The Diophantine Frobenius Problem

Oxford Lecture Series in Mathematics and its Applications 30 Series Editors John Ball Dominic Welsh OXFORD LECTURES S...

Author: J. L. Ramirez Alfonsin

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Oxford Lecture Series in Mathematics and its Applications 30 Series Editors John Ball Dominic Welsh

OXFORD LECTURES SERIES IN MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Books in the series 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

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The Diophantine Frobenius Problem J.L. Ram´ırez Alfons´ın Equipe Combinatoire Universit´e Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris 6 4 Place Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 05

1

3

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oﬃces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York c Oxford University Press 2005 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn. Norfolk ISBN 0-19-856820-7 978-0-19-856820-9 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

` a Sylvie

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Contents Preface

xi

Acknowledgements

xv

1 Algorithmic aspects 1.1 Algorithms for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) 1.1.1 Rødseth’s Algorithm 1.1.2 Davison’s Algorithm 1.1.3 Killingbergtrø’s method 1.2 General algorithms 1.2.1 Scarf and Shallcross’ method 1.2.2 Heap and Lynn method 1.2.3 Greenberg’s Algorithm 1.2.4 Nijenhuis’ Algorithm 1.2.5 Wilf’s Algorithm 1.2.6 Kannan’s method 1.3 Computational complexity of FP 1.4 Supplementary notes 2 The 2.1 2.2 2.3

2.4 2.5 3 The 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

1 3 3 4 6 8 8 11 18 19 19 21 24 28

Frobenius number for small n Computing g(p, q) is easy A Formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) Results when n = 3 2.3.1 Hofmeister’s formula and its generalization 2.3.2 More special cases 2.3.3 Johnson integers g(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) Supplementary notes

31 31 35 36 39 40 42 42 43

general problem Formulas and upper bounds Bounds in terms of the lcm(a1 , . . . , an ) Arithmetic and related sequences Regular bases Extending basis

45 45 57 59 61 62

viii

3.6 3.7

Contents

Lower bounds Supplementary notes

63 68

4 Sylvester denumerant 4.1 From partitions to denumerants 4.2 Formulas and bounds for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) 4.3 Computing denumerants 4.3.1 Partial fractions 4.3.2 Bell’s method 4.4 d(m; p, q) 4.5 d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) 4.6 Hilbert series 4.7 A proof of a formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) 4.8 Ehrhart polynomial 4.9 Variations of the denumerant 4.9.1 d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) 4.9.2 d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) 4.10 Supplemetary notes

71 71 73 77 77 78 80 81 86 89 91 95 96 98 100

5 Integers without representation 5.1 Sylvester’s classical result 5.2 Nijenhuis’ and Wilf’s results 5.3 Formulas for N (a1 , . . . , an ) 5.4 Arithmetic sequences 5.5 The sum of integers in N (p, q) 5.6 Related games 5.6.1 Sylver Coinage 5.6.2 The jugs problem 5.7 Supplemetary notes

103 103 105 108 110 111 113 113 114 117

6 Generalizations and related problems 6.1 Special functions 6.2 The modular generalization 6.3 The postage stamp problem 6.4 (a1 , . . . , an )-trees 6.5 Vector generalization of FP 6.6 Supplementary notes

119 119 124 127 128 130 133

7 Numerical semigroups 7.1 Gaps and non-gaps 7.1.1 Telescopic semigroups 7.1.2 Hyperelliptic semigroups

135 135 139 140

Contents

7.2

7.3

7.4

Symmetric semigroups 7.2.1 Intersection of semigroups 7.2.2 Ap´ery sets Related concepts 7.3.1 Type sequences 7.3.2 Complete intersection 7.3.3 The M¨ obius function Supplementary notes

ix

141 148 149 150 150 152 153 154

8 Applications of the Frobenius number 8.1 Complexity analysis of the Shell-sort method 8.2 Petri Nets 8.2.1 P/T systems 8.2.2 Weighted circuits systems 8.3 Partition of a vector space 8.4 Monomial curves 8.5 Algebraic geometric codes 8.6 Tilings 8.7 Applications of denumerants 8.7.1 Balls and cells 8.7.2 Conjugate power equations 8.7.3 Invariant cubature formulas 8.8 Other applications 8.8.1 Generating random vectors 8.8.2 Non-hamiltonian graphs 8.9 Supplementary notes

159 159 161 161 163 165 168 171 174 175 175 177 179 179 179 181 183

Appendix A Problems and conjectures A.1 Algorithmic questions A.2 g(a1 , . . . , an ) A.3 Denumerant A.4 N (a1 , . . . , an ) A.5 Gaps A.6 Miscellaneous A.6.1 Erd˝ os’ Problems

185 185 186 187 187 188 189 191

Appendix B B.1 Computational complexity aspects B.2 Graph theory aspects B.3 Modules, resolutions and Hilbert series B.4 Shell-sort method

193 193 194 194 197

x

Contents

B.5 Bernoulli numbers B.6 Irreducible and primitive matrices B.6.1 Upper bounds of index of primitivity B.6.2 Computation of index of primitivity

198 200 202 203

References

205

Index

241

Preface During the early part of the last century, Ferdinand Georg Frobenius (1849–1917) raised, in his lectures (according to [57]), the following problem (called the diophantine Frobenius Problem FP): given relatively prime positive integers a1 , . . . , an , ﬁnd the largest natural number (called the Frobenius number and denoted by g(a1 , . . . , an )) that is not representable as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an . At ﬁrst glance, FP may look deceptively specialized. Nevertheless it crops up again and again in the most unexpected places. It turned out that the knowledge of g(a1 , . . . , an ) has been extremely useful to investigate many diﬀerent problems. A number of methods, from several areas of mathematics, have been used in the hope of ﬁnding a formula giving the Frobenius number and algorithms to calculate it. The main intention of this book is to highlight such ‘methods, ideas, viewpoints and applications’ for as wide an audience as possible. The results on FP are quite scattered in the literature and, at present, there is no complete or accessible source summarizing the progress on it. This book aims to provide a comprehensive exposition of what is known today on FP. Chapter 1 is devoted to the computational aspects of the Frobenius number. After discussing a number of methods to solve FP when n = 3 (some of these procedures make use of diverse concepts, such as the division remainder, continued fractions and maximal lattice free bodies) we present a variety of algorithms to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ) for general n. The main ideas of these algorithms are based on concepts from graph theory, index of primitivity of non-negative matrices (see Appendix B.6) and mathematical programming. While the running times of these algorithms are superpolynomial, there does exist a method, due to R. Kannan, that solves FP in polynomial time for any ﬁxed n. We describe this method, in which the covering radius concept is introduced. We ﬁnally prove that FP is N P-hard under Turing reductions. FP is easy to solve when n = 2. Indeed, g(a1 , a2 ) = a1 a2 − a1 − a2 .

(1)

xii

Preface

However, the computation of a (simple) formula when n = 3 is much more diﬃcult and has been the subject of numerous research papers over a long period. F. Curtis has proved that the search for such a formula is, in some sense, doomed to failure since the Frobenius number cannot be given by ‘closed’ formulas of a certain type. Recently, an explicit formula for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) has been found. After presenting four diﬀerent proofs of equality (1), one of which uses the well-known Pick’s theorem, Chapter 2 presents the result of Curtis, the general formula (whose algebraic proof is given in Chapter 4) and summarizes the known upper bounds for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ), as well as exact formulas for particular triples. Chapter 3 provides a systematic exposition of the known formulas, including upper and lower bounds for g(a1 , . . . , an ) for general n and for special sequences (for instance, when a1 , . . . , an forms an arithmetic sequence). Results on the change in value of g(a1 , . . . , an ), when an additional element an+1 is inserted, are also given. In 1857, while investigating the partition number function, James Joseph Sylvester (1814–1897) [438] deﬁned the function d(m; a1 , . . . , an ), called the denumerant, as the number of non-negative integer representations of m by a1 , . . . , an , that is, the number of solutions of the form m=

n

xi ai

i=1

with integers xi ≥ 0. Chapter 4 is devoted to the study of the denumerant and related functions. After discussing brieﬂy some basic properties of the partition function and its relation with denumerants, we analyse the general behaviour of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) and its connection to g(a1 , . . . , an ). Two interesting methods for computing denumerants, one based on a decomposition of the rational fraction into partial fractions and a second due to E.T. Bell, are described. We prove an exact value of d(m; p, q), ﬁrst found by T. Popoviciu in 1953, and summarize the known results when n = 2 and n = 3. We shall see how to calculate g(a1 , . . . , an ) by using Hilbert series via free resolutions and use this approache to show an explicit formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). We discuss the connection among denumerants, FP and Ehrhart polynomial. Also, two variants of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) are studied. The ﬁrst is related to counting the number of lattice points lying in certain polytopes while the second restricts the number of repetitions of the ai s. Let N (a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of integers without non-negative integer representations by a1 , . . . , an . In Chapter 5, a thorough presentation of the function N (a1 , . . . , an ) is given. In 1882, Sylvester [439],

