including attiAdults with Learning Disabilities. tudes, values, beliefs, language, and Acataphasia A lack of ability or an behaviors). inability to coherently express oneself Acetic acid Vinegar; it is also one of the verbally. The condition is a result of a breakdown products of the neurotransbrain lesion. The studentor person has mitter acetylcholine. great difficulty using words to form Achieved role A social role one has meaningful sentences. acquired voluntarily such as thatof Acceleratedprogram The rapid being a spouse, church leader, and so on. advancement of students with highacaAchievement A level of accomplishdemic abilities and performances ment that is usually measured via a test through school. Students can accelerate of knowledge or skill. their programs by ”skipping” grades or by taking courses not ordinarilytaken Achievementmotivation The individby classmates at that gradelevel. Teachual’s intention of performing well, ers can also provide individual enrichwhich involves placing a high value on ment for those students whoneed to be excellence and success. challenged. SEE: nccdcr’ntiorl Achievement test A test intended to Acceleration An educational process in measure a person’s rate of learning which the student progresses through acquisition ina particular subject area. the grades at a faster-than-normal rate.It For example, a math achievement test can involve early admission to school, might measure an individual’s acquired skipping grades, combining grades, problem-solving strategies and/orabiliearly graduation from highschool, and ties to perform math computations. advanced placement at thecollege level. SEE: I I O ~ I I I S Accommodation 1. This term refers to Achondroplasia A conditioncharacterthe changing o f the lens shapein the ized by a defect in the formationof the eye, the lens bulging intoa rounder long bonesof the body resultinb ’ 111 ’ a shape to focus upon objects that are less form of ”dwarfism.” than 20 feet in distance. 2. In Piaget’s Achromatic vision A state of visual theory, the modification o f existing cogcolorlessness or being totally color blind. nitive patterns. One’s cognitive schemes are changed to accommodate new expe- Achromatism SEE: color blimhss, ~ C J I K J I l l d c ZJiSiOll riences or information.

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Acoustics

- Acting-out

Acoustics

The science of sound to include its perception; that is, its origin, transmission, and effects. Acquiescence A philosophy or attitude amongst test takers wherein the student or person tends to agree with test statements made regardless of how the statements would apply to the individual concerned. Acquired A term used to indicate the onset of any situation, disease, problem, disability, and the like that occurs some time after the birth of a child. SEE: ncqtiired aphasia, ficquired dyslexia Acquired aphasia A condition characterized by an inability to speak or comprehend a language, occurring after language skills have been learned and used. SEE: nplzrzsia Acquired dyslexia A condition of reading disability (acquired after birth) resulting from brain damage. This is in contrast with developmental dyslexia. SEE: lieueloprrrrirtal dyslexicr

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) A virus-caused disease that involves a weakening of the body’s immune system, making it vulnerable to any number of infections it could normally ward off. It is most often a fatal disease that is caused by one of the HIV group of viruses. AIDS is typically the final stage of infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),often occurring ahout seven years after the initial infection. The two modes of transmission that account for a majority of AIDS cases are 1. sexual contact among homosexual and bisexual men, and 2. the sharing of needles during intravenous (IV) drug use. However, the number of male-to-femaleand femaleto-male transmissions of the AIDS virus continues to increase. Although the HIV virus has in some instances been found in the saliva and tears of infected individuals, there is no evidence to demonstrate that AIDS can be spread through casual contact. No cure has been discovered as of this writing. It should be noted that some individuals may be infected by the HIV virus without succumbing to full-blown AIDS. Some 4

behaviors that can minimize the risk of developing AIDS are 1. reducing the number of sexual partners, 2. use of condoms to prevent the exchange of semen, 3. abandoning illegal intravenous drug use, 4. avoiding the sharing of syringes, 5 . sterilizing needles, and 6. sexual abstinence. Unfortunately, the increase in the number of individuals with the AIDS virus continues to be a major concern. SEE: HIV Acquisition 1. In classical conditioning, the increase in strength of a conditioned response (CR) after several pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (US). 2. In operant conditioning, the increase in the rate of emitting an operant response after that response has been reinforced. 3. In rote learning of math material, the acquisition stage would involve the memorization of math facts. Acrocephaly A condition in which the top of the cranium (head) is pointed. The eyes are slanted and widely set and the toes and fingers may be webbed. Mental retardation can be present. Acromegaly A chronic disease of middle-aged persons in which enlargement and elongation of the bones of the head, especially the jaw and frontal bones, as well as the extremities, occurs. The soft tissues of the nose, lips, and face are also enlarged. It is caused by overactivity of the pituitary gland’s growth hormone. Acronym A term artificially formed from the use of the first letters of a series of words. Acronyms are often used as memory aids and may be considered a mnemonic device. An example of an acronym serving as a mnemonic device is HOMES, the word formed from each of the first letters of the five Great Lakes (i.e., Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Acroparesthesia A condition characterized by a tingling or numbing of hands and fingers usually following a period of sleep. Acting-out A response to a stimulus or condition wherein a student or person

Action component *

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- Adaptation level _ I

openly releases tensions or frustration in an adversebehavioral manner. It can be a student’s response to pent-up feelings of insecurity, frustration, anger, immaturity, etc. Action component The part of one’s attitude(s) that governs actions toward the person(s) orobject(s) of the attitude(s). Action research Diagnosticteaching or experimentation with new teaching tools or techniques. Action zone That part of a classroom in which the greatest number o f interactions actually occur. The action zone in most traditional classrooms occurs in the vicinity where children are seated at their desks (i.e., front and center of the classroom). Activation The amount or degree of arousal experienced when stimuli are presented. Activation-synthesis theory Hobson’s theory which specifies that our dreams result from subcortical nerve impulses that are randomly stimulating portions of the visual area of the cerebral cortex. The stimulated visual cortex, in turn, produces the sequenceof events known as ”dreaming.” Activeteaching Teaching activity that includes a great deal of explaining and demonstrating. Theactive teacher also does a good deal of interacting with the students. Examples of active teaching would be writing journal entries with students, solving math problems as a group on the board, reading and making predictions in small or large groups, debating current issues, etc. Activities of daily living SEE: dnily /iz,ir1g skills Activity curriculum Designingcurricula in which the interests, learning styles, and learning purposes forchildren determine the educational program. Teachers and pupils cooperatively select and plan activities.

Activity group therapy In education, a system o f group therapy involving counseling sessions, work/activity

projects with common goals, and SO on for students/adults who share common personal/behavioral/acad~lllic problems. Activity theory The theory of aging which presumes that thebest psychological adjustments to agingoccur with individuals who remain mentally and physically active. Actor The person whose behaviors are under study. Acuity The sharpness or keenness of the senses, especially used for describing the senses of hearing or vision. Acupuncture The ancient Chinese practice of inserting and rotating needles into the skin at variousplaces on the body in order toalleviate pain. The place stimulated by the acupuncture needles may be far removed from the painful area being influenced. Although some believe the pain relief to be a placebo effect, physiological psychologists attribute theanalgesic effects to the release in the brainof endorphins and enkephalins, the body‘s own opiates. Acute A term used to refer to a condition that has a rapid and severe onset.It is usually of short-term duration. SEE: chrcwic ADA SEE: Anlericnm 7uitl1 Disdditirs Act or P.L. 101-336 (1990) SEE: A Z ~ L WDId‘!~/ Atfr~~dn~~ce

Adaptation

1. An individual’s ability to adjust to prolonged stimulationof a sense organ by lowering the response level to that stimulation.For example, working in a restaurant for a day lowers an individual’s sensitivity to food ocior. 2. An individual’s ability to cognitively and psychologically adapt to the stressors and required actionsfor everyday living. Adaptation level The average level of stimulation at which an individual or organism adapts to the environment.For example, in the middle of summer, the level of cold that forces a Texan to shiver would not stimulate this reflex in an Alaskan.

5

Adaptive behavior - Admissions t e s t scores

Adaptive behavior 1. The degree to which an individual meets societal goals for personal independence and social responsibility for a particular age, sex, cultural group, and even disabilities group (e.g., mental retardation). 2. Responses of organisms to various environmental stimuli that allow for survival and successful adaptation to the environment. Adaptive devices Learning/social tools that allow individuals with special needs to adapt and function within their work/school/home environments. Adaptive fit The match that exists between a student’s or person’s needs, talents, and/or abilities and the requirements of a particular job/task/academic assignment/social situation. Adaptive fitness A set of behavioral and anatomical characteristics of a species that affect its ability to survive and reproduce. Adaptive instruction Instruction that is amended or changed to meet the unique learning/social needs of a learner(s).The instructional changes can involve slight or major changes to the teaching/learning situation at home, work, or in the school environment. SEE: ndaptizw skills Adaptive physical education A modified physical education program that is intended to meet the individual needs of a student with special learning challenges. Adaptive reflexes Inborn automatic reflexes that are not under our conscious control. Newborns have a number of adaptive reflexes that include grasping, sucking, and the Moro reflexes. Adaptive skills Skills acquired to adapt to one’s work/home/school environment that promote optimal functioning in such areas as written/oral communication, leisure, academics, health, safety, community living, citizenship, self-care, vocational skills, home living, etc. ADD SEE: At teiztion Deficit Disorder Addiction A strong obsessive/ compulsive need, usually for ingestion

6

of a given drug. In the case of drug addiction, there is usually a buildup of tolerance (the individual must ingest more and more of the drug in order to obtain the same effect), strong behavioral dependence (the directing of great efforts toward obtaining a supply of the drug), and withdrawal symptoms (the real or seemingly apparent development of illness and suffering when the individual abruptly stops taking the drug). Addison’s disease (Thomas Addison, English Physician, 1793-1860.) A disease or deficiency of the adrenal cortex due to chronic underactivity. Symptoms include pigmentation of the mucous membrane and skin, vitiligo (milkywhite skin patterns), weakness, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and black freckles on the neck and head. Proper treatment yields an excellent prognosis. Addition In the areas of special education and specifically articulation disorders, it is a condition characterized by the adding on of sounds that are not part of the word or words spoken by a student or individual (e.g., says ”dictionaryrio” for ”dictionary”). Adduction A term used in physical therapy to indicate movement of a leg(s) or arm(s) inwardly toward the middle of the body. ADHD: SEE: Atteiztion DePcitlHypernctivity Disorder Adhesions A holding together by fibrous bands of two structures in the body that are normally separated. It can be as a result of surgery, inflammation, scarring, or trauma. Adiadochokinesis A condition wherein an individual is unable or has impaired ability to perform alternating movements in a rapid fashion. It is sometimes indicative of brain dysfunction. ADM SEE: Aziernge Daily Membership Admissions test scores The standardized admissions tests or special admissions tests students are required to take in high school or college. These are used to make decisions about admitting students to a particular school or program.

Adolescence - Afebrile convulsion Adventitiously deaf Individuals who Adolescence A transitionalperiod between childhood and adulthood. Ado- are born with normal hearing but through disease orillness lose their lescence starts with puberty (ages11-13) sense of hearing. These individuals have and continues to the age majority of benefited in the past from hearing SO (from 18-21). that speech and language have been Adolescent egocentrism The assumpacquired through normal means.The tion on the part of the adolescent (ages impact of this hearing loss is less than 11-13 to 18-21) that all people share in for the individual born withR complete one’s emotions,concerns, and opinions. loss. SEE: C l l l J g ’ l J j f / 7 / ~ ! /h n f hearing The egocentric adolescent, for example, Advocacy A concept in which protesmight think that everyone around sionals, parents, or other interested him/her has a bad attitude because adults work in an assertive and he/she hasa bad attitude. informed manner to obtain betteracadeAdrenalglandsGlandularorgans attached to each of the two kidneys. The mic, social, or psychological services for individuals withdisabilities. adrenal medulla glands secrete horAdvocate A person usually involved in mones that help the individual cope the special education process whorepreor with an emergency by either fighting sents thespecial needs child and/or parfleeing. The adrenal cortex glands ent in order to ensure dueprocess and to release hormones that organize the obtain an appropriate Individualized body’s defenses against environmental Educational Plan (IEP) while protecting stress, such as injury, infection, or the rights of the individual.SEE: I E P extremes of temperature. Adult education Courses of instruction Aerobic exercise Exercise that uses the oxygen inhaled ata continuous level provided by public or private institutions, educational and otherwise, to per- over an extended periodof time. For sons who are normally beyond high example, a healthy person maintainsa school age. The courses normallydo not minimum pulse rateof 120 beats per lead to a high school diploma or college minute over at least an 18-minute period degree. These courses are usually taken of exercise. Such exercise at least three by part-time students and can be in a times a week would provide an individvariety of areas such as education,recreual with appropriate aerobic conditionation, vocational, and avocational. ing. Note: Recommended pulse rates vary with a person’s age and health. Advanced organizers This is a form of expository teaching whereby the teacher Aesthetic reading A style of reading describes in outline or abstract form wherein the reader experiencesfeelings what is to be expected in a unit or lesin a vicarious fashion as a result of what son. Advanced organizers summarize has been read.Aesthetic reading elicits major features of material to come. feelings of past and presentexperiences and allows the reader tolive the experiAdvanced placement Courses or proence of the written material as it relates grams coordinated between high to the individual. schools, colleges, and/or universities that allow the student totake courses at Aesthetics The domain of values that the college level. Frequently the courses search for the creation and appreciation count for both high school and college of beautiful things.A course involving credit as well. aesthetics could be theteaching of art appreciation. or Adventitiously blind Any student person, after being born with normal AFDC SEE: Aid to Fordies 7ujt/1 D e p w vision, who develops severe visual dent ChildrerJ impairments or blindness as a result of Afebrile convulsion A convulsion o r illness, disease, or accident. SEE: b h d , seizure that is not accompanied by o r /19,y11//y

caused by a fever.

7

Affect

- Age of Reason

"

Affect The feelings, positive or negative, that accompany an emotional condition. Affectivedisorder A conditionof mood disturbances wherein the student or person has alternatingfeelings that reach extreme highs andlows; that is, elation and sadness. Thefeelings are unrealistic but very intense on the part of the individual concerned. Affective domain An area of learning that concerns itself with feelings, beliefs, and values. It involves the student's attitudes and emotions toward learning. This domainor territory deals withfeelings rather than intellectual pursuits. Affectiveeducation Anyeducational procedures intended to foster the emotional growth and maturityof the student. Proponents of affective education believe that the emotional/social wellbeing of the individual is critical to the overall functioning of that person. Affective education/ideas/curricula include socialization skills training, activities to build self-esteem and self-concept, and the provision of positive reinforcement systems to foster acceptable behaviors/ functioning.

African-American English

A11 African dialect or variation of the English language. SEE: tfinlcct African-American language SEE: Eborlics

African-American vernacular English SEE: Ebonies

AFT SEE: A J ~ I P ~F~d PCr RLf k~J lIl Ic f E ~ c / l c > r s Afterimage The visual image that per-

sists on theretina for a brief time aftera visual image is removed. A negative afterimage is seen in colors complementary to thecolors of the original stimulus. For example, after staring for two minutes at a green circle, looking away to a white screen will result in the sight of a red circle the same size asthe original green stimulus. Age discrimination SEE: A / J \ J U I I2,~ ~ X L c y d T e r m r w f Issrres Age-equivalentscores An ageequivalent score is computed by finding the mean raw score of a performance measure for a given group of children at a specific age. If the averagescore for a particular group of 12-year-olds on a particular reading test is 30 out o f 50, then any child receiving a score of 30 would have an age-equivalentof 12. Affectivelearning Learning that These scores do not seem to be used as involves the acquisition of feelings, attimuch aspercentiles, stanines, standard tudes, emotions, and other aspects of scores, and grade equivalents. social and psychological development Age norms Test scores or standards gained through feeling rather than based on the average performanceof through cognitive intellectualization. individuals for a particular age. SEE: Afferent Messages that are carried ngP-eqllizlO/rlr t scor('s toward a center, as illustrated by a senAge of onset The age of a student or sory nerve carryinga message to the person at the timeof onset of any disbrain. It is the opposite of efferent.SEE: ability, disorder, syndrome,etc. rfrrcrlt ~~rrrror~s, prripllrrnl ncrzlous s!/strm Age ofPericles (455-431 B.C.) Named Affirmativeaction Legislated plans after Pericles, an Athenian statesman, governing personnel policies and hiring it is a special period of Greek history practices that try to ensure that women during which great strides andinterest and members of minority groups are not in formal education and human discriminated against during the hiring advancement were made. process. Age of Reason A period of modem Affix A prefix o r a suffix. SEE: prrfix, educational thought that emphasized roof, srlffix the importance of reasoning in educaAffricate Sounds combining stops and tion. Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet, fricatives such as the"ch" sound in French writer 1699-1778) was a great "child" and the "j" sound in "jump." influence in this movement and theSOSEE:fricntizjr

8

Ageism - Air conduction (AC) t e s t

-

called "father" of rationalism. SEE: rntioIrcllisrrr Ageism Discrimination against an individual based on that person's age (too young or too old). Ageusia A condition characterized by an absenceor partial loss of the senseof taste; in effect, impaired taste. Aggregatemembership Thesum of all students present and absentfor a given period of time for each day in that period (usually quarterly,half-year, or more typically a full school year). Aggregate present The sum of all students present for all of the days ina given period, (usually quarterly, halfyear, or more typically a full school year). Note: It does not include absent students. Aggression The motivation to inflict bodily harm on another organism. The term LISLI~IIYrefers to the tendency to attack another member of the same species. Aggression is one of the main symptoms of asocial personality disorder, according to the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Retardation, 4th Ed.). Aggressivepersonality A personality disorder wherein the individual has little patience with others aswell as a low frustration level. A person or student can be bully-like in nature, throw temper tantrums andexhibit destructive behavior as well as verbal abuse. Agitated depression A form of depression characterized by a state of excessive restlessness on a continuing basis. Patients are restless, agitated, pick and rub themselves, and cry. They feel depressed, guilty, persecuted, and suffer from fears andobsessions. Agitolalidagitophasia A condition of very rapid and cluttered speech with omissions, slurring, and distortionsof sound.

Aglossia No tongue; absence of a tongue. The removalof a tongue in part or totally is called a "glossectomy." SEE: ~ ~ k l S S c ' l ~ f C J l l l ! /

Agnosia The inability to place mcanings to sounds, words,o r visual experiences. This condition also includes an inability to recognize objects and experiences through the other senses as well. Agnosticism The view that it is not possible to decide whethero r not there is a god. Agonist A chemical that activates (or mimics the action of) some drugor chemical neurotransmitter. Agraphia A condition caused by a ccntral nervous systemlesion or lack of muscular coordination wherein the student or person has lost the ability to express oneself in writing. Writing or copying from the board or dictation may still be possible. It is associated with motor aphasia. SEE: nphsin, dysp7ph;n

Agrypnia A condition characterized by sleeplessness or an inability to sleep. It is a synonym for insomnia.

AI SEE: Artificinl Irrtdligerrcc AIDS SEE: Acyrirctf l l r r r u r r r l r D+%wcy Syrldrorjw

AIDS-Related Complex (ARC) Acondition caused by theAIDS virus in which the patient tests positivefor AIDS but the symptoms areoften less severe than the classic AIDS.

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) Aspecial program that provides funds to qualifying lowincome families with dependent children. Suchfactors as death of a parent, no or inadequate parental support, parental disability, an unemployed parent, a missing parent, and other such reasons that deny or deprive childreno f proper and adequate supportcan qualify children and families for AFDC payments. Air conduction (AC) test A hearing test that uses pure tones ranging from 125 Hz to 8000 Hz through headphones. This test assesses the amountof hearing loss a child has if a hearing loss is present. The resultsfrom AC testing and bone conduction (BC) testing reveal whether or nota hearing loss is conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. SEE: ~ ( I I I ~

9

~

Akinesia

- Alphabetic

principle

corlrfrrctiorl (UC) tcYtirrg, corldlrctizlc lrPnrillg / 0 5..5 , srrrsorir~c~rrnl . /rrnrill
irrg /oss Akinesia A conditioncharacterizedby a IOSS of \~oluntary muscle movement. Akinetic seizure A seizure or an attack wherein the individual has an absence or loss o f muscular movement.SEE: scizlfrc, okirrc7sir7

Alalia

A type of aphasia wherein the stLtde11t or person haslost her/his ability to speak ~ L I to C damage or paralysisof thc. vocal organs. It is the loss of functional speech.

ALAN

An acronym for the Assembly on Literature for Adolescents. Albinism An inheritableconditionthat is chxacterized by a severe deficiency or total lack o f pigmentation in the eyes, hair, o r skin. This conditioncan be and many times is accompanied by photophobia (extreme sensitivity to light), dstigmatism (blurred vision), and nystagmus (involuntary movement of the eyeball). SEE: p / l ~ l ~ O ~ l / l ( d nstiprlntisrrr, Jin, l~!/~t~7gllfl~S

Alchemy

serious reading disability related usually to brain dysfunction. SEE: uisrrnl n/J/f(7S;(7 Algorithm 1. A strategy for thinking. Math algorithms or procedures,for example, involve well-defined and sequential steps. For instance, the main algorithm involved in subtraction is solving from right to left. 2. SEE: A p p f d i x 4: C ~ l i l p f f t l Prrrrs v' All-group share A type of classroom activity wherein a student shares her/his writing(s) with a group and elicits responses andreactions to the shared writing(s). Alliteration A term (poeticterminology) that describes theoccurrence of two or more words having the samebeginning sound(s) suchas: "Johnny Johnson joyously jumping." Allocated time The amount of time set aside for Icarning activities. Times allocated for different learning activities differ depending on the needsof the learners, the importance of the curriculum, imposed curriculum mandates, etc. Generally, teachers allocate more time for language arts activities (reading, writing, spelling) than any othersubject as fundamental literacy is dependent on this important area of study. Alpha level The level of statistical significance established. Alpha waves A type of Electroencephalogram (EEG) record, in which the rises and drops in voltage occur from 8 to 12 times every second(i.e., the frequency of these waves equals 8 to 12 hertz [Hz]). Alpha waves occur when the individual is resting quietly with the eyesclosed. Meditation is often practiced by individuals in order to produce alpha waves, which indicate comfortable relaxation.

1. A speculative science occurring during medieval times involved with the transmutation of base metals into gold. 2. In education, the term is used to describe the transformationof something or someone ordinary into something or someoneof great worth. The changing of an ordinary student into a talented or gifted individual, an academic blossoming. Alcohol embryopathy SEE:fifnl r7/UJ/IO/ s!/rrtfrorrrc~ ALD SEE: Alrtormtrd Ltnrrliry Druicr Alerting device A device used by inciividuals with disabilities that signals to them that something of noteis Alphabetic principle In languagearts, ha~7pening.For example, a blinking light the concept that children exposed to signals a telephone call for the deaf. The printed material and read to begin to device can use sight, sound, or vibration understand that sounds and letters are to signal the individual. related. It is an early phonemic or phonetic stage of development and mainly Alexia A condition characterized by an written with the useof consonants; one inability to comprehend written lanor more letters may represent a complete guage symbols (words) asthey relate to word. Example: "R CT JMP DN" = "Our real-life experiences andobjects. It is a cat jumped down."

10

AL5

- American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR)

” I I

lation of abnormal protein material ALS SEE: A///!ptrophicL o t c d Sclrrosis called amyloid). Most of the degenerALT (Academic Learning Time) This ated neurons arethose that synthesize is the actud time spenton a learning and release the neurotransmitter acetyltask as opposed to thetotal time spent choline (ACh).The symptoms include in class o r school. forgetting (with loss of personal, bioAlternative education Educational graphical memory a prominent feature) experiences outside o f the conventional and the loss of the ability to think educational experiences for students clearly. Patients frequently will walk who cannot ordo not want to be taught away from home andbecome lost. Other in traditional public school classes. dementias are less frequent; these are Alternatives include home schooling, Pick’s disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob sch~)ols without walls, street academies, disease. and free schools. Ambidextrous The ability to use and Alternative futures A system o r work effectively with either the left or method used by persons who predict the right hand. future (alsocalled futurists) based upon Ambivalent affect A condition wherein current knowledge. Theidea is to take a student or person hasmixed feelings current trends andproject them into the toward another individual o r some situfuture in order to arriveat possible ation or event; that is, strong positive as future alternatives. well as negativefeelings. Alternative living unit Any type of Amblyopia or lazy eye Poor vision in residential setting other than a student’s a structurally sound eye. This condition or individual’s family home or resiinvolves aninability to focus both eyes dence. Alternative living units include on a fixed point. Thus, one eyeis out of but are notlimited to foster homes, focus. If not corrected, this condition group homes, supervised dwellings will continue to cause impairedvisual (apartments, flats), and residential care functioning. placements and facilities. Amblyopia ex anopsia A condition Alternative school Aschool designed characterized by a dimness of vision as a to meet the needs of a special education result of nonuse o f the eyes. It is usually student whois unable to progresseffecin one eye and thus the brain suppresses tively in a regular school program. It can the vision of the unused eye and uses be private orpublic. Such schools can the other. Squinting and poor visualacualso accon-rmodate regular education ity are associated with this condition. students who arein need of new, differSEE: nttlb~!ylpii7 ent, and/or innovative programs. Ambulation A term ~lsedto describe Altruism The disposition to act acts of walking o r moving about at unselfishly for the benefit o f other perlarge. sons or for the sake of a larger group, Amentia Seriously impaired intellisuch as one’s country orall humanity. gence ( I Q usually 70 or below) or SEE: cy)istt/, c.tlrics feeblemindedness; in effect, subnormal Alveolar ridge The ridge of the mouth mental capacity or development. just above the upper front teeth. Alzheimer’sdisease (Alois Alzheimer, America 2000 SEE: Gods 2000 American Association on Mental German neurologist, 1864-1915). A Retardation (AAMR) An organizachronic and organic mental disorder tion of persons and professionals from classified ‘1s a dementia and sometimes various backgrounds who monitor and referred to as “prematuresenility.” It is interact in the treatment of individuals accompanied by pathological changes in with mental retardation or retardation in the cerebral cortex such as the appeargeneral. TheAAMR is an offshoot of an ance of ”tangles” (the remainsof dead nerve cells) and “plaques” (the accumuearly advocacy group organizedby

11

American Federation of Teachers (AFT)

- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (AL5)

_ I

Edward Seguin in 1866. In 1876, with Seguin as its president, the group was named the “Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons.” It was then renamed the American Association on Mental Deficiency and is now known as the American Association on Mental Retardation.

American Federation of Teachers (AFT) A teachers organization, long affiliated with the AFL/CIO (American Federation of Labor and the Congressof Industrial Organizations). It is a professional organization committed to improved education for students and improved working conditions for teachers. John Dewey (US. philosopher and educator, 1859-1952), became the first card-carrying member in 1916. It is one of two of the largest professional organizations in the nation, the other being the National Education Association (NEA). SEE: Tlrc Nnfiorm/ Edlrcntior? A S O C ~ ~ ~ ~ ( J I I (NEA) American Sign Language (ASL) One of the manual language systemsfor the deaf and hearing impaired. It is understood to be a method of communication that has its own language and gramnlar rules but is generally aligned with the linguistics standards o f spoken English. ASL is a language unto itself. It is also known by the nameof Ameslan. SEE: ~~~~~~l EllgI;slr ( S E E w , sI,clilrg Essc~rltinlE/rglisll ( S E E I) Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) (ADA) A civil rights bill also known as P.L. 101336. Its major premise is to eliminate discrimination against persons with disabilities. It guarantees equal opportunity in the areas of public accommodations, telecommunication, public services to include transportation, and employment. SEE: Appt>/rdi.y 2: L c ~ I

s;~~jl;f~~~

nrrrrs nmf

kSIfLY

Ameslan The nickname for American Sigp Language. SEE: A H I ~ V S~i gX/ ~I I LorIgrrngcz (ASG

Amimia Inability to use signs and/or gestures to expressoneself. This may be complete o r partial but in any case it

12

Anacusis/anacusia

-m

- Analysis of transference

meaning" of these dream imagesto the w11ose career and life were cut shortby patient, the psychoanalystis supposedly ALS. providing the patient with the insight Anacusis/anacusia A condition of comnecessary for a cure to be achieved. plete deafness; total loss of hearing. Analysis of free associations One of Anal stage The second stage of personthe psychoanalytic techniques develality development as proposedin the oped by Sigmund Freud.The patient psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund keeps on saying whatever comes to Freud. It begins at the age of one and his/her mind asa response to each Idsts until age four. lt is during this stage stated word. When an expressed that the superego, the third of the three thought is followed by a delay, the psyparts of the mind, takes form. Supposchoanalytic therapist regards this asa edly, the way in which this is achieved is "block," and the just stated word is by means oftoilet training; the child regarded as a very important key to the learns to anticipate the demands of material repressed in the patient's adults rather than continuing toact in unconscious. As more and more imporan unrestrained way. tant keys are brought out,the analyst Analgesia Pain relief. gains the ability to understand the Analogical thinking A heuristic techpatient's deeper problems. The analyst nique. Analogical thinking involves then provides the patient with insight, attempting to solvea problem by lookwhich is thefirst step in exposing ing at solutions from other problems repressed material to the patient's conwhose solutions resemble the current sciousness and the patient regaining problem situation. Example: (vocabulary his/her mental health. analogy) River is to boat as road is Analysis of resistance A therapeutic to . A correct technique used by psychoanalysts someresponse could be "car." By analogical what after the analysis has begun to thinking one arrives ata possible soluinterpret the patient's repressions. The tion--a boat is used to travel on a river; patient seldom accepts the interpretation therefore, a car could be used to travel immediately, usually expressing disbeon a road. lief. This so-called resistance is worked Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) A through, with the analyst pointing out to type of statistical method that attempts the patient that the vehemenceof the to estimate if two or more groups would patient's denials supposedly amounts to have differed on a particular criterion an admission that the information has variable if the effects of variables associsome validity after all. ated with the criterion variable are Analysis of teaching A self-evaluation eliminated. technique for teachers. The concept is to Analysis of dreams A technique of recommend and encourage teachers to psychotherapy developed by Sigmund critique themselves and their teaching Freud. The assumptionsbehind it are techniques. The ultimategoal is an that unacceptable wishes and shameful improved teacher and thus improved memories are repressed into the education for students. unconscious part of the mind and that Analysis oftransference During a these repressed thoughts will produce lengthy psychotherapy, the patientLEUneurotic symptoms and the contents of ally develops extreme attachment and/ dreams, among other things. When the or dependence on the therapist.The patient reports the contentof his/her therapist uses this inappropriate emodreams, the Freudian therapisttreats tion to show the patient that he/she is these details as "manifestcontent;" this supposedly treating the therapist as one apparent dream material is considered of the patient's parents or lovers. The to be a mask for the true thoughts, the transference is then thought to be an "latent content." By explaining the "true opportunity for further interpretation,

13

Analyeis of Variance (ANOVA)

-

- Aneneia

-

bringing on insight on the part of the dents first on mastering a number of patient. easily learned words. Letter sounds, phonics rules, and generalizations
-

Aniseikonia Antiretroviral agent ___1

Aniseikonia

A medical visualcondition in which the ocular image of one eye differsin size and shape from the other. Ankyloglossia A condition in which the flap that holds the tongue tothe floor of the mouth is attached too far forward or too short limiting theability to produce tongue-tip sounds; a condition of being tongue-tied. Ankylosis A medical condition characterized by an unusual and abnormal stiffening or fixation of a joint of the body as a result of pathological changes within the joint or surrounding tissue. Annualgoals Thegeneralgoals listed in a student's Individualized Educational Plan (IEP). It is required by IDEA (P.L. 101476) (formerly EHA, P.L. 94-142) for special needs children. SEE: IDEA, P.L. 94-242, IEP Annual increments The standard steps based upon yearsof service and experience; found in teacher salary scales/ contracts. The step compares to the number of years taught and thus determines salary levels. Anodontia No teeth; theabsence of teeth. Anomaly A term used to describe an organ or structure that is abnormal. It is frequently a congenital malformation. SEE: corlgmitnl Anomia Difficulty with or an inability to recognize names or to remember objects; recall and recognition of names and objects may be partially or completely lacking. SEE: r~nrrrir~nl nphin Anomie A social condition wherein a person has feelings of not belonging and alienation to social norms, standards, and especially accepted codes of conduct. It was coined by a social theorist named Emile Durkheim during the 1890s. Anophthalmos Also called anophthalmia, it is the absence of one or both eyes as a result of a congenital anomaly. Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder in which the patient avoids eating in the attempt to become slim. Thereis a dis-

torted body image to the extent that even a very thin person maysee himself/herself as beingobese. This self-starvation process may be carried to the pointof fatality. Anosmia The loss of the sense of smell. ANOVA SEE: AruzI!/sis of V17ri17llCc' Anoxia A serious lack o f oxygenated blood severe enough to cause brain damage. Anoxia of brain tissue Could cause mental retardation. ANS SEE: Alrtorioruic Nrrvulrs Systc'rrr Antecedent Events/stimulithat precede measurable behavior changes. Anterior Toward the front of the body. Anterograde amnesia Theinability to form relatively permanent memories (i.e,, Long-Term Memories (LTM) or the constituents of LTM) resulting from an injury to the hippocampus, even though preinjury LTM is intact. Antianxiety drugs Psychoactive drugs that are used torelieve anxiety (vague fears). These drugs are also known as the minor tranquilizers. Prozac is one example; another is Valium. Anticonvulsant An agent or medication that relieves or prevents 1' convulsion or seizure. SEE: s r i ~ r c ~ Antidepressant A drug given to relieve depression. Antidiscrimination SEE: A p p d i s 2, L g n l T e r l ~ ns l l d Isslfes Antimaniadrugs Psychoactive drugs that relieve mania, a condition of irrational euphoria and overconfidence carried to a psychotic extreme. Examples of such drugs are lithium carbonate and reserpine. Antipsychotic drugs Also called neuroleptics, these psychoactive drugs are used to relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Positive symptoms are manifest and overt; they include paranoid delusions, hallucinations,catatonic motor symptoms (e.g., waxy flexibility), speaking in gibberish, etc. Antiretroviral agent Any agent that inhibits the functionof a retrovirus (the common name for Retroviridae, 15

El

Antisocial personality dieorder - Applied research

RNA-containing tumor viruses). These congenital condition marked by a peakviruses involve thereversal of the translike head with manifestations such as fer of genetic information (in thiscase, a malocclusion and webbed fingers and molecule of DNA from an RNA model). toes. Antisocial personality disorder A per- Apgarscore (Virginia Apgar,Contemsonality disorder markedby impulsiveporary American Physician 1909-1974.) ness and lack of ethical restraint. CrimiA system for scoring an infant's physical nal acts can be performedreadily by condition one minute andfive minutes such an individual because there is a after birth. Developed in 1952, it mealack of moral control and an absenceof sures heart rate (beats per minute), resthe ability t o experience feelings of guilt. piratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and skin color. It is scaled 0 SEE: pyr/~opfh (low), 1 (middle), and2 (high and best). Antonym In language arts, a word All are then totaled for the final Apgar directly opposed to another in meaning. (10 is highest possible score). For example, /lot is the antonym of cold. Aphagia A loss of interest in eating as Anvil (or incus) One of the bones in the result of brain damage. The individthe middle ear involvedin carrying fed sound vibrations through the middle ear ual may starve to death unless intravenously. to the inner ear. SEE: itrcus Aphasia A language impairment preAnxiety A troubled feeling, a state of sumably resulting from central nervous emotional unrest, or tension to the system damage that involves impaired degree that it causes apprehension and comprehension or an inability to comfear. The distress produced may be from municate clearly. a real or imagined threat to one's physiAphonia The impairment or inability to cal or emotional well-being. It is particuproduce sounds of speech from the Iarlarly tied to fear of the future. SEE: n m i ynx as in the case of laryngitis or the et!/ r~crrrosis,rrrwosis complete loss of voice. Anxiety disorder Any of several kinds Appeal SEE: Appwdis 2: L e p d Tcrrr~s( 7 t l d of neurotic conditions involving irraIssues tional or vague fears that cannot be attributed to objectively present dangers. Appellant SEE: A/~pv~di.x 2: L e p / P r ~ ~ r s m d lssrres Anxiety neurosis Afunctional disease in which fear is out of proportion to Appellee SEE: Apperrdix 2: Leg(?/T c ~ ' r l r s actual circumstances. Symptoms ofanxintrd Issrres ety such as sweating, palpitations, tremAppliedbehavioralanalysis An bling, and others are not a result of any approach to teaching behavior managedisease or organic cause. The individual ment that involves chartingm d observmay or may not be conscious as to the ing behaviors and then analyzing the reasons for this feeling of anxiety and frequency, duration, andcontext o f those abnormal fear from an imagined orreal behaviors. Behaviors are task-analyzed but minor threat. SEE: uerrrosis, otlxiety and recorded so that applied teaching

Anxiety-withdrawal

A type of deviant behavior in which the child shows symptoms that may includetimidity, shyness, withdrawal,sensitivity, submissiveness, extreme dependency, and depression. Apert's syndrome A narrowing of the skull to sucha degree that the development o f the brain is adversely affected.It can result in mental retardation unless SLtrgicaI intervention takes place. It is a

16

techniques and reinforcement scheduks can beassessed before and after for effectiveness. Student behavioris m o n tored and recorded duringall phases of this approach. Applied research Research conducted so as to apply ortest a hypothesis/ theory and then evaluate usefulness of data in problem solving.

-

Appreciative listening AKC I I

ally results from a specific injury to a part of the cerebral cortex. Aptitude The capacity to perform a specific type of activity. The activity involved is usually more narrowly defined than anactivity related to "m ability." One may show an nptitude for mathematics or formusic, as examples. Aptitude-achievement discrepancy A comparison or thedifference betwee11 scores on a standardized test of achievement versus a student's actual potential. An example of such a discrepaicy would be a bright student whoS C C X ~ S very low on a standardized achievement test in reading. T ~ u s a, discrepancy would exist between real ability clnd actual acllievement. Aptitude tests These are tests that measure a student's general or specific abilities within a narrowly focused field of study such as art or music. Aptitude Treatment Interaction (ATI) The interaction of indi\~idualdifferences among students with methodso f instruction. (e.g., Method A works best with students of Type T.) For example, some students with learningdisabilities perform best when material and exams are given via an oral/aural presentation. Aquaphobia A fear of water. Aqueous humor A waterysubstance between the cornea and lens of the eye. Arbitration Part of the collectivebargaining process that invol\zes having two parties (e.g., teachers vs. school committee) who are deadlocked on an issue and appointing a third party to hear both sidesof an issue (c.g.,pay increase). The arbiter studies thefacts presented and makes a decision that is generally binding for both parties involved. ARC 1. A National Organization on Mental Retardation, "The Association for Retarded Citizens." This is a support group that works andlobbies on behalf of persons (eg., improved and expanded services). ARC also provides support services/ common meeting facilities for family members and friends. 2. SEE: Aids lielntcd Cor~~plcs

17

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Archetypes Asian-Americans

Archetypes

In Carl Jung’s theory, each of LIS has an unconscious partof the mind that we share among ourselves simply because we are all human; that is, the racial unconscious or thecollective unconscious. The elements of that part of the mind are neitherlinguistic nor logical; they are mental images that are found to be present in all human societies. Such images are termedarchetypes in the terminology of Jung’s analytical psychology system. Architectural barrier A barrier or condition in thephysical environment that prevents individuals withdisabilities or other conditions from using thefacilities or moving about as optimallyas possible. For example, staircases in relation to persons using wheelchairs. Area vocational center A facility that provides instruction in vocational education (eg., automechanics, medical assistants) to students froma school system or region. Students attending an area vocational center receive academic programs in regular secondary schools or other institutions. Arnold-Chiari deformity (Julius Arnold, German Pathologist,1835-1915; Hans Chiari, GermanPathologist, 1851-1916) A malformation of the cerebellar hemisphere. It is one of the factors in hydrocephalus andis usually associated with spina bifida, and meningomyelocele. SEE: /r!/duocrp/rn/rls, spirrn bifidn, rtrc,rrirrgolrr!/elocelr Arousal Any physiological or mental reactions that could beclassified as increased alertness or greater attentiveness. Arraignment SEE: Appeirdix 2:Legnl TPrrrrs Rlld Zssrres Array of services Refers to the availability of a group or batteryof educational personnel, services, and/or placements that areavailable to a student or person. Arson SEE: A/JpelZdi.Y 2: Lcgn/ 7h’rlfs nrld lssrrc~s

Arteriosclerosis

A hardeningand thickening of the walls of the arteries, resulting in high blood pressure.

18

Arthritis Inflammation of a joint of the body, which frequently includes changes in structure, swelling, stiffness, and pain. Arthrodesislarthrodosis Thefixation of a joint through surgery. Cartilage is removed and thus the bones are allowed to grow together. Arthrogryposis A congenital condition in which poorly developed muscles result in contraction or crooking of the joints. Articulation The altering of the flow of air from the lungsby the movement of the mouth and tongueto shape sounds into speech. Articulation disorder Disordersthat involve the omission, substitution, or distortion of speech sounds or segments. Articulators The body structures used to alter the passage of air through the vocal tract such as thelarynx, pharynx, velum, tongue, lips, teeth, etc. Artifact In regard toassessment,the concrete learning outcomes generated from learners (e.g., written work, art work, a taped speech, a videotaped lesson, etc). Artificial Intelligence(AI) Aspecial area of computer science in which the computer is programmed to work out procedures by the useof logic. The study of the psychology of thinking can benefit from developments in AI, and some of the work in AI may be derived from some principlesof cognitive psychology. SEE: A/J\JCifdi.Y 4, cl)ilf/JflfCt’ ‘kf’11fS

Artificiallarynx

An alternative method of speech used by persons who have had a laryngectomy (removal of the larynx). This alternative speaker uses a device that is hand-held and batterypowered. This deviceis pressed against the neck and produces a vibrating sound that passes through the neck and into the throat. The speaker pantomimes the words to be spoken by shaping the articulators and thus producesmechanically sounding speech.SEE: nrticulntors, C ~ O ~ J / f ~ SYCCCh, ~ l W / /nf’!/if.Y

Asian-Americans 1. Americans who are from theFar East or related to peo-

A5L

- Asthma

-Assistivelisteningdevices Devices ples from theFar East. 2. Asians from that aid hearing-impaired studentsor the Far East living in the United States. persons such as hearing aids, cochlear ASL SEE: Arrrpricm! Six11LnjlgllflSc’ implants, FM transmission devices, Asphyxia A condition characterized by audio loops, etc. SEE: f l J r d i ( 1 loop, FM a lack of oxygen. A lack o f sufficient trnrlsrllissiorr drzlicc oxygen can cause or contribute to many Assistive technology Refers to the posand \raried handicapping conditions itives of technological advances as they such as anoxia resulting in brain damhelp individuals withdisabilities and age. SEE: n!IOXl[7 other conditions function and cope with Assault The act of intentional physical the environment. Suchtechnology can contact without an individual’s permis- range from low-tech adding machines to sion, causing fear or apprehension of high-tech word processors. battery. SEE: h t t m y , flpprrrdis 2: L c p / Associate degree Degreebdsed on less f i J ’ I J l S f l t d ISSlrr’S than four yearso f work beyond high Assertivediscipline An attitude school. Typically, associate degrees toward child-rearing or early education involve a two-year program in the libinvolving firmness andclarity but not eral arts areas and twoto three years in including threatening or harshly puninursing (e.g., students with associate tive procedures. degrees frequently transfertheir two to Assertiveness training Trainingin the three years of credits into four-year social art of expressing oneself openly institutions of higher learning in order and forcefully, without resorting to rudeto obtain baccalaureate degrees or bachness or aggressiveness. elor’s degrees).SEE: ~ ~ L - / J ~ ~ d/ Oq ~r ’wS Assessment The general process of Association A term used to describe gathering data and analyzingthose data one‘s cognitive/thillking ability to conto assist in making decisions about class nect and to see the relationship between procedures. Information is collected knowledge, data, concepts, and/or about teacher and/or student perforinformation from differing sources. mance, studentbehaviors, and classAssociation areas Areas o f the cerebral room atmosphere. SEE: Appwdix 2: L q n l cortex that are neither the terminalsof firrrrs r 7 r l l f /sslr[5 direct neural pathways from sense Assessment error Any systematic inacorgans nor the starting points of direct curacy in data gathered in the assessnerve pathways to the muscles and ment process. There may havebeen a glands. Many of these areas are usedtor poorly administered test, a fault test, various higher mentalprocesses. unreliability of test responses asa result Astereognosis Theinability to recogof guesswork by respondents, etc. At nize familiar objects. SEE: ryr1osir7 least a small amountof error should be Asthenia Without strength. While it w n expected in any set of assessment data. be any weakness,it particularly pertains SEE: A p p ~ ~ d2:i .L~ C ~ 72rrrrs J ~ arid 1ss~ct.s to muscular orcerebellar disease. Assessmentportfolios SEE: pv?jii/io Asthenopia Painfulvision resulting Assimilation A process of cognitive from a weakness of the eye muscles. development, described by child psychologist Jean Piaget, in which new data Asthma A respiratory problem involving episodic difficulties in breathing are fitted into already present knowl(dyspnea). Individuals who are asthedge systems or schemes. matic have more intensified or induced Assistive communication Anytypeor asthmatic attacks (wheezing/breathitl~ form of communication that replaces, problems) when under stress, poor supports, or supplants speaking.SEE: weather conditions, or whenin contact ~7lrgrrrc~rr~ntiz~c corrrtlllrrlicrlfio/l with allergy-causing items (eg., pollen).

19

m-

Astigmatism

- Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)

_ I

Astigmatism Blurred vision due to dif-

Athetoid Involuntary, meaningless,and ferences in the refraction of light at difuncontrollable movement. SEE: ntlrctosis ferent parts of the cornea; the result of Athetoid cerebral palsy A type of cerethis uneven bending of light rays is that bral palsy. SEE: ntlrrtosis when some partsof the visual stimulus Athetosis A severe muscular condition are brought intofocus, others have to that involves sudden and involuntary remain out o f focus. jerky movements with writhingmovcAsymbolia An inability to use any type ments of the fingers and wrists most cviof symbol, especially in music and math. dent. This condition can be considered a I t may also includesigns, words, or gestype of cerebral palsy. SEE: cercbral p l s ! y tures. It is a form o f aphasia. Also called Athletics, access to SEE: Appcrrdis 2: asemia or asemasia. SEE: nphnsin L e p l Term nun Isstr~s. Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex AT1 SEE: Aptitrltfe Trentlrrcrzt Illternctiorr (ATNR) A natural reflex in very young infants (upto four months of age) ATNR SEE: Asyrrretricnl Tolric Neck Reflcx that involves turning the head to the side, causing the arm andleg on that Atonia The absence of or a deficiency in particular side, to automatically extend muscle tone. toward the head. The opposite arm and Atonic cerebral palsy A type of cereleg fall into a flexed position. Physicians bral palsy whereby the individuallacks will look at the ATNR reflex carefully as muscle tone (e.g., floppiness). an abnormalreflex action; after the age Atresia A physical condition of the of four months this sometimes indicates external auditorycanal in which the brain injury. external canal is not completely formed. At-home reading As the term implies, Atrophy The degeneration or destructime outsideof the classroom involving tion of tissue(s). a student with his/her parent, guardian, or tutor in the home in reading situaAtropinization Administration of tions. The adult supervises the reading atropine, which dilates the pupilsof the whether it be aloud or silent. eyes as a means to treat cataracts (the clouding-over of the lens of the eye). At risk Usually refers to children who are "at risk" for school failure because Attainment value Placing a value on of learning/environment/medical good performance or the relationship of problems. success on a task to one's own needs. Attaining good grades in school would Ataxia A condition involving discoordibe a higher priority or have higher nation problems of balance, posture, attainment value for a student who is directionality, and general orientation trying to seeka scholarship. in space. Both fine and gross motor skills and movements areaffected. The Attendancecenter A legal and/or administrative area that sets boundaries individual with ataxia has noticeable to determine which children will attend difficulty in performing simple tasks such as reaching for an object or taking a which school. step. This condition can be considered a Attention The selection of particular type o f cerebral palsy. SEE: cerellrnl palsy sensations, memory images, and/or thought processes for cognitive elaboraAtheism The view that it is possible to tion from the complextotality of all prereach a conclusion about the existence of sent sensations, images, and thoughts. God and that answer is negative (Le., the atheist states positively that there is no AttentionDeficitDisorder (ADD) A God). childhood disorder similar to attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder except Atherosclerosis A type of arteriosclerothat hyperactivity is not present. SEE: sis involvinga roughening of the normally smooth arterial linings. 20

Attention-DeficitlHyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

- Attribute chart

and achieve goals even after repeated failures. Some believe that Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill, and others Attention-DeficiVHyperactivity were ADHD as adults, which demonDisorder (ADHD) According to strates that this disorder need not be DSM-IV, this is a childl1ood disorder disruptive/negative to one's life. (diagnosed in approximately 5-10 Regardless, trained professionals need to percent of school-age children) that be consulted when an individual experiinvolves both an attentiondeficit and ences ADHD or any other learning dishyperacti\,ity, which persist for at least ability. SEE: Lcnrtlitrg Disnbilit!/ ( L D ) six months. The ADHDchild is not Attention deficits A conditionfrealways dble to function satisfactorily quently associated with students orperboth at scllool and at home becauseof sons with learningdisabilities. Individu1, difficulty following directions and als with this condition havedifficulty executing tasks to their completion, staying on task and plying attention to 2. difficulty in maintaining adequate instruction for any length of time. SEE: attention during schoolwork and at play, Att~'l1ti0~ Dtfiit Disdt'r (ADD),A t h p r l f i ( I r ~ 3. excessive fidgeting, squirming, movDL~CiiCit/H!/PPr71Ctiz~it!/ Disorder ( A D H D ) ing, and running around,4. difficulty listening to others, and5. an inability to Attention span The length of time a wait one's turn while speaking. Other student can attend totasks or concensigns of ADHD are: absent-mindedness, trate on anactivity before losing her/his frequent mood swings, clumsiness, a concentration and interest. poor sense of direction, being easily irriThe ability of a tated and hot-tempered, disorganization Attentive listening student or person to focus out other in play and at work, aninability to folstimuli and listen and concentrate on low through with tasks (especially tasks one source or stimulus being heard. requiring sustained attention), lowfrusAttitude A dispositiontobehave favortration tolerance, haphazardness in ably or unfavorably toward someobject, strategies used to problemsolve, and being easily overwhelmed even by small person, event, or idea.An attitude has emotional and cognitive components. tasks. This disorder is diagnosed in two to eight times more boys than girls and Examples of emotional componentsof an attitude would belove and hate; can be found in many cultures. The examples of cognitive components treatment for adults and childrenis genmight be favorable biases and prejuerally the same with medication, coundiced opinions. seling (e.g., channeling energies into productive avenues), and appropriate Attitudeinventory An assessment education interventions combined for instrument used that typically involves a those with severe casesof ADHD. The series of questions that stimulate and primary medications used areRitalin, initiate thought/discussion regardinga Dexedrine, and Cylert (stimulant medparticular topic (e.g., attitude toward ications). ADHD tends to runin families mathematics). Many times statcments with approximately one-thirdof all are presented and the individualis diagnosed cases also involving another asked to agree or stronglyagree, disimmediate family member. There are agree, or form no opinion. also positive aspects to ADHDas many Attribute chart One method of categoindividuals (both children and adults) rizing information (attribute = a characsuccessfully adapt and become very teristic) gathered as theresult of reading, productive/contributing members of experimentation, observation, and the society. Specifically, this population has like. Typically a subject area (attribute) is many individuals who are"resilient," designated, such as"height," and subwith good self-esteem and a sense of categories might include "short," "averoptimism. The resiliency, in particular, age," and "tall" and this information is allows the individual to be persistent

AttI'rltiurl-Dqjicit/H!/~~~,rn~ti~~it!/ Disordw (ADHD)

=

Atrributee

- Auditory Brainstem Respon6e (ABR)

charted for visualization/understandrun across the top of the grid with the ing. In language arts, this is an effective amount of hearing loss in decibels runpost-reading strategy in that students ning down the sideof the grid. The type are condensing important information or kind of hearing test sed along with and are makingconnections. Students the eartested are noted in symbolic can classify by more than one attribute form. SEE: decibrl,frsqllerlc!/, / r u k (e.g., classifying by shape, color, and size Audiologist A person trained to idenin mathematics). tify types of hearing losses, to interpret Attributes In education, a term that audiometric tests, and to recommend describes general characteristics of a equipment and procedures toassist the group. A more general meaning would hearing impaired. include a q ~ ~ a l ior t y characteristic of any Audiology The science that deals with student, person, or thing. the diagnosis of hearing problems and, Attribution Attempts to account for if possible, their remediation. our own behaviors and thoughts. The Audiometer A special instrument or explanation o f these attempts constitutes machine used to measure hearingacuity. a sub-field of social psychology called Audiometric zero (zero decibellevel) "attribution theory." This is the lowest level at which individAttributiontheories Theories that uals with normal hearing can detect explain how an individual tends to sound. account for his/ller own motives and/or Audiometry A method of testing using actions. an audiometer to measure the hearing of Audienceinhibition Theunwillinga person. SEE: ndiortrcfrr ness of a bystander to offer assistance to Audition SEE: h ~ n r i 1 7 ~ someone in need of help when other Auditory acuity The sensitivity of the bystanders are also present. ear to sound stimuli with the ability to Audio loop An AssistiveListening detect sound falling in the rangcof Device (ALD) that aids a hearing25-60 decibels (dB) with frequencies of impaired person through the useof a 500-2000 Hertz (Hz).SEE: /wrk (HI), special hearing aid. The instructions are dccibel ( d B ) heard directly in the ear of the learner. Auditory analysis An ability of a stuSound may be loopedby wire or radio dent or person to separate and comprewaves and thelistener must sit within hend various componentsof an auditory the loop. communication. Audio-visual material AnyeducaAuditory association The ability of a tional material or device that uses either student or person to connect the meansight or sound or both tofacilitate learnings of words or information that arc ing (e.g., a tape recorder, video cassette verbally presented. recorder, video player, cassette player, maps, charts, etc.). Auditory blending The ability of a student or person to synthesize phonemes Audiodescription A techniquethat (smallest unitsof sound) of words when involves the use of FM transmission or the words are pronounced with pauses the available (extra) sound track on between the phonemes. stereo telc\risions. A trained specialist narrates what is happening on stage, in Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) a film, or in a television program Measurement of changes of electrical through the use of FM transmission brain-wave activity. This medical procedirectly to the hearing-impaired listener. dure involves electrodes that are SEE: FM f ~ 0 r 7 S I f l ~ S S i 0 dsuice tZ attached to the scalp. It is used with infants, young children, andthose adults Audiogram The charting of pure tone in audioconduction and bone conduction results who are unable to participate metric testing ona voluntary basis. on a grid or chart. Frequencies tested

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Auditory canal

- Augmentative communication _ I

Auditory canal A passageway from the inside of the head tothe middle ear. SEE: c ~ s f ~ w rfllfd/tclr!/ ol C~II~I/ Auditory cortex That area of the cerebral cortex that receives the neural inputs from the hearing organs (the cochleae o f the two inner ears). The auditory cortex is located on the uppermost convolution of the temporal lobe. Auditory decoding One's ability to gather (glean) meaning from verbally expressed information. Auditory discrimination Theability to detect differences between sound stimuli that may vary (e.g., loudness o r pitch). The ability t o distinguish between similarly sounding words, such asi c c~w n I l / and 1 S C ~ ~ W I Iis, important for beginning readers. Auditory figure-ground The ability of a student or person to separate out a certain sound or word from other sounds or words being heard at the same time. Auditory group trainers Sound amplification apparatus, L I S L I ~ I an I ~ FM system, used to communicate with a group of hearing-impaired students or persons. The systemis wireless and thus remcx'es restrictions upon the movements of the teacher or presenter and the hearing-impaired members of the gr""p. Auditory integration The ability of a student or individualto connect a sound or sound combinations, asin the case of spoken words orsentences, with past and present experiences. Auditory localization Theability to differentiate among sounds with various pitch and loudnessso as to be able to locate the sound's source or point of origin. Auditory memory The dbility to retain information originally acquired by hearing. Auditory nerve The nerve running from the cochlea the hearing organ to the medulla o f the brain. It is part of the eighth cranial nerve. SEE: roclllcw, nrrdifOr!/ /JrOCc'SSiJl,V

Auditory perception

Theability of a student or person to not only understand what he/she hears but to meaningfully interpret what he/slle has hedrd in an organized fashion. Auditory processing The act of hearing or listening wherein sounds are channeled through the external auditory canal, to the tympanic membrane (ear drum) and middle ear(ossicles), and then past the oval window via the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation of what has been heard by the brain. SEE: nrldifor!/ ~ I C ~ Z Yc,o c l f l ~ rO~S ,S ~ C / C S

Auditory receptivelanguage

A general term used to describe one's ability to understand what hasbeen heard. SEE: fl~lditOr!/fJCrCC/JfiOfl,l I I I d i f O ! ' ! / SPIIIlL'lf-

tin/ Imwory Auditory sequential memory The

ability of a student or person to correctly repeat what she/he has heardin proper sequence. SEE: n~rditor!/r ~ w ~ 1 f i/nrl
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m= Aura

- Autonomy d

IZZE

Aura A perceptual sensation, sometimes

Authoritative parenting A style o f experienced before an epileptic seizure, parenting wherein the parent setslimits involving the perceptionof such things for tlw child and enforces the limits in RS sounds, odors, and visual images. an appropriate way, usually in a spirit o f warmth and love. This type of parenting Auricle (pinna) That Lnisible portion of style lets the child have some sapin the ear thatis composed of cartilage. what the rules and consequences of The auricle is responsible for collecting behavior are t o be. sounds from the environment and then funneling those sounds through the Authoritative truth The notionthat auditory canal to the eardrum. authority provides us with the knowledge of what is true. The authority m ~ y Authentic assessment Anassessment be ancestral, religious, or political. SEE: of student learning based on a compari~ ~ ~ 7 i S t ~ ~ ~ ~ I O / O ~ ! / son to practical and real-world situations. Outcomes and achievement are Autism A severe childhood psychosis measured in as close a fashion as possithat involves complete withdrawal from ble to the style or way the student theworld, cognitive impairments, lack learned. Portfolios are a type of authenof ability to interact in social situations, tic assessment. SEE: [ ~ o r t f o l i ~ a lack of appropriate affect, and selfstimulating behaviors. Authentic tests Assessmentmethods testing how the individual performs in Automated Learning Device (ALD) real-life situations, meanwhile revealing Any adaptations to a device (e.g., an his/her levels of ability in irarious skills. appliance, steering control, etc.) that allows i t to be used by persons with Author study An in-depth exploration disabilities. o f literature wherein all the works of an author are studied. This also applies to Automatic processing The e1,mboration in-depth studies of illustrators. Students of incoming perceptual data without arc expected to become somewhat having to use deliberate mental effort. Such processing will not affect the perexpert at identifying the writing styleof formance of any unrelated acti\,ebe11~1van author orillustrator. SEE: illustrntor iors that may be going on at thetime. 5tfld,l/ Automaticity The perfornmancr of ‘111 Authoritarian parenting Parentdisciactivity smoothly and automatically plining that includes the settingof the result of having pre\’iously learned rules/conse~uences/expected the task very thoroughly. As an exC1mple, bel~aviors/responsibilitiesfor a child. n u t o r l r n t i r i t y in word recognition is an Authoritarian personality A personalimportant prerequisite to c o m t m h x ity type characterized byan eagerness to sion proficiency. If too much time is control one’s subordinates and to obey spent on sounding o u t or identifying the orders of one’s superiors to the letter. words, fewer cognitive energies can be It is often accompanied by an overzealspent on trying to derive word meaning. ous identification with one’s group and CIS

a bigoted attitude toward members o f other groups. Authoritarianism A philosophythat encourages respect for and confidencein persons or institutionso f authority. Individual rights must deferto the rights and power of the authority or the person(s) in charge. Authoritative/contractual Theuse o f language that refers to contracts, laws, regulations, etc.

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Autonomic nervous system (ANSI That part of the peripheral nervoussystem which communicates t o the smooth muscles and glands.The ANS has two divisions: the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Autonomy The ability to carry o u t a task or set o f tasks independently. Indcpendent learners are autonomous in the sense that they can follow a set of

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-m

Autonomy versus shame and doubt Axiology

I _

year) equals the average daily membership. SEE: nggrrgnts rmwbmlrip Aversion therapy The correction of an Autonomy versus shame and doubt undesirable behavior by pairing the The second of Erik Erikson's eight stages of personality development, occurring in usual cue for that activity with an unpleasant (i.e., aversive) stimulus. For the second year of age. Successful develexample, alcoholism might be treated by opment of this stageinvolves obtaining dosing the patient with Antabuse, so a minimum amount of independence that consumption of an alcoholic beverfrom one's parents. This stageof develage makes him/her feel nauseated. opment is roughly equivalent to the anal stage in Freud's psychoanalytic theory Avitaminosis A disease resulting from of personality development. a lack of vitamins in one's diet.It is a nutritional deficiency that n ~ a ycause Autosomes A term used to describe neurological and psychological probany of the 22 pairs of chromosomes lems that can interfere with the learning other than thesex (gender) chromoprocess. somes, which are the23rd pair (XX female, XY male). Avoidance-avoidanceconflict A choice between two incompatible behavAuxiliarymaterials Refers to such iors, each of which involves removing items as workbooks, reproducibles, maps, bulletin-board products/ideas, oneself from an undesirable (aversive) overheads, computer programs, Internet situation. Expressions that refer to this programs, lesson ideas, etc. that accomstate of affairs include "between Scylla p"ny a text or curriculum materialsin a and Charybdis," "outof the frying pan complementary fashion. into the fire," and "between 1' rock and a hard place." Average children Refers to children who fall in the IQ range of 90-110, Avoidance learning Learning to avoid which is where clpproximately twothe onset of an aversive stimulusby thirds of all children are functioning. responding promptly to a warning signal. In most cases, the warning signal is Average Daily Attendance (ADA) terminated after the response. As a The aggregate attendanceof a sclwol result, the aversive stimulusis not clelivduring a reporting period (LISLI~IIYquarered (i.e., it has been successfully terly, half-year, or more typically a full avoided). school year) divided by the total number of days the school is in session during Avoidant personality disorder This is this time frame, or, the number of stua type of personality problem that dents in attendance every dayof the involves the avoidanceof personal interschool year divided by the numberof actions and communications becauseof days in the scllool year. Frequently, the fear ofrejection or criticism from funding from the state andfederal govothers. The individualis overly sensitive ernments requires paperwork with and preoccupied withsocial rejection. attendance figures. SEE: n g p p t c plrserlt Axiology A study of values, morals, Average Daily Membership (ADM) and ideals. It is a philosophy that deals The aggregate membership divided by with values and value systems; that is, the days in session (usually quarterly, what is right, wrong, good, bad, moral, half-year, or moretypically a full school immoral, ethical, unethical etc. directions and completea task with little direct supervision.

25

Babbling Repeatedconsonant-vowel

science, math,U.S. history, and reading sounds normally produced by infants comprise to a large extent this essential from about6-9 months old (eg., listing. “mamama”); it is not meaningful sp& Backward conditioning Thepresentaas such. Sometimes called canonical or tion of an unconditioned stimulus before reduplicated babbling. the presentation of a neutral stimulus Baby talk Immature speech at alevel when attempting to make the latter a substantially below thechild‘s conditioned stimulus, inclassical age-mates. (Pavlovian) conditioning. Pavlov‘s research established that backward conBachelor‘s degree A four-year degree ditioning is not aneffective procedure. conferred bya college after high school. Students usually have a wide selection Bacterial meningitis The result of of majors ranging from liberal studies to inflammation of the membranesof the sociology, pre-med, science, math,Encentral nervous system(CNS);namely, glish, history, psychology, etc. the spinal cord and/or the brain. While meningitis can be aseptic, usually resultBack to basics A general grassroots ’ ing from viralinfection, this type is movement by the public as a resultof caused by bacterialinfection. declining testscores, especially in math and reading, to return to a basic cumcu- Balance 1. Generally, the use of gross motor movement in connection with the lum presentation with great emphasis ability to maintain one’s equilibrium. on the threeR s (reading, ‘riting, and 2. The abilityof an individual to main’rithmetic) and also science as a means tain one‘s mental or emotionalstability. of curriculum improvement and expanded student competencies. The Balance theory The explanation of atti”back to basics” movement has been a tude consistency or attitude change that concern of parents, teachers, and the involves 1. one‘s own position and 2. the public at large for over 30 years and position of other people. One retains the may have been a reaction to the launchsame attitudeif other people whom one ing of Sputnik (a space satellite launched respects share the attitude, or disagrees October 4,1957, by the Soviet Union). with other people for whom one has litMany Americansfelt they were falling tle or no respect. One is likely to change behind other countries, especially the positions if other people whom one former Soviet Union, in the space race as respects disagree withone‘s position, or well as in basic curriculum content if others whom one dislikes agree with areas, as is the case presently.SEE: back one’s original attitude.In this way, one’s to teaching basics beliefs, opinions, and feelings are kept in balance withone’s attitude toward Back to teaching basics A movement others. during the latter half of the twentieth century to return school curriculum back Bandwagon 1. Terms of persuasion of core requirements to a basic set used in writing toeffectively appeal to deemed essential for literacy, technologithe needof a person to “belong” to a cal competence, and a competitive acad- group. 2. Frequently used in commeremic forcein the world. Many educators cials, “the bandwagon effect” (join the would agree that courses like English, group because everyone is doing it) can

26

Babbling

- Bandwagon

Barbiturates

be aimed at any age group. For example, a product that appeals to youngsters (e.g., some brand of clothing)because someone famous wears that particular style. Barbiturates A group of depressant drugs that are often prescribed as treatments for insomnia. Barlow’s disease Named after Sir Thomas Barlow, English obstetrician, 1845-1945. Commonly known as ”scurvy.” SEE: scirrvy Barrier-free facility A school, house, building, or other facility that is accessible to persons with disabilities. Comfortable access/entry throughout the building interior occurs as well with specific accommodations for persons in wheelchairs also available. Barrier games A teaching method that encourages student development of language. The idea is to have students describe an object while others attempt to identify what is being described. Barylabiaharylalia Terms used to refer to speech that is so thick, indistinct, and husky that it cannot be understood. Basal ganglia A group of brain areas that has motor functions. They are involved in the planning and execution of muscular movements. Disruption of the functions of some of the basal ganglia may lead to schizophrenia, a form of psychosis (severe mental illness). Basal ganglia of the cerebrum include the septum, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen. Basal ganglia of the midbrain include the substantia nigra, the red nucleus, and the ventral tegmental area. Basal metabolic rate The minimum use of oxygen measured in an individual while he/she is completely rested. Basal reader A reading series that has been designed so that the books therein are systematically sequenced to continue to expand and improve the reading development of the student in a logical and orderly fashion. Basal readers are designed with controlled vocabularies and repetition of key words. Typically,

- Baseline

basal readers consist of literary collections of stories, poetry, essays, folktales, and so forth that are carefully sequenced across grade levels. This approach to reading is based upon the average ability level of a particular grade or group. Teacher manuals, assessments, and other auxiliary materials are usually available to support the basic reading material. Some basals may emphasize meaning-based instruction, and there are skill-based basals whose primary focus is on decoding skills. Basal reader approach A teaching method for reading development, sequential in nature, that gives basic skills instruction to students through the use of a basal reader. The basal series determines the reading content, skills, vocabulary development, and successive stages of reading development. The basic philosophy to this approach is that children will learn to read best by a predetermined scope-and-sequence of skills using reading/literature (usually excerpts-not complete literature works) selections in a student reader with reinforcement of skills work provided in student workbooks. A teacher’s guide provides step-by-step instructions/ideas/ format/extensions for the teacher. Specifically, instructional strands include but are not limited to word analysis skills, vocabulary development, guided silent reading, comprehension checks/discussion, and study-skills work. Student texts and workbooks are frequently organized by themes (e.g., becoming friends) and teacher input most often follows that of Directed Reading Activities (DRA).Although there is an emphasis on meaning-based instruction, this is considered a “bottomup” approach because of the emphasis on skills work. SEE: bottom-tip ylzilosoply of reading, Directed Reading Activities (DRA), reading instrzictioiz, l m a l reader Baseline The initial recording of behavioral data in behavior-intervention approaches. The data recorded measures the frequency of behaviors (typically unwanted behaviors) before interventions are implemented.

m -

L

Baseline deeign

-

- Before-during-after

reading guide

Baseline design A research design (or

the word in basal reading materials o r plan) in which the samesubjects who other readings. are observed in the baseline situation Basic skills 1. The individual skills that withnotreatmentarethen given the can be combined for a well-integrated experimental treatment. The behaviorof complex performance. Thesebasic skills these subjects is examined to seeif the are learned first, in a step-by-step mantreatment produces anydifference in ner. Later, the basic skills are put behavior. together into a structured complex action. For example, students learn the Baseline measure A level of behavior basic skills of counting t o 12, counting measured before the implementation of by fives, understanding fractions of an a management program or instructional hour, understanding clockwise and program/procedure that will also be counterclockwise directions, etc. before measured or evaluated later. they learn the complex skill of how to BASIC SEE: B q i m c r ’ s A//-pllt’/JoSc’Syttltell time. 2. The term ”basic skills” often /JO/iC / ~ l S t t ’ l l C t i O t l COdP refers to the subject matter of reading, Basic anxiety One of neo-Freudian anawriting, and mathematics as thebasics lyst Karen Homey’s theoretical concepts. to our total functional literacy. SEE: brick This is the feeling of ir\security estabto lmsics lished in a child when the parents show Basilar membrane One of the memharshness of discipline, indifference, branes of the inner ear. The basilar meminconsistency, and disparagement in brane is narrowest at its origin (which is their treatment of the child. at the oval window separating the midBasic hostility One of neo-Freudian dle ear from the inner ear) and widest at analyst Karen Homey’s theoretical conits ending in the center of the snailcepts. When a child experiences basic shaped cochlea. On the basilar memanxiety, a deep resentment or hostility brane rests the organo f Corti, which takes form. This results in oneof three contains the hearing receptors known as possible “neurotic trends”: Moving the hair cells. against people, moving away from peoBattered child syndrome The abuse of ple, or moving toward people. children, whether it be physical (beatBasic Interpersonal Communicative ings), sexual (rape),or psychological Skills (BICS) A standard basic con(deprivation of love). This abuse can be versation between two or more persons life-threatening o r permanently damagface-to-face. It is not a complex linguistic ing to the child. Anyone who witnesses ability but merely a face-to-face converbattered children is required by law to sational skill. report this abuse to thepolice o r other appropriate authorities. Anonymity can Basic research Research done in order be given if an individual reportsthe to add to the world’s fund of knowlabuse to a social-service agency in most edge. The purposeof such research is to states. satisfy the scientist’s curiosity about nature, and notnecessarily to increase Battery Theintentional physicaltouchthe immediate happiness of any human ing of an individual withoutconsent, being. Historically, benefits of which causes fear or anxiety in the vichumankind have accrued from the tim. SEE: assnrdt, A/p!di.Y 2: ksO/ %‘!?IS kllowledge generated by basic research. nr1d IsslrPs Basic sight words Typically, lists of Before-during-afterreading guide A I1igh-frequency words developed first system or strategy wherein a reading during the early1900s by people such as student is assisted in intervals (before, E. W. Dolch (220 basic sight-word list). during, and after reading a selection) Nouns are included on sight-wordlists; with the understandingof what is about the criteria for selection typically to be read and the comprehension of involves the frequency of appearance of

28

Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC)

what is being r e d and finally what has been read.

- Behavior therapy -

Behavior guidance An approach for

guiding &ng children’s &velopment of self-control and intrinsic mord standards. Behavior management Any system guage used to program computers. used for behalrior control o f students Behavior checklist Checklist that conor persons such as the principles of tains a listing of the typical behaviors B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning o r , 1 n d characteristics of a normal child o r behavior modification. SEE: I 7 c 4 1 m i o r . group of chilciren. In special education rrrod~ficicntiorr such lists are used to help determine Behavior model The model of behavior whether or not a child is exhibiting that assumes thatone’s behaviors and abnormal bel1,lvior and may be in need actions result from inappropriate learnof speci‘ll support services. Such lists cm nay he used to compare any student to ing and that conditioning techniques be used to reinforce or extinguish the norm represented by the listing. wanted or unwanted behaviors.SEE: Behavior content matrix An eciucarc~irfor.crrr/crrt, corlditiorrirrg tional planning tcchnique. Expected Behavior modification Theapplication c.ducational outcomes are examined of the principles of Skinnerian (operant) along with pxticular coursetopics. and/or Pavlovian (classical) condition‘These outcomcs and topics are put together so tlll is not of ‘1 transient nature but occLIrs or mental disorders.SEE: I ~ d r n z l i c ~ r . with great frequency over a long period tlrc~rtl~l!/ of time and occurs with intensity at Behavior therapy 1. A type of clinical inappropriate times. psychology in which the therapist Behavior genetics The study of the selects a type of behaviorto be changed hereditary causes of some aspects of and sets up a program to cause the behavior, emotionality, pc.rso,naIity, desired change. Theconcern is with and/or intelligence. removing the unwanted behavior rather

Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code(BASIC) A lan-

=

29

Behavioral assessment - Behaviorism

-

-

”

-

than with “curing” some mental disease. Behavioral object A specific objective 2. The position that maladaptive behavor goal that a student needs to learn and iors can be treated effectively by followdemonstrate in order to sllow compeing the conditioned-response principles tence or mastery at theconclusion of the 21s estnblished by Pavlov, Skinner, and instruction/learning period. their followers. Accordingly, adherents Behavioral objective This is a precio f this view are skeptical about the value sion statement of what a learner should of psychotherapy, the “talking cure.” demonstrate after being exposed toa Behavioral assessment The detailed specific lesson that should contain stated observation and recordingof a subject’s goals, methods, materials, and followbehavior for a specified time. This up. The behavioral objective usually assessment may bea preliminary step in states the criteria used to assess lesson planning a behavior-therapy program. effectiveness aswell as a measurable behavioral response to indicate the level Behavioral contingencies Arrangeof mastery. For example, the following ments for the delivery or removal of could be considered a behavioral objecpunishing or reinforcing stimuli followtive: When given the education dictioing specific behaviors. Examples of a nary, Juana will choose 15 unknown reinforcement contingency would be: terms to master in a cooperative flash1. in the classic sense, the delivery of card exercise (after choosing a partner) corn to a pigeon after it pecks a plastic with follow-up testing indicating 95 perdisk set in the wall o f a Skinner box. A cent mastery. particular pattern for providing the reinforcement o f somc responses of a speciBehavioral Observation Audiometry fied type is known as a sc/rl7d1rk cfrcirt(BOA) The observation of a child’s responses to audiometric test stimuli. fi~rc-c~rrrrr~t, and 2. providing a treat or special time together toa child after a Behavioral perspective The point of good report card. view that behavior can be explained by reference to environmental influences Behavioralfactor Behaviors and activisuch as punisllment, reinforcement, ties that could contribute or cause disand/or extinction. abilities and/or mental retardation. Some examples are: drivingto endanger, Behavioralpreparedness The doctrine ingesting drugs and/oralcohol, smokestablished by Garcia, Seligman, and ing, etc. others that some neutral stimuli are much more readily conditioned to parBehavioral learningtheories Those ticular unconditioned stimuli tllm most theories o f learning that emphasize enviother neutrd stimuli.These preferential ronmental stimuli as thechief cause of links are a result of the life cycle of the the learner’s observed responses. For animal species involved. The evidence example, B. F. Skinner proposed that for behavioral preparedness constitutes people learn by responding to environan importantcorrection to the views of mental stimuli andreinforcers via schedSkinner m d Pavlov. ules of reinforcement.SEE: rcir!fiwwr, sclrdrrlcs c!fr.cir!for.ccrlrc.rrt Behavioraltheory The theoretical position that emphasizes the measuring of Behavioral model This model is based overt responses tospecific environmenupon the premise that studentsmisbehave and are behaviorally disordered as tal stimuli or reinforcers. Behavior change is implemented after initiating a result of improper or inappropriate programs of reinforcement in a variety le‘1rning. The model postulates that the o f timed conditions. SEE: stirrrdus, best way to prevent or to treat behavior t‘tS/JOrfSl’, l’L’;l!fOf’Wl’, / J f ’ ~ l c ~ f ’ 1 7 1 fl!f fS disorders is to control the student’s envi. r~irlforccrr~rrrt ronmcnt in order to teach the student just what comprises appropriate behav- Behaviorism 1. The doctrine that the ior and to ensure that proper learning appropriate subject matter of scientific takes place.

30

Behaviorist approach

psychology is observable behavior and that subjective mental processes Cannot be scientifically studied. 2. It is also a philosophy of education concerning the idea that, psychologically speaking, the causes of behavior or misbehavior are rooted in learned responses. BehavioristapproachThe theoretical stance that an individual’s behavioral makeup is determined by environmental influences. Therefore, behavior management and behaviormodification techniques are recommendedfor educators and criminal justice authorities. SEE: ~Jt7/If77liO/’~ l l l l f l f 7 ~ ~ ’ / l l ~bC//nUiUt’ ’llt, tllOdCl, b r h i o r ttrodificntiotl, b h v i o r thempy, lJ(’/lf77liCJl’f7/ / t ’ n r l l i l J ~t/JeOriCs, ~ bPhf7UiOt‘O/ r r r o d r l , Idrouiornl pcrspec-tivr, be/mviornl ~/IccJ~’!/, r u r d b~~/u~vioris~rr Being needs The three higher-level needs in Maslow’s motivational theory. They are also knownas “growth needs.” Bell’s palsy An acute inflammation of the f x i a l nerve. It causes pain and pardysis of the facial muscles, which control expression. Theface is distorted and appears to droop. The condition is usually of short duration. Beriberi A disease of malnutrition that is enciemic in the Orient and thePacific Islands. Mostly found in areas where large amounts of highly milled rice are eaten, it is caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B) in the diet. Its symptoms include impairmentof peripheral nerves, loss o f appetite, cardiovascular changes, insomnia, lassitude, and edema. Between-class ability grouping A wdy of assigning students to different classes. The class to which a student is assigned depends on her/his measured ability and/or achievement. For examle, a tc‘1cher might assign math groupings based on students’ abilities to compute and problem solve. Students who can compute addition and subtraction problems proficiently might be in one group; students with multiplication/ division proficiency assigned to another group; and students with fractions/ decimals proficiency assigned to a third group.

- Bilingual education

Beyond a reasonable doubt SEE: Apper1di.r 2: L C ~ ~/ r r r r snrrtf /ssws Bias Any systematic distortion of the outcome of a research study. The bias could result from 1. uncontrolled subject factors such as expectations and attitudes, 2. the expectationsandlor attitudes of the researchers, or 3. the action of an uncontrolled variable or set of variables that would affect the outcome variable. In a well-controlled experiment, for example, the outcome variable should be affected by the independent variable only. Biased responding An inclination o r a predisposition by a test taker or respondent to answer questions in a particular fashion regardless of what the question might be. Bibliotherapeutic A termused in reading to indicate theassistance a teacher gives to a reader in using texts and other books so the reader will better uncierstand the reading(s).T ~ L I S the , student is expected to develop his/herselfawareness and be ableto use the new knowledge to solve personal problems. BICS SEE: Bnsic Ir~tcrp~t’sortnl Cor~~rrr~r nicntive Skills Big books Enlarged versions o f regularly published picture books.Increasingly being used at the kindergarten and early-primary level for young children, these books allow students to interact in group settings. A variety o f story and language arts activities can be built around the use o f ”big books.” For example, the teacher can demonstrate by reading a “big book.” The children then can collaborate with the teacher and share in the reading and,finally, the children can practice and perform together by exploration and sharing. Bilateral A term used to indicate twosidedness or both sides. Bilingual A term used in education to describe the useof two languages as part of the learning process (bi = two; lingual = language). Bilingual education A type of education program developed for non-English speaking studentsor students who

31

-

Bilingual Education Act

55Ei=

- Bimodal distribution

speak two or more languages. Startedin three typesof bilingual Icarners cited in the late 1960s as a result of new waves the literature: 1. LEP or Limited English of immigration, bilingual education was Proficient students-these essentially intended at first to give new immigrants non-English speaking learners speak/ a good start in U.S. schools. However, communicate in a language other than many students did notbenefit from English. English-language skills are these early bilingual education efforts, quite limited. 2. ELP or English Lanwhich led to Title VI1 of the Elementary guage Proficient-these learners cannot and Secondary EducationAct of 1968 quite function independentlyin English(Bilingual Education Act). This act speaking classrooms (i.e., require bilinrequired supplementary services for all gual education specialists/programs/ non-English speaking children. Specific assists) and most often communicate criteria for bilingual education programs socially in their native language. The have not been prescribed but generally learner is English proficient but not fluthe students’ languageskills are more ent. 3. FEP or Fluent English Proficientfully developed and refined in both their bilingual learners who havesatisfactory native language andin English. English-language written/oral communication skills and can function indepenBilingual Education Act Title VI1 of dently in English-speaking classrooms. the Elementary and Secondary EducaSEE: IJi/iilglltl/ irrrrrlcrsiorl l I / 7 / J / ’ O n C / / , In!!tion Act of 1968. This act propelled bilinp n g c ruimrit!/ stlrdrrlt, I(zupngc /lrirwity gual education toa priority position pogrnrrls, s/rcltcrcd Erlglisll, tr1111~itio11~1l with funding providedfrom the early InrlpnglJ pro‘~/’f”rls childhood level through adult literacy. Additionally, vocational programs and Bilingualmaintenance approach A meeting the needsof low-income stumethod of teaching bilingual students dents were important partsof this act. using the English as a Second Language (ESL) approach. The main themeis Bilingualimmersion approach Proteaching students partly in English and grams designed for language-minority students that use both the student’s pri- partly in their primary language in order to maintain proficiency in both. SEE: mary language and themajority lanbi/irlgll(l/L’lfllCOtICJll, h i / i l l g l l n / /PflJ’ilc’rS, t J ; / ; l l guage o f the school (English in the gIlo/iStll, bi/irlgIln/ tt‘n/lSifiOlln/ n / l / J R J ( I C / l , United States). The Canadianschools Erlglish ns n Srcorld Lorrglrngr I E S L ) developed this model for their languageBilingual transitionalapproach An majority students. Program components approach to bilingual education wherein involve early total immersion efforts in most of the academic instruction is prethe child’s primary language to partial sented in English; however, some immersion through grade12. The 90/10 instruction is given in the native or primodel is used by many schools in the mary language of the student. Theidea United States with the child’s primary is to use this approach until the student language used almost exclusively is able to master English sufficiently (90 percent o f the day)in grades K-1 so enough to operateeffectively in his/hc.r as to develop proficiency in the child’s regular academic program.SEE: /Ji/illglrn/ primary language. In grades 2 and 3, P d l l C n t i O l l , bi/i!lglln/ /Cl7rllP/’S, / J i / i l l ~ ~ l f ( l / i S l / l , English instruction is added (one totwo bilir~glrdr f ! n i / l t c r l ~ l l l cfP7 p [ J / ’ t d l , E l l g / i S / l nS hours) with academic instruction provided half of the day for both languages n ScwrId L n t l g I q e ( E S L ) by grade 6. High-school instructional Bilingualism An ability to speak two efforts involve the majority language languages. Individuals who arebilingual 60 percent of the day and the student’s generally speak the language oftheir primary language 40 percent of the day. country and the language of an adopted country. Bilingual learners Students who vary in both English-language and nativeBimodal distribution A particular language proficiency. There have been shape of a frequency distribution of

32

-.