Preface

xiii

obtained the exact value when n = 2, 1 N (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 − 1)(a2 − 1). 2

(2)

Later, in 1884, in the Educational Times journal, Sylvester [437] posed (as a recreational problem) the question of ﬁnding such a formula. An ingenious solution was given by W.J. Curran Sharp. It remains a mystery why the standard reference to this celebrated formula of Sylvester is the solution given by Curran Sharp rather than its original appearance in [439, page 134]. In this chapter, we reproduce the original page of this famous and much-cited manuscript. We also give two other proofs of equality (2). We then discuss the work of M. Nijenhuis and H.S. Wilf connecting N (a1 , . . . , an ) to FP as well as to other concepts (such as the Gorenstein condition). We continue by discussing some general bounds on N (a1 , . . . , an ) and exact formulas for special sequences, for instance the formula given by E.S. Selmer for almost arithmetic sequences. A generalization of Sylvester’s formula due to Ø.J. Rødseth, where the so-called Bernoulli numbers (see Appendix B.5) appeared, is treated. The ﬁnal section of this chapter is devoted to two ‘integer representation’ games: the well-known sylver coinage, invented by J.C. Conway and the jugs problem the roots of which can be traced back at least as far as Tartaglia, an Italian mathematician of the sixteenth century. Let g(n, t) and h(n, t) be the largest and smallest of the Frobenius numbers when a1 < · · · < an = t and t = a1 < · · · < an , respectively. Chapter 6 reviews the results on these functions. It also examines an algorithm that solves the modular change problem, a generalizan, discribes the relation between FP and tion of FP, due to Z. Skupie´ (a1 , . . . , an )-trees, discusses the postage stamp problem as well as a multidimensional generalization of FP. Chapter 7 introduces the concept of numerical semigroups. We investigate several properties of the gaps and nongaps of a semigroup (which are closely related to N (a1 , . . . , an )) and point out the importance of the role played by the Frobenius number (also known as conductor) in the study of symmetric and pseudo-symmetric semigroups (and their connection to monomial curves). We prove a number of results relating FP to telescopic semigroups, the famous Ap´ery Sets (used by R. Ap´ery [13] in the study of algebroid planar branches), type sequences in semigroups, complete intersection semigroups, γhyperelliptic semigroups (motivated by the study of Weierstrass semigroups), the M¨ obius function, and other related concepts.

xiv

Preface

Chapter 8 presents a number of applications of FP to a variety of problems. The complexity analysis of the Shell-sort method was not well understood until J. Incerpi and R. Sedgewick nicely observed that FP can be used to obtain upper bounds for the running time of this fundamental sorting algorithm. Chapter 8 starts by explaining this application. Then, it is explained how FP may be applied to analyse Petri nets (a net model for discrete event systems), to study partitions of vector spaces (which can be considered as a generalization of partitions of abelian groups), to compute exact resolutions via Rødseth’s method for ﬁnding the Frobenius number when n = 3, to investigate algebraic geometric codes via the properties of special semigroups and their corresponding conductors and to study tiling problems. Chapter 8 also discusses three applications of the denumerant. One in relation to the calculation of the number of possible placements of n diﬀerent balls into r distinct cells under certain restrictions, another to investigate the solution of some conjugate problems and the last one in relation with invariant cubature formulas. We also present an application of the modular change problem to study non-hypoHamiltonian graphs, and of the vector generalization to give a new method for generating random vectors. The book concludes with two appendices. In the ﬁrst one a number of open problems are stated and in the second one some notation, deﬁnitions and basic results of various topics are given. This book attempts to place the reader at the frontier of what is known on FP. In the interests of balance, we have chosen not to give a proof of each and every result (particularly of the numerous bounds and formulas stated in Chapters 2 and 3). However, all the main theorems are either proved or treated in some detail. We illustrate with examples most of the methods explained in Chapter 1. We always try to give exact references and appropriate credits for the proofs and results that have been adapted from printed material. References to the literature where the reader may ﬁnd more complete treatments of the various topics, and some historical comments, are given at the end of each chapter. Despite many careful readings, errors will unavoidably remain. We welcome corrections and suggestions. Please send these to me at [email protected]. We plan to mantain an updated list of corrections at the following web site pointer http://www.ecp6.math.jussieu.fr/pageperso/ramirez/ ramirez.html The topics in this book are in a state of continual development. We also plan to note new progress on FP in the same site.

Acknowledgements I ﬁrst started to work on FP while doing my D.Phil. supervised by Colin McDiarmid. At that time, Colin introduced me to knapsacktype problems that naturally lead me to consider FP. Colin has always encouraged and motivated me in diﬀerent mathematical (and other) aspects that have certainly impacted in my academic career. In particular, Colin’s enthusiasm gave me a ﬁrst stimulus to write this manuscript. I wish to express my gratitude to Colin not only for his continuous support and generosity but also for a number of insightful mathematical discussions. I thank D. Welsh for many interesting conversations. I am grateful to the following people either for providing me with several reprints and manuscripts or for their helpful comments and suggestions to early drafts of this manuscript (most of them for both!): K. Aardal, M. Beck, A. Bondy, E. Boros, V.E. Brimkov, P. Chrzastowski-Wachtel, W.-S. Chou, C. Delorme, C. Del Vigna, S. Eliahou, L.G. Fel, R. Freud, J.I. Garc´ıa-Garc´ıa, P.A. Garc´ıa-S´ anchez, F. Halter-Koch, Y. Hamidoune, H.G. Killingbergtrø, G. Kiss, T. Komatsu, Z. Lipt´ ak, P. Lisonˇek, A. L´ opez-Ortiz, M. Morales, ¨ uk, A. Plagne, C. Pomerance, S. Robins, R.Z. Norman, A.E. Ozl¨ J.C. Rosales, Ø.J. Rødseth, A. Rycerz, E.S. Selmer, J. Shallit, P.J.-S. Shiue, J. Simpson, B. Stechkin, L. Szekely, C. Tinaglia, H.J.H. Tuenter, B. Vizv´ ari, S. Wagon, N. Yanev and D. Zagier. I thank P. Chrz¸astowski-Wachtel for giving me a copy of his mailing with P. Erd˝ os. I would like thank the Computer and Automata Research Institute, (SZTAKI) Budapest (especially J. Breyer), the Forschungsinstitut f¨ ur Diskrete Mathematik, Universit¨ at Bonn (especially M. Lange), the Technische Universit¨at Chemnitz, Chemnitz, the Radcliﬀe Science, University of Oxford, the Research Institute for Symbolic Computation, Johannes Kepler University, Linz the Math´ematiques – Recherche, Jussieu, Paris (especially O. Vigeannel-Larive), and d’Informatique – Recherche, Jussieu, Paris libraries for searching a number of literature sources for me. The roots of this book come from the unpublished manuscript [344] done while visiting the Forschungsinstitut f¨ ur Diskrete Mathematik,

xvi

Acknowledgements

Universit¨ at Bonn. I wish to thank B. Korte and all his team at the Forschungsinstitut f¨ ur Diskrete Mathematik for warmly hosting me and oﬀering me a number of facilities while preparing [344] and others. I am also grateful to the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for their ﬁnancial support and generous hospitality during my stay at Bonn. I especially want to thank my wife Sylvie for her patience and encouragement that always accompanied me through this (and others) work. J.L. Ram´ırez Alfons´ın, Paris, 2005

1 Algorithmic aspects Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with ai ≥ 2 and such that their greatest common divisor, denoted by (a1 , . . . , an ), is one (the sequence a1 , . . . , an is called the basis). We say that s is representable as a nonnegative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an if there exist integers xi ≥ 0 such that n xi ai . s= i=1

The existence of a positive integer N such that any integer s ≥ N is representable as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an is a folk result1 . Theorem 1.0.1 If (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 then there exists an integer N such that any integer s ≥ N is representable as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an .

The celebrated Frobenius problem (FP) is to ﬁnd the largest natural number that is not representable as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an . This number is traditionally denoted by g(a1 , . . . , an ) and called the Frobenius number 2 . FP is also known as the money-changing problem: 1 This result has been used in the study on the density of the sum of two sets of integers [358, page 211] and in the theory of probability [141]. 2 Although, F.G. Frobenius never put forward such a problem explicitly written in a manuscript, FP has been attributed to him. In the introduction section of [57], A. Brauer stated

Frobenius mentioned this problem occasionally in his lectures. Two of the main subjects of interest of Frobenius were the cyclicity of non-negative matrices [147, page 553] and the theory of linear forms [146]. It is conceivable that this kind of investigation naturally led Frobenius to consider FP.