Binet-Bimon scales

- Biopsychosocial I

his/her own responses, responses that scores. The frequency distribution premost laypersons would think cannot be sents scores or measures on theX-axis of altered by learning. Biofeedback has a graph and the frequency of each score been used to change such autonon~ically (ix., the numberof people who get that controlledprocesses as blood pressure score) is given on the Y-axis. When two very different scores (one rather low and or finger temperature, as well as the the other somewhat high) both show the electrical activity of the striated muscles and the brain waves measured by the highest frequency (e.g., as many as 10 EEG. The procedure involves giving the people recci\,e the lower score and person a light or tonesignal to indicate clnother 10 people receive the higher whether or not the targeted response is one, while no other score had a frechanging in the right direction. quency cwer nine), these two scores are tied for the mode. Centrally located Biographical inventory An individscores will fall into a ”saddle” between ual’s personal history. This is backthe two higher partsof the curve. As a ground information that provides a result, in a bimodal distribution, the sketch of one’s activities, achievements, mode cannot be used
-

tiO/l, f l l O l f C , S/l(7!11’

Binet-Simonscales An intelligence (IQ) test/scale developed in France by

chology Biomedical factors Factorsrelating to

biological causes that often are used to explain some causesof mental retardation/physical and/or mental disabilities. These can include, but are notlimited to, poor nutrition andgenetic anomalies. Biophysicalmodel SEE: lJiop//!/sic(d tlleory Biophysical theory Atheory that emotional and behavioral disorders are founded in biological causes; that is, the biological imbalance (dysfunction) in effect causes the emotional disorder. Biopsychologicalperspective The point of view that behaviors and emotions are best understood by examining Binocular disparity The difference between the visual images on the two their causes in nerve physiology and biochemistry. retinas (because of the fact that the eyes occupy different positions in space) conBiopsychology A subfield o f psycholstitutes a cue to \.isual depth or distance. ogy dealing with the relationships This cue to depth is also called retinal between behavioral xrariables and biodisparity or binocular parallax. logical processes such as embryology, genetics, neurophysiology, enciocrinolBinocular vision This is the ability of a ogy, and biochemistry. The field of person to merge the image from each biopsychology has also beencalled eye into a single image, thus enabling one to see clearly and not doubly. physiological psychology, psychobiology, biological psychology, and behavBiochemicalimbalances A condition ioral neuroscience. based upon an imbalancein the metabolic process, which causes a variety of Biopsychosocial An adjective usedto biochemical disorders. describe human behaviors and attitudes as theresult of interactions between Biofeedback A type of training in biology (genetics, neurophysiology, biowhich a person is helped to control chemistry, etc.), psychology (the mind

Alfred Binet m d Theodore Simon in 1905. This assessment tool was revised ,It Stanford Unitvrsity (California) by Lewis Terman in 1916 and then called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. SEE: Stnf!ford-Birlet lrrtelligctrcc Scnlz, Wc~lrslcrItrtcdliprrcc. Scnlr.for CIrildrrrr (WISC) Binocular cues Those cues to visual depth (i.e., the judgment of front-to-back distances) that require the useof both eyes. Such cues includeconvergence and visual disparity.

33

Bipolar disorder

-

- Body senses

and personal behavior), and society at large (home, family, school, work environment, ctc.). Bipolardisorder Thetypeofmooddisorder (often called manic-depressive disorder) that involves drastic swings between mania (feeling very high, elated, euphoric, overconfident) and depression (feeling very low, "down in the dumps"). Bits A computer processes information by a series of on/off signals. One(1) on/off signal, the basic unit of information in a computer, is called a bit (for bnary digit).SEE: I J ! / ~ P S , kilol~ytrs Black English SEE: Ebor~ics Blacks In the UnitedStates, individuals of African-American descent. Blend Two consonants in a sequence that form a sound recognized as two phonemes rather than one sound(e.g., as in a digraph). Examplesof blends are: "bl," "gr," and "sk." Blended families Sets of parents, children, and stepchildren resulting from the second (or later) marriage of at least one o f the parents. Blind, legally The condition where vision acuity measures 20/200 or less in either eye with the bestcorrective Icnses/contact lenses. This means that an indi\~idual can see, from at least 20 feet, an object that a person with 20/20 vision can see from 200 feet. Also legal blindness includes corrected vision in the better eyt witha field of view of 20 degrees or less. Blindism A condition characterized by repetitive (stereotypical) movements s d l a s head nodding, eye rubbing, rocking, leg vibrating, hand wringing, etc. Sometimes thisis indicative of disturbed and/or retarded children or persons. Block grants Federal grant monies that are consolidated intoa multipurpose fund. States have freedom to disperse these monies for educational purposes, t h s allowing state andlocal agencies more discretion in educational matters.

34

Blocking The phenomenon by which a neutral stimulus presentedjust prior to an unconditional stimulus(US) fails to become conditioned to that US because an already established conditioned stimulus is presented along with that neutral stimulus. BOA SEE: Bclrovior-(I/Obscr-untiorr Arrdiortrctr!/

Board of Education of Central School District No. 1, Town of Greenbush v. Allen (2968) The Court ruled that the loaning of books to nonpublicschools alone did not show an unconstitutional degree o f support for a religious institution. Board of Education D. Rozoley (1982) The so called "Rowley" decision was the first time the Supreme Court considered an Education of All Handicapped Act case (EHA I?L. 94-142, now renamed IDEA P.L. 101-476).This case determined that states must provide an appropriate but not necessarily optimum education as per the requirements of P.L. 94-142. Boards of education Agenciesinstituted at the state andlocal levels that are responsible for formulating and implementing educational policies. Members are sometimes appointed by the governor's office but are more frequently elected at the local level. School committees for individual communities are ~011sidered boards of education. Consolidated schools frequently have boardsof education or scl~ool committees comprised of members from several different communities. Body image A term used to indicate one's awareness and opinion ofone's own body in relation to its parts and the environment. Also, how one oneself in relation to the physical characteristics of others. Body localization One's ability to locate one's body parts. SEE: bod!/ i t r l n p , body spatid orgarlizntioil Body senses Sensations from the body referring to the positioning of parts of the body and the pattern of high and low mLlscle tone in the various muscles

Body spatial organization - Brain

phonics skills/word recognition skills). Typically a scope-and-sequence of skills taught involves word analysis and word comprehension work before the comprehension of text. This approach differs from the top-down philosophy of reading, which focuses on reading-literacy instruction beginning in the natural context of language andtext presentations IssrrcY (e.g., story books) with skills instruction given only as the need occurs. SEE: Bone conduction (BC) test A hearing bottorrl-rrp p ~ c c s s i ~top-dorclrr ~g, pllilosopl~!/ test that assesses the responsiveness of of rcmlirrg the sensorineural mechanisms of the inner e'lr '1s opposed to outer- or Bottom-upprocessing The perception middle-ear functions.A comparison of of stimulus patterns (e.g., printed senthe BC thresholds from this test and the tences) as the resultof separately identiair conduction (AC) thresholds from AC fying individual featuresof stimuli (e.g., testing will reveal whether or not hearprint) and combining those features into ing losses are conductive, sensorineural, what seems to bea sensible pattern. For o r mixed. SEE: air corrrfrrcfiori (AC) t&, example, bottom-upprocessing in readL ~ ~ ~ r ~ L lrmrirrg f ~ ~ c t iloss, v [ ~ sc~r~sorir~c~rrd Irmring refers to mastering sound/symbol irrg loss, r r r i s d l r m r i q loss correspondences before reading word parts, words, phrases, sentences, and Book binding The process of writing, paragraphs. Comprehension is seen as illustrating, and bindinga book. In the classroom, students need paper/combeginning at thelevel o f sound/symbol correspondences before the reading o f puter-generated materials for individual pages, endpapers, adhesivesor threaded connected text is meaningful. needles, cover material (e.g., wallpaper Braille A system that allows blind persamples, original illustrations, shelfliner, sons to read with their fingertips pictures, fabric, etc.), and sometimes invented by Louis Braille (France, drymount tissue and an iron. There are 1809-1852). It consists of communication many different types of books students based on a code of raised dots arranged can make, including p o p - ~ ~books, p picin two columnsof three embossed/ ture books, big books, etc. raised dots. This six-position rectangular Borderline children Also known as system, depending on the dotsraised, slow learners. "Borderline" functioning would indicate letters, numbers, sound, is a somewhat outdated term thatrefers and grammar meanings to the braille to I Q functioning in the range of 70 reader. to 85. Braille bills Refers to legislation passed Bottom-up approach to curriculum in several states that makes braille availdevelopment A model o f curriculum able to students withvision problems dcvclopment that begins with the identi- and learning disabilities. SEE: I~rnillc fication of the very basic educational Braille code SEE: bra ill^^ skills m d behaviors, the so-called "entry Braille embosser A printer similar to a level" of a curriculum. Once this level is typewriter that produces braille. SEE: established, the curriculum is arranged

of the body. The body senses include the senses of balance and kinesthesis. Body spatial organization The ability o f a student o r person to appropriately move her/his L d y in an organized and controlled fashion within the spatial environment. SEE: gross rrrc~tclrskills Bond SEE: A~~p'rrrlix 2: L q n l T h r s f i r i d

sequentially and builds on the base or preceding step with subsequent steps upward toward mastery o f the skill or behavior. Bottom-up philosophy of reading The \iew of reading that instruction should begin with skills work (i.e.,

brnille Brain That part of the central nervous

system that is encased by the skull. The human brain is about the size of a grapefruit and weighs approximately three pounds. The brain has approximately 100 billion nerve cells (also called

35

-

Brain damage Broad discretion

neurons), which are responsible for activity in which students generatea colprocesses that control learning and other lective fund of existing ideas that will behaviors. The field of biopsychology is assist in the task at hand. All idcas concerned with how the brain regulates offered by students related to the topic processes related to behavior and neuare accepted and recorded. rology. SEE: I,iops!/c/rolo‘s!/,cercdlrnl c o r k s , Branchinghierarchy Ateaching or fbrd~rl7irr,IlijIdJrni~l,/r/idbrnitI, m w m / r learning method that employs theuse of Brain damage A term used to describe a graphic organizer, flow chart, topical any injury or damage to the brain tissue listing, etc. in the form of a structured that can be identified; brain damageof overview of the main topics or thcmcs of an organic nature. concern. Each topic or theme is then further separated into divisions and subdiBrain dysfunction A term used to visions until all major and minor points define brain problems involving learnare covered. ing, motor, perceptual, and otherfunctioning when no apparent damageis Breach of contract The termination of contract by one o f the contractual parties evident. A brain malfunction without an without the consentof the other apparent organic cause. party(ies). For example, a teacher who Brain injured A person who has signed a contract for a year would be received brain injury during or followconsidered “in breach of contrxt” if ing the birth process. The damage to the he/she left the school system i n the midbrain can be as a result of accidental dle of the contract year without permistrauma or infection. This can affect mension or propernotification. tal development, learning, and behavior. Breadth model A method model o f Brain stimulation The application of identifying gifted children based upon mild alternating current electrical or the concept that a battery of assessments chemical stimuli to particular areas of and tests are needed and not any single the brain in order to observe the behavtest. The model requires that the student ioral correlates o f the stimulation. exhibit superior le\rels on more than just Brainstem The brain structure that is one measure suchas a superior level of the top endof the spinal column that performance on an IQ test, achievement widens to form the midbrain. Also, the test, aptitude test, etc. narrower portion of the brain thatis Breathiness A whisperlikespeech connected with the spinal cord.From the sound created by ‘1ir rushing through spinal corci forward, the three parts of the vocal folds (cords) without causing the brain stem are the medulla, the pons, them to vibrate such as in the case of and the midbrain. Life-sustaining funcheavy breathing. tions of the body are controlled by the Brightness constancy Thc, ability to brainstem. judge the iIIumination level of a11 object Brainstorming A method used by a correctly, despite variations in both the g r o q of persons wherein solutions to a lighting o f the object and the lighting of problem are proposed by any member. It its surroundings. is 21 collective effort and any member can Bright’s disease (Richard Bright, Enthrow out an idea for consideration. glish physicim, 1789-1858) A general Those multiple answers can be built term used to describe acute and/c)r upon or expanded by any member of chronic kidney diseases. SEE: ilc’/,/rritis the group. N o criticism is allowed of any solution. Eventually, evaluation of the Brittle bone disease SEE: o s f c ~ p / c ’ ~ i ~ many possible solutions is made by the ;rr/prufi.ctn g r ~ and p the best answer or answers Broad discretion A legal term used to are accepted by the group as the braindenote the rangeor leeway found storming session is concluded. It is within the framework of the LIW, also a prereading or written-language an agreement that ,lllows for wide

36

Broca’s aphasia

interpretations of the issues presented. For example, schools are given broad discretionary powers in life-threatening situations whereby student rights might be curtailed (e.g., pushing a student [i.e., could be considered battery in other circumstances] into a classroom if a danger is percei\.ed in the hallway). Broca’s aphasia (also called motor aphasia) Theinability to utter most of the sounds of speech as a result of damage to a specific, small part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. In most persons, this area of the cortex (Broca’s area, area 44) is in the left hemisphere of the cortex. Broca’s area An area of the cerebral cortex (LISLI~IIYin the inferior frontal lobe of the left hemisphere) that when damaged results in an inability to form the sounds of speech. Thisdisability is known as Broca’s aphasia. Brozotz v. Board of Edrrcatiorz of Topeka ( K a m a s ) The May 17, 1954, Supreme Court ruling that outlawed de jure (by law o r practice) segregation in the schools. The Supreme Court asked-and answered-the question, “Does segregation of children in publicschools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other tangible factors may be equal, deprive children of the minority groupof equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does.” SEE: dc j u r c scyvptiorl, d r f i c t o

scyqntivrl BuckleyAmendment

P.L. 93-380 (1974), also known as theEqual Education Opportunity Act o f 1974, included an amendment known as the Buckley Amendment or the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. This act guaranteed parents theright to access and examine their children’s school records. It also guaranteed specific control of parts o f the school records to the parents. Building drug-free schools A term used to indicate a commitment of communities to present drug educationprograms at all levels (K-12) so that students consciously decide not totake drugs (resultingin drug-free schools).

- Byte5

-

Bulimia SEE: brrliriiicl ~ ~ ( ’ l ’ z ~ s n Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder that involves bingesin eating, which alternate with purging or fasting. The inditridual many times useslifethreatening or harmful weight controls such asexcessive use of laxatives, diuretics, self-induced vomiting, or excessive exercise. Buphthalmos A conditioncharacterized by abnormal protrusion and enlargement of the eyeball. Burglary SEE: Apperldix 2: L q n l Errrrs nlld Isslrf~s Burkitt’s lymphoma (D. P. Burkitt, Ugandan physician) A disease associated with theEpstein-Barr virus originally noted in African children. It is a malignant lymphoma that is a growth of tissue in the lymphatic system. Burnout A term in education used to describe teachers, guidance counselors, principals, and otherschool professionals who become stressed and/or tired o f the teaching profession because of associated stressors. Bursitis A condition characterized by inflammation of the bursa (a padlike sac or cavity), especially between bony prominences and musclesor tendons located in such places as the shoulder, knee, and elbow. Busing A method of transporting students to various schools o r sections of a city or town as a means to solve the problem of de facto or d e jure segregated schools that are segregated racially or ethnically in order to obtain a more balanced student placementrepresentative of the community, state, country, etc. Busing may be voluntary or involuntary. SEE: dcfilcto scyqpfiolr,dc jure scgreptiotr

Bystander intervention Thehelping behavior of a witness to another person’s need for aid. Bytes A unit of information in the operations of a computer. A byte is comprised of eight bits. Abyte represents a number, letter, or symbol. SEE: IJits,kilo. bytes, Apper~dix4: C o r r p t c r 7 h r s

37

I

-

C-print A computerized speech-to-text emotional stimulus are routed to the translator usedfor the benefitof a brain’s thalamus. Fromthere, some hearing-impaired learner. C-print nerve impulses are sent to the cerebral requires a trained operator who listens cortex for recognition and someto the to what is being said and types special sympathetic nervous system for the codes that are immediately shown as fight-or-flight emergency response.As a words on a special screen that sits atop result, this theory says that we know the an overheadprojector. This projector in meaning of the emotion at the same time turn displays what has just been said. that we are performing the emotional Once the statement or lecture is com- behavior. pleted, the hearing-impaired person can Canterbury aid A special electronic obtain a printoutof the presentation. device for visually impaired students or persons usedto assist and improve CA SEE Chronological Age mobility. Objects are located for the user Caffeine A stimulant drug, found in by meansof echoes. such beveragesas tea, coffee and cola Capital outlays These are expenditures drinks, that produces increased for buildings and land serving the pubalertness. lic domain suchas the constructionof CAI SEE Computer-Assisted Instruction and additionsto buildings and the Caldecott Medal A special award given maintenance and purchase of large to the most outstanding book illustrator equipment items(e.g., heating system of the year. The Caldecott Medal is for a school). named afterRandolf Caldecott, chilCaptions Subtitles shown usually at the dren’s illustrator, andhas been awarded bottom of a screen that represent what is since 1938. It is one of two major annual being said on a television program, film, awards in the United States given to outor video. Captions may be “open” (able standing books. The other is the Newto be seen by all viewers) or “closed” bery Medal for the most distinguished (seen only by those with a decoder or children’s book.SEE Newbey Mednl those who subscribeto a service). CALP SEE CognitivefAcademicLinguistic Carcinoma A growth or malignant Proficiency tumor. Cancer An abnormal growth of cells Cardiac disorder A malfunction or disthat canaffect the skin or any other ease of the heart or cardiac orifices that organ of the body. Many cancers are affects the heart’s operation and/or nortreatable, but early detection is critical mal functions. before massive spreadingof the disease Cardinal trait In the personality theory causes destructionof vital organs. of Gordon Allport, a behavioral disposiCannabis sativa The generic name for tion of an individual that reveals itself the hemp plant that produces the drug repeatedly in different situations. Not marijuana. every person has such an overriding Cannon-Bard theory The theory of trait. In the relatively few that have one, emotion that states that the nerve the cardinal trait serves as a general impulses from the perception of the organizing principle in their lives.

30

C-print

- Cardinal t r a i t

Career

Career One’s chosen field of work, which spans a period of time or even a lifetime. For example, a teaching career is considered by many to open many opportunities for professional and personal growth. The rewards are considered intrinsic to a large degree. CareerawarenessKnowledgeobtained through programs, readings, interactions with others, etc. concerning opportunities, requirements, and background needed for one’s career. Career education Educational opportunities that provide preparatory experience(s) for a chosen field of work or job. Many high schools have work-study programs that allow non-college-bound students to work partof the day (career preparation) and take regular academic subjects the rest of the day in school. Career education can also involve college-bound students. Studentslooking toward college must take certain I”mmquisite courses (c.g., algebra) and exams (SATs).Many high schools prepare students by providing guidance counselors (for appropriate courseselections) and administering pre-SAT practice exams. Career ladder The career history of a person or professional (e.g., a teacher), which shows the steps or rungsof progress as one gains experiencein one’s chosen career area. The idea is that performance, responsibilities, and professioncll requirements are in an ascending scale or ladder of complexity and accountability. Caries Decay and disintegration of a tooth or bone.Also called a “cavity” as concerns the progressivedecalcification or rottingof the enamel and dentineof a d , tooth. SEE: t ~ r ? ~ /rlc,iltirzc,

Carrrcgic Fourldation Report011 Sccorzdun~Edltcatiorz This 1986 report was prepared by the Carnegie Task Force on Teaching for the 21st Century and focused on reforms in teacher education. Recommendations were made and included someof the following: improving teacher salaries to become more competitive, requiring bachelor’s degrees in the arts and science areas as a

- Case finding

prerequisite for teaching, developing new material at the graduate level leading to master’s degrees, creating a National Board of Professional Teaching Standards, and encouraging new ways to recruit minorities into the field. Carnegie Report Aspecial educational report written and publishedby the “Task Force on Teaching as a I’rofession.” The report relates to teacher education reform and incentives for teachers (both monetary andprofessional) as a means to improveteacher preparation and status aswell as to provide improved education for students. It also called for the establishment of a board for national teaching standards. Carnegie unit Usually the hourly time unit (or clock time) established for the earning of credits toward graduation. The Carnegie unit of credits is nornlally used at the secondarylevel (one Carnegie unit for each course thatmeets five times weekly). Carrels Sometimes referred to as study carrels. They are small reserved spaces that are normallyenclosed to reduce distraction for the studying student. They usually include a desk, chair, and bookshelf. Cascade of services A series of levels that ranges from the mostrestrictive to the least restrictive placements for students with special learning challenges; services for students with disabilities must be providedin the educational environment (least restrictive setting) that best suits the students’ needs. A substantially separate and isolated program would be an exampleof a most restrictive program (and might bethe only viable alternative for a student with severe difficulties or learningchallenges) while placement in the inclusionary model or regularclassroom would be typical of a least restrictive model. SEE: itlcl~rsior~,Lmst Rcstrictivr~E r l z ~ i ~ n l r r l r t v l t (LRE), corltirlllrrrfr q f S c J l . 7 , i C P Case finding Any procedure used by a school department designed toseek out and make initial contact with targeted populations, such asin the case of an outreach identification program to locate

39

I I _

Case history - CBA

_ I

and identify children aged three and making regarding educational matters four years who may be in need of spebecause funds had to be usedfor very cial education services, etc. specific purposes. Block grants are now available for states to use, giving them Case history The main part of a case more discretion and decision-making study. SEE: cnsc study authority in the educational realm. SEE: Case management The process of folblock grorits lowing diagnosis whereina planned Categorical imperative Philosopher program of intervention is monitored to Immanuel Kant‘s basic rule of conduct. ensure success of the treatment, plan, or One shouldact as one would have other program. people act and not do anything that one Case study A thorough study of the would not want anyoneelse to do. past history and present circumstances Therefore, one’s own actions should be of an individual. In most cases, the purusable as a general guideline for right pose of such research is to understand conduct in all persons. One is constantly the person with an eye toward the modi- being made responsiblefor laying down fication of his/her behavior. a universal moral law. SEE: rtlrics CAT SEE: Co,yrlitiuc Abibtics Test Categorical system A system of labelCAT scan SEE: Coruptsrized Axinl ing or classifying students by their cateTorrrogrnply gory of ability (e.g., mentally retarded, learning disabled, gifted and talented, Cataract A condition of the eye involvhearing impaired, blind, deaf,etc.). ing clouding of the lens which, in turn, obstructs the passageof light through Categorizing A term used to describe a the eye to the retina.Vision is impaired particular thinking skill or ability to but can becorrected through medical group, classify, or place correctly in a interventions to includesurgery. specific category students, handicaps, concepts, ideas, items/objects, proCatatonia A phase of schizophrenia in grams, and/or other things with comwhich the patient is unresponsive. It is mon characteristics. characterized by thepatient’s refusal to talk and a tendency to remain in a fixed Catharsis The outpouring of emotional position. energy (previously bottled up by the process of repression) whena psychoanCatatonic schizophrenia A variety of alytic patient first achieves insight into schizophrenia involving unusual motor the nature of the motives and memories symptoms, such asa waxy flexibility of he/she has longbeen unable to the limbs, immobility of the limbs, acknowledge. strange actions, extreme excitability, Catheter A tube inserted into some part and/or unresponsiveness to environof the body to drain fluid, to insert mental stimulation. stents, and inject nledication, or open a Catatonic stupor This is a condition pathway. SEE: cntlfctc,ri-ntiorr wherein a student or person withdraws Catheterization A surgicalprocedure to such an extent within oneself that the involving the insertion of a tube into the individual becomes practically immobile urethra in order to drain urine from the and disconnected to surrounding stimuli. It is a form of withdrawal of an bladder. extreme nature with little or no respon- Caudal Toward the tail or hind end of siveness on the partof the patient. SEE: the body. catatorfil7. Causation The effective influence of an Categorical aid Financial aid to local independent variable (e& as a particuschool districts from state or federal lar kind of stimulus) upon a dependent agencies for specific, limited purposes variable (e.g., a given type of behavior). only. This type of funding (pre-1981) CBA SEE: Cfrrricrrlrrrrr-Bnscd Assl.ss/r/c’r/t many times restricted states in decision

40

CBI - Central ~ u I c u 5

-

Examples include but are not limited to IaIIguage arts centers, media centers, health centers, life-skills centers, science centers, math centers, computer centers, foreign-language centers,etc. A math center might contain math manipulatilres, flashcards, games, teacher-made activities, calculators, computer activities, banking materials, etc. Centile Any of 99 scores 011 a test o r response measure sucll that, between ally two adjacent centiles, one percent of the sample subjects are to be f o l d . The first celltile is that score below which the lowest-scoring one percent o f tlw subjects in the test group x e found. The 99th centile is that score below which the lowest scoring99 percent of the group are found.SEE: ~ W W I ~ ~ / tC n ~ k Central auditory disorder A term used to describe a condition wherein a disorder o f auditory discrimination, perccption, and /or comprehension exists even though there is no apparent damage or disorder to peripheral mechanismsof hearing. Central canal A part of the central hollow or lumen of the brain and spinal cord. The entire lumenis filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF). The central canal runs through the spinal cord and the lower (caudal)half of the brain’s medulla. Central lisp The sibilant sounds produced with the tongue between the teeth such as “thun”for ”sun.”

Central nervous system SEE: CNS Central nervous system disorder Disorders or diseases thataffect those parts o f the nervous system encasedin bony covering such as the spinal cord and the brain. SEE: CNS, ccwtr-d i I c w w s sy st t w Central ProcessingUnit (CPU) In actuality, the brain of the computer that controls all operations. It is usually the largest or oneo f the largest chips on the internal circuit board. A chip is L I S L I ~ I I Y made of a semiconductive material such as silicon. SEE: A ~ ~ p r ~ ~1, r lColllplrtw is Tevws Central sulcus (also called the Fissure of Rolando) A major groove in the

41

Central tendency - Cerebrum or telencephalon

-

gray matter of the cerebral cortex. It runs down the outsideof the cortex, forming a natural boundary between thefrontal lobe (anterior to the central sulcus) and the parietal lobe (posterior to the central ~ulcus).The central sulcus does not quite reach the temporal lobe; just below and in front of it lies Broca’s area for motor speech, which is in the third frontal convolution.The frontal lobe gyrus just anterior to the central sulcus is area 4, the primary motor cortex. The parietal lobe gyrus just posterior to the central S L I ~ C Ucontains S areas 1, 2, and 3, the projection area for the general body senses of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and kinesthesis. Central tendency The middle of a frequency distribution of scores. In a frequency distribution, theset of scores is presented with the scores listed in order of size, usually from the lowest to the highest. There are various ways to identify the central tendency (sometimes called the location) o f a frequency distribution. The threebest known measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.SEE:frtqucwcy distriblrtiou, nIcnu, mcdinn, tuode.

head end of the organism will be the fastest, andthe growth of the tail end will be the slowest. The process of maturation begins at the head (cephalo) and moves to the lower partof the body (caudal).

Cerebellum The part o f the brain that

uses sensory inputs to guide motor activity. Cerebralcortex The outermost portion of the cerebrum (i.e., the highest part of the brain).The cortex, which contains most of the gray matter of the brain, is responsible for our higher cognitive processes. Cerebral hemispheres The left and right sides of the cerebral cortex including the neocortex, the o l d cortex, most of the basal ganglia, and many of the limbic structures. Cerebral Palsy (CP) A nonpropssive disorder of the central nervous system that affects motor functioning and performance. It has also been known asLittle’s disease. This neuromuscular disorder is based on damage to the motor areas of the cerebral cortex of the brain. CerebrospinalFluid(CSF) A colorless fluid found in the hollow center (lumen) Centraltrait In Allport’s personality of the central nervous system (CNS) and theory, a behavioral disposition that is in the subarachnoid space around the often shown by an individual, although brain and spinal cord.The lumen’s fluid it is not exhibited quite asoften as the seems to be an extension of the arterial cardinal trait. It is a long-lasting blood, supplying nutrition (but notoxyattribute to a person’s behavior so that it gen) to interior brain and spinal cord is more characteristic of Ilim/her than a cells. The subarachnoid CSF helps to short-term secondary trait. provide a protective cushion around the Central vision A term used to describe CNS. It communicates with the venous a person’s main field of vision as not blood, disposing of chemical waste being able to seea wide area but only products. what is directly in front, usually no Cerebrovascularaccident An unexgreater than an angleof 20 degrees. pected and sudden disruption,blockage, Centration A limitation of one’s ability or leaking of cranial blood vessels that to attend, so that the individual can causes damage to the brain tissue. attend to only one aspect of a stimulus at a time. This is typical of the preopera- Cerebrum or telencephalon The largest part of the brain consisting of tional stage in Piaget’s theory of mental two separated but connected hemidevelopment. spheres (the left and the right)~ n other d Cephalad Toward the head or anterior structures anterior to the diencephalon. part of the body. This divisionof the brain controls Cephalocaudal The principle of embryhigher-level thought and language ological growth that states that the processes. SEE:forrlmiri, C C Y ~ J cortc7r ~ ~ / anatomical and functional growth of the

42

Certification

- Charter schools

to all states that offer educational supEducationally speaking, port for minority, low-income, and the area of competence in which a state underachieving students and Chapter 2/ department of education certifies the Title 2 provides financial support for teacher to be qualified toteach. Thus, curricular materials. These progrclms the credential or teaching certificate must give pre- and post-testing to stuauthorizes anagency to hire a teacher in dents enrolled in these programs in accordance with state standards at the order to assess program effectiveness professional level. and subsequent funding.Typically, Cerumen Commonly known as earwax. math, reading, language arts, and counChain mnemonics A type of memory seling services are provided under these aid in which the first item of a series is funds. Although communities qualify linked to the second, the secondis assofor Chapter/Title 1 and Chapter/Title 2 ciated with the third, andso on. funding because of poverty or low Chaining The control of a complex income, any student in a particular qualsequence of behaviors by operant condiifying school is eligible for services. Partioning. Each of a series of responses is ent support is strongly encouraged in reinforced for occurring at thecorrect these programs with fundsavailable for time and place. At the completion of the parent training and support.I’arochial training, the organism is given the reinschools may apply for these funds but forcing stimulus onlyafter the entire must secureclassroom s p c e off series of actions hasbeen performed premises (separation of church and correctly. state); thus, students attend Chapter Title 1 classes outside the school setting. Chancroid A venereal disease characChapter/Title 1 instructional models terized by a highly infectious venereal include the “pull-out model” and “inulcer nonsyphilitic in nature. It is caused class model.” SEE: p l l - o u t r r r o d r l , irr-clnss by the hemophilius dicreyibacillus. rllolfd Approximately three to four days after exposure a purulent (pus-like) ulcer Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (Charforms on the penis, anus, urethra,o r cot; Pierre Marie, French ncwrologist, vulva. SEE: V m w d Discwsr ( V D ) 1853-1940 and Tooth, Howard, English physician, 1856-1926) A heredity disease Change agent Theprofessional role an characterized by progressive weakness educator or person plays as an active of the distal musclesof the ‘lrms and the member of the school system or society. feet. It is a form of neural muscular It is the responsibility a person assumes atrophy. SEE: dish1 as part cf one‘s duties to improve (change) and develop the education Charter schools Independentoutcomesystem. based public schools that are designed to promote innovativeteaching m d Chapter books Books arranged in a education practices/strdtegies. Minchapter format popularly used in language arts programs and as part of read- nesota was the first state to pass charter legislation in 1991, followed by Califoring programs. For example, in the case nia in 1992. Several states now ha\re o f novels, arranged by chapters, teachers charter schools that call for original can intersperse other activities in lan”charters,” o r agreements specifying guage arts such as the writing process, learning outcomes the studentswill vocabulary skills, punctuation, and accomplish and that are signedby the grammar in between the chapter readschool’s founders anda sponsor. There ings. Students may be groupedor paired are several commonalitiesin the various for chapter readings. charter schools but specific practices Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 funds (forvary widely. Some common model commerly called Title 1 and 2; then Chapter ponents include: 1. account,lbility of the .I and 2; now, back to Title 1 and 2) charter school for student performance Chapter 1 makes federal funds available

Certification

43

-

Checklist

=

- Child benefit theory

to the sponsoring public institution and parents; 2. because of strict accountability, state and federal laws do not apply except in the cases of those related to health, discrimination, and safetyof those agreed onby the charter school; 3. various private and public organizations can sponsor a charter school that is nonsectarian and tuition-free and a school of choice for students, teachers, and parents alike; 4. charter schools have fiscal autonomy to expend allocated resources; 5. states typically allow a certain number of charter schools and allow any individual to initiate a charter school petition to include teachers (usually more than two), parents (usually more thanlo), a local school district, a country board o f education, etc.; 6 . outcome-based expectations include desired learning outcomes/gains; 7. site-based decision making involves expandingdecision making to cooperative partnershipsof professionals, students, parents, and community members; 8. innovative practices and technology applications, as well as new approaches, are encouraged; 9. many charter schools have extended school days for both students and teachers. Concerns have been expressed regarding the following aspects of charter schools: (a) funding is sometimes a problem as state/federal vouchers are often not enough-grants, foundation monics, contributions, etc. are often needed; (17) some charter schools have not hired certified teachers, which raises qualifications concerns; (c) longer-thannormal workdays are requiredfor extra papcrwork/charter requirements; and ( d ) teachers desire collective-bargaining activities to ensure fair remuneration and benefits. Checklist A written list of behavior descriptions. The observer marks an item (e.g., witha checkmark) when he/she observes thesubject perform the behavior described.A checklist yields only yes-or-no data; there is no qualitative assessment involved. Checklists should be tested for their interjudge reliability before they can be put to use throughout ‘1 school or district.

Chemical dependency Aphysical and psychological need for tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs thatinterferes with social, job, and psychological functioning and overall adaptation to the environment. Chemotherapy The use of drug treatments to control or cure diseases, disorders, or other problems. Some forms of chemotherapy are now available to control or cure certainforms of cancer (c.g., leukemia).

Chest physiotherapy

The treatment of the chest through physical agents such as exercise, heat treatments, massage, radiation, etc. in a therapeutic fashion. CHI SEE: Closed H d [ ~ ~ j ~ r i ~ s Chi square A statistical procedure that relies on frequency counts (nominal data) in assessing the degreeof relationship of one distribution to another.Chi square testsallow one to estimatethe probability that a trend or pattern of performance/scores is a result of chance from an unexpected distributionof those same scores. For example, if one was to throw a quarter 20 times on a table and one recorded 15 times that hexis appeared and 5 times that tails appeared, one could determine thelikelihood that these results were L ~ L W to chance from the expected outcome of 50 percent probability of either heads or tails appearing (i.e., expected outcome = 10 times heads and 10 times tails). Chief state school officer An executive head or chairo f a state department of education. Childabuse Intentionalsexual,psychological, and/or physical injury or trauma of a child such as rape, incest, child beating, and threatsof violence at a child. SEE: cllild m$rct Child advocacy movement Amovement in the direction of ensuring the rights of childrcn. Advocatesspell out requirements and protect children in their best interests, while making sure that children’s/students’ rights are protected within the process. Child benefit theory A criterion used by the U S . Supremc Court to determine whether or notservices provided to

Child-care center

-

- Chorionic Villi Sampling (CV5)

Chiropodist A synonym for a podiatrist students in the public and nonpublic sectors benefit children only and not any (one who treatsfoot problems and diseases). school or religion. If the children benefit only, the courts have ruled thatservices Chiropractor A trainedprofessional may bc funded by public funds (eg., and expert in the manipulation of the public monies may be used to bus chilspine in the form of spinal adjustments. dren to parochial schools as this has Chiropractics is a medical system that been deemed a safety issue for tlae chilregards diseases as being caused by dren alone). impingements upon the spinal nerves and thus spinal adjustment andcorrecChild-care center SEE: dn,~-cn,rmrtrr Child-centered SEE: ~.lli/rf-~(,/~t~,r(,[~ tion is necessitated. Chisanbop A method of math calculairlstrrrcfiorl tion especially recommended for the Child-centeredinstructionInstruction visually impaired. It is a system develdesigned for tlae interests, abilities, and oped in Korea that uses the fingers to needs of individual students that is calculate. rooted in existenti‘llist philosophy. SEE: Chondrodystrophy A condition char~,.~ist[,~~ti~?/i~~// acterized by defects in the cartilage forChild find A method or system usually mation at the extremitieso f the long required by federal, state, or local law bones, especially that of the hip bones (or reguhtion) thatactively seeks out and shoulders. students that may bein need o f special education or otherservices such as ”chil- Choral and choral repeated reading dren at risk.” Such a system also This is a whole-class reading activity includes a referral process. SEE: s t d e / r t s that involves students reading aloud 11 t risk and in unison. Students should beactive participants in constructing meaning. Child neglect A serious lack of or no The teacher should demonstrate good concern about the upbringing of a child oral reading behaviors by phrasing by the parent, adult in charge, or other properly, changing tempos, voice intonafamily mcmbers to a point where the tion, and expression. child’s physical and emotional wellbeing are ignored to J great degree or Chorea Also known as Saint Vitus’s w e n completely. Thus, tlae child’s physidance, it is any number of nervous discal and emotional growth is restricted. eases organically caused or caused by For example, a child left at home alone infection. It is characterized by involunon a repeated basis; no rccognizable tary and spasmodic bodily movement, signs of real love, caring, and nurturing; particularly of the limbs or facial poor nutrition; andlack of medical muscles. attention. SEE: child nlwst. Choreiform It is a condition charactcrChildhoodpsychosis A disorder ized by spasmodic twitching orjerking occurring during childlaood with sympof the arms andlegs and/or the facial toms that include impaired speech muscles. It is a common symptom of development, bizarre social behavior, Huntington’s disease or chorea.SEE: and abnormal motor behavior. SEE: clIor1.n fJs!/l’/fOSiS

Children at risk Children who potentially are at risk for academic/social failure because of a variety of learning impediments whichcould include but are not limited to the following: disease, health conditions (i.e., asthma), poverty, lack of nourishment, abuse, parental drug addiction, ctc. SEE: r7t risk

Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy A type of cerebral palsy where the individual laas abrupt involuntary motormovements and greatdifficulty maintaining posture or stance. A Chorionic Villi Sampling (CVS) type of prenatal examination of the fetus to screen for signs of abnormality in development. The villi are threadlike

45

Choroid - Civil Rights Act of 1964

-

=

projections extending from the chorion (the membrane around thefetus); the villi can be examinedfor their chromosomes and the genes on the chromosomes. Choroid The layer of blood vessels located between the sclera and retina in the eye that provides nourishment to the retina. SEE: w t i r m Choroidoretinaldegeneration Degeneration or deteriorationof both the choroid and the retina in the eye. SEE: c/ror.oirfor.c,tirliti~, clroruid, retit~n ChoroidoretinitisInflammation of both the choroid and retina of the eye. SEE: clmroitf, retirra Chromosomal abnormalities Adefect, damage, or abnormalityof one or more of the normally 23 pairs of chromosomes in an individual.SEE: cI1ru1tzoso~7~e Chromosome A threadlike or rodlike microscopic body developed from nuclear material, namely Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). The human chromosome contains hundredsof genes, which determine ourcharacteristics of heredity. A person normally has46 chromosomes, 23 from the mother (ovum) and23 from the father (sperm); that is, one from each parent, making 23 pairs. The first 22 pairs are autosomes;they do not contain any sex (malelfemale) determinants. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosome, is designated either XX for female or XY for male. T ~ u ,if the embryo has an XX pair, a female wwuld be born, andif XU, a 111ale. SEE:nllf<JSUltlL'S, g o l e s Chronic A term used to refer to problems, diseases, and disorders of various natures that repeatedly reoccur or are present over long periodsof time. Chronic enuresis A chronic or continual case of bedwetting over a long period of time. Chronological Age (CA) The exact age of a student or person.It is normally expressed in years but is more accurately expressed in years and months. Ex: A CA of I S 4 means the studentis 15 years, 4 months old. SEE: lrttclligetlc~ Qrroticrrt (IQ,, Mcrltnl Age ( M A )

46

C h u n k A meaningful unit of information in Short-Term Memory (STM). The grouping of bits of information into chunks enlarges the amountof information one can storein STM. Chunking The grouping of individual items of knowledge into larger units, preferably meaningful ones. This approach to learning helps the consolidation of Short-Term Memory (STM) into Long-Term Memory (LTM). CIC SEE: Clcnrl htcrrrlittrrrt

Cntlzeterizatiurz CIDI SEE: C(Jl7lpUsltr Irltrrrrotiorrnl Dinst~osticfr~terviero CIJE SEE: Clrrrcrzt lrzdus to ]uwrm/s iu Educntiorr Ciliary body That part o f the eye that is directly behind the iris. It secretes aqueous humor (fluid) andalso contains the ciliary muscle, which controls thefocus of the eye as concerns changing the shape (refraction) of the lens. SEE: iris Cilium (singular) or cilia(plural) 1. Cilia are hairlike projections in the bronchi, inner ear, etc. They are constantly moving (Le,, beating, recovering, and beating). Theseprojections serve to propel and/or repel dust and mucus. 2. An eyelash is also classified as a cilium. Cinefluoroscopy Refers to the taking of x-ray motion pictures. CIRC SEE: C o o p x t i ? ~ Icr r t q r . t l t c d R c c l r f i r r g nt1d

Cortlyositiolz

Circadianrhythms Behavioral cycles that occur once a day, such as going to sleep and wakingup. Cirrhosis A deterioration of the connective tissue of an organ. Theterm is often used to imply cirrhosis of the liver, a degenerative and chronic disease caused by many factors, including nutritional deficiency, poisons, viral or bacterial inflammation, andchronic alcoholism. Civil Rights Act of 1964 This act deals with discrimination against individuals. It is considered landmark federal legislation and it permits the federal governmerit to intervene in state cases involv-

-

Civilian labor force Classroom paraprofessionals

ing discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sex, or national origin. Civilian labor force The total of all civilians who fall in one of two categories: employed or unemployed. Members of the armed forces, mercllant marines, national guard, etc. who are stationed either i n the United States or abroad are included in the labor force. Clairvoyance One of the talents claimed a type of Extrasensory Perception (ESP) by ESP advocates. Clairvoyance is the ability to know about faroff events without having to depend on the use of one’s sense organs. Class journal A technique in the teaching of language arts wherein the students keep reixesentative writings of classwork, homework, multicultural pdrticipation/nctivities, stories of mystery and adventure, cooperative learning ventures, travel, vacation trips, etc. The students share their experiences with the class at an appropriate time andthese experiences are recorded in the format of ‘1 class journal, perhaps to be shared wit11 pxents/other classes or displayed. Classical conditioning The type of conditioning originally studied by Ivan Pa\~lov.In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus, such as the soundof a bell, is presented to a hungry dog just before meat is presented to the dog’s mouth. After several such bell-meat pairings (called conditioning trials), the dog will saliv‘lte t o the sound only (i.e., the sound can now elicit the salivation response). Classification The grouping of individual items into classes or categories. Classification sort A term used in language arts todescribe a system of using word cards to interest students in reading and to build vocabularyconnected to the reading(s) being experienced.Two multiple sets of word cards are prepared, which address the passages/ stories about to be read. The teacher gives the cards to small groups of students to arrangein logical categories. Then one studentfrom each group shares the group decision with the class.

TI~LIs, classification sort builds new knowledge upon previous knowledge/ experiences. This apprcmch is a variation of Connect Two. SEE: Corlrlc’ct T i c w Classifying A term used to describe one’s ability to categorize or place correctly in a specific group items, objects, persons, things, etc. that share a common characteristic. Classroom analysis systems These are clearly articulated sets of procedures and written materials thatcan be sed to analyze andobjectify the behavioral interactions between teachers and students and interactions among students. Classroom environment or classroom climate The characteristics of a classroom; that is, the physical set-up, the psychological or emotional atmosphere, and the general learningclimate or environment that exists within the educational setting. Classroomlibrary In general, collection of printed material kept in a classroom on a permanent basis such as Big Books, literature books, paperback books, leisure-types of readings, n q a zines, newspapers, talking books, workbooks, etc. Nonprint materials such ‘1s videos, films, cassettes, computer disks, CD-ROMs, listening centers, etc. may be integrated as well. Classroom management A multifaceted term used to describe thetotal classroom teaching and learning situation in terms of content, curriculum, methods, and teaching approaches; also, the general classroom environment m d behavioral and disablingpractices and systems. SEE: clnssroorr~~ ~ r ~ i ~ i r . o ~ r r r r r r ~ / , b c h z 1 i o r rrmfificntiorl Classroomparaprofessionals Professionals who typically d o not lwld 1year degrees but have someexperience in working with children. These classroom assistants usually work one-on-one with students in need of assistance or with small groups under thedirection o f an assigned teacher. Lesson planning/ curriculum matters are determined by the cooperating practitioner andnot the paraprofessional.

47

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-

Classroom performance Cluster programs

Classroomperformance

An educational term used to describe a student’s progress in class, one’s so called ”academic” achievement or behavior. Such performance is usually judged by grades earned, such as“A”, ”B”, “C”, etc. or by some similar or other marking system. Classroomteacher Theprofessionally qualified/certified person assigned to the classroom to teach students in self-contained, inclusive, or departmentalized (separate subjects) situations. Students are assigned to the classroom and teacher as well. Claustrophobia A condition wherein a person has an abnormalfear o f closed places or spaces, or being confined, enclosed, or locked in.

Clean Intermittent Catheterization (CIC) A medical procedurethat requires the inserting of a sterile tube (catheter) through the urethra into the bladder. The schedulefor a n intermittent (CIC) is usually every three tofour hours. Cleft liplpalate A congenital malformation of the upper lipo r palate in the roof o f the mouth. This takesplace during the embryonic process of development and can lead to communication disorders of voice and articulation. Clinicalexperience An on-the-job training experience thatis part of the teacher-training preparation. It may be in a classroom or a related clinical setting, such as an internship,in preparation for certification as a school psychc)l()gist o r school counselor. Most of this takes place outside of the classroom. Clinicalpsychologist A psychologist who is trained to work with individuals who experience relatively severe pSychological (eg., suicidal depression) and/or behavior (e.g., aggression) problems. SEE: ps!/cllfllflcyist Clinical psychology The field of psychology concerned with the diagnosis ,Ind treatment of cnlotional/belia~~ior disorders. Clonic 111 effect, a condition characterizc,d by ,lIternate muscular relaxation and contraction.SEE: clor~icp h ? S r 1

48

Cluttering

- Cognitive approach

being grouped for part of the day for an guide to properprofessional conduct. SEE: ctlrics enrichment activity or for advanced work (e.g., math). Coding 1. The arrangement of sensory nerve impulses to represent an aspect of Cluttering A speech problem charactera physical stimulus. For example, the ized by an excessive rate of speech loudness of a sound may be codedby accompanied by articulation problems the number of axons in the auditory and repetiti1.e speech patterns or words. Cluttering symptoms include but are not nerve simultaneously firing nerve impulses. 2. SEE: Appcrrdix 4: C O ~ ~ I ~ U ~ E I . limited to part and whole-part repetitions, rapid speech or tachylalia, interjecTrrm tions, grammatical problems, articulaCoefficient of correlation An index of tory and motor problems, writing the relationship between the numerical disorders, restlessness and hyperactivity, value of one variable and the size of a and garbled articulation. In effect, it is second variable, obtainable when the basically an imbalanceof the central lansame subjects are measured forboth guage process that affects communicavariables. For example, the individual’s tion and behavior in general. Scholastic Aptitude Test score is correCMI SEE: Corrlplr~o-MnrIn~s\.r[l Irlstrrrctiorl lated to that person‘s grade point average in college. When higher scores on CMV An acronym for Cytomegaone variable accompany higher scores lovirus, a virus in the herpes-virus famon the other, the two variables areposiily, which affects newborns. SEE: tively correlated. When higherscores on C!/torllcy7lic Irlcllrsiorr the first variable are associated with CNS (central nervoussystem) The lower scores on the second, the twovaricentral nervous system includesthose ables are negatively correlated. parts o f the nervous system encasedin Cognition The higher mental processes bony coverings suchas the spinalcord in general, including reasoning, strategy and brain. use, understanding, problem solving, Coaching Teaching specific skills and etc. then providing guided feedback. Cognitive Abilities Test(CAT) A Cocaine A highly addictive stimulant group of intelligence tests used in many that produces both alertness and euphoclassrooms throughout the United ria. Cocaine abuse can result in severe States. damage to several body organs includCognitiveIAcademic Linguistic Profiing the heart and lungs. ciency (CALI’) Abilities beyond basic Cochlea Acoiled cone-shapedtube language to abstract languagecapabiliforming a portion of the inner ear. Snailties that are requisites to academic perlike in appearance, it contains the organ formance and work. of Corti, the receptor for hearing. SEE: Cognitive appraisal Thesubjective o r y ~ ($Corti r ~ evaluation of the severity of a stressful Cochlear implant A specialmedical stimulus. technological process involving anelecCognitive approach An approachor trode implantation in the inner ear that method that focuses on cognitive is connected to a sound processor, transprocesses such as self-monitoring and mitter/receiver, and a n external microreflective behaviors, self-pacing oneself phone. T ~ L I S the , cochlear is stimulated through learning exercises, self-talk or and the student or personis able to pertalking oneself through a particularly ceive sound. difficult problem,self-questiolling, and Code of ethics A formal declaration of self-evaluation. An exampleof such a11 correct and appropriate behavior tobe approach is the “Detective Q Squirt followed by the professional person as a Approach,” developed by Spafford.

E4

-

49

Cognitive behavior modification - Cognitive theory

-

Cognitive behavior modification Teaching wanted behaviors by providing the individual with self-monitoring techniques and learning strategies. SEE: bfhi,ior Irrorfifiicntinrl Cognitivebehavioraltraining An approach that teaches students to control their own thought processes so as to internalize strategiesof speech when responding to questionable situations and problems. Cognitivedevelopment The intellectual acquisition of information, facts, and/or data to include their concepts and principles. This mental development includes reasoning, understanding, problem solving, etc. SEE: cogrlition, cogll;t;i~~~,~~llict;orlil~~~

Cognitive-developmental theory A theory of the developmentof gender roles emphasizing the child’s understanding of the meaning of gender as a concept before that child can be expected to learn the activities appropriate to his/her genderrole. Cognitivedissonance Festinger’s theory that an unpleasant,tense condition arises whenever one’s attitudes are not consistent with one‘s behavior or knowledge of the facts. This condition may sometimes be relieved by changing one’s attitude (e.g., the reduction of a physiological drive such as hunger byingesting food).SEE: ~/IL’oI.!/ c f i c o p i t i t ~ ~ ~ tfis~orlnrrcr Cognitive domain That part or area o f learning that is involved with gathering information and putting the acquired knowledge to use. Cognitive evaluation theory A theory concerning intrinsic motivationin relation to a reward offered for going along with the motivated activity. If the reward is perceived t o have an informative function, the motivationwill increase, whereas if the reward is perceived t o be a tool for controlling one’s motivation, the motivationwill decrease. Cognitive functioning That which has to do with thinking. In effect, how one processes knowledge and information

50

Cognitive therapy

"theory is differentfrvm behwiord theory, which emphasized the role of environnwntcll stimulieliciting responses from organisms, rendering thought processes '1s insignificant. SEE: / I ~ I ~ ~ O t/rlYlr,l/

Cognitive therapy A type of psychotherapy intended to eliminate irrationdly ncgativc \.iewsof oneself, other people, and the world. Cognitive training A system of training in which the mcljor goal is to change thought o r patterns of thought. SEE: cYl,('fl;~kk'

W

- Collaborative research

also be set around other factors besides age, such asa companion. Coleman Report (1966) A report that helped initiate programs for bilingual / students, as this report demonstrated that non-Ellglish-speaking students tested below all national norms in reading and math. The study concluded that the most influential factor regarding

~7,/1/1~0~7C/J

Cognitive view of learning The attitudc toward lexning that treatsit as an active way of acquiring, retaining, and utilizing knowlcdge. Cognitivist theory A theorybased on the work ofJcLan Piaget, N o a m Chomsky, Richard Cromer, and others that ad\.ances the notion that language is a result of intelligence , ~ n dnot a product of beha\rior. Cognitivists bclieve that regardless of environmental factors, logical thinking proceds through a series o f sequentially identifiable stdges. The idea is that cognition preceeds language and thus cognitive development determines language cievelopment. The ability to think is the foundation for acquisition of langu'lge. SEE: ctlirstrrrcti7lisrrr Cohabitation I>ivingwithanotherperson and ha\ring close and personal relations with that person, without being m,1rried to the cohabitating partner. Coherent instruction A type of instruction that focuses students on the learning connections within the lesson and across the curriculum. Therole of the teacher is to assist students in integrating new knowledge with prior experiences and tu build a sound knowledge base.

Coherent reading In languagearts, continuous reading by the student from a book or text in a meaningful way. That is, the reading makes sense to the student rlncl is nornlally done for an extended period of time.

Cohort Those people who comprise a given category such as age. Cohorts may

m

student achievement wasfamily background.

Coleman Report (James Coleman, 1981) An educational study that concentrated on a comparison of the effectiveness of private v. public schools. SEE: Colrrunrz X ~ p o r (1966) t Collaborate Working with others in '1 cooperative manner toward a common objective or goal. Collaborativeconsultation Thecollaboration of professionals to generate strategies/ideas to moreeffectively deal with the unique learning needs/stylesof individuals with special needs (e.g., learning disabilities). Collaborative instructionor collaborative teaching 1. A type of instruction that involves interactive negotiations and reciprocity between the student and teacher/learner. The teacher assumes the role of student/learner at times when material or concepts are unfamiliar and the students can provide information or guidance. 2. Teaching teams that work together in planning and instruction efforts. Teams sometimes divide subject matter according to the background/ strengths/interests of each participating teacher. 3. Teaching teams within one classroom setting (e.g., regular classroom teacher, resource teacher, and home-school adjustment counselor). Collaborative research (withineducation settings) The process of initiating teacher-research partnerships between teachers and teachers; college faculty and college faculty; teachers and researchers; teachers and college faculty; teachers and community members/ families, etc. The major goal of collaborative research activities within the classroom is to better meet the learning styles

51

Colleague consultation

- Colomba

and needs of all children. Typically preliminary activities involve brainstorming appropriate topics/issues to research (e.g., how to better meet the needs of bilingual learners) along withgoal setting, model implementation, problem identification, assessing one’s knowledge base, identifying all likely participants/resources, researchingclassroom research models, etc. The following 8 steps provide a foundation for collaborative research endeavors: 1. establish goals, objectives, and problems identification(s); 2. coordinate data collection (e.g., journal writing, maintaining anecdotal records, observation recordings, videotaping of classes, surveying students, conducting ethnographic observations, conducting homevisits, etc. 3. schedule times where thecollaborative research team engages in continuous and ongoing discussions regarding data collection, redefining mission ideals and goals, restructuring methods/ techniques, discussing how to implement findings, etc.; 4. analyze data; 5. implement findings/theory into new practices by revising previous methods, re\.iewing/selecting alternative placements, etc., 6. provide ongoing selfassessment and evaluationsof research applications; and 7. disseminate information to school personnel, parents, colleagues, and students when appropriate. Colleague consultation Refers to the process of soliciting input from peers (teacher-to-teacher; special needs resource teacher-to-speech therapist) regarding the education planningof students. Collectivebargaining A bargaining procedure wherein a group, such as an association or union, represents the employees and representatives from this employee unit bargain contractually with representatives of the employer. Procedures are usually specified in writing and a written contract ensuesas a result of the negotiations between the parties concerned. The contractsor agreements cover salaries and working conditions as well as conditions of employment and thelike. SEE: collective b o r p l i r ~ i qn p z t

52

Collective bargaining agent

An organization such as the NationalEducation Association, American Federation of Teachers, etc. recognized by an educational institution, either voluntarily or through elections, as representing the interests of faculty in collective bargaining.

Collective monologue A type of speech used by children in a group. They may be speaking, butthey are not really interacting or communicating with one another. Collective unconscious The portion of the unconscious mind that, according to Jung’s theory, is shared by all human beings. It contains the archetypes (Le., the universal mental images) originating from the animal ancestorsof present-day humans. College A post-secondary (after high school) school that offers a two-year (associates’) o r four-year (baccalaureate) degree and other advancedor graduate degrees such asa Master’s Degree. There is a World Wide Web site for high school students who wouldlike to look at college and career alternatives at http:// www.tpoint.net/-jewels/ college.html. Students canvisit different college sites at http://www.collegeview. com. Financial aid information can be obtained via the U S . Department of Education at http://www.ed.gov/ prog_info/SFA/StunentGuide. To prepare for college SAT tests, access http://www.testprep.com for the Testprep.Com home page. SEE: nssociotc~‘ degree, Dnc-Irelor’s d g r c c College board report A set of norms or standards of achievement that cover areas of mastery that a high school student should attainbefore considering and attendingcollege. College work-study program A program designed to employ college students on a part-time basis. It is normally used to assist students with financial needs. Colomba A degenerative visual disease characterized by incomplete formation of the peripheral and central areas of the

Color blindness - Community catalog

retina resLlIting

ill

impaired vision. SEE:

n?irrn

Color blindness The inability to detect jiffercnt hws,which is L I S L I ~ I an I ~ inherited trait. Persons who aretotally color blind see the world in grayish blues. PdrtidI color blindness is the more common type and frequently involves a person’s inability to see red and green and to distinguish between them. Color blindness is also referred to as d1romatism. Color constancy One aspect of perceptual constancy. Color constancy is the ability to recognize the true color of an object despite vicwing it in colored illumination o r through colored filters or Iensc,s. For example, objects are perceived to ha1.e the same color at sunset as they have ‘lt noon, even though the daylight at noon is white and the daylight at sunset is reddish. Commit Theact of placing student or person into thc charge of another person o r ,111agency in the person‘s best interest. For example, a court sends a student to juvenilca hall or a family commits a person who is mentally ill to a hospital or clinic for the mentally ill, etc. Committee of Fifteen (1895) Another historic National Education Association Study that reversed some findings of the Committee of Ten in 1892 as concerns secondary education. SEE: Corllrrriftc~rc f Rrr (1892) Committee ofTen (1892) In 18Y2 a committee was established by the National Education Association to study U.S. high schools and it established several recommendations that influenced secondary education, such ‘1s: 1. high schools should include grades 7-12, 2. courses should be sequential,3. very few electives shoulci be offered, 4. a Carnegie unit o f one should be awarded for each course so long as it meets four or five times weekly. Common elementary schools An early plan designed to provide basic education for a l l elementary students. Such schools were in operation from about 1820-1852. Horace Mann

(1796-1859), secretary of the State Board of Education in Massachusetts, helped establish these common elementary schools. In 1852, Massachusetts passed the first compulsory elementary school attendance law in the country, Common fate One of the principles of perceptual organization in Gestalt psychology. If some parts o f the visual stimuli are moving in the samedirection and at the same velocity, they are perceived as belonging together to the same group. Common school A school that is open to the general public and the curriculum of which is offered to all children regardless of background or social class. Communication The process of making one’s ideas and thoughts known to others, as well as receiving thoughts and ideas from others. In effect, an exchange of transmitted/recei\,ed messages and information and their meanings. Communication board A board used to display an alphabet, yes/no answers, and other choices to be selected/pointed to by the student, such‘3s in the case of keyboards for facilitative learning. SEE: ficilitotim~Icnrrrirrg Communication disorder A generic term used to indicate anysignificant disability or serious impairmentthclt interferes with normal communication, such as a cleft palate, stuttering,etc. Communication signals Any type of message that provides information about a person, me’s emotions,activities, or some immediate event about to take place. For example, the ringing ofa school bell could indicate that theclass has ended or the periodis about to begin, etc.

Community-Based Instruction (CBI) A practical teaching approach which

posits that students learn best in an environment that relates to the skills being learned. For example, sllopping skills can best be taught in ‘1 shopping mall or retail store rather than in a school store.

Community catalog An assessment strategy that involves four curriculum areas; namely, vocational, recreational,

53

Community living arrangement ”

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- Complex partial seizure

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domestic, and community.It is an Compensatory education Normally, assessment used to designate the setan enriched courseof study or curricutings where students with disabilities lum presented to underprivileged chilwill work, learn, play, and/or live. The dren. Frequently, these children repreplan is usually developed by a team of sent low-income families such as in the teachers on behalf of the student; workcase o f the Head Start program.SEE: ing together they identify the skills and Ht’d Stnrf /JrOgrOff/ activities needed by the student and the Competency A student‘s ability to perappropriate areas/settings in which they form specific tasks at ‘1 certain skill level will be lexnecl and/or performed. and to performsuch tasks with accuracy. Community living arrangement A SEE: nbility living situation and arrangement that Competency-based certification The allows and encourages placementof process by which the state (ora n agency mentally retarded persons in homes designated by the state) provides a within a regular neighborhood. This teaching credenti,ll to an individual. provides a more normal living setting Several steps are usuallyrequired and than institutiollalizatio~l. may include demonstrated mastery of Community mental health clinics or minimum essential generic (e.g., reading centers Local community and someand writing) and specialization (e.g., times regional health centers that are special education) competencies. Usually comprehensive written examinations specifically operated to serve thelocal and other procedures(e.g., demonstraand/or regional mental health needs of tion lessons) may be prescribed by the its citizens. board responsible for the educational Community-referenced instruction In examinations. education, this is the teaching or training Competency-basededucation A sysof students with theskills needed in a tem of learning based on theacquisition number of community settings (a broad of certain selected skills that have been range) in order to prepare students for current and future work settings or envi- determined to be desirable curriculum goals in the education of the student. ronments. The skills/concepts are geared towwd Community Residential Facility (RF) achieving these goals. Usually a group home for a small num-

Competency-based teacher education ber o f retarded adults within a residenor performance-based teacher educatial or urban setting. These retarded Ccrt~fiCimtiOfl tion SEE: corrrpc,frrfs!/-/,~~,~~ adults live in the neighborhood in groups of usually less than 10 and under Competitive employment A typeof supervised conditions. work environment where mostof the employees are nondisabled and receivCommunity school Aschool primarily ing at least the minimum wage for children but designedto provide for the educational and sometimes Complementarydisciplineunits A recre;ltionaI/social needs of the general model more commonly found in public within the local area. seccmciary-level learning wherein courses or units thatbear some relation Comparative psychology That area of to each other are studied together; for psychology dealing with the similarities instance, the case o f a humanities course and differenceso f various species o f that would study the arts, music, c d animals. ture, history, and literature of ancient Compensation The idea that gains (or Athens. losses) in one area of behavior are offset Complex partial seizure A nonconvdby changes in another type of activity. si\y seizure sometimes referred to as a An individual with a learning disability psychomotor or focal seizure. T1w elecmight compensate for a reading problem trical dysfunction localized in the brain by becoming a prolific speech maker. 54

Complex psychosocial motives - Computer-managed learning ”

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causes automatic behavior which the student is unaware of during the seizure. Sometimes this behavior and confusion is erroneously interpreted as a student clowning around andjust misbehaving. SEE: seizur17 Complexpsychosocialmotives Also known as psychogenic needs and/or wants, these motives are not derived from biological needs but result from learning and experience. Compliance An agreement to conform to a request presented, whether or not there may be some degreeof coercion involved. Components The basic problemsol\ring processes that comprise general intelligence, according to the inform‘ltion-processing view of intelligence. Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (Core Version1.1) A fully structured interview that can be scored by computer. Intended for clinical use in a variety of cultures. American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1400 K Street, MN. Washington, DC 20005. Composition A term used to describe creative writing of a brief nature in language arts but,in the film industry, it is a term used to describe how people, objects, and places are arranged withina scene. Compound words Individualwords connected or joined together to forma new word and generally a new meaning. For example, air and port= airport; class and mate = classmate; school and board = schoolboard. Comprehend To understand what is presented; a concept through cognitive strategies/obserlrations that promotes reasoning/thought processes. Comprehension monitoring A selfmonitoring system wherein an individual keeps track of his/her own comprehension of reading material. Adjustments are made during the reading process to improve comprehension by the individual involved. It is a system that frequently does not workwell with

individuals who experience learning disabilities. Comprehensive secondary school Usually the typical high school found in the United States today. There are a variety of program offerings such as business, general, college, industrial, technology, vocational, etc. The vast majority of students, however, are enrolled in the general nontechnical, vocational, or occupational programs. Compulsion A condition wherein a person engages in an activity that the person considers irrational but just cannot prevent him/herself from doing it. The person feels compelled to perform the act. Compulsory education Therequirement by every state that children must attend school when school is in session. The normal requirement includes ages 6-16. Computer SEE: Appc~rrdix4: Cor/rpkr Terms Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) Usually a two-way (also small group) teaching/learning communication between a student and instructional computer softwarevia a computer setup. Computer-assisted instruction can provide supplementary enrichment or practice in a self-paced and self-directed format. Computer graphicscan provide highly motivating and rewardinglearning experiences. SEE: Apperldiw 4: Corrlputer Terrns Computer-enhancedinstruction Any software program thatis used to expand, enhance, or enrich regular instruction. These programs, while frequently used to replace drill and practice, can also involve enrichment/ advancement materials. Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI) The tracking of student performance by using computer recordkeepingprocedures. SEE: Appetldis 4: Corrrplrtcr “ i w r r t ; Computer-managedlearning Refers to learning systems that use computer programs to prompt responsesfrom the learner/user. The responses are then

55

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Computer simulations ”

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- Conditioned response (CR)

analyzed statistically and performance ratings provided. Computer simulations Computerprograms that require students to use their knowledge and abilities to solve problems in lifelike settings. Computer skills The ability of a student or individual to properly and appropriately use computers with hardware accessories such as a modem, a scanner, a mouse, a laser printer, etc. Also, computer skills involve the informed use of various types of software such as wordprocessing programs, data analysis, and file storage. Other skills include the proficient use of computer-language programs such as Apple Soft, Basic, CAM, Cobol Logo, Pascal, etc. SEE: Apyrr~riix4: Corrzputrr. Twrrs Computer software Programs and procedures that provide the instructional component for computers via disks. Computer terminology SEE: Apprt~dix 4: Corrlptrr T m f s Computer tutorials Computerprograms that tcach by presenting questions to the students and reacting to the students‘ answcrs.

goodness canbe described in a number of ways but there are commonalities in what wea11 believe to be good. Concept attainment Teaching that involves the developmentof thinking skills via concept generalizations. Concept mapping A method of diagram used to explain the meaning of a conccpt. Conceptual intelligence The type o f intelligence measured by IQ tests that assess verbal reasoning abilities. Conceptual intelligence refers to cognitive o r thinking processes that are involved in problem solving, schema development, social awareness, and metacognition. Conceptualize A mental thought, opinion, or idea formed by making generalizations from particulars. One generates questions in one’s mind in order to form abstract ideas. Concrete operational stage The stage of Piaget’s mociel of cognitive d e \ ~ l ~ p mcnt that fits the child ages 7-12. The child can reason logically, but the objects of reasoning have to be physicallp present. Concussion Usually the result of ‘1 severe head injury or blow to the head. The brain is violently jarred and partial Computerized Axial Tomography (CT or prolonged loss of consciousness map scan or CAT scan) A method of visube present. Other symptoms include ally examining the intact brain, which is headache, transient dizziness,vomiting, done by taking a linear series ofx-ray rapid pulse, flushed face, and restlesspictures fromthe anterior end of the ness. Symptoms may lastfrom 12 to24 brain all the way tothe caudal end. CAT hours. scans may also be used to examine any other part(s) o f the body. Conditional knowledge Theknowledge o f when and where it is cippropriConcentric method A system or ate to apply one’s procedural and/or approach to learning to speak for deaf declarative knowledge. students. Groupsof sounds are progressively arranged. The student mastersthe Conditionedplay audiometry An slnaII group of sounds orally and learns auditory activity tied to instruction or to accomkmny them with finger spelling. demonstration to condition achilda The student then proceeds to thenext specific play activity such as droppinga group of sounds, learns themorally ball into a pail of water (when hearinga a l c q wit11 finger spellingfor clarity and certain sound or command). correctness, and so on until an appropri- Conditionedresponse (CR) Someate age-related vocabulary is developed. times referred to as conditionedreflex 01’ Concept A way to classify or Categorize conclitioning, it is a learned reaction or t11oLlghts or ideas so that there are disresponse to a specific condition or stimtinguishing features that are commonly LIILIS. An example of a conditioned held. For example, the concept of response would be students prcparing to

56

Conditioned stimulus (CS)- Confidentiality reauiremmtc

leave a classroom (response)just prior to the ringing of the bell signaling the end of class (stimulus).SEE: opermf

coiiilitioiiiiig Conditioned stimulus (CS) In Pavlov’s classical conditioning model, an originally unrelated or neutral stimulus is made to elicit a reflexive response such as salivating by presenting it just before the conditioned stimulus (e.g., food in the mouth), which already does elicit that response. Conditioned taste aversion A dislike for a particular food developed after the individual has experienced gastrointestinal upset or illness following the ingestion of that food. Conditioning A process characterized by response to a certain stimulus, wherein new circumstances will elicit the same responses that previously were reactions to the original stimulus. Conduct disorder A type of behavior disorder involving patterns of aggressive acting-out behaviors that frequently are delinquent in nature (e.g., fire setting, assaults, etc.). Both verbal and nonverbal behaviors reflect an antisocial and anti-authority attitude that is evident in both the school and community settings. Conduction aphasia A specific loss of language ability as a result of damage to the arcuate fasciculus, which is the band of nerve fibers linking Wernicke’s area for speech recognition to Broca’s area for motor speech. With conduction aphasia, one has great difficulty repeating anything as well as in carrying on a sensible conversation. Conduction deafness SEE: coiidiictive

hearing loss Conductive education A special education method developed in Hungary following the World War 11. It is commonly used throughout Europe today. The idea is that education and rehabilitation go together; they are not taught separately. They are presented in an inclusionary manner as concerns instruction in the school. Conductive hearing loss This is a type of hearing loss involving damage to the

outer or middle ear that is caused primarily by middle ear infections, also known as otitis media. Otitis media causes a malfunctioning of the eustachian tube. Other problems that can cause this disorder are a buildur, of earwax, excess fluid in the eustachian tube, and the lodging of a foreign object in the ear. Conductive hearing loss many times is correctable by using a hearing; ” aid, by surgery, or by medical treatment. The two other types of hearing loss are sensorineural and mixed. SEE: serisoriizeiiral hearing loss, mixed henriiig loss Confabulation It is the tendency of a person or student to fill in gaps in memory with imaginary tales or experiences. Confederate An experimenter’s assistant who pretends to be one of the research subjects.A laboratory slang term for such a confederate is a ”stooge.” Conference (student) 1. In general education, a meeting and discussion between a teacher, counselor, administrator, and student about some special topic or concern. 2. In language arts, a conference is an opportunity to meet with a student (student-to-student or student-to-teacher)to discuss a writing project, an assignment, a book, student grades, etc. Conferencing is part of the writing process in language arts. SEE: I

uirifiizg process Confidence interval A range of scores within which an individual’s true score lies, at a specified probability, such as 95 percent or 99 percent. Confidential school records The private file, folder, or records of a student. SEE: coilfideiz tin1ity reqiiirmzeiz ts Confidentiality requirements A system of regulation required by law and/or regulation for processing of student records and information. These requirements regulate the release and custodial care of permanent and temporary information such as the student transcripts and medical records (permanent) and report cards and behavior reports (temporary).

57 -- _--

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R m -

Confirmation bias - Connect Two

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Confirmationbias

In problem solving and inferential reasoning, confirmation bias is the tendency t o notice evidence tending to confirm one’s expectations and to overlook evidence tending todisprove one’s own hypotheses. Conflict A clash of motives resulting from thefact that the behavior required to satisfy one motive is not compatible with the bchavior that wouldsatisfy another motive. Being subject to conflicting moti\w is stressful for an individual. Confluence model The vicw that the nature of a child’s familial environment decides his/her intelligence. The familial factors include the intelligence level of the p‘lrents, the intelligence level of the child’s siblings, the birth orderof the child (first-horn, micidle, youngest, etc.), and thc times between the birth of the child and siblings. Conformity The apparently unforced altering of one’s own actionsso that they match more closely the actions of other people.

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mother during pregnancy. It can cause serious defects in the newborn such as visual and hearing impairments, deafness, blindness, mental retardation, and other problems neurological in nature. SEE: ~ ~ ~ r ~ t rlrlJc//f7 c~ral Congenital syphilis Syphilistransferred by the mother during pregnancy to the unborn child.It is known to cause spontaneous abortion ormiscarriage, stillbirth, and a variety of problems in the newborn. SEE: syldrilis Congenitalvisual impairment A visual impairmentL I S L I ~ I of I ~ a severe nature that was present at the time of birth. Congenitally deaf The condition of those individuals who are born deaf m d never have thebenefit of hearing. Their loss of hearing makes theacquisition of speech and language moredifficult than for individuals who haveresidual hearing o r lose hearing after a disease or illness. SEE: ~ 7 [ f i l [ ’ i 1 t ; t ; [ ~ 1d~r7f f~l!/ Congestive heart failure Improper functioning o r failure of the heart caused Congenital or congenitalanomaly A by excessive fluid buildup around the condition that is present in a child at heart. It is characterized by breathlessbirth. A congenital anomaly would bea ness, weakness, abdominal discomfort, hirth defect or deviation from the and edema in the lower body asa result normal. o f venous stagnation andflow of blood. Congenitalanophthalmos A condition SEE: d v l l f l , / f C r 7 f ’ / , / i 7 i / 1 f f ’ P usually chxacterizeci by a lack of cievelConjugate eye movements The moveopment of the eye and certain parts of ment of both eyes togetlwr in a coordithe brain. It is LISLEIII~ accompanied by nated manner. mental retardation. Conjunctiva A thinprotective transparCongenitalaphasia A condition preent layer of tissue tlut lines the eyelids sent at birth characterized by an inabiland covers the front of the eye. This tisity to speak or understand a language. sue protects the eyes from dust and SEE: rlp/If7sir7 other particles. Congenital aural atresia A birth condition in which the external auditory canal Conjunctivitis Commonly called ”pink-eye,” this is rl highly contagious is malformed or missing entirely. inflammation of the conjunctiva, the Congenital condition SEE: corrg~r~itnl 01’ mucous membrane thatlines the eyelids corrgcvlitr7l r 7 ~ ~ l l ~ ! f f 7 ( l / and covers the eyeball. This type of Congenital heart disease A condition infection must betreated with antibiotics that exists at birth involving defects or prescribed by a physician. momalics of the structure of the heart or Connect Two Refers to a prereacling of its functioning. technique wherein the teacher puts two Congenital rubella Also known as lists of words on the board o r provides a maternal rubella and German measles, it hal-tdout, both of which relate t o a ceris a disease that is contracted by the tain topic or reading. Students then

58

Connect Three - Constructivism

LieciLIe which words go together by arral1gernent in sets of two. The sets of words are connected on the board or the handout by lines drawn by theteacher or student. This systemcan be used to associate three words aswell and is then referred to as ”Connect Three.” The matching of words in this system SUPports building on known words and integrating new ones.SEE: classificfffiojl

sorf Connect Three SEE: COJlliKf T700 Consciousness The awareness of our environment and of our own cognitive and emotioncd processes. Consensus The degree of consistency of behavior, on a given occasion, of the members of a group o f people. Also, it is the wiIIingness of all group members to support the prominent group decision whether or not it is one’s first or personal choice. Consent Educationally speaking, it is the act of obtaining written approval.In the scnse of special education, in order to evaluate and/or place a student in a special needs program, written consent must be suppliedby the parent, guardian, or by the student if 18 years of age or older. SEE: r f w pr(1cm Consequences Theafter-effects of an action. These may be reinforcing, raising the chances thatthe action will be repeatcd, or punishing, lowering the probability of the action. Conservation The realization that altering the shapeof a container does not change the amount of liquid inside a container. A child develops thisability when his/her cognitive development h as. a1: rlveci at the stageof concrete operations, in Piagct‘s model of cognitive growth. Consigliere SEE: s c c o r ~ dsfapfaccilitntor Consistency The extent to which an individual behaves the same wayin a given type of situation whenever that situation occurs. Consolidation Usually meant ‘1s the combining of smaller schools into a larger school or the inclusion of a school into another. I’rograms and courses of

study can also be combined or consolidated. Constantdollars Dollar amounts that have been adjusted by means of price and cost indices to eliminate inflationary factors andallow direct cornparism across years. Constant dollars are expressed in two ways: 1. according to the calendar year and 2. according to the school year. Constants The learning experience or steps that are taught and comprise the offerings of the academic orvocational track in a secondary school. Constricted-response format Assessment procedures requiring the student to organize and express one answer. These correction procedures are sometimes called “objective tests.” Construct validity Refers to the ability of a test to measure a theoretically valid hypothetical construct such as character or intelligence. No one statistical test (e.g., a correlation coefficient) can measure this typeof validity. Rather, the test scores should constitute a variable that is strongly related to several other setsof data, including the outcomesof experiments, surveys, case studies, etc. Constructive alternativism The process by which a person makes use of personal constructs in order to select an appropriate courseof behavior in a given situation. Constructive recall The alteration of the memory of an event by addition, omission, or change in the details so that memory is better suited to some mental organization (schema) the individual has developed. Constructivism According to Spafford and Grosser, a method or approach to teaching that keysin on having learners “construct” their own meaning/knowledge base/learning experiences. Constructivism allows teachersto become student/learners and students to become facilitators of knowledge acquisition because there are interactive conmunications/activities and discovery/ rediscovery learning experiences. The teacher serves as a facilitator of learning

59

Constructivist view of learning - Context dependent memory

versus an imparter or director of knowledge. Scaffolding is important to this learning approachbecause the adult scaffolds or structures the learningexperience at first until the child reaches independence in performance/achievement. Constructivism is popular in the mat11 and science areas where discovery learning can facilitate a broader conceptual knowledge base. This learning theory is similar to cognitivism in that there is an interaction between the cognitive (thinking) function of a child and the environment (both linguistic and nonlinguistic), resulting in the de\~elopnlento f complex language structures. Such an interacti\,c approach considers the environment as important in providing learning in context and giving context to learning. SEE: ccyrritivist t l r c w ! / Constructivist view of learning Based on the work o f Lev Vygotsky (I8W-lYN), this approach to learning provides strategirs/activitics thatallow the learner to constantly build and rebuild o r ”construct” ideas based on pre\,ious information. The learning process is characterized by making mistakes and refining knowledge as a result o f realizing that earlier ideas may not be correct. Teachers can adapt learning activities t o foster students' construction of knowledge. This view stresses the active role of the learner in building together his/her understandin:: of the presented information. Constructivist view of reading A \view of reading based on the tenet that the reader interacts with the printed page or text. I t is posited that the reader can create meclning by using prior kn(~wledge/experience and knowledge about language in general to derive ITleaning. This view o f reading is based Llpon the constructivism theoryo f Iearning, SEE: ‘ . ( ~ j r ~ t ~ r ~ ~ t i ~“ lciosrirr~r t, ~ r r c r i i r i ~ t Z1ic’io

(!f I U I Y I I ~ / / ~ ”

Consultativeservices

Assistance pro\rided to teachers in general educational settings in order to assist/heIp them in denling with special education students. l+r example, a special education teacher co11lL~advise a regular classroom teacher

60

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Contiguity Controlled proceesing " -

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when recall is done in the same environment where thematerial was originally learned. Contiguity The mental association of two events as the result of their being presented together. Contingency contracting A contract between educational personnel and a student usually in writing but sometimes orally wherein an agreementis reached concerning the student's behavior. That is, the punishment/awards appropriate for improper/proper behavior. Contingency managementor contingency contracting A type of behavior modification technique that can be used to increase or decrease wanted or unwanted behaviors. For example, if a child does not like to d o math homework but loves to watch television, a contingency contract could beset up. That is, every time thechild completes a math homework assignment,a 30minute TV program coulcl be allowed (watching television) = contingent on completing homework).Also, if a child has a bad habit (e.g., throwinga temper tantrum), one could again make watching television contingent on no tantrums for the day. Continuing education A renewed or extended opportunity for students to continue their education after the completion of full-time schooling. Sometimes used by dropouts to finish a program, it cC1nbe used at any level of education but frequently refers to college-level programs or education and training beyond high school.

tive). SEE: rrloirlstrenrrrirlg, I ~ s rrstrictizle t e r ~ z ~ i r o ~ r r ~irlclusiorl ~cr~t, Continuum of placements The range

of educational placements as per the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 101-476). This can range, for a child with special needs, from placement in a regular classroom to a separate resource room, or even to a home or hospital program. It may also include placement in a day school or even a residential setting outof district. Continuum of services SEE: corrtirlurrrrl of pl"c"r1erlts Contract system A behaviormodification approach to education. For example, a student agrees prior to the taking of a college course to achievea set of standards in order to earna particular grade. Contracture A permanent shortening or contraction of a muscle as a result of spasm or paralysis to a point where limbs, bones, and/or posture are distorted. Control group Those subjects who do not receive a particular treatment; their behavior is compared with thatof the subjects who doreceive the treatment. Control subjects Those subjects in an experiment who are not given the treatment under investigation.The behavior of the control subjects is used as a standard to which the behavior of the experimental subjects (those whod o receive the treatment) can be compared. Control theory A theory that contends that w e fashion our behavior in order to keep control of ourselves but also to gain control of others. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule Controlled drinking A technique (CRF) The presentation of a reinforcer for curing alcoholism in which the to the learner every time thecorrect individual is taught how to drinkin response is made. moderation. Continuum of educational services Controlled processing The use of The full range of special-needs services deliberate mental effort to affect the proavailable to students withdisabilities. cessing of information. This often interThe range extends from regular class feres with other cognitiveactivities. A placement (the least restrictive) through spectacular example of controlled proinclusion and mainstreaming to residential placement, full-time, full-year, and cessing is lucid dreaming. SEE: lucid drentrrir~g substantially separate (the mostrestric-

61

Controlled vocabulary - Core curriculum

62

Core evaluation - Correlational analyses _y__

counterpart on theleft. The c o r p ~ scall^)SLlln links the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex with the right hemisphere. It is se\,ercd i n the operation called “split-brain surgery.” Correlation The strength o f a rel,itionship between two vxiables (e.g., height and weight) expressedas a numerical value called a correlation coefficient. Correlation coefficients rmgc fro111-I .OO t o +1 .OO. The closer the correlation v d u e t o plus or minus 1.00, the stronger the relationship. Negati\.c correL1tions indicate in\rerse relationships (e.g., better pitching averages result in l o w ERAS) ~ and positive correlations point t o direct relationships (e.g.,taller individuals tend to weigh more). See: corrdr~tio~~ 1m;fficiolt

Correlation coefficient (knownas I” meaning relationship) A numerical value that signifies the strength of relationship between numbers and typically most correlation coefficients ~e adaptations of the Pearson coefficient. Correlation coefficient values range f r m 1 +1.00 t o -1.00 with ern showing no rclationship betwecn \&~es on t w o n1easures. Typically values above + o r - .75 show strong relationships between scores or values. There are relatively few perfect correlation coefficients of + o r - 1.00 in the social sciences. An example of a strong correlation coefficient \~~1Iue (generally between .8(1‘mi .go) would be one that results from the study n f the relationship between one’s I Q a n d r e d ing performance on standardized achievenwnt tests. liemember that the strength of the correlationcoefficient is not affected by the sign. Negative correlation coefficients indicate in\rerse relationships (e.g., increased school attendance generally results in lower drop-out rates). Correlational analyses A type of statistical analysis that looks at data in terms o f whether or not a relationship exists between t w o or more variables that can be quantified. The t w o most p t p l a r correlational statistical analyses are the product lnornent correlation coefficient (Pearson r) and the rank difference

63

Correlational retiearch - Cranial nerve “

correlation coefficient (Spearman rho). Counselingpsychology That specialty See: Pcorsorr r, Spmrrrrorl rho within psychology that deals with the analysis andcorrection of personal probCorrelational research Research done lems. The counseling psychologist usuin order to determine whether or not ally does not diagnose or treat severe two factors are correlated with one mental/emotional illnesses. Examples of another (or whether more than two facworkers in this field are vocational countors are correlated among themselves). selors and marriage counselors. Correlational statistics Statistical proCounseling service These are services of the cedures that provide an index designed for students in order to assist extent of the correlation between two them in making educational, career, and variables; one well-known exampleis r, vocational choices. It helps them plan, the Pearson product-moment correlation develop, and makechoices concerning coefficient. their personal development and future Correspondentinference theory A endeavors. theory of how people develop causal explanations (attributions)of the behav- Counter theory model A model that ior of others. It holds that we are swayed focuses on advocacy for a disordered or deviant child and delivery of services to by such factors as the voluntary nature the behaviorally disorderedchild that of that behavior and thesocial desirabilare effective and appropriate to the ity of it. child’s needs. The idea is also to change Cortis’ organ SEE: orgorr of Corti social values and expectations thatlead Cosmology That area of philosophy to a narrow view of what behaviors are that is concerned with the originof the considered “normal” and the view that universe as well as the subsequent if behaviors are notclassified as ”nordevelopment of the universe. Relevant mal” they mustbe deviant. concepts include time, space, and causal- Counterconditioning A bchaviority. SEE: crmtiotzisru, tzdrrtiorl therapy technique in which an undesirCost-effectivenessanalysis A matheable response is eliminated by presentmatical analysis of an undertaking (e.g., ing the usual conditioned stimulifor building a school) that looks at the that response while (simultaneously) extent to which theproject accomplished eliciting, by unconditioned stimulation, its objectives in relation to its cost. a competing, incompatible response. The result is that the conditioned stimuli Council for Exceptional Children become attached to the newactivity and (CEC) A special education organizalose their tendency t o elicit the older, tion of major importance in thefield of unwanted response. special-needs education.It has many divisions to includeTED (division of CP SEE: Cercbrol Pnhy teacher education) andDLD (division of CpU SEE: C~rltrti/Pt’OCt’SSitlg Ullif learning disabilities). It regularly pubCranial nerve One of 12 nerves conlishes the magazine R o c l r i q Exceptiorlnl nected to one sideof the brain (in other Clrildrcrr and the periodical entitled words, there are12 pairs o f cranial Escrptiorlol Clrildrcrl in addition to many nerves). The firstcrdnial nerve is conother publications. The home pagefor nected to the olfactory bulb at the front the CEC is ”Foundation for Exceptional tip o f the brain and nerves11-VI are Children” at http://cec.sped.org. respectively the optic, oculomotor, Counselingpsychologist A psycholotrigeminal, abducens, and facial. Cranial gist who is trained to work with individ- nerves VII-XII are connected to the uals who experiencemild psychological medulla at the caudal endof the brain (e.g., mild depression) and/or behavior and are respectively the vestibulo(e.g., truancy) problems. cochlear, glossopharyngeal, mgus, spinal accessory, and hypoglossal.

64

Craniosynostosis

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- Criterion-referenced t e s t

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CRF SEE: C O ~ I ~ ~ I IRrir!f;Jrcl,frfc,rrt UOIIS Sc/rl~tfIf11~

Crisis intervention room Frequently referred to as a "time-out" room, it is a separate area in a school where a student may goor be sent in order to calm down, compose oneself, or even to obtain counseling for a personal and immediate crisis. Once thinEs are returned to normal the studentis usually reintegrated into the regularschool mainstream. Criterion-referenced Rating the caliber of a student's test performance or work performance by comparingit with predetermined standards(e.g., curriculum texts). For example, a criterionreferenced assessment comment could read, "Jose could draw conclusions, sequence material, makeinferences, define vocabulary, and make predictions for 80 percent of the materi'll i n his grade-level reading basal." Based on this informal criterion-referenced assessment, it is logical to assume thdt Jose should do well in his content-area reading subjects. Predetermined standards for criterion-referenced measures arc often derived from the scores of a large standardization group; in that case, the term "criterion-referencecl" is synonymous with "norm-referenced."

Criterion-referenced assessment Assessment based on locally established l e ~ ~ eofl smastery. A student's performance is in reference to the local criterion or level established and notto the performance of others. SEE: c-ritc,r.iorrrl;h.rl~ficc,ll, f~l~r.ffl-rl~r.~~lfl~~~~l

Criterion-referenced grading The

..

.

assessment of each student's success, according to how well she/lw mastered the objectives of the curriculum. Criterion-referenced test A test designed to measure a student's achievernent/kll0wledge in an academic area based on locally established standards. It determines what level o f achievement the student should master and thus what the student has learned and still needs to learn based on the locally established needs andstandarLis. SEE: ~~l~rtt~-r.c:F.r.cricf,lf fcst

65

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Critical instruction Cultural-familial retardation

Critical instruction A type of instruc-

longitudinal research approach, which involves repeated observations o f the same subjects over a period of time. Crowding The belief that one’s space or territory is violated or too restricted Critical pedagogy A current philosowhen persons areplaced too close phy that suggests reconstructinga new together (less than 18-24 inches on society through the useo f critical thinkaverage). ingskills. It is another and more current Crystallizedintelligence Thatportion term for ”reconstructionism.” SEE: of the individual’s intelligence that is ~L~co~~st~lrcticlrlisrlr acquired from education, training, and Critical period A period of developexperience. ment in the young in which learning of a CS SEE: corrrfitiot~ctfs t i m l t / I r s particular type is maximally sensitized. For example, about 12 hours after hatch- CSF SEE: Cf’l’c’h‘OsfJiffO/Flrrid ing, a young precocial bird (e.g., chick or Cue words Key words or word phrases that cue the learner into the meaningof duckling) will learn the visual form and something. For example, cue wordsin a the typical sound of its mother and math problem (e.g., “the difference” or begin to follow the parent bird around. “altogether”) assist the learner in choosSEE: swsitirw /~[~riod ing the appropriate algorithm to solve Criticalreading Reasoning, interpretthe problem. ing, and predicting whatis read in order Cued speech A metllod o f communicato evaluate presented reading material. tion for the hearing impaired in which Critical thinking One’s ability to anagestures are used in combination with lyze situations by using logic and reaspeech reading. These hand signalsclarsoning skills. ify sounds/words that are identifiable Cross-categorical definitions A sysby not reading alone, thus providing tem wherein students are grouped the speech/necessary additional according to the severity(severe, moderinformation. ate, mild) of the exceptional need in the Cueing The provision of a stimulus that areas of behavior or learning disorders. sets the stagefor ‘3 particular response to Thus, students are notcategorically be successful. grouped according to themajor excepCulturalapproachto labeling In tionality in the traditional way, such as effect, categorizing students in accorvisually impaired, mentally retarded, dance with the standards of normality of learning disabled, etc. their given culture. SEE: dril(’/OfJrffL’fltO~ Cross-curricular A term used in educaOj?)ll’LXIC/l t0 /OfJf’l;llg tion to indicate the studyof material by Cultural bias The notion that one’s using a unit, topic, or theme approach valid wherein multiple academic areas or dis- own cultural values are the most for society. ciplines are included,(e.g., math, science, writing/composition, social studCultural-deficit model The view that ies, and multicultural studies include etllnic/minority students fail to learn content all related to a unit on “Howto academic subjects as well as other stuBecome Good Citizens”). dents becausetheir cultures are educationally inadequate m d fail to Cross-sectional research An approach prepare them for good academic to designing research in developmental performance. psychology in which separate samples are taken of people o f different ages. The Cultural-familial retardation An outresponses of all of these subjects are dated term that applies to theexcepobserved and recorded at the sametime. tional child, indicating that the condition This approach contrasts with the tion that promotes the development ofa questioning attitude on the part ofteachers and studentsalike, with a focus on the ”why” of learning.

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66

Cultural label or labeling - Curriculum compacting _ I _

might be a result of both genetic factors and sociocultural conditions.

Cultural label or labeling A system wherein the standards of normality are defined relative to the social structure or culture of a particular group. Cultural literacy Core knowledge of the people, traditions, places, events, language, and concepts of a particular culture.

Cultural pluralism A way of describing societies that are made up of many different cultural groups (e.g., AfricanAmerican, Hispanic, Asian, European, Indian, etc.). The individual ethnic groups maintain their cultural identity while at the same time they contribute to a unified whole (e.g., United States). Cultural transmission A theory promulga ting that behaviors of various types are taught and passed on to succeeding generations in the same manner as are one’s culture and traditions.

Culturally compatible classrooms Classrooms in which the teaching methods and subject matter do not clash with the students’ culturally acquired learning styles and social customs. Culture The beliefs, traditions, habits, and values controlling the behavior of the majority of the people in a social/etluiic group. These include the people’s way of dealing with their problems of survival and existence as a continuing group. Culture-fairor culture-free tests Tests that supposedly eliminate or greatly reduce cultural bias in their content (e.g., SOMI‘A) . SEE: Sysf em of Mzi It iczr lt zf r d PI ii r d is tic Assessment Curie, Marie (Polish-born chemist, 1867-1934, married to Pierre Curie) 1. Discovered polonium and radium. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics with her husband in 1903 and she alone in chemistry in 1911. 2. Curie: the standard unit of quantity of a radioactive element such as radon (named after Marie Curie). Current dollars These are basic dollar amounts that do not include any cost-ofliving or inflation adjustments.

Current expenditures The required expenses for operating 1ocaI public schools that do not include capital outlay (i.e., building schools) and interest on school debt. These expenditures include such items as salaries, busing transportation, school maintenance, school texts and supplies, and energy costs. Current expenses The cost expenditures that are necessary for daily school operations and maintenance. Current Index to Jourrrals in Edircntioii (CITE) A periodical published through the ERIC network that keeps educators current on various topics/issues covered in the various education-related journals. CIJE is published on a monthly basis and a cumulative index is published at the end of each year. SEE: ERIC Curriculum Educational objectives that are applicable to a specific academic area or area of study. SEE: core ctirricul i i m Curriculum adaptations Changes or modifications to regular curricular activities/materials which suit the individual learning styles and needs of the learner. For example, a curriculum adaptation for a blind student might be a ”talking book.”

Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA) An evaluative testing method whereby student performance is evaluated by giving students sample items from the curriculum of their school from which they have been taught. Thus, this type of assessment determines if the students are learning what has been taught in their school rather than comparing their performance with national norms that do not necessarily reflect the curriculum content of the school. Curriculum compacting A system that allows gifted and talented students to move ahead. The normal time for regular academic instruction is reduced to make additional time available for enrichment and advancement of the curriculum. The process involves three basic steps: 1. determine what the student knows prior to instruction, 67

I

Curriculum development

=522

- Daily living skills

2. arrange to briefly teach any remainingCustodial A common term usedto concepts or skills not understood, and describe the category as well as the 3. provide the student with academic needs of a seriously retarded person or experiences that enrich or advance one’s student. Thatis, one whoseIQ is below curriculum. This three-step approach is 35-40 points and is seriously lacking life an exampleof ”curriculum compacting.” and self-care skills and adaptive behavcurriculumdevelopment neprocess ior. Even basic needs require special care and supervision. of planned development/evolvementof Custodial student A student who curriculum pedagogy/instruction/ presentation modes thatis ongoing and requires institutional care or constant reflective. Continual self-assessment and supervision becauseof severely dehabilongoing change allow teachers and itating psychological,social, physical, or schools to achieve major goals and speemotional conditions. cific objectives. CVS SEE Chorionic Villi Sampling Curriculumframeworks Guides for cyanosis A blueskindiscoloration creating/implementing curriculum, caused by a lackof oxygen in the blood. classroom assessment procedures, proCylert Also known as pemoline, a psyfessional development,etc. chostimulant drug used to treat AttenCurriculumspecialist Aprofessionallytion DeficitDisorder (ADD) and trainedpersonwhoprovidessupportive Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivitymsorand consultative servicesto regular der (ADHD).SEE: ritalin classroom teachers and special needs Cystic fibrosis A type of inherited disteachers in the area of curriculum develease that resultsin a reduced life span opment and implementation.SEE: and an intensificationof symptoms. Rescwriarlum piratory problems necessitate daily treatGushing's SFdrome (Harvey cushing* mentsanddigestiveproblemsalsohave Americansurgeon, 1869-1939) A disease to be addressed. that results from hypersecretion of the CytomegalicInclusion (CMN A adrenal cortex. It may be caused by a tumor of the adrenal gland. Symptoms cytomegalovirusinfection in newborns. It is a condition that is transmitted to the include fatigue, weakness, impotence, fetus from a mother. This herpes virus edema, diabetes mellitus,obesity, skin rarely causes problemsin the newborn, discoloration, excess hair growth, and but whenit does produce illness usually other physical as well as psychological death results. problems.

Dailylivingskills Thosebasicskillshygiene,independentliving skills,vocational orjob skills, social skills,and needed by a person for self-help socior eta1 living. These include but are not limited to grooming and personal

68

skills needed to travel and live independently.

-

Daily response t o reading Decibel (dB)

Daily response to reading A technique

Deaf-blindness A termused to

describe a disorder wherein the person has hearing andvision impairment at the same time ortogether. Deaf-mute A term sed to describe d student or person who cannot speak or hear. DEAR An acronym usedin language arts that standsfor the “Drop Everything And Read” program. Debriefing An ethicallyrequiredprocedure for experimental psychologists doing research in which deception of the research subjects is part of the experiEdlrc.r7tiorr mental plan. The subjects are informed, after the study hasbeen completed, Dark adaptation The optical process by about the true nature and purposeof the which the eye adjuststo a dimly lit enviresearch. The debriefing process allows ronment. After the dark-adaptation the psychologist to deal with any process, the individual is sensitive to doubts, fears, and/or misuncierstandvery faint lights (so faint that they ings that thesubjects may have develwould not be noticed in broad daylight). oped during their participation in the DAT SEE: D;ffirc~rti(~l Aptifdc,n~t experimental procedure. Data-basedinstruction A method o f Debt service The repayment of princiacademic assessment that employsdaily pal and interest on loans incurred by or weekly measures of the mastery of school districts. particular skill areas. For example, in mathematics, a teacher might give daily DEC talk (DEC-Digital Equipnlent Corporation) A speech synthesizer to be math problcms toassess fact or concept mastery. added to a computer; manufactureci by Digital Equipment Corporation. Day-care center (or Child-Care Center) A place, school, or institution thatcares Decay The gradual weakening of memfor young children who are either not ories as timepasses. yet in school (prc-schoolers) orschoolDecay theory A view of the forgetting age children during non-school times process as the gradual fading awayof such as after school, school vacations, physical memory traces (engrams) summertime, etc. stored in the brain. De facto segregation Actual or real Decentering Placingthefocus of segregation that exists with or without instructional efforts on more than one go\wnment,ll sanction of any kind. SEE: aspect of a subject at a time. d c , jlrr.1. sc:\rcy7tiorr Decentralization A situation in which De jure segregation The segregation of authority and responsibility are delestudents because of school policies, gated to subordinates. The central laws, or other go\wnmentalpractices authority or supraordinate allowsthose intended to segregate based on race, sex, lower in the chain of command to bein or other attributes (e.g., until recently charge of certain things as determined apartheid in South Africa). by the central authority (sometimes it is Deaf Having a severe hearing loss to a collective decision). the extent that understanding speech or Decibel (dB) One tenth of a Bel, it is a hearing sounds via the ear aloneis relative measure of the loudness or impossible, with or without sound intensity of a sound. amplification (e.g., hearing aid).

used in reading instruction wherein on a daily bdsis students react in writing to the daily reading(s).Responses may involve journals, logs, and group responses in writing to thedaily readings. Dame school A type of early elementary school in which the children were taught by a housewife or other untraincd woman in one’s own home. This occurred during colonial and postcolonial times. DAP SEE: D ~ ~ 7 ~ c ~ l ~ ~ y r r r cAppropri~ztc~ rrt~?ll!/

69

--

Decile Degrees of freedom

Decile This is a marker for every suc-

Deep structure The underlying, essencessive 10 percent of a set or population tial meaning of the printed page as of scores. A decile represents anyof nine opposed to the grammatical ,mangescores on a test or other behavioral meament of the words or surface structure. sure such that, between any two adja- Defective syntax A condition in which cent deciles, 10 percent of the subjects a student or person hasdifficulty may be found. Below the first decile putting words together to express meanmay be found thelowest-scoring 10 pering and ideas.Sentence structure and cent o f the subjects. Between the first grammar are adverselyaffected. SEE: and second deciles one may find the s?/iltox second-lowest-scorilng 10 percent of the Defensemechanisms Freuddiscovsubjects, etc. ered that peopleoften have characterisDecision making The act of examining tic but unconscious ways toprotect their several possible behaviors and selecting” ego orself against anxiety-provokingsitfrom them the one mostlikely to accomuations or strongfeelings of anxiety. The plish the individual’s intention. Cogniparticular defense mechanism one tive processes such as reasoning, planadopts becomes characteristic of her/his ning, and judgment are involved. personality. These defense mechanisms Declarative knowledge Knowledge of include denial, repression, projection, the facts; ”knowing” that something is fantasy, regression, reaction formation, true. The type of knowledge tested by identification, rationalization, intellectualization, displacement, and sublimathe Information Subtest on theWechsler tion. The use of defense mechanisms is Intelligence Scale for Children (revised) considered normal as they help everytaps into declarative knowledge. one cope with daily stressors.However, Declarative memory A part of longwhen used to anextreme, defense mechterm memory. Declarative memory conanisms are considered maladaptive. sists of memories of facts. It has two Deficiency needs The four lower types subdivisions; namely, episodic memory of needs in Maslow’s motivational theand semantic memory. ory. These needs must besatisfied before Decode A term used in language arts one can attempt to satisfy the higherand reading to meana student has received a phonetic or language message level needs. Defining attributes Thosedistinguishand extracted the appropriate idea or ing features that are common all to items ideas from the message received phonetbelonging to a given category (e.g., all ically or in print. SEE: d t ~ o d i ~ l g women can be defined by certain attribDecoder Any electronic device that perutes that distinguish them from men mits closed captions to be seen on a teleand vice versa). vision screen. SEE: closcrf cnptiorls Decoding This is the extracting of ideas Degree An award (e.g.,bachelor’s out of the phonetic code or language we degree, associate’s degree, high school diploma, doctoral degree,etc.) conferred receive. We are, in effect, receiving a by a high school, college, university,or message. I n regard to reading. decoding other educational institutionas recogniis that print-to-speech match that relies tion forsuccessful completion of an outon one’s recognition of phoneme/ lined program of studies. grapheme correspondence and ability to Degree-seekingstudents Students combine such correspondences into enrolled in courses for credit who havf whole words. been formally accepted by the institution Deductive reasoning Alogicalproceas seeking a particular degree (e.& masdure wherein one reasonsfrom generaliter’s program) or formal award. ties to arrive at specifics. It is the Degrees of freedom This term is the opposite of inductive reasoning. SEE: index that is used to look up table valirhctiw ~cnsol~it~~y 70

Deindividualization - - -

- Dendrite

level of proficiency indicative of a perL I ~ Swhen interpreting inferential statistison much younger. cal tests. When using parametric tests like the t test, degrees of freedom relate Delinquency A term normally used to directly to the number of subjects/obserdescribe a youth and/or teenager who vations studied. Nonparametrictests violates the norms o f behavior of a soci(e.g., chi square) use degreesof freedom ety. The behavior may alsoviolate laws to represent the numberof categories as well as traditions. LIS~LI in the analyses. Degrees of freedom Delirium tremens Also known as trousually appear in parentheses after a stamomania, it is a psychic disorder charactistic. For example, t (2,23) allows the terized bv trembling and visual as well practitioner to read the f table at 2 and as auditory hallucinations. It is fre23 degrees of freedom. quently accompanied by raving and/or Deindividualization The process by incoherentspeechand found commonly m which inciividuals within a group amongst habitual and chronic users of become less aware of their separate peralcohol. It is often improperly referred to sonal identities and becomeless personas delirium tremors. ally concerned with how they and their Delusion An irrational belief that a peractions will appear to other persons or son will defend with great determinasociety in general. tion even though there is little or no eviDeinstitutionalization Refers tothe dence to support sucha belief. TIILIS,a placement of individuals with disabilidelusion has noreal basis in reality. ties outside of hospital and otherresiDementia (senility) A state o f deterioradential types of institutions into more tive mental capacity. It is normally part homelike settings ( e g , apartments for of the aging process as in the case of persons with disabilities). senile dementia andis progressive. Deism The view that God exists and is There is a loss o f memory, especially for the source of natural and moral law. A short-term or recent events, coupled deist holds, however, that organized reliwith occasional attacks of excitement gious services are not necessary and a and disorientation. person need not adhere to any formal Demographics Thestatistical data sed religion. George Washington and to describe or profile a society at the Thomas Jefferson were deists. international, national, regional, state, Deja vu This is a French phrase meancity, town, or local levels. The data ing “already seen.” It refers to a subjecincludes information aboutrace and/or tive feeling that one has already encoun- ethnicity, family, gender, education levtered some objects, persons, or scenery els, occupations, culture, etc. Thus, a despite the fact that the objects, persons, general societal picture of the population and scenery were never experienced studied is formed. before. Denasality A conditioncharacterized Delayed language The inability of a by a deficiency of air passing through student or person to develop his/her the nasal cavity, thus creating a voice speech and understanding of a language resonance problem. in a timely and normal fashion. Dendrite A fibrous extension of a neuDelayed response task A task which ron or nervecell. A dendrite is thickest the subject is required to perform based at the cell body and tapers down asit on a signal given some timebefore continues away from thecell body. It in arrival of the opportunity to act. This turn gives off branches that arealso tests the subject’s ability to hold a signal tapering in shape. Since this is much like i n memory and act on it later. the arrangement of a tree and its Delayed speech A condition wherein branches, the dendrite getsits name the student or individual speaks at a from the Greek word ~ k v u f r o jmeaning ~,

71

Denial

- Descriptive research

”tree.”Thedendrites are the messagereceiving fibers of the neuron. Denial A defense mechanism whereby an individual does not acknowledge threatening feelings. Deno’s cascade A hierarchy of seven service placement options that range from regular classroom participation with no additional support services to homebound and hospital programs. Level 1-exceptionaichildren-in regular classrooms with or without support services; Level 2-regular classroom plus additional instructional assistance; Level 3-part-time special class; Level 4full-time special class; Level 5-special schools within the public system; Level 6-homebound; and Level 7-hospital, residential or total care placements. Dentine or dentin The main tissue of the tooth that surrounds the inner pulp and is covered by the hard exterior enamels. SEE: eiznrrzel, pulp Department of Education (ED) Refers to the U.S. Department of Education, a cabinet-level agency that establishes federal education policies, finance policies, program providers, etc. Dependent variable The variable measured during a scientific experiment. In psychological research, the dependent variable is almost always some kind of response. The dependent variable may * (or may not) increase or decrease in accordance with changes of the independent variable. SEE: iizdeyendent variable Depolarization The activation of a neural impulse by the conversion of the normal (resting)potential on the membrane of a neuron’s axon from a positive to a negative charge. The normal resting voltage is a considered a state of polarization. Therefore, changing it would be a depolarization. SEE: excitntory synapse. Depressant A drug that lowers mood and slows behavior. Depression A lowered mood-state, feeling “blue” or ”down in the dumps.” It may be situational (appropriate to a grief-causing real-life event), neurotic (relatively mild), or psychotic. The latter is referred to as “major depression” or

”clinical depression;” the patient must be put under medical care, as he/she may be a threat to the welfare and survival of oneself or of others.

Depth model A model that identifies gifted individuals through measures of achievement. This model requires only one criterion for giftedness (e.g., a high IQ). Depth perception The perception of the front-to-back distance of an object from the observer. The observer judges how far in front the object is. DES SEE: Diethylstilbestrol

Descriptive-correlational-experimental loop A research schema that involves 1. observation to identify variables worth exploring, 2. the study of relationships among the variables, 3. finding statistically significant correlations, and 4. using teaching procedures that are based on such established data. Descriptive data Data used to objectively describe a student, school day, school climate, etc. Typically, information is gathered and categorized or classified in some way (e.g., types of schedules available for students, the number of students present on a given day, professional development offerings available for teachers, etc.). Descriptive positivism The position in analytic philosophy that only descriptions of observations are acceptable statements in natural science. Even the abstract results of inductive reasoning, such as the hypothetical concepts of the atom or the electron, are rejected as nonsensical. The early twentieth century advocate of this view was Mach. Induction of general laws (statements of relationships among sets of observations) was the only logical procedure acceptable to descriptive positivism. The originator of the viewpoint was Sir Francis Bacon. A modern psychologist who attempted to work within the framework of this approach to scientific practice was B. F. Skinner, the behaviorist. SEE: behaviorism, logical positivisin Descriptive research The systematic recording of observed behaviors. The

Descriptive statistics

observer may have a prearranged data sheet as a checklist, or may write longhand descriptions of what he/she observes; alternatively, the observer might use some combination of the two. Descriptive statistics Statistical measures of various facts about the numerical data yielded by a research study such as a survey or experiment. Examples of descriptive statistics include the mean, mode, median, range, and standard deviation. SEE: inean, mode, median, riinge, standard deviation Descriptive video service A type of service offered by public television , stations to individuals with vision impairments. The service provides an audio narrative to important visual information. Desegregation A position that opposes racial segregation with efforts made to eliminate any segregation.Some white suburban school systems, for example, have programs that allow for the busing of African-Americansand other minorities into their school system so as to promote integrated schools. This is one method for desegregating schools. Desktop publishing Producing written and/or graphic material of a high quality and in publication format with a microcomputer (desktop size). Special software is required for desktop publishing. Detective Q Squirt A cognitive approach developed by Spafford in 1993. SEE: cognitive approach Detention The retention of students during school at times usually devoted to recreation (e.g., recess) or after school because of school or classroom infraction(s). Determinism The assumption that human events have observable and measurable causes. Most psychologists hold a deterministic view of human behavior. Development Systematic and adaptive changes of body and mind that the human being undergoes in the period from birth to death.

- Develournental label or labelina

Developmental aphasia A disorder of language in young children characterized by impairment of the formulation, use, and comprehension of written or verbal language. This partial or complete loss is caused by damage to the brain. SEE: ayhasin

Developmental approach to labeling In effect, categorizing students or children in accordance with what is considered normal growth and/or development. SEE: cllvltziral approic~zto l a b e k g

Developmental bilingual education SEE: rnaiizterzance bilirzgiinl educatiori Developmental crisis An emotional conflict arising during development that prepares one for the emergence of a new adjustment to the environment. Developmental delay A term used in special education and in general to indicate a delay in a student’s progress when comparing the student with her/his peers. Developmentally,the student is doing less than expected and is not up to par with others in such areas as cognition, self-core skills, language and communication, physical ability, social growth, etc. Developmental disorders Severe delays or disorders involving the acquisition of developmental skills in the areas of cognition, motor, language, and social or any combination thereof. Developmental dyslexia A form of reading disability that is acquired at birth and follows a developmental progression of the disorder. Generally, individuals with developmental dyslexia evidence more language manifestations (e.g., spelling errors, word recognition errors) of the disability with increased age. As the individual gets older, the reading problems increase. This is also known as the “Matthew Effect.” SEE: dyslexia, Matthew Efect Developmental label or labeling A system wherein labeling takes place based upon the difference in development of the child under study or diagnosis as compared to abnormal development of the average child.

-

-

Developmental model Dexedrine - - - - -

w _

.

Developmental model 1. In education,

Developmental psychology A special

this is an approach based on certain standards of so-called normal development. It is also referred to as the developmental milestone assessment model. This approach posits that children develop abilities and skills in a sequential manner (not necessarily age related). Thus, children can be compared to these developmental milestones to see if they are indeed developing in accordance with what is expected for a normally functioning child. If not, the curriculum is modified so that the students can progress in a sequential order (regardless of chronological age) from the mastery of lower-level skills before going on to the next higher-level skill. 2. In psychology, stages of developmental growth that are tied to a particular perspective or field. For example, Freud described five stages of psychosexual development: (1)oral stage (birth to 1 year), (2) anal stage (1-3 years), (3) phallic stage (3-5 years), (4)latency stage (age 6 to puberty), and genital stage (after puberty). Freud believed that one’s personality evolved during these overlapping stages of development. Kohlberg developed a theory of moral development (i.e., the evolution of one’s moral reasoning abilities) that also involved stages of development. Level 1: obedience, punishment orientation, and naive egotism emerges; Level 2: authority control results in “good boy” or ”good girl” orientation where children seek to maintain the approval of adult figures (moral standards are blindly accepted);and Level 3: one’s morality is a reflection of internal standards that are embraced for the good of one’s self and society in general. Developmental period As defined by the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), it is the period that covers birth to age 18. Developmental placement A system of placing students into a grade level that is not based on their chronological age but instead considers a student’s academic achievement, physical and mental development, social competencies, etc.

field of psychology that studies the changes in behavior, emotion, language, and intelligence of people as they pass through the various stages of life from birth to old age. Developmental retardation A term used to describe a delay in a student’s progress that is not a result of a learning disability, mental retardation, or some such factor but, is instead a result of psychosocial causes such as poverty, abuse and neglect, malnutrition, and other environmental factors. Developmental task A task that arises at or about a certain time frame in one’s life (e.g.,walking at age 1).

74

Developmentally Appropriate Education (DAP) Those educational programs and methods that are intended to match the needs of the students in the areas of cognition, physical activity, emotional growth, and social adjustment. Deviance Behavior that is different and not in conformity with the accepted norms of the day. When behavior or psychological deviance or abnormalities are noted, social and cultural factors dictate what is considered abnormal. What is considered deviant in one culture might be commonplace in another. Even within one’s own culture, what is considered normal in one situation (e.g., laughter and the telling of jokes, eating and drinking, and dancing at a party) might be considered deviant or unacceptable in another situation (e.g., a church service). SEE: dez$mf Deviant A term used to indicate a student or person who is different from the norm. The individual’s behavior is usually inappropriate as concerns socialization and interpersonal relations. Deviation IQ A score on an intelligence test based on a comparison of the individual’s performance with the average performance of other persons in the individual’s age group. Dexedrine A stimulant drug; trade name for dextroamphetamine sulfate. It is used to combat mild depression and

df - Diagnostic teaching

has also been used as an appetite suppressant. Its value as an appetite-control tool is not medically accepted. SEE: i i t d iiz df SEE: degret.s qffreedom Diabetes SEE: diribc?es iizellitirs

Diabetes mellitus A chronic health problem wherein the pancreas produces an inadequate supply of insulin. As a result, the body is unable to properly metabolize fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. This incurable genetic disorder is characterized by sugar in the urine (glycosuria), elevated blood sugar (hyperglycemia), excessive urine production (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and increased food consumption (polyphagia). It can lead to low resistance to infection, poor circulation to extremities, cardiovascular problems, and disturbances of vision. Treatment includes insulin therapy and control of sugar through a proper diet. Diabetic coma A medical condition caused by a severe lack of insulin available to the body, resulting in an excessive production of acetone. An abnormal deep stupor occurs and the individual is unconscious. SEE: diiihetes mellitzis Diabetic retinopathy A condition resulting as a spin-off from unchecked diabetes. A poor blood supply to the retina can lead to blindness. Diagnose To identify a student's strengths and weaknesses in learning, perhaps with a hypothesis added to account for the particular pattern of strengths and weaknesses exhibited. Formal and informal assessment measures should be gathered before making any diagnostic decision. SEE: diogizostic lflbel Diagnosis The process of identifying student strengths and weaknesses in a number of areas following the identification of a problem (e.g., learning disability, school failure, or psychological distress). Informal and formal measures of assessment are used to obtain a wellrounded view of the child's academic/ social/psychological functioning. Additional sources of information

include cumulative records, parent input/interviews, psychological profiles, and medical information. The diagnostic process should be ongoing and subject to change/modification. A presenting question(s) or hypothesis(es) ( e g , "I believe that this child is learning disabled") should be related to assessment instruments chosen with the goal of academic and/or social/psychological improvement. SEE:foriiral msessnzeizt,

iizfornzal assessmerit Diagnostic label A label given to an individual (e.g., learning disabled, mentally retarded, etc.) after a careful analysis of assessment information and the presenting problem(s). Diagnostic labels should be based on specific criteria abstracted from reputable systems in the field such as the Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (revised) (DSM-IV).SEE: diagnose, Dicrcqiiostic mzd Statistical Maiizial of M e n f d Disorders, IV (revised) ( D S M - W ) Diagnostic prescriptive center A special facility in which children are placed in order to determine their special needs and individual educational plan. The placement is usually on a short-term basis.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (revised) (DSM-IV) A manual currently published in its fourth revised edition. It deals with general as well as specific information concerning mental disorders. This is a multiaxial assessment system that includes five diagnostic axes: clinical syndromes, personality disorders, general medical conditions, psychosocial and environmental problems, and global assessment of functioning. The DSM-IV is used to diagnose psychiatric problems, learning disorders, learning disabilities, psychological conditions, etc. Diagnostic teaching Instructional practices that incorporate knowledge of student strengths and weaknesses, changing developmental characteristics, and social/psychological/emotionalneeds/ interests/attitudes in order to provide an optimal learning environment. A

75

-

Diaanostic t e s t

- Differentiated curriculum

focus is made on early intervention and prevention of learning problems. Diagnostic teaching usually involves both formal and informal measures of assessment. SEE:fornzal msessmeizt, informal

assessmeiit Diagnostic test A test aimed at detect-

-

ing an individual’s weaknesses or identifying any specific learning disability. Some diagnostic tests are groupadministered while others are given individually. Diagnostic tests differ from survey tests or achievement tests in that they key in on specific skills like vocabulary knowledge, phonemic awareness, spelling proficiency, etc. These formal measures of assessment are most often norm-referenced. SEE:forrtzd assessment,

izortn-refereliced Diagnostician A trained person qualified to administer, score, evaluate, and interpret the testing of students in order to determine areas of strength and weakness as they relate to a finding of special needs (e.g., school psychologist). This highly qualified specialist is able to assist in setting educational goals and plans for the students tested. Dialect A language variation. Dialects are usually influenced by history, culture, ethnic, and regional factors (e.g., English spoken with an Hispanic, German, Italian, or Southern accent and such English as Cajun, Black, Elizabethan, Patois, etc.). Dialects usually vary in three ways: 1. the phonology or how people produce certain phonemes (e.g., in South Carolina, fee/& is often the pronunciation used for fish), 2. grammatically or the sentence structure (e.g., in Puerto Rican English dialects, verbs often precede nouns), and 3. lexically or the meaning of what is spoken (e.g., a toilet is known as a ”john,” ”flush,” ”lav,” ”restroom,” etc. depending on the location/dialect spoken). Dialectic 1.A term used to describe the conflict between one’s personal desires and needs and those of the collective society. 2. The conflict that results when opposing views, opinions, and beliefs meet.

Dialetical materialism The philosophy of history developed by Marx. He used Hegel’s dialectic but imposed it upon a metaphysical foundation of materialism. Dialogue journals Journal-writing diaries that require students to write to one another dialoguing what they are reading in a type of book-chat format. Diaphragm A musculomembranous wall that separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity. Breathing requires the activity of the muscular component of the diaphragm. Diathesis-stress viewpoint A theory of the development of emotional disorders stating that the emotional/ behavioral problems are the result of an interaction between biological/ constitutional factors and environmental stress factors. Dichromats Individuals who inherently can detect only two of the three primary hues (colors). Diethylstilbestrol (DES) A synthetic estrogen taken in the past to reduce the risk of a miscarriage. The use of DES may result in vaginal or cervical cancer in females and female offspring and testicular cancer in male offspring. It should not be taken during pregnancy. Difference threshold Also known as the just-noticeable difference (jnd), the difference threshold is the smallest amount of change in stimulation that can be detected by the senses. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) A particular standardized test of vocational aptitudes, it covers such areas as mechanical reasoning, clerical speed, clerical accuracy, and arithmetic ability. Differential pay Refers to the awarding of extra pay or incentives awarded to education professionals on the basis of merit. Differential psychology That field of psychology studying the ways in which individuals differ in emotionality, personality, intelligence, and physical traits. Differentiated curriculum A curriculum that allows for content mastery and in-depth learning as well as the investi-

76 I

Differentiated education - Directed Reading Activities (DRA) gation of concepts and issues. SEE: &feyerztiated rdzicatioii Differentiated education Normally meant to indicate an educational curriculum that is suited to the needs, abilities, and interests of gifted and talented students. However, programs for special needs students are also usually differentiated depending on the requirements of the Individualized Education Plan (IEP). SEE: r w Differentiated staffing The determination of educational positioning of staff so that optimal use is made of their aptitudes, interests, education preparation, and experience. Difficulty index A descriptive feature of an individual item on an objective test. The item's difficulty index is the proportion of pupils who have answered the test incorrectly; the more students who get the item wrong, the tougher the item must be. Digital grasp The act of holding or grasping an object with the fingers (digits) only, rather than the entire hand. Digitized speech Recorded speech in a digital format used in electronic communica tions and especially by computers. Dignity of risk The concept that taking ordinary risks is part of a child's normal development. Taking chances is part of growing up and is to be expected in children as normal behavior. Digraph Two letters that represent one phoneme such as "th," "cl," and "ai." Dimensional classification A system of classifying behavior disorders that statistical analyses show tend to occur under similar circumstances. This typing or classifying group disorders of behavior sharing similar characteristics can be used when prescribing treatments. Diphthong A vowel sound followed by a (w) or (y) sound as seen in "oy" "oi," "ow," and "ou." It is a colliding single syllable sound like the "oy" in "toy." Diplegia A condition that involves paralysis of the same or similar part on each side of the body. SEE: pnrnplegia

Diploma A document attesting to the completion of a formal course of study by a student (e.g., a high school diploma). Diplophonia Two or more simultaneously present tones or pitches when one speaks. This can occur when one needs to clear one's throat of saliva globules or it may be of a more permanent nature and indicates problems dealing with the vocal folds (cords). Diplopia A condition of seeing two images when presented with only one, often called double vision. SEE: polyopin

Direct instruction/explicitteaching Instruction provided by an active teacher in the ways to perform particular types of skilled action. This type of instruction is well suited for math and reading. The teacher structures lessons, develops strategies for solutions to problems, and selects examples for students. SEE: direct teachirig Direct observation A research method in which an observer records and times the activities of the subjects, without any manipulation of the subjects' environment. Direct teaching A type of instructional practice whereby the teacher directs and structures the classroom environment. Typically, subject matter is presented in a developmental manner (i.e.,scopeand-sequence)with student practice and teacher evaluation/feedback following lesson presentations.

Directed Reading Activities (DRA) (similar to DRTA approach) The primary instructional approach used in many basal reading programs. Students are prepared for the reading task by building/activating background knowledge; setting a purpose for the selection at hand; guiding student readings in the form of questions; discussing questions following readings with a focus on main ideas, details to support main ideas, character development, etc.; encouraging rereadings (especially oral readings following silent readings); reinforcing vocabulary usage and fluency; and providing extension activities that involve

77

Directionality

- Discrimination index

word analysis work, vocabulary usage, comprehension development, literature extensions, writing, and other such skills development. SEE: basd reader approach, Directed Rediq-Thiizkiiig Activity (DRTA) Directionality A term used to classify one’s ability to recognize direction. For example, front and back, up and down, left and right, etc. Disability An inability to perform physical or mental tasks which one can normally be expected to do. Usually more severe than a disorder, it involves loss of physical functioning and great difficulty in learning and/or normal social or growth development. SEE: disabled, disorder Disability rights movement An advocacy movement for individuals with disabilities with a focus on 1. guaranteeing the constitutional rights of individuals with disabilities and 2. affecting legislation that improves the life situations of individuals with disabilities. Disabled A student or individual that has a disability (usually more severe than a disorder) in contrast to a disorder. SEE: disabdify, disorder Disarticulation A term used to describe an amputation through a joint of the body. Disc Record-player-type plastic discs that are used in a computer. They are usually produced in two sizes, 3.5 and 5.25 inches and store information to be used in a computer. Discs can be floppy (bendable) or hard (not bendable). Recently, compact discs composed of metal have been adapted for use with computers. These discs resemble compact discs for audio systems. Discipline A branch of learning that trains the mind and character (e.g., academic discipline = humanities; behavior discipline = behavior modification). Emphasis is upon self-control or management of one’s behavior/learning in the context of what are considered appropriate actions. Discourse Conversation or the ability to communicate orally.

Discovery learning A type of instruction preferred by Jerome Bruner in which the student is required to work out basic principles of learning for himself /herself. Discrepancy analysis An educational assessment procedure wherein the tester first identifies activities to be analyzed. The student is then observed performing the skills needed to effectively participate in the activity. The tester then records whether or not the student has performed the skills effectively and independently. Results are then analyzed, discrepancies are noted, and conclusions drawn. Discrepancy formulas Formulas used by local, regional, or state educational agencies to identify the discrepancy, if any, between a student’s actual achievements and the student’s expected achievement based on that student’s known Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Discrepancy scores The scores used by some school systems and/or state educational systems in order to determine eligibility for special services designed for students with disabilities or mental retardation. For example, some schools will accept students who score below the 30th percentile in reading for special education services or assistance in reading. Discriminate 1. To respond appropriately to a given stimulus and refrain from responding to a similar (but inappropriate) stimulus. 2. To deny access to equal opportunities under the law (e.g., an education) based upon a person’s gender, sex, race, or ethnicity. Discrimination 1. To respond in different ways to different stimuli that resemble one another to some extent. 2. A condition wherein it is concluded that an individual or group has been denied legal rights under the Constitution. Although not in constitutional violation, it can include unfair practices, educational or otherwise, to an individual or group. Discrimination index A descriptive feature of a test item on an objective test. The discrimination index is given by the

Discrimination learning

similarity between the proportionof students answering theitem correctly and the proportion scoringwell on the whole test. A biserial correlation coefficient between the two setsof scores (item and total test) would be an exampleof such an index. Discrimination learning A type of conditioning that may be identified as a variety of either classical (respondent) conditioning or instrumental (operant) conditioning. In classical conditioning, the ability of the conditioned stimulus (CS) to elicit the conditioned response (CR) is transferred to other stimuli that have some resemblance to the CS in the process known as generalization. One of these is selected as a stimulus to be presented in contrast with the CS. For example, if the CS is a strong light and the response is salivation, the contrasting stimL~lus(e.g., a weaker light) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US) while the CS is presented to the subject along with theUS. The animal then learns to continue to respond to the CS but to withhold salivation to the other stimulus (the one usedfor contrasting) when given the other, generalized stimulus. This result is a learned respondent discrimination. In operant conditioning, the pressing of a lever, for example, may bring thesubject a food reinforcement. If the set-up is changed s o that pressing the bar whilea light is on is followed by reinforced bar-pressing but pressingthe bar when the light is off is not followed by food reinforcement, the subject learns to work on the lever while the light is on and to stop working on thelever when the light is off. This outcome is a learned (operant) discrimination. Any generalization that occurs will have to follow the discrimination learning, in the case of operant discrimination. Discriminative stimulus A stimulus that, in operant conditioning, sets the stage for a given operant response to be reinforced. In the absence of the discriminative stimulus, such responses are not reinforced. The organism learns to make the response only when the discrimina-

- Dissociative disorder

tive stimulus has been presented.For example, some students will study only in the presence of a television o r radio. The television or radio can be a discriminative stimulus. Disequilibrium According to Piaget, an unstable condition that develops when the individual learns that his/her approach to problem-solving is failing to yield a solution. Disfluency A condition in which words are spoken in a halting or pausing manner. Frequently the speaker backs up and zi552 repeats or revises what is being said. The most often encountered fluency disorder is stuttering. SEE: t;trrtter.i/r,y Disorder In education, a term used to indicate a malfunction of a physical or mental activity. Usually less severe than a "disability." Disorders can be physical, mental, or psychological. DisorganizedschizophreniaThat variety of the psychosis known as schizophrenia in which the patient exhibits very bizarre responding, incoherent speech, and the disintegration of his/her personality. Disparagement theory The view that the effectiveness of humor derives from its allowing the audience tofeel superior to others. Displacement 1. A personality defense mechanism that involves directing one's behaviors or motives to another person or object. For example, if one is angry and kicks a chair, the anger is displaced to the chair. 2 . A feature of language that allows one torefer to events andobjects that are notin his/her immediate environment. Dissociation A separation of components of the mind or personality that are usually integrated. In extreme cases, there may betotally separate streams of consciousness, as in the multiple personality disorder. Dissociative disorder A seyaration of the emotions and/or memoriesfrom the rest of the componentsof the mind or personality, especially the parts that remain accessible to conscious awareness. Examples of dissociative disorders

79

Disruptive behavior disorders

- Diversity

include hysterical paralysis or amnesia over a relatively long time period, Icavand multiple personality. Each of the ing room for resting between practice defense mechanisms (e.g., repression, trials. This seems to improve theretenreaction formation, or denial) involves tion of the newly learned information or some degree of dissociation. skill. Disruptivebehaviordisorders Behav- Distribution The form or shape a ior conditions involving difficulty in group of scores takes in a group under plying attention and attending to tasks study. A "normal" distribution takes the (e.g., direction taking, socializing and/or shape of the normal curve while interacting with others, taking turns,lis"skewed" distributions canbe rc'pretening, reacting: to negative situations sented by asymmetrical curves. Extreme wit11 aggression, etc.). scores (very high andvery l o w ) fall either at the upper end (positively Distal The area farthest from the center, skewed mean or the meanis greater the outside. than the median and mode) or at the Distance education The use of lower end of the distribution (negatively telecolnlnullicatiolls to present live skewed mean or the mean is less than instruction to a student not physically the median and mode).A negatively present but actually a long distance skewed distribution looks like the left away. An example odd be the use ofa half of a cursive "m" and a positively telephone link for the audio component skewed distribution looks like the right of a class or a television broadcast for half of a cursive "m." both audio and visual learning. Such Divergentlearning Learning that services are necessary for students with involves more than one answer,perspecterminal medical conditions (e.g., cantive, or point-of-view. For example, there cer) and other conditions that prevent is more than one way to study. on-site school participation. Distance senses Senses such as hearing Divergent questions The types of questions that d o not have a simple and \,ision that alert LIS to information right or wrong answer. beyond/outside of our bodies. Divergent thinking The style of thinkDistinctiveness The extent to which ing in which the indi\riciunl considers a the individual bellaves in a consistent variety of possible problem solutions. In manner in various settings. divergent thinking, one's thought Distortion This occurs in speech when processes are not confined to linear the individual alters speech sounds paths (as in deductive logic). although 'ittempting to say the phoneme Diverse instruction approaches E ~ L I or word correctly, such as "shumtime" cation practices/progr'lnls which recoginstead of "sometime" or "brlu" for nize cultural/gender/syecial needs "blue." issues/problems/nee~is. Distractability A condition of "mental Diversity 1. In the most general sense, wandering" wherein a student or person difference or variety. 2. Individuals is continually distracted and responds to whose ethnic heritageis different from the various extraneous stimuli about the mainstream culture. 3. Students with oneself and is therefore unable to really special learning challenges with no outattend to the relevant stimuli and thus ward physical disabilities (e.g., the unable to focus on the matter at hand. learning disabled).1.Students with Distractor The technical term for any of physical disabilities or challenges (e.g., the incorrect choices presented with an the hearing orvision impaired). 5. Stuitem on a multiple-choice test. dents who conw from diffcwnt socioeconomic/home backgrouncls. 6. Students Distributed practice Havingone's with varying religious hackgrollnds. rehearsal of a learning task or 7. Students with unicpc \~alue systems. practicing o f a new motor skill spread

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Dizygotic

8. Gender/age differences in classroom situations. Y. Individuals within a particular culture/race/ethnicity who differ in other ways (e.g., general category = Hispanic-Americalls-within the general category = Mexican-Americans differ in ‘1 number of social/cultural ways from Puerto Rican Americans). 10. Students considered to bein minority categories established by the census bureau or other such agency(e.g., AfricanAnwricans). 11. Students with developmentcll differences within the same age/grade (e.g., children will learn at various learning rates andwill display various learning styles).12. Individuals with different emotional adjustments or emotional diversity (e.g., differing social skills, differing responses in interpersonal interactions, and unique family interactions). Dizygotic (twins) A term used to dcwribe twins who are productsof two separate eggs. Doctoral degree The highest academic degree conferred by an institution of higher learning such asa college or university, including Ph.D’s in any field, doctor of education, doctor of juridical science, doctor of public health, doctors o f medicine-M.D.’s etc. Dolch list A popular sight word listing used in primary classrooms to assess reading d>ility. Domain-specific knowledge Information that is useful in a given situation or is appropriate to just one subject matter. Doman-Delacato Thetheoreticalschool o f thought that would treat learning disability by supervised retraining of motor activities, including the ones acquiredin early infancy. One assumption is that learning disabilities result from the incorrect acquisition of sensory-motor coordinations during early childhood; a second assumption is that this incorrect learning can be cancelled out and replaced by the correct response patterns. Most authorities in the field of learning disability do not accept this theory. Dominant genedgenetic traits Genes re the Lmsic units of heredity. Heredi-

- Double ditiaociation of function

tary traits arecontrolled by gene pairs. Each pair may be dominanto r recessive or may contain one dominant and one recessive gene. A dominant gene will express its effect without assistance from its partner. Dominant genes override the effect of recessive genes. If one parent has a dominant gene for a specific trait (e.g., hair color), then there is a 50 percent chance that this traitwill be passed on to all offspring. SEE: r c w s s i r ~

pxes/pretic fmifs Door-in-the-facetechnique

A negotiating strategy in which one beginshy presenting a demand that will almost certainly berejected. After the expected rejection, the negotiator introducesa more modest request, hoping that the other party will now be more ready to comply with this more reasonablelooking suggestion. Doppler effect It is the raising and lowering of the pitch of a sound as it approaches, passes, and moves away from the listener. For example, an emergency vehicle with a wailing siren passing by. Double-aspect theory The view that reality is basically very complex and largely unknowable. Humans, however, are able to gainlimited knowledge of two aspects of the complex whole; namely, the material and the mental. This outlook is a monism in metaphysics (i.e., it holds that the universeis one complex reality) but a dualism in epistemology. We are able to knowmaterial things and mental things. Two supporters of the double-aspect view were Spinoza and Fechner. SEE: dlrnlisru, cyist[wloloxy, idealism, m t c v d i s m , m c t q d y s i c s , rwrlisrll

Double-blind technique

Acontrol procedure used by psychologists when doing experiments. Neither thesubject nor the experimenter who records the subject’s responses is awareof whether the subject has been given the experimental treatment or thecontrol condition. This procedure rules outboth subject bias and experimenterbias. Double dissociation of function A demonstration that a given function,ll 81

Double-entry jounral

- DSM-IV

problem is linked wit11 specific damage to a particular part of the brain. It involves collecting data on people with damage to either one or another of two parts o f the brain. Thesesubjects are given two behavioral tests, each of which is supposed to depend on one (but notthe other) of the two parts of the brain involved in the study. The result is a double dissociation if each type o f brain damage is shown to correh t e with just one functional disorder and not theother. Double-entry journal (Vaughn, 1990) A type of journal, diary, or recording method with two facing pages allocated per entry. The left page is reserved for the initial response to a writing prompt (e.g., illustrate or write about Independence Day). The right p g e allows students to consoliciate and apply this knowledge i n personal way (e.g., What does it nwdn t o be inciependcnt?). This allows students to think about what will be read and then to organize what has been learned. SEE: j o r r r r ~ n / Double hemiplegia A condition of p1rdysis of the body on both sides but one side is more dffccted than the other. SEE: / w ~ I i / d q y i r ~ Down syndrome (1. Langdon Down, British physician, 1828-1896) Caused by ‘1 nondisjtlnction of chromosomal pairs;. Formerly referred to as “mongolism,” ‘1 term now not preferred.Also known as “trisomy-21.” I t is a congenital condition o f moderclte tosevere mental retardation that Llsu‘lll!i but not always affects the 21st set o f chromosomes. The infant has 17 (the 21st pair has an extra chromosonw). It is characterized by a sloping forehead and oriental appearance of the eyes, a nosc that is flat, and generally a short and dw,lrflike appearance. SEE: t l ~ [ l r l ~ / ( l c ’ ~ l t i ~ l~f l/ ,l ~ ~ l f l l ~ Jl f~ l ~O J~ f~ l 7l i l ~~~, i S f l l

DRA SEE: Dire~e-ldR d i r r g Actiivitic’s Dream A fantasy occurring during sleep in which a series of visual images p s s e s through thc sleeper’s awareness. Usually, these \isuaI images occur during the r\at~id-Eye-Movenlent(REM) St
82

Drill-and-practiceprograms

Computer or non computer programs that provide a learner withexercises on which to practice his/her skills. Drive An arousal or nwti\re that is initiated by some biological need such as thirst or hunger. When the need is met, the drive is reduced. Drive-reduction theory The theory that all behrlvior is motivated by the reduction of drives aroused by various types of biological needs.

Drop Everything And Read (DEAR) In language arts, a philosophy and method of teaching students to read for extensive periods of time. Thissystt.m employs silent readingfor the students and allows the teachc,r the freedom to work with individuals, groups, and to hold conferences. SEE: S w t n i r l c d Silrwt RendirrS ( S S R ) , Llrlirrtc.rr~r~~tl.tl Slrstnifrcd S i l l ~ i l tRlY7rlirlg ( U S S R ) Dropouts Individuds who do not complete a diploma or degree program(e.g., high school dropout/college dropout).

DRTA or the Directed ReadingThinking Activity A rexiing techn i q w that focuses on developing independent and ‘lctive thinking strategies. Students make predictions about the ideas and conceptsof snlall portions of text based on headings or topic selltences. StuJcnts read the sc~gment to confirm o r amend their predictions. The cycle of predicting and confirmingo r proving is continued throughout the A~ti~iti~~ reading. SEE: Dirc,ctcd Rcndir~rrtn/L)i%~rrfc’r~ [V (r<’zliscd) (DSM-IV)

”

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Dual marking system

A system of giving t w o grades, one for achievenlent and one for effort. Dual sensory impairments Thisterm typically applies to students or persons with seriously impaired sensory loss in the areas of vision and hearing. It includes persons that are both blind and deaf. Such sensory impairments create educational and developmental difficulties and can result in serious communication problems. Such persons may require extensive educational support from tr‘lined specialists. Dual-track system Refers to an outdated European tradition of providing separate b u t equal schools for various groups/classes of students. Dualism Thenletaphysical belief that there are two typesof reality in the world. Some things belong to the realm of the material ,1nd other things belong to the realm o f the mental or spiritual. Champions of the dualistic viewpoint were Descartes and Leibnitz, who each had a particular way of accounting for the relationship between each segment of reality. For Descartes, the materal interacted with the spiritual; whereasfor Leibnitz, the nmterial and the mental worlds each had to follow separate but parallel courses. SEE: irrtcractiorrisrr/, ~rr&~p/rysirs,v m i s r r l , p r d l d i s r ~ ~ Duchenne’s disease Guillaumc B. A. Duchennc, French neurologist, 1806-187.5) A form o f muscular dystrophy, it is hereditary and affects children between one andsix years. This disease o f progressive muscle deterioration is considered a fatal disease. SEE: rrrrrscrrlnr d!/~fl’cJ~~/l,l/

Due process With respect to special

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Dual marking system Dysarthria y

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any student to appeal educationaldecisions and placements. SEE: Goss 71. Lopz Due process hearing A hearing that is a noncourt procedure atwhich parent and school personnel in disagreement appear. When thereis disagreement each party has an opportunity to present its side of the case to an impartial hearing officer for resolution. SEE: d l r c / w c ~ ’ s During reading strategies In language arts, an activity or strategy (e.g., relating picture cues to paragraph sense orrelating what is read to previous similar experiences) that relates to what is being read by the student in sucha fashion asto enhance the student’s understanding of the reading material. Dyad reading A language arts term that describes readersof unequal o r equal ability being paired and assigned a reading task. The first student finished reviews the materialsilently until his/her partner is done. One studentis designated as the ”recaller” and the other “the listener.” The recaller summarizes the reading aloud while thelistener clarifies and comments during the summary. Thus, both students discuss, debate, and internalize the reading as a team and conclude together what strategies, skills, and knowledge havebeen learned. Dyadicrelations Relationships that occur between two persons.It can also be a relationship of two parts. Dynamicassessment Sometimes referred to as a variation of the ”testteach-test” model, it is an approach wherein a teacher integrates a student’s readiness to learn withdirect and immediate instruction. In effect, a test-as-yougo-along approach.The teacher gets immediate feedback using this approach. Dynamico r ongoing assessment has been recommendedfor use with students who comefrom diverse backgrounds.

needs and nonciisabled students, it is a set o f legal procedures established in order to guarantee an individual’sconstitutional rights and/or appropriate educational opportunities. It gives the student (depending on age) and/or the Dysacusis A condition of the inner ear parent a n opportunity t o become wherein a student or person has diffiinvolved in the consent to an educaculty understanding speech. tional e\raluation and decision for placeDysarthria An impairment in speech ment in a special education program. processing involving muscular Due process also protects the rights of

83

Dysbulia - Dystrophy or dystrophia myotonica

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functioning of the articulatory, phonatory, and/or respiratory processes. Dysbulia A condition characterized by an inability to fix one's attention. The student has difficulty thinking and paping attention. Dyscalculia A type of learning disability wherein a student or person has great difficulty o r an inability to calculate/perform mathematics. Dysfluencies Interruptions of thepatterns o f speech are frequently seen in youngchildrenduring theirspeech development process and are considered part of normal speech acquisition. Dysfluency The inability of a student o r other person to speakeffortlessly in 1' smooth and/or flowing manner,quickly and without hesitation. Dysgraphia A conditioncharacterized by an inability to write properly. It can be caused by a brain lesion and is commonly a result of poor small or fine muscle control, which results in poor handwriting. Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific type of learning disability involving a severe impairment in reading ability that affects and disrupts 1' person's language development and functioning.It is estimated that at least 2.625 percent to 5 percent (and perhaps even more)of the entire population suffer from dyslexia, whic11 is the most prevalent type of learning disability. Spafforcl and Grosser cite three distinctive subtypes ofdyslexia (noting that thereis no consensus in the field as to a definitive classification system): 1. a visual-dyspllonetic type, 2. auditory-linguistic type, and 3. a mixed type with symptoms from both I . and 2. Current research supports academic inter\vmtions related to the reading and language problems associated with dyslexia. It is believed that dyslexia is

84

caused by neurological anomalies that are either enhanced or intensified by environmental and social factors. Correlating behaviors of dyslexia include but are not limited to delayed language development, verbal deficits, deficits in phonemic awareness, a familial history, gross motor problems, sequencingdifficulties, oral reading miscues, written expressive language deficits, spelling errors, reduced reading rates'1s children and as adults, time anddirectional confusions, less on-task behaviors, attention problems, less independent behaviors, poor study skills, social behavior problems, memory deficits, and less followthrough. Not all incii\~iduals with dyslexia will display all of these symptoms. Most individuals with dyslexia, Ilowever, evince several o f those listed. Individuals can ask questions ,Ibout the subject matter o f dyslexia on the Internet bulletin board of the Orton Dyslexia Society (ODS) at "llttt~://~~~is.o~g.ll Dysmenorrhea A term used to describe painful and/or irregulx menstruation. Dysphasia The impaired ability o f an individual to c,lll out o r write out '111 appropriate word when given a visud or auditory signal to do so. Note tlwt dyslexia can bc viewed as a specific example of a dysphasic condition. Dyspnea Labored brcuthing, shortness o f breath, lack of air, difficulty with breathing, etc. SEE: stridor Dyspraxia The impaired ability to make a specified kind of motor response. Not<' that dys,1rthria c ~ be n viewed as a specific example of 1' dyspraxia.

Dystrophy or dystrophia myotonica An Ilereditary disedse involving the wasting away of the muscle tissue.The term is sometimes used as ther name for lnuscular dystrophy.SEE: I I I I I S L . I I ~ [ ~ ~ d!/StTO/J/l!/

A!!

Early phonemic spelling In language arts, the early useof the correct letters Educational programsfor children with for sounds. It is the developmental stage special needs; thatis, children who difof spelling fer from the norm and when school age that follows the earliest stage called “prephonemic spelling.”It is would more than likely not progress characterized by short strings of letters, effectively in regular school programs. one tofour, wherein single letters are The early childhoodclassification covers used to represent sounds in words or children from nursery or preschool age whole words.While spellings are very to kindergarten (usually age 5). In some incomplete, consonants are used to states like Massachusetts early childexpress initial sounds and final sounds hood programs encompass prekinderas well. SEE prephonemic spelling garten or nursery school through grade three. SEEearly childhood education, speEarwax Also known as ”cerumen,” it is cial children or special needs children the waxy substance deposited in the auditory canalof the outerear. Early-exit transitional programs Bilingual programs that use the individual’s Eastern philosophy A philosophy that native languagefor part of the instrucin practice was established in the Near tional programfor less than two years. East, Middle East, or Far East areasof SEE: late-exit transition programs the world. These philosophies emphasize mysticism, proper attitude, reducEarly infantile autism An autistic contion of stress, tranquility, and the inner dition expressed at a very early age peace of an individual. These philoso(from infancy) wherein the child seems phies, the rootsof which are steeped in unable to come outof his/her shell, so the inner world rather than the outer to speak, and has great difficulty or is world, are spread throughout the East in unable to relate to things outside such countries as Arabia, India, China, himself/herself. SEE: autism Japan, etc. Early intervention Preschoolservices Eating disorder Conditions that for disabled children who are infants involve fear of eating, misunderstanding and toddlers ages0-3. Preschool ages of one’s body image, poor nutrition, (3-4) are sometimes included in early intervention programs as well. Such binge eating,and/or weightloss from comprehensive services usually include abnormally eating too little (anorexia) or . educational assistance, social or psycho- deliberate regurgitation (bulimia). SEE logical assistance, and health care or anorexia neruosa, bulimia nervosa medical services. Ebonics Also known as AfricanAmerican language, African-American Early multiwordcommunication A vernacular English, andBlack English, type of communication where children or persons use very basic word combi- Ebonics is a term that blends the words nations in a primitive manner, such as “ebony” and “phonics” into what is ”daddy cook,” “mommyfix roof,” ”me known as a second language for people drink soda,“ etc. Most of these verbalizaof African-American descent. There are tions are characterized by the use of two some basic linguistic differences or three words and sometimes four. between what is known as “mainstream American English” and “Ebonics,”

Early childhood special education

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Early childhood special education Ebonice

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Echo ”

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- Ecological assessments ”~

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Ecological inventory

- Education web site

Educated citizenry The goal of

‘1 society t o provide its citizenry with e c l ~ ~ c a tional opportunities so that a l l members arc productive participants. Teclmology today has provided the nleans for global resourcing via the Internet. For example, T/IC G/(Jh?/~ C / l ~ ~ ~ d call / l ~ lbL‘ l ~accessed S ~ ~ 011 the World Wide Web a t : http:// W W W . gsh.org/ and allows texhers to ciisc~ver/accessrcsourct‘s that connect the classroonl to the Internet. To visit the Internet, teachers need only a modem, m x s s to
Education expectationleducability A category that describes the probable level o f educational achievement of A stucient. It is a prediction of the educational boundaries a student is expected to operate within. Educationforcareer Special educational programs that a r e geared toward preparing ‘1 student for post-secondary schooling and/or careers in ‘1 vocational sense. Education major A specialty area in which a student‘s program concentrates on subject matter relating t o the field of education as well as fulfilling the basic college requirements for a degree. For example, a student preparing t o become an elementary teacher would concentrate on courses needed in order to g a i n experience and knowledge in elementary education.

Education of All Handicapped Children Act A special education act passed by Congress in 197.5.SEE: I!L. 94-742, P.L. 707-476

Education web site

Multimedia sites within the Internet that pruvide text/graphics/sound/video/itlter~lctive f[~rmats/animationso as to simulate real-life situations ancl transform the learning environment intoa dynamic, motivating, interactive, current, and extended network o f knowledge and information sharing. World Wide Web p g e s have their own addresseso r web sites written in hypertext Inarkup IC1l-,guage (HTML). For example, http://www.nmia.conl:HO/-cl.nm is the

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Educational blindnees Effective schools L

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address for "Doc's Education Resources Pages," a K-12 web site that contains lesson plans for teachers in all subject areas and information for students from current events to the arts to the classroom. SEE: Apprrdis 4: Currlprto' Terms Educational blindness A term used to describe students whoneed to use braille for reading. SEE: b r ~ ~ i l l ~ Educational integration The combining of students with disabilities and/or those in need of special educational services in the regular classroom setting with non-special-lleeds students. Educational inclusion is also referred to as "mainstreanling" or "inclusion." SEE: rrloirlstrc,nrrrirrg, ir~cl~rsior~ Educational lockstep An educational approach to grade-level placement that is based upon the chronological age of children only. For example, all students who are 10 years old are to be placedin grade five. There is no exception or consideration given to otherfactors that might affect grade-level placement.

Educationalmalpractice

Neglect by a teacher (whether found legally guilty or not) in the performanceof his or her duties as an education practitioner(e.g., abuse of a child). Educational park Refers to a type of architectural style involvinga large campus-like school facility with several units housing a variety of facilities. Often thew school facilities contain many grade levels and programs with rich cultural resources. Educational placement Thearrangements made for a student's education in regard to her/his classroom setting. For example, placing a student in a regular classroom, in a special needs resource rmm, in a vocational school, in a day or residential school, etc. Educational psychology That field of psychology that concerns itself with the search for the most effective teaching methods, the most appropriate tests of academic aptitudes, andthe testing of achieved knowledge. Educational psychology draws on thepsychology of

88

learning and memory, developmental psychology, psychometrics, and statistics.

Educational synthesizer A teaching system that includes supportiveservices within the regular classroom setting. The teacher arranges for a special service delivery to a student 'IS part o f the student's regular day asin the case of speech or physical therapy services, etc. No pull-out is required. Educational Television (ETV) Usually broadcast by stations outside of the school system especially for consumption by the general public and at various times of the day and night. Programsof an educational nature are broadcast. Schools are also ableto receivc such broadcasts. Typically, public television stations generate such broadcasts. Educational vouchers A type of payment or grant that represents the cost of educating a child(ren) for a school year. Parents o r students are given permission for out-of-district/school placements and payment vouchers are givento the accepting school. Educationally blind A term used for any student who rcquires braille reading materials in order to be capable of learning. SEE: I v d l r Educationally disadvantaged SEE: stlrd(wts at risk Ed7unrds v.Agrrilnrd The 1987 Supreme Court ruling that overturned the practice of presenting a balanced view of creation with Biblical and scientific concepts. The Court ruled that the teaching of the Biblical creationist view was llnconstitutiollal in that the Louisiana state statute ruledon was not religiously neutral. The statute clearly had the purpose of advancing a religious doctrine. EEG SEE: E/~~ctl.oc~rfcc'~J/l~/~grL7~~l Effective schools Effective schools are those schools responsive to the learning styles and needsof students served within a safe, nurturing, interactive, and positive environment with students achieving maximum learning gains as

Effective schools

measurcd by standardized and authentic (e.g., portfolios and observations)assessments. Adciitionally, effective schools respect the diversity o f thc population and stri\,e to eliminate prejudice/bias. liesearch has genc~rallyshown that effective schools: I , develop clear goals and mission statements; 2. employ site-based decision m,lking with parents, teachers, administrators, professionals, the community, andstudentscooperative partners i n defining the school agenda; 3. use curriculum guides or frameworks and specific and varied teaching ~~rinciples/m~thocls/nlaterials based on pr~wenresrarch in the field; 4. incorporate multicultural education/activities throughout the school day; 5. view parents as partners in the education process; 6. provide an emphasis on basic skills (academic-English, math, spelling, science, social studies, the arts, foreign languages, etc.);life-communicating a mcssagc effectively, interrelating appropriately, working in group/team situations, ctc.; 7. reflect friendly, orderly, and disciplined school environments where beha\rior expectcltions are clear; 8. conncct with community orgmizations/ incii\~iduals/programs and maintain posititre community relations; 9. hatre well-m'lintained buildings/clean f acllttles/good ."' breC1kfast/lunch programs; 10. continually self-assess/assess Iearning/social @>ins;the school environment; te,lclling/services, etc.; 11. develop continuity regarding instruction '>cross thc various grade levels; 12. dcvelop curricula that reflects interdisciplin'lry conncctions; 13. develop instruction based on the needs/learning styles of all students; 14. have adequate supplies and updated learningmaterials; 15. provide consistent and immedi,1te feedback t o students; 16. keep classroom interruptions to a minimum (especially school announcements, students releases, ctc.); 17. pro\ride professional devclopment opportunities to Jiscuss new/proven behavioral/ multicult~~ral/teacIling methods/ tn,ltcriaIs/strategies; 18. provide services/ g"idance/programs in areas where students need support

- Effective teachers

(e.g., music directors,coaches, drug/alcohol prevention programs, and conflict resolution programs); 19. provide incentives o r recognition for ajob well done, good behavior, etc.; 20. hold high expectations/standards forall learners; 21. use technology in the classroom and plan to give computer and Internet access to all students; 22. provide career preparations/guidance/ foundations; 23. key in on interest levels/motivation of students served both academically and in extracurricular offerings;and 24. strive to develop wellrounded and contributing/productive citizens. The US. Department of Education provides information andresources that allow sclmols to impleu~~ent/initiate school reform efforts. As examples, "The Role of Leadership in Sustaining School Reform: Voices from the Field" can be obtained via the World Wide Web at: http:// www.eci.gov.pubs/Leadership/; "Middleweb" delves into the issues and challenges of education reform efforts at the middle school level in urban settings and is available on the World Wide Web at http://www.middleweb.com. Effectiveteachers Effective teachers are reflective lifelong learners who are enthusiastic, positive, nurturing, responsive, and dedicated to the o\wallwellbeing of the studentsserved. Research has shown that effective teachers carefully develop and structuretheir lessons and continuallyassess student progress, providing feedback every step of the way. During lesson presentations, effective teachers solicit/provide probing questions and clarify directions '1s well as initiate learning prompts, learning cues, and learning examples.Larger tasks are broken down into smaller components and organization formats/ study-skills training encourage independent learning tooccur. Good modeling/ demonstration behaviors providenecessary learning assists. Teaching prerequisite skills and background buildingprovide necessary learning foundations. Effective teachers areable to key in 011 those students whoexperience learning challenges and can adaptthe learning environment to meet the unique

89

Effective teaching

-

- Elective mutism

challenges of all children. Effective Egocentrism An inability to view realteachers also are resourceful and keep ity from the st‘lndpoint of another perabreast of technology changes/usages. son. This is the limitation of the child in Internet sites like ”Teams Distance the preoperational stageof cogniti\re Learning Site” at http://teams.lacoe.edu growth in I’iaget’s theory. from the Los Angeles, California Office Ego-involved learners Studentswho of Education give additional resource monitor their own progress, judge how Internet sites that containlesson ideas well they are doing, andcheck on how and project and unit planning that allow others rate their performmce. teachers to gain up-to-date information Egoism The tendency to do what is best and new classroom strategies. Similarly, for oneself, regnrdless of the impact of “ERIC Lesson Plans” at gopher:// that action upon others. SEE: nltrrrisr~r ericir.syr.edu//ll /lesson is designed for K-12 level teachers in all curriculum Eg-rule method A teaching technique that begins withspecific examplcs and areas. SEE: cf?ctive sdrools moves on from them to thc development Effective teaching Sometimes called of generalized rules. “effective schools or schooling,” it is a movement based on outcomes of educa- Eidetic imagery Also known ‘1s photographic memory, it occurs when the pertional research. Its main goal is to use son has a visual image clear enough to the research information to improve be scanned mentally and retaincci in teachers and teaching. memory for longer than 30 seconds. The Efferent neurons Neurons that carry individual with this ability can reconmessages from the brain and/or spinal struct a complex picture in full detail. cord to the muscles and/or glands. For example, a painting of a crowd Hence, efferent neurons are motor. (The scene can be shown toa subject for one antonym of t;ffcr(wfis #writ.) Efferent minute and then turned over. The subfibers go to the muscles and glands, ject is then asked to describe the paintwhich are the body’seffectors. SEE: ing as fully as possible. Individuals with flfl~rlw t this ability achieve remarkable accuracy Efferent reading A term used in readin doing such tasks. Thisability is found ing to describe an approach to reading mostly in children; it is estimated that where the readerfocuses on what inforeight out of 100 children possess eidetic mation needs to be acquiredfrom the imagery. reading. For example, ”What is the purEKG SEE: EI~’ctrocnrllic)grtl~~~ pose of and information to be learned Elaboration Adding to the meaning of from the reading?” or ”What are some a word or a passage by associating other probable actions or problem solutionsto bits of information to the already estabbe carried out asa result of the lished meaning of the word or passage. reading?” Elaborative rehearsal The reorganizaEgo 1. One of the three components of tion of newly learned material (e.g., personality in Freudian theory. The ego adding a mnemonic device toit), makis attuned to reality and mediates ing it more meaningful, andactively between the other two components; adjusting it to other memories. Elaboranamely, the id and the superego. The tive rehearsal allows the new material to ego permits a person to adapt to what be readily retrieved from storage at a might have been an unpleasant experilater time. ence. 2. A common term for self. SEE: id, Sli{JUl’gO Elective mutism A childhood condition wherein the child refuses to talk in spite Egocentric A term applied to an indio f the fact that he/sheis able to do so. vidual who assumes that other people The child deliberately chooses not to look at the worldin the very same way speak. that he/she does.

90

Electra complex

Electra complex In psychoanalytic theory, the female equivalent of the Oedipus complex. SEE: Oeiliprs conrplex Electroacoustic aids A general term to describe any electronic device that enhances a person’s ability to hear. For example, a hearing aid, telephone amplification for the hearing impaired, etc. Electrocardiogram (EKG) A medical diagnostic procedure involving electrodes attached to the patient’s torso. The voltage changes picked up by the electrodes reflect the ups and downs of heart muscle activity. This results in a record of heart rate that indicates whether the heart is beating at a normal rhythm or otherwise. SEE: lierzrf rote

resporzsr azidioinetry Electroconclusive Therapy (ECT) The treatment of mental disorders by administering an electric current to the patient’s head; the shock is applied either bilaterally (to both cerebral hemispheres) or unilaterally (to one hemisphere). A mild electric current is sent across the head from one ear to the other for 1/25th of a second. ECT will at times produce convulsions and temporary comas. Inasmuch as the current can destroy brain cells, this treatment is controversial. It is to be used only when medication and behavioral therapies have been attempted and have proven unsuccessful. Electrodermal audiometry A special technique used for testing the hearing of very young children or students who are difficult to test. It is accomplished by measuring skin resistance and reaction to controlled sound. Electroencephalogram(EEG) A medical diagnostic procedure involving electrodes attached to the patient’s scalp. The voltage changes that take place in the cerebral cortex of the brain are picked up by these electrodes. The rate at which the voltage alternates between positive and negative values is recorded individually for each of several head locations. Electronic mail (e-mail) This refers to a system of mail delivery that involves

- Emergence o f Common Man

sending messages, instructions, or information via the computer from a person, group, or organization to other individuals, groups, or organizations as well as to governmental agencies, etc. Elementary school An education setting / institu tion / priva te facility for children in grades (sometimes K) 1-6 or (sometimes K) 1-8. Eligibility determination The decision made by a teacher, a group of teachers, or educational professional in determining whether or not a student qualifies for a specific program or service. An example would be a determination as to whether or not a student has a special education need or if a student meets the criteria for placement in a gifted and talented program, etc. Elimination diet A diet intended to eliminate toxic chemicals from the dieter’s body. The Feingold diet is intended to serve as an example, or perhaps the model, for this concept. Elimination disorders A condition or behavior involving loss of bladder and bowel control (that is, wetting and soiling oneself) without any apparent physical problem. Elimination problems are considered disorders when they occur in older children beyond the age when control is expected (usually after the second year). SEE: eizuresis, erzcopresk Elitism Typically, this term describes a group that has been given preferential treatment, attention, and/or favor as a result of the fact that they are supposedly superior in some area of academics or performance. E-mail SEE: electronic iiinil

Embolism A common term used to describe an obstruction of a blood vessel by a clot or a foreign substance. Embryonic stage That portion of the prenatal life of the human organism from the end of the second week after conception through the eighth week. Before the embryonic stage is the germinal stage; the stage following the embryonic stage is the fetal stage. Emergence of Common Man The education movement usually associated

91

.

Emergence theory

-

- Enamel

with R ~ L I S S during ~ ~ L I the Age of ReaEmpathy The sharing of the experience son. This wasa time when the rightsof o f another person’s feelings, which the common peoplefor a better life (acamakes one morelikely t o behave with demically, politically, economically, and more than just sympathy and with true socially) were emphasized. Previous to understanding toward that person. this time, education opportunities were Emphysema Amedical condition charthought t o be open only to theelite. acterized by improper functioningof the Emergence theory The view that cerlungs, which creates sllortness of tain complex arrangements of material breath particularly during exertion; freobjects can lead to the emergenceof a quently, a condition related to persons qualitatively new phenomenon, the who smoke. mind. The ,wthorof this theory in its Empiricism The philosophicalposition original f o r m was Henri Bergson. He that emphasizes the studyof reality compared this idea to the mixture of two through observations and the scientific gases, hydrogen that pro,, .~ and oxygen, method. This positioll holcls that knowlduce the liquid HzO (water). This view edge is obtained through the senses. has been incorporated by Gazzaniga into Employment Work situationsinvolving his.modern version of mind-body intercivilian, noninstitutionalized persons actionism. SEE: El~isteltlolo,~l/, illfcractiorlism, ~ ~ ~ f ~ f ~ ~ r i d i s n ~ , v v f q h y s i c s such as: 1. paid work during any partof a week; work in a business, profession, Emergencycertificate A temporary o r farm; or unpaid work for 15 hours or certificate for teachers who have not met more in a family-owned enterprise, and all the requirements for certification. 2. employment in situations of tempoThese certificates are usually given rary absence becauseof deaths, births, when qualified teachers are notavailable illnesses, bad weather, vac,jtion, laborfor certain positions (e.g, bilingual teachmanagement problems or disputes, or ers, special education certified individuother personal reasons, despite the fact als, etc.). another job might be sought. Emergent literacy A reading and writEmpowerment 1. A term in education ing theory that posits thatif children are normally employed t o designate exposed to meaningful print thatis read teacher/parent control or pdrticipation to them and with them they will emerge in school decision-making. Areas of into readers and writers gradually on empowerment include b u t are not limtheir own. ited to curriculum development, selection of texts, school-disciyline policies, Eminence In education, a term used to selection of technology materia I:,L1 etc. describe superiorability. The concept of parent empowerment Emmetropic eye A synonym for a nornecessarily involves the formation o f mal eye. During refraction, parallel rays school-family partnerships where parfocus on theretina exactly. SEE: retim ents are viewed as equal partners in the Emotional lability Changes in mood, learning process of a student. 2. Student ~ ~ s u a lon l y a frequent basis. empowerment refers to the col1ccpt Bf giving students the skills/strategics Emotionallydisturbed 1. In education, needed to become better learners/school a term used synonymously with behavcitizens/family members. ior disordered. 2. Disturbances involving disordc7r one’s feelings. SEE: I~el~nzlior EMR SEE: Edncclblr Mt~tnll!/ Rt’tt?dd Empathetic listening Extracting the Enamel The hard exterior of the tooth emotional significance and inferring the a that surrounds the dentine and forms motivation associated with what somecrown or co\wing for the tooth. The one else says, then paraphrasing these ellamel is the body’s hardestsubstcltlce. inferred emotions and motives and SEE: pulp, dej~tirrr reflecting them back to the speaker.