2

Algorithmic aspects

“Given n coins of denominations a1 , . . . , an with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1, what is the largest integer amount of money for which change cannot be made with these coins?” The Frobenius number is frequently related to the McNugget numbers† ; see [464]. We give two proofs of Theorem 1.0.1. First proof of Theorem 1.0.1. Since (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 we can write m1 a1 + · · · + mn an = 1 for some integers mi . Denote by P and −Q the sum of the positive and negative terms in this decomposition, so that P and Q belong to the semigroup3 W generated by a1 , . . . , an and P − Q = 1. Any integer k ≥ 0 can be written as ha1 + k with h ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ k < a1 . Then (a1 − 1)Q + k = ha1 + (a1 − 1 − k )Q + k P ∈ W . Hence all integers greater than or equal to (a1 −1)Q belong to W . That is, any integer t ≥ (a1 − 1)Q can be written as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an−1 .

The above proof implies that g(a1 , . . . , an ) < (a1 − 1)Q. We will see in Chapter 3 that this bound can be largely improved. The following proof of Theorem 1.0.1 is by induction on n. Second proof of Theorem 1.0.1. If n = 2 the result follows since g(a1 , a2 ) = a1 a2 − a1 − a2 (see Theorem 2.1.1). Suppose that n ≥ 3. If (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) = 1, then, by induction, it is not even needed an to represent all large integer. Assume that (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) = d > 1. Let ai = ai d for each i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Since (d, an ) = 1 then equation n

ai xi = m

(1.1)

i=1

becomes

n−1 i=1

ai xi =

m − an bn d

(1.2)

where 0 ≤ bn ≤ d − 1 is the unique integer such that an bn ≡ m mod d. By induction, there exists integer M (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) such that eqn (1.2) has non-negative integer solution xi = bi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 whenever m−an bn ≥ m−and(d−1) > M (a1 , . . . , an−1 ). So, eqn (1.1) has non-negative d †

(From [478]) A McNugget number is a number which can be obtained by adding tm together orders of McDonald’s Chicken McNuggets (prior to consuming any), which originally came in boxes of 6, 9 and 20. All positive integers are McNugget numbers except 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, and 43. So, the largest non-McNugget number is given by g(6, 9, 20) = 43. 3 See Chapter 7 for a detailed discussion on semigroups.

Algorithms for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

3

integer solution xi = bi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n whenever m > an (d − 1) + dM (a1 , . . . , an−1 ). Theorem 1.0.1 can also be proved by using generating functions; see Theorems 4.2.1 and 4.3 and also [305]. We shall see in Section 1.3 that FP is a hard problem in general from the computational point of view. We will see in Chapter 6 (Corollary 6.1.1 and eqn (6.5)) that the magnitude of g(a1 , . . . , an ), with t1 ≤ a1 < · · · < an ≤ t2 , is between 1 and t22 for any ﬁxed n ≥ 3. This can explain, in some sense, t1 + n−1 why FP when n ≥ 3, is so diﬃcult (computing g(a1 , a2 ) is easy; see Theorem 2.1.1).

1.1

Algorithms for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

FP is a diﬃcult problem from the computational point of view (see Theorem 1.3.1) so there is no hope for a fast (polynomial time) algorithm that solves FP, unless P = N P. Thus, not-so-fast algorithms as well as algorithms for particular cases have great importance. In this section we overview some well-known algorithms that compute g(a1 , a2 , a3 ).

1.1.1 Rødseth’s Algorithm Selmer and Beyer [404] developed an algorithm to compute g(a1 , a2 , a3 ); see also [44]. Their method relies on many elementary but tedious manipulations with continued fractions, and is therefore not easy to implement. Rødseth [373] managed to simplify the Selmer–Beyer algorithm by using negative division remainders in the continued fraction algorithm4 . Rødseth’s algorithm works well on average (probably O(log a2 )) but in the worst case can take O(a1 +log a2 ) operations since it involves the length of a semiregular continued fraction for a3 /a2 , which can be as long as a2 . We describe Rødseth’s procedure. Rødseth’s Algorithm

Let s0 be the unique integer such that a2 s0 ≡ a3 mod a1 , 0 ≤ s0 < a1 The continued fraction algorithm is applied to the ratio a1 /s0 :

4

In an unpublished thesis by Siering [422], closely related results (with quite diﬀerent proofs) to those presented by Rødseth in [373] were given.

4

Algorithmic aspects

a1 = q1 s0 − s1 , 0 ≤ s1 < s0 , s0 = q2 s1 − s2 , 0 ≤ s2 < s1 , s1 = q3 s2 − s3 , 0 ≤ s3 < s2 , .. . sm−1 = qm+1 sm , sm+1 = 0, where qi ≥ 2, si ≥ 0 for all i. Let p−1 = 0, p0 = 1, pi+1 = qi+1 pi − pi−1 and ri = (si a2 − pi a3 )/a1 . Let v be the unique integer number such that rv+1 ≤ 0 < rv , or equivalently, the unique integer such that a3 sv sv+1 ≤ < · pv+1 a2 pv Then, g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = −a1 + a2 (sv − 1) + a3 (pv+1 − 1) − min{a2 sv+1 , a3 pv }.

Example 1.1.1 Let us compute g(5, 7, 11) by using Rødseth’s method. In this case, s0 = 3 and

5 = q1 3 − s1 , 0 ≤ s1 < 3, q1 = 2, s1 = 1 3 = q2 1 − s2 , 0 ≤ s2 < 1, q2 = 3, s2 = 0. s0 3 Thus, p0 = 1, p1 = 2, p3 = 5 and ps11 = 12 ≤ 11 7 < 1 = p0 . Therefore, g(5, 7, 11) = −5 + 7(2) + 11(1) − min{7, 11} = −5 + 14 + 11 − 7 = 25 − 12 = 13.

We invite the reader to see Section 8.4 where a nice algebraic application of this method is given.

1.1.2 Davison’s Algorithm Davison [104] proposed an algorithm, based on modiﬁcations of Rødseth and Selmer–Beyer algorithms, running in O(log a2 ) operations for all inputs. Let us see how Davison’s method works. Let G(a1 , . . . , an ) be the largest integer not representable as a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an in positive integers. Notice that G(a1 , . . . , an )

Algorithms for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

5

= g(a1 , . . . , an ) + ni=1 ai . Davison’s algorithm actually computes the integer G(a1 , a2 , a3 ). Let d12 = (a1 , a2 ), d13 = (a1 , a3 ) and d23 = (a2 , a3 ). By Johnson’s result (see Theorem 2.3.1), we have

G(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = G(a1 /d12 d13 , a2 /d12 d23 , a3 /d13 d23 )d12 d13 d23 . Thus, we may assume that a1 , a2 and a3 are pairwise relatively prime. Davison’s Algorithm

Let 1 < a < b < c be pairwise relatively prime non-negative integers. (1) Solve bs ≡ c mod a with 0 < s < a If bs < c then c is dependent on a and b and

g(a, b, c) = G(a, b, c)−a−b−c = ab+c−a−b−c = ab−a−b and STOP. (2) Use the Euclidean algorithm on the pair (s, a)

a = a1 s + r1 , s = a2 r1 + r2 , r1 = a3 r2 + r4 , .. . rm−2 = am rm−1 + rm , where s := r0 > r1 > r2 > · · · rm−1 = 1 > rm = 0. (3) Let qi+1 = ai+1 qi + qi−1 for i = 2, . . . , m with q0 = 1 and q1 = a1 and ﬁnd k so that r2k /q2k < c/b < r2k−2 /q2k−2 (note that k ≥ 1 since bs > c). ∗ 2k−2 −tr2k−1 (4) Set Φ(t) = rq2k−2 −tq2k−1 and use binary search to ﬁnd the value t that satisﬁes Φ(t∗ ) < c/b < Φ(t∗ − 1) where 1 ≤ t∗ ≤ a2k (this is possible since the function Φ strictly decreases on the interval [0, a2k ]). (5) Set x = r2k−2 − (t∗ − 1)r2k−1 , y = q2k−2 − (t∗ − 1)q2k−1 and x = r2k−2 − t∗ r2k−1 , y = q2k−2 − t∗ q2k−1 . Then, g(a, b, c) = G(a, b, c) − a − b − c = max{bx + cq2k−1 , cy br2k−1 } − a − b − c and STOP. Notice that the number of elementary operations required in steps 1,2,3 and 4 (resp. in step 5) is O(log a) (resp. O(1)). Also note the

6

Algorithmic aspects

number of elementary operations needed, to assume that integers a, b and c are pairwise relatively primes, is O(log b). Thus, Davison’s algorithm runs in O(log b) operations for all inputs. Example 1.1.2 Let us compute g(5, 7, 11) by using Davison’s method. (1) Let s = 3 be the unique integer 1 ≤ s < 5 such that 7s ≡ 11 mod 5. (2) The Euclidean algorithm gives: a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 2, r0 = s = 3, r1 = 2, r2 = 1 and r3 = 0. (3) q0 = 1, q1 = a1 = 1, q2 = 2 and q3 = 5. Thus, with k = 1 we have 12 < 11 7 < 3. (4) Trivially, t∗ = 1 (since 1 ≤ t∗ ≤ a2 = 1). (5) x = 3, x = 1, y = 1 and y = 2. Thus, g(5, 7, 11) = G(5, 7, 11)− 23 = max{32, 36} − 23 = 13.