92

Encephalitis ”

- Engle v. Vitale

-

Endocrine gland Any of the ductless glands that releases its secretion(s) into brain, either by a viral disease that the bloodstream rather than intoa duct a t t x k s the brain directly o r as the aftereffect of other infectious conditions such A glandular product released into the blood is called a hormone. The hor‘1s rubella, influenm, measles, chickenmones produced by the endocrine pox, cowpox, etc. glands help to regulate internal bodily Encephalitis lethargica Sometimes processes. The hormones are chemicd called “sleeping sickness” o r Econorno’s messengers that circulate in the blocxidisease, it is an infectious diseaseviral in stream to reach the parts of the body nature and is characterized by lethargy that they affect. and prolonged sleep. It is sometimes Endocrine system Those glmds th,lt called epidemic encephalitis. release their secretions (i.e., hormones) Encephalization Refers to the developdirectly into the bloodstreml. ing brain that increases in size, with higl1c.r brain areas taking over controlo f Endogenous Refers to something that originates from within. beha\rioral functions from lower areas. Encephalocele SEE: crrlrrirrrfr bifitfrrrrr Endogenous mental retardation A term used to describe rnentd retardation Encoding This is the process involvecl causes that originate internAy suchas i n expressi\,e language;in effect, the those caused by genetic abnormalities sending o f language messages. Framing and heredity. SEE: c ’ . w p I o ! ~ sr f w l r h f l the words o f ‘1 spoken phrase o r senrctnrdntiorr tence. SEE: c o d i f l g , t l c ’ d i f l g ,~ ’ I I S ~ ~ I I I I , lllc’lffor,l/frcfe-c,,f*c/loic.l ~ l e ’ l l f ~ l ricorlic y, IIIe’IIIEndorphins Opiate-relclted neurotransmitters in the brain that ‘ire invol\wi in ory, / i l l g r l i ~ t i cC O l f P , I l l o f o r C*Olft> the sensation of pleasure and pain. The Encoding specificity The law of memterm comes from “cwtfogenous ory specifying that the best retrieval of mol’/J/lilleS.” stored material occurs when the retrieval is done in the same environment asthe Endowment That part of an instituone in which the original learning (i.e,, tion’s income derived from donations. the encoding) of that material took Many private schools and colleges subplace. sist in large part on endownlent funds from alumni and other donors.SEE: Encopresis A lack of bowel control l~flt~~J~~~lllc’ll/fillltf~ resulting from incomplete toilet training rather than from disease or injury. Endowment funds Donations recei\,ed from a giver who designates that the Encounter group A type of group tllermoney principal is not expenciable. The a p y in which the members frankly use of the interest benefits an organimexpress their feelings to onc another. tion without depleting the fund. Such groups are employedby therapists of the humanistic psychology school. Engaged time The time spent by the student whileactively learning. Enculturation The process of acquiring a pxticular culture(s), whichis done in Engineering psychology Thdt field o f the home (informally) and atschool (forapplied psychology involving the use of mally c~nclinformally). psychological knowledge in the design of machinery, vehicles, and buildings, Endocrine disturbances Behavioral etc. It is also known a s human engineerproblems resulting from the malfunction ing or human factors engineering. o r absence of one of the endocrine glands. For example, some children with E?& ZJ.Vitale The 1962 Supreme Court ADHD are thought to have problems ruling that overturned the New York with their pituitary, thyroid, or adrenal State Board of Regent’s practice of using lc~ glC1llds. SEE: c ~ l l l f o c ~ r i lglclrltf prayers to open theschool day. The Court held that mandatory prayers

Encephalitis An inflclniniation o f the

93

131

English a5 a Second Language (ESL)

- Epicanthic fold

\.idated the First Amendment of the US.Constitution. English as a Second Language (E%) Bilingual education programs that are designed to instruct students whose primary language is not English. SEE: biljtzp f ? / Irnrrrus

accordance with specific criterid for services designated by the prograln requirements. Entity view of ability The belief that an individual’sability level is fixed a11d unchangeable.

Enuresis A lack of control of the bladder; especially beyond the age that cot?trol is expected and usually achieved. Normally children establish bladder control after the second year. A chilcl who feelsneglected may deliberately wet himself or his bed for attention. Also known asincontinence, lack o f bladder control may be a result o f urethral irritaEngram The physical basis of a memory tion, drinking excessive liquid, or of a in the brain. Sometimesit is referred to pathological or neurological basis such as a “memory trace.” as old age, diabetes, epilepsy, or even 22-22 Enrichment In education, a term that laughing, crying, or coughing. refers toa curriculum that allows any Environmental adaptationsChanges student but particularly thegifted and or modifications to the regular classtalented to expand their knowledge base room environment which suit the indiand their creative and thinking skills vidual learning styles and needsof the beyond what is regularly presented in learner. For example, an environmental class. adaptation for a student with cerebral Enrichment triadlrevolving door palsy might bea ramp or elevator model This model arranges for periaccess. odic participation in activities for 15-20 Environmental bias A point of view percent of the students in a class or that is subjective in nature ‘mi based school. It is a program designed to upon the social and cultural background encourage and developcreativity, thinkor environmentof the person(s) ing skills, and problem solving.In this involved. model, more students geta chance to plrticipate than in other programs Environmentaleducation In effect, studies that deal with ourenvironment. designed only for the gifted. In a typiAn analysis of causes and conditionso f cally designed gifted program, only such topics as naturalresource manage‘ h m t 3 percent of the students are ment, pollution, population growth, involved. The rotating approachof the energy, environmental waste, preserving enrichment triadlrevolving door model the earth’s atmosphere (ozone layer), obviously allows a larger percentage of and hazardous waste aresome but not students to benefit. all of the topics included. In general, Enrollment The total number of stuenvironmental education is concerned dents in a school or a school system. In with the keeping of the earth i n proper other words, the membershipof the environmental balance. school or system on any given day or EnvironmentalpsychologyThefield other period of time such as a school of applied psychology dealing with the quarter, semester, full year, etc. improvement of the physical environEntitlement program A state or federal ment (e.g., buildings, noise levels, air government program that funds any spaces, landscaping, etc.) in accordance institution (Le., school system) or indiwith known principleso f psychology. vidual who meets the requirementsfor Epicanthic fold A condition charactereligibility for such a program. Funds ized by a fold or flapof skin over the allocated and granted must be usedin EnglishgrammarschoolAn eighteenth-century privateAmerican school that was an alternative to the Latin grammar school. Theseschools focused on accounting, bookkeeping, navigation, engineering, and commerce skills.

‘94

-

Epiglottis - Escape learning I

statute. The Court ruled that forbidding illside corners of theeye. It is a vertical the teaching of evolution in the schools field o f skin extending from the root violated the First Amendment. of thenose to the middle end of the eyebrow. Epstein-Barr virus (M. A. Epstein and Y. M. Barr) A virus herpeslike i n nature Epiglottis A fold of cartilage that covers and believed to cause mononucleosis the glottis (the opening between the and Burkitt’s lymphoma. SEE: 1 1 1 o 1 1 o t / i / vocal folds in the throat) during swalc/rosis, Burkitt’s / ~ / J l l ~ / l O ~ l l l ~ lowing. It is located at the back of the tongue and prevents liquids orfood EqualeducationalopportunityThe from entering one’s airway. SEE: glottis legal and/or social premise that every student deserves the opportunity to Epilepsy A disordered br‘linexperience educational opportunities functioning condition characterized by that develop fully special aptitudes, talvarious types of orgmic, recurring, and ents, interests, and innate abilities withintermittent seizures or convulsions. out regard torace, color, nationd origin, Sometimes the personis rendered sex, physical or mental condition, or unconscious. The seizures area result of malfunctions o f thc brain’s physiochemi- socioeconomic status. cal dnd electrical activities. SEE: C O I I U J I / Equilibration The attempt to find a balS i ~ l l l ,s1~i:Irr.c~ m c e between one’s cognitive schemes and information obtained from the Epileptic A person with recurring tranenvironment. sient attacks of disordered brainfunctioning. A person with “epilepsy.” SEE: Equity The assurance that teachers and q l i l ~ p / students have equalaccess to programs, materials, and other educational or Epileptic aura The strange sensation opportunities. funny feeling experienced by epileptics just before an attack. SEE: r71rrr1,~ e ~ i ; ~ r r c ~ Erb‘s palsylparalysis (Wilhelm H. Erb, German neurologist, 184-1921) ParalyEpiphenomenalism The view thatthe mind is just a product o f the brain’s sis of muscles of the upper arms and activities. Although the mind seems to slloulders. Generally the arms hang be very real subjectively, i t has no ability limply atone’s sides with the hands rotated inward. Lost regular movement to cause events.In this view, the mind is analogous to the buzzing sound emitted involves the cervical roots of the fifth by an electric razor. The whirring blades and sixth nerves o f the spine. SEE: / ~ n I s y do the job of shaving, while the sound is ERIC The Educational ResourcesInforonly a side effect. SEE: ~ ~ r o t cv+ d i w ~ , mation Center or the US.federal infor~lll’~O/J/l,l/S~CS mation network of 16 clearinghouses. Epiphora A condition of obstruction of The various clcaringhouses provide the lacrimal (tear) ductsof the eye charinformation that relates to ‘111 x e a of acterizcd by an overflow o f tears. specialization (e.g., speci‘11 education) with computer access available in most Episodic memory One of the two college and area libraries.SEE: C11rrt’11f major parts of declarative memory. Illdc’l’ to ] o l r l ’ l f r f k i r r E d l r C r 7 t i o r l (CIJE) Episodic memories are for particular events that haveoccurred in the individ- ERPs SEE: E i ~ c / l t - R t ~ l o/t’dO ~ C ~ J ~ ~ O / S ual’s life. These memories are the most Erythroblastosis fetalis A condition in easily lost in retrograde memory. which there is an Rh factor imcomp‘1tiEpistemology The branch of philosobility, which results in the destruction of phy that deals with the natureof knowlred blood cells in the fetus. Bilirubin, an edge and how we obtain knowledge. orange-red bile pigment, is secreted. Untreated, this condition will cause Eppersorl v. S t & of Arkansas The brain damage. 1968 Supreme Court ruling that overturned an Arkansas antievolution Escape learning That form of 1e;lming in which the correct response is

95

ESL - Ethnicity

-

reinforced by the removal ofa harmful stimulus such as a very loud noise o r an electric shock. Escape learning and avoidance learning are two typesof operant conditioning by negative reinforcement. ESL SEE: E/rg/id~ns n Secor~dL011pngc Esophagealspeech Analternative method o f speech used by persons who have had a laryngectomy (removal of the larynx). Air is swallowed into the top of the esophagus and shaped into words as it is ”burped” out. The speech produced is low-pitched and guttural and the amountof speaking is limited

from teaching religion. SEE: Appcwfis 2: LL:\.Ol

Et’lllS rllttf ISSflPS

Estimated pregnancy rate An esti-

mated pregnancy rate that is m~1thematically derived from tlw sum o f births plus abortions plus miscarriagcsas a percentage of a total population (e.g., pregnancy rate o f a particul‘w high school, pregnancy r,lte o f a particular community, ctc.). Miscarriages ( ~ r estic mated to be 20 percent of all pregnmcies and abortions another 10-15 pcrcent. Estradiol An estrogen(female sex hormone). Estrogen Any of a number o f female sex hormones to includespecifically estradiol and estrone andtheir metabolic product estriol. These hormones are produced by the ovaries. that passes down the neck from the pharynx (a passageway for food from Ethics The domain of values that the mouth) to the stomach.It’s about involves our principles of good conduct 9 inches long. in o u r daily lives. Certain ethical stmdards arc usually universally accepted Esophoria A tendency for the two lines o f sight to diverge inwards from the nor- in our schools (e.g., no plagiarism, respect for one another, nostealing, rtc.). mal, almost parallel, orientation. In the school o f optometry known as syntonics, Ethnic group A subcultur,ll group with this is a result of overactivity o f the the larger societal culture, such ‘1s pclrasympathetic nervous system andis Hispanic-Americans, Italianlikely to lead to a learning disability. In Americans, etc. syntonic visual therapy, treatment with Ethnic pride Having a positive selfred light (a sympathetic nervous system concept in relation to one’s racial o r stimulant) is sed to produce a balance national heritage. in the autonomic nervoussystem between the sympatlwtic and parasym- Ethnicity The sllnred culturalheritage o f a people. The collectiveness o f a parpathrtic divisions, restoring thenormal ticular group is based upon a shared phoria and correcting the associated Common identity derived i n part from A learning disability. common ancestral past and ‘1 coI11lllOn Esotropia Also known as esophoria. set o f \~alues/beliefs/lifestylcs. Ethnicity SEE: t?W/J/lOr;r? is different fromr x e bccause members ESP SEE: E x t m c ~ s o ~fcrceptiolf y of a11ethnic group mdy or may not be from the samerace but they ‘111 share Essentialism In education, a premise common culturalcharacteristics such as that an educated person must have a religion, language, political ideologies, common coreof learning/skills. Schools etc. The terms ct/rrric;ty and m ? ’ are freare expected to design their curriculum quently used interchangeably. Race is aroL1nd this concept so as to provide this considered to be more biologically”essential” education to all students. based, and ethnicity more culturall)r Establishment clause That section of influenced. Also, one can changeone’s the First Amendment that states, ”Co11ethnicity based on a changing liftsstyle, gress shall make no law respecting an wllereas racial distinctions are more perestablishment o f religion.” This clause in manent in nature. our Constitution prohibits public schools

96

Ethnocentrism

- Evoked potential

Ethnocentrism Essentially, a form of

Eustress A positive response to a stres-

prejudice and discriminationwherein a person believes his/her group or culture is superior to others, not merely different. Ethnography Collecting data over an extended tiineframe on several variables in a naturalistic setting. Some professionals use the terms “ethnography” and ”qualitative research” interchangeably, while others believe that ethnography is one type of qualitative research. SEE: qualitative research Ethology (“ethos” = ”behavior” in Greek) The experimental study of the behavior of higher animals (birds and mammals) under natural conditions. Ethyl alcohol That form of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a psychoactive drug that depresses behavior and mood, although in smaller doses it may elevate mood and act as a stimulant. The latter effects are release phenomena resulting from the removal of inhibitions. Like other depressants, ethyl alcohol can be addictive in that one develops a physical need for it and exhibits uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms when trying to go without it. Etiology Refers to the causes, roots, or factors involved in the development of a disorder. For example, the etiology of schizophrenia is thought to result from anomalous levels of certain neurotransmitters. ETV SEE: Educationul Teleoisioiz Eugenics An attempt to breed healthier and more intelligent people by selecting reproductive cells from a chosen group of donors and preventing other (presumably defective) persons from reproducing. Such thinking produced laws at the beginning of the twentieth century that prohibited individuals with mental retardation from having children (also forced sterilization). Eustachian tube This tube leads from the middle ear to the pharynx allowing air to move in and out of the middle ear space, thus balancing pressure on each side of the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

sor, which is considered a challenge rather than a threat. Evaluation I. An educational, medical, and/or diagnostic process that uses a battery of medical, mental, social, psychological, and/or educational tests to analyze, evaluate, and determine a student’s or person’s strengths and weaknesses and/or condition. 2. Analysis of test and measurement results in determining just how effective a school program, course of instruction, and/or teaching method is. Quality and progress are also determined. Evaluation team Sometimes referred to as a CORE evaluation team, a former term still in use. Those persons are charged with writing an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) for a child with special needs. This team includes persons who are knowledgeable about the child and understand the evaluative data and the implementation of services required in different placement options. This process may include professional and paraprofessional personnel as well as parents, the student, and other appropriate individuals such as social workers, counselors, medical personnel, etc. The evaluation team is listed on the IEP on the front cover sheet. However, the signatures that make it a legal document are on the sign-off page at the end. These signatures usually include those of the parent, guardian, or student (if 18 years old), the principal or the director of the facility, and the special education administrator. SEE: IEP Event-RelatedPotentials (ERPs) EEG patterns that regularly accompany particular psychological events. An example is the P300 wave, a positive voltage swing occurring 300 milliseconds after the onset of a meaningful stimulus. Evoked potential A modification of the EEG (Electroencephalogram)in which the EEG record is examined for changes following a specific stimulus presentation. Since the EEG is the cluttered recording of many neurons, it is usually

97

Evoked-response, a udiometric - Existentialism

necessary to average the EEGs over a number of stimulus presentations before a change in the EEG can be detected. Accordingly, the technique is often called the AER (for Average Evoked Response). Evoked-response, audiometric A special procedure that uses an Electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure the brain’s electrical impulses in response to sounds, thus measuring brain wave changes in response to sound stiniuli. Evolution The speculation that the universe just happened to evolve by itself and that no sweeping burst of creation was necessary to bring it about. SEE: cos-

mology, creationism Exceptional Especially in education, this refers to a student or person who is different from the normal/average. Generally the person’s mental, physical, or behavioral characteristics are substantially higher or lower than the average, so that special needs/education services are required for the individual. Exceptional children Children who vary from average mental, physical, or behavioral characteristics to such an extent that they require special schooling, training, or other special treatment. The category includes those who are mentally retarded, those who are learning disabled, and those with emotional or behavioral disorders as well as those who are highly intelligent and gifted. Exceptional learner One whose growth and development deviates from the average student so markedly that he or she requires modification of the regular school program. Exceptional learners extend from those with gifted or superior abilities to those individuals who are mentally retarded. Both ends of the continuum require highly intensive, individualized educational programming. Exceptional student SEE: exceptionnl learner Excess cost The educational expenses beyond the regular per-pupil cost for a special needs program. The excess cost is the difference between the cost of a

98

program for children with disabilities as compared to children without disabilities. Exchange transfusion Blood replacement with blood that is normal and fresh. Exclusionary definition Defining a concept or condition by what the concept or condition is not. For example, the term dyslexia is frequently defined by researchers as to what it is not. As such, it cannot include individuals with a below-average IQ, primary emotional disturbances, primary sensory disorders, cultural disadvantages, etc. Executive control process Certain perceptual or cognitive processes that affect the encoding, memory, storage, and/or retrieval of information. These processes include attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization. Exemplar A given example of a particular concept or category that can he used to help make decisions about the classification of other items. Exhibition A public demonstration of a learned achievement (e.g., a piano recital). Such achievements require the learner to spend time preparing for the performance. Exhibitionism Obtaining of sexual gratification by exposing one’s genitalia to strangers. This behavior has to be habitual if there is to be a diagnosis of pathology. Existential psychology A school of psychology that concerns itself with subjective experience, free will, and living a meaningful life, while deemphasizing the scientific research aspects of psychology. SEE: e.+kwtinlisiri Existential psychotherapy The attempt to deal with a client’s emotional problems by addressing such major philosophical issues as the meaning of life, the inevitability of death, the responsibilities of free choice, and the isolated existence of the individual. Existentialism A philosophical position considered by many to be the fifth ”pure” philosophical position.

Excitatory synapse

- Experimental group

Expatiations Expanding upot1 what the child says and adding something new to its meaning (i.e,, thechild states ”play toy” and the adult says “play with the red truck”). SEE: cspnrlsiorls ExpectancyThe perceivedprobability of success in performing a task. The measurement of expectancy levels is done duringresearch on the level o f aspiration or in studies of achievement motivation. Expectancy and value theories Theories of motivation that emphasize the learner’s expectation of success as well as the value placedby the learner on the goal. ExpendituresperpupilCharges incurred for individual students by school districts for a particular period of time. The per-pupil expenditureis the total school budget divided by a student unit of measure (e.g., average daily attendance or averagetotal schooldistrict enrollment). Experiential intelligence The type of intelligence exhibited by people while performing either 1 . tasks with which they have hardly any experience atall or 2 . tasks with which they have a great deal of experience. SEE: triarcl~ict/rt’or!/ qf ;JJfP//;,~P!lC(’

Experiment Theresearch procedure that best enables the investigator to draw inferences about cause andeffect relations. The variable that may causea change in some behavior is set at various values; this is the independent variable. The behavioral measure that may or may not show changesrelated to the values of the independent variableis called the dependent variable. Factors that could affect the dependent variable (other than the independent variable) must be held constant or otherwise controlled. Experimental group Those subjectsin a psychological experiment to whom some amountof treatment is actually administered. Other subjects, those in the control group, do notreceive the treatment.

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_ I

Experimental method

- Expository text

Experimental method

__I

-

Aresearch Expert computer systems Refers to method in which one variable, the suscomputer systems that are designed by pected cause, is manipulated by the computer experts and “human experts” researcher. Other variables are controlled ( i t . , teachers) to meet the needs of the by averaging them outor holding them instructional setting/learners/instructor. constant. The researcher observes still Expert system A computer program another variable, the dependent varithat contains information abouta particable, to see whether it changes in accorular field of knowledge and is capable o f dance with the prearranged changes of working logically with that knowledge. the independent variable. Expert systems belong to the field of Experimentalmortality Changesin computer science known as artificial group performance or outcomesresultintelligence. ing from the fact that some of the subExpert teachers Teachers who are expejects dropped outof the experiment or rienced and effective and who have study, subsequently impacting resulting worked out solutionsfor the routine outcomes. The only way to avoid this problems that often arise in the classproblem is to prevent the ”dropping room. They have a well-developed out” o f individuals orsubjects before a knowledge of the teaching process. study is concluded. Explanatory links Such words or Experimental psychology A subset of phrases as “so that” or ”because” that areas in psychology dealing with experiindicate how ideas are interrelated. mental research on basic psychological Explanatory links are studied by syntacprocesses such as sensation andperceptics; they have no content so that they tion, learning, memory, motivation, cannot be studied by semantics emotion, and cognitive processes. Explicit learning Knowledge that can Experimental schools These are be clearly acquired and restated or conschools in which new curricula, proveyed to others throughoral and/or grams, teaching methods, etc. are field written communication. tested. The application and administraExploratory education Educational tion o f the new programs, methods, procedures, techniques, or devices that materials, etc. takes place under conemphasize the individual’stwcd to clistrolled conditions. cover answersby himself/herself. Experimentalism A system of problem Explosive personality disorder A dissolving based upon the concept that the order whereby the individual will “fly physical world is in a constant state of into a rage” that is beyond normal reacflux. Problems are considered within the tion to provocation. Temper tantrums, context of social sciences and this serves physical assaults, and emotional outas the frameworkfor solutions. bursts will occur with even the slightest Experimentation Theresearch method frustration oranxiety. allowing some variablesto be manipuExpository teaching Theteaching lated (the causal factors) and other varimethod spelled out by A L I S L IThe ~~~. ables to be recorded (the result variteacher first presents very broadly stated ables). Thisresearch method permits ideas, then works down to more specific generalizations to be made concerning points. This approach is the opposite o f cause-effect relationships. the Eg-rule method. Experimenter bias effect The effect Expository text 1 . Refers to text that is that experimenters‘ expectations have on written to convey factual informa I t’ on, the outcome of their research. If specific ideas, concepts, etc. Sometimes referred steps are nottaken to prevent experito as ”content areatext,” expository IIwtlter bias, a psychological experiment materials can be associated with social may result in an incorrect conclusion. studies, math, science, and other content

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Expressive language

area subjects. 2. In language arts, books, text, o r other written materials that are organized to show cause-and-effectrelationships, pr[)blem-solution relationships, and/or comparison/contrast concepts. SEE: StrflcYflrc’ Expressive language Written or oral language sent or communicated to others. It is also said t o be encoding Ianguage. SEE: I ~ f l c o t f i f f g Expressive languagedisability SEE: fc7rf

cZ.y\irc*Siilc~/ l l J l g f l f l , ~dI’SOI.lfL‘I. l’

Expressive languagedisorder

- Extrapyramidal cerebral palsy

External otitis or swimmer’s ear An infection of theexternal auditory cclnal of the ear. SEE: ofitis IJIc’tfi~? External validity The extent to which the results of a research study can bt’ correctly generalized to the entirep ~ p ~ l lation. The appropriatenesso f the Sdnlpiing method used to obtain subjects for the research is the most important factor in the external validityo f the research. Externalizing behaviors Behaviors LISLI~IIYo f an external ( i t . , observable) nature directed toward another student or person. For example, externalizing behaviors are often found in students who are hyperactive, impulsive, and inattentive. SEE: iJftcV’Jll7/iZiJfgh ’ / f f l V ~ O l ’ ~ , Atfrlrtiorf-Dl~cif/H!//I~’I.ffl.fi~~it!/ Dit;ordc’r

Problems with producing language.The student suffersfrom an inability to \,erhally express herself/himself. Expulsion The exclusion o f a student from schooI (i.e., usually over 10 days o f (ADHD), Iry/~c~roctiuity time and sonwtimes ‘1 school month, Extinction The gradual fading aw‘ly of qu,lrtcr, the remainder of the school a learned behavior as a result o f the conyear, and even ona permanent basis) tinued absence of reinforcement for that Lwcause o f ‘I school infraction (e.g., behavior. Also, extinction is the process repeated fighting, carrying a weapc)”, o f withholding the unconditioned stimw and/or being ‘1 threat to the health, wellIus during respondcnt(classical) condibeing, ,1nd safety of others). tioning, which leads to a reduction in Extended family Normally,these the strength o f the conditioned response would be close relatives o f the family or (in operant conditioning) the withsuch ‘1s aunts, uncles, cousins, etc., that holding o f reinforcement after a correct are in frequent contact with the immediresponse occurs, resulting in a lower rate ‘1te family. Howcver, today this may of performing the conditioned operant include closr friends and even members behavior. For example, if ‘1 teacher o f ‘1 school o r group as well a s members WOLIILI like to eliminate a temper o f human services, religious organizatantrum, an extinction procedure could tions, ctc. be implemented. This could involve Extensor muscles MLISCI~S that provide ignoring the tantrums until thechild for movement of a body part suchas in (hopefully) becomesa w x e that such the cast' of extending one‘s arm in reachbehaviors are not reinforced in m y way, ing for an object, thus opening the angle thus eliminating the unwantedbehavior. of a joint. SEE:j7rsor rrrm-ltJs Extracurricular or extracurriculum External auditory canal A part of the Refers to that part o f the school day/life outer ear, it is an irregular tube-shaped outside o f the academic settin-sports, canal about one to two inches long. It clubs, newspaper, theater, band, chorus, vxtcnds from the <1uricle(outside o f the etc. Such experiencesare considcrecl by ear) to the e,1rdrum (tympanic memmany educators <1ndparents to be h e l p brallC’). SEE: lflfrlC,/C,f , l / J l l / i l l f l ~Il I~I ~ ’ I I f b ~ l f J 1 ~ ’ ful in building such desired traits as good sportsmanship, teamwork spirit, External locus of control A condition leadership, cooperative work,etc. o f control wherein a student o r person feels that factors for success and nchieve- Extrapyramidalcerebral palsy A type nwnt arc controlled by forces outside o f of cerebral palsy caused by brain damoneself. In effect, one has little o r no conage outside of the pyramidal cells of the trol over one’s destiny. SEE: /ocrrs q f c o r l cerebral cortex. These individuals cxpetrIJ/, ifltc’f’if(7/ /IJcffsc f l l J f f f f ’ O / rience muscle stiffness, involuntary

101

=

Extraseneory Peroeption (ESP)

- Factor anatyeie “

movements, or a floppiness of the limb (e.g., money, praise, or high grades), muscles. rather than for the pleasure of responding. Extrasensory Perception (ESP) The alleged ability to perceive events with- Extrovert An outgoing individual who out having to use the sense organs. is alert to things going on around Among theESP skills are mental telepahim/her and who tendsto be talkative, thy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis open, self-confident, and assertive. (also knownas telekinesis). Extroverts are not inclined be to passive and silent. The term comes from Carl Extrinsic motivation Thewillingness Jung’s analytic theory, although Jung to perform a response only becauseof used it in a more complex manner. the prospect of obtaining reinforcement

F Faces of intellect

type of technique is used extensively The three basic with autistic children.It should be noted classes of mental ability accordingto the theory of J. P. Guilford operations, prod- that somecritics have expressed doubt that the performance is totally free of ucts, and contents. influence from the facilitator. In effect, Facial feedback theory The theory of the student answers questions comor emotion that attributes an emotional municates through the use of a commufeeling to.thefacial expression of the nication board, keyboard, or other person. Setting the muscles for a given device but not by speaking. expression provides proprioceptive sensory information to the brain, which is Fact finding A process initiated to resolve conflict in which a neutral third used in deciding on what emotion to party examines the problem(s) and feel. issue(s) surrounding the problem. The Facilitativecommunications SEE: fact finder generally makes published facilitntive learning recommendations that are not binding. Facilitative learning Also known as However, many times the parties facilitative communications, this is a sys- involved agree to honor the fact finder’s tem of physical support provided by a recommendations beforehand. teacher or aide; usually the holding or Factor analysis A statistical method touching of the hand, wrist, or arm of that reduces a large number of trait the student. When using this technique, names to a manageablefew by combinthe student selects/points to letters or ing related traits into larger units. Correanswers on a communication board or lation coefficients are obtained among device. The teacher or aide facilitates but the tests of the numerous traits. A group does not guide the student’s hand as it of traits with high positive correlations works the board. The student actually among themis formed into a single brings the facilitator’s hand along. This factor.

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Faculty

Faculty Generally refers to the teaching professionals in an educational setting such as an elementary or secondary school and institutionsof higher learning (colleges and universities). Faculty teams Teams of teachers created at various gradelevels and/or by subject areas according to the expertise/ interests of the teachers and the curriculum requirements of the school/district. Members of the team often make decisions regarding student placements, instructional materials, resource allocation, sclleduling, etc. Fading The gradual removal of stimuli such as letters or prompts during the instruction process. This gradually increases the difficulty of the task. The goal of this technique is for the learner to acquire the ability to produce the mlterial independently. A teaching method where assistance given to a child is gradually cut back until the child becomes able to perform the task or skill on his/her own. FAE SEE: FL3tnl A / ~ u / IEffect o/ Fair local contribution An amount of nmncy generated by local property taxes (for school use) as mandatedby state governments. False negative An incorrect assumption deri\vd from a test or other diagnostic tool that indicates an individualis free o f a specified condition, where in fact the individual does indeed have the specified condition. SEE:fnlsc positive False positive An incorrect assumption derived from a test or other diagnostic tool that indicates an individual hasa specified condition, where in fact the individual is free of that specified condition. SEE:j~lscr r c y ~ t i v c Familialretardation This refers to instances of mental retardation found in several members of the same family but with no signsof a biological cause for the retardation. Family Defined for research and educational purposes as two or more persons (to include atleast one person in whose name the housing unitis owned, leased, or rented; and residing together within),

- Farsightedness

usually family members who arerelated by birth, adoption, ormarridge. However, nonrelated persons nlay also be considered part of the so-called extended family when residing together or sometimes even whenthey are not. SEE:fituily /mrscllolrf

Family consultation or family counseling A type of supportive counseling given to several or all members of a fm1ily in order to help them cope with and assist one or morefamily members who might experience some typeo f disability, disorder, and/or physical illness. SEE: disnbility, disordcr Family dynamics The social forces ,It work in that microcosm of society, the nuclear family (parents, children, and siblings). Family household A household containing biological/adopted family and any unrelated persons (unrelated subfamily members,otherindividu,ds,or both) who may be taking residence there. The numberof family households in a society is equal to the number o f families. The number of family household members is not the s a n e ‘1s the number of family members, however, in that the family household members include all persons living in the household, whereas (adopted/biolofiical) family members include only the head o f the household and his/herrelatives. Family psychotherapy A type of psychotherapy used to improve the psychological well-being o f an individual within the context of that person’s family. Lines of communication are opened among the family members in order to facilitate more positive interactionsthan those that prevailed before the start of the therapy. Each family memher is encouraged to identify and help satisfy the needs of other family members. The goal is to have the family function as a cohesive, whole unit. FAPE SEE: F ~ wA/Jpl’O/Jr.i~Ih’ PIrldic Edrlcotioll Farsightedness An inability to see a t close range. Also known as hyperopia. SEE: Irypcropin

103

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FA5 - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

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attributable t o improper diet. SEE: Ffzirr-

Fear of failure The reluctance to take on ‘1 challenging task because the possibility of failure is too unpleasatlt to consider.

Feature analysis The perception of a complex stimulus such as anobject or a scene by consideration of the separate elements of the stimuli. Neuronsin the cerebral cortex are selectively sensitive to particular features, such as lines with 30 degree slants. SEE:finf~rrc.dcfecfors Feature-detectortheory Theconcept th‘lt \7isual perception is based on the clbility of individual sensory neurons to react selecti\~clyto particular features of stimuli. For example, a neuron in the visual cortex may respond to linear stimuli that havea 30 degree slope, but will not respond to any other lines presented to its visual field in the retina. Such a neuron is ‘1 specific detector of the 30 degree slope feature. Featuredetectors Cortical neurons that are selectively sensitive to lines of a given slant, to a particular width, to motion in 1‘ given direction, etc. SEE: fillfllf’c’ llrfl7/!/SiS

Federal aid Moniesgenerallyraised through federal government taxation and appropriated for educational purposes. Such federal money or aidis usually given to and distributedby the states butoccasionally it is granted directly to ‘1 community or educational entity, private and public. Feeblemindedness Aterm meaning “weak of mind.”Presently, it is an outmoded term that had been used in the past t o signify mental retardation. The term is no longer popular and its use is considcrcd insensitive. Feingold diet A special diet that is low in sugar and avoids artificial flavorings and colorings. Care is also taken to reduce salicylate intake. The Feingold diet is also known as theKaiserPermmente diet, becauseFeingold’s work was done at theKaiserPern1,lnente hospital. The diet is supposed to correct the learning disabilities th‘lt, according to Feingold, are 104

S O / d IfiPf f o r /lypw7Cf;z~t~s

Feingold diet for hyperactives A diet prescribed for hyperactive incliviciuals. It includes food free of artificial coloring and artificial flavorings. Although research has shown positive outcomes only for a small percentage (10 percent) of hyperactive children, there does seem to be evidence for physiological ill-effects from certain food additives. For example, red dye #3 has been reported to alter the permeability of neural membranes. Fellowships Grants in aid and trainee stipends to graduate anddoctoral students. Students usuallyperform services for the institution such asresearch or teaching.

Feminist A female who supports eq~~ality of the sexes in the areas of politics, salaries, social causes, work opportunities, work loads, etc. Fenestration Amedical and surgical term used to indicate an operation wherein an openingis made in the labyrinth of the ear. This operation is used to treat deafness associated with “otosclerosis,” an inherited disease involving progressive deafness. Fernald-Kellerapproach The VAKT approach developed by Fernald in 1921. This method utilizes four sense modalities (i.e., Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, and Tactile) in the process of teaching word recognition. Fetal Alcohol Effect(FAE) A condition wherein full Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) cannot be documented. There is enough evidence, however, involving mental retardation to associate it with the consumption o f alcohol by the pregnant mother. N o amount ofalcohol during pregnancy has been determined to be safe. SEE: F&l/ A/co/ro/S!/~rtff’orrrc~ (FAS)

Fetal AlcoholSyndrome (FAS) The occurrence of mental retardation and physical problems in ‘1 newborn infant as the result of the mother’s abuse of alcohol during pregnancy. The danger point is estimated to be the daily co11sumption of 89 lnilliliters of ethyl alcohol (about three ounces). The safest way

-

Fetal stage Fine motor skills ”

is for the pregnant motherto avoid drinking alcoholic beverages altogether. The possible symptoms of this condition include mental retardation (thelevel of which can vary from one baby to another), hyperactivity, lowered alertness, motor difficulties, heart defects, and facial abnormalities. Fetal stage The prenatal period lasting from the beginningof the ninth week after conception to the momentof birth. It follows the embryonic stage. Fetish 1. An object or charm thought to have special or magical powers such as a rabbit’s foot or horseshoe. 2. Psychiatrically speaking, the object of fetishism or the love of an object that represents a person such as a lock of hair, a personal item, etc. 3. A type of mental illness wherein a person is sexually stimulated by the sight of some body part,object, or article such as a shoe, glove, toe, etc. Fetoscopy A medical procedure used to directly examine the fetusin utero with 1 ‘ flexible fiberoptic device known as a fetoscope. Fetus An unborn infant who is mature enough to look like a human being. This stage of development is reached at the ninth week of pregnancy (i.e., during the third month). Fictional finalism The setting up of a goal by an individual so that the goal can serve to guide that individual’s behavior, even if the goal is never actually attained. Field dependence An approach to perception of the environment. People who are field dependent respond to the environment as a totality; they find it difficult to differentiate such separate features as shapes,colors, sizes, attributes of individual objects, etc. Fieldindependence An approach to perception of the environment. People who are field independent readily perceive the separate elementsof the environment as clearly distinct from one another. They have difficulty perceiving the total environment as a whole, Field of vision That area of visible space when looking directly ahead with

both eyes thatis measured in degrees of visual angle. Fifth amendment Theconstitutional amendment whichclearly states that no person shall be deprivedof life, liberty, and property without dueprocess of law and that private propertyshall not be taken for public use without just conipensation to the owner(s). The “due process clause” hasbeen used frequently by educators and students in court cases involving property rights and discipline.

Fifth-year teacher education program A type of teacher preparation program that requires a provisional bachelor’s degree or appropriatebaccalaureate program as well as a permanent or fifth year graduate program. The fifth year of study is generally regarded as a time to implement theory into practice ( e . ~ .see , clinical experience) and tocievelop advanced pedagogical skills. Fight-or-flight response The activity of the symyathetic nervous system.It is an aroused condition, involving the inhibition of routine functions such asdigestion and elimination.The organism goes into the optimum mode eitherfor combat with an enemy orfor flight from danger. Figure-ground perception Thedistinction between a clearly defined and centrally placed object (the figure) from the other aspects of the surrounding environment (the ground). Figure-ground perceptionability The ability of a student or personto sepalrate out one particular parto f a visual field and concentrate on that particular aspect. Other aspects of the visual field are relegated into the background. Final-offer arbitration Theprocess invoked when two parties ‘ire in dispute (e.g., over contract negotiations) and agree to havean arbitrator choose oneof two (or more) proposals as the final offer for therecipients of a negotiated settlement. Fine motor skills Skills involving the voluntary, coordinated movements of small muscles, especially hand muscles, that are needed to demonstrate

105

=

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Fine motor skillslcontrol Flat affect ”

dexterity. These skills may be applied to mechanical puzzles, drawing, rotating and stdcking cubes, etc. SEE: ,yros.s rrrotor sk///5

Fine motor skillslcontrol Use of fine

_ I _

-of development is usually accompanied by feelings of anxiety. 3. A brief stoppage of eyc movement after a saccade.

Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement A schedule arranging for the

or small muscles in a controlled fashion reinforcement o f some correct responses by a student, but notall of them. In a so ‘1s to perform detailed hand-eye tasks fixed interval schedule, a given time such as threadinga needle. SEE: gross interval n u s t expire after reinforcement IIIOfCJI’ Skills has occurred before another response Fingerplay I n language arts, a system can be reinforced. For example, with a of learning poetry by using poems that fixed interval of 30” (F130”), the student require hand or body motions as part of must wait 30 seconds before the the reading or recitation. response is given reinforcement. Fingerspelling A form of sign language Responses made earlier than that will in which a student or person spells out not be followed by reinforcement. words in English by using various posiFixed ratio schedule of reinforcement tioning of the fingers. SEE: s i p lorrgrrn‘yc A schedule for the arrangement of parFirst amendment Theconstitutional tially reinforcing the correct responses amendment that specifies the separation made by a student, such thatevery of church and state, freedomof speech, ”nth” response results in reinforcement freedom of press, freedom of assembly, while all other responses are notreinand freeciom of religion. forced. The name ”fixed ratio” refers to First professional certificate An the ratio of the number o f responses ,ward, diploma,certificate, or degree made before the reinforcement is given that is givcn to m individual who has to the reinforced response. For example, a fixed ratio of 5 (FRS) means that five completeci a program o f study that leads responses are madebefore rcinforcenwnt to one’s first professional certificate. For is provided. es,1mple, an associate degree or bachelor’s degree. Fixed-roletherapy A therapeutic approach derived from Kelly’s theory of Fiscal A term used to refer to the finanpersonal constructs. Fixed-role therapy ci,ll affairsof an organization such asa involves encouraging the client to sclect school department. new roles in life, in order to develop and Fiscal neutrality Refers to the legal sustain a better-adapted set of personal precedent of determining education expenses based on the needs of the stu- constructs. Flashbulbmemory Long-term memdents i n the district as opposed to the ory (or memories)o f emotionally wedth of its citizens. charged events or persons ona particuFit SEE: ~ ~ ~ J f i ~ 1 f ~ / SCiL‘fIrf’ ~/~Jff, lar day and time. For example, rememFive basic subjects The core curricubering where you were when President I m l subjects recommended by the A John E Kennedy or Martin Luther King N l ~ t j ~ nt r r Kisk report: four yearso f Enwere shot; the details abouta person’s glish; three years of mathematics, scifirst date,etc. are examples of flashbulb encc, and social studies; and one semesmemories. ter of computer training. Flat affect An emotionless display with Fixation 1. A condition characterized by little indication of either positive or negan abnormal and unrestrained attachative feelings.A person with flat affect mrnt (e.g., a child to a parent or person). frecpently speaksin a monotone voice 2. A condition wherein a person develand shows little facial expression. ops to a certain stage and stops develop- Schizophrenics are knownto display flat n1cntally at that point. Thisfixated state affects.

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Flexibility disorder - Follow-up study

Flexibility disorder

An impairment or disorder o f articulation, quality, and/or !Toice pitch. It is characterized by rigid or stiff speech. Flexible grouping A type of grouping that is widely U S I in ~ reading classes because individual learning styles/ characteristics can be addressed.Students are typically separated into learning groups based on some level of achievemcnt or level of academic functioning. Movement from one group to another occurs ‘1s well as individualized instruction when the need arises. Temporary instructional groups within this model allow teachers to address deficit areas of need as they arise. Group dynamics can also change as the curriculum changes. Flexiblescheduling(schedules) The type of scheduling that allows students to attend classes o f different lengths during the school day or week. Flexor muscles Muscles thatprovide for movement of a body part toward the body’s midline asin the case of pulling an extended arm back toward the body and closing or decreasing the angleof a joint. SEE: rstrrwor rurrsclrs Flooding A behavior-therapytechnique in which the client’s phobia is treated by intense exposure to thefear-evoking stimulus, causing intensefear in the client. The anxiety response is expected to undergo extinction when the fear stimulus does not produce any painful aftereffects. Fluency The condition of speaking effortlessly in a smooth and flowing manner as well as quickly and without hesitation. Fluency disorder An oral language disorder such as stuttering that involves prolonged or repetitive speech sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Fluent English proficient SEE: 6ilir1
ability reaches a peak during the teens and dcclines graduallythereafter. SEE: cr!/5fn/liZc~di r i t c ~ l l i p l e - c ~ Fluoride A salt of hydrofluoric acid (fluorine compound with a radical) frequently added to water supplies and toothpaste asa method of preventing dental caries (cavities). FM transmissiondevice An electronic device or equipment used toallow hearing-impaired students to hear through a closed FM/frequency modulated radio system. Theteacher wears a portable microphone and the instruction is broadcast directly to the students wearing special hearing aids or receivers. SEE: audio l o o p Focal seizure A partial seizure resulting in limited motor or sensory problems.It results from a discharge in a limited Dart o f the brain.SEE: gc~rwnlizcd sc~iz~rr.c~, IJWtin/ sc>izlrrc

Focus of attention The ability to focus one’s undivided attention on a particular stimulus or situation. Focused instruction A type of instruction that involves the developmentof several main ideas orskills as opposed to focusing on several disconnected informational sources. Therole of the teacher is to identify key concepts and ideas for students to master. Folkways Societal practices dealing with correct or incorrect behavior, conduct, mores, etiquette, and/or attire (dress).

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) A hormone from the anterior pituitary

gland (the master gland) that leads to the preparation of the follicle in the ovary of thefemale (which means increased estrogen production and the development of an ovum) and to the production of sperm in the testis of the male.

Follow-up study

As the name implies, it is a continuation at somelater date of the evaluation of the results of a study. This follow-up provides later/ongoing information for continued evaluation and diagnosis.

107

Foot-in-the-door technique - Foundation programs ”

Foot-in-the-doortechnique

-

Raising the odds that someone will comply with a request by first demanding something so outrageous that the person would reject it immediately. The follow-up request should beso much more restrained that the person might be relieved and feel inclined to oblige. Forebrain One of the three main parts of the brain. Theforebrain includes the cerebral hemispheres, the diencepllalon, the rhinencephalon, thelimbic system, and most of the basal ganglia. The other two main parts are the midbrain and the hindbrain. Forensic psychology Theapplication of psychological knowledge and methods to legal problems, such as improving police work and analyzing the behavior of witnesses in the courtroom. Forgetting A condition wherein a student or person has difficulty or cannot remember information previously known or learned. SEE: r r l c w m t y Forgetting curve The graph showing the amount retained in memory as a function of elapsed time. The graph shows that most forgetting occurs soon after learning, while thesmall portion retained is held for an indefinitetime. Form A term used in education to describe the rules and regulationsof language. It includes phonology, syntax, and morphology. SEE: tr/orp//do,y!/, ~ J / / O l ~ O / O ~ S!/r/f(7S !/,

Formal assessment There are several standardized test instruments that are norm-referenced. Typically formal assessments are used to measure “how much” students have learned as opposed to informal assessments that stress ”why” and”how.” Formal assessments should be related to instructional programs with a purpose set for anytest administration. Information from formal assessments is typically used in curriculum planning efforts within a classroom, school, or school district. Most diagnosticialls/professionals combine formal and informal measures o f assessment to optimally understand children’s learning strengthsm d weaknesses.

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Formal operation stage The most mature stage in Piaget’s stage model of cognitive growth. It begins ,1bout age 12 and is shown by an ability to use abstract reasoning and to solve problems logically. Formal supports Refers to direct support and interventionservices for students or persons withdisabilities that are government funded at the local, state, or fcderal levels (such ‘7s public schools, Title I programs, etc.). Formal tests These tests, usually standardized, include specified tasks and procedures that must bc adhered to very strictly so that the test results can be comparable to those from other administrations of the test. Formative assessment An assessment process that is ongoing while teaching and learning are occurring.The purpose of such an assessmentis to further the education process rather than to decide on a grade. Thisis the opposite of a summative assessment. SEE: ~ ~ r ~ t r r c ~ r f , irlstrlrctio,ml oswwrwrIf, ~ 1 1 r ~ r r 1 ~ 1 f i 7 ~ ~ ~ nssc’ssrr/crlt Formative evaluation In educationand in general, a process of ongoing evaluation during the learning process that provides feedback and direction for continued learning. SEE: S l l l l l l l l ( l t i 7 J c ’ assPssrr/r’rlt For-profit schools Schools operated by private companies, organizations, or foundations that agree to provide texlling programs that allow students to achieve optimal learning outcomes/ gains/achievement in exchange for operating at a profit. Frequently, SCI~OOI systems or districtswill give the private organization the same per-pupil funding for participating students as the students who actually attendthe public schools. The for-profit school is accountable for student progress/achievement/ attendance. For example, the Edison Project plans to build more than.I000 for-profit schoolsby the year 2010. Foundation programs These arc state funding programs that determine the doIIar value of basic educational

Fourteenth Amendment or equal protection clause

-

Frequency distribution

particular subject that provide stimulaopportunities that are requiredin a state tion for effective responses on the partof for meeting the educational needs of the students. children and adolescents. This foundation level of funding involves specificaFree Appropriate Public Education tion o f the minimum standard of local (FAPE) In accordance with P.L. 101education efforts. A determination is 476, the Individuals with Disabilities made regarding an equitable way to dis- Education Act (IDEA), students with tribute monies toschool districts based disabilities/special needs on Individualon local wealth. ized Education Plans (IEPs) are entitled to appropriate educationalservices in Fourteenth Amendment o r equal proreference to their special education tection clause Theconstitutional needs and at nocost to the student or amendment that guarantees certain family. SEE: ZEP, P.L. 701476 rights and privileges to all U S . citizens as concerns dueprocess of law and Free will The view that people can equality under protection of the law. make effective decisions that change the Passed in 1868, it also assured citizendirection of their future lives. This view ship, personal liberties and rights for implies that people are responsiblefor slaves who werefreed. the consequences of their own actions and that they can be justly rewarded or Fourth Amendment The constitutional amendment that protectscitizens against punished for their own deeds. The leadsearch and seizureactivities unless a ing philosophical ethicists advocated warrant is first obtained. free will. Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, R O L I S S ~the ~LI, Fovea A small area directly in the center Mills, and RLISS~II can all be considered of the retina. The fovea contains only supporters of the idea. cones and provides maximum visual acuity and color-perception ability. Frequency This refers to a speech frequency measured in hertz (Hz), the Fragile X syndrome (also: fra (X) synnumber of cycles per second. We perdrome) An abnormal development of ceive frequency of this type as “pitch.” the X chromosome in the 23rd pair, the Any energy wave can bedescribed by sex gender chromosome. Males have an its frequency, or alternatively, its waveX and Y chromosome and females an X length. The higher the frequency, the and a second X. Males have a greater shorter the wavelength. chance for a defect and in fact the syndrome is typically found only in males. Frequency distribution The set of Fragile X or fra (X) L I S L I ~ results ~ I ~ in scores obtained after measuring the moderate to severe mental retardation. behavior of (or administering a test to) a Males usually have abnormally long group of subjects. The scores are faces, large ears, and largetestes as arranged in order of size, LISLI~IIY from adults. Fra (X) has been known only lowest to highest. Occasionally, several since 1969. The fragile X chromosome of people will get the same numerical the male hasa constriction near or at the score. The numberof people getting the end of the long armof the X. Fragile X same score is defined as the frequency of individuals show ‘1 noticeable decline in that score. The accurate presentation of IQ during puberty in contrast to males scores in order of size will include the with Down syndrome who show a frequency data. For example, if the presteady decrease in IQ with age. sentation of a frequency distribution is a graph, the score is represented on the Framing effect The bias introduced x-axis (the abscissa) and the frequency is into a problem-solving task by the mangiven by they-axis (the ordinate).As ner in which the problem is presented to graphed, a frequency distribution has the would-be solver. various descriptive features(e.g., shape, Framing questions or interactive central tendency, and variability). SEE: frames Guided question formats for a rrntrnl terldwcy 109

Frequency histogram

- Fry readability graph

Frequency histogram This is a graph of a frequency distribution (i.e., a display of scores v. the frequency of each score) in which the frequency of a score is indicated by the height of a rectangle. For example, a bar graph.

Frequency of sound The number of vibrations per second o f sound measured by a unit called hertz (Hz). Sound vibrations involve molecules of water, wire, air, etc. High soLlnd frequencies are high-pitched while ICW frequencies are low-pitched. The earcan hear from about 20 Hz (low) to20,000 Hz (high). Speech usually falls between 250 and 4000 Hz (cycles per second). Frequency polygon This is a graph of a frequency distribution (Le., a display of scores v. the frequency of each score) in which each frequency is marked by a point in Cartesian coordinates (distance along x-axis = size of a score and distance up y-axis = frequency of that score). Each point is connected to the following point by a straight line. For example, the bell-shaped curve expressing normal frequency distribution.

Frequency theory Atheory explaining the ability to discriminate thepitch of a sound; it is also known as the telephone theory. According to this view, the number of cycles per second in the sound wave is matched with the number of impulses per second in the auditory nerve axons. The theory may be workable for low-pitched sounds, but cannot account for the pitches of sound frequencies over 1000 cycles per secortd. This is because an axon cannot conduct more than about a thousand nerve impulses in one second, due to the absolute and relative refractory periods.

Freud, Sigmund

live with peace of mind and at a level of maturity that would help the indi\idu,d lead a better life. SEE: 1 ~ 1 , ~ ~ [ , / [ 1 ~ ~ 1 t / [ , t t l ~ ? / t ? l O d d , ill,C’XO, Sll~11’f’c:\<J Fricative Consonant sounds made by forcing air through a narrow opening. Fricatives include the sounds in the lc+ ters f, v, and th. Friedreich’s ataxia A condition that is inherited and affects the spinal cord. The hardening of the spinal cord results in the paralysis of the lower limbs. Fringe benefit Benefits given to employees that are abovewC1geearnings such assick leave mil persond le~ve. Frontal lobe One o f the four lobes o f the cerebral cortex that is situated directly back o f the skull’s frontal bonc. Since the cortex is divided into two hemispheres, there arca left and a right frontal lobe. Thecauclal or posterior edge of the frontal lobe is marked by the central S L I ~ C L I S(or fissure of liolclncio). The inferior or ventral boundary of the frontal lobe is the lateral fissure (or fissure of Sylvius). In most p e ~ p l ethe , left frontal lobe contains Uroccl’s are‘?for the motor production of speech sounds. In each frontal lobe resides the motor a r e ~ s that send out motor commandsto the contralateral muscles. The very front or anterior end o f the frontal lobe,, the prefrontal ared, was the part excised in the frontal lobotomy operation, which was faddish in the 1930s and 1940s. This lobe is involved in how we sequenceinformation, think abstractly, form concepts, problem-solve, and attend to tasks. Damage to this lobe can affect speech, thinking, m d gross and fine motor skills. SEE: p ; f i o t 1 h / / o h ~ t c ) t t f ! / Frustration Theblocking o f goaldirected behavior and/or the cmotion ass(xiatcd with theexperience o f being prevented from reaching the goal.

Austrian neurologist and psYchoanalyst (1856-1939). His teachings involved investigation of mental functioning through the L I S ~of freeFrustration-aggression hypothesis association, analysis of resistance and The hypothesis that the expcriencc of transference, and dream interpretation. frustration leadsto an outlwrst of Although known as the “father” of psyaggression. choanalysis, Freud considered ”psychoanalysis” as notscientific but as a means Fry list A popular sight-word listing. to elucidate the recesses of the mind and Fry readability graph SEE: f ’ c ’ ~ l l f f l / J i / i f , l / soul in order to assist an individual to fi)rltllf/f7S

110

F5H- Functional psychosis

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literate way and in FSH SEE: ~ ~ ~ l l ; ~ ~ l ~ ~ Horrrror~c - S / i r ~ ~ ~ ~ing / ~ in~ at ~functionally r ~ ~ ~ such a way as to positively adapt to the Fugue A serious condition characterized environment. h y ‘1 s t d c n t or person who runs away Functional curriculum An approach to from honw, job, or current life impulteaching and learning based upon curriculum skills thdt are age-appropriate for the students. Further, the curriculum enlphasizes skills that have immediate and functional application. Functionaldisorder A disorder characterized by a disturbance in orpmic functioning; it may involve disease, emotional responses, psychosis, etc. No known organic causeis evident. Functional fixedness Theinability t o find a novel use for a fanlili‘1r object ,yro!iw, rr~~~irr~tr~~~~rr~irr~ when that kind of flexibility would help to solve a problem. Full-time staff Educationally speaking, ‘111 faculty, staff, and administration, as Functional hearing loss A hearing loss well ‘1s any other workers who work a that is caused by psychological or social f u l l school schedule (school day and factors rather than causes of an organic school year) o r ‘1 IO-hour work week. nature. Sometimes such a loss is considered psychosomatic or hystcrical i n Function Any action by a student or origin. incii\ridual in response to the demands o f one‘s general needs. Human needs or Functional learning handicap A confunctions include existence, the need for dition wherein a student clevelops learn. c~)mlllllnicatioll with others, adaptations ing problems anddifficulties as a result to one’s en\rirontnent, the learning of a lack of ability to function effectively process, leisure o r relaxation time, recreand appropriately withinone’s environation, travel, sports, etc. ment. This mayoccur for any number of Functional A term sed to describe disfactors, such as social, psychological, turhances o f function of an organ environmental, etc. although no known organic change or Functional lifelcompensatory physical cause is present. approach An approach to education Functional academics An academic that teaches skills of practical value so as program that teaches practical skills and to prepare a student for the world of not just academic learning. work. Social skills, self-care skills,and occupational skills are emphasized. Functionalarticulation disorders DisWLILWo f articulation that are apparently Functional literacy The attainment of ‘1 c ~ ~ l ~ ~high-enough gical ‘1 result of c n v i r o n ~ ~ ~ e r ~ t ~ ~ l / e or level of reading, writing, psychologicd reasons. Such problems and speaking to enable onet o function q3parcntly are not result of neurologieffectively among otherliterate persons. cal difficulties nor of structural defects. Functional print In language arts, a Functional assessment approach An term used to indicate classroom print clssessment approach that highlights the that 1x1s a specific learning purpose. connection between an individual’s edu- Functional psychosis A severe mental c
si\,ely. This condition may last for days, weeks, or yc’ars. U s ~ ~ a lrecovery ly from this condition involves loss of memory of wh,1t occurred while the person was in the fugue state. I t is sometimes called personality dissociation or psychogenic fugue. SEE: ~Js!/clrcl~yl~rric~f‘~lfl~ Full inclusion Completeintegration of all children in need of special education ser\,ices into the regular classroom with children ~ ~ 1 d1 o0 not experience special lexning challenges.SEE: ir~clusiorr,irrtcp-

I

111

“ .

-

Functional retardation "G" loading

.

-

"merging" a smaller number of subjects Functional retardation, A condition For example, that may exist in a student or other indi-into one subject category. spelling, grammar, speech, reading, and vidual that seems to be related to one's literature are frequently merged into lanenvironment. Events and actions within guage arts curricula. the environment shape and affect the individual's adaptive behavior in a Future problem solving A national negative way. This results in retarded project and special instructional proadaptive behavior(i.e., functional gram developed byTorrance, E. P. and retardation). Torrance, J. P. (1978) that emphasized future problem solving in a creative way Functional skill A task or skill that a and in an areaof need. For example, student or person would be expected to know and use in one's daily living and problems included what to do about the depletion of the ozonelayer, motoring within one's normal environment. with solar energy,etc. Functional skills model A model of Future shock A term that refers to the instruction for students with special accelerated lifestyle of modem living needs that emphasizes presenting curand the impact it has on our immediate riculum materials tied in to life situafuture. Standards, values, mores,etc. tions. Hands-on life experiences are have changed at a very rapid pace. Peostressed. ple who become confused and disoriFunctionalism A psychological school of lack of ability or of thought (subscribed to by the follow- ented as a result inability to make adjustments for what ers of William James) that placed is changing and what probably will emphasis on the workings of the conchange are said to be suffering from scious mind in helping the individual f u h r e shock. adapt successfullyto the environment. Futurism A philosophy that deals with Functionally illiterate A term used to the prediction of the future. Within this refer to an individual who is unable to philosophy, development of plans and considered read or write at a level is that techniques to deal with coming necessary for adequate functioning in a change/situations are embraced. In society. effect,, mediction is accompanied bv A Fused cunriculum A fYPe Of curriculum planning probable future Actions and/or organization that involves "fusing" or solutions.

"G"loading A common term used when factor-analyzing data on intelligence. The term"g" refers to one's general intelligence. "Loading" refers to a w e of factor-loading in the statistical analysis that is represented as a

112

correlation value. Performance on a subtest measure of intelligence would indicate how highly correlated the skills measured are with generalintelligence. For example, ag loading of.75 On a vocabulary subtestof an intelligence

Gait training

measure would indicate a moderately high correlation between the vocabulary measure and one‘soverall general intelligencc. Gait training A system of instruction for persons withphysical disabilities wherein their abnormal and normal walking movements are evaluatedin order to betterassist the person with correct w‘llking techniques. Galactose A simple sugar, crystalline in form. Galactosemia Agenetic disorder that involves the body‘s inability to metabolize plactose. Thisdiseclsc can result in mental retardation. Gallaudet University Aspecial university for the deaf that was first named the National Deaf Mute College. It was founded in 1864 and is located in Washington, D.C. Gallaudet University was named for Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (1787-1857), who established the American Asylum for Education of the Deaf and Dumb (now the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut). He was an early pioneer in the field. Gallauclet University is a federally funded school and has both undergraduate and graduate programs. I t is the only university of its kind in the world. Ganglion (plural: ganglia) A cluster of the cell bodies of neurons in the peripheral nervous system( e g , the dorsal root ganglia or the sympathetic chainof ganglia). One exception: the basal ganglia are really nuclei within the brain. Gastrostomy feeding Feedingfood directly into the stomach via a feeding tube. A procedure used whena child has some physical difficulty dealing with the sucking ‘lnd swallowing reflexes or perhaps a malformed esophagus.SEE: I I ~ S O gnstricfirtfirl
- General education

from traveling toward the forebrain (Le., the gate is closed). GED SEE: G L > I I ECd ~l f C~O/t i ( J r / f l / Dt7z~~’/(J/Irlrrllt

tPSt

Gender bias

Different views of, and also attitudes toward, theabilities of males and females. Often, this may become detrimental to one gender and favorable to the other. Gender identity The sex that a person identifies with, accepting it as the person’s own. Ordinarily, this is decided by whether the sex chromosomes are XX (female) or XY (male). As a result of androgen insensitivity syndrome, or abnormal groupings of sex chromosomes, the picture canbecome more complicated. Gender roles The behaviors that a given culture defines asappropri‘lte for males and females. Gender schema theory A theory of the development of gender roles that appeals to a combination of social learn.. ing theory and cognitive-clevelopment theory. Gene Thebasicultramicroscopic unit of heredity. This genetic particle is responsible for characteristics of heredity. Genes are arranged within the chromosomes of a cell. The average person has about 100,000 genes, distributed among 46 chromosomes. SEE: CIIIYJ~IIOSOUWS, $’/71’S

Generaladaptation syndrome

Dr. Hans Selye’s model of the body’s response to stress. Thefirst phase consists of an alarm reaction, in which the emergency situation is acknowledged. The second phase, that of resistance, involves specific attempts to correct the problem. The third phase, exhaustion, follows when the first two phases have been unsuccessful. Exhaustion can result in severe fatigue, death, orstress-related disorders. General education Usually a basic curriculum that is required to be taken by all students. Such programs are also known as ”common” or“core” curriculums.

113

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General Educational Development t e s t or GED

General Educational Development test o r GED An equivalency test which is

El -

an alternative means for high school dropouts to complete their high school education experience. Passing this test earns a high school equivalency diploma. SEE: hi
Generalization The tendencyto respond the same way toa group of different stimuli because of some degree of similarity among these stimuli. In education, generalization is the ability of a student to formulate new information and conclusions from past and present knowledge. Generalized anxiety disorder A persistent conditionof chronic anxiety that cannot be attributed to any particular stressful situation. Generalized reinforcer A type o f reinforcer that is really a kind o f secondary reinforcer, as its reinforcing qualities result from associations with several primary reinforcers. Money is a generalized reinforcer because it can result in food, buying this dictionary, and other positive things. SEE: sccnrldnry rcirrforcrr

Generalizedseizure Unlikeafocal seizure, this typeo f seizure affects a large part of the brain, not just a limited area. SEE:focnl s t i z ~ r rsrizrrr~ ~,

114

- Genetic counseling

Generativity That feature of human language involving the ability to combine words in ways that have never been experienced earlier by the speaker. Generativity vs. stagnation A stage i n Erik Erikson’s theory of personality development. Successful development at this stage is reflected by increasing concern for the welfare of others and a lowering of self-absorption. Generator potential The electrical response of a sense receptor that starts nerve impulses going down theafferent neural axons, thus indicating the reception of a stimulus.

Generic special education teacher SEE: rcI;oLrrcl’ tt’(7CIIc7r Genericsupports Public services and benefits to which all nondisabled persons have access, providing t l y meet eligibility requirements. Sometimesall people have generic support eligibility and access as in the case of public schooling, public transportation, etc. Genes Cell structures (made of DNA) on specific locations in the chromosonws (the ribbon-like objects within the nuclei) of all body cells. Genes are our genetic markers; they are responsible for our hereditary characteristics.

senetic blueprintinglengineering The genes are the blueprintsfor the body. Genes and chromosomes determine the characteristics o f heredity that are transmitted to our children.With our new-found knowledge of genetic engineering, scientists/doctors are able to alter or repair the genes through synthetic approaches and thus prevent or limit the-passing on of genetic aberrations to offspring. SEE: ~ I C~ ~ , / I ~ ~ I I I I ~ gerwtic C ~ J I ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~ Genetic counseling Meetings or sessions with a genetic specialist and counselor who provides information to prospective parents or parentsconcerning the possibility of and the probability of children inheriting some abnormal or disabling condition.SEE: gcvrL’ticr;, p r c ’ t i c .

J ~ ~ ~

b/~rcprir~tir~~/cler~~~~~~~~cri~~~~

Genetics - Gifted

Genetics The science of the biological basis of heredity. Genital stage The final stage of Sigmund Freud's theory of personality development. It is associated with the onset of puberty and a mature adjustment to that event. The individual develops sexual interest in persons of the opposite sex. This stage corresponds to Erikson's stage of identity versus role confusion. Genius A student or person with an IQ of 180 or above or a person of rare and unusual ability not necessarily academic. Genotype The genetic influence (on a specific trait such as eye color) carried by an individual. Genre 1.A term used in general to describe a type, classification, category, or class of art, literature, painting, etc. 2. In language arts, "genre" is a term used to describe a type of writing style or type of book such as a classic, a mystery, an autobiography, science fiction, etc. German measles Measles that can cause retardation during the first 90 days of a pregnancy as well as hearing and vision impairments in the fetus. SEE: congenitnl wbelln Germinal stage The first part of the prenatal period, lasting from conception through the second week. It precedes the embryonic stage. Gestalt A complex entity involving the integration of component parts so that the whole is superior to the sum of the parts (e.g., seeing the forest through the trees). Gestalt psychology That school of psychology that emphasizes the study of patterns or whole units. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" is the gestaltists' theme. Gestalt therapy A form of psychotherapy introduced by Perls in which the client is encouraged to face her/his own true feelings and to accept full responsibility for them. Gifted Individuals who display learning styles and characteristics that allow

them to acquire literacy skills at levels considered to be developmentally advanced. Sometimes the term "gifted" is used synonymously with "talented." It is usually applied, however, to a person who has superior cognitive abilities and not just raw talent. It is someone who can perform, create, and achieve at exceptional levels, such as a high honors student, a composer, an extraordinary artist, etc. Generally, to be considered gifted, one's IQ falls above 130. Demonstrated abilities and potential are evident in at least one of the following areas for gifted individuals: 1. overall intellectual ability, 2. specific academic aptitude, 3. creativity, 4. leadership, 5 . ability in one of the visual and performing arts, and 6. psychomotor ability. Individuals who are truly gifted most often have several areas of "giftedness." Gifted individuals most often are highly intelligent, good abstract and critical thinkers, self-confident, curious, or inquisitive. Such individuals have a good sense of humor and an advanced vocabulary. They have a small circle of friends, are independent, and like solitude in social and academic settings. They are highly empathic or sensitive to those around them and possess a serious disposition. Being gifted also has its problems in the academic and social realms. Many gifted individuals lack organizational skills and do not complete an assigned task/job because there are so many "irons in the fire." Some gifted individuals are socially isolated or have difficulty relating to and interacting with ageappropriate peers. Students who are gifted many times require enriched educational programs so as to challenge, stimulate, and tap into the individual's learning strengths. Because a disproportionate number of gifted students "drop out" of school, it is believed that more can be done to address the educational needs of this population. Some states such as Connecticut require IEPs for gifted students. The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (NRCGT) provides research and information opportunities for those who are committed to servicing gifted students. 115

Gifted learning-disabled

II

- Goals 2000

The NIiCGT website is http://www. Glottis The opening between the vocal ucc.uconn.edu:80/-wwwgt/nrcgt.html. folds (cords)in the throat. Thisis co\'ered by the epiglottis during swallowGifted learning-disabled A termused ing. SEE: c,pi$ottis to refer to individuals who aregifted and learning-disabled at the sametime. Gluten A simple protein or albumin SEE: ~ . j f t dknrrzirrg , tfisnbility from vegetables that is prepared from wheat and other grains as well. Gillingham-Stillman approach A type o f synthetic phonics method GNP SEE: Gross Natioml Product offered by Gillingham andStillman in Goal-directed actions Actions thatare 1935 that teaches the names and sounds purposely directed toward the attaino f letters, the names for spelling, and the ment of a specific goal. sounds for reading. It is a multisensory Goal setting Deciding on a particular approach. level of accomplishment to strivefor in Gland An organ or structure of the the future. body that secretes a substance that is used in another part of the body. Glands Goal structure The manner in which a number of persons working toward a are either 1. mucous; that is, they proparticular goal are interrelated to onc L I L I aC slimy ~ viscous secretion or another. 2. serous; that is, they produce a clear Goals 2000 Education goals established watery secretion or 3. mixed; that is, by President GeorgeBush and 50 state they produce both typesof secretion. governors in February of 1990 who Glaucoma An eye condition that usuplaced a high priority on the basic subally occurs during orafter middle age, involving excess pressure on the eyeball jects of English, science, mathematics, history, and geography. The six national leading severe-vision loss orblindness goals were enumerated as follows: By if untreated. the year 2000, 1. All children will enter Glial cells Cells inthe nervous system school ready to learn. 2. High school that perform various support functions graduation rates will increase to at least for the nerve cells (Le., the neurons). 90 percent. 3. Students in grades 4,8, They supply nutrients, remove waste and 12 will demonstrate (thrwgh testmaterial after damage has occurred, help ing) basic literacy/competency in Enmake the myelin sheaths that surround glish, mathematics, science, history, and some axons, andin the peripheral nergeography. Students will also be critical vous system guide the regenerating thinkers and productive/contributing axon to its proper position during the members of society. 4. American sturecovery after an injury. dents will excel in science and mathematics achievement. 5. American adults Glioma A cancerous neuroglial tumor. will be literate in a global economy and Global retardation An outdated term will exercise their rights and responsibilused to describe a student or other indiities of U S . citizenship. 6. American vidual who hasa broad spectrum of schools will be drug/violence free. Dislearning disabilities, resulting in severe ciplined environmentswill nurture the or profound difficulty in learning. Such learning process. In 1994, two additional 1 ' delay in learning is across the board goals were added:7. Teachers will conrather than a specific or single area (e.g., tinue to grow asreflective practitioners reading), giving rise to the description by participating in a number o f "global" delay or retardation in learning. professional development activities. Global self-concept A term used to 8. Parents will be involved partnersin refcr to one's total self-concept or how their child's education programs. Note one feels about oneself and one's accomthat these goals are also referred to as plishments. These are feelings in general "America 2000," "National Educationcll as opposed to foci on particular situaGoals," and "The Educate America Act." tions, persons, or events.

Gonad

Gonad One of two paired endocrine glands related to sexuality and reproduction. Thefemale gonxls arethe ovaries and themale gonads are the testes. Gonorrhea A venereal disease of the genital nlucous membrane, it is caused by the gonococcus Neisseria gonorrhoeae and infects both sexes. I n the male, a purulent discharge from the penis is noted as a result of inflammation of the urethra. Sometimes in the female it is asymptomatic but it usually includes urethral orvaginal discharge. Painful urination is frequently present in both sexes. Gonorrhea may cause health and learning problems. SEE: k r l e r c d Disl~osr(VU), l l r l ~ t / f r ~ l Governance A formal system of management by governmental agencies of the educational system. Gower’s sign (Sir William Gower, British neurologist, 1845-1915) A symptom o f muscular dystrophy associated with the Duchenne typeof dystrophy. It is characterized by ‘1 student‘s inability to stand after having been seatedon a chair oron the floor. One must place one’s hands on one’s knees and thighs and “walk up” the legs, pushing oneself into an upright position. The individual might also grab onto a post or pole or push off a desk top in order to straighten the back into a vertical position. This is a result of a weakening of the stomach, thigh, and back muscles in the disease process. SEE: Mlrsclrlnr Qstrop/r!/ ( M D ) Grade A number or letter used to indicate Iww well (or how poorly) a student has performed (eitheron a single examination or on all the student’s work in a given subject throughout a given time period). Grade equivalent A grade-equivalent score is computed by finding the mean raw score for children at each grade level. If the mean score for a group of fourth graders ona reading test is 40, then a child with J score of 40 would be performing at the fourth-gradelevel. These scores are generally reported in whole number and decimal form. So, a

- Grammatical rules

child with a 4.2 grade equivalent in reading would be performing at the fourth grade, second month level. Grade membership A rating of the extent to whicha particular item fits into a given category. Graded schools Schools that place students in year-long programs or levels such as the first grade, second grade, etc. Most school systems are organized with grades from kindergarten through grade 12. Grading on the curve The normreferenced type of scoring; an individual’s performance rating dependson how that performance comparesto the average performance of the whole group. Grading system The procedure used by a teacher to arrive atn number or letter expressing the qualityof a student‘s performance in an academic subject. Graduate student A term used to describe a student who already holds a first degree or is studying at a postbaccalaureate level such as a student in a master in education (M.Ed.) or a master ==+I in teaching (MAT) program. Grammar school 1. The ancient secondary school in Greece where young men between the agesof 12 and 16 were taught Greek classics and
Grammaticus - Group polarization

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llzI -

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verbs, subjects, predicates, and other Gray matter In the central nervous sysparts o f speech, aswell as with the tem (CNS), collectionsof neuron cell tenses (present, past, and future), etc. bodies present an off-white, dirty yellow appearance. This is in contrast to the Grammaticus One of the teachers who white matter also of the CNS. taught in ancient Roman grammar schools. Great books Refers to the timeless classics in literature (e.g., Homer and ShakeGrand mal or grand mal seizure A speare). Leaders of the perennialist typical epileptic seizure characterizedby school of thought have used the “Great loss of consciousness. The person colBooks” to help establish a n education lapses, becomes rigid, has involuntary philosophy. SEE: pcrcwuinlisrrr muscle contractions, may bite his/her tongue, and pass urine. If you are in the Gross motor skills Voluntary, coordipresence o f someone experiencinga nated activity of large muscles. Such grand mal seizure, do nottry to stop the skills are exemplified in running, throwattack; align the head and turn the ing, swimming, sliding, vaulting,etc. patient to one side to aid breathing. PreGross National Product (GNP) The vent the person from swallowing sum total value of goods and services his/lwr tongue, and place a pad generated by the membersof a nation between the teeth if possible. Contact a during a specific time period medical authority and allow the person G r o u p A set of at least two persons to rest following the attack. SEE: petit who interact with one another and are J l l f l l SCiZllI’l’ each influenced by the other. Sometimes Grants Money stipends awarded typithis is referred to as a “face-to-face” cally after a grant proposal ( e g , for cur.. . . group. riculum projects, computers, research, Group auditory trainers A wireless etc.) has been submitted to a funder for FM device that amplifies soundfor acceptance. Grantwritingusually groups of hearing impaired students or or brief involves submitting an abstract individuals. The FM nonwire system summary of the proposed project, objecallows complete freedomof movement ti\m and goals for the project, a needs for both the teacher and student(s). assessment. a time table of activities/ Group consequences The assignment inlplementation, planned assessmentof of rewards (and/or punishments) to an outcomes, and budgetary information. entire group for the extent to which the Some Internet sites for grant information group members obey their orders and include: The United States Department are well-behaved. of Education Grants and Contracts at http://gcs.ed.gov; The Foundation Cen- Group facilitator An individual who ter at http:/ / fdncenter.org, and Yahoo! leads a group by giving constructive Education Grants Link at http://www. feedback to members whointeract with yahoo.com/Education/Grants. one another in such a way that positive facilitative growth is the major outcome. Graphic organizers Written diagrams or outlines that illustrate the main struc-Group focus The extent to which most ture of the material to be read. Key tergroup members continue to be involved minology is used to create a “skeleton” in the group’s activity. that depicts the sequence and organiza- Group investigation A type o f learning tion of the textual material. that involves working in cooperative Grasping reflex In infants, a response manner and brainstorming.SEE: U ) O / J ( % in which the child grasps objects placed tive learning, brairlstorltlirlg in the palm of the hand. Group polarization An effect of group Grave’s disease (Robert J. Graves, Irish membership in which the participants physician, 1797-1853) SEE: adopt a more extreme formof behavior /l!/~~~’I‘t/l~/I‘~J;~f;~ftl

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Group t e s t Habilitation _I^__

I__

and travel.An additional factor to conthan they would have done as sider is the companionship provided by individuals. the dog. Group test A testing instrument designed to be given to groups such as aGuide-o-ramas Commercialorteacherclass of students, rather than to an indi- made reading guides that assist the reader to note certain information while vidual. For example, IowaTest of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the Scholastic Aptitude reading. Test (SAT). Group tests can be givento Guided discovery A modified form of many students at the same time. SEE discovery learning; the teacheris permitindividual test ted to use a limited amount of direction. Group therapy SEE: activity group Guided reading procedure A reading therapy method developed to improve an individual's ability to generate questions Grouping Also calledhomogeneous while reading andto organize reading grouping, it is the placement of students material for enhanced recall (developed together based on their abilities and by Manzo, 1975). interests. This is sometimes referred to as "ability" grouping. SEE: flexible group- Guilty knowledge test A system for ing, heterogeneous grouping, homogeneous using the lie-detector apparatus or polygrouping graph. The individual is asked a setof neutral control questions and a few Groupthink The tendency of the memquestions that the individual,if he/she bers of a small and cohesive group to had never been on the scene, should not place the cohesivenessof the group ahead of rationality in arriving at a joint be able to answer. If the physiological responses (breathing rate, heart rate, decision. blood pressure, and galvanic skin Growth spurt The rapid increase in response) to the guilty-knowledge quesheight and weight that precedes fullblown adolescence; usually during ages tions are radically different from those to the control questions, the subject is 8-10 for girls and10-12 for boys. deemed to have failed the test. GRP SEE: GuidedReadingProcedure Gustation The sense of taste. The taste Guide dogs These are also known as buds in the papillaeof the tongue detect seeing-eye dogs. They are specially andinterpretchemicaltastestimuliin trained dogs to assist the seriously visu- the saliva. There are four taste qualities; ally impaired or the blind for mobility namely, sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.

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Habilitation Unlikerehabilitation,thisone'spastexperience.Inotherwords, is the training of a student or other per- habilitation soninskills,knowledge,and/orinfor-andknowledge. mation that heretofore were not part of

is the teaching of new skills

119

Habitual pitch

Habitual pitch

- Handicapped

The range of sound (high or low) ora specific level of tone that a person normally uses when spe‘1king.

the unequal treatment based on a handicap). Handicapped A handicapped person is one who displays sevcral of the cxcepHair cell A type of receptor cell associtionalities regardless o f whether or not ated with theinner-ear senses of hearing he/she requires special education. There and balance.There is a hair or cilium are several handicapping conditions or extending from the receptor cell into a problems that require special attention surrounding fluid-filled canal. The fluid or consideration in our schools and commoves in response to stimulation, levermunities. These include: I . Edrtarldr r f w / r age on the hair is exerted, and a generatall!/ n7h7rd~?I; A type o f mental retardator potential results. tion that includes students w h o are educable in the academic, social, and Halfway house Usually, aresidential occupational areas, even though sonic home or other smallfacility used to supervision may be necessary. 2. 7’mirrbridge the gapfor students with disabilnblr rrlcrltnlly r,cVnrdcd: A form of niental ities from institutional placement to retardation that includes students who community living. Persons who are are capable o f very limited meaningful unable to live independently in theconiachievement and adaptive functioning munity (e.g., the mentally retarded) are in social and academic areas but‘we frequently placed in halfway houses asa capable of benefitting from training in first step in the deinstitutionalization of self-care and rote or simple j o b skills. the disabled. 3. Hord ~$lrmrirrc~; A type of hearing Hallucinogens Also known as psycheimpairment, permanent or temporary, delics. These psychoactive drugsalter that can adversely affect a student’s educonsciousness to the extent that visualor cational performance. The individual auditory perception of nonexisting stimhas some residual hearing and may benuli takes place. There is also a disturefit from hearing aids and other xlaptabance of time perception. tions for the hearing impaired. 4. D q f : Halo effect The influence of the general A severe hearing loss that impairs proimpression of a person upon the rating cessing of language (acquisition and o f one particular typeof performance by usage) with or withoutamplification. ssz=; that person. The deaf are at a great educational disadvantage. 5. S~,erclt-irrrpni~t.il:A Hammer One of the three bones of the commuliication/language disorder that three-bone chain in the middle ear. It is may include stuttering, articulation shaped like a hammer and is commonly problems, language usage, or other referred to as the hammer and voice impairments that cannegntively technically referred to as the malleus. affect a student’s academic and/or social SEE: ~ J I U / / W ~ A functioning. 6 . Vis1117//!//rf7rrr~ic~7~J~fl’rf: Handedness Thepreference for using visual impairment that, evenwit11 corone hand rather than the other(Icftrectional lenses, adversely affects a stuhanded, right-handed). dent’s academic and/or social perforHandicap A disadvantage of some sort. mance. This category includes both It may be the result of a physical disabilpartially seeing and blind children and ity or a learning disability, for example. adolescents. 7. St~ic~rrsl,~/ E r r r o t i o r t l ~ l l ! /Disflfl.[JCd(SED): A cognitive/behavioral Handicapism A term now in use by disorder whereby the individualexhibits activists who are opposed to the one or moreof the following symptoms unequal treatment frequently received over a long period of time (usually more by those with handicaps. The term has than six months) and to
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Handicapped Head Start program

expected levels, which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (b) an inability to create or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with family members, peers, teachers, and other adults; (c) inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances (i.e., abnormal behaviors would be expected when there is a death of someone particularly close, for example); (d) a general pervasive mood of sadness, unhappiness, or depression; and (e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms (e.g.,stomach ache, headache) or fears related to personal or school problems. The term SED includes individuals who are schizophrenic or autistic. 8. Ortlzoyedically inrpnired: A severe orthopedic (related to bones and bone structures) impairment that can adversely affect an individual’s educational and social experiences. The term includes problems caused by congenital anomalies (clubfoot) or diseases as well as those from other causes (e.g., accidents).9. Other Izealth-irrzpairinelzts: There are acute health problems that can limit a child or adolescent’s physical strength, alertness, and cognitive functioning and, as a result, negatively impact educational experiences. These would include problems like heart conditions, AIDS, venereal diseases, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, nephritis, asthma, sickle-cell anemia, hemophilia, epilepsy, lead poisoning, cancer, leukemia, or diabetes. 10. Specific Iearniizg-disubltd Disorders in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may be manifested in impairments in listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or math. The term currently includes children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Learning disabilities are thought to be a result of some type of neurological dysfunctioning,persisting over time, which is familial in nature, cross cultural, and involves social

misperceptiveness.11. Denf-blind: A combination of hearing and visual impairments that can result in severe language/communication problems and other developmental, social, and educational problems that require very specialized programming. 12. Mziltihi71zdicapped: Concomitant impairments (such as mentally retarded-deaf, mentally retarded-epileptic,etc.) excluding the deaf-blind students who make up another category. Usually the problems associated with multiple handicaps cause severe social and educational problems that cannot be accommodated in regular/special education programs solely for one of the impairments. See the above italicized terms for more information. Haptics The science of tactile and kinesthetic sensation (i.e., the sense of touch). Hard-drive program Some computers use hard disks, usually called hard drives, and these are frequently built right into the base of the computer. A hard drive has a large storage capacity (20 megabytes [MB] to 80 or more MB) and is suitable for special education programs in that they can store frequently used paperwork data and programs. SEE: CD-ROM, megabytes Hard of hearing SEE: Izeariizg impaired Harshness A term used to describe a quality of speech that is strident, discordant, perhaps coarse, loud, and/or obtrusive, as well as unpleasant to hear. Hashimoto’s struma (Hakura Hashimoto, Japanese surgeon, 1881-1934) Sometimes erroneously called Hashimoto’s disease, it is a condition characterized by chronic inflammation and enlargement of the thyroid gland. SEE: thyroid Hawthorne effect A change in performance by a group of research subjects, workers, or students, primarily resulting from their knowledge that they are being observed rather than from a variable being manipulated by the observers. Head Start program Federally funded programs at the preschool level that are

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Head teacher - Heat exhaustion

designed to provide Iearning/social experiences for underprivileged and chikiren with disabilities. SEE: /lf711diCf?/J[7c7d

a

Head teacher 1. The early American educational practice of having a teacher serving as a principal (administrator) and a teacher at the sametime. 2. The current practice of having a particular teacher who is well versed in the pedagogy of the level served become a mentor or leaderof other teachers at that level or discipline. A Healthdisabilityimpairment chronic condition resulting from health problems that interferes with the physical and emotional well-being of students or persons. Normal development to include schooling may be interrupted. Such impairments require special-needs equipment, accommodations, or programs. For example, students with asthma, diabetes, epilepsy, allergies, etc. Normally, these conditions are chronic and require continuedmedical attention. Health disorder A medical condition or disease not as severeas a disability that is disruptive to one’s overall living or to a specific activity but does not necessarily interfere with one’s ability to move about physically in general. Such conditions include but are not limited to heart problems, asthma, AIDS, anemia, etc. SEE: Irc.n/t/l disnbility irupninrlerlt Health psychology A field of applied psychology in which psychological knowledge is employed in the prevention and/or treatment of medical complaints. An example of health psychology in action would be themodification of health-impairing behavior patterns. Hearing aid An electromechanical apparatus used to amplify sound and used to assist persons with hearing impairments in order to compensate for any loss of hearing. Hearing impaired A hearing loss from mild to severe wherein it is difficult but not impossible to comprehend speech or to hear sounds with the earalone, with or without sound amplification (e.g., a hearing aid).

122

Hearing impairment A term used in special education and in general to indicate a student or other individual having some type of hearing loss. This loss might be mild (-27 to -40 decibels), moderate (-41 to -55 dB), or moderatesevere (-56 to -70 dB). These classifications are considered “hardof hearing.” To be classified as “deaf,” hearinglosses must be as follows: s e ~ e r e(-71 to -90 dB) and profound (-91 d B or greater). Note: dB is the symbol for decibcl(s), units of loudness. SEE: I f l Y i h c ’ / ((is) Hearing loss, types of There are three major types of hearing loss: conducti\re, sensorineural, and mixed. A conductive hearing loss results from damage to thc outer or middle cars, which impedes sound transmission to the inner ear. A sensorineural hearing loss involves darnage to the inner ear and auditory 11erve. The third type of loss, or mixed type, involves both conductivc and sensorineural impairments. SEE: ( . ~ ) ~ / d ~ ~ c . / i i ~ c ~ , SClfSOl’ill~’fll.~/, l l l l t f l I l i X t ’ d / ~ C O i ’ ; l l/OSS ~~

Hearing threshold Thc point or Ie\d at which a student can hear thesoftest sound at each frequmcy tested. Heart failure I . Stoppage of the heart beat. 2. A condition wherein tlw h e x t fails to maintain adequate blood circulation. May be caused by the failure of either the left or right \wltriclc, or both. SEE: c o ~ r ~ c ~ I~r tc i~ in ~r .cf j i ~ i l u ~w ,~ c ~ / ~ t r i c / c Heart Rate Response Audiometry (HRRA) Used to dctermincauditory thresholds through changes in electrocardiogram responses to auditory stimuli. SEE: ~.lcct~c)cnr.rfic~~~.r.n/rr Heat exhaustion Also known as heat prostration, a condition characterized by nausea, headache, weakness,‘1nd collapse. While the body temperaturcis usually normal the skin is clammy, pale, and cold, and the pupils are nortml. Students or persons shouldbc taken to
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Heatstroke Hemophilia

development and loss of normal motor Also known as hyperfunctioning. pyrexia o r sunstroke, ‘1 condition characterized by headache, fast pulse, numbHemianopia A condition characterized ness, confusion, delirium, andcessation by no vision for half of the normal field of perspiring, The body temperature is of view (e.g., left hemianopia allows \very high (105 degrees and up),the face only vision on the right side of the usual is red and dry, m d the skin is hot and visual field). dry. Students o r persons should be taken Hemiplegia A condition that involves to a cool place and preferably placed in paralysis of one half of the body (the a11ice bath or covered with wet sheets. right or left half). Keep head elevated. Usually caused by Hemispheres The two sides of the cereexposure to the sun. Heatstroke should bral cortex. At first glance, the leftheminot be confused with heat exhaustion. sphere seemsto be a mirror image of the SEE: / r n ~cdrrlrrstiorl t right. However, there aredifferences in Hebephrenia/hebephrenic An older detail. The left hemisphere extends farname for the disorganized formof ther back and the right hemisphere schizophrenia. Its L I S L I ~ Iage of onset is extends farther forward.Also, certain before 20 years. The personexhibits structures are much larger on one side bimrre and silly childlike behavior. A than the other. SEE: lrcrtrisplreric student with hebephrenia may be dflcrcwces bouncing off the wall (so to speak) one Hemisphericdifferences Theunique minute and then down and depressed functions of one hemisphereof the cormother. It is not uncommon for students tex that are not matched by the other. to show scmeless thoughtprocesses, For example, the controlof expressive hallucinations, and delusions. Somelanguage andof language reception is times these students will laugh out loud normally restricted to one hemisphere for no apparent reason, babble incoher(the so-called ”dominant hemisphere”), ently, make funny faces, and posture in a which is (in most persons) theleft strange and a b s ~ ~ fashion. rd SEE: hemisphere. SC/Il~O/J/ll’CiI~ll Hemispheric specialization The conHeimlichmaneuver (H. J. Heimlich, cept of the lateralization of certain contemporary American surgeon, 1920) behavioraland physiological functions A special technique used to dislodge in either the left or the right sideof the food or a foreign object lodged in the brain. Usually, such specialization is pharynx o r trachea that is preventing the confined to the cerebral cortex, but the flow o f air to the lungs.It is an effective thalamus is involved to some extent as method that forces air against the well. SEE: I~ertrisphcricrlflcrc~ces,/ n k r n / i f y obstruction and thus dislodgesit. The Heimlich maneuver consists of three Hemolytic disease A disease charactersteps as follows: 1. wrap both arms from ized by destruction of red blood cells behind around the person‘s waist, in the fetus asa result of opposite and 2. make a fist with either hand andplace incompatible Rh factors between the it agninst the abdomen between therib mother and the fetus. SEE: Rh cage and the navel, and 3. clasp your fist illcortrpntibilit!y with your other hand and press inward Hemophilia A genetic sex-linkedblood and upward in a forceful manner. disorder (almost alwaysaffecting males) Repeat several times and continue as that is transmitted by a recessive gene necessary. Call 911 if needed. from the mother. The hemophiliac‘s Heller’s disease A cerebral degenerablood is not able toclot properly, caustive disorder. The degenerationof the ing excess bleeding with injuries. Frebr‘lin causes speech and language disquent blood transfusions are needed abilities a s well as impaired mental with injuries. These individuals are

Heatstroke

123

El =

Herbartian teaching method - High 5chool: A Report on Secondary Education --

‘ excessively sensitive to any blow to the body and are easily bruised. Herbartian teaching method An organized method based on the principles of Pestalozzi that stresses learning by association and consists of five steps (preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application). Heritability A statisticalindex of the extent to which variations in a given trait (anatomical or behavioral) can be attributed to hereditary factors. Hermaphrodite A person exhibiting the characteristics of both a male and a female. A true hermaphrodite has one testis and one ovary; such cases are very rare. Most hermaphrodites are “pseudohermaphrodites”; for unknown reasons, they have not matured completely either as males or as females. Heroin A narcotic drug that is very addictive in nature. It is derived from morphine and usually is in the form of a white crystalline powder. It is not currently used medically. SEE: morphine, opiiI rri Herpes genital A type of herpes wherein lesions appear on the genitals. It is considered a form of Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD). Herpes simplex A recurring infectious disease caused by the herpes simplex virus (Herpesvirus hominis). Usually, it affects the eye and especially the gums and lips. This disease is commonly referred to as “cold sores” or ”fever blisters.” SEE: herpes zoster Herpes zoster An infectious disease that is caused by the virus ”varicellazoster,” the same virus that causes chicken pox. It affects only a limited number of cranial or spinal nerves. Eruptions that are almost always unilateral occur along the nerve pathways. This disease is commonly called ”shingles.” SEE: herpes sinzplex Hertz (Hz) Cycles per second. A measure of the frequency of an energy wave such as light, sound, or the Electroencephalogram (EEG) waves.

Heterochromia iridis A condition in which the eyes are of different colors (i.e., both eyes are not the same color). Heterogeneity In education, the mixing of students regardless of ability level. One finds many variations of ability in a class of students grouped together in this fashion. SEE: homogrrteous groiiping Heterogeneous grouping The grouping of students for instructional purposes into classes with the make-up of the class consisting of individuals with a wide range of abilities and talents (as opposed to homogeneous grouping where students are grouped because of similar levels of ability or functioning). SEE: P.L. 94-142 Heuristic A general approach to solving a problem. It has a guiding function but, unlike an algorithm, it is not an exact procedure that inevitably leads to the solution. Hidden observer In Ernest Hilgard’s theory of hypnotism, this is part of the hypnotized person’s consciousness that remains independent of the hypnotist’s controlling influence. Hierarchy of needs In Abraham Maslow’s model of motivation, this is a five-level categorization of human motives. The basic level consists of physiological motives. In ascending order, the other leveIs are: safety/security needs, social/love needs, self-esteem motives, and the need for selfactualization (total fulfillment of one’s potential). High achievers Students or persons who do well because they expect to be successful and in fact are. Such persons view their success as an incentive to even greater achievement. High-risk children A term used to describe children who because of an assortment of physical, mental, and/or developmental problems, will in all probability be in need of special education services in the future. This includes physical, health, medical, psychological, and/or educational services, etc.

High School: A Report on Seconda y Education in America

A Carnegie

High school diploma

- HIV (Human ImmunodeficiencyVirus)

(result) variable. When more than two Founsla tion for the Advancement o f independent variables are involved,the Teaching lieport in 1983 which recominteraction becomes a higher-order mended 12 priority reforms needed to interaction. restructure and improve the quality of education services at the secondary Hindbrain One of the three main divilevel. sions of the brain. The hindbrain includes the medulla, the pons,m d the ligh school diploma A high school cerebellum. diploma or certificate certifies that a student 11'1s successfully completed a Hippocampus A structure in the limbic course of study at the secondary level system that is part of the "old" cerebral (usu
Hoarseness

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- Homogeneous grouping

years (i.e., around seven years)until the individual is quite disabled. AIDS is the final stage of the HIV infection. AIDS is mostly fatal but being infected with the HIV virus is not the equivalent to havl f l l u f u r w DL$ing AIDS. SEE: Acq~~ircd sicvrc!/ S!/fldr.ofrrc (AIDS), Hullrnrz T-L!/rrr~ J / f o t ~ o / J Vir-rrs / l i c q/pc,/ I / (HTLV-III),

Holmes Group Report A report pub-

lished in 1989 by a group o f education college deans from major universities which recommenclcd tha t teacher education requirements be offered only at the master’s level after students have obtained liberal arts degrees at thebachelor’s level. Standards for faculty in / ! / f f f ~ J / l f 7 f f t ’ f l ~ ) f Jf7SStJ~ifltI’d fl~/f!/ ZJirIIS higher teacher education werc recommended along withspecific commitHoarseness A term used to describe a ments and goals on the part of the instiquality of speech that is coarse or rough tution. The Holrrr1.s R r p t , which was in sound, such as in the case of someone written by deans from colleges of educawith ‘1 cold or laryngitis. tion around the country, urged teacherHodgkin‘sdisease (ThomasHodgkin, preparation programs to institute entryBritish physician, 1798-1866) A lymlevel standards for teachers, to be pl1,ltic disease of unknown origin. It procolnmitted to incre‘lsed diversity in produces progressive enlargemento f the gram planning efforts, to develop nodes of the lymphatic system aswell as university-school partnerships, to stress the liver and spleen along with othertisintellectual soundness, etc. sue. There is lymphoid infiltration of Holophrases Single words that convey blood vessels and bone marrow resultcomplex ideas. ing in anemia (a disorder of the red blood cells). Lymphogranulomatosis Holophrasticspeech Using single may be prcsent; that is, the development words in the place o f entire phrases or of multiple gr,lnular tumors. SEE: nrlcwlin sentences. This is an early stage in the acquisition of language by an infant. Holism A philosophy that dictates that Home or hospital teacher SEE: I r o r r w individuals function asa complete whole unit and cannot be separated in S t l f t f ! ( , /lOS{Jitn/ n f l d / f O l t l C b l 1 l l l f d i l l S ~ f ‘ l f l ~ t i l l f l p u t s a ssuch. Originally presentedby Home study A more and more popular Jan C. Smuts. method of instruction designed for students who live at a distance from educaHolistic scoring The grading of any tional institutions, those who are too ill learning outcome (e.g., essay) with one to attend school, or for students whose score representing the qualityof the parents are notsatisfied with the comessay or work beingassessed as munity school programs. Instructional opposed to a number or letter grade. For materials can be providedto students example, a holistic reading score for a and students must besubject to s h n book review could involve evaluating dardized assessments to measure 1. comprehension and meaning,2. topic acl1ievement, which in turn arc submitfamiliarity/prior knowledge, 3. presented to scllool boards orteaching institutation style, 4. adherence to writing stantions for evaluation. SEE: /IOS\Jiff?/ f7rftf dards specified by the teacher, and / ~ n r t ~ e b o ~ irlstrlrctiorl ~trtf 5. logical/sequential development o f the topic. The opposite approach is called Homeostasis The hility of the body to ”analytic scoring.”SEE: nr~alyficSLXJf’iflg maintain steady statesfor such \wiablcs as blood pressure, temperature,bloodHolmes group A group o f individuals oxygen level, blood glucose level, and from large research-based universities salt/water balance. This is often referred who believe that undergraduate training to as an internal equilibrium. should focus on a strong liberal arts curriculum with teacher-preparation proHomogeneous grouping Thegrouping gram requirements primarily given at o r classifying of students according to the graduate (i.c., master’s degree) level. one or more attributes. Students areLISLISEE: H o l f f r tG ~ W I I ~Rep0l.f ally grouped by ability le\.el (as opposed

126

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Homographs Hospital and homebound instruction

to heterogeneous grouping where stu&nts with differing ability levels are grouped). Frequently, schools will pro\,ide homogeneous tracks or groups for math classes and the like whereby students at certainlevels of functioning W O L I I ~ be in the same groupor class. Homogeneous grouping can be done within a class or between classrooms. Homographs Words that have the same spelling but different meanings. For example, the word Y I has ~ at least 130 different meanings (as ina r m down the street, a I W ~ I for political office, a run in one’s stocking, a truck r m down the highway, etc.). Homonym or Homophone Words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings (e.g., too, to, and two; see, sea; fare, fair). Homophenes Sounds that are identical when articulation lip movements are made. For example, lipreaders cannot differentiate between the letter p and b when others are speaking.Context and other letters allow one to fill in the missing gaps. Homophile A homosexualperson. Someone who is attracted to another sexually of the same gender.

Honors section Specialsections or

classes established for Iligl~-ncI1ievinI:1g students in an academic are‘i. Hoover cane A long white cane LISLI‘I~~Y tipped in red or a fluorescent color (c.g., orange) that is used by the blind o r severely visually impaired for mobility and travel. Hormone A secretion from an endocrine or ductless gland. TheSKIP tion from a ductless gland has totravel via the bloodstream toits site of action. Most hormones chemically are p d y p p tides. The hormones from the gonads and the adrenalcortex, however, are chemically classified as steroids. Hornbook A common teaching tool in colonial times. Single-page pieces of paper were attached toa sheet of cow’s horn which was thentacked to a piece of wood resembling a paddle. This paddle was worn around theneck for easy carrying. Papers on the hornbooks contained math facts, the alphabet, words, prayers, etc. and were frequently the child’s first book or preprimer. Hospice A medical facility that provides terminally ill patients with total psychological and physical care. The three tenets of the hospice concept includepain control, providingcare if Homophone SEE: / m r r m y t i possible the in familiarity of the Homosexuality Typically, being patient’s home, and allowingcontrol of attracted to and preferring to have sextreatment and care toremain in the ual relations with members of one’s own hands of the patient, caregiver, and sex. family. H m i g u. Doe A legal decision regarding Hospicemovement A movement the suspension and expulsionof stuadvocating that care for the terminally ill dents withdisabilities. A Supreme Court should be providedin the familiarity of decision, 108 S. Ct 592 (1988), stating the patient’s home whenpossible, or in that suspensionof up to 10 days does comfortable settings similar to the home not constitute a change of placement in environment. It also advocates alleviaan IEP under the EHA/IDEA but sustion of pain with proper medications pensions of over 10 days or indefinite and allowing control of treatment and suspensions violate the EHA/IDEA’s care (decision making) to remainin the ”stay put” provision. The Court further hands of the patient, caregiver, and ruled that expelling a student whena family. student’s misbehavior is caused by Hospital and homebound instruction his/her special need or disability is illeWhile this service may be provided to gal. SEE: P.L. 94-142, Edfrcotiorffor All any regular dayor special-needs child, it HO~I~~W Act\ I(EHA); / X ~ n t l d P.L. 101-476, is normally a service delivered to a child lridizkfIm/s iclit/l Disnbilities Educntion Act who is on an individual educationplan (IDEA)

127

El =

Hot line - Huntington'6 chorea

in a hosgitd or home settingso long as humans are essentially good but arecorrupted by the social order. Therefore, the the student is unable to attend regular school. This typeof service is usually task of the schools is to be liberating and temporary in nature except in the case of to allow human freedom to find expressevere illnesses or disabilities. sion. This view is related to the philosophy of naturalism that was foundedby Hot line A 21-hour telephone service to Rousseau. According to this philosophy, assist persons; that is, to provide comthe individual student slwuldbe fort and/or information in a very timely allowed to make the importantchoices fashion, such as a suicide hot line, 911 relating to the student's owncduc'ltion. emergency line, prayer lines, abuse and A modern educational humanist was neglcct lines, etc. A. S. Neill, author o f the influential book Household Consists of all individuals Slrrrrrrcrlrill. SEE: cxistcwtinlisrlr, mtrrrdisrtr, (related and unrelated) who occupya ~~llilos~>plf~/ 'f'dlrcntiofl household unit. A condominium, house, Humanist An individualwho is apartment, multiple-family dwelling, single room,etc. are regarded as housing focused on the human needs andinterests of his/her learners. SEE: Irrrrrmrlistic units when occupied.A household ap~lr~lfldl includes related family members (bioHumanistic approach The approach logical and adopted)m d all unrelated that focuses on psychological or emopersons, roomers, foster children, wards, or other individuals who share the hous- tional conflicts within the indi\riciual that influence behaviors. Proponents o f ing unit. A person living alone i n a housthis approachbelieve that these internal ing unit is also counted asa household. conflicts interfere with the coping mechHouseholder The actually named peranisms of the individual. Treatment son or personsin whose name(s) the involves being opento alternative dwelling is listed as owners, rentees, or approaches and the individual learning leasees. If property is owned, rented, or styles, interests, and needs of the le'lsed jointly, then each person (husindividual. The teacher is encouraged to band and wife) is considered a housebecome a friend o f the student and a holder. SEE: horrsclloltl facilitator of his/her learning. HRRA SEE: H m r t Rott7 R C ~ / J W I W Humanistic teacher education A type Autliorfrc+ry of education concerned with training HTLV 111 (Human T-Lymphotrophic prospective teachers a s real and caring Virus Type 111) Also known as one of persons. Emotional and attitudinal the AIDS viruses. SEE: Hrrlrrnfl I r r r r r f r r r l o growth and developmentactivities as tft;fic.ic>jrc!/ V / r f / s(HIV),Acrl1litd I r l r l r r I r r I c well as reflective practices are employed. Dtficic'rrt.!/ S ! / / d r O t l l c (AIDS) SEE: I ~ ~ ~ J I I ~ nppt'IJI7c-h I I ~ S ~ ~ C Human ecology The study of a total Hunter's disease (C. H. Hunter, Canasystem of ilifluences/situatious that dian physician, contemporary) A metaaffect the actions/lifestyles of the people bolic disease also known as of that system.A classroom environment mucopolysaccharidosis, it is characteris a study of human ecology as several ized by mental retardation,skeletal influences/\~ariables/individualsinfluabnormalities, heart disease, enlargeence the social/cnlotional/cultural qualment of the liver, and clawlike hands. ities of the classroom. Children U S L I ~ I Idie ~ in the first 10 years Human Immunodeficiency Virus of life but with milder formsthey may live into their 60s. SEE: Hlrrlrr's disc.nsc7 SEE: HIV

Human T-lymphotrophic VirusType 111 SEE: HTLV Ill Humanism The approach in the philosophy of education which holds that

Huntington'schorea

(G. Huntington, American physician, 1850-1916) A genetically transmitted disease of the central nervous system(CNS), its onset is usually between 30 to 50 years. It is a

Hurler’s disease

presenile dementia characterizedby bizarre and spasmodic movements of the limbs ‘IS well as strange behavior and mental retardation. Hurler’s disease (Gertrud Hurler,Austrian pediatrician 1889-1965) A hereditary disorder of the metabolism also known as lipochondrodystrophy,it can cause mental retardation in a child if left untreated. Thereis a congenital abnormality of the bones andcartilage, kyphosis (hunchback), and other physical abnormalities such asa flat, broad nose, thick lips, and cloudy corneas. SEE: Hlrnter’s discnsc Hydrocephalus A conditionthat involves excess pressure from cerebrospinal fluid buildup inside the head precipitated by tumors, meningitis, encephalitis, etc. The fluid in essence is blocked and cannot circulate resulting in excess pressure and an enlargementof the head. This condition results in mental retardation, the degreeof which depends on how early the condition is detected and treated.Treatment involves placing a shunt or tube in the head area to drain the fluid. SEE: CLwhrospitlnl F l u i d (CSF) Hyperactivity Higher-than-normal levels of expected physical activity. There is an increased tendency to fidget, move about in one’s seat, move from place-toplace, and not attend to tasksfor long periods of time. Such individuals may require medical interventions (e.g., drug treatment). SEE: Affcwfioff-Deficif/ H!/pw7ctirjity Disorder ( A D H D ) Hyperglycemia A conditioncharacterized by abnormally high levels of glucose or sugar dextrose in the blood, it is often related to diabetes (excess sugar in the blood). It can make one moresusceptible to infection and can result in coma (diabetic coma). SEE: diah~tes Hyperkinesis A conditioncharacterized by a high rate of sustained motor activity. Persons or students with this condition just cannot seem to sitstill; they are always on the”go,” so to speak. SEE: /f!/pOkilfl’Sis

- Hyperthyroidism

Hyperkineticbehavior

Behavior that involves excessive physical activity in an inappropriate fashion. Hyperkinetic behavior is a component of AttentionDeficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). SEE: hyperactiuity, Attc,fltiorr-DL.ficit/ Hypernctivify Disordrr ( A D H D ) Hypermnesia 1. Hypnoticallyinduced recall. The validity o f hypnotically induced memories is questionable. Hypnosis leads toan increase in the number of reported memories, someof them true and somefalse. 2. An outstanding/ extraordinary ability to remember names, dates, and other facts. Hypernasality A disorder of speech involving voice resonance. Too much air passing through the nasalcavity gives the voice of the speaker a higher pitched, irritating, whining sound which most listeners findto be unpleasant. SEE: /nyponnsnlify Hyperopia Farsightedness.The inability to see close objects clearly. This is attributed to a shortening of the eyeball so that the focal point for rays of incoming light is behind the retina. Hypertelorism A cranial facial anomaly characterized by anexcessive distance between the eyes. It could also be an excessive or abnormal width between two paired organs other thanthe eyes. Hypertension A medical term for high blood pressure. It is usually a result of constriction of the peripheral blood vessels butit can be psychological as well. It is usually reported as a set of numbers such as 150 (systolic) over 90 (diastolic); this is also the generallyaccepted limit for high blood pressure.Systolic means the amount of blood ejected from the heart during contractionof the ventricle. Diastolic means the least pressure in the arterial system while the heart dilates and fills with blood. Hyperthyroidism Also calledGrave’s disease, it is a medical condition caused by an overactivethyroid gland that produces too muchthyroxin (the thyroid hormone). Studentsor persons with this condition have a higher rate of metabolism. Such persons aretense, anxious, 129

Hypertonicity

- Hypothyroidism

inattentive in cbss, have finger tremors when the hand is extended, have weight loss, and are generally nervous in nature. Students with hyperthyroidism find it difficult to sit still. SEE: /f!/~J[lt/f!/~(l;[i;~rff

Hypertonicity SEE: / y p v & w ~ r s Hypertonus Greater than normal mus-

-

Hypoglycemia A condition wherein the blood contains abnormally low amounts of glucose or sugar dextrose,a s it is sometimes called. Persons suffer acute fatigue, general weakness, andmalaise. In severe cases delirium, coma, and death may result.

Hypokinesis A condition in which movement and motoractivity is se\rerely cle tension in the form of spasms. restricted. Persons with this condition Hyperventilation A term used to tend to be sluggish,listless, and poky. It describe very rapid and deep breathing. is the oppositeof hyperkinesis. Such activity can cause one to become Hyponasality A disorder of speech lighthecldcd or dizzy asa result of carinvolving voice resonance. Too little air bon dioxidc depletion.This condition is passing through the nasal cavity gives usually accompanied by very marked the voice of the speaker a quality of anxiety. Breathing into a paper bag (nose sound as if one has a head cold. SEE: , ~ n dmouth in bag) or pressing onenos/f!/~7~~~~f~?s~fIit!/ tril closed ,IS well as keeping the mouth closed and thus breathing only through Hyporesponsive A studcnt or person one nostril will relieve these symptoms who is slow to respond such asin the by returning carbon dioxide levels to case of some persons wit11 learning normal. disabilities. Hypnosis An altered state of conscious- Hypothalamus A part of the forebrain ness actively induced by another person, involved in emotional and motivational the hypnotist. Thc hypnoticsubject processes. It helps to regulate eating, responds to the commands of the hypdrinking, sexual activity, sleeping and notist by altering her/his sensations, waking cycles, body temperature, and behaviors, and cognitiveprocesses. emergency reactions. The hypothalnmus is directly connected to both the anterior Hypoactivity A term similar to hypokiand the posterior pituitary glands.Its nesis that indicates a lack of activity and functions are alsolinked to those of the Ic~thclrgy. Activity is abnormally low and autonomic nervous system. se\,erely restricted. SEE: Ilypkifwsis Hypochondriacal delusion

A condition in which a person believes he/slle is suffering from some sort of bizarre and exotic disease or medical disorder. Hypochondriacal neurosis A condition in which a person always thinks that something is physically, mentally, or mcdically wrong with himself/herself. Such a person is anxious about bodily functions JS well as preoccupied with the idea that he/she is ill or suffers from some medical disorder or disease.SEE: /f!/~J(l~’/l[lrl~i~;~f~;~

Hypochondriasis Thetendency to interpret any slightinternal sensation as a dangerous symptom of some disease process. This is classified as a somatoform disorder in the Diclpwstic rlmi Stntisticnl Mnrrrrr7l ofMcrltnl D i s d c w , IV

130

Hypothesis An educated guess or proposed relationship between events that are either observed or imagined.It is also, in research, the primary assumption or predictionof the results of a study or experiment. Hypothetic-deductivereasoning An approach to problem solving, with the individual identifying all the variables that could be involved in a problem situation, then going on to deduce thelogical consequences o f the action of each of those variables, and finally testing to see if those consequences do occur. The process continues until all the deduced possible solutions have been tested. Hypothyroidism Amedical condition characterized by slow metabolismas a result of an underactive thyroid gland that does not producesufficient thyroxin

-

Hypotonia Id

anxiety, sensory motor disturbances, and (the thyroid hormone).It is in fact a sometimes organic disordersfor which lesser form of cretinism. Symptoms include obesity, lethargy, low blood pres- no organic cause is apparent, such as an sure, sluggishness with low tolerance forinability to walk, deafness, blindness, etc. SEE: hysterical neurosis, hysterical sustained activity, and in general alackpersonality luster approachto schooling orlife. It is the oppositeof hyperthyroidism. SEE Hysterical neurosis A physical or psyhyperthyroidism, cretinism, thyroid, thyroid chological stateof anxiety in which a hormones person involuntarily loses some normal bodily or mental function. The individHypotonia Loss of muscle tone to a point where itis difficult to move body ual completely denies that the anxiety exists and may be the reason for loss the parts. It is considered a type of cerebral of normal function.SEE: hysteria palsy. SEE cerebral palsy Hysterical personality A category of HypotonicitySEE hypotonia personality wherein the individual Hypoxia A condition that prevents appears to be emotionally unstable. Furin enough oxygen from reaching tissues ther characteristics include an abnormal the body. desire for attention, overdependence on Hysteria A condition of emotion and others, self-dramatics, and egocentric excitement characterized by excessive behavior. SEE: hysteria, hysterical neurosis

"I" message The announcement in clear, unambiguous language that one is being affected by something. This type of statement, moreover,is not accusatory or blaming. Example:"I" am feeling very tense about our upcoming final exam. ICF SEE: Intermediate Core Facilityfor the

Mentally Retarded/Developrnentally Disabled

m

ninetotenitems as opposed to about five items one can store in echoic (audicZ=: tory) memory.Typically visual s k u l i remain in iconic memory for less than half a second after stimuli(us) have been removed. Most physiologists believe that iconic memory involves more than receptor functions; thatis, higher level visual processing.SEE: engram, memory

trace, encoding,echoic memory, motor code, linguistics, linguistic code Icon A brief visual mental image that Id One of the three components of the will persistfor about one-half-second. This would be the image you see after personality, in Freud's psychoanalytic theory. The id houses the primitive, you stareat an object and thenclose your eyes. Iconic memory Visual sensory memory Our iconic memories can hold between

instinctual, animal drives (including sex and aggression) and acts *accordance with the pleasure principle.

131

IDEA

- Idiot savant

IDEA The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, P.L. 101-476, (1990),

-

feelings by taking on thecharactcristics of someone else, a person stronger and better-equipped than the individual is. which was formerly called Education of Children often resort to identification the Handicapped Act (EHA), P.L. 94-142 and it may be part of the natural process (1?75), ensures that special-needs stuof gaining maturity and confidence.In dents receive an appropriate education pathological extreme cases of this in the least restrictive environment. SEE: defense, paranoid schizophrenics may P.L. 94-142, Appvdis 3: MARCS O I I ~ believe themselves to be incarnations of MAPP great military conquerors or godlike Idea mapping A method of representfigures. ing the structureof expository text by Identity Erikson’s definition of our stausing visual-spatial conceptionsfor diable sense of self where we depend on gramming ideas and therelations ourselves rather than others(e.g., parbetween ideas (e.g., cause and effect) ents) for direction in such areas ascon(developed by Armbruster and Anderduct, decision making, etc. son, 1982). Identity (in Erikson’s theory) The Idealism The pure philosophical posianswer to a person’s struggle to define tion that adheres tothe belief that the himself/herself. senses deceive us. Deductive logic is necessary as reality exists in the human Identityachievement Thecommitment mind. The idea of a physical thing such to an approach tolife that has been as a school is what is real, for example, reached after the free consideration of and not the physical structure. Idealists several alternatives. study the great and enduring ideasof Identity diffusion A state o f doubt and great thinkers (e.g., Martin Luther King confusion about the futuredirection of and Mother Theresa) andsearch for unione’s own life. versal truths ( e g , What is beauty?). The Identity foreclosure The acceptance o f role of the teacher is to be a good role a life choice provided by parents (or model and to be the transmitter of the other authority figures) without freely cultural heritageof the times. Kant considering other options. (1724-1804), Hegel (1770-1831), and I’lato (427-347 KC.) were famous idealIdentityversus role confusion In ists from previous centuries. Erikson’s stage theory of personality de\&qmlent, this is the stage reached Identical (or monozygotic) twins by most people at the onset o f adolesTwins having the same genesbecause cence. Successful growth is reflected in their birth has resulted from a single ferthe establishment of a clear sense of pertilized egg or zygote. The zygote splits sonal identity. This stage corresponds to into two identical cells, with each cell having exactly the same genome (set of Freud’s genital stage; in Erikson’s system, further personal growthis required genes) as the other. If these two were beyond this stage, whereasin Freud’s each to split in the same manner again, theory this is the most mature stage. identical quadruplets would result. Identical twins have to be of the same Idiopathic Symptoms of a problem or a sex. Out of every thousand births, there disease that are present withoutclear are about four setsof identical twins. causation. Spontancous symptoms SEE: t z c i r l , idurticol appear to emerge with no known cause. Identification Any system that is Idiopathicepilepsy Epilepsy withno designed to seek out disabled students. clear etiology. One can not determine its Prekindergarten screening to identify cause. students with potentialspecial needs Idiot savant Amentallydeficicnt, would be an example. One of the retarded, or mentally impairedindiviciFreudian defense mechanisms. One proual who displaysa special ability or taltects oneself from anxieties and painful ent in a single or limited area 132

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IEP (Individualized Education Plan) lmmunohistochemistry *

identifying the workso f a certain illustrator with this particular learning structure. SEE: nnthor s t u d y ILS SEE: Illtegroted Lcorrlirlg Systrrlr Imagery The formation of mental IEP (Individualized Education Plan) images based on past sensations. A written individualized educational Imagery may result from such processes plan that is prepared for students with as memory, dreaming, hypnosis, meditaspecial needs; an educational plan devel- tion, drug effects, and imagination. oped by a team that decides on the genImaginative In language arts, the use of eral goals and specific objectives for a words to create images or mental picspecial-needs student. AnIEP presents tures in a creative and novel fashion. current levels of functioning, background data, test information, long-term IMC SEE: Irwtructiorlnl Motrriols Gwtc.r and short-term goals and objectives, ser- Imitation A kind of learning that partly vices to be provided, time framesfor involves the formationof stimulusservice delivery, and plans for assessing response associations, as in conditionprogress and planned programs.The ing, and also requiresa higher-order IEP must be signedby the parent or cognitive process such as perceptual guardian, the principalor director of the judgment. The learner watches another facility, and the special education adminindividual, the model, perform the istrator after a team evaluation and response to be learned.The model may appropriate assessments have been com- receive reinforcement, punishment o r pleted. While parental signatures are neither. The watcher learns the response required, students can signafter the age in all three cases, but will perform the of 18. This is a requirement under P.L. response (imitation) if the model’s action 94-142. SEE: I?L. 94-242, evnlrrntiotl teotrI has been reinforced. This type of learning is also called observation learning, IFSP (Individualized Family modeling, or social learning. Service Plan) A special needs program o r plan that not onlyidentifies and Immersion 1. In language arts, the sysmeets the needsof a young child but tem of totally involving or flooding the includes the family as well. An IFSP student frominfancy with language. usually refers to plans implemented 2. In the United States, total immersion with preschool children whereas anIEP would mean classes in English-only for usually refers to plans implemented immigrant o r non-English-speaking with grade school students. However, children. the family is involved in both programs Immune system Bodily system that and the terms can usually be used interprotects the body from viruses,bacteria, changeably. SEE: P.L. 99-457 and other dangers to health.The major IGE SEE: I r d i v i d d / ! / G~ridedEdncotiorl active body parts or materials that participate in immunity are 1. antibodies, IIS SEE: Ilztq-rotcd Irrstructiorlnl S!/sterrr which are usually produced in reaction ILE SEE: I l d i z k i t m l Leorrlirlg Espectotion to a vaccination and/or 2. the body cells Illusory contours The perception of themselves, reacting against the antiedges that do not belong to any actual gens, which includered blood cells, stimuli. These are demonstrated by pollen, transplanted tissue, or even the Gestalt psychologists who employ patient‘s own tissues. incomplete pictures that we, the Immunohistochemistry A technique of observers, tend to fill in automatically. labeling nervous system tissues by using Illustrator study An in-depth explothe immune system. This methodresults ration wherein all the works (illustrain the staining of a particular protein o r tions) of an illustrator are studied. Stupeptide wherever it occurs in the brain. dents are expected tobecome familiar at (e.g., memorizing dates, playing theviolin, etc.). The term ”savant” or “savant syndrome” is replacing the less flattering term, ”idiot savant.”SEE: S O Z W H ~ s!/rldrorrrr

133

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I

Impairment

- Incidence

Impairment A term used in a general way that implies a person is functioning in ,I less than normal fashion as a result of some disability o r handicap, whether it be academic, social, psychological, etc.

Impedance audiometry or immitance audiometry The measurement of changes in ear pressure in the auditory canal, which provides information about the eardrum, the bonesin the middle ear, the functioning o f the eustachian tube, and acoustic reflexes. This technique can estimate hearing sensitivity when conventional audiometry is unsatisfxtory. Implied powers Refers to powers that ~e not specifically enumerated in the U S . Constitution but are inlplied from general clauses such as the General Welfare Clause as determinedby the U.S. Suprenw Court. SEE: G P ~ I LWdfnw V~ cflll/sl~

Impotence The inability to have an erection of the male sex organ. Forminga judgment about another person on the basis o f a first acquaintance, an examination of something written bythe person, a photograph, or other information. Impression management Thedeliberate attempt to controlthe type of personal impression that other peoplewill furm about oneself. Imprinting A rapid kind o f learning that takes place in a single trial. The stimulus that is to be imprinted must be presented to the learner ata particular age (usually measured in hours or days). The required age-range is called the critical period or sensitive period. Once the stimuIus has been experienced, its effect is supposedly stamped in for good, which is why this kind of learning is called "imprinting." The acquisition of the species-specific song by male songbirds is one example of imprinting. In species that depend on imprinting,if the sensiti\fe period expires with the young malt never having heard the song, the bird, when mature, will never be able to deliver the song.

Impression formation

134

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Incidental learning Inclusion tilaae o r the Iifetinac of the individuals in question. SEE: prczv7lcr~c.t~ Incidental learning Knowledge and information that a student o r other persola gnins indirectly as a result of studying
I t is thought that integrating specialneeds students withina regular classroom setting promotes improved o p p ~ r tunities for employment following graduation, academic/social outcomes, and preparation for independent living and community life. Legal precedent for inclusionary practices is grounded on the principle of “equal education opportunity” and canbe found in the legal cases of the Per~l~s!/lzlr?r~in Ass(~~ir~/ior~fi~ Rrtardnl C/lildrrw 71. C o ~ r ~ r ~ i o r ~ i ~c!f’ c ’ ~ ? / / ~ i PcrIrry/uorlio (PARC);Mills z’. D.C. Board ~ f E t l ~ r c n t i c l and ~ r ; P.L. 94-142 (renanaeci in 1990 as P.L. 101-176). Various teaching methocls/ayproaches have been used (with varying degreesof success) to support students withspecial needs witlain the regular classroom setting. These include cooperative learning/pecr tutoring, st7ecialist/colleague consultation, team teaching, classroom paraprofessionals, special-needs assistive technology, curriculum and environmental adaptations, planning systems,behcavior modification plans, integrative facilitator support, collaborati\le/tealn teaching, and providing heterogeneous learning groups. Someo f the basic tenets specified in Goals 2000 pertain to inclusiondry practices. From Goals 2000: All children will be ready to learn, the high school graduation rate will improve to YO percent, all adults will be literate and possess the skills necessary to compete in a global economy, teachers will have access to programs that will enhance professional development, and schools will nurture and foster parent partncrships. lnclusionary practices involve providing support services to students (rather than removing studentsfrom classrooms to otherlocales) within the regular classroom setting. Inherent is the assumption that inclusi\re classrooms provide for the individual learning styles and needsof all students and do not require that all students “keep LIP’’ with the standard curriculum. Theeducation commitment o f implementing educational curriculum/practices/ technology to special needs and nonspecial needs students to the maximum extent possible within the regular

m

135

Inclusion goals

- Individual Learning Expectation (ILE)

classroom setting. SEE: A p p e d i w 3: M A R C S nrrd M A P P , Gods 2000, irlclrlsiorl, rrrrliflstr.c,orrrirrs,P.L. 94-242. Inclusion goals The National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDE) has stated thatinclusion goals must focus on reducing the dropout rates andincreasing the numbers of students receiving regular high school diplomas, increasing the numbers of students participating in post-secondary programs such as college, and increasing the numbers o f students with disabilities participating within instructional settings with students without disabilities. Inclusive schooling Refers to schools that embrace a nurturing and supportive environment i n order to meet the social/emotional/academic/psychological needs of all students/teachers/ participants in the learning experience. SEE: P.L. 94-242 Income support Any government program in which an individual receives money that is directed toward everyday living needs. Income tax A tax that generates revenues from an individual or business based on income. Incongruity theory A theory of humor that emphasizes the putting togetherof previously separate objects in an unexpected way that surprises thereader, listener, or viewer. Incontinent A conditioncharacterized = by the lack o f ability or the inability to partially o r compleEely control the bladder or bowels. Sometimesreferred to as incontinence, which is really the condition of being incontinent. Incremental view of ability The belief that a person’s level of ability is changeable. This is the opposite of the entity view of ability.

Incubation Work performed(apparently in an unconscious partof the mind) toward the solutionof a problem while the person is (temporarily) not engaged in purposeful activity directed toward solving the problem.

136

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Incus One of the bones o f the threebone chain in the middle ear. It is shaped similarly to an anvil andis commonly called the anvil. SEE: st qws, rrlnllclrs

Independent learners Refers toindividuals who are ableto use a variety of strategies to facilitate learning/ knowledge acquisition. Independent learners are reflective and are able to self-monitor, self-regulate, self-evaluate, and self-pace; in other words, independent learners possess good metacognitive abilities or skills. Independent school A school that is not affiliated with the public sector i n any way. This is also a school that is not part of a religious institution nor affiliated with any otheragency. In effect, this is a totally independent private school. Independent study 1. An approach to learning that allowsa student to study individually, in depth, and atone’s own rate, topics not generally covered in the regular curriculum. This approach is popular in enrichment programs for the gifted and talented. 2. Any course o r topic studied on an individualbasis by a student independent of a regular class. Independentvariable Theexperimental or causal variable in a cause-andeffect relationship. Also, the activity/ variable/characteristic that directly impacts some behavior (although not necessarily causal).

Individual approach to labeling SEE: idrutif!/ (ill Erikson’s t h m y ) , iderltity w r sus role corlfirsiorr Individualcomparisonstests Refers to post hoc tests. SEE: post /roc tests Individualdifferences Differences amongst students when considering such areas asintelligence, vision, hearing, interests, social development, maturity, physical size and strength, speech and language development,etc.

Individual Learning Expectation (ILE) A student’s average score, which is subject to constant recalculation in order to keepit up-to-date.

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Individual psychology Induction programs

Individual psychology

That branch of psychdogy that attempts to understand the inciividuclt’s experience in terms o f bchaviornl/psychological principles. Individual test A test designed to be administered to one student or individL I ~ ,It I a time as opposed to group tests. SEE:
Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) SEE: I E P Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) An educational plan that pro-

for on-the-job training and/or community living. This written plan,which is the ITP, should reflect the special goals, objectives, and skills that the studellt will require in order to effectively make such changes. The plan shouldalso include the short-term and especially the long-term training components needed in order to meet the goals andobjectives of the transitional plan. TheITP specifies not what is needed as the student moves from program to program or school to school so much as theservices needed to allow the student to move on to inciependent adulthood. SEE: t r n f l S i t i [ J f ltc’411rfS

Individually Guided Education (IGE) An individualized instructional program in which teachers and studentscoordinate and implement learningobjectives, goals, materials, etc.

\rides for services for preschool children under the ageo f three and their families. Individually Prescribed Instruction This plan is similar to the IEP written for (IPI) A systematicstep-by-step school-agc children and is required by sequential method o f instruction that is P.L. YY-457. The IFSP for each infant or particularly concerned with behavioral toddler must include the following: objectives. These carefully arranged 1 . the young child‘s present knowledge behavioral objectives become instruclevel, 2. the resources, needs, concerns, tional objectives as well. SEE: ir~dir~itfrfnland priorities of the family, 3. the major i - d iJJSfrf/CtiOll, ~ l I t f i 7 ~ / 1 f f f n f /GJlilfCd ,l/ Elf!(goals and outcomes for the family and CnfiCJJl (ICE), ~ l l [ f ; 7 l ; [ f f l n / ; : ~ ’El fd l l C n t i O l l PlnJl child (including the criteria to be (1EP) applied), and 4. the specific intervenIndividuals with Disabilities Educations and scrvices needed, the dateof tion Act (IDEA) SEE: lDEA progrml start-up, theexpected duration o f the services to be provided, any plans Induction The type o f reasoning that starts froma set o f particular statements for transition to other services, the extent and proceeds t o a general proposition. to which theservices will be delivered in SEE: d c d f r c t i o l l , /o,qic the cldd’s regular environment, aswell TE-SZ a s the assignment of a plan manager. Induction programs SupportiveproSEE: IFSI’ grams (e.g., teacher mentor programs) that are designed to help education proIndividualized instruction A type o f fessionals during their beginning years. teaching in which the lessons are espeThese programsoften assist teachers cially tailored to fit the necds andabiliduring their first year in order to ties of each individual student. SEE: IEP, enhance successful implementation of f f l l f ~ ? ~ ~ d f f PI.tWJ’ibl’d ~l/~,l/ I l l S f l ’ f l C t i ~ J J l(IPI) pedagogy and instructional strategies, to Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) provide a support system, to improve Mandated by P.L. 101-476 (Individuals retention of promising new teachers, t o with Disabilities Education Act), a stuensure system/state/national standards dent’s IEl’ (Individualized Education are maintained, andto more fully Nan) must includea statement concernexpose the teacher to the school culture. ing planned student transition services and information dealing with the transi- Typically, these beginning teachers have completed an approved college teachertion from schooling to ‘1 changed procertification program. SEE: irltrrrfslrip gram of instruction in another school or jJl’(J~~l‘l7JrfS

137

Inductive discovery learning

- informal reading inventory

Inductivediscoverylearning

_ I

of specifically stated, absolutely solid Learnconclusions. ing that is based on experiences that are very specific with generalizations Inferential comprehension The ability formed thereafter. to apply reasoning andInetacognitive skills to the reading task in order to Inductive hypothesis Making or creatunderstand what is presented. Inferening a generalization/hypothesis based tial comprehension is also called ”readon an observation(s). ing between the lines.” Inductive reasoning An act of logical thinking wherein one reasons from spe- Inferential statistics Statistical pmcecific information to conclude generalities dures that determine whether or not the researcher is justified in generalizing the or general statements. The formulation outcome o f an experiment done with of generalized propositions on the basis small groupsof subjects (i.e., samples) to of known, detailed items of information. the entire populationof all possible releIt is the oppositeof deductive reasoning. vant observations. A finding (from staSEE: dedrrctiw rmsorrirrg, q-rrdc, rurtlrorl tistical inference) that the result o f an Industrial/organizational psychology experiment could easily be the result of An area of applied psychology in which chance requires that theresearcher psychological knowledge and theoretical should not makea general statement on principles are usedfor the benefit o f the basis of that study alone.If the result business organizations, government is given an acceptably low probability agencies, and public institutions. (the lower thebetter, but five chances Industry The positive motivation to out of 100 is often considered the highest work constructively. acceptable probability) that it is a result of chance, then the result may be generIndustry versus inferiority A stage of alized to the entire population. In that personality development inErik Erikcase, the result is considered “statistison’s theory. Successful growth in this cally significant.” stage producesa sense of competence. This stageof development corresponds Infoglut A term used to refer to the to the latency period in Sigmund Freud’s information overload we experiencein theory of personality development. our society because of the electronic media and theexplosion o f o u r knowlInfancy The period of life from birth to edge bases withinthis century. the age of two years. Informalassessment Supplementing Infant stimulation approachlprogram the standardized formal tests that can be Programs designed to stimulate learning given to a group of examinees and such amongst children aged from birthto threeyears.This involves theuse of other measures as observations, teachermade classroom tests, sample behavior stimuli in the areasof vision, hearing, situations, anecdotal records, checklists, motion, touch, taste, and smell. etc. Most diagnosticians combine formal Infantileautism A behavioral/mental nleasures of learning with informal disorder of children and young adults assessments to optimally understand a that begins before the ageof two-and-achild’s learning strengths andweakhalf years. It involves a lack of responnesses. Informal assessments tend to siveness to social stimuli, very poorlanstress the ”why” and ”how” students guage ability, and bizarre behavior. are learning as opposed to formal Inference A term used in education and assessments that focus on “how much” in general speech to identify opinions or students are learning(e.g., informal decisions derived from reasoning about reading inventory). SEE: f i ~ r l n l information. Inferences are not fully nS5es5111elItS developed opinions or decisions; they Informal reading inventory A process fall into the categoryof suggested ideas of administering sequentially graded or possibilities rather than the category and increasingly difficult reading

138

Information age - inner ear ”

paragraphs in order t o determine a student’s reading level of competence in certain areas. Information age Society’s current information explosion resulting from technological advances (e.g., television, mass production of written materials, and other media), with concomitant problems in dealing with vast amounts of changing information. Informationprocessing 1. The study of how we encode, store, and retrieve information from the world around LIS. A computer-based model is used by individuals from this school of thought who believe that our thinking processes somewhat model the operations of a computer (which must encode, store, and retrieve data upon request).2. The intake of information, the storageof such information, the retrieval of the information, and the application of the retrieved information by an individual or computer. Informationprocessingmodel The view of learning and memory thatis based on the similarity between the brain m d a computer. Information is considered to be encoded during acquisition, stored during the formationo f memories, and retrieved at the time o f recall. Information processing theory of learning disabilities A theorythat the causation of learning disabilities is based on a student’s inability to organize one’s thoughts in a systematic way. Further, the theory specifies that the student lacks the ability to approach the learning task in an organized fashion. SEE: Lcnrlrirrg Disohility ( L D ) Infused A term used in education to describe the expansionof the regular curriculum to include enrichment materials and activities. This is often the case in programs for the gifted and talented. Infusion approach In effect, aphilosophy of education positing that “career education” should be included as an integral part of the curriculum and not presented separately as anisolated area of study.

-

Itlgrahnnt u. Wright, 1977 I n this c C w , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled th‘lt states may constitutionally establish corporal punishment and authorize such without prior hearing or notice to a student‘s parents. Consent of parents is not required. Further, the ruling held that the administration of corporal punishment does notviolate ‘1 student‘s rights under the eighth amendment. On the other hand, states mayelect to eliminate or limit the use of corpord punishment. The corporal punishment must bereasonable in nature and degree. Inhalants Psychoactive d r ~ ~ that g s dre consumed by inhaling their vapors. Inhalants may be depressants, stimulants, opiates, or hallucinogens. Initiative The motivation to start new activities and to be creative. Initiative versus guilt I n Erikson’s stage theory of personality development, this is the stage in which the child is successful when he/she canact spontaneously in a socially responsible nunner. It corresponds to the phallic stage in Sigmund Freud’s model of personality development. Innate 1. A condition that reflects the basic nature o f things, 2. a condition present from birth, 3. originating in the mind, not from external sources and not learned as a result of experiences. Innate response system Themotor responses that a child has at birth.They appear t o be unlearneci and instincti\re. For example, crying. Inner directedness A personal condition wherein one relies upon onesc)lf for advice and direction in order to come t o solutions with problems onefaces. SEE: irltrrrlnl locrrs c f c o r l t r o l Inner ear The fluid-filled cavity that is often called the labyrinth becauseof its complex functions and parts.The inner ear is divided into twosections: the cochlea (responsible for converting mechanical sound waves to electrical impulses via the cochlear nerve) and the vestibular mechanism (restwnsiblefor our sense o f balance). After the cochlear nerve is stimulated and electrical 139

__

Inner-ear deafness or nerve deafness

- Institutions of higher education

impulses arerelayed to the auditory cortex, sound is heard.

Gestalt psychology term for the sudden awareness of the solution toa complex problem, based on the mental asscmInner-ear deafness or nerve deafness bling of the elements of the problem that The loss of hearing as a result of damage had earlier seemedto be unrelated or to the cochlea o r to the auditory nerve. whose interrelationships were previInner language A form of self-dialogue ously misunderstood. SomeGcstaltists that forms thebasis of self-thinking. Frespeak of such a sudden understanding quently, students with learningdisabilias the ”Aha!” experience. ties are taught to talk to themselves in Insight therapy A type of psychotherthe sense that self-questioning, selfapy focused on the patient’s obtaining monitoring, andself-evaluation can be an understandingof his/her own acquired. motives and actionsin order to improve Innumeracy The inability of an individthe patient’s well-being. SEE: ual to deal readily with numberconpsyclmtlwqy cepts or to understand how random Insomnia An inability to sleep over probability works. prolonged periods of time. Generally, Inquiry A questioning process that can individuals who are under stress during be developed in students. Methods of the day are more prone to sleep losses. inquiry are particularlynecessary when Also called agrypnia. SEE: qr!ypin tcaching subject matter involving higher Instability Refers to the yattern or tencognitive processing and evaluation dency of an outcome or result to change skills (e.g., hypothesis testing in science) from time-to-time or situation-toas opposed to rote types of learning situation because of the use of small (e.g., memorizing math facts). groups, unreliable assessments,experiInquiry teaching An approach to menter bias,etc. teaching. The teacher presents a problem In-state student A student who is in and the students are required to solve it fact a legal resident of the statein which by acquiring data and testing hypothehe/she attends school. sized solutions. Instinctive drift The tendency of an Insanity A legal term (that does not fit animal to return to actions typical of its precisely into the languageof clinical species despite its having obtained psychiatry and psychology) that denotes numerous reinforcements for nontypical the condition of an individual who is actions. not legally responsible for his/her actions. Such an individual may be com- Instincts Inheritedandunlearned behavior patterns (e.g., blinking when mitted to a mental hospital rather than something comesclose to your eye). to a penitentiary. Institution 1. TheformalizededucaIn-service education In effect, continutional system, the school district. 2. I n ing education for teachers on-the-job the light of special education, it is a and teaching. In-service programs are place, usually a school or campus where frequently provided within theschoolstudents withlike disabilities are sent system setting.An example of an infor special educational services. Norservice workshop would bea n activities mally, it would be residential in nature session on teaching teachers how to use and both schooling anddaily living take math manipdatives with children. place on the site. Insight 1. A psychoanalytic term that indicates one’s awareness of inner drives Institutional practices The operational behaviors that give structureand power or unconsciousconflicts that are causing to an organized group. distress or psychological problems. Psychoanalytic sessionsinvolve free associa- Institutions of higher education tion, transference, and dream analysis, Refers to postsecondary education which focus on developing insight.2. A

140

Instruction - Insulin shock

scientific method can be intuitive (class institutions that arelegally authorized to brainstorming on how torecycle) o r offer programsof college-level study, with the useof machines and othertechwhich lead to the conferringof a degree. nological tools (e.g., computer). Instruction The art of teaching in the sense that strategiesor methods of mate- Instructional Television (ITV) Lessons that are telecast via a television rial presentation are created in order to hook-up from educational institutions to maximize the learning experience forall. a home or hospital setting, as examples. There are various typeso f instruction ITVs are usually provided to students that include analytical instruction, with medical problems or special discoherent instruction,collaborative abling conditions. May also be televised instruction, critical instruction, focused to a regular classroom. instruction, and meaningful instruction. Instrumental conditioning SEE: Instructional assessment The collection of data and the analysis of the data opcrar1t corlditiorlirlg to assist in the planning of future Instrumentalism John Dewey’sparticinstructional activities. SEE: nssts.w/wt, ular version of pragmatism. According f i ) l ’ / l l ~ l t ; Z J CI 7 S S C S S l l l f 7 l 1 t to instrumentalism, a proposition’s truth or falsity depends on the utility of that Instructional eventsmodel Gagne’s proposition. When asked if ‘1 statement theory of learning. The theory coordiis true, an instrumentalist shouldretort, nates phases o f instruction with stages ”True in relation to what human p ~ ~ r o f information processing. pose?” On the issueof whether there is a Instructional expenditures Money purpose underlying world history (telcthat is spent in support o f curriculum as ology), the instrumentalist should say, well as other educationalcosts relating ”Not automatically, but by o u r own to the curriculum. Such moneyis dediefforts we can provide such ‘1 purpose.” cated to the instructionalcosts of the SEE: ~ J l ’ l 7 ~ l l l ~ t i S l~l Jl ,l ’ ~ l ~ ~ ~ l ’ S S i tc’/dOg!/ i~iSll/, school organization o r institution. Insulin A hormone released by the beta Instructional faculty Afull-timeteachcells of the pancreas. Insulin reduces the ing professional whose main job is to level of glucose (blood sugar) in the instruct students. Suchfull-time staff blood; the glucose is chemically chmged work through the regularschool year as to glycogen (animal starch) andstored i n desigmted by the school system, school, the liver. People with diabetes mellitus organization, or institution. (sugar diabetes) haveexcessive blood Instructional interactions Theseare sugar because their beta cells are no interactions between a teacher and stumanufacturing longerinsulin. dent(s) resultingfrom previous or ongoInsulin infusion pump A batterying instruction. operated device usedby persons who Instructional Materials Center (IMC) are insulin-dependent diabetics. This A center where students can use library device injects insulin of varying doses periodicals and readings aswell as subcutaneously into the wall o f the media equipment. abdomen in accordance with the needs Instructional objectives Theplanned of the patient.SEE: I f i I l b l ’ k S rrlrllitus goals that a teacher would hope that a Insulin shock A condition characterstudent would achieve. The goals and ized by too much insulin in one’s sysobjectives help determine what the curtem. This conditioncan be remedied b y riculum will be and what methods are the ingestion of a drink o r food high in best, as well as materials and supplies sugar. Symptomso f this condition that will be needed. include sweating, weakness,lightInstructional technology The applicaheadedness, paleness, and dilated pupils tion of the scientific method to instrucof the eyes. SEE: rfir7betcs, i r r ~ l r l i r l tional lessons. This applicationof the

141

T.=E:

Integrated function

- Intelligence

Integrated function A learningprocess that involves more than one modality. An example of integrated functioning w o u l d be visual-motor or auditorymotor combinations for learning. Integrated Instructional System (11s) A set of computer programs thatteach various subjects at multiple gradelevels while recording the performancesof each student. Integrated language arts The concept that reading, writing, speaking, spelling, and listening should be considered asa whole and not as separate subject areas. Integrated Learning System (ILS) A curriculum software system used between networked computers. Itis comprehensive in nature in thatit includes management tools for teachers and instructional software. SEE: network Integrated service delivery system A system of teaching students with and without disabilities together. Students of the same age are kept together and taught in the same classroom during the course o f a normal school day. This approach is synonymous with ”inclusion.” SEE: irlfqratcd scttiugs, itlclusion Integrated settings 1. Educationalsettings or environments which include students with and withoutspecial needs. 2. Integration can also refer to settings that are open to studentsfrom different ethnic, racial, or cultural backgrounds. Integration The act of placing students = of differentracestogether in the same school and classrooms as a means to overcome segregation. IntegrativefacilitatorAnindividual who is trained to create and implement integrative programs/support systems. This individual is often a liaison between the home and school and actively seeks to facilitate successful xademic/sociaI integration for assigned students. htegrative facilitators provide ad\,ice andresource support for regular educators, administrators, parents, and other professionals in order to enhance the integration of students who might otherwise not be “mainstreamed” or

1[11

142

“included” within the regularclassroom setting. SEE: P.L. 94-142 Integrity A realization that one’s life is acceptable and is a record of fulfillment. Integrity versus despair The eighth and last ofErikson’s stages of personality development, one appropriate toa retired, elderly person. Looking back on his/her life, the person judges whether or not it has been meaningful and has been a positive contribution to thehistory of humanity. Intellectualabilities Generalcognitive skills in such areas as overall intellectual capacity, reasoning, conceptual understanding, language proficiency/usage, and critical thinking. Intellectualfunctioning SEE: i u f d / w t w f abilities, intcffigolce Intellectualization A defense mechanism identified by Sigmund Freud.This involves avoidance, not having tof x e one’s own feelings by developing a superficial type of insight into one’s inner problems. Thereis a rational and well-thought-out analysis of oneself and one’s own motives, but feelings are buried and are covered by logical thinking. SEE: defense t r d z a t l i s r l l s Intelligence An overall ability to carry out one’s intentions, to solve problems, and to cope with the environment successfully. Psychologists continue to debate whether or not intelligence is a single conceptdefinition or a concept with multiple meanings. 1. An advocate of the view that there area number of intelligences (plural), Howard Gardner offers thisdefinition: An intelligence is the ability to solve problems or to create products; such solutions or products are valued within a particular cultural setting. 2. Advocates of the view that there is a single overallcapacity, however, would use the following: Our capacity to think rationally, act purposively, communicate linguistically, and interact socially so as to adapt toour environment. Even without a basic oncdimensional definition, intelligence can be consideredas the capacity to understand and functionin the world about

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

- Interactive

-

teaming

*

LISand to strategically/resourcefully adjust/cope with probletns/challenges presented. Intelligence is impacted by heredity and by environmental stimuli and situations. Generally, IQ assessments are thought to tap into our innate intellectual abilities or capacities as these are global measures in cognitive/ behavioral functioning. IntelligenceQuotient(IQ) The concept of ”intelligence quotient” was developed by the Germanpsychologist Wilhelm Stern on thebasis of the ”mental age”/”chronological age” dichotomy utilized by Alfred Binet, the originator of the intelligence test. The division of the individual’s mental age-scaled score by the sameperson’s chronological age was intended to yield a description o f the person’s intelligence as if it were one’s inherent feature, by analogy with eye color. The adoption of Stern’s idea by Lewis Termen for his American version of Binet’s test, the Stanford-Binet, led to the wiclespread acceptance of IQ measurement among educators and psychometricians in the United States. The intelligence quotient is based specifically on an individual’s performance (usually verbal and perceptual areas are measured) on an intelligence test. The IQ is purported to measure the testtaker’s global ability to adapt effectively to the environment. It supposedly reflects such cognitive variables asmemory, problemsolving ability, reasoning, judgment, etc. After the ageof six, someone’s IQ is relatively stable unless there arecomplications from illness, drug or alcohol abuse, or brain trauma.Generally, an IQ score in the range o f YO-110 is considered to fall in the werage rangeof performance. Lower scores generally mean that there are general intellectual lags or mental deficit areas. Higherscores, especially those above 130, indicate giftedness o r superior intellectual functioning. Performance on intelligence tests may be impacted by: 1. genetic factors that may place some individuals ata disadvantage, 2. cultural differences, 3. motivation/ health issues, 1.educatiotl/economic opportunities, and 5. other environmental factors.

Therefore, any IQ scores obtained must be examined with caution and in the context of other measures of intelligence (e.g., measures of creativity). Intelligence tests Tests that specifically assess intelligence or IQ. SEE: Wdlslcr. scnlcs, ir7telli~PrlcP

Intensity This is a measure of the relative loudnessof sound, sometimes referred to as volume.In speech, it is controlled by the amountof air pressure that causes thevocal folds (cords) to be blown apart. Intensive-care specialists In reference to infants, professional persons trained especially to provide care to newborns (e.g., doctors, nurses, etc.). These neonatal specialists provide services to infants who are seriously disabled orill and are at risk medically speaking. Interactional A term used in language arts to indicate the useof language in ‘1 practical way in order to facilitate getting along with others. Interactionism The view that the mental and material worlds, although fundamentally of different natures, can influence one another. This view was originally stated by Descartes. It has recently come back in a modern version authored by Gazzaniga.SEE: drrnlisrrl, idralisrrr, ttratc~rinlisrrl,mirui-brairl p ~ L 1 l ~ ~ t r l , t~lotfisltl

Interactive journals

The use of journal entries in language arts education wherein the student and theteacher maintain a dialogue in writing. The use of interactive journals becomes an efficient way for the teacher and learner to communicate in writing, answering questions, make brief comments, and allowing open and private sharingo f information on anytopic. Interactive teaming An approach to meeting the needs of all students including special-needs students in a regular classroom setting. A team comprised of teachers, students, parents and other professionals work together towardthis common goal of “inclusion.” SEE: irlcllrSiOlZ, r?lnirlstrL.nrrlirf~, tr.nrrs~~isci~,lirrn~~/ tc,l)r/

143

-

Intercranial neoplasm

Intercranial neoplasm Technically, a

- International education

Interferencetheory Aview of torgetnew growth in the brain (i.e., a brain ting in which some of one’s memories tumor). increase the difficulty of recalling others. Interdisciplinaryinstruction An eduInterindividual Aterm used in education to describe a comparison of a stucational approach usually taken with dent’s acllie~rement/performancewith gifted and talented students althoughit that of another(s); how one compares to can be used with regular or even a norm. SEE: i1rtr.nirrdi7~idunI,1 1 o r . 1 1 1 special-needs students. In this approach, the students studya topic and its related Intermediate Care Facility for the issues in the context of various academic Mentally Retarded/Developmentally areas or disciplines. For example, the Disabled (ICF) Aresidential care in\’ention of the chimney; How didit facility designed to meet the needs of affect family life (sociology)? How was mentally retarded and/or developmenthe first chimney constructed (mechantally delayed students or other persons ics; technology)? How does the chimney who are unable tolive at-large or attend relate to food preparation (home ecoregular schools or training programs. nomics)? In this example, thetopic of Residential care and training are prothe chimney crosses several academic vided during the person’slife span. and/or technological areas or Intermediate school A synonym for disciplines. middle school. Interdisciplinaryteam Anevaluation team that maintains separate evaluations Intermediate unit A subdivision o f the elementary grades. It normally consists and treatments for each discipline. Usuof grades 4 and 5. SEE: i r r f c r . r r r d i l r t c 3 ally these individuals confer to create an srl1oo/, tlf;dd/cS C l f O O l Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) Intermittent reinforcement schedule and remain separate for delivery of IEP The presentation of a reinforcer after services. There is, however, more coopsome, but not all, correct responses. erative effort by this team than themultidisciplinary team. This team is more Internal locus of control A condition concerned with a united approach to wherein the student or personbelieves solutions. Its Cooperative approach falls that he/she is in charge of his/her between the multidisciplinary team (the destiny. Personal decisions account for least cooperative) and thetransdisciplisuccess and failure. Others are notin nary team (the most cooperative and charge of one’s life; one is in fact in communicative). SEE: I I I I ~ I ~ ; ~ ; ~ c ; ~ ~ / ~ ~ I ~ v charge !/ o f oneself. SEE: locrrs c ! f c . o / r t ~ d , t s a r r r , t ~ n ~ f S [ i i s c i ~ ~ ltcnrlr ~rr~V!/ CXtUlInl / ( l C J f S ~ f ! f 2 0 1 1 t V O / Interest boosting A type of behaviorInternal validity The extent to which management technique that involves the changes of a dependent variable in controlling restless or bored studentsby an experiment can be correctly attribshowing an interestin their work or prouted to the variationsof the independent viding lesson materials that key in on variable. To the extent that one or more areas of great interest for the student(s) confounding variables can be identified that would explain variationsof the serviced. dependent variable, the internal validity Interest centers These are centers that of the research is impaired. prcwicie independent learning activities for students from which to choose. CenInternalizing behavior A term to describe the actions of a person such as ters are created keeping in mind the developmental levels of the children a student whois in the process of withinvolved and specific interest areas of drawing intooneself, particularly in the case of a socially withdrawn individual. the students involved. Interference The blockage by the International education The study of memory of certain information in the historic, educational, social, political, memory bank/store. 144

international Reading Association (IRA)

and economic factors and information about other countries.

International Reading Association (IRA) A nonprofit reading organiza-

- intimacy versus isolation

prior to becoming licensed to practice medicine. The internshipis usually done in a hospital/medical facility. SEE:

tenclrirrg, ccrtificntiorl Internship programs Programs stlrdcrrt

tion dedicated to promoting worldwide designed to assist beginning teachers in literacy. Members address a number of acquiring professional skills necessary literacy issues to include international for successful/optimal teaching delivery. trends in reading, current research in the These programs are typically designed field (through various publications and for individuals who have not fully expejournals), updates in children’s literature rienced a teacher preparation program, offerings, teachers as readers, teachers as especially the student teaching experiwriters, teachers as researchers, assessence. SEE: indrtctiorr /JrOgrll!tlS, ment, adult literacy, community outirrtertrskip reach, legislative action, technology and reading-writing connections, working Interpersonal skills Social skills that with learners experiencingspecial learnallow one tointeract and react positively ing challenges, etc. Professional developto others in a variety of contexts and ment opportunities are suggested and situations. IocaI/state reading councils can network Interpreter In education, a term used to with and belong to theIRA. describe a student or person who transInternet SEE: Appedis 4: Coruprlter lates oral speech into sign language for Tcrrlrs individuals who are seriously hearing impaired or deaf. Interneuron A neuron that is neither a sensory or afferent neuron bringing mes- Intersex An individual whose sexual sages from sense organs into the brain or development is between the male and spinal cord nor a motor orefferent neuthe female; a hermaphrodite. ron carrying messages from the central Interval data or scales A type of data nervous system to the muscles and/or or scale that is based on equal numerical glands. An interneuron (by definition) intervals between each point on thescale must belong to the central nervous sys(e.g., IQ points, test scores), where a true tem (i.e., to the brain or spinal cord). zero point rarely exists. Many education Interneurosensory learning When variables can be representedvia interval learning takes place between two or data/scales. more systems as an interrelated Intervention A proposededucational, function. social, or medical strategy or program Internship 1. On-the-job teaching.The that is designedtoimprovethe acaintern is fully employed as a teacher and demit, psychological, or social status of is supervised by the local school system a particular student or groupof or a cooperating college or university. students. Internships replace the traditional Intervention assistance A term used to student-teaching requirement and usudescribe the educationalassistance given ally involve twice the amount of time to a student prior toreferral for specialrequired by student teaching (i.e., 30 needs services. In many cases, such weeks instead of 15 weeks for aninitial assistance (which includes but is not or first certificate or 300-400 hours limited to extra help, additionaltime, a instead of 150-200 hours). The time modified teaching approach, remedial requirements depend on thecertification aid, etc.) preempts the need for referral requirements set by each state.The for a special needs evaluation. intern normally teaches in his/her own classroom without direct supervision of Intimacy versus isolation The fifth a cooperating certified teacher. 2. The stage of Erikson‘s personality developservice by a recently graduated physiment model (i.e., the first one to go past cian of a one-year postgraduate training Freud’s fourth and final stage). In late

0 =

145

intoxication

-

- 150 standard

adolescence or early adulthood, the individual demonstrates successful growth by being strongly attached and committed to another person. Intoxication 1. The state of being drunk and/or under theinfluence of alcohol or drugs. 2. Educationally and medically speaking, this refers to deficient mental or intellectual development resulting from some poison ortoxin to include lead, mercury, alcohol, and other drugs. Intraindividual A term used in education to comparea student’s performance in various areas to that student himself/ herself. Students are not compared to other individuals as isin the case o f interindividual comparisons. Intraindividual comparisons show the student’s own abilities and weaknesses. SEE: irrfcuirrdi7rid1rnI Intrasensory integration The ability to process sensory information through more than one sensory system at one time. For example, reading entails visualizing words and hearing the sound components andin some instances pointing to words (integratingvisual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile sensory systems). Intrinsic motivation The tendency to perform an action that is rewarding in itself without the needfor an incentive to be added to the situation. Intrinsic or interest value The positive rewarding effect of doing something withoutexpectingany reinforcements afterward. The task is its own reward. Introvert A term derived from Carl Jung’s theory. An introvert is concerned mostly with her/his internallife and inner consciousness. S h e h e will be extremely reserved in social situations. Intuitionism The concept that the basis of knowledgeis direct awareness of the universe. This view is championed by the Eastern philosophies. Techniques of controlled meditation are usually prescribed as aids to thefullest use of intuition. SEE: c.yisfcrrto/og!/ Intuitive thinking Progressing by leaps, instead of going step by step, to the correct solution of a problem.

146

Invented spelling Spelling used by young children ora new learner of a language that approximatescorrect spelling. The spellingis considered functional enough to be understood when read. Invented spelling is also known as ”temporary spelling.” Invertebrate An animal without a backbone. Invertebrates includea great variety of living forms. The lowest animals on the evolutionaryscale, such as the one-celled animals, the worms, the starfish, etc. art. invt,rtebrates. But some invertebrates, notably the ants and the honeybees, represent comparatively high levels of evolutionary progress. IOP relief drawing set A special set o f drawing materials used to draw raised lines for the seriously visually impaired as well as swne figures, maps, and graphs. IPI SEE: 1tdiPidlu?//!/ I’~’c’%‘t’il~d Ir?stulritiorl I Q SEE: lrltdli,y\.cvrcc,Q~rotic’rlt IQ-achievementdiscrepancy An x a demic difference in which a student’s performance is gredtly and significantly different from the student’s verbdly measured intellectual dbility as in the case o f individuals with learningdisabilities. SEE: Lnlurrilrg D i . ~ ! ~ i / i (t !L/D ) IRA SEE: I I I ~ P Y I I ~ I ~ ~ RLditIlq ~IJII/

Associntiorr. Iris A ring of muscular tissue situated behind the cornea o f the eye. Depending on which of two sets of muscles contracts, the pupil (an opening forincoming light set in the center o f the iris) will either dilate (widen) orconstrict (liarrow). It is the color of the iris that imparts the eye’s color, S L I C I ~‘IS blue o r brown. I S 0 standard ‘The International Stmdard Organization. In reference to hearing, it standardizes average hearing ICVels based upon d B (decibel) losses as follows: 1. up to a 26 dB loss is normal, 2. 27-55 dBs is mild, 3. 56-70 dbS is moderate, 4. 71-90 dBs is se\‘ere, ‘1nd 5.91 or more dBs is a profound hearing loss. SEE: d ~ ~ i b( ddB )

..

itinerant eervice

- Job - corps

Itinerant specialist teacher A specialist Itinerant service Those services proor special teacher who travels from class vided bya traveling or visiting teacher in a classroom, school, home, or hospital to class, school to school, school to home, school to hospital programs, etc. program for special-needs students. The This person assists teachers in providing services include therapy, instruction, special-needs servicesto children orin curriculum assistance, counseling, and fact provides the service himself/herself. other services required by IndividualSEE: itinerant service ized Education Programs(IEPs). SEE: IEP, itinerant specialist teacher. ITV SEE InstructionalTelevision

Jigsaw approach A cooperative leaming technique that involves giving members of the group only bits and pieces of a leaming problem(s) with students then . epilepsy, petit mal seizure, grand mal seizure pooling their resources to brainstorm and solve the presented problem@). Jaeger Chart (Edward Jaeger von Jaxtthal, Austrian opthamologist;1818-1894) Jigsaw I1 approach A cooperative learning technique that involves giving A chart or card with lines of type of members of a group only bits and pieces assorted sizes. It is used to check near vision. The smallest type one can read at of a learning problem($ with students then pooling their resources to brainthe closest distance is the information sought. It is felt that this information can storm and solve the presented aid teachers in selecting reading materi- problem@).This approach is the same as als for students with visual impairthe Jigsaw approach but with added ments. SEE Snellen chart pre- and post-assessmentsto measure learning gains. Assessment scores are James-Lange theory The theory of averaged and the group score is given to emotional experience put forth by each individual memberof the group. William James. The emotional feelingis a result of the response made to the JND ‘SEE Just Noticeable Difference emotion-arousing stimulus rather than Job coach An individual who assists to the stimulusitself. The modelfor this adults with physical/leaming disabiliviewpoint has been given in these three ties in the areasof vocational guidance, short sentences:“I see abear. I run away. college training/planning, job planning, I am afraid.” interactive assistance with current and Jaundice A condition in which the skin prospective employers, interactive assisappears yellow as a result of deposits of tance withsocial service/govemment as well as the bile pigments in the skin agencies, etc. fremucous membrane. This condition Job corps A federally funded program quently indicates problems with the for disadvantaged men and women that liver or the biliary apparatus.

Jacksonian epilepsy A type of epilepsy that affects limited parts of the body. The site of the seizureis found on one part of the brainspecifically. SEE:

_ I

147

Job developer - Juvenile rheumatoid arthriti6 provides comprehensive job/social training skills such as basic education proficiency in reading, math and writing skills; counseling; and health services. Job developer A specially trained individual who searches outjob opportunities within a community or region for persons with disabilities. The idea is to discover or designjob-placement opportunities appropriate to theabilities of the persons with disabilities for whom employment is being sought. Job-related academic skills These are abilities which when taught asskills can be related to vocational or job skills required for employment in the workforce. The use of specialized equipment (e.g., for mechanics), texts (e.g., manuals for mechanics), facilities (e.g., simulated garage), etc. provide hands-on experiences. Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) A law passed by Congress in 1982 that provides block grants to states that support job/social training programs for disadvantaged groupsof citizens. SEE: block ~ “ n f f t s

their children’s education. A judicial hearing is a hearing before a judge in a court of law. SEE: d r l r p w s s Judicial review The process by which the U.S. Supreme Court is empowered to judge the constitutionalityof a law. The Court will decide which powers are implied as “necessary and proper”for the federal government and the individual states. Just Noticeable Difference (JND) A term for the difference threshold (Le., the slightest difference between two similar stimuli that can be detectedas a difference). Juvenile delinquency An educational and legal term used to describejuveniles; that is, adolescents or teenagers who commit actsof wrongdoing, crime, vandalism, etc. Juvenile diabetes A disease of childhood that involves inadequatesecretion of insulin causing excess sugar in the blood and urine.Diet and/or medication (e.g., insulin) is used to control this condition which, if left untreated, can cause severe vision loss, amputation of limbs, coma, and death. Juvenile-onset Joint referencing SEE: l a ~ g ~ l n g e diabetes is a term used to describe diarrro[ic>/irrg betes mellitus that occurs prior to age Journal 1. A type of periodical reserved 25. This insulin-dependent Type I in libraries for research in a particular diabetes is also known as brittle diabetes field (e.g., special education journal, and is extremely difficult to control. autism journal, reading journal). 2. A Note Type I1 diabetes is non-insulin personal diary of activities, lessons, dependent. SEE: dinbrtc,s rr~e//ihrs thoughts, reflections, etc. Journals are Juvenile paresis Usuallyoccurs 5-15 becoming popular learning tools in the years aftera child is infected; normally language arts area.SEE: dorrble-etltr!y resulting from syphilis contracted bya jollrrrnl, litrr.ntlrrc,-respottse jo~rrt~cds, oocabchild from its mother during the rr/nry jolrvrrnls prenatal period. It is progressive and JTPA SEE: job Trairritlg Partncrshiy Act tends to be fatal.This chronic condition ludicial hearing As part of due process may cause partial paralysis, organic for students, there is a set of legal procemental disease, and other degenerative dures that the students’ plrents have the changes. right to use. They can insist on a due Juvenilerheumatoidarthritis A process hearing and a judicial hearing if chronic form of arthritis in youths or they disagree with the school system children. The most severecases can (teachers, principal, school committee, cause paralysis. SEE: rlretrltmtoid nvtllvitis school suierintendent, etc.) concerning

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148

spatial application of movement, such as Kernicterus A form of erythroblastosis fetalis. It isso severe in nature that death visualizing shapesof letters as one traces them in space. usually results during the neonatal period. SEE: erythroblastosisfetalis Kinesthetic senses Our senses that involve movement, posture, and orientaKetoacidosis A medical condition chartion in the environment (e.g., our sense acterized by an excess of ketone bodies in the bloodof a diabetic student or per- of direction). The receptorsfor kinesthesis are found in the muscles, tendons, son. The diabetic student may have a fruity breath odor and suffer the symp- and joints. toms of drowsiness, dehydration, vomit- Kinesthetics To learn by doing; the ing, breathing difficulties, and frequent hands-on visual/spatial application and voiding. processing of information. Keyword method A memory-aiding Kleptomania Stealing for just sheer system. New concepts are associated pleasure goods that are not needed to with cue words that sound like the survive. This is considered an impulsenames of the concepts. control disorder or an obsessive compulsion to pilfer or steal. Kilobytes A computer memorycapacity measurement. Kilobytes are vinefelter's syndrome An abnormalcalled "Ks,"whereby one K is the equivity of the sex chromosomes. A person alent of 1024 bytes. A 128K computer with Klinefelter's has three sex chromowould store about128,000 bytes (actusomes, two X and oneY. The result is ally 131,072). SEE: bit, bytes, megabytes incomplete male development. There is a high-pitched voice, a tendency to obeKindergarten Refers to the first year of schooling for children in the age range sity, and limited beard growth. of 4-6. This movement was started by Klippel-Feil syndrome (Maurice HipFroebel with the intentof gradually easpel, French neurologist, 1858-1942; ing young children into the normal rouAndre Feil, French physician,1884-?)A tine and rigorsof a regular school day. congenital condition that causes the Some kindergarten programs are neck muscles as wellas the vertebraeof half-day and others are full-day prothe neck to develop abnormally. The grams. The usual admittance to kinderneck is short and wide and the central garten is five years of age. nervous system(CNS) can beaffected. Kinesthesis The sensation of muscles, KluvepBucy syndrome A combination tendons, and joints as they pertain to of symptoms produced by destructionof movement of the body.SEE: kinesthetic parts of the temporal lobesbilaterally, senses with some subcortical brain damage as Kinesthetic approach A system of well. The individual will pick up small teaching or an instructional technique objects and put them into the mouth, wherein the student learns through the will show anabsence of normal fears, use of one's movement sensations or the will be unusually tame anddocile, and

113 __

-

Kernlcterue KluverBucy 6yndrorne

149

-

Knowledge baee Labor fome participation rate

will attempt to copulate with inappro- Kurzweil reading machine A machine priate animals or objects. that converts written materials to spoken English.It requires training to use Knowledge base A term that refers to basic foundation knowledge in a partic- effectively and appearsto be best suited ular subject area. This is the basis from for older students and adults. Now also known as theXerox-Kurzweil Reader. which to build subsequent knowledge. Kwashiorkor (Ghaneseterm)Adisease Korsakoff‘s syndrome Apathy,confucaused by a nutritional deficiency in sion, and the general impairment of infants or the very young. It is a condimemory. It is a consequenceof chronic tion of malnutrition characterized by alcoholism. The immediate cause is thiamine deficiency; the vitamin is needed retarded growth and changes in internal organs, the skin, and the hair. A potbelly for the proper nourishment of cortical is presentin spite of the gauntnessof the neurons. The rapid death of cortical neubody. This disease occurs after the child rons in turn produces the behavioral is weaned, that is no longer suckled. symptoms. Kyphosis This is a musculoskeletal disKurzweil personal reader A computorder in which the area surrounding the erized version of the Kurzweil reading shoulders is rounded with treatment machine (forIBM and Apple required in order to forestall severe computers). physical deformity.

1

4

Labor force Generally, a term used to nate a student’s primary language. The describe the civilian workforce whether language spoken at home is usually the currently employed or unemployed. Sometimes membersof the armedforces student’s dominant language.It is also the language the child has learned first. are considered as partof the country’s total laborforce. SEE: laborforce participuL2 The second language of a student. tion rate The language is learned secondly and is Labor force participation rate The usually not the student’s dominant lanproportion of the noninstitutional popuguage, although it could become so. lation that is in the workforce (labor Labeling Classifymgstudentsaccordforce). This civilian labor force participaing to a particular syndrome, disorder, tion rate is a ratio of the civilian labor disease, disability, or problem.This is force and the civilian noninstitutional done in order to 1.provide appropriate population. Participation rates areusuremedial strategies,2. provide specific ally examined to determine participation directions for research endeavors, and by race, sex, educational attainment, 3. provide categorical information for economic status,etc. funding and program purposes.