1.1.3 Killingbergtrø’s method Killingbergtrø [236] has proposed a new approach to study FP when n = 4. This method is based on constructing a cube-ﬁgure from which information for FP is obtained. Killingbergtrø presented such a method by means of an arbitrary chosen case (when a1 = 103, a2 = 133, a3 = 165 and a4 = 228) and argued that it can be applied for any n ≥ 3. Let us consider Killingbergtrø’s method for three arbitrary integers a1 , a2 and a3 . The main idea is to construct a ﬁgure made out of a special set of unit squares in the positive quadrant. Killingbergtrø’s Algorithm

Let L1 (resp. L2 and L3 ) be the least integer such that L1 a1 (resp. L2 a2 and L3 a3 ) is representable by a non-negative integer combination of {a2 , a3 } (resp. representable by {a1 , a3 } and by {a1 , a2 }.) Suppose that, a1 L1 = (a2 , a3 ) · (p1 , p2 ), for some positive integers p1 , p2 and denote by (x, y)-square the unit square with vertices x, x+ 1, y and y + 1.

Algorithms for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

7

Let C = {all unit squares in the positive quadrant }, C1 = {(x, y)squares with x > p1 and y > p2 }, C2 = {(x, y)-squares with x > L2 } and C3 = {(x, y)-squares with y > L3 }. Let R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] := C \ {C1 ∪ C2 ∪ C3 }; see Fig. 1.1. R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] is called a cube-ﬁgure. Let BLC be the set of all integers points c = (c1 , c2 ) such that c is the bottom-left corner of a square belonging to R[a1 , a2 , a3 ]. Then, g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = max{c1 a2 + c2 a3 |(c1 , c2 ) ∈ BLC} − a1 . The proof for the correctness of Killingbergtrø’s method is based on the following remark. Remark 1.1.3 (a) The area of R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] is equal to a1 and (b) {c1 a2 + c2 a3 mod a1 |(c1 , c2 ) ∈ BLC} = {0, . . . , a1 − 1}. Example 1.1.4 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 7 and a3 = 11. Then, 5(5) = 2(7) + 1(11), 3(7) = 2(5) + 1(11) and 2(11) = 3(5) + 1(7). So, (p1 , p2 ) = (2, 1), L2 = 3 and L3 = 2, (the cube-ﬁgure R[5, 7, 11] is showed in Fig. 1.2). Thus, the set of bottom-left corners in R[5, 7, 11] is {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0)} and g(5, 7, 11) = (1, 1) · (7, 11) − 5 = 18 − 5 = 13. Example 1.1.5 We give the example, for n = 4, given in [236] and that Killingbergtrø was based on for presenting the remainder ﬁgure y C3 L1

C1

p2 R[a1,a2,a3] C2

x p1

L2

Figure 1.1: R[a1 , a2 , a3 ].

8

Algorithmic aspects y

2

1

x 2

3

Figure 1.2: R[5, 7, 11] where bottom-left corners are bolded.

approach. Let a1 = 103, a2 = 133, a3 = 165 and a4 = 228. In this case, the cube-ﬁgure, R’, is formed by cubes, see Fig. 1.3. Notice that the volume of R’ is equal to 103. The set of corners (nearest vertex to the origin) of the cubes with three visible faces (these cubes are shaded in Fig. 1.3) is given by {(1, 4, 3), (3, 1, 3), (3, 0, 5), (6, 4, 0), (6, 1, 2), (8, 0, 2)}. Among all these, corner (3, 0, 5) gives the greatest number in the dot product (3, 0, 5) · (133, 165, 228). Thus, g(103, 133, 165, 228) = (3, 0, 5) · (133, 165, 228) − 103 = 1539 − 103 = 1436. We notice that the complexity of Killingbergtrø’s method depends very much on how eﬃciently one can ﬁnd the integers Li . In Theorem 2.2.3 integers Li s are used for giving an explicit formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and in Claim 8.4.3 their value are calculated.

1.2

General algorithms

In this section, we shall present diﬀerent methods that solve FP for any n ≥ 4.

1.2.1 Scarf and Shallcross’ method Scarf and Shallcross [386] related FP to an area concerning maximal closed sets containing no interior lattice points. A body represented by {x : Ax ≤ b} where A is a matrix, is a maximal lattice free body if it contains no lattice points in its interior and if any strictly larger body

General algorithms

9

z 6

5

y

9

x

Figure 1.3: Cube-ﬁgure R’.

obtained by relaxing some of the inequalities does contain an interior lattice point. Scarf and Shallcross proved that if they can maximize a linear function over the set of bs yielding maximal lattice free bodies for a matrix A of size (n × n − 1) then they can solve FP. Scarf and Shallcross’ Algorithm

Let a = (a1 , . . . , an ) and let A be a matrix of size (n × n − 1), whose columns generate the (n − 1)-dimensional lattice of h satisfying a · h = 0 (the set of solutions h lie on a hyperplane) Note that in this case the bodies {x : Ax ≤ b} will be simplices that are non-empty if a · b ≥ 0. g(a1 , . . . , an ) = max{a · b|b is integral and {x : Ax ≤ b} contains no lattice points}.

10

Algorithmic aspects

Proof for the exactness of Scarf and Shallcross’ Method. Observe that if b is an integer vector such that {x : Ax ≤ b} contains no lattice points, then f = a · b cannot be written as a · h with h non-negative vector. Otherwise, 0 = a · (b − h) so that b − h is in the (n − 1)-dimensional lattice generated by the columns of A. Thus, b − h = Aα for some integrals α and therefore the set {x : Ax ≤ b} contains a lattice point, which is a contradiction. Coversely, if b is an integral vector such that {x : Ax ≤ b} contains a lattice point α, then f = a · b = a · (b − Aα) with b − Aα a non-negative integer vector. Finally, since (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 every integer f can be written as a · b for some integral b. Hence, by the above observation, g(a1 , . . . , an ) is the maximal value of a · b for those integrals b such that {x : Ax ≤ b} is free of lattice points. Example 1.2.1 Let a1 = 3 and a2 = 5. Since (3, 5) = 1 then the set of vectors h = (h1 , h2 ) satisfying that (3, 5) · (h1 , h2 ) = 0 is given by (±5r, ∓3r) where r = 0, 1, 2, . . . . The 1-dimensional lattice generated by vector h is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. −5 Now, the one column matrix A = generates the integer lattice 3 of h. So, we want to ﬁnd integral b = (b1 , b2 ) such that

y

9 6 3 -15 -10

-5

5

10

15

x

-3 -6 -9

Figure 1.4: Lattice generated by the set of solutions of (3, 5)· (h1 , h2 ) = 0.

General algorithms −5 b x≤ 1 b2 3

11

(1.3)

is free of lattice points and (3, 5) · (b1 , b2 ) is maximal. From, eqn (1.3) we have that − b51 ≤ x ≤ b32 and thus 0 < −b1 < 5 and 0 < b2 < 3 since the corresponding simplex must not have lattices points. From this, (3, 5) · (b1 , b2 ) is maximal when (b1 , b2 ) = (−1, 2), obtaining that g(3, 5) = (3, 5) · (−1, 2) = −3 + 10 = 7. Scarf and Shallcross used the above approach to obtain an algorithm for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). Their method used the existence of a particular transformation so that the matrix A has a certain sign pattern and thus identifying the maximal lattice free bodies associated with A.