L1 A term used in education to desig-

150

.

Laboratory

- Laryngectomy

language-minority students. Three Laboratory Acontrolled environment variables have been researched ~ n d or setting with stringent control of confound to bekey influences in academic ditions (e.g., the type of stimulation achievement gains for Ianguage-minorgiven) so that the "pure" effects of variity students: 1. use both thc primary lanables or stimuli can be measured or guage of the child and English when assessed. teaching the academic curriculum with Laboratory school A school that falls an emphasison the constructivist under the jurisdictionor guidance of a approach, discoverylearning, and learnteacher-preparatiolI institution of higher ing that involvesreal-life connections; learning, with school facilities used for 2. provide complex and challenging lesson demonstrations, research, and instruction in both English and in the practice teaching. child's primary language; m d 3. provide Land grant college Refers to a type of an inclusive and safe, nurturing environcollege created to carry out the purposes ment where the studentis willing to of the first Morrill Act of 1862 and subtake risks, and communicate with others sequent supplementary legislation (e.g., in both English and in the primary Hatch Act of 1887),which provided publanguage. lic lands to statesfor the establishment Language-minority student Refers to of colleges for practical education purbilingual students who arein Englishposes (e.g., agriculture andmechanical speaking schools and are therefore conarts). sidered to be language-minority Language The code or symbols used to students. represent letters, words, and sentences Language modeling This refers to 1' needed for communication purposes. situation in which the speaker and the The four componentsof the study of child both look at the sameobject or language are phonology, semantics, scene, thus jointly sharing and talking syntax, and pragmatics.SEE: enclr Innabout what they are observing and pop' corrrpo~~errt (1s listed doing. It provides language stimulation Language deficit A measurable loss or and is sometimes referred to '1s joint void in some language skills area referencing. whether it be in oral language (speech) Language of acceptance A nonjudgor written language. mental positive affirming langu'lge Language delay A term used to approach where individualswillingly describe a condition in education share and expressfeelings. whereby the student develops ata norLanguage stimulation SEE: I [ l r l p r r l g c mal rate except in the area of language. m o d e l i q SEE: lnrlgrrogc disordcr Languagetheorists Scholars who Language disorder An inability or study the acquisition and use of lanpoor ability to express or understand guage asit applies to everyday functio11language; thus, developmental language ing and to the problems/disordersof sequences can beseverely impaired individuals with languagedeficits. m d / o r interrupted. SEE: receptizle l a m Large-print books Sometimes referred p r n , y ~ ,c q m w i z v I n r ~ p r o gdisnbility ~ to as large-type books.These books 'ire Language impairment An inability of enlarged as well as clearly printed and a student o r other person to comprewith large spaces between words as hend and learneffectively the systems assists for the visuallv handicapped _ . or and rules of language. Thus, communiimpaired. SEE: tnlkir1~4books cation is impaired and learningis affected. SEE: lnr~grrrlgedisorrlcr LaryngectomyThesurgical removal of the larynx. Manv times this procedureis Language-minorityprograms Prodone as a result of cancer of thc larynx, grams designed to meet the needsof wounds to the throat,etc. 151

Laryngitis - Lateralization "

Laryngitis

~

- -

Inflammation of thelarynx on his/her "12" tables and scores an 80 which can result in an impairmentof percent. This phenomenon shows that speech characterizedby hoarseness and learning must have been happeningall along even when it was not overtly impaired (reduced) intensity or loudness demonstrated. o f voice. Latent power Power seen in maintainLaryngologist A medical doctor who ing the status quo. specializes in diseases and treatmentsof the throat (larynx and nasopharynx). Lateral Pertaining to one side. Lateral structures in a bilaterally symmetrical Larynx A structure in the throat made organism come in pairs (eg., a left arm LIP of cartil'lge and muscle, also known and a right arm). The oppositeof lateral '1s the voice box and sometimes referred is medial; medial structures may be sinto '1s the Adam's apple. It houses the gle (e.g., there is only one nose). vocal folds (usually called the vocal cords). Lateral dominance A term used in education to designate a preference for Laser cane A c m e that uses laser beams one side of the body or the otherin to identify obstacles for individuals with regard to motor behavior andactivities. serious visual problems. This device For example, a student may write with emits three beamsof infrared light: one her/his left hand, kick a ball with up, one down, and one straight ahead. her/his left foot, and thus be considered When the beams strikea n object within left-lateral dominant (i.e., left-handed). a rmge of about 5-12 feet it sends an A student may performthose actions audio signal to the user. with her/his right hand andleg (Le., be Latchkey children This refers to the right-handed). In the case of mixed phenomenon of modern times in which dominance, or lateral confusion, some children must leave for school and/or professionals claim it to beassociated come home from school without adult with poor reading and withle'lrning super\ision. Thisfrequently happens disabilities in general. An example of becausc the parent(s) or guardian(s) this would be a student who throwsa must work to provide a home for the ball left-handed butkicks a ball rightchild(ren). footed or vice versa. Late-exittransitionprograms BilinLateral lisp This refers to the situation gual programs that involve the student's when a person speaks by directing air native language as part of the program along the sidesof the tongue instead of from kindergarten through grade 3 or down the middlecreating a slushy "5" for a pcriod o f time over two years in or "sh" sound. trnrlsifiorld p r o p u r l length. SEE: L W ( I - L T ~ / Laterality The tendency for a response Latent Knowledge, ability, or talent that or physiological function to be peris hidden but potentially able to become formed by a part of the brain 01'1 one manifested at a later date. side of the midline, but not its by mirror Latent learning Learning that takes ilnage on the opposite side. The process place before correct responses have been by which one-sided brain partsbecome kvacticed, A student is given a strong specialized is known as lateralization. I t nlotivc but no way to gratify that motive is usually held that men's brains evi(i,e., no reinforcement). For example, a dence a greater degree of laterality than muti\~ated individualis encouraged and d o women's. jrilled 011 the "12" math multiplication Lateralization The tendency for a given facts. After severalrote sessions of drill behavior to be organizedin just one side exercises, the individual misses all of the o f the brain (e.g., the relation of the con~11swers to the "12" tables on a quiz. trol of language functionsto Broca's 2252 After anight'srest,a reinforcingstirnuarea, Wernicke's area, and the arcuate IUS is n1ade available (e.g., a day without fasciculus in the left cerebral hemiIlomcwork). The individual is quizzed sphere, in most persons).

152

Latin grammar school

- Learning Disability (LD)

with the development, integration, Latin grammar school Schools that and/or demonstration of verbal and/or were in existence from 50 B.C. to 200 A.D. nonverbal abilities. Specific learning disthat emphasized the study ofLatin, abilities exist as a distinct handicapping gra,nmar/literature, history, mathematcondition in the presence of average to ics, music, and dialectics. ~!/flljJ/fad~'lI~ljJa~/l!/-AS~Uciafcdsuperior intelligence, adequate sensory LAV SEE: motor systems, and adequate learning Virrrs opportunities. The condition variesin its Law of effect The principle of learning manifestations andin degree o f severity. introduced by E. L. Thorndike that specThroughout life, the condition can ,lffrct ified that positive behavior outcomes self-esteem, education, vocation, sociallead to the repetition of a behavior(s). ization, and/or daily livingactivities When this law was first stated, it was (ACALD). 2. As defined by the National taken to mean that learning hasto be a Joint Committee for Learning Disabili"trial-and-error" process. Many came to ties (NJCLD): Learning disabilities is a believe that the negative lessons we generic term that refers to a heterogelearn from our failures are far less signifneous group of disorders manifested by icant than the positive lessons we learn significant difficulties in the acquisition from our successes. Accordingly, the and use of listening, speaking, reading, principles of reinforcement began to writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilemerge, replacing the old "law of effect." ities. These disorders are intrinsic to the SEE: ~ I , ~ J ! ~ ; I ~ ~ . ~ , J Isc J I ,hJ~du I ~ , l esof individual and presumedto be a result r7~irlf;l~~"rrrrrrrf of central nervous system dysfunction. Lazy eye SEE: m~r/dyopia Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handiLC SEE: Lil~rt7ryqf C o ~ ~ ~ y r t w capping conditions (e.g., cultural differLD SEE: Lcwrrlirl'y DiSnbilify ences, insufficient/inappropriate LEA SEE: Local Ed~rcoti(~r~ Ag~vrcy instruction, psychogenic factors), it is not the directresult of these conditions Learned bias Behavior that involves or influence (NJCLD).3. As defined by prejudging a person or group of individP.L. 94-142: Specific learning disability uals after having distorted learning means a disorder in one or more of the experiences rather than objective perbasic psychological processes involved sonal contacts. in the understanding or use of language, Learned helplessness A condition spoken or written, which may manifest wherein a person becomes dependent on itself in an imperfectability to listen, others asa result of the belief that it is think, speak, read, write, spell, o r do easier to let someone else doit for you. mathematical calculations. The term Also, the belief that no matter how hard includes such conditions as perceptual one tries, one is only going tofail anyhandicaps, brain injury, minimal brain way. SEE: theory oflmrrrtd Izclplrssr~~~ss dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmenLearning Arelatively permanent tal aphasia. The term does not inclucie change in behavior o r cognition that children who have learning problems results from exposure to environmental that are primarily the resultof visual, stimuli and experiences with accompahearing, motor handicaps, mentalretarnying physiological changes (e.g., dation, emotional disturbances,o r enviincreased firing of neurons in some ronmental, cultural, or economic disadareas of the brain). SEE: cogrlifiolz vantages (US.Office of Education Learning Disability (LD) 1. As [USOE], 1977, p. 65083 of the Federal defined by theAssociation for Children Register). According to Spafford and and Adults with LearningDisabilities Grosser, current practice points to the (ACALD): Specific learning disabilities following: 1. learning disabilitiesreflect are chronic conditions of presumed neudiscrepancies between an individual's rological origin that selectively interfere innate (as measuredby IQ) abilities a11d

153

I I _

Learning disabled - Learning styles

understanding, which is t o be pursued even i f one’s performance level 11‘1s to be lowered.

Learning potential assessment device An inventive technique for measuring a student’s potential ability to gnin from instruction. The method is based on Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development. Learning resource center A speciaIIy ciesigned educational space that hasa full line of special equipment and supplies appropriate to the individual needs of a student ora small group of students who are studying on an independent basis. SEE: Irrstrlrctiorrd Mntcrids Ccr7trr ClMO Learning strategies General approaches to various types o f learning tasks.

Learning style preferences

Learning goal

The intended amount of improvemcnt in the learner’s ability and

154

A student’s preferred options in studying. For example, the student might prefer studying with others over studying‘llone, prefer to learn from pictures rather than from print, etc. Learning styles Approaches,behaviors, and specific ways of responding by which an individual learns and interacts with the environment. Learning styles are impacted by the environment, genetics, and culture and are embeddedin one’s personality. Cognitive, social, affective, and physiological characteristics all contribute to one’s learning style. There are many dimensions involved in determining one’s learning style. Some individuals learnbest in formal, structured settings-others respond better when participating in more relaxed, informal settings. Some individuals respond to what has been termed ”rightbrained” learning endeavors while others appe‘lr to be more involved in ”leftbrained” activities. Authors and journalists tend to favor linguistic learning/applicatiotls while scientists and math teachersenjoy logicalmathematical learning xtivities.In regard to culture, research has shown that effective learning environments for Native Americans include butdre not limited to many opportunitiesfor

Learning tactics

- Leeeons andlor units-

activities and like being organized and teacher-student interactions and useof can be perfectionists. The left-brained visual-kinestlietic curriculum materials person tends to avoid open-ended foras these learners are strongin the area of mats and enjoys language words. The visual-spatial awareness. A student with assumption behind theleft-brained vs. learning disabilities may require assignright-brained typology is that people ments to be broken down into small will differ according to which cortical steps with tape recordingsavailable for hemisphere, the left or the right, is prebooks, notes, and lectures. The concept dominantly in charge of their more typiof learning styles is variable and might cal actions. SEE: ri~yl~f-brr~irrcd be more appropriatefor some students than for others. Self-awareness o f one’s Legally blind A student or person learning style and thatof students in the whose visual acuity is rated at 20/200 or classroom enables educatorsto impact over (20/200) with correction in the betinstruction so that it is more closely ter eye or whose field of vision is an arc aligned to the learner’s communication of 20 degrees or less. and learning characteristics. Caution needs to be given regarding generalizing Legg-Calves-Perthes’ disease SEE: PPrtllCS’ di5msr specific learning styles t o particular Legislation (State): Any laws passed by groups of individuals. There are intraa state legislature and signedby the group differences always observed state’s governor. (Federal):Any laws within groups that may display certain passed by the U.S. Congress and signed learning styles commonalities (asin the by the President. example of Native Americans, Alaskans and Hualapai Native Americans share Lens Thecrystalline, transparent, and commonalities anddifferences in regard colorless structure just behind the pupil to le‘1rning styles). of the eye. Its principal function is to Learningtactics Techniques for doing focus o r refract light rays on theretina in such a manner as to producea sharp specific learning tasks; tactical methocls image. might include annotating or highlighting, for cxample. LEP SEE: Lirrritcrf-Etlglisll Prc!ficicvlt

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) An educational setting in which a special-needs studentis mainstreamed (placed with regular students) as mucI1 as possible and can still achieve the educationdl goals of the Individualized E ~ L I cation Plan (IEP). SEE: I E P Leastrestrictive setting SEE: Lc-ost Rcstrictizlc € l l z ~ i r o l ~ ~ l I(LRE) ~~tIt

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (M. Lesch, born 1939, and William L. Nyhan, born 1926, U.S. pediatricians) A hereditary metabolic disease, this disorder affects malesonly. It is characterized by mental retardation, self-mutilation, aggressive behavior, and kidney failure as a result of the excessive production of uric acid.

Lecturerecitation

TraditionallectureLesion A given injury to a part of the style, teacher-directed lesson presentabody. A brain lesion is accidental or tions followed by student responses cenpathologically caused damage to anarea tered on the concepts and ideas that of the brain.In research, a brain lesion were presented by the teacher. may be specifically inflicted in an effort to learn more about brain-behavior Lecturing The spoken delivery of learnrelationships. ing materials organized anddelivered by an instructor. Lessons andlor units A subsection of the curriculum that concentrates011cerLeft-brained Supposeedly, a type of pertain goals that are partof the general son who is serious-minded, analytical, curriculum. Aclearset of specific objecfocused, attentive, useslogic, and tives are taught during thelesson or unit expresses herself/himself with carefully presentation, which relate directly to the considered words and phrases. Leftestablished goals of the curricuIum brained individuals like structured

155

111

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Letter-name spelling Levels of processing perspective

offered. Typically lessons follow this forthe level of alpha-error risk is set at 5 mat in writing: 1. general goals, 2. spepercent, then the confidence level is 95 cific objectives, 3. materials and equippercent. If the level of alpha decided ment needed, 4. introduction and upon is 1 percent, the confidence level is procedure, 5. lesson conclusion, 6. lesson 99 percent. The existence of the follow-up, 7. lesson evaluation by stuinevitable sampling error(s) assures that dent, and 8. lesson evaluation by a coopthe confidencelevel can never reach preerating practitioner ormentor. cisely 100 percent. SEE: i f ~ [ f t p v r [ f c v rz~nrit The Internet can be visited for lessonnblr, lcz1el of’si~lz~ficnllcc’ plan ideas and information. Some sites Level of significance The probability include: TeachNet at http://www.teachlevel established that signifies how the net.com (includes discussion forums); results of a statistical procedure or test Collaborative Lesson Archive at could have resulted in relation to chance http://faldo.atnlos.uiuc.edl~/TUA-Hom and chance alone. Three levels of signifie.html; andBusy Teachers’ Website at cancc are commonly used: .OS,.01, and llttt.’://www.ceisnlc.gatech.edL~/BL~syT/ ,001. For example, if a group of students TOC.htm1. was said todiffer from another group of Letter-name spelling A term used in students because of an intense training language arts to definea condition program at the .01 level, that would wherein the studentis aware that spemean that thereis less than one chance cific letters stand for certain words with in 100 that the two groups are equal and no silent letters. It is still incomplete that the observed differences measured via outcomes (i.e., a quantifiable score) spelling on the partof the student and were probably nota result of chance and some soundsin words are regularly the result perhaps of the training omitted, such as vowelsin unstressed syllables and ”n’s” before other consoprogram. The lower the number cited in the level of significance, the more confinants and shortvowels; verb tenses and dent one can be that chance differences plural sounds are spelled asthey sound. did not affect the outcomes. Typically This stage of development follows the researchers d o not use levels below .05 prephonic and early phonic stagesof (95 percent confidence), as chmce occurspelling. For example, ”Me dog luvs rences arc more likely to occur bclow bonz, i giv him a bm’’ (My dogloves bones, I give him a bone). This condition this level. As a rule, levelsof significance are reported in three ways: 1. the groups is typical of beginning readers such as differed significantly (p < .01 or p < .001 first and second graders.SEE: preplrorlror p < .05), 2. the groups differed signifiruic s p d / i q , m r / y pllorlis spellirrg cantly (alpha = .01 or alpha = .001 or Leukemia A type of blood cancer, alpha = .05), and 3. thc groups differ at chronic or acute. The symptomsof the the ,01 or ,001 or .05 level of significance. various forms are similar.As a result o f Computerized programs can give exact the failure of the bone marrow tofuncprobability levels. The three major tests tion properly the patient develops infecof statistical significance are the t-test, tions, anemia, fatigue, and bleeding. analysis of variance, and chi-square. There are abnormal functioningsof the SEE: ench test ns listcd spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and nerves Levels of processingperspective The as well as other organs. view put forth byCraik and Lockhart Levelof confidence The establishment that is an alternative to the popular o f an acceptable risk of Type I error (or model of memory involving the three alpha error) that the outcome of an stages of sensorystore, short-term memexperiment is a result of chance alone ory, and long-term memory. Instead of leads to the establishment o f a level of being weak or strong according to their confidence that the outcomeis a result age, memory traces differ in strength in of the action of the independent variable relation to their depth of processing. rather than to chance.For example, if 156

LGL approach - Life history data

is the source of all mental energy. Shallow information processing leads to According to Jung, thelibido is the indiquick forgetting of information; deeper vidual's total biological energy. processing means retention for a longer time. An example of shallow processing Library An organized collection of of a word would be considering the printed materials and audiovisualmateappearance of the word as printed, rials that are cataloged systematically while an exampleof deep processing and available to take-out for periods of would be thinking of how the word u p to two weeks to one month. Libraries could be correctly used in a sentence. consist of material holdings and audiovisual materials,as well as necessary LGL approach Thelist-group-label equipment and services of a staff as approach developed by Taba in 1967 needed to maintain the facility. 157. Better known as "semantic webbing." SEE: scvrrnfrlic rc1ebbir1~q Libraryreferencing, access Providing access to sourceso f information, techLH SEE: L , r ~ k i r i i i r i cHortfforfc' ~ nology, and instructional aidsin various Liability A legal term used to describe subject areas to enhance studentIearnthe condition where oneis legally ing and expand one's knowledgebase. responsible for damages or a loss if one Providing access means preparing stuis in a position of supervision or authordents with a working knowledge of ity and is negligent in these duties. For where to go and how to use the informaexample, a teacher with assigned recess tion available. Teachers need to provide duties could beheld liable for monetary damages if a child gets hurt on the play- library strategies regarding the ways libraries work and how tobecome ground if the teacher unreasonably (e.g., "library-intelligent." Some useful library left for a coffee) left the child unsuperInternet sites are:1. The American vised. Otherwise, theschool system Library Association at http://www. would be held liable for any damages if ala.org 2. The American Library Associathe teacher exercised proper care in fultion Booklist at: http://www.ala.org/ filling duties (i.e., an accidental fall off a alaorg/alsc/notbooks.html and 3. The swing). Library and InformationTechnology Libertarianism The view that the Association at http://www.lita.org expansion of government into many Library of Congress (LC) Afederal walks of American life is excessive and government library that providesa must bc cutback. The implicationof this number of informational services. The viewpoint for educational practices is mission of the Library of Congress is to that parents ought tobe the primary make its resources available and useful educators of their own children and that to the Congress and peoples of the schools as government institutions United States and to maintain andpreshould be disbanded. Private schools serve a collective knowledge base of could be retained because people are documents for future generations. free to choose whether or not to use Access to the Library of Congress on the them. Sonw libertarians goso far as to Internet can be made at: http://www. reserve the right to be theprincipal eduloc.gov cator for the students themselves.On reaching high school age, each student Life-adjustmenteducation Experishould make her/his own educational ences through which the unique and choices by selecting an apprenticeship, total resources of each individual are for example. discovered and developed. Libido Basic sexual desire. According to Life history data Information Freud, the sexual and other biological abstracted from school, job, and perurges provide the psychic energy that sonal records thatprovidesinsightinto pushes individuals toward pleasurable an individual's habits, strengths, weakexperiences such as sexual encounters. nesses, and social, emotional, and psyFreudian psychologists believe the libido chological growth and develot>ment.

m

157

Life skills

- Lip reading

Life skills Those everyday skills one needs for personal living, including home management, food preparation, shopping, etc. SEE: tfnily /;7>;l/gskills Likert scale A type of test or assessment instrument that requires an individual to agree or disagree witha statement. For example, an individualcould strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (U), strongly disagree (SD), or have no opinion (HNO).

Limbic system The structures in the cerebral cortex that are important to memory and emotion.I t is thought that the limbic system controls whatinformation is processed tl1rougl-r the cerebral cortex, which subsequently becomes recorded as lasting neural traces in the cerebral cortex. The two main structures in the limbic system are the amygdala and the hippocampus. SEE: nrr~ygdaln, Cl’l’C/JJ’cl/ COJ’fCX, / / ; / ? / X J C f l l i / / l l L S

Limited-English Proficient (LEP) Refers to students who havea limited ability to understand, speak, orread English because the language spoken at home is other than English. SEE: bi/ir~gird ll~nrl?L~rs Line Sometimes referred to as the “chain of command,” it is the arrangement of an organization from the bottom to the top wlwrein a subordinate is directly responsible to a supervisor. That supervisor in turn is subordinate to his/her supervisor, etc. Line 21 system Another name for closed-caption programs. SEE: closrtfCfl[lfiCJll

Line graph

Also known as a frequency polygon. The x-axis (horizontal axis; ‘lbscissa) of the graph represents the scores continuously, from the lowest score at the left to the highest at the right. The y-axis (vertical axis; ordinate) represents the number of persons obtaining a score (i.e., the frequency of the score). Thefrequency of each score is represented by a dot in the appropriate position (o\:er the score’s place on the x-axis and at the appropriatelleight for the score’s frequency). All the consecutive dots are connectedby straight lines.

158

If necessary, a lower score' than the actual lowest oneis added and given frequency o f zero, while a Ilighcr score than the higlwst one obtaincd is added and recorded as having a zero frequency. This ties the polygon to the x-axis, ~10sing the figurecompletely. The geometric figure thus t)roduced is an irregular polygon.

Linguicism According to Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, a term for langL1agtl discrimination. In other words, using structures or ideologies to create unequal divisions o f resources ‘1nd power between groups on the bdsis of language (e.g., when L I I W L ~ L Ieduccltion ~~ opportunities exist for children because the primary language in the classroom cannot be understood). Linguisticcomprehension The student’s understanding of the meaning of a prose passage. Linguisticdiversity Diversity between and within langu‘lgcs. For example (within a cultural group), the cultural characteristics of Japanese descendants who settled in Hawaii arc different than those characteristics of immigrants who settled in Californi‘l because of differing lifestyles/exFeriences. Linguistic functioning The ability of n student or other person toeffectively L I S ~ language in order to communicate with others. Linguistic skills Acquisition and L I S ~of of vocabulary and the syntactic aspects language in order to communicate in the oral and written realms. Linguistics The study of language that involves speech units, phonetics, syntax, semantics, and the originsof language. SEE: s!/)rfcl.~,scrrrr~r~fic~ Linguistics of visual English A system that is used for young children with hearing impairments, especially for preschool- and primary-level students.I t is a manual sign system that follows the pattern of word order in English. SEE: Arrwricnrl Sigfr Ln,rSrrflg‘S”fASL) Lip reading Part of speech reading, it is the interpretation of visual clues of the

-

Lipid - Literature-based approach

”

”~

-

follow through with simple reading tasks such as identifying a word, phrase, or picture; 2.I~nsiror the level of literal comprehension at whichisolated specific reading skills are mastered and used such as locating facts in a story or newspaper; 3. irltrrrrrcdintc. or the l e ~ eat l S;lJ//flfft which an individual can make connections and inferences about whdt is read Literacy rkfers to theacquisition and and then generalize to other situations L I S of ~ basic written m d oral language such as finding the main idea or purskills nccessxy for adequate communipose ofa selection; 4. rll.l.[)rr/~~/is//l,rf o r the cation ,1nd life-functioning in a society. Literacy includes the notion of cultural ability to interact in meaningful \\rays with the text presented and to org‘lnizc, literacy or the importance of possessing necessary cultural information in order summarize, and reiterate knowrledge and complex ideaso r information about to be soci,lIIy productive and accepted. There arc different types of literacy that what was read (at this level, the indiviclinclude but re not limited to the followual possesses metacognitive knowledge ing: 1. rrrrr/ticrr/furn//itc.rllc!/-knowledge and skills that allow one to react to the of the ideas, politics, economic policies, text and to self-evaluate, self-monitor, vdues, social/cultural attributes, and and self-pace the reading situation); linguistics o f Lzarious minority groups in 5. Acfvarrcnf or the highest level of literan effort to promote diversity in the acy whereby the individual can analyze, Icarning/social environment; 2.jrrrcsynthesize, and restructure ideas/ t i o r r 1 7 / /ifcrrls!/-Lmsic knowledge required information about abstract/complex tu function adequately in one’s reading material as in the case of matheimmediate environment. Students are matics and science drticles and literary expected to maintain a minimum level essays and fully comprehend what is of comyctency in writing/reading/ presented. SEE: / i t ~ w c y speakillg/listenillg skills so as to enter Literature-basedapproachThe basic the workforce upon high school graduaphilosophy t o this approach is that chiltion with at least a fourth to sixth grade dren will learn t o read best by using litreading/writing level; 3. s p c i ~ / i ~ f erature several ways in the classroom/i~c,r.rlc!/-knowledge of specialized by responding t o predetermined skills/ language in higl~lytechnical literature selections o r a “core” collecand/or professional areas (outside of tion of books, to integrate subject matter functional literacy); for example, n d i across the curriculum, and tofoster an t‘lry terms, computer terminology, legal interest/love of reading. Frequently, terms, etc. 4. criticnl /itc,r.nr!/-knowledge -small reading groups are formed where of the fine points of written and oral lanchildren read and respond to literature guage to the extent that the individual is selections. An emphasis on conStrucan active and interactive participantin tivism or having children constructtheir social change/progress, cultural forums, own meaning is facilitated by discussion text interpretations, etc. SEE: litcrncy prompts from theteacher. Children can /c,ilc’/s also respond in journals o r reading logs. Literacy levels The levels at which Core reading selections are chosen by individuals attain varyinglevels o r the teacher/librarian/reading specialist degrees of reading/writing proficiency. and include but are notlimited t o nonf3ased upon levels detailed by The fiction (i.e., biography, nutobiographp), United States National Assessment of fiction (fantasy, mysteries, realism, sciEclwation,d Progress (NAEP), five levels ence fiction, folktales), poetry, and plays. o f literacy can be identified: 1. rlrdirrrcrlSEE: ~ O / I - I ~ O T O I I / I / I ~ / o s o ~ /c$I !r/ e ~ t f i r ~rg c, d hty o r the level at which individuals can ir1g i f ~ s ~ r l ~ c t ircnrfirrg clf~, r c ’ s ) l o ~ r S c ’ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ r ~ l ~

movement of the mouth in speaking. SEE: . y c ~ / rr . c 7 r 7 r f i f f g Lipid A fat or fat-like substance that does not mix with water. Lisp A speech error that affects the Class of sounds knownas sibilants. SEE:

159

Literature-based reading

- Logical consequence

Literature-based reading SEE:

related to educational functions in the public elementary or secondaryschool sector. 2. The local school committee or Literature conferences Conferences board of a town, city, or regional school that allow professionals and other interdistrict. ested parties to come in contact with literature through books, authors, panel Local norms Test norms that are quantified such that a student’s performance discussions, visuals, and workshops. is compared to students in the same The IRA (International Reading Associalocale (i.e., class, school, city, or district). tion) and other state readingassociations frequently sponsor such conferences. Localized Refers to a behavioral or SEE: IRA, ALAN physiological function confined toa particular area of the brain, usually toa part Literature log In language arts, a sysof the cerebral cortex. An example tem wherein the student reader keeps a log or journal of what books or materials would be theability to demonstrate color constancy (perceiving the true have been read. Reactions and written color of an object despite viewingit responses are recorded in reference to through a colored filter), which is localthe readings. ized in area 19 (visual area IV) of the Literature-response journals Journal occipital lobe. writing that encourages children to Loci method A memory-assisting techthink and write about ideas abstracted nique. The concepts to be learned are from literature selections. Teachers or mentally placed in specific locations. other students can respond, react, and interact to each other’s responses.Teach- Locus of control The perception of ers can provide writing prompts(at least ownership over control o f one’s destiny initially) to help facilitate the student’s or fate. An internal locus of control active construction of text meaning (e.g., involves the perception thatone’s Can you relate to any characterin the actions, thoughts, beliefs, etc. are under story? Does anything in the story hapone’s own control or action.Possessing pen that is similar to something that an external locus of control means that happened to you?).The exchange of an individual believes that what hapideas is encouraged as opposed to any pens in terms of one’s fate is under the focus on spelling or the mechanics of control of others or environmental influwriting. SEE: litcrat~~r.e-bascd approaclr ences. Individuals with learningdisabilities, for example, many times possess an Litigation As part of due process, a external locus o f control. That is, these legal proceeding or a lawsuit (which is a individuals believe that their learning claim) brought before a court for and social problems result from the negjudgment. ative actions of others. Little’s disease An outdated term used Logic One’s ability to reason and draw for the condition of cerebral palsy or conclusions based onheuristics or algocerebra‘l spastic infantile paralysis. This rithms. SEE: hwristic, n/prit/rrrr disease is named for William John Little (1810-1894), who first described the Logical concept A category that symptoms. SEE: ccr.c,bml pals!/ includes objects having at least one feature in common. Concepts are the Lobotomy SEE:frorrtnl lobotorry, p,robjects that we manipulate when wereafr11rrtrd l o h o t o l r r ! / son. How we manipulate concepts is a LocalEducation Agency (LEA) 1. a matter of establishing what kind relaof public board of education or other tionships they have with one another. legally administered public agency Logical propositions are statements within a particular state that is responsiabout how concepts are interrelated. ble for various administrative duties Logical consequence This is an event (e.g., praise for a good job) that is a logilitclatl~l.c’-basl’d ~l{J/ll’~lf7C/l

160

Logical error

c d follow-up to a particular behavior. Many times a logical consequence involves nctions that follow misbehaviors (e.g., withholding a privilege like television for bad behaviors). Logical error The use of either incorrect or inappropriate assessment information in the judging of ‘I pupil’s performance or i n making a decision about the pupil’s future instruction. Long cane A type of cane used by individuals with vision impairments. The individual sweeps the cane in a wide arc in front of him/her and thus allows mobility for the blind, especially when traveling. SEE: Hoowr C O I I C Long-term health care A term used in reference to the longtime continuing needs of persons with long-standing health care requirements. Such persons may require health carefor years or even ‘1 lifetime. Long-Term Memory (LTM) The relatively permanent storage of learned information that results from the consolidation of short-term memory. Longitudinal research A way of doing research that involves reinvestigating the actions of the same subjects from one time to another. The one independent variable that a l l longitudinal studies have in common is the amount of time elapsed. Developmental psychologists and geriatric psychologists have found this type of research to be useful. The main drawback is that this type of research takes a great deal of time to complete. Looping A term used in writing wherein the student focuses or narrows a topic in the following manner: 1. the writer writes about a topic for a few minutes without regard for spelling and grammar; 2. the writer then circles interesting words; 3. the writer then writes quickly and freely about the circled words, again with noreal regard for spelling and grammar;4. the writer again circles interesting words or phrases and writes about them;5. the writer continues this approach a third time and thus it is assumed that by now

- Low-road transfer

the writer has focused/narrowedthe topic. Lordosis This is a debilitating musculoskeletal condition where the spineis curved inward, which resultsin swayback and a protruding abdomen. Lou Gehrig’s disease SEE: Afrryofropllic Latrrnl Scluosis (ALS) Loudness The intensity of the sound of one’s speaking voice or the relative intensity of any sound. Relative loudness is measured in units called decibels (dBs). SEE: drcibel ( d B ) , ilzt~vlsify Loudnessperception Thesubjective experience of the intensity of a sound stimulus and the judgment of the amount of intensity in the stimulus.The physical correlate of loudness is sound amplitude, which is the amount of energy in the sound wave. Loudness perception can be modulated by other factors such as thefrequency of the sound wave, thepresence of other sounds, the presenceof strong nonsound stimuli, the emotional condition of the subject, etc. Low achievers Students or other persons who are either not motivated to do well or lack the intellectual capabilities/abilities to perform well. Sometimes low achievers expect and are willing to accept poor performance and evenfailure. SEE: /li,yh acl1ic7ws, i ~ ~ m fImrrrus i~v Low birthweight A term used to describe an infant at birth (frequently a premature birth) whois 2500 grams o r five-and-a-half pounds or less. Low-incidencedisability An exceptionality or disability that occurs in the general and in the school population in low numbers. The disability occurs infrequently and the numberof new cases is low. An example of a lowincidence disability would be the case o f students who have orthopedic impairments. Students with orthopedic impairments represent about 1.1 percent of the studentsin special educati‘on. SEE: ortllo/JCdiC ilflpOll’~llCllf

Low-road transfer The easv transfer of skills that are verywell-practiced

161

Low-*ch

-

devicee Magnet echoole

Low-techdevices

Noncomplicatedaids decision to dream about some topic. The or devices designed to be used to assist dreamer follows the action of the dream persons with disabilities. Examples of and can change events in it. such devices include but are not Lupus A disorder of the connective tisrestricted to ramps providing access to sue of the body. The tissue becomes different levels in a school building, rail- inflamed and in “lupus vulgaris” tuberings in a classroom or bathroom, and culosis of the skin the skin breaks down homemade cushions or pads. In by patches and scars upon healing. Low vision The ability to see objects “erythematosus,” a systemic lupus, only if they are closeto the eyes. Generpathological changes take place in the ally some typeof magnification or vascular system. It is chronic andusuenlarged print is required. In the case of . ally fatal. The term “lupus” in the past low vision, the student or person is still has been connected with various forms able to see enough to learn and/or to of chronic and progressiveskin diseases. execute tasks albeit with some difficulty. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) A horLower-level processes A term used to mone from the anterior pituitary master refer to cognitive processes in which gland that affects the gonads. LH directs memorization is the principal compothe female ovary to construct the corpus nent (e.g., writing-out spelling words, luteum, which releases the hormone recitation of number facts, or declaiming progesterone. It directs the male testis to a memorized passage of poetry or release the male hormone, testosterone. prose). Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus (LAV) One of the AIDS viruses. SEE: LRE SEE Least Restrictive Environment

.

Lucid dreaming The type of dreaming

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

that is guided by one‘s conscious

Macroculture A nation or social group with shared cultural/political values. Macroglossia A condition in which the tongue is toolargeforthemouthor an This condition excessively large tongue. is the oppositeof microglossia. SEE:

microglossia Macropolitics PoliticsOccurringWithin the society at large(e.g., presidential and gubernatorial elections).SEE:

micropolitics Magnetschools

Schoolsthathavespe-talented. cia1 offerings in cumculum and/or

noncurriculum presentations oractivities that are not normally found simiin lar schools as a means to attract students into their programs. These are ‘pen to students On a ’paceavailable basis and sometimes by lottery. As examples, magnet schools have been developed in the areas of science and mathwherethe primary emphasesare on those subject areas across thecumculum. There have also been magnet schools developed just for the gifted and

Marginal glotises

- Matching

P

m

an unsteady gait, stooped over with long lanky arms and legs.It affects the connective tissue, muscles, ligaments, bones, and structureof the skeleton.It can cause displacement of the lens of the eye, thus contributing to poorvision or blindness, curvature of the spine, anda pigeon-chest (pointing out) breastbone, as well as weakness of the heart valves. Sometimes fingers and toes are abnormally long and slender.It has been said that Abraham Lincoln suffered from Marfan syndrome. Marginal glosses Personalizedcomments authors or teachers make in the margins of books such as asides, notes of clarification, vocabulary highlights, summary statements, interpretations, trivia notes, etc. Marginal listening A condition wherein part of the auditory input received by an individualis placed in one’s background while the individual concentrates ona primary area of listening. An example of this would be hearing background music while concentrating on a two-way conversation oneis having with a friend. No deliberate attempt is made to block out thebackground music. SEE: sdccfirv lisfetling Marijuanalmarihuana A drug that is a deri\rative of the cannabis plant (Indian hemp or cannabis sativa). It is an excitant drug thatis psychologically habit forming. It is composed of the leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant andis L I S L I ~ I smoked I~ in the form of cigarettes. It is an illegal drug in the United States m d hds no substantial recognized medical value as such in that other legal drugs can do what it does aswell or better (i,e., in the caseof relief for nausea or glaucoma). Its main use is recreational in nature. There is continued controversy regarding its use for medical purposes and otherwise and issues surrounding legalization. Marital and family therapy Therapy for married couples and familiesin order to identify problems and find solutions. Therapy includes learning how to communicate more effectively indi\~idual to individual and collectively

=== 164

as a family unit. In education today, approximately one outof every three students is a child of divorce. T ~ L I S mar, ital and family therapy plays a more important role than ever before. Masking The prevention of hearing in one ear of a student or individual by stimulating that ear with controlled noise while the other earis tested by sending it specific tones or spoken words. Massed practice A type of training in which the learner is given one trial after another in rapid succession. A college student about to take a comprehcnsive final examination who has not been keeping up with reading assignments may try to memorize the entire semester‘s material the nightbefore the test. Most of the time, massed practice is less successful (for long-term retention of the learned material) than spaced or distributed practice. Master teacher 1. A talented, specially trained, and skillful teacher who is able to relate to other teachers and provide leadership, supervision, and consultation or mentoring. Master teachers must be able to help otherteachers improve their abilities to better meet student needs. 2. In some school systems, master teachers must earn a masters degree in order to qualify for the title of ”Master Teacher.” Master’s degree An advanced academic degree beyond a bachelor’s degree usually accomplished in one to three years, but precedinga doctoral degree. Mastery learning An approach to learning that emphasizes performancebased outcomes. Such learningis often related to competencies that are taught and then evaluated for mastery. Mastery-oriented students Students who value high achievement and intend to improve their ability to learn and to know. Matching Equating groups on one or more variables (e.g., age, gender, SES [Socioeconomic Status], gradelevel, disability, etc.) so that direct comparisons can be made regarding the impact of

Materialism

- Mediational strategies __I

some treatment/educational method, diagnostic assessment,etc. Materialism 1. Aphilosophicalbelief characterized by the tenet that material things oflife have greater value than the spiritual worth of life. 2. A theory that proposes that the basic reality of the world and universe is material in nature and/or derives ultimately frommatter. Material previews Previews of material to be r e d that can be compared to mo\,ie previews. Such previews can expose students to reading book titles, chapter titles, subheadings, pre- and post-questions, chapter introductions and conclusions, graphs, charts,pictures, etc. in order to make predictions about textual content that can be confirmed or disconfirmedafter the reading. Maternal infection A term used to describe an infection in a mother while pregnant. Possible damage to the unborn child with the potentialfor Iearning/physical disabilities and/or health impairments areof prime concern. Maternalrubella German measles,a viral disease contracted by a pregnant woman. SEE: corrgrrlitnl r l r l d l n Maturation The sum total of all relatively permanent changes of behavior that take place as the result of growth processes rather than learning experiences. Such developments are programmed by the individual‘s genetic endowment (Le., they are attributable to heredity). Maturational lag A theory which holds that the lack of readiness to learn results from a slower-than-average physiological/neLlrological development.

Mean test score The score obtained by adding all of the scores to dcterniine a

total and then dividing thattotal by the number of scores. SEE: riwnl1 Meaningful instruction A type of instruction that ties real life skills to teaching pedagogy. Meaningful verbal learning Learning of verbal materials that have mcaningful associations among themselves. Means-endanalysis A heuristic technique for solving problems. The various steps toward thefinal goal ‘ire treated subordinate goals. Measles SEE: cotrgrr~itf~l rrrbrllrl Measurement The evaluation of performance by means of assigning numerical scores to it. Measurementbias Measurement results or data that arein fact inaccurate as a result of influences of one‘s cultural background, race, gender, ethnicity, etc. SEE: fcst bills Measures ofcentral tendency Scores that represent thetypical or average per, formance of a group. SEE: ~ I I ~ W J I urdiotr, rrloric Measures of variability Scores that represent how variable (Le., what the spread is) a group is. SEE: rntrgc’, s t m f m i rirz~iatior~, prnrtilc d~uintiorr,zs~rir~rrcr~ Median The middlemost point in an ordered distribution above and below which are 50 percent of the scores. Mediation The subconscious use of language wherein a verbal label is attached to some thing oractivity in order t o facilitate recall. Mediationalstrategies Approaches used to convey and communicateinformation between partiesin conflict. Mediation can be usedin schools to MBD (Minimal Brain Dysfunction) bring about reconciliation between disAn outdated term that was synonymous agreeing students.For example, Student with learning disabilities meaning miniA and StudentB bring their dispute mal brain dysfunction. SEE: Mirlirrrd before a student council of mediation, Bnlirr D!/$rrrctiorr agreeing to accept the findings of the council after presentation of their sides MD SEE: M ~ r s c ~ rD,l/stI’Op/l,l/ I~r of the issue. Mean The arithmetic average of a distribution of scores. CIS

-

Medicaid Memory

Medicaid A federally sponsoredhealth care progrclmfor low-income person(s) with disabilities and others who may qualify. Medicaid pays for many medical services including early childhood scrt-enings, immunizations, diagnosis, and medical treatment. Medicaid was established as a federal-state partnership program in 1965 and pays for persons receiving SSI (Supplemental Security Income) benefits. It also pays for families receiving welfare payments. Medical model A system which is based upon the assumption thata disorder has a medical cause and aneffective treatment o r cure for it. A disorder initially requires a diagnosis to determine the disease condition that causedit. Normal means that a person develops witho u t biologic'll disorders or problems; p1thological means that biological disorders o r problems emerge sometime during the person's development. MedicallyfragileIndividualswith hc,dth problems who aremedically at risk. Frequently, such persons are in need o f technical/medical support or support systems suchas in the case of kidney dialysis. Certain elderly individuals and children (e.g., those who take thc drug Ritalin for hyperactivity) may require nutritional supplements as another example. Medicare A Title XVIII, Social Security Act program for persons over the age of 65 and retired persons over the age of 62 as well as eligible persons with disabilities. I t is a national insurance program that pays for supplementary medical insurance m d hospital insurance. Part A, which is required for inpatient hospital care is pro\.ided without cost to the Medicare recipient. part B, pays for a wide range o f medical services and supplies as well as doctor's bills. The recipient pays a fee if Part B is selected. Meditation A form of relaxation that differs from sleep. The person adopts the Fosture of contemplation. Thought is narrowly focused on a single object. Rhythmic and slow breathingis used. The striped muscles arerelaxed; if necessary, one part of the body is made calm

(usually this first part of the body would be the soles of the feet), then another part, and so on upthe body until the whole musculature is at ease. The meditator may recite to oneself, in rhythm, a simple syllable such as "om" or the word "one." The meditator must have a passive, "let-it-be" attitude, without any effort to relax, which would beselfdefeating anyway. Thispractice may prevent psychosomatic or stress-related disease. Medulla(oblongata) The oblongshaped, hindmost partof the hindbrain. This is the part of the brain that meets the spinal cord. The medullaoblongnta contains the "vital centers." These areas of the medulla are necessary for brcathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Megabyte (MB) One thousand Ks or about onemillion bytes. SEE: bit, b!/k, kiloDytcs, A p p d i x 4: Cortrprrkr 7 h r s Megavitamins The treatment of emotional disorders or learning disabilities by the intakeof very high dosesof vitamins, well above the RDAs (Recommended Daily Allowances). 'This approach to remediation or psychotherapy is known as orthomolecular medicine and is now considered controversial. Melting pot The nineteenth century and early twentieth century metaphor for theassimilation of various groups of immigrants into American society and is now considered controversial. The larger society may accept small individual contributions from each ethnic group, but the ethnic groups areexpected to lose their distinctiveness and blend intoa monolithic American society and CUIture. This view hasbeen replaced with a more sensitive respect f o r the cultural diversity and uniquenessof the several ethnic groups now residingin the United States. Memory 1. The storage and use of the information that one acquires by Iearning. 2. The total information remembered. 3. The ability to storelearned information and to retrieve it at a later time. Depending on thecontext, a therefore, memory can be considered

Memory strength

- Mental retardation

group (usually indicated by the average test score of the age group).In early intelligence tests such as the StanfordBinet, performance on the test was scored as a Mental Age (MA).This could then be divided by the person’s true or Chronological Age (CA). The ratio would come o u t less than 1 if the individual performs less well than the average memberof his/her age group; would equal 1 if performance is average; and would be greater thanI if the individual performs above the average. The MA/CA ratio is then multiplied by 100 to yield the intelligence quotient (IQ). SEE: h s n l OX’, ccpilirlgo p , irrtdligc’]rr[’, Chrorlologicnl Agc (CA) Mental disorder Disorders marked by social deviance, personality disturbances, and emotional turmoil.Accorciing to DSM-IV, mental disorders are associated with present distress (a painful symptom), a disability (impairment in an importantarea of functioning), or with anincreased significant risk of pain or disability. Mental disorders are considered to be a type of behavioral orpsychological dysfunctioning with deviant and unacceptable behaviors present. Mental giftedness Giftedness is, in general, anextremely great talent that is bjfih genetically based. The example of a 10year-old boy who graduated from colMeningomyelocele Anotherterm lege in May of 3994 is not only a recordfor myelomeningocele. SEE: breaker, he is a prototype (i.e., a fitting rr~!/rlorrll~rrir7,~ocle model) of the concept of giftedness. Menopause The point in time when a Mental retardation Intellectual tuncwoman stops menstruating. The cessatiming significantly below average for tion of menstruation generally occurs one’s own age group, whichis accompawhen a woman reaches middle age or nied by inadequate adaptive functioning between the agesof 35 to 58. SEE: estrus or adjustments to thephysical and social C!/ClC environment. Three essential features for Menstrual cycle The monthlyperiodic this diagnosis are 1. significantly lowercycle in which a woman‘s follicle and than-average general intelligence (genercorpus luteum grow andrecede, with ally below an IQ of 70), 2. significant correlated increases respectively in estrainadequacy in social adjustment, and diol and progesterone. This occurs along 3. these deficits appear before the age of with the maturationof the ovum, with 18. The American Association of Mental menstruation marking the releasing of Deficiency (AAMD) definesmental an unfertilized mature ovum. retardation as “subaverage general intelMental Age (MA) Thetypicalintellilectual functioning wllich originated gence of all individuals in a given age during the developmentd period andis

process (meaning 1), a thing ( i e , content), asin meaning (2), or a function (meaning 3). The three stages of memory are (1)sensory memory, (2) Short-Term Memory (STM), and (3) Long-Term Memory (LTM). Memory strength The ability of an individual memory to remainintact. The better learned the information wasoriginally, the stronger the memory ofit will be. Menarche The age of a young woman at her first menstruation (around the age of 12). SEE: rrrcrrstrd C!/C/C Meninges The three membranes that surround the spinal cord and the brain. They are, from the outermost inward, the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater. SEE: rr~cr~irrgitis Meningitis An inflammation of the membranes encasing the spinalcord and the brain; it is bacterial or viral in nature. Symptoms include impairment of the senses, confusion, irritability, and clrowsiness. Meningocele This is a type of spina bifida. It is an outward thrusting sac on the lower parto f the spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid and that has no nerve tissue; it protrudes through an opening in the spinal column.SEE: spir~o

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Mental set Meta-analysis "

associated with impairment in adaptive behavior." Impairments in adaptive behavior refer to general adaptations to the environment and performing such everyday skills as grooming/dressing oneself, preparing a meal, following directions, following through with a task, etc. Caution must be exercised when classifying an individual as mentcllly retarded. An 1Q score should not be LISCC~alone to determine whether or not someone is mentally retarded. The following 1Q subcategories are sometimes used along with measuresof adaptive behavior functioning: 55-69, mildly mentally retarded; 40-54, moderately mentally retarded; 25-39, severely mentally retarded; less than 25, profoundly mentally retarded. Many practitioners now use the term "developmentally delayed" as opposed to "mentally retxded." There are about200 known o r suspected causes of mental retardation. Approximately 15-20 percent of those identified as mentally retarded were born prematurely or atleast three weeks before the due date or weighedless than 5 pounds, 8 ounces. Genetic causes include chromosomal abnormalities as in the case of Down syndrome where the fetus develops47 chromosomes instead of the usual 23 pairs (46). In most cases, it is difficult t o determine the obvious causeof the mental retardation although it is thought one-fourth to one-half of the cases knownrelate to biological causes. In some cases, mental retardation can be prevented as in the instance of PKU. SEE: r f l i l d f f l c f l t drrtnrtin ti or^, I l l ( J l ~ l ~ t ' l l trrrrrrtnl 1~ rctnr'tintiurr, PKU, St'ilCt'c' r r ~ c r l t c dt'ctnrtfntiorl, ~ ~ O ~ C I r~rental I ~ I I ~ t'c~fl7r.tfl7tioIl

Mental set A readiness to think and act in a particular way. This readiness is established (i.e., "set") either by verbal instructions or by past experience. The "set" concept is a kind of bridge between "attention" (i.e., selection of the kind of stimulus to perceive and react to) and "attitude", a fixed disposition to behave in a particular way. Mental telepathy A form of Extrasensory Perceution (ESP), an awareness of events without the needfor using sense

= 168

organs. Mental telepathy is the ability to read another person's thoughts when those thoughts are not expressed in speaking, writing, or gesturing.Telepathy, like all of ESP, is not accepted as real by most psychologists. Mentalism SEE: itfmlisrlr Mentallyhandicappedstudent A term used to describe a student whose mental abilities are so delayed, immature, and/or deficient that the studentis unable to progress and achievein a normal fashion. The terms "cognitively disabled" or "mentally disabled" are more accepted. Mentor A term often used in education to designate a teacher who serves as'1 model and/or advisor for a less experienced professional. For example, in the state of Massachusetts, master's level teachers seeking standard (full) certification must be supervised by a "mentor" teacher. Mentorship 1. An educationalprogram wherein a student is paired with a teacher in order t o learn in a practical sense from the teacher as the teacher models various techniques andbeha\.iors. The studentcan be paired with an adult, not necessarily a teacher as such, to accomplish the purpose. Such approaches are also frequently part of programs for the gifted and talented. 2. A specially trained teacher who serves as a special supervisor to a provisional or otherwise not fully certified teacher. The mentor supervises the teacher's clinical internship, which is usually for a minimum of 400 class hours of teaching and includes an educationalresearch project. Requirements vary in different states but at the conclusion of the clinical internship the mentor verifies that the provisional teacher has now achieved status as a fully certified and/or professionally certified (the title varies from state to state)teacher. Meta-analysis (meta = Greek for beyond) A type of statistical procedure that is used after or beyond initial analyses. Meta-analysis is a procedure that synthesizes completedresearch studies in a particular field or topic by

-

Metabolic disorders Metauhors

generating effect sizes. The resulting statistic allows general conclusions to be drawn on a body of research after internal and external validity issues have been resolved. For example, the large overall numbers used in a meta-analysis help to reduce the likelihood of Type I1 errors (finding there are no real differences when there are actually differences) and the ability to generalize results because of increased numbers; a wider range of subjects; differing experimental conditions; etc. For educators, effect sizes can be reviewed to try to determine if, when effect sizes are combined, the magnitude of the overall average allows one to make cause-and-effect inferences when program planning or making recommendations. Metabolic disorders Disorders that affect metabolism or the breakdown of food into energy and materials needed for bodily maintenance and activity. It can be a result of genetics, disease, or bodily malfunction as in the case of diabetes and hyper- or hypothyroidism. Metabolism The breakdown and conversion of food into the energy and materials needed for body maintenance and action (functioning). Metacognition 1.Awareness and understanding of one’s own reasoning processes, learning style, and problemsolving behavior; 2. knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes, or thinking about thinking. SEE: mefacognitive skills Metacognitive abilities Specific metacognitive skills such as setting a learning goal and the strategies required to achieve the goal, analyzing errors or error patterns, self-assessingthe degree of success in meeting a learning challenge, etc. SEE: rvzetacognition, nletacognitivr muareiiess Metacognitive awareness Selfawareness or knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes (e.g., ability to selfmonitor, self-evaluateor reflect, and selfquestion). Metacognitive skills The skills necessary to understand one’s own awareness and one’s own reasoning processes.

Such skills assist one in understanding or comprehending learning activities. Metacognitive skills include selfevaluation, self-pacing, self-monitoring, self-questioning, and self-reflection.SEE:

nietacogtzition Metacognitive strategy instruction A method of using alternative thinking methods to enhance and/or improve learning and metacognitive skills. SEE:

trzetacognitiaeskills Metacornprehension A term used in education and in general that refers to how one learns and comprehends from a reading/learning situation or task through the use of effective and appropriate teaching/learning strategies. How one plans, regulates, monitors, and selfevaluates one’s comprehension are processes involved in metacomprehension. Metacomprehension relates to ”metacopition” or ”thinking about thinking.” Metaethics A special area of analytic philosophy that concerns itself with the meaning of ethical terms and concepts such as obligations, responsibilities, the good life, right conduct, etc. It is also concerned with the validity of moral judgments. SEE: arialytic philosophy, efhics Metalanguage Refers to an awareness of language use in reading/writing/oral language activities. Metalinguistic awareness One’s understanding of his/her own use of syntax, vocabulary, word meanings, and other aspects of language ability. Metalinguistics A language used to talk about another language. Educationally speaking, metalinguistics refers to the individual’s ability to focus on and think about the language, what the components are, and how the different language structures relate to one another. It involves the ability to make judgments and decisions about how to use the language (e.g., whether sentences are grammatically correct or are properly written, whether words have the same meaning, etc.). Metaphors A figure of speech wherein words, figures, examples, etc., are used

Metaphysics

- Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS)

to illustrate and explain anidea when in fact the name or qualityis not literally connected. Examples: “nerves of steel,” ”heart of gold,” “sharp asa tack,” etc. Metaphysics A branch of philosophy that deals with thebasic principles of things; the study of the nature of reality. Methadone A synthetic narcotic used as a substitute for such drugs as heroin. Its medical value lies in the fact that it rids the addictof the desire or craving for a drug without giving the addict that high feeling or euphoria. Its use has had limited success. Method of loci A disciplined routine for the enhancement of short-term memory (STM). A fictitious scene is created in one’s mind where one can placeinformation to be memorizedin an organized type o f mnemonic. For example, one could use a set of stores in a shopping mall (or a set of houses on a village square) asa framework. The first item (on the list to be memorized)is thought of as involved in thefirst house, the second item does something in the second house, etc. The word “loci” means “place,” hence the name. SEE: t/mctrmlic ~ L ’ Z J ~ C Slwrf-Terrrr C, Mcmly (STM)

teaching methodology included in thc presentation of a seminar class in educ,~tion might be to have students use this dictionary t o define introductory terms for special units. Microcephalus A conditioncharacterized by an abnormally small skull with resulting brain damage and mental retardation. Microcephaly A craniofacial anomdy characterized by a head that is excessively small in proportion to the remainder of the body. The capacity of the skull must be less than 1350 cubic centimeters for this diagnosis to be made. Thiscongenital disorder is associated with mental retardation and defective development of the brain. Microcomputers General-purpose computers that are small enoughto fit onto a desktop in a classroom m d can be used for classroom reinforcement of lesson presentations, word processing, spell checks, testing, data compilation, data analysis, and recording. Microdialysis A method for the delivery of a tiny amount of a chemical to ‘1 particular brain area or the extraction o f a similar amount of chemical material from a brain area. Method of savings The method of measuring memory quantitatively that Microglossia A condition in which the was invented by pioneer psychologist tongue is too small for the mouth as Ebbinghaus in 1879. The materials are opposed to the condition o f macroglosseparate items ona list and going sia. SEE: nmxtlk!gc).SEE: ~rff7~.r(J~t[j/ifi~-~ so it is divided by the number of trials Microsoft Disk Operating System needed for original learning. The result(MS-DOS) A system used by IBM 01’ ing fraction is multiplied by 100 percent IBM-compatible computers. This proto yield percent savings, which is the gram activates the operating system50 memory measure. that the computer is able to read the information from a disk. This procedure Methodology A type of teaching proceis also called ”booting” the system. SEE: dure or focus used to teach in a particular subject area. For example, one MS-DOS

Microteaching - Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD)

Mild retardation affects about 10 of every 1000 persons. These students need adaptations in their educational programs and are usually onan Individualized Education Plan (IEP). SEE: rrrorfrrotc rrret~tnlrrtardotior~,s r m w r t r ~ r ~ t ar~tnrdnl tiorr, profollrld rrrcfltnl rctnrdntiorr, n r r d d f f cnblc rr~cr~tnlly rc,tnrtfcd Mildly handicapped Refers to any individual whoexperiences a handicapping condition that is not considered severe. Any restriction caused by the handicap is slightly limiting to normal or expected behavior and/orperformance (and notof a serious nature, educationally speaking). SEE: \ l f l f l d i C n ) J Milieu therapy Treatment or therapy in which great pains aretaken to control all aspects of the environment for consistency and enhanced therapeuticbenefit. Mind-brain identity An answer to the mind-body problem, which holds that there is only one kindof reality that is both mental and physical. It can bc thought of as neutral monism, neutral because it is neither idealistic nor mateMigrant Student Record Transfer Serrialistic. A variant of this viewpoint is vice (MSRTS) A computerizednetpanprotopsychic identism. SEE: ihdisrrr, work for migrant students. It handles rrlntcrinlisrrr, rriir~d-brnir~ problctrr, rr~or~isrtr, migrant students‘ transcripts and health pntlprotops!lchic idmtisrtr records nationwide. The service is based Mind-brain problem The question of in Little Rock, Arkansas. how it is possible that nonphysical Migration 1. The movement of neurons in the developing brain toward the posi- things such as intentions and desires can actually cause suchphysical things as tions where they will ultimately settle in arms and legs to d o things; and, equally and go into action. 2. The movement o f puzzling, how physical and chemical students into or outof state to attend events at our sense receptors can create other schools or colleges. Net migration nonphysical conscious experiences such in ‘1 state education system equals the as perceptions and memoryimages. number of students who come intoa SEE: dolrblc-nspect tlreory, dlrnlisrrl, mustate minus the numberof students who XL’fiCC’ f h C Y J l y , r\J;)J/l~’fioftf~’rfn/;~ffl, C/l;SfPflfO/leave the home state to attendschool. oxy, idcnlisrrl, ir~trrnctior~isrrr, rrrc+oplr!/sics, Mild mentalretardation A condition flliffd-bf’fiifl idPfItit!/, f f l ( J f l i S f f l ,\Jllff\Jf’Ot(J\JS!/characterized by somewhat poor adapchic idcwtism, pnrdklism, rrmtrrinlisrtr tive behavior along with anI Q ranging Minicourse Anabbreviatedcourse betwccn 50-55 to 69. A mildly retarded offering in either a shortened semester person can communicatereascinably (e.g., intersession course) or reduced well, usually has nomajor physical course content (e.g., in a workshop for problems, has reasonable social adjustprofessionals). ments, is able to achieve at thebasic acadernic elementary upper elementary Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD) level, and has good potential for An obsolescent term used for the same employment and independentliving. children who are todaylisted as learning

Microteaching

A type of instructional approach for teacher trainees in which the stlldent/Fractitioller teaches a small group ofcollege students or school-age childrcn for an abbreviated amount of time. Typically a narrow topic is chosen at the level and within the area of certification desired and the college instructor and college peers provide constructive feedback and suggestions for improvement. Sometimes microteaching exercises involve \ridcotaping and playbacks for feedback and reflection. Microtia A craniofacial momaly characterized by ;1 small outer ear. Midbrain One o f the three main divisions of the brain, it is the smallest in size of the three. The other two are the hindbrain and the forebrain. Middle school A two- to four-year school tll‘lt contains combinations of any or all g r d e levels 5-8. Middle schools are considered a bridge developmentally between elementary- and secondarylevel programs.

171

Minimum competency testing

a

- Mixed cerebral palsy

disabled. The idea is that the learningdisabled child has a subtle malfunctioning of some partof the brain that is not discoverable by the USLI~Idiagnostic tests for brain damage. TheMBD concept hasbeen abandoned because it has not been helpful in eithertheoretical research or therapeuticpractice. Minimumcompetencytesting Exitlevel tests designed to assess whetheror not students have achievedbasic levels of performance in areas like reading, writing, and math. Generally competency testing is given nationwide in grades 4,8, and12. Minimum standards in many school systems have been set before students can graduate from high schools now in an attempt to prevent students who cannotread or write from graduating with a diploma. Minority 1. A way to categorize a group of people within a larger society. Minorities share distinctive identities based upon racial, religious, ethnic, political, and cultural characteristics or differences. At times individualsclassified as minorities experiencea subordination status sometimes involving occupitions with lesser prestige, fewer educatiollal/occupational opportunities, etc. On occasion, minorities may actually be in the majority, as is the case with women in today’s United States. 2. Also, any group distinguished byits number (less than half o f the total) or a group that is lesser in number and distinguishcd from the larger group by some characteristic(s) (e.g., individuals with orthopedic disabilities comprise a minority populationof the disabled). Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians arealso examples of minorities in the United States. Mirror writing A condition whereby a student or person writesfrom right to left, backwards. This writing when viewed in a mirror appears normally written; that is, from left to right. Misapplied constancy SEE: theory of rrr;sf?pphtccmtf?rlc!/ Miscue In reading, a deviation in pronunciation from the printed page.Miscues are not considered to be reading

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172

errors, but rather alterations to what is presented. Oral reading miscues provide valuable insights into theword analysis strategies of a reader. Miscues can significantly interfere with comprehension/ reading fluency if they significantly alter or interfere with sentence/paragraph meaning. Nonsignificant miscues would not alter meaning especially if they are self-corrected (e.g., a dialect variation). Examples o f miscues include butare not limited to: 1. letter(s)/word/sentence orlrissiot~s-reading “It bright, sunny day” for ”It is a bright sunny day” or “appy” for ”happy”; 2. letter(s)/word/ sentence irlscrtiorrs-reading ’‘I really love my family” for ”I really really love my family’’ or ”running” for ”run”; 3. letter(s)/word/sentence slrbstitlrfiorls-reading “glad” for ”happy.” It is a significant miscue if meaning is altered- reading ”sad” for “happy;” 4. letter(s)/ word/phrase r q x titiolrs-reading ’’I am going home going home” for “I am going home” or“Yes, yes“ for “Yes”; 5. ~[,~-[.orr~,ctil~ri~reading ”Please pass the deesert/ dessert” (self-corrected); 6. slow and laborious rllorrl-b!/-ic,ortfreading-reading, “I (long pause) want to (long pause) see (long pause) the puppy.”Teachers can diagnosis reader‘s miscuesby using a formal system (e.g., informal reading inventory) or an informal checklist. Mission statement The main goal or goals written by a school system, school, government agency, group, association, and the like. The main purpose of the written statement is to describe how a group perceives its obligations, goals, services, and challenges andSO forth. MIT braille embosser A system used for reading and writingby the visually impaired or blind.Developed at the Massachusetts Instituteof Tcchnology (MIT), it translates ink print into Grade2 braille. It is used with a telewriter. Materials can be requestedby phone froma computer center andthey are returned via the telewriter in braille. Today braille translations are made by microcomputer.

Mixed cerebral palsy A cerebral palsy type in which several specific types of

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Mixed dominance Moderate mental retardation

cerebral palsy are involved. For example, athetosis and spasticity occur concurrently. SEE: nthetosis, sposticity Mixed dominance Sometimes referred to as mixed laterality, it is a term used to describe a mix of a student’s or person’s choice of preferred sides of the body. The student inight be left-handed for writing but right-handed for batting a ball. The left-right side preference is not consistent for all activities. Mixed hearing loss A type of hearing loss involving both conducfive and sensorineural impairments, which are two other types of hearing loss. Individuals with the mixed type can’t hear decibels below a certain level and experience problems in sound and word distortions. Only the conductive type of hearing loss is treatable by normal means so that only the conductive elements involved in this type of loss are medically treatable. SEE: coizducfizie hearing loss, setisoriiiezrral lienring loss Mnemonics or mnemonic device Any of several procedures used to enhance short-term memory beyond its limit of seven items plus or minus two. One example is the ”method of loci.” Another is the acrostic method (first letters of items on a list are used to form a word); for example, the word ”HOMES” is the acrostic for the Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior. Some other common mnemonics include: “Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November except for February which has 28. All the rest have 31.’’ ”Roy G. Biv” represents the colors of the visible spectrum-red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. ”I before E, except after C or when sounded like A in neighbor,”SEE: method of loci, Short-Term Memory ( S T M ) Mnemonist An individual with greatly developed memory skills. Mobility The movement of individuals from one position to another within a particular stratification system. A teacher may obtain a higher level degree, for example, and then apply to become a principal.

Mobility instruction SEE: iizobility trailling

Mobility training This is training that assists visually impaired or blind students or persons with the wherewithal to get about at large and to move from one place to another in spite of obstacles that may exist. Modality A method or sensory channel through which an individual learns better than through another. For example, a child may learn to read better with the phonic method rather than through a sight method (hearing vs. vision). SEE:

modality pefereiice Modality preference The belief that learners have preferred sensory channels for learning that include visual, auditory, and tactile-kinesthetic.Some authorities, for example, believe that some individuals with learning disabilities will learn better through the auditory sense. Mode The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Model program A program that implements and evaluates new procedures or techniques in order to serve as a basis for development of other similar programs. Modeling Teaching by providing a guided example of desired behaviors or learning outcomes. The student in effect imitates the teacher. SEE: iiizitlrtioiz

Modem (from ”modulate-demodulate”) A part of a computer system called a peripheral (not necessary for the operation of the computer as such) that is used to send information over a telephone line from one computer to another. SEE: Appeiidix 4: Compziter Team Moderate mental retardation A condition characterized by poor adaptive behavior along with an IQ ranging between 35-40 to 50-55. A moderately retarded person has difficulty communicating but can carry on simple conversations, usually has some health and motor difficulties, has some awkward social adjustment, can learn functional survival skills, can live in a supported environment, and can be gainfully

Modular scheduling - Moon illusion ”~:

_ _ l . L I r

employed in a supportive setting. Moderate retardation affects about three persons outo f 1000. These students definitely need ludi\klualized Education Programs (1EPs). Programs should emphasize basic self-care, social, elementary academic, and vocational skills. SEE: r r r i l d r r r c r ~ t n lrrtnrdntiorl, s 1 ~ rtrtwtol 1 ~ retnrdf?lIOrl, / J R $ l l / t l d !r/t’l?fn/ i’(~tnrdntiOl1,( Y f l r C n / J k rrrcrltdly rctnrilcd, troillnblr rrlcwtol/!y rctordcd Modular scheduling The time arrangement of class periods in unitsof 15, 20, 30, 40 minutes, etc. in order to permit greater flexibility in scheduling. At the elementary level, 30-minute time frames are usually reserved for classes while 45-60 minutes are usual at the secondary level. Modules for learning The arrangement of learning and teaching time within a school schedule for a school day. It is the time arrangementof class periods. SEE: rrlodrrlar sclrtdrrlirrg

to be effective, hence the name ”monocular.” Examples are: linear perspective, aerial perspective, relative size of known objects, light and shade, texturc, and interposition. Monolinguals I’ersons who can speak only one language. Mononucleosis The so-called “kissing disease,” which is a result of a virus. It is infectious and affects primarily tissues of the lymphatic system.It is characterized by abnormal liver functioning, enlarged and sometimes painful lymph nodes, and a n enlarged spleen. SEE: Epsfh-Brrrr uirus Monoplegia The paralysis of one limb. Monotheism The belief that there is one personal God,from whom the m i verse is derived, including truth, beauty, and goodness. Themajor religions o f the western world-Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism-all adhcre to this basic belief. Monozygotic A tern1 that refers to the Mongolism A term used in the past to twins who are productso f the same ferdescribe a person with Down syndrome. tilized egg and thus aregenetically idenCurrently, it is considered an undesirtical. SEE: zygote' able term. Monroe approach A synthetic phonics Monism The belief that the whole uniapproach developed by Monroe in 1932. \’erst’ is, at the least, of a single nature, This approach can be sed with readers be it material, mentaI/spiritual, or a with severe oral reading difficulties as combination of the two. Idealisnl or spirstress is placed on eliminating incorrect itualism, m‘lterialism, and mind-brain pronunciations of vowels and consoidentism are three versionsof monism. nants and reading miscues such as omisMost monists, RLISS~II being one examsions, substitutions, reversals, and repeple, were materialists. Plato, Kant, and titions. The synthetic phonics teachingis Berkeley, however, championed idealused in conjunction with correct motoric ism. SEE: idwlisrtr, rrrctaplrysics, ~ ? l i r ~ d response training. l l r t l i r l ; d P ? t f ; f , l / , ll/i~l&/J)‘/Zil? pYOblP77l, /X7)l,lVOMood disorder Apsychotic condition t(l~J~!/C/liCi d l ’ l / f i . S r f l in which the main symptom is an Monitorialschools Schools developed uncontrollclble emotional state (mood). by Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell in These disorders includemania (extreme the early 1800s in which one teacher euphoria, feeling high, hyperactivity, worked with a number of bright stuand grandiosity),major depression dents as monitorsteaching other groups (extreme sadness, despair, suicidal of children. This typeof school was thinking, and possibly attempts at suiclosed in the 1840s became not enough cide), and bipolar manic-depression children were benefiting from an ade(alternating between the two extremes of quate educational experience. mania and depression). Monocularcues Environmentalstimuli Moon illusion The visual perception of th,lt ‘In observer can L I S to ~ judge visual the moon’s size varies, depending on its &nth (Le., front-back distance). These position in the sky. The moon seems to cues d o not require the useof both eyes I~

174

Moonlighting

- Motor habits

be larger when it is on the horizon than Mosaicism Abnormal junction of chromosomal pairs after fertilization and when it is ‘it the zenith (atits height). after the fetus has developednormally Various explanations of the illusion have for awhile. The infant has mixed chrobeen offered. Oneis that the sizeof the mosomal abnormalities withSOIIW tissue horizon moon can be compared with the that is abnormal and some normal. sizes o f trees and houses; itsrelative size Infants with ”mosaicism” arenormally is obviously large. No such comparison less retarded than those with ”trisomyis available for the moon at the zenith. 21” or ”translocation.” SEE: trisorr/!/-21. Moonlighting A term in general use trmslocntiorI today that means holding downa secMotivation The entire set ot factors ond job in addition to what one does (i.e., motives) that compel an individual primarily to earn a living. The term to respond. Examples of motives include implies working after a full day’s work hunger, aggression, and the need for at night or “under the light of the achievement. Hunger is a drive based on moon,” so to speak. a physiological need (food deprivation). Moral dilemmas Varioussocial situaAggression is an attempt toinjure tions in which there is no clear-cut, right another organism or person,a niotivaway to behave. As the saying in the legal tional capacity produced by emotional profession goes, ”hard cases make bad reactions to the environment and a law.“ physiological release o f brain circuits Moralreasoning Logical processes that control destructiveactivity. Achieveused to help decide whethera line of ment is a learned (”t’sycllogellic”) need, conduct is ethically right or wrong. arising from being reared in a given Morality A collection of learned attisociety and culture. SEE: r w r t f tudes, beliefs, and opinions aboutsocial Motive An internal process th‘lt directs practices and behaviors or one’s social one’s behavior toward a goal. conscience. Motokinesthetic A speechtraining Mores Societal rules governing acceptmethod for students or persons with able behaviors and moral standards. hearing impairments. This approach Mores specify unacceptable behaviors emphasizes the touchingof a person’s (e.g., stealing and lying) evenif legally face for cues as well as the reproduction acceptable. and imitation of voice patterns and Moro‘s reflex (Ernest Moro, German breathing. pediatrician, 18761951) A defensive Motor cortex Areas of the ccrebral correflex wherein an infantwill draw its tex that, when active, direct motor acts arms across its chest in an embrace asit such as movements of the limbs. responds to the strikingo f the surface on Motor development Motor developwhich the child rests. ment refers to changes in motor activity Morpheme The smallest unit of lanin an ever-increasingly proficient manguage that involves meaning. Prefixes, ner such as in the case of a child who suffixes, and root words are examplesof progresses to walking from crawling. It morphemes. involves higher-level perception skills Morphine A narcotic drug that is addicand analysis of visual and auditory tive in nature. It is derived from and is input as well as one’s ability to organize. the principal alkaloid of opium. Its priSEE:fim motor skills, gross r~rotorskills mary medical use is for the relief of pain Motor habits Motor activities that are and/or for sedative purposes. SEE: usually nonfunctional and repetitive l l ~ ~ r o i lo lp,i l / l l l such as tapping one’sfoot, thumb suckMorphology In linguistics, the science ing, hair twisting,etc. Such behavior that deals with the useof morphemes. appears to bea response to anxiety or SEE: I ~ I ( I ~ ~ / I C I ~ I P ~ stress. 175

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Motor skills Multidisciplinary team

Motor skills These are skills involving small and large muscle activities as well as fine m d gross motor skills. SEE: direcfi(lr/dif!/, /ntl’rn/it!/,fir/crr/otor skills,
Movement management

The ability of a teacher to keep the classroom lessons, homework assignments, and student activities moving in a smooth, orderly w y.a Mowat sensor A travel aid for blind students o r persons, it is a hand-held ultrasonic travel aid about the sizeof a flashlight. It warns the user of objects in his/her path by vibrating at different rates, ~ n isd an alternative to the Hoover cane. SEE: H o o ~ LXIIC r MRI SEE: M q r w t i c Rcwr~nrrcc~ Jrrqyirrg MS-DOS SEE: Mic-rowft Disk Opcrotir~g s!/sk7r/f, Ap/~c~idi.X 4: Colrlplrtcr %‘Ills MSRTS SEE: Migrout Stdcrrt Rccord Trnrr+r S(7rz1icc Mullerian ducts The forerunners in the c‘lrly human fetus of a mature female reproductive apparatus. The Mullerian ducts will develop into the oviducts, uterus, and uppervagina. Multicultural A term used to show a condition that reflects more than a single culture (Le., a state of cultural diversity). SEE: rlrrr/ticlr/tirro/d/rcntio!/, rrlrr/tic.lr/h/rcl/iSr//

Multicultural education An educationd process approach in which there is an emphasis on interactive communication, self-respect, confidence, and appreciation for one’s own culture and the cultLlre of others.A vital component to multicultural studies is the presentation of chilclren’s and adult’s literature thatis authentic as cultural awareness and Llnderstanciing can be abstracted. Multicultural education alsoinvolves providing strategies t o students in which their cultural backgrounds are viewedin positive ways and integralto the developing curriculum. Curriculum and instructional methods for all children involve cooperative learning, constructivism, critical thinking, problem solving, and

justice and an awareness,acceptance, tolerance, and appreci‘ltion for others with respect, dignity, and equitable treatment. Students are empowered to learn about their own culture and the culture of others while developingvalues andbelief systems aboutsociety(ies) in general. Multicultural educationis pervasive in that it is integrated throughout the school day and is not relegated to one lesson/activity in particular. Multicultural education is broad in scope and includes the studyof culturally diverse learners, linguistically diverse learners, and individuals from varying religions, socioeconomic classes, abilities, family lifestyles, etc. Multiculturalliteracy Strategies for teaching ethnic and multicultural content in aneffort to provide opportunities for students to interact in a wide range of meaningful and functional learning experiences. Multiculturalliterature 1. Literature that focuses on people who are considered to be outsideof the social/political mainstream. 2. Popularly, literature offerings (e.g., folktales, books) that highlight people of color such as Hispanic Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. There is some controversy reeirding whether or not Euro-American ethnic groups should be included.The term “multicultural” is used so as to avoid use of the term”minority,” which has a negative connotation (it., low status, inferior qualities). Multiculturalliterature books are important in providing8 more equitable presentationof society and to sensitize students to the unique and significant contributions of all peoples. Multiculturalism A philosopl1y wherein people of many cultures work together with mutual respect in a spirit of cooperation. SEE: rrrdticultlrrd educotiort Multidisciplinary team A team from two or more disciplinesor academic areas that comestogether for plannillg for purposes but goes separate ways delivery ofservices. There tends to be

-

Multifactored assessment Munchausen syndrome

less involvement (cooperation and com- Multiple sclerosis A neurological disorder progressive in nature in that the munication) amongst members of this myelin sheath which covers the nerves team collectively speaking than of any hardens. It is a chronic, slow, and proother types of educational teams. The gressive diseaseof the central nervous planning and implementation ofservices system (CNS). As a result of nerve damfor special-needs students usually are age weakness,spasticity, tremors, and based on the pull-out model for each muscular problems take place. Dependservice to be delivered.SEE: irrtrrdisciyliing on the severityof the condition and r r n y fcnrrr, / J ~ l / / - ( l l l frrlodcl, tn~rrsdisci~~Iir~or~/ on which nerves are affected, a person fcnrrr may have difficulty with the use of Multifactoredassessment Assessment his/her limbs and may have difficulty and evaluation of a child with a disabilwalking. Dizziness, visual problems, ity with a variety of test instruments and and slurred speech may alsobe present. observation procedures. Thisis required Remission or exacerbation also conie by I!L. 04-142 when assessment is for into play. educational placement of a child who is Multiply handicapped A student or to receive special education services. person with more than onespecial need This type of assessment prevents the or handicap. For example, a person who misdiagnosing and misplacingof a stuis deaf and also hasa physical handicap, dent as‘1 result of considering only one a mentally retarded person with a test score. speech and languagedisability, or a perMultilevelinstruction An approach to son whois blind and deaf. teaching whereby different types of Multipurpose high school A compreinstruction and teaching methods are hensive high school with diversified curused in order to meet the individual riculum offerings such as college needs of each student. The ability or courses, business courses,technology functional level of each student is a faccourses, etc. Such a high school is tor, however. Outcomes arestill based on the same curriculumfor all. designed to meet the needsof all students regardlessof their backgrounds, Multiple disabilities A term used to interests, aptitudes, and abilities. designate a condition characterized by more than one handicap.SEE: )Illl/filJ/Ij Multisensory procedure Ateaching /lf7ildicn/JlJ(d approach of particular value for those students with learningdisabilities (as Multiple-factor theories of well as any student).This method uses intelligence SEE: r r r ~ r l t i p lirrtelligerlces ~~ two or moreof the senses such asvision, Multipleintelligences In Howard hearing, kinesthetics, touch, etc. Some Gardner’s theory of intelligences there well-known systems are the Gillinghamare eight varieties: interpersonal, intraStillman, Slingerland,Traub, and the personal, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, Fernald-Keller amongst others.SEE: spatial, logical-mathematical, verbal and krrln/d-Kd/U‘ n[J~llIXlC/l, Gillir~g/~~r~~naturalistic. SEE: t l r c w y o f r r ~ ~ ~ l t i p k S t i l l r r m nppronclr, Vnk np/Jronc/I,Vnk irltc~lli‘yc~rrcc~ r w t h d , Vnkt q~yroncClr,Vnkt r r r c t l r o d Multiple personality A neurotic condi- Munchausensyndrome Thesyndrome tion that is considered a dissociative disnamed after Baron Karl von order. An individual shifts from one perMunchausen who was famousfor telling sonality to another.The rival tall tales, it is a type of malingering in personalities may vary in the amount which a person feigns sickness. If the that each is aware of the others. This malingerer is discovered then he/she condition is, erroneously, called “schizowill go to another doctor orhospital for phrenia” by movie and television treatment. Patients with this syndrome scriptwriters. are in need of psychiatric diagnosis as well as therapy. 177

zzzzzs

Muscle tone The underlying tension of consisting of a sac of nerve tissue muscles. bulging through acleft in the spine. The spinal nerves are usually damaged and Muscular Dystrophy (MD) A group of paralysis is often present in the area of diseases characterized by progressive the body that functions below the atrophy or the wasting away of the myelomeningocele. skeletal muscles without damage to the nerves. It occurs more frequently in Myopathy A disease of the striated males and generally appears at an early muscles as well as any abnormal condiage. It is thought to be caused by a tion of the muscular tissue,it is characgenetic defectin muscle metabolism. terized by the atrophy (wasting away) of muscles, progressive muscular weakMutation An abnormal change in one ness, and hyperthyroidism.SEE: or more of the genes or chromosomes. hyperthyroidism The arrangement or number may be affected. SEE: genes, Down syndrome Myopia(nearsightedness)Theinability to see objects ata distance SEE: hyperopia Myasthenia gravis An autoimmune disorder in which the body builds anti- (fksiglltedness), presbyopia bodies against the acetylcholine receptorMyositis A condition characterized by sites at neuromuscular junctions. Symp- inflammation of the muscle tissue and in toms include serious muscular weakness particular the voluntary muscles. and fatigue. Myringoplasty A surgical procedure used to reconstruct a perforated Myelodysplasia A generic term indi(pierced) eardrum. cating defective formationof the spinal a general cord. Myelodysplasia is also Myxedema A medical condition that term used to indicate spinabifida. SEE: results from an underactive functioning spina b$da of the thyroid gland.SEE: hypothyroidism Myelomeningocele A protrusion on the back of a child with spina bifida, '

NAEP SEE: NationalAssessment of Progress NAEYC SEE: National Association for the Educntion of Young Children Naive realism The belief that the world is constituted exactlyas it appears to human perception. The existence of optical illusions, thefact that the worldis round, and thefact that the earth goes

178

around the'sun are disproofs of naive realism. SEE: realism, representative

realism NARC SEE: National Association for Retarded Citizens Narcolepsy A sleep disorder. The individual has repeated attacks of drowsiness and sleep during the day (or

Narcotics

- National Association

for Retarded Citizens (NARC)

nornnlly awake time). This involves a sharp reduction in muscle tone and there is a risk of serious injury to the patient. I n most people, REM sleep (the sleep stage in which the major skeletal lnuscles lose tone) occurs only at the end of A 90-minute sleepcycle. Fortunately, there is a medical treatment for Ilarccllepsy. Narcotics A number of drugs that induce stupor, sleep,relaxation, relief from anxiety and pain, andreverie or dream-like contemplation. For example, opium, heroin, morphine, cocaine, etc. Narrative text A type of writing style or form of writing wherein the author/ writer tells a fictional or nonfictional story in the form of prose (the language o f ordinary speech) orverse (poetry), and usually in a sequential manner. SEE: t c ~ strrrcfrrrc t Nasal retina The half of the retina nearest to the nose. Optic nerve neurons from the nasal half-retina run to the visual brain of the opposite side(i.e., the contralateral visual brain). Threeof the six layers in the lateral geniculate nucleus in the brain’s thalamus are reserved for contralateral (and necessarily nasal retina) inputs. Nasal sound The sound produced by the passing/flow of air through the nas‘ll cavity when the oral cavity is blocked. Sometimes this is called talking through one’snose. Nasality The distinctivesound produced by a lack of a speaker’s ability to control the flow of air into one’s mouth and nasal cavity. The air escaping through the nasalcavity gives the speech sounds produced a peculiar nasal quality as is the case when one has a head cold and feels ”stuffed up.” Nasogastric feeding Theadministration of liquid foods through a tube that has been inserted through the nose, down the throat, and into the stomach. The tube may also beused to empty the stomach of liquids or gas. Nasopharynx The upper portion of the pharynx that is connected to (continual with) the nasal passages.