1.2.2 Heap and Lynn method A matrix B = (bi,j ), 1 ≤ i, j ≤ m, is called non-negative (resp. positive) if bi,j ≥ 0 (resp. if bi,j > 0). A positive matrix B is denoted by B > 0. A (n×n) matrix B is called reducible if there exists an (n×n) permutation matrix P such that B1,1 B1,2 T , P BP = 0 B2,2 where B1,1 is an (r × r) submatrix and B2,2 is an (n − r) × (n − r) submatrix. If no such permutation matrix exists, then B is called irreducible5 ; see Appendix B.6 where some motivations for the study of such matrices are explained. An irreducible, non-negative matrix B is primitive if B t > 0 for some integer t ≥ 1 (and hence, it can be shown, for all integers greater than t). The least integer γ(B) such that B γ(B) > 0 is called the index of primitivity of B. Heap and Lynn [188] used graph-theoretic techniques to show that FP is equivalent to computing the index of primitivity of a matrix B of order an + an−1 − 1; thereby providing a feasible algorithm for the computation of g(a1 , . . . , an ). Let us look at this in more detail. Let B = (bij ) be a real (m × m) matrix. We deﬁne a directed graph6 G(B), of B, as the graph having vertex set {1, . . . , m} and 5 The concepts of irreducible and reducible non-negative matrices have great importance in the theory of Markov chains; see [233, 298]. 6 This kind of directed graphs have been used extensively in analysing the matrix properties of matrix equations deﬁned from elliptic (and parabolic) partial diﬀerential equations; see for instance [465, Chapter 6].

12

Algorithmic aspects

directed edge from i to j if and only if bij = 0; see Appendix B.2 for graph-theory deﬁnitions. There is a strong connection7 between strongly connectedness of G(B) and γ(B) that Heap and Lynn [187] used to establish the following two lemmas. Lemma 1.2.2 [187] Let B be a primitive matrix and let 0 < a1 < · · · < ak be the distinct lengths of all elementary circuits of G(B). the length L, of any circuit of G(B) can be Then, (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 and expressed in the form L = ni=1 xi ai with xi ≥ 0 for all i.

The proof of this lemma is given in Appendix B.6 (cf. Lemma B.6.5). Lemma 1.2.3 [187] Let B be a primitive matrix and let a1 < · · · < an be the distinct lengths of the elementary circuits of G(B). Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ γ(B) − 1. Proof. Since the diagonal elements of B γ(B)+m are positive for all m ≥ 0 then by Lemma B.6.3, there are circuits in G(B) of length γ(B) + m. The result follows by using Lemma 1.2.2 and the deﬁnition of g(a1 , . . . , an ).

Given integers 1 ≤ a1 < · · · < an , Heap and Lynn [188] deﬁned the Frobenius (directed) graph, G(B) = G(a1 , . . . , an ), obtained from matrix B = (bi,j ), 1 ≤ i, j ≤ s = an + an−1 − 1, where  1 if j = i + 1 with i = 1, . . . , s − 1 and i = an−1 ,    1 if j = 1 with i = s or at , t = 1, . . . , n − 1, bi,j = 1 if i = 1 and j = an−1 + 1,    0 otherwise. Note that the elementary circuits of G(a1 , . . . , an ) have lengths a1 , . . . , an ; see Fig. 1.5. By using the same technique as in Lemma 1.2.3 and a heavy analysis of the Frobenius graph, Heap and Lynn [188] obtained the following result (see also [122] where the same idea has been exploited). Theorem 1.2.4 [188] Let B be the matrix deﬁned as above. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) = γ(B) − 2an + 1. The above theorem may yield to an algorithm that ﬁnds the Frobenius number. Clearly, the complexity of such an algorithm depends on 7

See Appendix B.6 for a detailed explanation of this relation.

General algorithms

13

anµ1 +2

an +an-1-1

an-1 +1 1 2

an-1-1

3 an-2 a1 an-3 a2

Figure 1.5: The Frobenius graph G(a1 , . . . , an ).

how eﬃciently one is able to compute the index of primitivity of a matrix8 . Example 1.2.5 Let a1 = 3 and a2 = 5. We calculate γ(B) below and obtaining g(3, 5) = 16 − 2(5) + 1 = 7.      B=    

8

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

         

See Appendix B.6.2 where a procedure to calculate the primitivity index of a matrix is explained.

14

Algorithmic aspects      2 B =          4 B =          8 B =     

B 12

    =     

B 14

    =    

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 1 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 1

2 1 3 2 1 1 3

3 1 1 0 2 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 1

3 1 1 0 2 1 1

1 2 1 1 0 2 1

0 0 2 1 1 0 2

2 1 0 1 1 1 0

3 1 3 1 3 1 3

3 1 1 2 1 2 1

2 1 3 2 1 1 3

3 1 1 2 1 2 1

2 1 3 2 1 1 3

3 1 1 0 2 1 1

1 2 1 1 0 2 1

                                                 

General algorithms

15

obtaining 

3 1 3 1 3 1 3

3 1 1 2 1 2 1

3 1 3 1 3 1 3

3 1 1 2 1 2 1

2 1 3 2 1 1 3

3 1 1 0 2 1 1

6 2 2 2 3 4 2

3 3 4 3 1 3 4

3 1 3 1 3 1 3

3 3 4 3 1 3 4

3 1 3 1 3 1 3

3 1 1 2 1 2 1

2 1 3 2 1 1 3

    =    

B 15



B 16

3 3 4 3 1 3 4

    =    

               .    

Notice that G(B k ) is the directed graph obtained by considering all paths of G(B) of length exactly k ≥ 1. Thus, γ(B) is the smallest integer such that there is a directed edge for each pair of vertices in G(B γ(B) ); see Lemma B.6.3. So, G(B γ(B) ) is the diagraph where every pair of vertices is joined by two edges (one in each direction). Figure. 1.6 illustrates G(B) = G(3, 5) and G(B 2 ). Heap and Lynn [189] reduced the computation time of their algorithm by deﬁning another directed graph called the Frobenius minimal ¯ obtained, from matrix B ¯ = (¯bi,j ) (which is graph (denoted by G(B)), 5

5

6

6

7 4

7 4 1

1

2

3 k=1

2

3 k=2

Figure 1.6: G(B) and G(B 2 ).

16

Algorithmic aspects

only of order an ) deﬁned as follows  if j = i + 1, i = 1, . . . , an − 1,  1 ¯bi,j = 1 if i − j = as − 1 for some 1 ≤ s ≤ n,  0 otherwise. Example 1.2.6 Let a1 = 3, a2 the form  0 1 0  0 0 1   1 0 0   0 1 0 ¯= B  1 0 1   0 1 0   0 0 1 1 0 0

¯ has = 5 and a3 = 8. Then, matrix B 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

      .     

Figure 1.7 illustrates the corresponding minimal Frobenius graph ¯ G(B). ¯ be the matrix deﬁned as above. Then, Theorem 1.2.7 [189] Let B ¯ − an . g(a1 , . . . , an ) = γ(B) The proof of Theorem 1.2.7 is based in the following easy Lemma and Corollary. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Figure 1.7: The minimal Frobenius graph when a1 = 3, a2 = 5 and a3 = 8.

General algorithms

17

Lemma 1.2.8 [189]

(a) There exists a unique path from vertex i to vertex j, i < j in ¯ G(B). ¯ (b) There are only elementary circuits of length ai in G(B). ¯ lies on an elementary circuit of length ai , (c) Each vertex in G(B) i = 1, . . . , n. ¯ is primitive. Corollary 1.2.9 [189] B ¯ is strongly connected (there is an elementary circuit Proof. Since G(B) ¯ is irreducible. The result follows from Lemmas of length ai ) then B 1.2.8 and 1.2.2. Proof of Theorem 1.2.7. We ﬁrst show that

¯ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an ≤ γ(B).

(1.4)

Notice that any path from vertex 1 to vertex an must consist of an elementary path of length an − 1 by Lemma 1.2.8 (a) plus a number of circuits, that is, its length is necessarily of the form L = an − 1 +

n

xi ai ,

i=1

where xi ≥ 0. Hence, there does not exist a path from vertex 1 to vertex an of length g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an − 1. And, eqn (1.4) follows from Lemma 1.2.2. Now, we shall show that ¯ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an ≥ γ(B).

(1.5)

¯ can To this end, we notice that any two vertices i and j of G(B) be connected by a path of length at most an − 1, since there exists an elementary circuit of length an that contains all the vertices of the graph. Since vertex i lies on elementary circuits of all lengths as , 1 ≤ s ≤ n, there is a path connecting vertex i to vertex j of length an − 1 − δ +

n

xi ai

i=1

for all ai ≥ 0 and some δ ≥ 0. Given µ ≥ 0, we may choose the {ai } such that ni=1 xi ai = g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1 + δ + µ, and hence there

18

Algorithmic aspects

exist paths connecting an arbitrary vertex i to an arbitrary vertex j of lengths an + g(a1 , . . . , an ) + µ for all µ ≥ 0. Thus, eqn (1.5) follows from Lemma 1.2.2 by taking µ = 0.

1.2.3 Greenberg’s Algorithm Greenberg [171] gave an algorithm, to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ), by using mathematical programming ideas. Greenberg’s algorithm is based in the following result. Theorem 1.2.10 Let a1 , . . . , an and L be positive integers and let   n n   E(L) = min xj aj | xj aj ≡ L mod a1 , xj ≥ 0 .   j=1

j=2

Then, there exist integers xj ≥ 0 such that nj=1 xj aj = L if and only if L ≥ E(L). Moreover, there are no non-negative integers xi such that nj=1 xj aj = E(L) − sa1 for each s ∈ {1, 2, . . . , (E(L) − L)/a1 } and any L ∈ {1, . . . , a1 − 1} and these are the only equations in the form nj=1 xj aj = L without solutions in non-negative integers xi for each L ∈ {1, . . . , a1 − 1}.

The proof of Theorem 1.2.10 easily follows from Lemma 3.1.6. Note that L and E(L) are in the same residue class modulo a1 . Furthermore, if E(L) known, with solution x1 = 0, xj = xj for j ≥ 2 and L ≥ E(L) is n then j=1 xj aj = L with x1 = (E(L) − L)/a1 and xj = xj for j ≥ 2. With the above theorem, n the complete characterization of all solutions and non-solutions to j=1 xj aj = L is obtained from the function E(L) and thus g(a1 , . . . , an ) = max{E(L)|L = 1, . . . , a1 − 1} − a1 . Example 1.2.11 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 7 and a7 = 9. We compute E(j) = min{5x1 + 7x2 + 9x3 |7x2 + 9x3 ≡ j mod 5, x1 , x2 , x3 ≥ 0} for each j = 1, . . . , 4. We have that E(1) = 16 (with x1 = 0, x2 = x3 = 1), E(2) = 7 (with x1 = x3 = 0, x2 = 1), E(3) = 18 (with x1 = x2 = 0, x3 = 2) and E(4) = 9 (with x1 = 0 = x2 = 0, x3 = 1). Thus, g(5, 7, 9) = max{16, 7, 18, 9} − 5 = 13.

General algorithms

19

1.2.4 Nijenhuis’ Algorithm Nijenhuis [309] provided an algorithm to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ) by constructing, in a graph with weighted edges, a path of minimal weight from one vertex to all others. Nijenhuis’ Algorithm

Let D be the directed graph (with multiple edges and loops) deﬁned as follows: the vertices of D are {v0 , . . . , va1 −1 } and for each 0 ≤ p ≤ a1 − 1 there is a directed edge from vertex vp to vertex vp+ai for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n where p + ai is computed modulo a1 , the weight of this edge is ai . Let wp be the minimum of all directed weighted paths from v0 to vp (the weight of a directed path is just the sum of the weights of its edges). Then, g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

max {wp } − a1 .

1≤p≤a1 −1

It turns out that wp is exactly the smallest element of the set of integers representable as a non-negative linear combination of a1 , . . . , an congruent to p modulo a1 . Thus, the correctness of Nijenhuis’ algorithm follows by using Theorem 3.1.6. Nijenhuis’ algorithm runs in time of order O(namin log amin ) where amin = min {ai }. i=1,...,n

Example 1.2.12 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 7 and a3 = 8. The corresponding directed graph is shown in Fig. 1.8. We obtain that w0 = 5, w1 = 16, w2 = 7, w3 = 8 and w4 = 14. Thus, g(5, 7, 8) = max{w0 , w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 } − a1 = 16 − 5 = 11.

1.2.5 Wilf’s Algorithm Wilf [480] gave an algorithm to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ) in O(na2n ) operations; see also [206]. Wilf’s procedure is as follows. Wilf’s Algorithm

Form a circle of an lights, labelled by l0 , l1 , . . . , lan −1 (initially light l0 is on and the others oﬀ).

20

Algorithmic aspects 5

v5 8 7

8

7 7 8

5

v4 7 8

5

v1 7 8

v3

v2 5

5

Figure 1.8: Nijenhuis’ directed graph when a1 = 5, a2 = 7 and a3 = 8.

Sweep around the circle starting from l0 (clockwise) and as we encounter each light we will turn it on if any of the n lights that are situated at distance a1 , . . . , an back (i.e. in counterclockwise sense) from the present one is on, we leave it on if it was already on, otherwise we leave it oﬀ. The process halts as soon as any a1 consecutive lights are on. Let s(lai ) be the number of times light lai is visited during the procedure and let lr be the last visited oﬀ light just before ending the process. Then, g(a1 , . . . , an ) = r + (s(lr ) − 1)an . The proof for the correctness of Wilf’s algorithm follows from Brauer and Shockley’s result (cf., Theorem 3.1.6). Example 1.2.13 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 6 and a3 = 7. In Fig. 1.9 the procedure is represented where the arrow marks the encountered light during the sweeping and the full (resp. empty) circles represents the on (resp. oﬀ) lights. So, l2 is the last visited oﬀ light and thus g(5, 6, 7) = 2 + (s(l2 ) − 1)7 = 2 + (2 − 1)7 = 9.

General algorithms l l

l

0

l

6

l

1

l

0

l

6

l l

l 4

l l

l

l

l 4

l

0

l

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l 4

l l

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1

l l

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l 4

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l 4

l l

l 1

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1

l 2

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2 5

0

6

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l l

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0

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1

l l

l 4

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2 5

0

6

3

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1

l 2

l

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6

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5

3

6

0

l 2

5

l

l

1

21

l

2 5

3

l

l 4

3

Figure 1.9: Circle of 7 lights.

1.2.6 Kannan’s method Kannan [228] gave a polynomial time algorithm for FP for any ﬁxed n; see also [229]. Kannan has done this by ﬁrst proving a beautiful exact relation between FP and a geometric concept called the covering

22

Algorithmic aspects

radius. We recall that for a closed bounded convex set P of non-zero volume in IRn and a lattice L of dimension n also in IRn , the least positive real t so that tP + L equals IRn is called the covering radius of P with respect to L (denoted by µ(P, L)). That is, the covering radius of a polytope P with respect to a lattice L is the least amount t by that we must ‘blow up’ P and one copy of P placed at each lattice point so that all the space is covered. Theorem 1.2.14 [228] Let L = {(x1 , . . . , xn−1 )|xi integers and n−1 a x i i ≡ 0 mod an } and S = {(x1 , . . . , xn−1 )|xi ≥ 0 reals and i=1 n−1 a x i=1 i i ≤ 1}. Then,

µ(S, L) = g(a1 , . . . , an ) + a1 + · · · + an , where µ(S, L) is the covering radius of S with respect to L. In [228], Kannan then developed a polynomial time algorithm for ﬁnding the covering radius of any polytope in a ﬁxed number of dimensions yielding to a polynomial time algorithm for ﬁnding g(a1 , . . . , an ) for any ﬁxed n. Unfortunately, Kannan’s algorithm is doubly exponential on n and is likely not to be useful in practice. Proof of Theorem 1.2.14. Let us ﬁrst show that µ(S, L) ≤ g(a1 , . . . , n−1 ai yi ≡ l mod an . an ) + a1 + · · · + an . Suppose that y ∈ ZZn−1 and i=1 Let tl be the smallest positive integer congruent to l modulo an , that is representable as a non-negative integer combination n−1 of a1 , . . . , an−1 . So, ai xi = tl = l + an xn ; there exist integers x1 , . . . , xn ≥ 0 such that i=1 thus with x = (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ), we have (y − x ) ∈ L and (y − x ) + tl S contains y − x + x = y. Since this is true for any y ∈ ZZn−1 and tl ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an then ZZn−1 ⊆ (g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an )S + L. Further, it is clear that IRn−1 ⊆ ZZn−1 + (a1 + · · · + an )S. To see the latter, note that for z ∈ IRn−1 , we have z = ( z1 , . . . , zn−1 ) ∈ ZZn−1 and (z − z ) ∈ (a1 + · · · + an−1 )S. Hence,

IRn−1 ⊆ ZZn−1 +(a1 +· · ·+an−1 )S ⊆ (g(a1 , . . . , an )+a1 +· · ·+an−1 )S+L. We now show that µ(S, L) ≥ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + a1 + · · · + an . To this end, we ﬁrst show, by contradiction, that g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an is the smallest positive real t such that tS + L contains ZZn−1 . So, suppose that it is not true, then for some t < g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an , t S + L contains ZZn−1 . Then for any l ∈ {1, . . . , an − 1} pick a y ∈ ZZn−1 such that n−1 an . Hence, y is in t S + x for some x in L, so (y − x) i=1 ai yi ≡ l mod n−1 is in t S. But i=1 ai (yi − xi ) ≡ l mod an and yi − xi ≥ 0 for all i implying that tl ≤ t . Since this is true for any l then, by Theorem

General algorithms

23

3.1.6, we have that g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ t − an but t − an < g(a1 , . . . , an ) yielding a contradiction. Thus, g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an = min{t|t > 0, real and ZZn−1 ⊆ tS + L}.