Natal

A word used to describe a relationship to birth or the birthprocess. Nution u t Risk, A The 1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education Report on the stateof educational affairs in the country at that time. It was the first national education report that warned educators of risking the decline of our educationalexcellence to mediocrity. Reforms were recommended to overhaul curriculum, goals, and teaching styles.

National Academy of Early Childhood Programs A division of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). The National Academy is charged with the accreditation of early childhood centers andschools. SEE: Nntiorrd AssocintioIlfiIr t/ft’ EdllC(7fiOJJ of Yo~rrlgC/riMrc*n( N A E Y C ) National accreditation SEE: Nntiorrnl C~lrJlCi!fort / f Accrc~fifntior~ ~ cfT~c/rr’r EdfrCflfkJll

Nationalassessment

A nationwide testing program that aidsin determining just how effective American schools are. The major question addressed is, ”Have the schools effectively taught students and have the students learned?” National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) A national assessment tool/report used to evaluate a sampling of American students in the areas of reading and writing.Begun in lY70, the NAEP samples a select group of students at ages9, 13, and 17every five yearsor so. The NAEP is often referred to as “ournation’s report card.” This rating of our schools is mandated by Congress and conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics which falls under the US.Department of Education. The NAEP begana stateby-state analysis after 1990 and overviewed and rated such domains as school climate, teaching quality, standards and assessments,resources, and student achievement.

National Association for Retarded Citizens (NARC) An organization of parents and professionals who are dedicated to advancing therights, learning

179

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National Board forProfessional leaching Standards - Nativism

..

many states require this process. All and working conditions, and overall states require state accreditation o f status of individuals with mental retardation. teacher education programs, thus placNational Board for professional ~ ~ ing ~ more ~ control h over - the requirements ingStandards A private organ~zat~on of teacher preparationwiththeindividual states. established in 1987 to create rigorous standards and assessments designed to NationalAssociation fortheEducation ofYoung Children (NAEYC) The recognize outstanding practitioners in largest professional organization the teaching field. Teachers who are condevoted to the promotionof children’s sidered complete year-long portfolios, growth, development, andeducL1tion. videotape their classrooms, compile lesson plan presentations, take subjectNational Council of Teachers of Mathmatter examinations, etc. Several hunematics (NCTM) A nonprofit profesdred teachers have been certified by this sional organization founded in 1920 board. whose mission is to improve the mathematics education for school-age children National Council for the Accreditation in Canada and the UnitedStates. The A ofTeacherEducation(NCATE) NCTM publishes Tcnclrir~gC/rildr,cwMotllnationwide organization whose primary crrmtics. The NCTM World Wide Web site purpose is to evaluate teacher education is http://www.nctnl.org. programs in colleges and universities. NCATE revised accreditation standards Nationaleconomy The total wealth in 1993 with the major goal of requiring and debt o f a society. teacher preparation programs to impleNational Education Association (NEA) ment specific national standards. The largest organization o f education NCATE does not requireall teacher professionals in the United States whose preparation programs (especially college primary focus is the qu‘llity of education programs) to have the sameteacher delivered to the students c l ~ the ~ d workpreparation programs or requirea speing conditions of educators. cific number of liberal arts/professional National education goals SEE: G ~ l s courses. Thereis a trend, however, for 2000 teacher preparation institutions to provide more ofa liberal arts focus/ National norms Quantitative test data background to education students. that are obtained from a standarclization NCATE will accredit an institution if group selected from all parts of the they meet 1 Y standards under the gencountry. As a result, a student’s Score 011 eral areas of 1. the curriculum of profesa test that is provided with national sional education, 2. the assessment norms can be interpretedin relation to the performanceof all other s t d e n t s lxocess, 3. faculty qualifications/ responsibility, and 4. the unit (scl1c)ol, across the entire nation. department, college, university) in terms National Research and Educational o f governance, accountability, resources, Network(NREN) A nationcd1y etc. NCATE has recommended that planned network thatwill connect colteacher preparation programs key in on leges, Llniversities, research centers, and individual teaching candidates, interdislibraries to schools throughout the ciplinary connections, preservice/profes4: COrrl/JI/fc’l’ United States. SEE: A/JfJC!/d;.Y sional training opportunities, multiculT~rm tural experiences, increased Native Americans Peoples nativeto opportunities for mentored practice, North America using technology in the classroom, and Nativism The doctrine that behavior is f(>rmingvital teacher-parent-comnlL~~lityproduct of hereditaryfactors and professional partnerships. Teacher that individual differences can be preparation institutions voluntarily explained genetically. A specific teaching apply for NCATE certification although

180

Natural concept

of nativism is that the mapping of the visual field on the visual brain is preestablished at birth, not shaped by experience. Natural concept A category that applies to the world of our experience,a familiar group o f objects belonging to one category (e.g., "animals"). SEE:

COlIC'P/Jt Natural setting Thetypical environment in which students and persons of similar age attend school, work, play, and live. Natural support Supportive servicefor students or persons withdisabilities from nonorganizational or government agencies such as membersof one's family, colleagues, peers, and friends. Naturalism Thepure philosophical position which adheres to thebelief that there is no reality beyond what humans can perceive; in other words, only the physical world as we knowit is real. This is the oldest pure philosophical position, with Hobbes(1588-1679) and Spencer (1820-1903) strong proponents of the naturalist position.Rousseau (1712-1778), the most well-known naturalist, believed that a teacher should nurture students asa gardener would his plants by providing the optimal environment and nourishment. R O L I S S ~also X I believed that all humans were innately good but were corrupted to some extentby society. Naturalistic observation A research method in the sciences. The phenomena of interest are observed as theyoccur in the natural courseof events. Almost all of astronomy is based on data collected by this method. In the social sciences, participant observation is a major variety of naturalistic observation. The participant becomes a member of a group and observes it while participating in its activities. Nature 1. One's genetically inherited characteristics such as skin, eyecolor, physical characteristics, temperament, and other inborn qualities.2. The forces

- Negative reinforcement

and laws that govern thephysical universe and changetherein. Nature vs. nurture A controversial theory involving the importanceof and contribution to a persons intelligence that is derived from genetics/heredity (nature) and thatwhich is derived from socioculturaI/educational/environ~ne~~tal (nurture) influences. Most specialists in the fields of psychology and eciucation feel that both are importantfactors. NCATE SEE: Nnfiorrrll C o ~ r r ~ i lAj ~ Lr T ~ ~ itntiorl of T m c / r E~ d~ r r c n t i ~ NCTM SEE: Nntiorld Corrrlcd c?fPndrc7rs

qfMntlrermtics NEA SEE: Nntiorml EdrrcntiorrAssocintiorr Near-death experiences A set of conscious experiences sharedby people who have momentarily "died" and have been restored to life at the last moment. Correlating experiencesof this phenomena are the viewof one's own body from above and seeinga lighted tunnel entrance. Nearsightedness SEE: rrryopin Need A physiological innate condition (e.g., hunger, thirst) that causes arousal and the occurrence of responses (e.g., eating, drinking) thatwill satisfy the need. SEE: rrrotizwtiorr, rrrotivr Negative correlation An orderly relationship between people's scores on one continuous variable andtheir scores on another variable is a correlation. I n a negative correlation, the higher the score on one of the variables, the lower the score on the second variable. For example, more winning gamesfor a pitcher in baseball results in a lower earned-run average. In education, greater absenteeism generally results in lower grades. SEE: correlntior~,/ ~ o s i t i ucorrdntiorr ~~ Negativereinforcement Theconditioning of an operant("voluntary") response by removal of an unwanted state ofaffairs right after the response occurs. This results in an increased probability that the response will be made the next time that unwanted circumstance happens.

181

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Negative skew Nervous system

-..

I _

Negative skew

Also known as skew to the left. A negative skew is actually a shape o f a frequency distribution curve that is different from the normal curve in that it is asymmetrical (the normal curve is symmetrical): more scores occur at one endof the curve than theother. This is the type of skewed curve that shows mostof the scores are high ones, piling up at the right partof the curve. The thin tail of the curve points to the left; this means the curve is skewed to the left, or negatively skewed. In skewed curves, the mean, median, and mode become separated, with the mean being pulled too far to the tail to be an acceptable measure o f central tendency. For skewed distributions, the best policy is to report the median as the central score for the group.SEE: \ J O S ~ / ~ WS ~ C Z U Negativism 1 . A lack of a positive attitude that can adversely impact relationships and overall functioning.2. A condition whereby demancis are made upon student or person that are beyond one’s ‘lbilities. This can lead to withdrawal, nonparticipatioll, refusal to speak, and even doing the oppositeof what is suggested. Neglect syndrome A bizarre symptom of brain damage in which the person acts as if ‘1 part of his/her body docs not exist. A man may fail to shave one side of his face, for example. This is most often a result of damage to the parietal lobe of the right cerebral hemisphere. Negligence The lack of use of common sense, or failure to use reasonable judgment and care to a point wllere one’s actions result in injury to other(s). Neodissociation theory Ernest Hilgard‘s theory of hypnotism. The hypnotised person has had his/lwr consciousness divided into channels that operate independently. This allows thepossibility of a “hidden observer” whosees what is ”really going on” while the hypnotized subject is involved in the hypnotic trance. Neologisms A speech pattern typical in schizophrenics wherein unnatural or

182

meaningless words arecoined or u s c ~ i by the schizophrenic. Neonatal Refers to the time period between the onset of labor and the first six weeks of birth. Neonatalhypothyroidism A medical condition caused by an underactive, impaired, or evcn absentthyroid gland. Development can be impaired and mental retardation can take place. SEE: ( w tifliSfii,/f!/fJ(~t/i!/K(li[fiSfi/

Neonatal Intensive Care (NIC) A S

C

arate special Ilospit‘ll section o r unit designed to care for infants who areseriously ill and in need of constant medical care and monitoring. Nephritis A conditioninvolving inflammation of the kidneys. Thisconciition is characterized by symptoms that include digestive disturbclnccs, eye disturbances, puffiness about thc eyes and other parts of the body, fever, heaclachc, weakness, nausea, v,1somotor ciisturbances, high blood pressure, and anemia. Nephrosis A kidney disorder caused b y infections, burns, poisoning, o r otht~r diseases. In general, this condition involves kidney degeneration tu ‘1 point where poor filtering or elimination occurs and can causepuffinc,ss, loss of appetite, malaise, etc. Nerve A bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system. Nerve deafness That form o f dcxafness that is a result o f damage to the cochlea or the auditoryn e r \ ~pathway. Nerve deafness cannot berelie\reci by ‘1 hearing aid. Nerve growth factor A protein tll‘lt stimulates the survival and growth of neurons in the pcriphcral ner\’ousS ~ S tem and alsoin the brain. Nervous system The entire set of the body’s nerve ctllls, their interconn1.ctions, and their supporting cells. The two chief componentsof the nervous system are the central nervous system and the peripheral ner\rous system. The brain and spinal cord belong to the CNS. SEE: /Jc’!’i/J/fl’Kll/ f f ( ’ K i V l f [ SS ! / 5 / c ’ f f i fI’NS)

~

-m

Network - Neurophrenia

w

Network

A system in which two or mort‘ computers o r other communication devices are connected for educational <1nd/or informational purposes. SEE: A/,p.f/Lfi.~ 4:COf/f/J/ftCf’ 7?f’f/fS Neural graft An implmtation of hecllthy nerve cells in an area of the central nervous system that hasbeen damaged.
<>reaof learning disabilities. For example, it has been found with dyslexics that some Ilave abnormal EEGs or visual thresl~olds. Neurological examination A medical examination usually conducted by a neurologist (a physician) of the sensory or motor responses. Reflexes are particularly noted as indicatorsof possible disorders of the nervous system.SEE: f w ro/O,yiCf7/ t ~ ! / ~ f i f r l c ~ t i o t l i f fl /~C~I,f ! ’ O / ~ J ~ T i C iftlpf7irfr/~~/if, f/(~ffrolo‘~i..‘t Neurologists Physicians who study the brain and related disorders and diseases, as well as thescience of the nervous system as it relates to other parts of the body. Neuromuscular disease A disease that affects both a person’s nerves and muscles. Examples of such problems include muscular dystrophy, multiplesclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Huntington’s chorea, and Parkinson’s disease. SEE: Mfrsclrlnr D!/stro/rh!/ ( M D ) Neuromuscular junction The functional link between a motor nerve ending and the membrane around a muscle bundle. In many ways, the neuromuscular junction works like a synapse between a sending and a receiving neuron. The nerve ending releases a chemical neurotransmitter that settles into a properly-shaped receptor site on the membrane. Neuron A cell that is specialized for the transmission of information fronl one part of the body to another.Collectively, neurons comprise the informationhandling part of the nervous system. There arcbillions of neurons of various shdpes andsizes. The other cells of the nervous system are the supportingcells known as neuroglia. Neurophonia A conditioncharacterized by a spasm o r tic of the muscles involved in speech. This results in an uncontrollable (in\roluntary)cry or sound.

Neurophrenia

A term used to describe conditions of mental disorder resulting from damage or disorderof the central nervous system (CNS).SEE: mvro/ogicd

183

Neuropsychological examination - Night terror

n!/sfirrrctionirrg,rrcrrrolo‘yicnl irrq~nirt~rpt~t, rrc~lrrosis

Neuropsychologicalexamination

systematic testing of people with learning disabilities with a battery of test procedures. There aretest batteries available that purport to screen patients for organic brain disorders and toindicate a probable diagnosis, suchas the Halstead-Reitan battery and theLuriaNebraska neuropsychologicalbattery. Often, a neuropsychological assessment will include one of the Wechsler intelligence scales. Memory, somatosensory ability, picture-copying accuracy, and other skills may be tested in a neuropsychological examination. Clear indications of damage toa part of the brain are shown by “hard signs” while behavioral disturbances that arepossible indications of brain damage arecalled ”soft signs.” Neurosis A diagnosis of mental/ emotional disorder that is not serious enough to require hospitalization. A neurosis can be treatedin visits to the office of a psychologist/psychiatrist/ psychoanalyst. Examples of neuroses (plural) are anxiety disorders, panic attack syndrome, multiplepersonality, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuroticdisturbances SEE: rrrrrrologicnl

il!/sftrrrctiorrirrs,rrrrrrologic irtrpnirrrrerrt,

tl~~l~l.~lSiS

Neurotransmitters Chemicals released at the axon terminalsof sending neurons that create electrical voltage changes on the membranesof postsynaptic (receiving) neurons, or, if the sending neuronis a motor neuron, the voltage change on the membrane of a muscle bundle. Neurotransmitters may either adda negative charge to the outsideof the receiving neuron’s membrane (which has an excitatory effect, helping to starta nerve impulse) ora positive charge, which tends to inhibit thereceiving cell (i.e., hinder the formationof a nerve impulse). The amountof a particular neurotransmitter in the body ata particular time can havea significant impact on behavior (see nicotine) or the acquisition o f certain disorders (e.g.,

184

schizophrenia-a disorder possibly caused by an excess of a neurotransmitter called dopamine). Thebest known neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. New England primer An introductory reader used in New England schools during the 1800s.This typeof eclectic reader included poetry, prose, and Biblical references. This schoolbook was originally published in 1690 and emphasized the memorization of biblical text. Newbery Medal A special award given to the most outstandingchildren’s book. The Newbery Medal is named after John Newbery, a famous American children’s book publislwr andwriter. The award has been given annually since 1922. It is one of two major outstanding book awards in the United States. The other is the Caldecott Medalfor the most distinguished children’s book illustrator. SEE: Cnldecott M d n l NIC SEE: Nwrrntnl 1r1tc~rsiz~r COW Nicotine Achemical that produces acetylcholine-activation at some places in the nervous system. The acetylcholine-accepting receptor sites that can be activated bynicotine are called nicotinic receptors. These receptors are found onthe membranes of the striped muscles. An overdose of nicotine could lead to an excessive rise in the muscle tone of the striped muscles, causing a rigid and tense form of paralysis called spasticity. Nicotine is extremely toxic and addictive. Cigarettes/tobacco contain nicotine. Niemann-Pick disease A severemetabolic disorder characterized by an enlarged liver and spleen. This disorder usually results in a variety of handicaps (multiple handicaps), including mental retardation and others.SEE: Pick’s tfist’risc’ Night terror A frightening experience accompanied by a fast heartbeat and other ”emergency reactions” that affect the sleeper in stage 4 sleep, not stage REM (dreaming) sleep.Most of the victims of night terrors are children who have difficulty coping with such an unusual experience. In this form of nightmare the individual awakens

Nightmare - Nonsheltered work environments ^ ” ”

-

varying types of assessments appropriscreaming in terror. This terror orfear ate to the student’s background in order continues for a period of time after the to accurately determine a student’s indi\4dual is awakened and conscious. needs. SEE: I?L.94-792, P.L. 101-376, SEE: rli~/rtlrlnrt7 rlllr/tidisci~~lirrn~~ tmrr Nightmare A dreamwiththreatening, anxiety-arousing content.A nightmare is Nondiscriminatorytesting Testing or assessments that considera student’s less scrious than a night terror. SEE: background to include one’s culture and 11/,y/1t tcwc1r language. SEE: r r ~ J l ~ [ f ; s ~ ~ ~ inlrd l~~il~~~fcJ~!/ NMR SEE: N1rc~lctirM 1 7 p ~ ~ Rt’sollnllcc’ tic r r l i l / t i d i s c ; ~ J / i l lli~ S 57t ’~S ~ SlllCllt Noise A term sed to indicate a poor Non-Englishspeakers SEE: I ~ i l i r ~ g ~ r n l acoustical environment. Such an enviILwrrws ronment can make it difficult or even Nonfamilyhouseholder A person impossible to hear properly. The condiwho lives and maintains a household tion can be a result of poor acoustics in alone, or if she/he lives with othersthey the T O L or ~ even poor syntaxo f the are not related. SEE: Ilorrst4o/drr speaker. Nongraded school A type of school Nominalaphasia An impairment of wherein grade levels are eliminated language that is characterized by an sequentially for two or more years. inability to recall and recognize names and objects. SEE: n r ~ o ~ ~ r i ~ ~ Noninstitutionalpopulation Those individuals who d o not reside in such Nominal data or scales Data or scales institutions as residential homes, that classify information into discrete or schools, hospitals, or residential settings separate categories. One person, place, for persons with physical or mental disor thing c m be assigned to one (and abilities; hospitals or residential settings only one) category and memberso f a for mental, tubercular, or chronic-disease category have attributes orcharacterispatients; homes for unmarried mothers; tics in common. This can be considered “head counting” and nominal datais nursing, convalescent, rest homes, or frequently used in polling and demoassisted living quarters for the aged and graphics work. dependent; orphanages; and prisons or other correctional institutions. Noncategorical The practice of grouping individuals with disabilities without Nonpaid supports Work of a voluntary labeling the disabling condition. In nature involving ordinary assistance Mclssclchusetts, forexample, studentsare given to a person with a disability usugrouped by prototype status (meaning ally by family members, friends, or how much time is spent outof the mainneighbors. The aid is at no cost to the stream classes) and are notlabeled by individual with the disability. their disabling condition. Non-parametric statistics Inferential Noncertified teacher Anindividual statistics (e.g., chi-square) that arebuilt who may have completeda teacher on the assumption that the scores/ prepratory program but did not fully observations used were not obtained meet standards for state certification. from a normal or bell-shaped distribution. Nondiscriminatory and multidisciplinary assessment A type o f assessNonsheltered work environments ment required under the provisions of Work sites for persons with disabilities the Individuals with Disabilities Educathat involve working alongside nontion Act (P.L. 101-476). Assessment prohandicapped persons as equalcocedures andtests must be administered workers. The work is legitimately comin the primary language of the student. petitive and nospecial accommodations Such a procedure is designed to prevent other than those requiredby law are racial and cultural discrimination.A available to persons with disabilities. multidisciylanary team should use

185

Nonsuppurative otitis- Norms

Nonsuppurative otitis

a normal curve. In order for a distribuA non-pus protion to forma normal curve, there must ducing inflammation of the middle ear be a ”normal distribution.” SEE: rrorrrrd without an infection, it often precedes distri61rtio11 the infectious form of ear problem, otitis media with effusion. SEE: otitis rrlcdin Normal distribution A distribution that forms a normal curve where50 perNonverbalcommunication A condicent of the scores fall above the mean tion in which a person is able to commuand 50 percent of the score fall below the nicate ideas without the useof speech, mean. The mode, median, and meanfall such as in the use o f hand and armsigprecisely at the same pointin a normal nals and sign language.This may distribution. Approximately 68 percent include gestures andvocalization but no of the scores fall between plus or minus recognizable words. 1.0 Standard Deviations (SD) from the Norm That which is considered to be mean; 95 percent between plus or minus average or normal. 2.0 SD, 99 percent between plus or Norm-basedaverages SEE: Norrrlminus 3.0 SD. There are a number of RtfiwtIcd A s s e s s t ~ ~ ~ t ~ t s variables that form a normal distribuNorm group The group of students tion, including intelligence, aptitude, used to provide the data from whichtest height, weight, etc. SEE: rwrrrrnl c.urvc norms are calculated.SEE: u o m s Normal school A college-level two-year Norm-referenced The assessment of training school for teachers. No longer the quality of a student’s performance in use, it was the first American instituby comparing that performance with tion solely dedicated to teacher training. that of other students(Le., the norm Normalization The principle o f allowgroup). ing each person’s life to be as normal as possible in all aspects, including resiNorm-Referenced Assessments dence, schooling, work, recreational Assessments based upon averages activities, and overall independence. normed at thelocal or national level. Similarities between people with and SEE: 1rorrr1,r m w s without disabilities of the same age are Norm-referenced data Data which are emphasized. based on local, state, regional, or Normative ethics A part of prescriptive national norms. SEE: r1orrns philosophy. Normative ethics areconNorm-referencedgrading Marking cerned with answering questions of “on a curve.” A student’s grade is based what people ought to do, what constion how his/her performance compares tutes the right way to behave, what it with that o f the other students in the means to bea good person, etc. SEE: group. etlrics, prescriptiuc plIilosopll!/ Norm-referenced test A standardized Norming sample A large g r o ~ ~ofypcrtest that comparesa student’s or other sons who havebeen given the sarne individual’s performance with that ofa standardized test. Their average scores group o f persons on which thetest has (and the variability of scores around the been standardized or normed. average) are used as norms to decide Normal curve A distribution of scores how the scoresof others who take the that forms what has come to be known test should be interpreted. as the ”bell-shaped” or ”normal” curve. Norms Standardized test scores that Educators are familiar with grading describe performance ona given test for practices based on the normal curve particular groups of individual (e.g., age where a certain percentage of students and grade) in terms of the average receives grades of A, B, C, D, and F. Scores for that particular group. Such Most students fall in the middle grade average scores are termed nornls. Norms categories because the assumption is made that studentabilities (via IQ) form

186

Novice teachere

- Object permanence

central part of an educational program, system, or curriculum. Null hypothesis The hypothesis given that states there is no relationship or difbeginning their work. Although they have done well in their training, they do ferencebetweenvariablesunder-study and that any relationships that emerge not yet have a developed set of solutions are a resultof chance and chance alone for a numberof typical classroom prob(i.e., sampling error).Rejecting the nall lems. Furthermore, there are many hypothesis in a research study means aspects of teaching that they will learn that the results obtained were statistifrom experience. cally significant and probably not a NREM sleep Sleep without rapid eye result of chance. movements (NREM stands for nonNursery school A school that provides REM). The NREM sleep stages include education to students at the predescending stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, and kindergarten level. Nursery schools norstage 4 sleep. After the first 90-minute mally service children from ages 2-4. cycle, stage 1 is of the ascending type. Another name for ascending stage 1 Nurturing attitude In education, that sleep is stageREM sleep. disposition expressed by a teacher or educational professional that displays NREN SEE: NationalResearchandEducaencouragement, caring and concern for a tional Network student’s needs, academically, behavNuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) iorally, socially, psychologically and the SEE: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) like. Such persons provide a supportive Nucleus 1. The central part of an aniand favorable atmosphere for growth mal’s bodycell, that contains thec h o within the contextof the classroom mosomes that control hereditary charac- and/or school environment. teristics. 2. A collectionof nerve-cell bodies in the brain or spinal cord, mak- Nystagmus A rapid, involuntary, rhythmic and cyclical movement of the eyes ing up part of the gray matterof the centhat may cause difficulty in reading or tral nervous system(CNS). 3. The fixating on anobject. can belocal or national.SEE: local norms,

national norms Novice teachers Teachers who are just

OBE SEE Outcomes-BasedEducation Obedience The readiness ,to change behaviorin confo-ty withto mands from an authority figure.

Obesity An extremely overweight condition. The person hasso much excess fat that the abdomen and other body

parts have a round and protruding shape. Generally, an obese personis 20 30 percentoverweightormorebased on recommended averages in height and weight tables.

Object permanence A

mature stage of perceptual development.

187

Objective

-

- Occupational therapy

Before this stage is reached an infant person fixates or dwells uponit even immediately forgets about an object when the person considersthe idea or thought irrational. when the object is hidden from the infant‘s view. An older child starts to Obsessive-compulsive disorder A search for the missing object (i.e., this type of neurosis (i.e.,a relatively mild child makes the assumption that the behavior disorder) in which the individobject is nearby and can be located). ual keeps repeating the sameactivity (i.e., compulsive behavior) and rethinkObjective In education, a specific puring the same thoughts, as when an old pose or goal to be reached/learned by song lyric keeps “running throughone’s the student. head” (which isobsessive thinking). Objective idealism The view that reality is of a single nature and thatit is Obstacle sense A term used to describe the skills possessed by the blind or mental. In this view, reality transcends the differences among individual human severely visually impaired when they can accurately detect obstacles in the minds. When an individual gains environment. It is a result of the ability knowledge, he/she is moving closer to to detect minute changes in thepitch of oneness with the absolute. The author of echoes of high frequency. this view is Hegel. SEE: deterrllirlisnl, dinlrctic, idcnlisrll, rrretnyhysics, IrlmisII1, Obstetrician A physician who is a speSlIbjC’CtiW idCn/iSt?l cialist in the field of obstetrics. One who deals with a woman before, during, and Objective scoring The agreement by after the birth of a child. SEE: obstetrics, different judges, raters, or observers on yediotrics the ratings, grades, orscores to be assigned for a given performance. Objec- Obstetrics The branch of medicine that tive scoring occurs when the assessment deals with themedical management of procedure is a reliable one. women and the puerperium period (the 42-day period after birth). SEE: obstctriObjective test A test that yields mathec i m , pediatrisinlr matically derived results that can be evaluated or scored by different people Obturator 1. A device used t o close a who will calculate identical outcomes. cleft palate (theroof of the mouth). Multiple choice and true-false tests can 2. Any device thatcloses an opening. be considered objective tests as they are The device is artificial i n nature. scored in such a way that a chosen Occipital lobes The lobes of the brain answer is either right or wrong and is that contain visualprocessing areas scored accordingly. related to perceptionof visual stimuli in Observation learning A method of the environment. Damage tothis area learning in which the student learns by could result in blindness or visual observing what others do.It is usually deficits particularly related to object the prelude to actually doing what one recognition, scanning, color discriminahas observed or atleast part of what has tion, and visual recall. been observed. Occlusion A term used to describe how Observationtechniques An organized teeth close and fit together. Poor occlusystem of observing various aspects ofa sion may cause speech problems. school or classroom. Such procedures Occupational therapist A specialist are systematic approaches to gathering who develops and maintains fora perstatistical data. SEE: observntiorl Irnrrlillg son with disabilities the functions and Observerprejudgment The premature skills necessary for daily living Such as labcling of a pupil on the part of a dressing, mealtime activities, etc. teacher on the basisof prior information. Occupational therapy Servicerelating SEE: w!f$u/fi/Iiq prophecy to expected or actual work activities. A Obsession A condition wherein an idea professionally trained therapist designs or thought persists toa degree that a

188

Ocular

- Open classroom-

Organization for the Education of and delivers such instructionor services. Pr&choolers). An organization conSEE: CJl'lXpf7t/lJllo/t / f c W p i S t cerned with children's growth, educaOcular A term used to describe things tion, and development. SEE: NAEYC that involve or pertain to theeye. Omission The deletion o f a phoneme Ocular motility The eyes' ability to such as saying"ca-" for "catl" or "ha-" move. for "hat". SEE: p l r o r ~ c w c Oculomotor Motoractivities that relate On-the-job-training A program o f to the movementof the eye. education wherein the skills necessary Oedipus complex Theconceptin for a particular vocation or profession Freudian psychology of the arousal of a are taught primarilyon the job site boy's sexual interest in his mother. This rather than in the classroom. is seen by the Freudians as the main Oncologist A medical doctor who speevent in the third stage ofpsychosexual cializes in the treatment of tumors, espede\relopment, the phallic (the first two cially malignant tumors (cancers). being the oral and the anal). For normal Oncology The science o f the study o f development of the male, this complex tumors frequently associated with canmust be resolved. The cause of the resocer (malignant tumor). lution is said to befear of beingcastrated by the father. One-roomschool The so-called"oneroom schoolhouse" was popular years Officialassessments Pupilassessments that teachers are required to com- ago in small communities, especially in rural areas. Oneteacher taught all stuplete in the form of reports to their dents o f all grade levels in a single superintendents or other superiors. room, thus the name. These reports may involve theplacement, grouping, promotion, or gradua- Onset The consonant sounds that pretion of pupils. cede a vowel in a syllable. The onset is Old Deluder Satan Act Passed by the followed by the rime. For example, in Massachusetts legislaturein 1637, it is an the word pen, "p" is the onset and "en" old colonial education law. It required is the rime. SEE: ritrrc, s!/llnbIc all towns with atleast 50 households to Ontology The study of being and provide schools (elementary education) existence. for their children. The idea was for all Open-caption TV Television captions students to learnto read the Bible, in (worded lines o f explanation) that particular, and thus the children would appear at the bottom o f a TV screen. be able to gain the knowledge necessary Since the 1970s, certain selected proto delude Satan (therefore, the name for grams are captioned asan aid to the the act). hearing impaired. Open-captioned proOld field schools Unsuitablehousing grams can be seen on all television sets in old and worn tobacco fields in the whereas closed-caption programs can South where poor white children only be seen oncertain sets thdt subreceived a rudimentary or basic educascribe to this special programming. tion during the 1800s and early 1900s. Openclassroom EducationdlyspeakOlfaction The sense of smell. ing, a more modern innovation wherein Oligodontia A condition in which a self-contained orclosed-off classrooms person develops less than the normal were replaced by an open space and number of teeth. An adult human noropen curriculum program. Individualmally has 32 teeth (second set). The norized instruction for students is the key mal two-year-old has 20 milk (deciduand students have the freedom to move ous) or baby teeth. about in the open area. SEE: opw Plfllcntioll OMEP OrganisationMondiale Pour L'Education Prescolaire (World

189

Open education - Opium

Open education A philosophy of eduOperants Responses emitted by an cation wherein students are encouraged organism that d o not appear tobe initito explore courses and curriculum ated by an environmental stimulus (e.g., appropriate to their interests andabilia bird flying, babies babbling, dogs runties witllout losing the foundationsof a ning on fourlegs, etc.). good education. This approach allows Operational definition The scientific individual differences to be met at the way of defining a concept; that is, by refpersonal level and thus provide the stuerence to observable and measurable dent with a great deal of satisfaction events. For example, oneice fishcrman during the schoolingprocess. carved a giant-sized circular hole in the ice when ice-fishing with his child. Open enrollment Also calledschool Another ice fisherman cut smaller, more choice, this is the practice of allowing normal-sized holes. The first fisherman’s students to attend the school of their child asks, “Daddy, whatis an optichoice within a particular school system mist?” The conceptof ”optimist” is or district. thereby defined operationally. Open institution An educationalorganiz,ltion that is subject to conditions and Operationalize To make an abstract concept measurable by redefining it i n pressures outside of itself (e.g., a school system is subject to the wishes anddicterms of observable procedures. tatcs of scllool boards or committees Operations In the sense of “mental usually elected by the community at operations,” these are actions thata large-all citizens of the appropriate person imagines herself/himself ages are eligible for admittance). Access performing. is ,1vailablc from without. Ophthalmia neonatorum An inflamOpen-spaceschoolTheopenmation of purulent conjunctivitis in the classroom concept ora school building front of the eyeball. Usually occurring without interior walls enclosingteaching during aninfant’s first week. areas. Ophthalmologist Aphysician trained Operant conditioning One of the in the diagnosis and treatment o f the methods of behavior modification diseases of the eye. An ophthalmologist wherein the student learns that rewards can prescribe drugs for eye disorders, are given or withheld based on whether measure refractions, prescribe lenses, or not the student’s responseis approand/or perform eyesurgery. priate. For example, the reward for good Ophthalmology The study of or the behavior might be a treat or small gift science of diseases of the eyes. SEE: whereas poor behavior wouldelicit no oylltllnllllologist reward at all or even punishment. Opiates A set of chemicals having drug Operant conditioning audiometry A effects similar to those of opium method o f measuring hearing by condi(namely, pleasant mood, relaxation, and tioning the subject to make an observsedation) and that become addictive. able response to sound.For example, a Opium derivatives such as morphine, child may be taught to dropa block into heroin, codeine, and demeral are opia box each time a light and a loud tone ates. The body’s own natural opiates are presented. Once this response is conare endorphines, enkephalins, and ditioned, the lightis no longer presented dynorphin. and the volume andpitch of the tone are O p i u m A narcotic drug that is very gradually decreased. When thechild no addictive in nature, it is derived from longer drops theblock into the box, the the opium poppyflower (i.c., the unripe audiologist knows thechild cannot hear buds or capsules). The dried latex the tone. This procedure is used to test extracted from the poppy serves as the the hearing of nonverbal children and basis for the manufactureof morphine adults.

190

Opponent-process theory

- Oral method

nerve axons, once they travel in the from which, in turn, heroin is derived. brain, comprise the left and right optic SEE: / I ~ ~ I rrrorp/rirlc2 I , tracts. Opponent-processtheory A nerve that carries nineteenth-century theory of color vision Optic nerve The ilnpulses from the eye to the brain. offered by Ewald Hering. The original theory was based on the two types of Optician A vision specialist who is metabolism; namely, the anabolic trained to fit and grind lenses for eyebuildup of bodychemicals and the cataglass prescriptions and can fit and order bolic breakdown of body chemicals. contact lenses if trained to clo SO. SEE: Color receptors in the eye were hypothe- o ) J ~ O l l l C ~ l ’ op/lt/lnlrrlol[~sist i~~, sized to have dual properties: a receptor Optimal level An aspect of cognitive gave the experience of red when its development according toFischer’s thechemicals were broken down but the ory of academicskills. The ”optimal experience of green when the chemical level” is the highest level one can attain, parts were reassembled. The twentiethwith thebenefit of the greatest possible century version o f the theory was stated amount of supportive assistance. by R. DeValois. The two opposed Optimal pitch That pitch produced by processes were changed to neuralexcitathe speech or laryngeal mechanism (the tion and inhibition. The neurons voice box) effectively and with the least involved are no longer said to be the amount of effort on the partof the receptors; they are, instead, theretinal speaker. ganglion cells and some of the cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus. If a color Options The various choices offered a sensitive neuron is excited by red (a test-taker answering a multiple-choice result of red light affecting the cones question. The choices for one item leading up to it), then it is inhibited by include the correct answer and two or green. more distractors. Opportunistic infection Infection that Optometrist A vision specialist who can penetrate the immune system. Such can prescribe and fit corrective eyeglass germs usually do notinfect a normally lenses and contacts. An optometrist is healthy person but in this case a weaknot a physician but like an opl~tl~aln~oloened or defective immune system allows gist may prescribe drugs for eye disorthe opportunity for infection to take ders whereas an optician cannot. SEE: place. opticiorl, o p l ~ t / ~ r r / r r r o / ~ ~ ~ i s t Optacon A special device that changes Oral An approach to education of deaf visual information to anexact tactile children that stresses learning to speak duplicate; of special use for the blind. It as anessential element of integration was developed at Stanford University into the hearing world. and is comprised of 144 tactile pins that Oral-aural method A method of teachare activated by print and produce a ing deaf students who have someresidvibratory image of the letter(s) on the ual hearing; amplification is used ‘1s well finger(s). as speech reading (lip reading). Speech Optic atrophy A term used to describe production and manual communications a degenerative disease of the nerve are emphasized. Reading and writing fibers leading from the retina to the take place usually after oral communicabrain. tions or the oral-aural method is reasonably mastered. Optic chiasm X-shaped structure at the base of the hypothalamus, marking the Oral method A method of teaching point where the two optic nerves arrive deaf students how to communicate at the brain. The x-shape stands out through the useof speech. First students because the white, myelin-sheathed are taught to pronounce syllables, which axons contrast with the gray matterof are then combined to form words and the ventral hypothalamus.The optic

=

191

Oral miscue analysis

- Osteogenesis imperfecta

on to sentences. The acquisition of corOrthopedic impairment Anydisability rect accents is stressed. SEE: ornl caused by disorders to thc musculoskeletal system. Oral miscueanalysis SEE: rrriscrrc Orthopedically handicapped SEE: Oral stage The first of Sigmund Freud’s ortlropfic irrrpnirrrrmt, ylrysicn//!/ five stages of psychosexual develop/fl7fidiCl7[J[JL’d ment. In this stage, the infant seeks gratification and pleasure from oral Orthopedics A specialty area that deals stimulation. with the science o f prevention and correction of disorders o f the body’s skeleOrdinal data or scales Data that are ton, joints, and muscles; that is, the locorank ordered (e.g., first, second, third). Interval data can be converted to ordinal motor structures. It is sometimes used synonymously with the term orthotics. data. If two interval numbers have the SEE: ortlrotics same value, then eachis assigned the same average rank(e.g., if assigned an Orthoptist A vision specialist who uses average rank o f 1 and 2, the assigned eye exercises when prescribed by an rank for each is 1.5). ophthalmologist. Organ of Corti The organ of Corti is Orthosis An aid or device like a crutch housed in the snail-shaped cochlea that or brace that helps restore a lost bodily function. The assistance provided may is filled with fluid. It converts sound result in partial or complete restoration waves into nerve impulses that are transmitted along the auditory nerve to of functioning. the brain. SEE: cc>c/rlcw,sorlrld i[J17iX’S, o d i Orthotics Thescience of artificial tory f f t ’ r w Dl.& , devices for orthopedics. Examples include knee braces, arch supports, etc. Organic Inborn or inherent causes. SEE: prostlrctic dcviccs, ort/lo[JdicS Thesc are known abnormalitiesof a neurological or structural nature. Oscillator A repetitiveback-and-forth motion such as the flappingof wings by Organic disability A disability that is a flying animal or the scratching caused by inborn or inherent causes. An motions of a dog orcat performing a individual born with cerebral palsy w o u l d be considered to have an organic scratching reflex. disability as opposed to brain damage Osmosis The passage of liquid, usually caused by a car accident.’ water, through a membranc that is semipermeable. Organization Thecontinuousprocess of re‘lrranging experiences and observa- Ossicles Three small bones (hammer, tions into mental schemes.The orderly anvil, and stirrup) that transmit sound form ofa network of interrelated items. energy through the middle ear to the inner ear. SEE: ossicrrlur c l ~ r l i f f Orientation The ability to establish one’s position in relation to the Ossicular chain The three bones in the environment. middle ear commonlycalled the hmlmer, anvil, and stirrup because of their Orthomolecular medicine An shape. They are alternatively called the unproven approach to remediationof malleus, incus, and stapes, respectively. Ie,lrning disabilities and to psychotherapy of emotional disorders through the Osteoarthritis A type of arthritis that is use o f very high doses of vitamins prevalent among children withphysical (megadoses). SEE: rrrcywitarrfifls disabilities. Damage to muscle cartilage surrounding bone joints m A e s moveOrthopedic devices Such objects as ment painful and difficult. braces, crutches, and wheelchairs that are used to aid persons withphysical Osteogenesis imperfecta Better known disabilities. as “brittle bone disease,”this is a rare hereditary disorder that adversely Orthopedicdisability SEE: ortho/Jc’diaffects bone growth and causes b011es to c-nll!/ Irr7rrdin7pprrf

192

Osteomyelitis - Oval window

-

easily break. Other characteristics of this Otoxic drugs Drugs that have an baldisorder can include early deafness, cap- adverse effect upon the organs of ance and hearingor the eighth cranial illary bleeding, opalescent teeth, and nerve (the acoustic nerve). translucent skin aswell as joint instability. 111 most cases, it is an inherited auto- Outcomes A term used to indicate the somal dominant trait. Bones broken heal results or the expected results of an edunormally and asa person ages, fracturcational plan or program (e.g., achieving ing decreases and sometimes disapone year's growth in an academicarea; pears. At present, there is no known completing a book report; preparing an cure for osteogenesis imperfecta. SEE: oral presentation; etc.). Outcomes can nlrtosorrrrs also be the consequences of decisions made. Osteomyelitis Inflammationofthe bone and especially the bone marrow. Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) Chronic pain and pain following presThe demonstrationsor activities genersure of the affected area as well as ated from highquality, meaningful swelling and inflammation are its chief activities that are considered culminatcharacteristics. ing activities and indicators of learning achieved. Outcomes-based assessments Other health impaired A general category of health impairments as described usually occur during such culminating periods of one's academic career as under the Individuals withDisabilities fourth or fifth, eighth, and twelfth Education Act (IDEA), or P.L. 101-476. grades. William Spady describes the Otitis media An infection of the middle "Demonstration Mountain" in OBE with ear that can be treated with antibiotics. 1. a t r n d i t i o d zutle that involves discrete Otolaryngologist Aphysician whose concrete learning tasks, 2. the trnrlsitiorrnl specialty is diseases of the ear and zouc that moves to more complex throat. unstructured learning tasks andhigherOtolith organs Also known as vestibuorder competencies, and the3. trnrl$~r.lar sacs, these are two sense organsof rmtiorlnl zolle that culminates in life-role the inner ear, one of which, the utricle, applications and functioning andcomdetects horizontal acceleration of the plex performances. head. The other otolith organ, the sacOuter-directedness A personality trait cule, senses vertical head accelerations. wherein one is dependent upon others The "oto" part refers to the ear, while for direction in solving problems. It is a the "lith" refers to stone. The mechanism term indicating an externallocus of conof these organs depends on stones that trol. SEE: cxterrlnl locus cfcorltr.ol rest against the hairs, or cilia, of the Outreachprograms Special programs receptor cells (the haircells). for students with special learning Otologist A physician whose specialty challenges/needs that are provided on is diseases of the ear. site in the school system by private day Otology An area of medical specialty or residential schoolsor by other centraldealing with the ear and diseasesof ized agencies such asa state regional the ear. education center. Conversely, town o r city schools can have programs that Otosclerosis An inheriteddisease reach out to otherschool systems for involving chronic progressive deafness. delivery of services that the assisted This diseaseof the bone of the middle community might lack. ear is caused by the formation of spongy bone around the stapes.SEE: stnpes, Oval window The section of the ear stnpdectony that connects the middle with the inner It is an oval-shaped aperaturein which Otoscope An instrument used by ear fits thebase of the stapes. SEE: shops specialists to examine the auditory canal and eardrum. v

193

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ovary - Palsy

"-

Ovary The female gonad that releases

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Overlearning Repeated practice,drill, (at different stagesof the menstrual and reviewof material tobe learned. cycle) the hormones estradiol and proOverlearning material can result in betgesterone. The ovary also forms the ter memory recall. SEE memory ovum, which is the female reproductive Overregularization Theapplication of cell or gamete. a ruleof syntax or spellingto words that Overachievement The performance of are exceptional and do not follow the an individual above the level normally typical rules.An example would be expected on the basis of innate ability or using "throwed" as the past tense of of ability measures. "throw." Overcorrection A behavior modificaOverregularize To apply a learned rule tion procedure in which the learner to many instances, some of which are must make restitutionfor or repair the not really appropriate. effects of his/her undesirable behavior Overt behavior Behavior of a student and then put the environment in even that is obvious. There isno attempt to better shape than it was prior to the mishide one's behavior and the behavior is behavior. Used to decrease the rateof easily observed. undesirable behaviors. Ovum The unfertilized mature egg Overextension The use of a single released by a female at the beginning of word to cover a wide set of items that, the menstrualcycle. more correctly, should be placed in sepaOxycephaly A genetic condition rate categories. wherein the headis small and pointed, Overgeneralization The inclusion of the hands and feet are webbed, and the inappropriate itemsin a particular catestudent or person has severe mental gory. SEE overextension retardation. Overlapping Taking on the responsibility of supervising more than one academic activity at the same time.

. p Represents the probability or level of significance.

Paired reading Forming student pairs

Palate The hard plate (palate) in the front of the mouth and the soft plate (palate) in theback (roof) portionof the mouth. The resulting structure is called the "palate."

for the purpose of reading side-by-side. This technique can be usedto help a student with reading difficulties by pairingPalsy Technically a synonym for paralysis but more commonly understood to him/her with a proficient reader. Students support each other in the reading mean a temporaryor permanent loss of process as they take turns reading aloud sensation or movement, frequently characterized by shaking or tremors. (usually a page apiece).

194

Pancreas

- Paranoia

Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza and Albert Einstein held pantheistic views. Papilloma Warty tumors,wartlike growths; epithelium tumors that are usually benign and thought to be virally related. Parallel processing The “division of labor” concept in the case of computing. A large computer functionally subdivides into a number of separate smaller computers, each performinga different part of a complicated task. The brain’s visual perceptual processing is an example of parallel processing. Separate neural circuits deal with form,color, light-dark contrast, depth, motion,locajl/zvrli/(, d i l I / J t ’ k S tion in three-dimensional space, Panic disorder An anxiety disorder identification, etc. involving the sudden onsetof emerParallel talk Talking about what the gency reactions (panic attacks) such as child hears, sees, experiences, feels, etc. rapid shallow breathing, rapid heartFor example, in relationship to what a beat, perspiration at theforehead and child is doing, an adult mightsay, ”You the palms of the hands, dizziness, nauare buildinga big sand castle,” or ”That sea, loss of a sensc o f reality, depersonalwater feels cold.” ization, fear of dying, fear of the loss of Parallelism The view that assumes the one’s sanity, numbness, etc. There is no correctness of dualism (i.e., the mind particular stimulus for evoking this reacand the body are two separate realities) tion, so it is different from ‘1 phobia. and specifies that events in each reality H. Levinson attributes this condition to occur separately but parallel to one disorder of thc cerebellum and the another. Every mental event is therefore vestibular senses. Some pmic disorders correlated with every physical event. I t are accompanied by agoraphobia, the is just that one has nocausal influence fear of crowds. Situations such as riding over the other. This view was spelled in a bus, train, or automobile, standing out by Leibnitz, but it is also contained in line, or being part o f a group may in Spinoza’s double-aspect theory. SEE: bring on the panic reaction. dolrbl(wspd tllcory, d d i s r r l , l,/,istrrrrc)ll!4.!/, Panprotopsychic identism The belief idcnlisrrl, rrletaplqsics, rrlirnl-brnirl p r o / d m , that the fundanlcntal makeup of the unirlrorlisrrl verse is a mixture of the mental and the Paralysis The loss of ability to move a material. Thisview states that thereis at striate muscle or group of striate least a minimal amount of consciousness muscles. (i.e., mentality) in all physical things. I’anprotopsychic iclentism is a special Parametricstatistics Statistical tests type of mind-brain identity position; it is such as thet test that are built onthe ‘1 type o f neutral monism, being neither assumption of scores/observations an idealism nor a materialism. SEE: derived from normal or bell-shaped r t / l ~ l l l p / l ! / s ; l - Srrliffd-f~rf7irr , ilftwt;t!/, r r l i r l d distributions. [Jt’Uirl / J f ’ O / J / C i l l ,f ~ l O l l l S ~ f l Paranoia A tendency to be irrationally Pantheism The belief that Cod is intersuspicious; a mental state orpsychosis twined with the universe. God is a first characterized by feelings of persecution C ~ L I S Cand a prime mover, but God, or grandeur. xcording to this view, is not a person.

Pancreas A large organ situated near the stomach, it secretes digestive enzymes that are carriedby duct to the duodenum. Specialized islet cells located on the p‘1ncreas have endocrine functions. Some of them, the alpha cells, release the hormone glucagon into the bloodstream. This hormone acts to increase the l e \ d of glucose in the blood. Other islet cells, the beta cells, release the hormone insulin.Insulin lowers blood sugar levels and helps convert glucose to glycogen, an animal starch thrlt is stored in the liver. Diminished secretion of insulin by the pancreas results in diabetes. SEE: din/JrtCS rt?dliIlfs,

195

Ea =

Paranoiac - Parietal lobes

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Paranoiac A person suffering from important decisions abouttheir child's paranoia; a condition characterized by education, the school environment, and feelings of grandeur or persecution. school-municipality relationships. Paranoid schizophrenia A type of Parent journal A communications techschizophrenia in which the patient nique in education wherein a journal is exhibits delusionsof being persecuted exchanged between the parent and the by all-powerful enemies. Hallucinations school for written exchange of informaaboutthreatening voices may occur. The tion involving some problemor project sz;=E conditionrequiresinstitutionalization as pertaining to a student(s). Usually the student carries thejournal between the patient may constitutea threat to society. home and school. Paraphilia A condition of having an Parent surrogate A person who serves unusual choice of sexual object. Paraas an advocatefor a student or individual in the absence of a parent or philias include fetishism, necrophilia, guardian. A parent surrogate/advocate narcissism, sadism, masochism, represents the parents in situations zoophilia, pedophilia, exhibitionism, requiring their presence, such as the case tr
196

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Parkinson's disease

- Pasteur, Louis F.

schedule are the fixed interval (FI), the proximity to the primary visual and fixed ratio (FR), the variable interval auditory areas. (VI), and the variable ratio(VI<). SEE: Parkinson's disease A neuromuscular fised-irrtrrrw/ sc/rerllll~,,fixPd-rntiosc~llc,tfrr/L,, disorder resulting from a malfunction of 71oriable-ilrter.7aIIsc/~cdfr/r, i47l'jllb/L'-l.~ltiO the brain's basal ganglia. Thebasic probs c l ~ ~ d ~ l l ~ lem is the lack of the neurotransmitter Partial seizure A seizure that takes dopamine, which is normally sent from place in and involves onlya small area the substantia nigra o f the midbrain to the caudate nucleus and putamen (parts of thebrain,very localized in nature. SEE:focnl srixrrc of the forebrain's basal ganglia). There is '111 inability to complete an intendedact Partial sightedness or partially because the limb goes into uncontrolsighted Refers to individuals with lable vibration (intention tremor)in the visual impairments who havelimited attempt. Other symptoms are slowness sight and some residual vision.Visual of movement and depressed mood. The acuity falls in the range of 20/70 to condition is treated with the drug 20/200 for the better eye with thebest /-DOPA, which is J chemical precursor corrective measure (i.e., contact lenses o r of dopamine. glasses). Moderate loss ranges from 20/20 to 20/70, severe loss from 20/70 Parochial school An educational school to 20/200, and profound loss 20/200 or or institution that is operated and over (the classification for being legally administered by a religious blind). One may be considered partially organization. sighted for income tax purposes if the Part learning Memorizing a list of visual acuity is 20/200 in one eye and items by breaking it up into parts and the other is no better than 20/70 (with learning each part separately. correction). SEE: lcgoll!y b l i d Partial inclusion Refers to the partial Participant modeling A method of participation o f students with disabilipsychotherapy based on observational ties and special needs within the regular learning or modeling. The model classroom setting. These students attend demonstrates thecorrect behavior and other special education classes with stuthe client is asked to imitate that behavdents with similar needs.While in the ior one step ata time. The therapist regular classroom setting, the classroom actively encourages this imitation.The teacher adapts and modifies curriculum therapist and the model areoften the materials to meet the needs of the stusame person. dent with a disability or special needs. Participant observation A form of the Partialparticipation SEE: ynrtid naturalistic observation research i~lc/l~s;oll method. The observerjoins the group Partial reinforcement On-again, offbeing studied and observes the behavior again reinforcement or reinforcement of the group membersfrom the memthat places a student on an irregular bers' point of view. SEE: noturdistic schedule. This typeof reinforcement is obscrvotioll neither complete nor continuous and has Participantstructures The complete set different effects from those of continuof rules for taking part in a given erg+ ous reinforcement for learning. nized activity. Partial reinforcementschedule Partial Pasteur, Louis E (French chemist and reinforcement means the reinforcement bacteriologist, 1822-1895) He was the o f some, but notall, o f the correct oper"father" of microbiology who developed ant responses of a given type (e.g., diskimmunizations and vaccines, especially pecking by a pigeon in a Skinner box). A injections for the treatment and prevenpartial reinforcement schedule is an tion of rabies. He is perhaps most arrangement whereby thosereinforcefamous for his pasteurization (named ments are provided. Examplesof such a

197

=

Path finder

5=155c

- Peer counseling

for him)process wherein milk was heated at 62” F for 30 minutes (can now be flash heated to higher temperatures for under a minute), thus destroying the pathogenic and undesirable bacteria. Path finder SEE: soflic glridt, Pathology A term used to describe causes of conditions causedby disease. It is the study of the causes and nature of diseases. Pathsounder Similar to asonic pathfinder or sonic guide,it is a sonic device worn by ‘1 blind person usually around the neck. This device emitsa noise for the wearer as he/she approaches obstacles or objects. SEE:

prescriptions that address themedical and behavioral symptoms. Pediatrician A physician who is a specialist in the field of pediatrics, or one who deals with themedical care o f children, especially children’s diseases. SEE: obstc>trics,ptdintrics Pediatrics The branch of medicine that deals with the medical management o f the health andillnesses of children. SEE: ObSh’fI’iCinfZ, iJt’d;l7ff’;C/(7il

Pedophile One who has an unnatural

and abnormal sexual desire to relate to children. Peeracceptance Acceptance by others of equal status (e.g., same age and SCliliC ,\‘IlidC grade). Patterning A method to assist students Peer coaching 1. Student-to-student with learning disabilities/problems. It support where more able students frerequires a planned sequence of specific quently volunteer or are assigned to movement exercises. assist students who requireextra support or academicassistance. 2. TeacherPauper school An outdated term used to-teacher mentoring support programs to refer to free education facilities and that promote communitiesof profesopportunities for poor children. sional practitioners who collaborate to Pearson r A measure of correlation that create optimal school learning environuses interval or ratioscales or data. ments. Frequently, first-year or novice Many education variables can be repreteachers participate in formal mentoring sented on interval scales so that the programs where a n o r e veteran teacher Pearson I’ is appropriate for determining relationships and the strength or degree is assigned as the “coach.” When thoughtfully implemented, peer coacho f the relationship. ing has been found to improve morale Pedagogy The science or the study of and student/teacher effectiveness/ the profession of teaching. The pedalearning. gogy particuhr toa certification area Peer counseling 1.Student-to-student would reflect that level and/or subject counseling programs usually mentored area. and monitored by a school-adjustment Pediatric AIDS Acquired immunodeficounselor or other adultin authority ciency syndrome in children or infants where students discuss problems, issues, that is contracted from the blood of the alternative solutions, resources, etc. in mother through theplacenta in utero or such areas as substance abuse,conflict through blood transfusions. This incurresolution, career planning, academic/ able virus is most often fatal and causes home problems, etc. Cross-age counsela host of Iearning and physical probing combined withpeer counseling is lems. SEE: Acq1rir.d / i f I f f ~ ~ f i z cDtficit,flc!/ 7 especially effective when dealing with S ! / ~ l d ~ (oA~I D ~S l ~ ) ~ such problems as dropping out of school, delinquency, pregnancy, etc. ParPediatric neuropsychology The practicipation of older students inroletice o f neuropsychology with children playing episodes or dramatic reenactwho display pediatricneurological disments helps younger students acquire eases or syndromes. The treatment of strategies to prevent or handle difficult such problems involvesa thorough diagsituations. 2. Teacher-to-teacher nostic assessment and treatment

198

programs where trained or experienced teachers provide advice/dialogue/ strategies when problems/difficult situations arise. Peer influences Influences or pressures that are brought to bear on one by a member or membersof a group to which one belongs or with which one tardy). pressure froma identifies. For example, classmate, team member, neighborhood friend, etc. Peer mediation A type of peer tutoring that involves the use of peers to facilitate appropriate social skills acquisition and to mediate disputes, disagreements, or problems. Peer ratings Ratings of performance by students that are made by their fellow students. Peer tutoring A type of cooperative learning activity involving students of varying or similarability levels working together. Sometimes students with leaming challenges are paired with more able students who have mastered the material/skills/strategies required by the teacher. In this instance, the peer mentor/teacher interacts with the other student in a tutorial format. Peer tutoring can alsoinvolve students of similar dbility levels working collaboratively to scaffold the learning process. In this situation, interactive dialogue/questioning allows students to increase/expandtheir knowledge base. Peg-typemnemonics A memoryassisting method that uses cue words that are each associated with an item to be remembered. Pegword method One of the mnemonic devices that may be used to help complex learning material move from Short-Term Memory (STM) to Long-Term Memory (LTM). Cue words are associated with the information tobe remembered. Pellagra A disease characterized by symptoms such asanxiety, depression, delirium, hallucinations, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It is caused by a serio u s deficiency o f niacin, the B vitamin. Anemia is also common. Treatments

Peer influences - Percentile band

involve an adequate dietof vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.Also, supplements of niacinamide are administered. Pellagra is found in certain parts of the world, particularly where people are more or less restricted to a corn dict. Penalty A punishment given for an infraction or offense (e.g.,a demerit for being Peptidehormone Most hormones (which are secretions of the endocrine glands) take the formof a polypeptide, which is a chain of from 10 to 100 dmino acids. A peptide is a chain o f two or more amino acids. Over 100 amino acids comprise a protein. Per-capita income Refers to the avcrage income per person in a specificd population group (e.g., a state, a particular racial group, a particular dge range, etc.). Per-pupil expenditure A state’s annual spending on childrenin the public schools, grades K-12. This sum is divided by the total number of students and adjusted by taking into consideration how much it costs other districtsto employ teachers with similar qualifications so that comparisons can be made. Percent (%) of attendance The aggregate present in attendance of a school during a reporting period (quarterly, half-year, or more typically a full school year) divided by the total sum of students present and absentfor all of the days in the selected period equals the percent of attendance. SEE: r ~ < y p ~ y ;JII~tc,

-

sent, aggregate rmrdwship Percentage grading Recomputing class performances as percentages and using cut-off points to determine letter grades. Percentile A number from 1 to 99 designating the relative ranking of a score on a test or other behavior measure.If a score is at the 25th percentile, 25 percent of the scores in the group arebelow that score and 75 percent of the scores are higher. If a score is at the 50th percentile, that score is the median. SEE: r r ~ n f i r l r l Percentile band A range of percentile ranks where a student’s test score WOLIILI be expected to fall if tested rcpe,ltcdly. 199

Percentile rank - Perceptual-motor approacheslmethods

.

Percentile bands are given as one way to reduce the chanceof error in oneparticular test score. Percentilerank A standardized test score that indicates the exact rank or score at which a student’s test score falls. The rank indicates the percentageof scores that the student exceeded.For example, a good reader whofalls at the 95th percentile rank in reading exceeds 95 percent of the other studentsin that category in terms of performance. Percentiles A percentile is the percentage o f scores falling below a given score. For example, a dyslexic who scores at the 35th percentile in reading falls below 65 percent of the individuals taking this exdnl and exceeds only 35 percent. Perception Making use of the sensory messages we receive from our receptors and sensory nervecells to recognize objects and relationships between them in the world around us. For example, one may senselow-frequency, high wavelength visible light, but one perceives a red stoplight. Perception withoutawareness The demonstration o f perceptual knowledge by an individual who feels that he/she is only using blind guesswork. A dramatic example is “blindsight,” whereby a person with injuries to the visual cortex is able to point out the location o f an object that he/she ”cannot see.”

Perceptual constancy The ability to understand the real and variouscharacteristics of objects; that is, placement/ position, shape, size, etc. when the objects themselves present various iml3ressions that may be misleading to the observer. Perceptual defense The failure to perceive clear stimuli that are well over the absolute threshold because the stimuli are frightening, threatening, or are unwelcome demonstrationsof one’s Own weaknesses or shortcomings ( i.e., things that would cause one to be ; l s h a t l d o f oneself). Thisconcept is an extension of Freud’s concept ofrepression, which applies to failures o f memory. The concept is considered dubious,

200

however, because apparent instances of perceptual defense are much more readily explained by response suppression, the unwillingness to say something that might put the speakerin a bad light. SEE: nbsolute tlrrd/old, srrblirr~ir~nl p’r.ccpf i O l l , Vf7,LJI’LWiOrf

Perceptual disorder A difficulty or an inability to organize a d interpret information through any one sense or any combination o f the senses.SEE: percqltiorr Perceptualexpectancy The readiness to perceive a stimulus in a certain way because of previous experience(s).For example, a teacher squeaking chalk on a chalkboard would create a “cringing” response among students when the teacher is returning to the chalkboard. Perceptual handicap A termformerly used to describe some conditions now included under learningdisability; MUally referred to problems with no known physical cause. Perceptual illusions Illusions that surprise or startle the normal observer aas result of the action o f misleading stiniuIus cues thatcreate inaccurate perceptions. An example would be the illusion of induced movement, whichinvolves the sensation of moving when sittingin a stationary vehicle. One seems to be moving backward because thereis no point of reference to indicate that one is staying put. Looking at the ground may help to establisha frame of reference and correct the mistaken perception. This sortof illusion contrasts with physical illusions, which are quite common and do notelicit reactions of surprise’. SEE: plysicnl illrrsioif

Perceptual-motor approached methods Methods that are concerned

with the interaction of perception and motor activities. For example, VisualAuditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile (VAKT) approaches to learning are perceptualmotor approaches. SEE: ~ , f ’ r r f ’ ~ ~ t f r c 7 / - r r / o t [ ~ r . ~/isnbj/ifirs,z ~ i . ~ ~ r n l - n r r d i ~ c ~ ~ . ! / - k i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t I)lef/ro‘f,z,;slm/-c?frdit~Jr.!/-k;II~’st/lf’fi~.-fnct;/f’ frrrt/fod

Perceptual-motor disabilities

Perceptual-motor disabilities

Any sensory and/or muscular impairment that prevents the learner from responding correctly to such educational materials aspictures, models, words, letters,or numbers. Perceptual-motor functioning The combination of sensory information with controlled action. A perceptual-motor task might, for example, require handeye coordination, asin moving one’s finger to follow a moving object that is being tracked by the eyes. Perceptual-motormatch Aconcept based on the idea that motor development comes before sensory development, especially in the visual system. This theory by Newell and Kephart has not been substantiated by most researchers in child development. Perceptual skills Our abilities to use our senses (primarily hearing and vision) in order to selectively organize and interpret the environment around LIS. Perennialism Aphilosophical position based on the humanities and the great books (e.g., Shakespeare). Thisschool of thought relies on absolute truths (e.g., honesty and truth) more than the physical world. The bases for the perennialist views stem from Thomas Aquinas (1222-1274), who emphasized therational abilities of humans along with faith as the tools to obtain knowledge.Teachers adhering tothis view stress the active learner as a rational and spiritual person. A structured disciplined approach is taken with the studyof mathematics, the greatbooks, languages, religious doctrines, etc. as important in disciplining the mind. The threeR‘s (reading, writing, and arithmetic) are considered paramount to the young child. Emphases areplaced on reasoning about moral principles and learning exercises.

- Perimeter

Performance-based education A teaching and learning approach thatis designed to produce achievement and accomplishment as compared to just knowledge. Accomplishmentof predetermined goals takes precedence over mere knowledge. Performancecontract An agreement between schools orotheragenciesand educators that guaranteesa specified party will produce specific educational results. Performance criteria Those aspects of a student’s performance that can be described and aretherefore observable and gradable duringa performance assessment. Those performancecriteria that reflect the quality of the performance can be used as performance standards. SEE: pcvfortrrnrIcc1 nsscsslrrurt, p r -

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fornrnrm sfnndnrds Performance feedback Generally,

information given to studentsby a teacher or other person (e.g., a counselor) in regard to a student’s academic achievement, whether solicited by the student or not. Performance goal The intention of an individual to achievea specified level of performance. Performance I Q A component of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) on theWechsler series of intelligence tests. It consists of the following subtests: object assembly, picture arrangement, picturecompletion, block design, digit symbol (coding), and, optionally, mazes. Performancestandards Requiredability levels that a student is expected to meet to achieve good grades while being observed during a performance assessment. SEE: pe$orrrmrlcr 17ss~. ’’wlIc7lt . Perimeter I n psychology, education, and medicine, it is a device that maps out a 360 degree field of view. Central vision is the middle of the visual field (indicated on a perimeter as the range Performance assessment Thejudgfrom 0 to 30 degrees around thecenter), ment o f a student’s ability on the basis while peripheral vision is what is seen to o f observing the student’s actual behavthe sidesof central vision or the outer ior (e.g., building c~ box or making a surfaces. speech). SEE: p ’ r j ~ r r r ~ ncriterin, r ~ c ~ ~ prfor111~711cf’stflrrllnrlfs

201

Perinatal - Personal companion

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of details, and superiorin sensitiIZity to faint light. In many dyslexics, however, peripheral vision permits some resolution of visual detail and thecorrect recognition of the color of a visual stimL I ~ U S .SEE: / J C V ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ W Perkinsbrailler A six-keyed device used to print in braille; each key represents oneof the six dots of the cell. SEE: brflillr

Permanent certification (also known as professionalcertification) Teacher reform efforts in the 1990s have resulted in levels o f certification (usually two). The initial or provisional teaclling certificate can be followed by permanent or professional certification typically after the provisional teacher has completed additional appropriate coursework/ training and sometimesa clinical teaching experience or internship. Many states/local communities require ongoing professional development in terms of workshops, courses, etc. in order for teacllers to maintain their permanent teaching certificates. Perpetuating A term used in language arts and education in general to describe the concept of using language for the creation of records, histories, and oral histories. Perseveration 1. Repetition of a meaningless answer, word, or phrase, which is not related to questions asked. 2. An inability to cllange from one point or focus to another.3. A continued response that is no longer properor appropriate. Person-centeredtherapy An approach t o psychotherapy that stresses the person’s ability to gain insight into his/lwr own problems andcorrect them. An example is the ”client-centered” approach used by Carl Rogers. Personalcareattendant An individual employed to assist a student or person with disabilities with such tasks as personal hygiene, bathing, grooming,cooking, eating, dressing, etc. Personal companion A technology apparatus/device that reacts t o vocal instruction. When commanded by voice, 202

Personal construct - Pervasive language deficit

*

this device is able to dial telephone numbers, read the newspaper by telephone, maintain a daily scheduleof appointments, turn appliances off/on, etc. Personal construct A statement of a goal that the individual uses to guide his/hcr own behavior( i e , a standard for judging one's ownsuccess or failure). Personal development The seriesof age-related changes of personality that occur as an individual grows older. Personal education Educationthat is designed around the needs of the individual student. Personal unconscious The portion of the unconscious mind that, according to Jung, applies to the individual and is most similar to the "unconscious" described by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory. Jung also postulates a "collecti\re unconscious" that is shared by all persons.

Personal wellness, the promoting of Those strdtegies/activities/qualities/ characteristics one needs to reduce the risk of being sick and to be optimally ready to approach learning/iife situations. These include but are notlimited to not using drugs,tobacco, or alcohol (if using alcohol, in moderation); engaging in safe sex practices;eating nutritious and well-balanced meals (maintaining a proper weight); exercising on a regular basis (daily if possible but at least 3 times weekly) and with the advise of a medical professional; using seat belts and bicycle helmets and protective pear; obtaining regular medical and dental checkups andfollowing medical regimens; avoiding situations and friends who engagein destructive behaviors; cultivating long-lasting friendships that are positive and constructive; getting an adequate amountof sleep (usually 7-8 hours and longer for childrell/adolescents); and obtaining help when needed. Personality The sum of all our behavioral/cogniti\'e/en~oti[)nal characteristics that can account for

consistent patterns of behavior and thinking. Personalitydisorders A long-lasting pattern of thinking, feeling, or behaving that interferes with everyday social and uersonal functioning and many times will diminish in intensity after age 40. Examples of personality disorders are paranoidschizophrenia, affective disorders, schizophrenia, explosive personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. SEE: rnclr disordrr ns lisktf

Personality psychology

Thearea of psychology dealing with the individual's characteristic patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling. Some theorists consider that there are typesof personality, while othersbelieve that a personality can be describedby a list of behavioral traits. Tests have been developed to measure personality types or personality traits. Persuasion A change of attitude resulting from theeffort of another person to cause the change(i.e., socially caused attitude change). Perthes' disease (George C. Perthes, German surgeon, 1869-1927) A disease that is characterized by a tuberculous hip joint. The disease causes deformity in the hip as a result of changes in the head of the femur, the thigh bone that extends from the hip to the knees. Pervasive developmentaldisorder A severe social disorder that is characterized by impaired social functioning/ interactions, abnormal mannerisms, delayed language/speech development, and unacceptablesocial behaviors. Pervasive language deficit The presence in one individualof several language-related problems, such as the combination of poor spelling, poor reading, articulation difficulty, a lack of word fluency, etc. Whether some people can have extremely severe dyslexia (which would entail such widespread language deficits) and still not be classifiable as "garden-variety poor readers" (simply poor learners in anything) is controversial.

203

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-

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich (17461027)

- Philosophy of education

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich(17461827) A Swiss educator known for his reforms and influence in the development of primary education. PET SEE: Pnrerlt Ejjktir~cr~rss Trnirzirlg

Petit mal seizure or absence seizure A brief epileptic seizure usuallyaccompanied by dizziness or fainting. It is a mild epileptic attack and the person may show signsof rapid neural firing in brain activity and eyeblinking, orconversely, a fixed stare. It is unlike grand mal in that there is an absenceof convulsions. The seizure is sometimes so brief that it is frequently missed byteachers or the observer. SEE: g r m d r r m / Phallic stage One of Sigmund Freud's stages of psychosexual development. This stageis the third (following the oral and anal stages) andtypically occurs in children aged 2 X-5 years of age. SEE:

ocdiplc~Collrp~~~x

Pharynx A musculomembranoustube extending from the skull base to the esophagus which serves as an airway from the nasalcavity to the larynx and from the mouth to the esophagus. Phenotype The actual physical or behavioral trait shown by a person. The trait may be a result of genetic or environmental factors or a combination of causes. For example, having brown eyes is one example of a phenotype. It may be a result of either o f two genotypes: 1. a brown-eye allele from one parent and a recessive blue-eye allele from the other parent, or 2. two brown-eyealleles. Phenylalanine An amino acid formed from protein and foundin such foods as milk or even NutraSweet, theartificial sweetner Aspartame. Phenylketonuria (PKU) A hereditary chemical disorder resulting from a missing enzyme. The body cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, which is a common component of the proteins in our diet. The urine will coI1tain larger-than-usual amountsof unmetabolized phenylalanine along with an abnormal metabolic product of phenylaline, a phenyl ketone; namely, phenylpyruvic acid. In normal individu-

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als, the phenylalanine is simply converted to another dietary amino acid, tyrosine. The ketone is toxic to brain cells and if untreated PKU will lead to retardation. Chemical tests can detect the condition in the neonate a d PKU can be avoided by putting the individual on a phenylalanine-free diet. This dietis low in proteins and includes high amounts of fruits and vegetables. This avoids the developmentof any retardation. The individual must stick to that diet for life. If this regimen is not followed, the individual will develop seizures and tremors andsuffer mental retardation. All 50 states now require screening of infants for PKU at the time of birth. SEE: ~ ~ / l ~ , r l ! / / n / n r l ; r l ~ , Pheromones Chemicals that provide a means of chemical communication and may be thoughtof as "social hormones." Some pheromones are airborne, olfactory stimuli. They are released by some organisms and affect other organisms o f the samespecies. Variations of sexual development in female mice depend on the presence of male mice from the same colony or from afar, in large numbers or small, etc. Phi phenomenon A visualillusion o f molrement based on the spacing and timing of stationarylights in a dark surround. One light coming on and then turning off, with anotherlight coming on after a short time, creates the impression of a single light traveling from the location o f the firstlight to the position of the second light. Philosophy "The love of wisdom" in the literal sense. The study of knowledge and wisdom through observations, one's value system, previousknowledge, nature,etc. There are major branches (metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology) of philosophy and major schools of philosophy (realism, idealism, neo-Thomisrn, perennialism, existentialism, idealism, and experimentalism). SEE: pnc/l brnrlc/r 01' sclrool 175 l k k d Philosophy of education Basic principles o f education that serve as guidelines for professional educators in their process of planning curriculum and

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Philosophy of science

general decision making. An example of a philosophy of education for a teacher would be the following: “To meet the social, academic, emotional, and psychological needs of all students in a multiculturally sensitive environment where parent-teacher-student-community partnerships are nourished and fostered.” Philosophy of science A term used interchangeably with ”logical positivism.” The extreme version of this school of thought holds that only analytic philosophy is worth pursuing. In this view, its task is simply to clarify the meanings of scientific propositions. Phlegmatic A condition in which an individual displaysa dull, apathetic, sluggish temperamentor personality; motivation and interestin anything are markedly absent. Phobia A condition characterized by an unreasonable fear of some thing, person, place, situation, etc. This abnormal fear is not grounded in any real threat actually presented to the person. Behaviorists attribute phobias to the classical conditioning of reflexive actions to paired stimuli. Cognitive-behavior theory regards phobias as examplesof biological preparedness. Phocomelia Acongenitaldeformity. The limbs are very short and sometimes missing altogether. When the limbs are present, they are attached like flippers to the torso directly or by means o f bones that are poorly formed.This condition was sometimes causedby a sleeping pill taken by pregnant mothers called thalidomide, which is presently not approved by the FDA. SEE: tllnlidonrirlP Phonation Theproduction of sound/voice by the vibrationof the vocal cords in the larynx. Phonatory disorders Voice disorders that stem from problems with the mechanism of the larynx such as inflammation of the vocal folds (cords), growths on the vocal cords, etc. Phoneme The smallest unit of sound in speech such as “bl” in the wordblack. Combinations of phonemes form words. The word ”smile” has three phonemes,

- Phonological processing

for example. A phoneme sometimes is an individual speech sound that can convey a meaning, such asa onesyllable word, a prefix, or a suffix. Phonicelements Various combinations of letter/sound correspondences. Phonics The application of speech sounds to reading.The student is given the sound@) toassociate with the letter, then syllables, and finally words. I n the teaching of reading, the soundis given first and then related to the symbol; thus, the sound-to-symbol reL1tionship or phonics. Phonics approach An approach to the teaching of reading that emphasizes the sound-symbol relationship and phoneme-to-grapheme match. Phonics knowledge is considered a prerequisite to fluent reading and spelling proficiency. SEE: phorlics Phonogram Aone-syllable word with at least one vowel followed by one consonant or the last two or more lettersin a syllable. Another term for phonogram is rime. Phonological dyslexia This type of dyslexia is a developmental analog to Boder’s dysphonetic dyslexic, Coltheart‘s acquired dyslexic, and Doering and Hoshko’s phonological deficit type, which is marked by problems in interpretation or execution of the phonemegrapheme correspondence match. Phonological process disorder A type of speech-processing disorder wherein the student‘sor individual’s patterns of speech errors are identified and treated as deficits in the sound/speech system in reference to the rules for the production of speech sounds. This system approaches the deficit as a problem with the patterns of sound production rather than isolating single specific speech sounds for correction. Phonologicalprocessing This cognitive task is important to reading as Liberman and Shankweiler have demonstrated that dyslexics can 1. lack awareness of phonology rules andconcepts, 2. lack proficiency in accessing phonological representations in memory,

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Phonological rules Physically handicapped ”

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and/or 3. lack a proficiency in accurate utilization of these rules and concepts. Mann has shown that good and poor readers differ in the rate atwhich they acquire phonological processing skills. Phonologicalrules Particular speech sounds as they should occur in language and the rules involving the formation of wordsthroughthecombiningofsuch speech sounds.

lead to the acceptance of the brain as the organ o f the mind. Phrenology also led the way to localization theory, the idea that different small areas of the cerebral cortex perform different physiological functions. Physical development The series of age-related changes of body structure and body functioning thatoccur as an individual grows older. Phonological skills The learned ability Physical disability A physical problem to understand and interpret graphemethat interferes with one’s ability to conplloneme relationships or correspontrol and to useefficiently any part(s) of dences, the rules with which sounds are her/his body. synthesized into words, and the ability Physical disorder A physical/body to analyze a word into its sound impairment wherein one’s physical discomponents. ability interrupts one’s development as Phonology The part of language that concerns learning, communication, involves putting sounds together to motor coordination, mobility, etc. make words. Phonology involves the Physical prompting/fading A method study of speech sounds and the develop- of teaching or instructinga student or ment of the ability to form sounds that individual that requires physically/ convey meaning. manually moving or manipulating‘1 Photophobia Extreme sensitivity of the student to produce desiredbehavioral results. The physical assistance is eyes to light; occurs most notablyin reduced (faded) systematically as the albino children.Also the fear of light. student’s behavior oractions become Photopigments Chemicalsthat more appropriate until no prompting or undergo changesof structure when hit assistance is required. by light. Such chemicals (one of which is rhodosin) are contained in theeye’s light PhysicalTherapist (PT) A person trained to prescribe and supervise physireceptor cells, the rods and thecones. cal activities such as range o f motions, When the light-induced chemical positioning, weight bearing,reldxation, changes take place, neural messages are stimulation, posture, grossmotor, and passed on from the rods and thecones other such therapeutic manipulations to higher (morecentrally located) neuand exercises. rons, beginning with the retina’s bipolar cells. Physicaltherapy A term used t o describe the treatment of a student or Photosynthesis The special process of person who is bodily/physically disphoto (light) and synthesis (putting abled. Such therapy involves special together) that allows plants to produce conditioning, exercises, and/or massage. carbohydrates by combining water from SEE: Plysicnl Tlwnpist (PT) the earth and carbon dioxide from the air (catalyzed by light energy and Physicallyhandicapped Educationally chlorophyll), which leads to therelease speaking, this is a person of sound menof oxygen. tal ability but some physical or health problem interrupts the normal learning Phrenology An old pseudoscience of process. The nonsensory problems are personality based on thesize and location of the irregular bumps on the skull. such that special education is frequently needed. For example, d quadriplegic or Each large bump is supposed to indicate spina bifida student would require a well-developed ”mental faculty.” The specialized seating, access to early nineteenth-century anatomist classrooms, etc. Franz Gall founded phrenology. It did

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Piaget, Jean

Piaget, Jean (Swiss Psychologist, 1896-1980) Piaget was the most influential child psychologist of the 20th century. He developed a detailed and complete description of childrens’ behavior and cognitive processes. He arranged the periods of cognitive development into four areas asfollows: 1. the scv/sori/rroforpcriotf which lasts for the first two years of life and is heavily influenced by external stimulation, 2. the ~,re~oprrufiorrnl pc-riod which lasts from about age two through seven. During this time the child’s development is characterized by rapid language development and anability to represent things symbolically, 3. the prriod o f c a r / crc’tc, o;~rr77fiorrswhich is from about age seven to twelve. This periodis characterized by an ability to perform logical analysis and anability to empathize with the feelings o f others. It also marks the transition from childhood to adolescence, and 4. flrr p r i e d qfforrrrd O\JCVXtiorrs which begins at twelveto adulthood. This periodis characterized by the use of logic and symbolism of an adult nature. During this time the adolescent learns to reason deductively and indirectively as well as problem solve andreason formally. Pica A perverse craving for substance(s) not fit for consumption. Theaffected person eats inappropriate things such as ashes, plaster, dirt, paper, etc. Pick’s disease 1. (Arnold Pick, Czechoslovakian physician, 1851-1924) A brain disorder involving presenile dementia and atrophy of the cerebral cortex. 2. (Fricdel Pick, Czechoslovakian physician, 1867-1926) Nonrheumatic chronic pericarditis, inflammation of the pericardium (the membranous sac enveloping the heart).3. (Ludwig Pick, German physician, 1868-1935) Niemann-Pick disease, which is a serious metabolic disorder of the spleen andliver. SEE: Nicm7////-Picktfiscv7sc Pickwickiansyndrome From acharacter of Charles Dickens, this disease is characterized by obesity with decreased pulmonary functioning and polycythemia, which inclucies a flushing of

- Pitch -

the face as a result of an increased number and volumeof red blood cells. Picture cues Visual graphics (e.g., photographs) that providea visual cue to read a word or complete a learning task (how to play a game). Picture cues are helpful for beginning readers and individuals with disabilities o r learning problems. Pie graph A method of comparing several things on one quantitative dimension. The areaof a circle represents the total dimension. An object accounting for 25 percent o f this dimension is depicted as a segment (pie slice shape; marked off by an arc and two radii), which contains 25 percent of the area of the circle. For example, 25 percent of all children with disabilities in the United States were educated in special classes in the academic year 1983-1984,68 percent in the regular classes, 6 percent in separate schools, and l percent in still other settings.

Pierce v. Society of Sisters

The 1925 Supreme Court ruling that overturned a law requiring all children to attend public schools. The Court ruled that parents had the constitutional right to control their children. Pineal gland or epiphysis The endocrine gland attached to the topof the brain’s diencephalon. Its hormone, melatonin, temporarily suppresses the gonads, maintaining childhood for years. Finally, its inhibiting role is removed and puberty occurs. It is believed that the release process is indirectly related to stimulation by sunlight; a neural pathway from the retina runs to the pineal gland.