(1.6)

From eqn (1.6), we see that there exists y ∈ Z Zn−1 such that for n−1 ai (yi − xi ) ≥ any x ∈ L with yi − xi ≥ 0 for all i we have that i=1 g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an . Now, let be any real number with 0 < < 1 and consider the point p = (p1 , . . . , pn−1 ) deﬁned by pi = yi +(1−) for all i. Suppose that q is any point of L such that pi ≥ qi for all i. Then, qi are all integers, so we must have qi ≤ yi for all i. So, n−1 i=1

ai (pi − qi ) = (1 − )

n−1

n−1

ai + i=1 i=1 n−1

≥ (1 − )

ai (yi − qi )

ai + g(a1 , . . . , an ) + an .

i=1

Since this argument holds for any ∈ (0, 1), we have µ ≥ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + a1 + · · · + an and the result follows. In [346], we investigated Kannan’s relation and found a max-min formula for µ(S, L). We explain this approach as it may lead to a more constructive proof for Theorem 1.2.14 that yields to a method for computing g(a1 , . . . , an ). We write µ(x) = µS(x) to denote a µ-dilated copy of S placed at point x = (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) ∈ L. We say that µ(x) absorbs point x if x lies in µ(x) where xi < xi for all i. In other words, point x is absorbed by µ(x) if x lies either in the interior or on the skewed facet of simplex µ(x). Proposition 1.2.15 The (n − 1)-dimensional space is covered by µdilated copies of S placed at each point in L if and only if each point x ∈ ZZn−1 is absorbed by µ(x ) for some x ∈ L with xi < xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Proof. Assume that IRn−1 is covered by µ-dilated copies of S and suppose that there is a point x ∈ ZZn−1 , that is, x is not absorbed by any µ(x ) with xi < xi with 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Then, one could ﬁnd 0 < < 1 such that (x1 − , . . . , xn−1 − ) is not covered by any of the µ-dilated copies of S, which is a contradiction since the space is covered. Now, for the converse, let x ∈ IRn−1 . We shall show that x is covered by µ(x ) for some x ∈ L with xi < xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. This is true if x ∈ ZZn−1 by hypothesis, so we assume that xk ∈ ZZ for some 1 ≤

24

Algorithmic aspects

k ≤ n − 1. Let xi be the smallest integers such that xi ≤ xi for each i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Since x ∈ ZZn−1 then it is absorbed by some µ(x ¯) with x ¯i < xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. But, by construction of x and deﬁnition ¯). of absorption we have that x ¯i < xi . Thus, x is also absorbed by µ(x We have the following corollary of Proposition 1.2.15. Corollary 1.2.16 Let µ∗x be the smallest positive integer such that the point x ∈ ZZn−1 is absorbed by µ∗x (x ) for some x ∈ L with xi < xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Then,

µ(S, L) = max {µ∗x }. n−1 x∈ZZ

Example 1.2.17 Let a and b positive integers such that (a, b) = 1. Then L (resp. S) is the set of points (resp. the segment) lying in the positive side of the real line as shown in Fig. 1.10. It is clear that the minimum integer t such that tS covers the interval [0, b] is ab. Thus, g(a, b) = µ(S, L) − a − b = ab − a − b (yielding to an easy proof of Theorem 2.1.1). Example 1.2.18 Let a1 = 3, a2 = 4 and a3 = 5. The corresponding lattice L and simplex S are shown in Fig. 1.11(a). It is clear that g(3, 4, 5) = 2; and thus µ(L, S) = 14. Figure 1.11(b) shows that (14)S covers the plane while Fig. 1.11(c) shows that (13)S does not.

A relation between FP and the covering radius was also studied by Scarf and Shallcross [386] in terms of maximal lattice free simplices.

1.3

Computational complexity of FP

In this section we show that FP is a diﬃcult problem from the computational point of view. Theorem 1.3.1 [342] FP is N P-hard under Turing reductions. S

0

b

2b

3b

1/a

Figure 1.10: Covering radius in the one-dimensional case.

Computational complexity of FP

25

x2

7 6 5 4 3 2 S

1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

x1

(a)

x2

x2

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(b)

4

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x1

0

Uncovered gaps

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

x1

(c)

Figure 1.11: (a) L and S for a1 = 3, a2 = 4 and a3 = 5, (b) translations of (14)S and (c) translations of (13)S.

Theorem 1.3.1 is proved by giving a Turing reduction (see Appendix B.1 for computational complexity details) from the Integer Knapsack problem 9 (IKP) that is known to be an N P-complete problem [322, page 376]; see also [3] and [283]. IKP Input: Positive integers a1 , . . . , an and t. 9

This is actually a particular case of the general Knapsack problem that is fully explained in Chapter 3.

26

Algorithmic aspects

Question: Do there exist integers xi ≥ 0, with 1 ≤ i ≤ n such that ni=1 xi ai = t? In [342], it is proved that the following procedure that uses a hypothetical subroutine that solves FP, solves IKP in polynomial time. We assume that r = (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1, otherwise consider IKP with input ai = ari , i = 1, . . . , n and t = rt . Procedure A

Find g(a1 , . . . , an ) If t > g(a1 , . . . , an ) Then IKP is answered aﬃrmatively Else If t = g(a1 , . . . an ) Then IKP is answered negatively Else Find g(¯ a1 , . . . , a ¯n , a ¯n+1 ) where a ¯i = 2ai , i = 1, . . . , n and a ¯n+1 = 2g(a1 , . . . , an )+1 (note that (¯ a1 , . . . , a ¯n , a ¯n+1 ) = 1) Find g(¯ a1 , . . . , a ¯n , a ¯n+1 , a ¯n+2 ) where a1 , . . . , a ¯n , a ¯n+1 ) − 2t a ¯n+2 = g(¯ IKP is answered aﬃrmatively if and only if ¯n+2 ) < g(¯ a1 , . . . , a ¯n+1 ) g(¯ a1 , . . . , a

In order to prove Theorem 1.3.1, we need the following Proposition. Proposition 1.3.2 Let bi for each i = 1, . . . , n and ¯bi for each i = 1, . . . , n be the integers as deﬁned in Procedure A. Then,

g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) = 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1. Proof. Let g be an integer such that g > 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1. Let g = g − ¯bn+1 where ≡ g (mod 2). If = 0 then

g = g > 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 > 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ). Otherwise, if = 1 then g = g − ¯bn+1 > 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 − (2g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1) = 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ). Hence, g > 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ) and since g ≡ 0 (mod 2) then g is representable as a non-negative integer combination of ¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn . Therefore, g is also representable as a non-negative integer combination of ¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 . We prove now by contradiction that 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 is not representable as a non-negative integer combination of ¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 .