Pinkeye Acuteconjunctivitis caused by various organisms. This problemis highly contagious. The eye feels sore, gritty, and painful and is watery andrcd (bloodshot). SEE: corljurlctizw Pinna The outer, visible part of the external ear. SEE: nuriclc Pitch The perceived frequency that is associated with voice quality. A high rate of vibration (frequency/cycles per second) equalsa high-pitched voice and, 207

Pitch disorder - EL. 05-926(1950)

conversely, a low pitched voice results from slower vibrationsof the vocal folds (cords). Pitch disorder An impaired ability to control or regulate voice quality suchas low and high pitches(i.e., the frequency of vibration of sound waves). Pitch perception The experience of the high or lowfrequency of a sound. This dimension of our hearing sense hasa complex basis. Higher pitches are explained by the place-resonance mechanism. The basilar membrane of the inner ear has a tapering shape so its width changes continually. A given sound frequency (in the range from4000 Hz to 20,000 Hz) corresponds toa certain width on thebasilar membrane so that this local area vibrates much more than the rest of the membrane (resonant vibration). Thus, someof the hair cell sound receptors are strongly stimulated while other hair cells are quiet. The active hair cells create activity only in a small part of the auditory cortex. Lower tones (15 Hz t o 1000 Hz) are explained by a telephone frequency mechanism. The frequency of the sound stimulusin Hertz is matched by the number of nerve impulses per second.Low tones cause indiscriminate resonatingall over the basilar membrane so the resonance mechanism could not work for them. This leaves the middle tones(1000 Hz to 4000 Hz), because nerve fibers cannot fire impulses more rapidly than1000 times a second. The volley theory comes into play here. The auditory nerve fibers are subdivided into four work units or squads that havedifferent firing times. This allows the rate of firing in the whole auditory nerve to be four times the highest firing rate for a single auditory nerve fiber. Pituitary gland or hypophysis The endocrine gland that is attached to the hypothalamus (at thebase of the brain) by a stalk called the infundibulum. There are actually two functional divisions of the pituitary gland. The first is the anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis), which releases the growth hormone and the trophic hormones that

I I

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interact with other endocrine glands and the growth hormone.The second is the posterior pituitary ( o r neurohypophysis), which releases the antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin),oxytocin, and somatostatin (the growth-hormone suppressor). PK SEE: Ps!ycl~okittesis PKU SEE: P/7crz!//k~.tc,rz1f~;~ P.L. 45-186 (1879) This federal public law granted funds tothe American Printing House for the Blind in order to manufacture braille materials. P.L. 65-178 (1918) This federal public law was in effect a World War I G.I. bill but was restricted to vocational rehabilitation services for World War I veterans. P.L. 66-236(1920) This federal public law extended the vocational rehabilitation services authorized for World War I veterans (P.L. 65-178) to the civilian population. P.L. 74-732 (1936) This federal public law allowed and authorized the blind to operate vending standsin government (federal) buildings. P.L. 78-16 (1943) (also known as the VocationalRehabilitation Act) This 1943 legislation provided education opportunities for disabled veterans. P.L. 78-113(1943) This public federal law known as theBarden-LaFollette Vocational Rehabilitation Act authorized eligibility for vocational rehabilitation to the mentally ill and mentally retarded. P.L. 78-129 (1943) (also known as the School Lunch Indemnity Plan) In 1943, this legislation provided the precedent of funding all school lunch yrograms. P.L. 85-905 (1958) (also known as the Captioned Films for Deaf Act) The 1958 legislation that provided a library service of captioned films for the deaf. P.L. 85-926 (1958) A federal public law of limited measures that provided grant monies in the area of teaching of children with disabilities as it related particularly to special-needs children who were mentally retarded and/or deaf. These grants were directed toward

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RL. 07-715 (1962) RL. 91-205 (1970)

research and the training of personnel dealing with the mentally retarded or deaf. They were direct grants to states and institutions of higher learning in order to train instructors whoin turn would train teachers in the field. P.L.87-715(1962) This federal public law made provisions for captioned films to be produced and distributed to the deaf. P.L. 88-164 Title 111 (1963) This federal public law provided fundsfor research, demonstration projects, and teacher training as concerns the educationof persons with disabilities. President John F. Kennedy is credited for muchof the impetus in the renewal of interest in persons with disabilities, probably because of hissister’s mental retardation. It was to her that the outstanding Kennedy Memorial Hospital for Children (in the Brighton section of Boston, MA) for special-needs children was dedicated. P.L. 88-352 (1964) (also known asthe Civil Rights Act o f 1964) Support and monies were provided for schools to address problems associated with desegregation efforts. P.L. 88-452 (1964) (also known as the Economic Opportunity Actof 1964) This legislation provided opportunities for work-study programs in colleges and support for Head Start programs, Job Corps, Upward Bound, andVolunteers in Service t o America (VISTA). P.L. 89-10 (1965) This federal public law is also known as the Elementary and Secondary Education ACT (ESEA) Title 111. It deals with state-supported private and residential schools as well as stateoperated schools. It was designed primarily to meet the educational needsof minority populations. It was oneof the early federal laws to provide funding directly to local educational agencies. P.L.89-36 (1965) This federal public law’s main feature resulted in the establishment of the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. P.L. 89-313(1965) This federal public law was an ESEA amendment to P.L. 89-10. It in effect provided the

means to award funds to the state departments of education in order to support state-operated programsfor children with special needs. P.L. 89-522(1966) This federal public law expanded ”talking book”services for the visually impaired to include persons with disabilities who were not able touse (hold orhandle)printed materials. P.L. 89-750 Title VI (1966) This federal public law was anESEA amendment that provided funding to both state and local educational agencies for the education of special-needs children and youth. P.L. 90-170(1967) This federal public law added amendments to P.L. 88-164. It provided for monies to train personnel who cared for the mentally retarded. These amendments includtd individuals with neurological impairments related to mental retardation. P.L. 90-247(1968) This federal public law was an amendmentto P.L. 89-10. It provided funds to create regional resource centers dealing withservices for deaf-blind children and youth, and for evaluation of special-needs children and youth. P.L. 90-538(1968) This federalpublic law is also known as the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act. It provided funds in order to develop and implement experimental programs for special-needs children from birth to age six. These preschool programs were to serve as demonstration projects as well. P.L. 90-576(1968) This federal public law earmarked 10 percent of vocational education funds for persons with disabilities. P.L. 91-61 (1969) This is the National Century on EducationalMedia and Materials for the Handicapped Act. This federal public law created a network nationwide in reference to materials and media for educating children and youth with disabilities. P.L. 91-205 (1970) This federal public law required accessibility for the

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EL. 91-230 (1969) - EL. 95-561 Ejection 902 (1970)

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physically handicapped to any building constructed with federal funds. P.L. 91-230(1969) This federal public law was anESEA amendment to P.L. 89-10. It consolidated previous federal acts dealing with special-needsor children with disabilities into one act. Further, it included federal funding for thelearningdisabledandthe gifted and talented. P.L. 91-516 (1970) (also known as the EnvironmentalEducationAct) 111 1970 this legislation established the Office of Environmental Education.

P.L. 91-527 (1970) (also known as the Drug Abuse Education Act of

discriminate against persons with disabilities, and 5. health, welfare, and other social services and benefits will be available to persons withdisabilities without discrimination. SEE: scctiorl 5114 of the Rclmbilitntior~Act qf 1973

P.L. 93-380 (1974) (20 U.S.C. Sections 1701-1720, also known as the Equal Educational Opportunity Actof 1974) A law which states that schools with several children withlittle Englishspeaking ability are required t o implement programs thato\’ercome language barriers so that these students can participate on an equalbasis in the educational opportunities available. P.L. 93-415 (1975) (also known as the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974) A National Institute for Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention was created.

1970) This established support for educational drug prevention/abuse programs. P.L. 92-424 (1972) A federal public law involving Economic Opportunity P.L. 94-142 (1975) The Education for All Amendments designed toassist Handicapped Act (now called lndividupreschool children of low-income famials with Disabilities Education Act) instilies. It requires that no less than 10 pertuted in 1975 ensures that all students cent of the Head Start programenrollwith disabilities by law receive the most ment be available to children with appropriate education and in the least special needs. restrictive environment. It basically P.L. 92-255 (1972) (also known as the requires states to providea free and Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act appropriate education for all children of 1972) A Special Action Office for with disabilities from 3-18 years of age. Drug Abuse Prevention provided coorP.L. 95-49(1977) This federalpublic dinated efforts for policy law amended P.L. 94-142, Education of planning/treatment programs. the Handicapped Act (EHA), now P.L. 93-112 (1973) This is the Vocational known as the Individuals with DisabiliRehabilitation Act of 1973. It is a federal ties Education Act (IDEA). I n particular, public law that is very similar in wordit included the definitionof “learning ing to theCivil Rights Act of 1964, disabilities” as per the federal which dealt with racial discrimination. interpretation. Section 504 of this act deals with disP.L. 95-178 (1978) (Comprehensive crimination against persons withdisabilRehabilitation Services Amendmentof ities. The highlights of this section 1978) An amendment that required require the following: 1. employers are delivery of comprehensive services to required to provide equaljob recruitpersons with disabilities even when they ment, employment in assignments and were not readyfor \Iocational rehabilitacompensation, and fringebenefits to tion. Services were to be provided for persons with disabilities; 2. newly built all, not just the persons with the most public facilities must be handicapped severe disabilities. accessible; 3. school children with disP.L. 95-561 Section 902(1978) The abilities are entitled toan appropriate Gifted and Talented Children’s Educapublic school education at no cost; tion Act. This federal public law 4. institutions of higher learning must expanded the definition of giftedness have admission policies that do not

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EL. 95-602 (1970) - EL. 103-227(1994) and included talented children based upon a definition that goes beyond mere intellectual ability. P.L. 95-602(1978) (The Developrnental Disabilities Act) This federal public law required that a disability must occur before age18 hut there is no lower h i t to age. Thus, students under three years old may be served by this act when they do n o t qualify for services in the public school. Thisact requires diagnostic evaluations and parental involvement. P.L. 98-199(1984) This federal public law was an amendment toP.L. 90-538. It provided funding for planning purposes relating to state-wide comprehensive services to special-needs children u p t o age 5. P.L. 98-525(1984) This federalpttblic law amended the DevelopmentalDisabilities Act to require states to adopt employment-related activities for persons with developmental disabilities. This included ”supported employment” at or above the minimum hourly rate for persons with developmental disabilities who in fact would be unable to keep a job without support, supervision, transportation, and training. P.L. 99-457 (1986) An amendment to the Education for All Handicapped Act (EHA) now renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It is a federal public law that requires services for children with special needs between the ages of three and five years in the form of the Preschool Grants Program, and providesincentives for early intervention programs for children with special needs from birth to age twoin the form of the Handicapped Infants and Toddlers Program. P.L. 100-297 (1988)The Javits Act (New York Senator Jacob Javits) This federal public law supported research and detnonstration programs involving special needs of gifted students with physical disabilities from different cultures, and students who wereecononlically disadvantaged. EL. 100-407(1988) The Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with

Disabilities Act. Also known ‘1s thc “Tech Act,” this federal public Llw provided funding to statesconcerned with providing assistiw technology assistance to persons with ~iis~~bilitics of all ages. Funds may be used to sur\’ey, identify, assess, train, fabricate, ‘lnci cvC1luate assistive technological devices. Many states are networking‘1s concerns information about assistivetechnology. P.L. 101-336 (1991) (also kIlowl1 as the Americans With Disabilities Act) It is a civil rights bill; its major prcmisc is to eliminate discrimination q a i n s t persons with disabilities. It guarantees equd opportunity in the areas o f public accommodations, telecommunications, public services t o include transportation, and cnlployment. P.L. 101-476 (1990) This federal public law changed the title of P L . 94-142 from the “Education for All H,mdicapped Children Act (EHA)” to the “lndividuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).” Further, it required that transition services such as school to post-school programs be includedin the educational plan ( i t . , independent living, vocational training, sheltered workshop training, etc.). It also included the new categories; namely, autism and traumaticbrain injury. P.L. 102-62 (1991) (also known as the National Commission on Tilne and Learning Act) In 1991 thislegislation enacted the National Education Commission of Time and Learning, which included legal education programs and an emphasis onresearch in tcaching. P.L. 103-218(1994) This 1W4 remthorization of the 1988 Technology-Related Assistmx for Individuals with DisabiIi ties Act of 1988 provided support through 1998.

P.L. 103-227 (1994) (also known as Goals 2000: Educate America Act) This 1994 Act formalized nationd cducation goals and created a Nationd Education St‘lndards and Improvcmcnt CocmciI (NESIC) and National Skill StandarJs Board. Part of this legislation in 1 ~ 4 provided grant monies for eciucation agencies to create \iolence211

EL. 103-239 (1994)- -Plegia .-.

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prevention activities/programs. SEE: GOALS 2000 P.L. 103-239(1994) This 1994 School-toWork Opportunities Act provided monies for work-based learning programs and programs thatlead to high school diplomas. P.L. 103-382 (1994)(also known as the ImprovingAmerica'sSchoolAct) This 1994 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act addressed Title I programs (the federal government's largest education program for disadvantaged children). Place theory Also known as resonance theory. The place on thebasilar membrane of the inner ear that vibrates the most indicates thefrequency of the sound stimulus. Helmholtz formulated this theory. It was found to becorrect only for the higher-pitched sounds (above 4000 Hz). SEE: pitch perception Placebo An apparent treatment (e.g., pill, teaspoon of liquid, or injection) that has nophysiological effect. The word means, "1 shall please." In research, placebos are used on controlsubjects while the experimentalsubjects receive an active treatment (the real thing). This control assures thata subject cannot h o w whether he/she has gotten the experimental treatment or not.It is called a "single blind" control. Placement In education, the act of placing a student in a certain group, class, grade, program, or evenschool. This includes homogeneous placement (students of like ability) or heterogeneous placement (a mix of all abilities). SEE: Idizhllrnlized E d l ~ u z t i oProgrnm ~~ UP),

Planned ignoring A type of behavior management technique whereby unwanted behaviors are ignored (e.g., gum chewing) with the hope that they stop after the student has had enough. Planned ignoring is also used in attention-getting situations (e.g., temper tantrums), again in the hope that the behavior will be extinguished because of a lack of reinforcement or attention. SEE: rcinforcrnmt, cxtillctim Planned program budgeting A budgetary planning system used to analyze and allot resources to various areaso f the school budget. The approach analyzes purposes and needsof each area (e.g., transportation, textbooks and supplies, etc.) through systematic planning, programming, actual budget building, and then evaluation and comparison for final decision-making. Plasma The liquid part of the blood. In the blood, platelets and corpusclesfloat in the plasma solution. Plasma is normally thin and colorless in appearance; it is a water-like fluid. Plasticity The property of being easy to change. This is a requirement for neural pathways for learned behaviors. Play audiometry A special method for children who aretoo young or unable to take regular audiometrictests. This hearing test is presented in a game format and the young children are taught to respond to audiosignals. Pleasure principle The guiding rule for the activity of the libido (or of the I d ) in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytictheory. This primitive role of motivation involves the reductionof pain and the increase of pleasure; nothing else matIllnillstr.mflrirl'~,Lenst Restrictiw €tlzJirotlters. More mature partsof the personall l l c r l t (LRE) ity develop, however, such as the ego Plagiarism The use of the work which is guided by the reality principle. authored by another individual(s) in the This development is necessitated by the pretense it is one's own work. Notgivfact that an infant soon learns that pleaing proper credit to other's written (e.& sures are not always given simply thesis) or oral (e.g., a speech) work is because one screamsfor them. unethical and in some cases illegal. -Plegia A suffix that indicates and refers PlanegeometryThemathematical to an inability to move, asin the case o f study of two-dimensional figures and paraplegia, quadriplegia, orhemiplegia, their properties and relationships. for example.

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Plenary powers Polyopia

Plenary powers Full powers designated to a particular government unit. For example, local school boards/ principals have plenary powers to hire new staff members. Pluralism The doctrine that the United States has many components and that the members of no onelimited subgroup (e.g., elderly male Christian Caucasians) cannot speak for the entire country. William James held thatreality itself has many components (e.g., processes, minds, laws, and things), not just one or two basic ones. In educational practice, the concept of pluralism leads to support for multicultural education.SEE:

the spinal cord. Children seem especially susceptible to this serious infectious viral disease. poliosis A premature graying of the hair. SEE: poliosis circfr/ff5c!'iptt7 poliosis circumscripta Likc poliosis, this is a condition characterized by premature grayingof the hair but is limited to a particular area or shape.

m __ 1 1 1

Political action committees in teacher education These can be any number

of political action groups that support teacher education purposes and/or organizations such as the National Council for theAccreditation o f Teacher Education (NCATE). Such groupscan be f f f l r / f i c f r / t f r r O /C d f K ~ l f k l f f/, J ~ f ? p l O f ; S f l f at the local, state, ornational levels. Pluralistic perspective The basic view Polyarteritis A conditioncharacterized that various cultural groups have varyby inflammation of several arteries ing contributions that contribute to the simultaneously. richness of learning groups andexperiences, which recognize the diversity of Polychromatic Multicolored. its learners. Jesse Jackson uses the term Polydactylism A condition at birth "salad-bowl theory" to refer to this pluwhereby the infant has more than the ralistic perspective; that is, each individnormal number of fingers and/or toes. ual is like a rich, delicate, and unique Polygenic A term that refers to several vegetable which, when combined, progenes or a condition resulting fromthe duces a much different, cohesive, and interactions of several genes. even richer experience (i.e., salad). Polygraph Also known as a lie detector. Pneumoencephalography A method Physiological sensors are placed on the of assessing brain structure. This method subject to be examined. These sensors requires withdrawalof cerebrospinal are wired to amplifiers and then toelecfluid and the injection of gas or airin the tromagnetic controlsof recording pens lower spinal cord via a lumbar puncture. on a polygraph ( a multipen recorder). The procedure is tracked by x ray to The classical "lie detector" reads four determine abnormalities. functions: heart rate, blood pressure, Pneumonia An inflammation of the breathing rate, and the galvanic skin lungs normally caused by bacteria, response. When an emergencyreaction viruses, and/or chemical irritants. occurs, the sympathetic nervoussystem activates a faster heartbeat, higher b l o o d PNS SEE: p ~ t i / ~ / f~f U'I 'OZ J~o f f Ss!/stefff pressure (in bloodvessels feeding the Podiatrist A synonym for a chiropodist, muscles and brain), more rapid breatha professional who treats foot problems ing, and sweatingof the palms of the and diseases. hands (which lowers the skin's electrical Polio SEE: p / i m ! / d i t i s resistance). The term "lie detector" is a misnomer. Synonym:~ ~ ~ I I ! / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ( I ' s ~ I ? ~ J I ~ Poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis Commonly called polio, it is a type of Polyopia Also known as pulyopsia, it is paralysis that is a result of a virus that a condition of seeing multiple images; attacks the motor neuronsof the spinal that is, two or more. SEE: t f i p h p i t ~ cord. It frequently leads to paralysis of the muscles controlled by the nervesof

213

Polyps - Positive reinforcement

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"

Polyps Growths on or about the vocal

_ I

cord that cause speech problems. There is a hoarseness or low pitch to the voice. Polyps are also tumorous membranes commonly found in vascular organs like the nose, throat, intestines, etc. Polyopsia SEE: pl!yopin Polytheism The belief that there is more than one god. An example would be Brahminism, the religion of many East Indians. Pons A part o f the hindbrain. The name pons means "bridge." It is given the name because the nervefibers that swing around the sides of the pons to the cerebellum above it resemble cables of a suspension bridge. These nerve fibers functionally connect the cerebellum to therest of the brain. The pons contains areas involved in the control of REM sleep, non-REM sleep, and the waking cycle. Population The totality of all possible measurements of a specified kind. "Population" or "universe" is a technical term of statistical science. In research, one seldom is able to observea whole population. Instead, we observe some cases (which make up a "sample") from the population. Pornography A legal term that refers to published (written, printed, drawn, or photographed) materials that are unacceptable morally as being toosexually explicit. Portable braille recorder This is an alternatilre (smaller) device to the Perkins hrailler. It is a tape-cassette system used for the recording ofbraille. Portfolio or portfolio assessment A type of authentic assessment (assessments that relate testing to meaningful or significant life tasks) that reveals an individual's academic and personal accomplishments. Teachers provide guidance as toportfolio content. Portfolios are able to reveal progress in school as well as reflect student growth and development in a number of areas (e& participation in theschool community, content-area progress, written language skills, speech-making proficiency [on

214

audiotape], artistic and musical talent, etc.). Portfolio projects can encourage students to evaluatetheir own subject-area reading/language knowledge aswell as listening and discussion abilities. Assessment portfolios are a type of evaluation portfolio used for any subject area (e.g., writing, music, art, math, etc.) that typically involves a ycarlong collection of learning outcomes generated from coursework/studies. Teachers and/or students create criteria/standards for acceptable work/outcomes. Teachers and students can assess growth and development over a period of a week/month/the school year with this authentic type of recordkeeping. In many instances, teachers periodically share such portfolios with parents during the course of the school year so as to justify grades/ performance evaluations and to share/ demonstrate growth and development. Portmanteaus Blends orcombinations of words into new words(e.g., bit = binary + unit; smog = smoke + fog). Positive correlation An orderly relationship between people'sscores on one continuous variable andtheir scores on another variable is a corrdnfiotr. In a positive correlation, the higher the score on one of the variables the higher the score on the second variable. For example, more hits for a ballplayer in baseball results in a higher batting average.The upper limit of a positive correlation coefficient is +1.00. Values of positive correlation that are much lower(e.g., +0.06) indicate a very weak relationship,if ally, exists. In education, more study time at home generally results in higher grades.

SEE: correlntiou, rwptivr C i J I ' I ' l ' / ~ t ~ O l l Positive practice Following-up an error by practicing the correct response immediately thereafter. Positive regard According to Carl Rogers, we all have a need for positive regard, which includeslove, respect, sympathy, and acceptance. Positivereinforcement Theconditioning of an operant ("voluntary") rcsponse by providing a needed or desired object or condition (in a particular

Positive skew

- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Posthypnoticsuggestions

Commands given to a hypnotized subject that are to be obeyed after he/she has been released from the hypnotic trance. When these commands are carried out and the subject is asked to explain the action, the subject can only offer some rationalization. This is because the subject is unaware of the real reason for the behavior. Postlingual Occurring after the development of language; usually used to classify hearing losses that begin after a person has learned to speak. Postlingual o r postlinguistic deafness A hearing impairment that appearsafter speech and language development have Positron-EmissionTomography (PET been initiated. SEE: p s t l i r l p d , odzlcv~tiscans) A method for mapping active tiorrsl!/ nPof areas of the brain by detecting the radioactivity in the form of emitted Postlingualdisorders Speech and positrons on a background of brain pichearing disorders thatoccur after one tures. The radioactive material is added has developed the ability to speak. to glucose and ingested by the subject. These disorders can occur ‘it any age folNeurons have a prior call on available lowing speech development. SEE: ;Jrd;!lglucose over other bodycells. Active gird disorders neurons, in turn, are given priority over Postnatal Refers to conditions or events resting neurons. The background picthat occur after birth (e.g., jaundice). tures are takenby the CAT-scan Postreading strategy In languagearts, technique. an activity that follows and relates to Postconventionallevel Themost what has been read. The activity should advanced level of moral development in prompt reflections on what hasbeen Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory. People who read or serve asa base for launching furhave attained this level of moral develther reading onrelated topics. An examopment qualify as ethical leaders. Martin ple o f a postreading strategy would be Luther King and Mohatma Gandhi are to summarize orally what hasjust been twentieth century examples. Thoreau read or retell what has just been read in and Tolstoi would be nineteenth century one‘s own words. examples. The foundersof the world’s Postsecondary A term used to describe great religions, Buddha, Confucius, education that follows high school gradLaotze, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed uation. This includes butis not limited were also at the postconventionallevel. SEE: corwcwtiorlnl l c z d , ~ ~ r e c o r ~ z ~ c ~ r ~ t i o r ~ oto l education in a technical school, a junior or community college, a four-year Iclle’l college or university, and continuingPost hoc tests Refers to statistics that education programs. are used to follow up after initial analyPostsecondaryoptions Refers toproses are completed and there are more grams that allow highschool juniors and than two groups involved.Post hoc tests seniors to enroll at postsecondary (after seek to find significant differences high school) programs or institutionsfor between individual pairs/sets of means free while receiving both high school so as to make individual comparisons. and college credit for coursework taken. An example of a post hoc test would be Tukey’s significant difference test. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) A severe stressreaction to a very

environment) right after the response occurs. This results in an increased probability that the responsewill be made again the next time the need or desire arises when the individual is in that same environment. Positive skew A type of unbalanced frequency distribution in which most of the scores are low and highscores are very rare. The long tail (of the graph of such a distribution) points toward the right (to the high endo f the score dimension, the x-axis). The mean of such a distribution will be too high to indicate the central tendency accurately. The median should be used instead.

215

I _

Postural drainage

=

- Preacademic instruction

traumatic experience. Wartime battles, the following six steps: preview, quesfires, floods, rapes, and other assaults tion, read, reflect, recite, and review. are examples of events that can precipi- Practical intelligence Theabilities tate a PTSD. The symptoms include required to carry out every-daylife tasks flashback memories, low startle threshor our adaptive functioningcapability. olds, nightmares, and phobicreactions Practicum A supervised practical expeto objects that are connected (symbolirience. In particular, an on-the-job expecally or otherwise) to the trauma. rience for students studying to become Posturaldrainage Thedrainingoffluteachers and/or clinicians. It is the pracids from cavities in the body by changtical application of the theory studied in ing the positionof the body, such as in the classroom. Student teaching experithe case of drainage of the lungs by ences are considered practicums.SEE: positioning the body upright, laying flat, i l l t e r m h i p head elevated, feet elevated, etc. Gravity Pragmatics The understanding of the allows the drainage to takeplace. use of language and howit is used in Potain's disease Named after Pierre communication (i.e., the social use of C. E Potain (French physician, language). Speakers usually consider the 1825-1901). This condition is a pul"audience" when using language.Facmonary edema or edema of the lungs tors such as age, relationship to the (fluid in the air vesicles and tissues of audience, alertness, mental and health the lung). states, the presence of others, etc. all Pott's disease Named afterPercivall impact how one uses language in social Pott (British surgeon, 1713-1788). This situations. In other words, pragmatics condition is primarily a disease of chilinvolves the 1. study of the science of language usage for communication in a dren and adults up to age 40. It involves social sense and2. the practical side o f destruction and compressionof the verthings and practical applications of tebrae as a result of tuberculosis of the principles. spine. Pragmatism ( J c h Dewey's version is Poverty index An estimate by the fedcalled experimentalism) Thephiloeral government o f annual income necsophical position thatis the only pure essary to meet the basic living costs in philosophical school to have originated the United States. The Social Security in the United States. Pragmatism is Administration developed guidelines for based on thebelief that truth canbe this index in1964 and revised them in obtained by what works in the present 1969 and 1981. The index lists a series of and that truth can change with the times incomes adjusted according to family and different circumstances. JohnDewey size, number and ageo f children, gender (1859-1952) is probably the most famous of head o f household, etc. The poverty pragmatist who emphasized the devellevel index changes each year according opment of good citizens by teaching and to the change (rise) in the consumer modeling democratic principles. The price index. SEE: povuty lead major role of the teacher is believed by Poverty level Annual incomelevels proponents of this school of thought to established by theU S . Labor Departbe a facilitator and resource person who ment determined to be below the basic works with students onbecoming active annual income requirementsof a family problem solvers and independent based upon family size and other faclearners. tors. SEE: pozwt!/ irzdcs Preacademic instruction Instruction Power SEE: stntisticd porocr given in a preschool or kindergarten setPQ4R A method of systematic reading ting that prepares childrenfor later of text material for extracting and instruction in reading, writing, and remembering meaningful content.It has arithmetic.

216

Preacademic skills

Preacademic skills The skills and behaviors that a child develops and needs before formally attending school. Preacademic skills include but are not limited to such things as play and peer cooperation; sharing; being able to identify shapes, numbers, letters, and colors; toilet training; self-help skills; etc. Precipitous birth Very rapiddelivery of a child from the beginning of labor to the time of delivery. Generally, the period of labor is two hours orless. PrecisionteachingAninstructional approach that involves pinpointing the behaviors to be changed; measuring the initial frequency of those behaviors; setting an aim, or goal, for the child’s improvement; using direct, daily measurements to monitor progress made under an instructional program; graphing results of those measurements; and changing the program if progress is not adequate. Precocious 1. A term used to describe a child who is prematurely developed physically or mentally and 2. a child who displays knowledge,skill, and/or ability at a younger-than-normal age. Precocity Early development that is unexpected or remarkable (eg., a child who has an unusually well-developed vocabulary before the ageof 4). Precognition One of the alleged variations of extrasensory perception. Precognition involves the accurate perception and knowledge of future events. SEE: EXtrnstvlsory Ptwt’ptiorl ( E S P ) Preconscious mind According to Sigmund Freud, the portionof the mind that is not in conscious awareness but can readily be presented to awareness. This is to be sharply distinguished from the unconscious mind, which the individual cannot bring to awareness. Unconscious memories have been repressed because they would otherwise produce intolerable guilt, anxiety, or shame. Preconventionallevel In Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, the immature stageof moral development inwhich the individual’s choices are guided byfear of

- Preliminary review

punishment and/or hopeof reward (in other words, Freud’s pleasure principle). SEE: corrzxvlfiomd /ell?/, / J / W S l ! I ’ L ’ / J l ’ i l l C j / l / t ’ , FloStCollrlellti~Jrln//PZJC[

Prefix A letter or group of letters added to the beginningof a word, the “root” word, in order to changeits meaning. For example, “un“before “natural” forms the word ”unnatural,” which difsz-5cz fers in meaning from the word ”natural.” SEE: nffiir root, su!ffis Prefrontal cortex The front rim of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. This was the partof the brain that was surgically separated from the rest in the oncepopular operation called “frontal lobotomy.” It is involved in our ability to perform the delayed reaction, holding a signal in memory for many minutes before acting on it. SEE: prtfrorrtnl lobotorll!/ Prefrontal lobotomy The severance of the connection between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain. The surgery was intended torelieve posttraumatic stress disorder, intractable pain, or otherwise untreatable psychosis. This typeof surgery has been abandoned, partly because some undesirable side-effects accompanied it and partly because of the development of improved therapeutic techniques. SEE:frorrtd lobe, prefrontnl cortes Prejudice Preconceived unfavorable/ negative attitudes/ideas (that canlead to hostile feelings and unfair behavior) toward a group of people on thebasis of an irrelevantcriterion, such as race, ethnicity, sex, age, or membership in some organization. A prejudice is really a prejudgment that could bepositive or negative. Most people experience both negntive and positive prejudices in some form throughouttheir lives. Preliminary review Unlike a final review, it is the first look at data collected in reference to a student whois not progressing effectively in the regular school program. From such a review, a determination is made as to whether or not additional information and/or special education services are or might be needed.

217

Prelingual

_ I _

- Prereading activities

main motor pathway, the pyramidal Prelingual Describesa hearingimpairtract. ment that developsbefore a child has acquired speech and language. Prenatal Occurring before birth. Prelingual or prelinguistic deafness Prenatal asphyxia A lack of oxygen A loss of hearing occurring before the during the birthprocess usually caused develomlent of sueech and language. by interruption of respiration; can cause An individual wiih such a loss w i l l k d i unconsciousness and/or brain damage. narily be both deaf and mute.SEE: conPrenatal care The vigilant monitoring gcrlitnl drnfmss of a developing fetus by the mother and Prelingual disorders Speech and hearthe attending physician. ing disorders that occurbefore one has developed the ability to speak. Disorders Preoperational stage The second stage of cognitive development in Jean are classified as prelingual when they Piaget’s theory. The preoperational stage occur prior to age2 or whatever age begins with the achievement of object speech developmentreally occurs. SEE: permanence (objects remain real even p s f l i q l ~ ndisorders l when out of sight). Imaginativeplay PrelinguisticcommunicationComoccurs. The quality of thinking is munication by body language, oralgesmarked by egocentricity; the 2-7-yeartures, or noises before words and senold child is unable to take another pertences can be communicated. son’s point of view. The child is easily fooled by rearrangement of objects into Premack principle A rule establishing believing that the number or amountof the priority or theinferior status of two the objects has been changed. or more positive reinforcers. This rule derives from theresearch of David Prepalate The section of the mouth that Premack. It says that the opportunity to includes the ridgeof the upper gumjust perform a highly probable behaviorwill above the upper front teeth (also called reinforce a less probable behavior. Thus, the alveolar ridge) and the upper lip. a thirsty rat will run in anactivity wheel Prephonemic spelling In language to earn sips of water, while a rat that has arts, the earliest stage of spelling. It is been confined ina small spacewill sip characterized by 1. incorrectly formed or water in order to open the door leading made-up numbers and letters, 2. basito an activity wheel. As another examcally unreadable forlns andletters used ple, a child may eat a vegetable she/he in a random fashion, 3. unbroken lines dislikes in order to have dessert. of letters or wordlike spaced configuraPremack’s principle is also known as tions, 1.an awareness/‘lbility to carry Grandma‘s law. out writing horizontally, 5. the knowlPrematurity A term used to identify edge that letters make up words, and infants bornin less than 37 weeks from 6. typically kindergarteners, first the first day of last periodof menses. graders, and even olderpreschoolers SEE: / ( m birtlnueight display the above. Premotor cortex A motor area of the Prepracticums Experiences in the classfrontal lobe (area 6) lying rostral to (in room before studentteaching. front of) the primary motor area (area 4). Prepracticunl experiencesallow the It is active during the planningof a prospective teacher/practitioner to work movement, relating sensory data to the with small groupsof students and in prospective action. The axons that leave tutorial situations in order to gain eduarea 6 are relatively short; many travel cational and social “hand+o~l” knowlto the midbrain’s basalganglia, such as edge with students. the substantia nigra and the red nucleus. PrereadingactivitiesPrereading activiThese axons comprise (in part) the ties (e.g., brainstorming, semantic extrapyramidal motor pathways,SOmapping/webbing, surveying, called because they are outside of the

218

Prereferral intervention

- Primary cortical areas

graphic organizers, cognitive mediation, Presentation punishment The most familiar type of punishment: an aversive and vocabulary activities). stimulus is presented to the individual Prereferral intervention When a stuimmediately after an error in order to dent is not progressing effectively in the reduce the chances that the error will be regular school program, prereferral repeated. intervention is considered before a referral is made for a special-needs eval- Presentism Thinking only in terms o f the present time andfailing to consider uation. Children who are at risk for failthe or past the ure or who may need specialfuture. services are examined in the light of what can be Pressure The demands placed upon an done to amend or adapt the regular cur- individual by the external environment ricuIum to prevent school failure and/or (both physical and social). A wellreferral for special education. Such adjusted individual is one who has action is referred to as prereferral learned to cope with environmental intervention. pressures. SEE: stress Prereferralservices Services directed Presymptomatictest An examination to students identified as at risk for the that can predict a long-delayed disease. development ofa learning disability that Huntington’s disease does not strike are intended to help them adapt to the until middle age.An infant’s chromoregular classroom. Later, some ofthese somes can be examinedfor the G8 students may still be perceived as marker, which occurs on chromosome requiring special education services. number 4 in Huntington’s disease cases. Prereferral Team (PRT) A team conPretest A test presented to learners sisting of professionals from regular and before instruction or other treatmentin special education who work with reguorder to measuretheir performance lar classroom teachers to develop stratebefore they receive the specified gies, materials, and methodsfor children treatment. who are atrisk for academic failure and Prevalence The number of people who special services. These actions are taken have a certain condition at any given to minimize thenLimber of children who time. are referred for special services who Prevention The act of avoiding or stopcould otherwise be assisted within the ping the developmentof a disability. regular classroom setting (with proper adaptations and modifications). Primary cortical areas Most of the human neocortex consists neitherof the PresbyopiaFarsightedness,usually a part o f the aging process and a result of terminals of sensory neural pathways nor the originsof motor pathways. Be the rigidity (loss of elasticity) o f the lens, which makes accommodationof near that as it may, the cortical areas that d o serve as terminals of sensory neural objects extremely difficult. SEE: O C C O I I I rmfatiorl, hypropio, tll!/opin pathways are called the p r i m m y w ~ s o r y cortex, while the areaof the cortex from Prescriptivephilosophy The attempt which the corticospinal and corticobulto establish well-reasoned standards for bar motor pathways originateis termed right behavior, beautiful art, andvalid the primary motorcortex. Each primary truth. Prescriptive philosophies are cortical area has related areas around it attempts to uncover thebasis of good called “secondary.” For example, a numand evil, beauty and ugliness, and right of secondary visual areas arelocated ber and wrong, with the intentionof stating in the general neighborhoodo f the prirules that foster the good, the beautiful, and the right and reduce the amounts of mary visual area.Also, the primary motor cortex has its neighbors called the evil, ugliness, and error in the world. premotor cortex and the supplementary SEE: r~r~o/!/tic ~ / I ~ / o s o / Jspccrrlotizle /I!/, motor cortex. /J/l~/OSCl/l/l!/

219

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-

Primary epilepsies

- Procedural 6afeguard6

-

Primary epilepsies Seizuredisorders

determine what aspectof that area that appear to be inherited. They are requires further investigation and predictable disorders and normally analysis. appear at a n early age. SEE: sprolldnry Procedural follow-up I n special educacpilqJsies, sc~izlrrcs tion, a plan which requires theteacher to Primary reinforcer A primary reinhave on-going contact witha teacher forcer is a type of stimulus that has an support or evaluation team. Theidea is ability to influence behaviors that are to provide theteacher with an opportunot a result of learning. Examples of prinity to stay abreastof the support being mary reinforcers are food, water, and provided and/or available and to be sex. They are natural reinforcers as of the supable to tap into the expertise opposed to secondaryreinforcers, which port team on an ongoing basis in the have to be learned. Primary reinforcers best interest of the student(s). are also known as unconditioned reinProblem solving The activity o f arrivforcers. SEE: srcondnr!y rL,it!forccr ing at the solutionof a problem through the systematic organization and thecogPrimary school A school organization nitive processing of the relevant data. of the lower elementary grades.It includes grades one, two, and three and Procedural knowledge Know-how;the frequently kindergarten or their equivamemories of skills needed to perform lents. I n some school systems, tasks successfully. Long-term memories preprimary grades are included (proof procedural knowledge are more resisgrams for 3- and 4-year olds). tant to traumaticeffects than personal (names, dates) memoriesare. SEE: prowPrinciple A relationshipbetween dlrrnl m w o r ! / observed variables. Often, a principle is a verified hypothesis. Procedural memory A part of longterm memory dealing with “know-how” Private school A school usually supas opposed to personal memories, ported by nonpublic funds. Suchschools names, and dates.Usually, traumatic are controlled and administered by perconditions that interfere with the latter sons not publically elected or appointed. (called ”semantic memory”) havelittle There is no direct connection with public or no effect on procedural memory. SEE: local educational agencies, state, or fedsemntttic t w l l o r y eral agencies; they are independently operated from these governmental agen- Procedural safeguards A system cies through the privatesector. designed to protect thelegal rights of an individual. For special education proPrivate speech Self-talking usedto cessing of students with disabilities, proguide one’s actions. This tactic is used cedural safeguards include1. zero reject, more often by children than by adults or all children with disabilities must be Proactive interference The process in provided a free and appropriate educawhich previously learned material tion (hence, no oneis rejected); 2. each stored in memory interferes with new special-needs studentis entitled to a learning or information. For example, if nondiscriminatory evaluation; 3. stua student learnsFrench and then Spandents in need of special education serish, the student could have difficulty vices must have a written ”Individualwith Spanish grammar becauseof the ized Education Plan” or IEP; previously learned French grammar. 4. whenever possible, persons with disProblem A situation in which a goal is abilities must be educatedin the least set and the wayof attaining the goal has restrictive environment, as near normal yet to be worked out. as possible; 5. due process protection of one’s rights; and 6. parents have the Problem finding The ability of an eduright to be includedin the entire process. cator or researcher to review a set of interrelated facts and observations and n

220

Procedures - Programmed instruction Procedures Systematic programs for the step-by-step performance ofa given activity. Process/product debate The discussion of whether or not traininga perceptual process (e.g., improving visual tracking skills) is more effective than direct instruction (eg., teaching phonemic awareness to students with Learning Disabilities [LD]). This debate, which raged in the early 1970s, resulted in the finding that process (the perceptual approach) was infrequently effective in teaching academics. Process test A test or procedure, frequently of ‘I perceptual or linguistic nature, that is used to help determine the effectivenessof psychological methods or processes. Process writing The teaching of the writing process after an initial brainstorming sessic)n(s) with reflection, three drafts, peer inquiry, and teacher feedback to follow. The teacher gives feedback, evaluates, and publishes thefinal product. Productions R L that~ specify what steps to take if certain conditions are prescnt. Professionalautonomy The rights assumed or givento teachers and other professionals to collaborate, establish curriculum, implement classroom rules, ctc. Professional-centered program Refers to ‘111 early intervention program that relies on the expertiseof professionals to assist families in need of assistance. Professional library In education, a term used to describea collection of professional andclassroom materials for the use of the professional/instructional staff, primarily. Normally, such a library is maintained by the school district and can be housed withina school building and/or a central location. Profoundmental retardation A condition characterized by extremely poor to nonexistent adaptable behavior along with an IQ of below 25 points. A profoundly retarded person has noeffective speech, sometimes communicates

through nonverbal gestures m d sounds; communication skills are severely limited if they exist at all. Such persons have few motor skills and usually have serious physical problems.Social adaptation is frequently nonexistent asis independent functioning. It is unlikely that the profoundly retarded would benefit from training for employment. Their educational plans should concentrate on such skills as attending and positioning. Profound retardation affects less than one of every 10,000 persons. SEE: trrild rtlerltnl wtnrdotiorl, rrlodrrotr trrrrltnl rctmdofiorl, sczwc trrcrltal rch~rrlntiot~ Profoundmultipledisorders SEE: sczwre nrld projmrld u l l l l t i p l c disc~rrfrrs Profound visual disability A visual impairment severe enough to prevent the student from being able tolearn from visually presented materials. This type of impairment fits the legal defintion of blindness.

Progeny Descendentsor offspring. Progesterone The hormone released by the corpus luteum (whichis a body produced in the ovary during the estrous cycle) that prepares thewall o f the uterus for the implantation of the fertilized ovum (the zygote). Prognosis A prediction, or estimate of the course and eventual outcome of a disease or disorder.

Program 1. The courses and activities organized into an educational curriculum along with noncurriculum activities which have been designed to attain broad or specific educational objectives and goals as describedby the school and institutions. 2. SEE: Apperldis 4: Cotrlptc~r

Term Programmed instruction Teacher materials that are presentedin a step-bystep format wherebya series of skills are presented with one skill building on the other. Programmed instructional materials are createdso that the learnercan progress at an individualpace with reinforcement provided as to correctness in responding. Only after a correct response is the next bit oF instruction offered to the student. Suchinstruction

221

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Programmed learning *

- Proprioception or proprioceptive system

has been found useful in areas such as math facts acquisition and spelling acquisition (rote typesof subject presentations). Programmed instruction wasa theory of education devisedby B. E Skinner, representing the use of Skinner’s “teaching machine.” Programmed learning Anylearning = material or device that when used by a student leads toa response to the student’s activity with immediate feedback concerning the next step of operation. The student progressesfrom step to step to the completionof the program. SEE: p r o ~ r m ~ im~ f~ s t r u c t i o ~ ~ Progressive education Aneducational philosophy empllasizing meaningful education to students, whichis relevant to and in the spirit o f a democratic society. Creativity and meeting the needs and interests of the individual student without losing sight of real world goals is paranount. The relationship between the school and the community is emphasized. Progressive relaxation A therapeutic technique worked out by an early behavior therapist, Edmund Jacobsen, who worked from 1908 to the 1930s. The patient lies in a supine position, concentrates ona given part of the body, and thinks o f the body part asrelaxed. When he/she feels no tension in that part of the body, the patient moves onto another part o f the body. In this way, one can learn how to relax any given muscle group. Progressive tax A tax that is based on a scaled ability to pay. For example, federal income taxes are progressive. Progressivism A philosophy or theory of education that emphasizes the testing of ideas through experimentation. Learning by students is facilitated and rooted in the concept of answering questions
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Projective test A type of test instrument or assessment thatinvolves asking a subject about a series of subjective and sometimes ambiguous stimuli. These tests are given in order to elicit thought patterns, which can give insights into the subject’s personality and/or any thought disorders or problems.The Rorschach inkblot test and incomplete sentence tasks (e.g., ”I will read this dictionary from cover tocover because . . .”) are projective measures. Such tests are difficult to score and many times are not normed so that results have to be viewed with a cautious eye. SEE:

Rorschnch il?h-blot test Prolapse The act of collapse, slipping out of place, falling, or dropping down of an internal body parto r organ. Prompt A reminder stimulus that is provided when an individualfails to supply the correct response to theprogrammed cue stimulus. Pronation I. A postural positionin which a person is lying on ont’:5 stomach, stretched out, andface down. 2. The act of rotating the hand so that the palm is downward or backward. Property tax Any tax based on the v a l of~ property. This includes personal or real-estate property. Prophylaxis Preventativetreatment and/or the prevention of a disease. Examples include innoculations (e.g., polio vaccine), teeth cleaning, braces, using condoms, etc. Proportionate tax A tax based on one‘s income or ability to pay. Propositional network A scheme o f interrelated concepts and propositions that is held in long-termmemory. Proprietary school Aschool, although private, that is subject to taxation on profits gained from revel1Lles. Proprioception or proprioceptive systern The proprioceptivereceptorsare Iloused in the joints, muscles, tendons, and nearby tissues. They react to the movement and/or positioning of the body and its members in space. Thus, there is an awarenesso f the position and movement of the body in space.

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Proximal Refers to being close to the body or trunk. It is the opposite of “distal.” SEE: distal Proximity control A type of behavior management technique whereby students with unacceptable behaviors are moved to anarea of close proximity to the teacher. This could be a front-row seat or anaisle seat. Proximodistal A term used to describe the muscular development of n child wherein the child first gains/develops control of those muscles closest to the ProsocialeducationEducationbased trunk of the body (proximo-) o r the cenon empathy and understandingof the ter of the body andlater develops those unique abilities and needs of all learners. muscles located farther away from the Prosody The flow or rhythm of our lanbody’s trunk or center (-distal). guage, which involves intonation, word PRT SEE: Prcrcfcrrnl E m and sentence length, and stress patterns. Pseudohermaphrodite An individual Prosopagnosia A specific loss of the who has not fully developed either asa ability to recognize faces visually. SEE: male or a female but cannot becalled a tcw/~orr?/lobrs true hermaphrodite. A pseudohermaphProsthesis 1. Any device used to rodite may be referred to as anintersex. replace a missing o r impaired body part. SEE: Iwmnpkroditc,, i r l t m r s Examples would include a partial plate Psyche Sometimes referred to as the for dentures, n full set of false teeth, an soul or the mind. The psycheis really artificial heart valve, etc., and2. any everything that makes up the mind as device that augments impaired bodily well as how the mind processes inforfunction(s) suchas a hearing aid. mation from the surrounding world. Prosthetic devices The actual artificial device that replaces a missing body part. Psychiatrist A physician, a specialist in treating social, emotional, and mental It can be an artificial organ or part such disorders. A psychiatrist, unlike a psyas a heart valve or an artificial limb to chologist, has a medical degree. SEE: replace a leg or arm.SEE: prosthcsis psycllologist Prosthetics A branch of surgery conPsychiatry That branch of medicine cerned with the replacementof body concerned with the diagnosis andtreatparts that aremissing. SEE: prosthesis, ment of emotional and behavioral /]rost/rcticdczlicos disorders. Prototype 1. An object that has very typical characteristics of the category to Psychic determinism One of the assumptions o f Sigmund Freud’s psywhich it belongs. For example, in regard choanalytic theory. According to this to the concept “bird,”a robin would be a view, every psychic event is caused by prototype of ”bird,” but an ostrich ora some preceding event.SEE: penguin would not. 2. A classification psychoarlnlysis system of students with special needs, based upon time spent out of regular Psychoactive drugs Any drug is a class. chemical that affects the body’s functions (i.e., the chemical has a physiologiProxemics A tern1 that describes the use cal impact on the organism).A psyof one’s private space, personalterritory, choactive drug has an impact011the spatid arrangement, distanceof comfort, behavior, the emotional adjustment, the o r distance from other people and the sensory perceptions, or thepersonality use of this space in communications.

Proprioceptor A receptor that is specialized in receiving information about the body’s own movements, thecontraction or elongation of the muscles, the level of muscle tone, etc. Proprioceptors are specifically found in the muscles, tendons, and joints. Proptosis Acraniofacial anomaly characterized by bulging eyes. Prosocial behavior Activity that improves the welfare of persons other than the one doing the behaving.

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Psychoanalysis Psychodynamic modeling

nia through psychoanalysis. SEE: ~ r / r r l f n / rlisorders, ~,.s!/clronr~nl!/sis, sclri~o~~l~r~win Psychobiology That school of thought that explains learning and behavior through biological mechanisms. Psychochemicals Chemicals or drugs that influence and changebehavior. They normally produce short-lasting changes in the functioning of the activity such as the tricyclic antidepressants, the of the brain. M A 0 inhibitors, and the neuroleptic Psychodrama A diagnostictherapeutic drugs. As a mnemonic device to aid technique invented by J. L. Moreno. The recall of these five categories, use the folindividual is first asked to play the role lowing acrostic: Does Santa open peoof herself/himself while other persons ple’s attics? (colleagues o f the therapist) play the Psychoanalysis A school of psychology roles of members of the person‘s family. founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), After some time, the director announces an Austrian physician. Psychoanalysis is role-switching. One of the cast members a method of tapping into and analyzing assumes the individual’srole and the the psyche. It is based upon the premise individual has toact like someone else. of repressed past experiences that were This provides the individual with perpainful or undesirable and that remain spective and helps her/him work out in the subconscious and thus cause problems of interpersonal relationships. abnormd phenomena. This psychotherapeutic system involves an ongoing dia- Psychodynamic An approach to the treatment of psychological disorders that logue between the analyst and the is based on the precept thatthey are patient wherein the forgotten memories caused by unconscious conflicts and are brought into theconscious mind. anxieties. This resurrection of old memories rnables the patient to view problems in Psychodynamicanalysis A system the proper perspective, accordingto pro(based on the psychoanalytic theory of ponents of this school of thought. SO~LI- Sigmund Freud) of investigating and tion(s) must in\rolve confronting the analyzing one’s subconsciousfeelings, repressed harmful experiences. In particemotions, and motivations. ular, psychoanalysis studies the ”ego”in Psychodynamic modeling A term rel,1tion to reality as well as the “id” and used to describe a concept wherein the superego.” . SEE: q o , id, p ! / C / J P , rqlrcsbehaviors of a student or individual are s i w , srrpcwp viewed as the expressionso r symptoms Psychoanalytic perspective Theinterof some underlying problemor disorder pretation of human behavior according (e.g., acting out behaviorsin school to Sigmund Fre~td‘s psychoanalytic thecould result from prior angry encounters ory. Specifically, this could mean, in clinwith family Inembers/friendsin situaical practice, the ‘lttribution of an tions unrelated to school). In other e~notional/bel~avioral problem ato words, a disorder produces symptoms defense mechanism or to the interrup(e.g., conduct disorder), which are the tion o f psychosexual development. SEE: observed behaviors (e.g., disobedience, ~7s!/c//(Jn/l~?/!/sis, ~J.s.!/c/fof?rin/!/tiCs fighting in school)o f the underlying problem or disorder (e.g., anger emanatPsychoanalytics A theory based on the ing from outsideconflicts with family principles of Sigmund Freud (1856members or friends).Therefore, in order IYXI),an Austrian physician. This theory to cure the disorder, one must first diagdeals with the diagnosis and treatment nose the underlying problem(s). of mental disorders such as schizophreof an individual. There arefive general categories of psychoactive drugs: 1. depressants, such as the barbiturates and ethyl alcohol; 2. stimulants, such as the ampl~etamines, cocaine, and caffeine; 3. opiates, such as opium, morphine, heroin, and methadone;4. psychedelics (hallucinogens), such as LSD, mescaline,

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Psychological hardiness A trait posA sessed by some persons thatinvolves trained specialist who tests, evaluates, resistance to the negative effects of psyand diagnoses a student’s learning probchological stress. These people are genlems. SEE: ~~s!/cliorrtc,tricit7 erally optimistic and have an internal Psychogenic A term used to describe locus of control. Stressful events are psychological or functional disorders treated as occasions for learning and thdt are not related to an organic disease self-improvement. SEE: s t r m o f the body. Psvchological test A psychologicaltest Psychogenic fugue (also called dissois a sample of behavior that is measured ciative fugue disorder) Adissociative objectively. These assessments may be disorder that combines amnesia with used as thebasis for inferences about fugue, when the individual leaves his/her usual environment and wanders some psychological concept such as special aptitude, general intelligence, peraimlessly. On rare occasions, the person sonality type, adjustment or maladjustmay even adopta new identity, settling ment, interests, values, attitudes, down in an area distant from his/her vocational interests, etc. home. Psychological trauma A psychological Psychokinesis (PK) (also known as injury or shock caused by anaccident, Telekinesis) One of the varieties of violence, abuse, neglect, separation, or extrasensory perception. PK is the tension. SEE: strcss alleged ability to move physical objects Psychologist A specialist trained in the or to reshape them by the power of the theories, methods, and applicationsof unassisted mind. SEE: Estrnser~sor!yPerpsychology. A psychologist is not R medCl’lJtiCJr7( E S P ) ical doctor like a psychiatrist and, as Psycholinguisticdeficiencies First such, cannot prescribe drug treatments. studied in detailin 1961 when the ITPA SEE: psyclrintrist, pqcIrdo~!/ (Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic AbiliPsychology The science of human and ties) was developed. Refers to such weaknesses as theinability to use phonanimal behavior andof human mental ics to decode wordsfrom printed symprocesses. The study of psychology is bols and a failure to outgrow earlylanlargely concerned with thegenetic and guage habits (in other words, the environmental causes of our behavior. It speaker-listener is unable to integrate focuses on how peopleinteract with one the grammatical, and,in particular, the another and respond to thephysical and phonological knowledge he/she social environment. Psychology as ‘1 scipossesses). ence is quite compatible with thephysiological study of the functions o f the Psycholinguistics A branch of linguisbody. One’s own physical well-being is tics, the scientific study of language, it closely connected to one’s cognitive and merges psychological concepts with lanemotional processes. SEE: ps!/c/tulogist guage science in order to explain the development of language and the uniPsychometrician A person trained in versal features shared by all languages. the measurement of mental data. FreMostly developed by one innovativesciquently psychometricians determine the entist, Noam Chomsky, psycholinguiseducational, mental, and/or learning tics is concerned with the mental strucstatus of a student with a variety o f tures and operations that make language social and education assessments.School possible. The conceptsof surface struc-. psychologists frequently assume this ture and deep structure are essential role in school systems. SEE: psycltocdlrznaspects o f this point of view. This term tiotml diogttosticinr~ covers all the processes involved in lanPsychometrics The specialty within the guage acquisition and usage. field of psychology concerned with tests

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Psychoneurotic Afunctional disorder o f psychic o r mental origin. Psychopath An individual who lacks the ability to judge the difference between right and wrong andfeels little guilt about destructiveor unsatisfactory behavior. Psychopaths generally are in conflict with society and fail to learn from past experiences. For the most part, rewards and punishmentsdo not impact how a psychopath will function. This term is sometimes used synonymously with the term “sociopath.” SEE: socioptlr Psychopathic personality disorder SEE: nfffisocin/ f J c ’ r s o I l n / i t ! / rfisordc’r PsychopathologyThestudy of mental/emotional disorders. Psychophysics An area o f psychological research that involves the relationship of a physical variable (e.g., light intensity) to a subjective v‘lriable (e.g., experienced level of brightness of light). Particular approaclws to measurement were developed originally in order to solve psychophysical problems (e.g., the method o f limits, the method of constant stimuli, the methodof average error, among others).Some of the psychophysical Inethods, with appropriate modification, have beenused to measure attitudes. Traditional psychophysics has been challenged by a newer approach, signal detection theory, that considers the habitual and the motivational factors that enter intoa perceptual judgment. Wide somewhat useful, the new approach has notreplaced the older 111ethods completely. SEE: S i p l l 7 / dc,tcctic)r? t/fwy

Psychophysiologicaldisorders Also called psychosomatic disorders, they result from stressful emotions (“allin one’s mind”). The organic physical symptoms are present even though the jiseclse ( x illness is not. SEE: ; J S , I / C ~ I ( J S O rlrl7tic disorrlcrs Psychophysiology The study of the relationships between mentallife, motivation, and the emotions on the OIW hand and thephysiological events Such as the EEG, evoked responses, the gal\ranic skin response, respiratoryrate,

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heartbeat, blood pressure,skin temperature, &. on the other. Applications of psycllopIlysioIogy include polygraplly, biofeedback, and the use o f transcendental meditation (or the relaxation response) to relieve psychosomatic (stress-related) disorders. Psychosexual The workings of the millci as concerned with the emotional aspects o f the sexual instinct. Psychosis Formerlya term used to describe any mental disorder, now psychosis is described as a mental/ em~~ti~~nal/bellavioral disorder isthat severe cnough to require that the patient bc institutionalized for the protection of the patient andof society in general. The psychotic loses contact with reality and many times suffersfrom delusions and hallucinations. Behaviors are abnormal, peculiar, antisocial, and maladaptive. Many times psychosis is used synonymously with schizophrenia. SEE: scl~i:opl~r.cr~io Psychosocial Theterm for the relationship between an individual’s emotional condition and the interpersonal environment. Psychosocialabilitykalent A unique ability of a person to lead others in the arenas of social, political, intellectual, and like pursuits. Psychosocialdisadvantage Category of causation for mental retardation that requires evidenceof less-than-average intellectual functioning in at least one parent and oneor more siblings (when there are siblings).‘This condition is typically associated with inadequate medical care. The term is used, often synonymously, with cultural familial retardation when no organic cause canbe identified. Psychosomaticdisorders Illnesses involving physical damage to bodytissues as the result of emotional reactions to stress. These include somecases of ulcers, asthma, colitis, high blood pressure, etc. The patient’s life history and personality are important factors in the length and severityof the disorder. SEE: 9t rpss

Psychosurgery A destruction of a PZXt of the brainin order to repair or remove an emotionalor adjustment problem affecting an individual. This is to be done only after the patient has failed to respond to psychotherapy, behavior therapy, or to psychoactive drugtreatment, and where the condition presents a serious risk to the life of the patient of and/or other persons. One example such surgery is the Mark-Ervin procedure, which involves the specific destruction of a small portion of the amygdaloid nucleus.The area is burned out (by an applied direct current) in order to remedy outbursts of destructive aggression. An early and unfortunate example of psychosurgery was prefrontal lobotomy. SEE: lobotorrl!/, preJrotrtnl lobotomy Psychotherapeuticdrugs 1 . Drugs normally used to relieve symptoms of individuals who are suffering from some sort of mental problem such asanxiety or depression, and 2. antianxiety drugs such as the tranquilizerValium (diazepam), antidepressant drugs such as Tofranil (imipramine), or antipsychotic drugs such as Thorazine (chlorpromazine). SEE: nr~sief!/, tfc/wess”iorr, strt?% Psychotherapy The practice of treating behavioral/emotional disorders by a ”talking cure.”The original form of psychotherapy was psychoanalysis (Freud’s method). Other approaches to psychotherapy have emerged, each involving a basic disagreement with Freudian thought. Carl Rogers’ system of clientcentered therapy has the helpee participate actively in the therapeuticprocess; the helper is a counselor, whose task is to reflect feelings reported by the helpee. The reflection is done in a nonjudgmental manner, with the helper exhibiting unconditional positive regard (high esteem) for the helpee. SEE: p r s u w cerlteretl tlrcrnpy, psylronrlnl!/sis Psychotic Onewho is suffering froma severe personality disorderor affected by psychosis. SEE: psycllcxis Psychoticdisorders SEE: pyclrosis

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Psychotropic drugs - Pupillary reflex

Psychotropicdrugs

In effect, drugs that produce mood changes; thatis, drugs thataffect our behavior orpsychic functioning. PT SEE: Plr!/sicnl Tlrcmpist PTA Ordinarily referred to as Parent Teacher Association, it is officially o f Parknown as the National Congress ents and Teachers. PTSD SEE: Posttraurrrntic Strcw Disorrlcr Puberty The age at which reproductive behavior can begin. In today’s society, it is 12 or 13 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys. The hypothalamus starts releasing the hormone LH releasing factor in hourly bursts. Tlae pituitary releases both LH and FSH, stimulating the gonads into action. Estradiol from the ovaries leads to breast development, broadening of hips, and the startof menstrual cycles. Testosterone leads to beard growth, lowering of the \ , o h , ancl the droppingof the testes into a scrotal sac. Precocious puberty strikes some children at such early ages as 8 or 9; it can be treated by drugs that inhibit the pituitary’s release of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) m d LH (luteinizing hormone). Public confidence Basically the real trust that the general public hasin its institutions, to include its schools. Public law (federal) SEE: prrblic lf7icJS

iladividualizatiora o f services. SEE: Clrn1~t u I , r c s m r w 1’001rr ~ J ~ o ~ ~rrl?irrstrc,nrrrirr~s ~ I H , Pulp 1. The soft inner and vascular portion of a tooth. 2. Tlae soft portion of an organ. SEE: rlcrrtirrc, rrrnrrrrl Punishment I’roviding anegati\rereinforcer (i.e., an aversive stimulus, which means an unwanted object or situation) to an organismafter it makes an operant response, which results in a decrease in the chances thattlae response will be repeated in the same environment(in a few cases, punishment is accomplished by the removal of a positive reinforcer, although this variety is more rarely used). The conceptof punishment is often confused with the idea of “negative reinforcement.” What the two ideas have in commonis aversive stimulation of the organism ancl some sortof tie-in to tlae consequences o f responding. But punishment involves the presentation of the undesirable stimulus whereas negative reinforcement involves the removal of that stimulus (witha subsequent increase in response probability, which occurs in all instances of reinforcenwnt). SEE: O ~ I C Y I I J I ~ CorrcfiLiorli~I~, flC~~?fi?U’

rc’irzfurccrrrcvrt Pupil 1. A11alogo~1~ to the aperture of

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camera, it admits light into tlae eye. Tlae pupil is kept nearly closed in brightly lit settings and is widened where the light (PL.) is dim. 2. A student in a school or some learning situation (e.g., pupil of piano). Public school A school or institution Pupil-teacher ratio In education,the operated and controlled by duly elected number of students assigned to n single or appointed publicofficials. All school teacher at a given time. For multiple programs and activities are class periods, the pupil teacher ratio is admilaistered/controlled by these public the total number of pupils assigned for officials and the schools are primarily all periods divided by the number o f supported by public funds. class periods taught; this calculates the Pull-outmodel/program An educaaverage pupil-teacher class size ratio. tional model that involves ”pulling” students outof their mainstream classes for Pupillary reflex This is the constriction of the pupil of thc eye in response to rcnaedial classes. Typically resource bright light (analogous to closing the room programs and Title I programs utiaperture of a camera when takinga piclize some pull-out models although ture outdoors ona sunny day). Thc many programs utilize “in-class” modparasympathetic nervous system is actels. Speech therapists, occupational thering to preserve thelight-sensiti\re mateapists, counselors, etc. may use pull-out rials of the retina. programs for their students who need services in order to ensure privacy and

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Purdue Becondary Model for Gifted and Talented Youth

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Hz (Hertz, orcycles per second), thc normal speech range. Thus, the various frequencies andintensities that are meaprogram for gifted students that incorsured can be used to determine a loss of porates counseling andis intended to hearing. meet all the educational needsof such students, It includes "acceleration" and Pure tone bone conduction test A test enrichment. SEE: occderntiurl, ~ r ~ r i c l ~ r ~ ~ e rinvolving ~t pure tones to determine hearing losses in the inner ear. Various Pure philosophies Refers to the four puretone frequencies aretransmitted major "pure" philosophies of naturalthrough a vibrator applied to the bones ism, idealism, realism, and pragmatism. of the skull. The outer ear and the midExistentialism is also considered by dle ear are bypassed.If the bone conducsome to bea pure philosophy. SEE: rzntlrtion (BC) results showa loss, it may be rnlisrr1, idrnlisrrr, runlisrrr, ~lrn
Purdue Secondary Model for Gifted and Talented Youth A high school

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Quadriplegia The paralysis or func-

key elements have been cited by the National Assessmentof Educational Progress Board (NAEP) when assessing the quality of teaching within a particuQualitative research Researchefforts lar school or state:1.require high stanthat are participant-oriented(e.g., coldards in such subject areas as math, scilecting observations or interviews to creence, English, and history;2. match ate impressions/diagnostic hunches) and inductive in nature. Behavioral units assessments to curriculum/standards; 3. hold teachers to high levels of compeare defined and many times quantified tence and a commitment to teach to (e.g., observing a student with higher standards (look at Yo of teachers Attention-Deficit/HyperactivityDisorinvolved in professional development der [ADHD] and the number of off-task that includes new content standards); behaviors during a specified time 4. organize/structure schools in ways to frame). Qualitative research usually focuses on a problem or issue at hand support teaching/learning; 5. hold all students to high expectations/standards with little reference to previous research (look atYO of students taking AP findings. (Advanced Placement) courses, remedial Qualitative research data Data genercourses, and those dropping out of ated from qualitative research efforts school); 6. challenge all students; that include observations, interviews, 7. financial/ social supportis needed journal entries, and various assessment from thecommunity-at-large/parents instruments (e.g., questionnaires, atti(e.g., look atOh of teachers who have tude and personality surveys). access to advanced technology for teachQualitative sciences Sciences such as ing) along with a firm commitment to anthropology and ethnology that rely on support public education. qualitative research methods/data Quantitative research Researchthat gathering. involves the assigningof numerical values to observations (eg., attitude survey Quality disorders (of speech) Voicetoward math), behaviors(e.g., attentionquality problems characterized by behavior percentile standing as comhoarseness, nasality, nontypical pared to peer group), learning outcomes tonality, etc. (e.g., grades), test results(e.g., SAT Quality of life A term used in educascores), etc. as a way to screen large tion and special education reference in groups of students; make academic, to the adjustmentof students or persons behavioral, social comparisons; make who are cognitively/mentally disabled, predictions; determine academic learning/physically disabled, and/or strengths and weaknesses;etc. The inforhealth impaired. Qualityof life examines how well one adjusts on a personal basismation collected is expressed in the form of numbers/graphs and the like rather as well as adjustment to community than through words/narrations asis the life/living in general. case in "Qualitative Research."SEE: Quality of teaching Observed characqualitative research teristics that determine howeffective teachers are in teaching/improving per- Quartile deviation A measure of variformances within the classroom. Several ability that isone-half of the difference tional loss (could be actual)of all four limbs.

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Quasi-experiment Raciallethnic group

Questioning A technique of instruction between the upper quartile(75th perwherein the teacher guides the direction, centile) and the lower quartile (25th understanding, and application of the percentile) in a distribution. Quasi-experiment (also called ex-post being taught through the factoexperiment)Experimentsoruse of questions.Theteacherprompts students with questions and the stumethods of research thatdo not have dents respond, hopefully, in an approrandom group assignments, but researchers compensate for such statisti- priate fashion. Thisapproach can assist by various statistithe students to think differently and cal procedures and methods (e.g., Bonnew ideas and expand upon their knowledge baseof the presented ferroni correction factor). material.

natural skin pigment), and in areas with Represents a correlation Coefficient."r" usually refers to the Pearson correlation more moderate climates, individuals developed lighter skincolors. Many use coefficient. the term race and ethnicity interchangeR Represents the multiple correlation ably Race is considered to be more biocoefficient. logically distinctive and ethnicity more 1.2 Represents the coefficient of of a cultural description.SEE mcinll determination. ethnic group RZ Represents the coefficient of determi- Racial bias Prejudice against a race and nation when thecoefficient istaken from the degree to which a person believes a multiple correlationcoefficient. and behaves against members of a race Race A method of categorizing people in a prejudicial manner.SEE racism who share geographical, national, and RaciaVethnic group Categorytypes ethnic characteristics (usually sharing a that refer to one's ethnic or racial hernumber of physical features unique to itage. The Bureauof Census offers the their group-eg., skin color) and are following schemata for racial defined as a separate group by thembreakdowns: selves and others. The race concept is White-persons or ancestors originating controversial and a social one and is not from Europe, NorthAfrica, and the Midused by anthropological scientists. Typidle East; cally characteristics associated with race &&-persons or ancestors originating are biologically transmitted. Some racial from anyBlack racial group in Africa; characteristics have resulted from generHispanic-persons or ancestors originatations of families living in particular ing fromMexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, geographic regions.For example, in Central America, South America, or any areas of intense heat, individuals develother Spanish culture regardless of race; oped darker skin (from melanin, a Asians orPacific Islanderepersons or

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ancestors originating from the Far East, Southeast Asia, Indian subcontinent, or the Pacific Islands. Included are Japan, Vietnam, India, Cambodia, China, Korea, the Philippines, and Samoa; Native Americansor Alaskans-persons or ancestors originating from any of the original people in North America with tribal or community recognition of cultural heritage Racism A type of destructive prejudice that involves the unequal treatmentof a particular groupof individuals because of social/physical/economic/linguistic or other characteristics that socially define a particular race. Racism involves a belief system whereby oneracial (or several) categoryis considered to be superior or inferior to another. For example, the ancient Greeks viewed many peoples unlike themselvesas inferior. For many centuries the enslavement of people of African descent occurred because of racism. Racism still exists in many countries in either open and direct forms (the refusal to hire an individual for a job because of race) or in less subtle ways (creating a social distance from another because of race). In more egalitarian cultures such as the United States, racism is less open but still practiced by some and is generally considered socially unacceptable. Such treatment of others usually results in hardfeelings, poor social interactions, and discrimination.

Range A measure of variability that involves the difference between the high and low scores in a distribution. Raphe system A collection of nuclei along the midline(or “seam”, which is what “raphe” means)of most of the brain stem (medulla, pons, and theposterior midbrain). The neurons in those nuclei release the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) at their axon endings. The raphe cells are believed to cause the onset of non-REM sleep (slow-wave sleep) andto maintain a background of sleep when REM-sleep begins. SEE: REM s l w p

Rate (of behavior) A measure of how often a particular action is performed; usually reported as the numberof responses per minute. Rating scale A written list of behavior descriptions that areeach prototypes of a level of poor, mediocre, or good performance. The observerchecks off the qualitative level o f each type of performance covered by the scale. Before being put into widespread use, the rating scale should be checked for its inter-judge reliability. SEE: clrccklist Ratio scale A scale of measurement in which the consecutive numbers are spaced at equal intervals and the zero value indicates a total absence of the measured quantity or dimension. Scores obtained from measurements on a ratio scale may be added, subtracted, multiplied, divided, and raised to exponential Radio-reading A type of script reading powers. Other measurement scales d o similar to a radio show or announcenot permit the useof all these mathement that is delivered to an audience. matical operations. Rainbow school A school that supports Rationalism A philosophy or school of an atmosphereof tolerance, cooperation, thought that postulates that certain rules and harmony amongst childrenof of logic form the bases for all hunlan diverse cultures andraces. Such a school thinking. promotes the fostering and protectionof Raw scores Raw scores are simply the cultural similarities or differences. number of correct responses ona particRAM SEE: A / J ~ L v u4: ~ ~CO!Jlplitet’ .T Erltrs ular measure of performance. For examRandom Occurring by chance, not ple, if a child correctly answers 40 out of according to an ordered plan. Selection 50 questions, he/she achievesa raw of a sample of persons from a large popscore of 40. In discussing raw scores ulation at randomis done by giving with parents or other individuals unfaeach member of the population an equal miliar with test jargon, it would be chance to bechosen for the sample. important to note thata raw score of

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Kaynaud's disease - Readiness I I _ _ ^

10 'i(>es not imply a score of 40 percent. percentages are computed basedon the nu1nber of correct responses outof the total number given. In the example we listed, the individual's percentage score woulcl be 80 percent. Raynaud's disease (MauriceRaynaud, Fre1& physician, 183-1881) A chronic blood VCSSCI disease characterized by p""r CircLIIation to the hands and feet. This condition is a result of an abnormal spasm of theblood vessels in the extremities, especially as a response to cc>lclo r en1otionaI stress. Heat provides relief. I t seems to be alleviated by biofeedback. Also, this disease is rare in males. Reaction formation One of the defellse mechanisms of the ego, according to Freud. In order to make denial ofa shameful o r frightening motive more effective, the individual adopts consciously the very opposite motive. SEE: r . c ~ z ~ c w (7 2l ) Read Only Memory (ROM) A memory chip in a computer that stores information permanently. I n this case, information containing instructions for the computer is not lost when the computer is turned off. SEE: IZAM Readability A term used in language arts to rateo r evaluate reading material a s t o its con~prcliensibility.An objective estimate in terms of reading level or grade level, the rating applies to certain quantified variables such as sentence length anci difficulty of vocabulary. Readabilityformulas Formulasthat have been cicveloped to deternline the difficulty o f textual material by establishing grade le\rels. For example, the Fry Readability Graph involves randomly selecting passages from a story (usually three 100-hundred word passages a t the beginning, middle, and end of the story), where thetotal number of syllables and sentences per100 words are calculated and an average is taken o f the three separatepassages. The average number of syllables and average sen-

typically use vocabulary difficulty and sentence length asindirect nieasures of the semantic (meaning) andSylltactic (grammar) difficulty of the reading material. Readability level The estimated grade level (e.g., first-gradelevel) of a book or selection based on reading formulas or experience. SEE: r.~~f7dnbi/it!/~r'rlllr/n~, r.c'f7d;rig grnde Readable display I n language arts, a term used to designate print thatthe reader finds easy to read. Reader-based problems Difficulties encountered during the readingtask, which can be a result o f lack of background knowledge/vocabulary/word recognition, lack of interest, intelligence/aptitude, a learning disability, or inadequate studyskills. SEE: Lrorrlirrg I c p z v I

Disabilit!y (LD), d!/slc~sia Reader response theory Thetheory that purports that comprehensionis derived from interactions between story content and the reader's prior schemata or knowledge. This theory also holds that there are developmentnldifferences in reader responses and that comprehension o f text varies with cultural diversity and the uniqueness o f each individual. Reader'stheatre A reading technique wherein two or more students read directly from a script. This technique reinforces skills in speaking, listening, viewing, and of course reading. Students begin by reading from prepared scripts but once they become familiar with the technique they can be allowed to prepare their own scripts.Generally, no props or costumes areused (sometimes a simple item may be employed such as a cap or bonnet to represent a character). It is a simpler form of a play. Readiness 1. A term used t o describe the preparedness of the learner in profiting from instructioll/instructional materials/programs. 2. The basic and necessary skills accepted by educators (typically based on research and theoret.

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Readiness testing - -

- Reading flexibility

directions; knowledge of letters and numbers, their names and meanings; etc.).

Readiness testing

Assessmentsthatare given in order to determine whethera student is prepared to receive a more advanced courseof education or training.

Reading To understand language by 1. interpreting meaning from written symbol-sound correspondences and 2. constructing meaning from text. Reading involves the cognitive integration of bottom-up processing (sound, letter, word-level skills) and top-down processing skills (higher-order thinking skills) in order to construct meaning from the printed page. Bottom-up processing involves letter/sound recognition, phonological skills, word-level phonic skills, and sight-word recognition before top-down processing, which includes using schema-based comprehension for meaning, attention to text structure, metacognitive strategies, and sentencelevel skills. Reading is viewed a s an integrative processing between bottom-up and top-down cognitiveprocessing skills. There are several components involved in the reading process: 1. Reading is interactive in the sense that the reader must interact with the printed page in order to derive meaning(e.g., use background knowledge concepts or schemata). 2. Reading is a social process and one of the most powerful tools of communication that we have, and as such, higher-order skills such asinferential thinking and drawing conclusions are required for text beyond the fourthgrade level. 3. Literacy or the ability to use reading and writinginterconnectedly in everyday situations is vital for successful life adjustments/outcomes. SEE: critirnl rrndirlg, crrntizle rmdirlg, litrrol cnrrr~lrc,llrrl~iorl, ir$mrltinl corrpdrerrsior~,rmfirlg ddit!y

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Reading ability The overall comprehension of the literal and interpretative aspects of reading text and interacting with and responding to thetext in meaningful ways. Readingability is impacted by an individual‘s overall

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intelligence or IQ, conceptual and reasoning abilities, language competence, questioning abilities, state of health and emotionalwell-being, and social environment.

Reading aloud A term used to describe a classroom process wherein students read aloud to theteacher or the teacher reads aloud to the students from the material, book, or text being studied for a prescribed period of time. The opposite from silent reading. SEE: Drop Ezvr!/tllirrg A d R m I (DEAR) Reading attributes Characteristics observed in readers that impact reading success such as attitude, motivation, maturity level, prior knowledge base, experiences, and overall intellectual capacity.

Readingautobiography

A student’s life history about his/her reading experiences. Students begin as far back as they can remember to their first reading experiences (e.g., what books they liked, who read to them, d o they still like the same books, etc.). Questionnaires,checklists, narratives, or tapedrecordings can be used torecord one‘s reading autobiography. Students who have reading problems can write ortell about their feelings surrounding their reading difficulties as well as analyze the sourceof their reading problems. Reading competency A termused to describe a measured ability or proficiency such as accurateidentification of basic sight words. Typically school systems require overall nlininlum competency or proficiency levels in reading vocabulary and comprehensionbefore a high school diploma will be awarded. Readingconsultant An individual who is trained in the L I S ~of literacy materials/methods/relnedial techniques for all learners whose main responsibility is to support the regularclassroom teacher. Reading distance Refers to the normal reading distance of 12 to 18 inches using both eyes. Reading flexibility The adjustment of one’s reading pace or rate to the purpose

Reading formula

- Reading recovery

of the reading (e.g., skimming a newspaper for generalinformation o r enjoyment versus reading a science chapter relatively slowly for the purpose o f preparing for a test). Reading flexibility also involves knowing what to do when experiencing reading problems (e.g., clarifying what is read after verbalizing a confusing point aloud). Readingformula SEE: rc.ntffl/~i/it,~/ ti,rrrrlrlfls Reading grade level Also known as the readability of the printed page (i.e., grade-level functioning). Reading difficulty level or grade level functioning can be determined by the use o f reading formulas, a teacher’s best judgment, or the use of a cloze/informal reading test. SEE: ~ ~ ’ r 7 t f f 7 h i / i t ! / ~ l l . t r / f rc./u:c3 /fl, kst Readinginstruction Teaching methods in reading instruction that are based upon a philosophy o r orientation to reading. There are three major instructional methods/reading approachcs Used today: 1. the b f ? S f l / - W l I f C r O{?yl’Ul7C/!, 2. the / i f c ~ ~ f ? t l r r c ~ ~- /{ ~J (; ~J ~~ ue ~~ Kand d / ~ , 3. the i c l / i o / [ ’ - / ( ? i I g f r f l g c/?}J}Jl’UflC/l. ’ The LISe ofc1ny reading instruction approC1chshould take into account the individual learning styles/needs within the classroom, developmental at7propriateness/interest, and curriculum requirementsof the school/school system. Flexible programming efforts allow teachers to change instructional approachcs when necessary. SEE: buttorll-lrp ~ ~ I ~ i / c ~qfrmfirrg, so~~/ry LY?C/l f l } J { l ~ ~ l f lflS l ~ //iSfc’ti l

Readinginterests

Readingmaterial that is closely aligned with a person’s present interests. One’s reading interests vary over time depending on one’s developmental level, environment, school situation, familial factors, etc. Teachers generally include reading materials that areof reading interest to ,111 students in
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Reading-rehearsing strategy

- Receptive language

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o f their language arts instruction witha and/or students and students.SEE: rcwtfirlg respowr p m p s , reorlo. r c y m ~ s rtllcor!y ”Reading Recovery” teacher. Students receive instruction daily for about 30 Reading-to-learn A readingsituation minutes. The instruction is intense and where the individual readsfor the purindividual and normally continuesfor pose of remembering and applying the 12 to20 weeks. information read (eg., how to fix a computer when one has tofrequently use Reading-rehearsing strategy The the computer). rereading of text or repetition of information over and over again to enhance Readjustment Refers to an emphasis remembering and future applicationof on learning situations that are socially the information. Students who are readuseful and effective. Readjustment proing imp3ired or dyslexic especially beneponents support curricula that focus on fit from reading-rehearsing strategies. social responsibility and civic training. Readingresponsegroups CollaboraRealism Thephilosophical position tive pairs or small groupsof students which adheres to thebelief that the who share responses to readingselecphysical world is the real world as we tions within the group and sometimes know it. Inductive logic is used to look with the entire class. Purpose setting, scientifically at cause-and-effect relationlearning-outcome expectations, and disships. JohnLocke (1632-1704), John cussion prompts (i.e., questions posed Comenius (1592-1670), and William by the teacher beforehand) can assist James (1842-1910) are famous realists students in constructing meaning from who believe that the role of teachers is to the printed page. Students can share assist students in forming correct habits 1. what they know about a particular and to make connections between prestopic before a reading and then make ent knowledge and previousexperipredictions (confirming predictions ences. John Locke’s famous “tabula afterward); 2. ideas they derive froma rasa” phrase refers to the notion that particular reading andtheir response to students come into the world with a discussion prompts; and 3. meaning/ “blank slate” upon which experiencein ideas they can construct from thetext the real world writes. that go beyond the scopeof what is read Real-time translation Almost simulta(e.g., thinking about what one cand o to neous translation of speech into print improve the environmentafter reading through the useof a new system named an article on recycling). Reading c-print, which involves a type of comresponse groups are used with puter shorthand. SEE: c-p’ilrt literature-based and whole-language Reason abstractly SEE: obStfI7d reading instructional programs. SEE: r~.nso1lit7g / j t ( , r , 7 t f ~ r ~ , -opproock, ~ ~ o s ~ , ~ rcndirzg imtructiorl, i ( d ~ /(7trg1t,7g~ d~~ Reasoning Generatingnew information by the cognitive processing of available Reading response journals A type of data or knowledge. learning log or journal primarily used in literature classes but also usedin other Reauditorization disorder An impairment in one’s ability to recognize and content areas aswell (e.g., science response journals).Typically, students understand words so that they can be read o