Computational complexity of FP

27

Suppose there exist integers xi ≥ 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ n + 1, such that n+1 ¯ i=1 xi bi = 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1. Since 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 2) then xn+1 ≥ 1. On the other hand, if xn+1 ≥ 2 then xn+1¯bn+1 > 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 so xn+1 ≤ 1. Therefore xn+1 = 1, thus n

xi¯bi + ¯bn+1 = 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1,

i=1

and

n

xi¯bi = 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ),

i=1

then

n

xi bi = g(b1 , . . . , bn ), which is impossible.

i=1

Hence, 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 is the largest natural number that is not representable as a non-negative integer combination of ¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 . We may prove now Theorem 1.3.1. Proof of Theorem 1.3.1. Let t < g(b1 , . . . , bn ). We claim that there exist integers xi ≥ 0, with 1 ≤ i ≤ n, such that ni=1 xi bi = t if and only if g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+2 ) < g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ). integers xi ≥ 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, such that nAssume that there n exist ¯ b x b = t. So, x = 2t and since ¯bn+2 = g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) − 2t i=1 i i i=1 i i then n+2 xi¯bi . g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) = i=1

Hence, g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+2 ) < g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ). Conversely, assume g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+2 ) < g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ). By Proposi¯ tion 1.3.2 we have, g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) = 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 = n+2 i=1 xi bi for some integers xi ≥ 0, with 1 ≤ i ≤ n + 2. Since g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) is not representable as a non-negative integer combination of ¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 then xn+2 ≥ 1. On the other hand, from xn+2¯bn+2 = xn+2 g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) − 2t ,

and 2t < 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ) <

4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 , 2

28

Algorithmic aspects

we have

4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 ¯ xn+2 bn+2 > xn+2 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 − 2 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 = xn+2 . 2

Thus, if xn+2 ≥ 2 then xn+2¯bn+2 > 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 so xn+2 ≤ 1. Therefore xn+2 = 1, so 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 =

n+1

xi¯bi + ¯bn+2 ,

i=1

and 4g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 =

n+1

xi¯bi + g(¯b1 , . . . , ¯bn+1 ) − 2t,

i=1

then 2t =

n+1

xi¯bi .

i=1

Finally, ¯bn+1 = 2g(b1 , . . . , bn ) + 1 > 2t leads to xn+1 = 0. Therefore, 2t =

n

xi¯bi and t =

i=1

n

xi bi .

i=1

Example 1.3.3 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 11 and a3 = 13 (a) if t = 24 then t is representable by 5, 11 and 13 since t > g(5, 11, 13) = 19 (say, ¯2 = 22, a ¯3 = 26, a ¯4 = t = 11 + 13) (b) if t = 17 then let a ¯1 = 10, a 2g(5, 8, 22) + 1 = 39 and a ¯5 = g(10, 22, 26, 39) − 2t = 77 − 34 = 43. Thus g(10, 22, 26, 39) = 77 = g(10, 22, 26, 39, 43) and so 17 is not representable by 5, 11 and 13.

1.4

Supplementary notes

In [280], Lov´ asz described a relationship between FP and the study of maximal lattice point free convex bodies. Lov´ asz formulated a conjecture whose aﬃrmative answer would imply a polynomial time algorithm for FP for a ﬁxed number of integers. Scarf and Shallcross [386] also related FP with the covering radius. In [28], Barvinok and Wood gave a polynomial time algorithm to compute the generating function of the projection of the set of integer points in a rational d-dimensional

Supplementary notes

29

polytope for any ﬁxed d implying, in particular, a polynomial time algorithm10 that computes g(a1 , . . . , an ) for any ﬁxed n. Lewin [274] has proposed a simple algorithm for ﬁnding g(a1 , . . . , an ) given that a1 , . . . , an form an almost arithmetic sequence (i.e., all but one of the basis elements form an arithmetic sequence) under certain conditions; see also [374]. Lewin [271], Hann-Shuei [183] and Chen [90] proposed an algorithm to calculate g(a1 , . . . , an ) but no complexity analysis was given. Shevchenko [420] investigated the relation of FP and the group minimization problem and their algorithmic complexity. Zhu [490] studied the smallest integer b∗ such that for every b∗ ≥ b the knapsack problem of size b is equivalent to the group knapsack problem. The latter can be regarded as a generalization of FP. An extension of Greenberg’s algorithm is also provided in [490]. Tinaglia [451] gave a procedure that converts the computation of g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) to that of g(a1 , r, s) when a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 , a2 = pa1 + r, and a3 = qa1 + s, with integers p, q ≥ 1 and r, s ≥ 0. An algorithm to solve FP for n = 3 was also proposed by Greenberg [172]. An experimental analysis and comparison of Wilf, Nijenhuis and Greenberg algorithms can be found in [204]. Brimkov [65, 66] gave a polynomial time algorithm to ﬁnd a non-negative integer solution of linear diophantine equations and Owens [320] proposed a geometric method to calculte the Frobenius problem closely related to Killingbergtrø’ approach. In [223], I.D. Kan introduced a new speciﬁc partial order on the set of integers a1 , . . . , an and proved some new results on FP yielding to an algorithm to calculate g(a1 , . . . , an ) in some cases. The algorithm is based on a rather involved analysis of the problem and it is claimed to require at most O(ln a1 ) operations. Kan [226] also calculated and estimated g(a1 , . . . , an ) when a1 , . . . , an is an almost chain sequence (the sequence a1 , . . . , an is called an almost chain if there exists an integer 1 < j < n such that a2 , . . . , aj and aj+1 , . . . , an are chains sequences11 with a2 ≡ aj+1 ≡ 0 mod a1 , and (a1 , a2 , aj+1 ) = 1). In [51], B¨ ocker and Lipt´ ak have introduced a simple algorithm to compute the residue table of a1 yielding a method to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ) in time O(na1 ), improving the complexity of Nijenhuis’ 10 In a personal communication, A. Barvinok communicated to me that this algorithm is probably very slow and cannot be easily implemented. 11 We say that a −m , a−m+1 , . . . , a−1 , a0 , a1 , . . . , a, n with m, n ≥ 1, (a0 , a1 ) = 1 is a chain sequence if

lj =

aj−1 +aj+1 aj

for each j = −m + 1, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 are naturals.

30

Algorithmic aspects

algorithm who actually claimed that the running time of his method could be improved to time of order O(amin (n + log amin )). In [37], Beihoﬀer et al. use additional symmetry properties of a Nijenhuis’ graph to design two algorithms for computing √ g(a1 , . . . , an ) and conjectured that their average-case complexity is O( na1 ). We ﬁnally mention that Beukers has created software to compute the Frobenius number of four variables, which one can found in the following web site pointer http://www.math.ruu.nl/people/beukers/frobenius/

2 The Frobenius number for small n 2.1

Computing g(p, q) is easy

FP is easy to solve when n = 2. Theorem 2.1.1 gers. Then,

1

[437] Let p, q be non-negative relatively prime integ(p, q) = pq − p − q.

We may present four diﬀerent proofs of Theorem 2.1.1. The ﬁrst, due to Nijenhuis and Wilf [310], and the second one are arithmetical proofs, the third one uses the well-known Pick’s theorem and the fourth one uses power series. First proof of Theorem 2.1.1. Since (p, q) = 1 then any integer p is representable as p = xp + yq with x, y ∈ ZZ. Note that p can be represented in many diﬀerent ways but the representation becomes unique if we ask for 0 ≤ x < q. In this case, p is representable if y ≥ 0 and it is not representable if y < 0. Thus, the largest non-representable value is when x = q − 1 and y = −1. So,

g(p, q) = (q − 1)p + (−1)q = pq − p − q.

1

The origin of this famous result is unclear. It is usually attributed to Sylvester because of his works in [437,439]. Although Theorem 2.1.1 is not stated in these papers, they contain Theorem 5.1.1 from which it is conceivable that Sylvester knew Theorem 2.1.1 as they are strongly related.

32

The Frobenius number for small n

Second proof of Theorem 2.1.1. Let T = pIN+qIN = {xp+yq|x, y ∈ IN}. Suppose that pq − p − q = r1 p + r2 q with r1 , r2 ∈ IN. So, p(q − r1 − 1) = q(r2 + 1) and since (p, q) = 1 then q − r1 − 1 = sq ≥ q, which is impossible. Thus, pq − p − q ∈ T . Now, let c = pq − p − q, we may show that c + i ∈ T for any integer i ≥ 1. By B´ezout’s theorem, there always exist positive integers r1 and r2 , 0 ≤ r1 < q such that pr1 + qr2 = 1 (and thus pir1 + qir2 = i) then

c + i = (q − 1 + ir1 )p + (ir2 − 1)q.

(2.1)

We may write eqn (2.1) as c + i = v1 p + v2 q with 0 ≤ v2 < p. Now, since −i = c − v1 p − v2 q = (−v1 − 1)p + (p − 1 − v2 )q does not belong to T and as p − 1 − v2 ≥ 0 then we must have −v1 − 1 < 0 implying that v1 > −1 and thus v1 ≥ 0. So c + i ∈ T . In 1899, Pick [327] found an elegant formula for computing the area of simple lattice polytopes. A polygon is simple if its boundary is a simple closed curve and a lattice polygon is a polygon where its vertices are integer coordinates. Theorem 2.1.2 (Pick’s Theorem) [327] Let S be a simplest lattice polygon. Then, B(S) A(S) = I(S) + − 1, 2

where A(S) denotes the area of S, I(S) and B(S) are the number of lattice points in the interior of S, and in the boundary of S, respectively. Pick’s theorem is one of the gems of elementary mathematics; see [463] for a short proof of Pick’s theorem. Third proof of Theorem 2.1.1. Let P be the lattice polygon with vertices A = (q − 1, −1), B = (−1, p − 1), C = (q, 0) and D = (0, p). Notice that there are no other lattice points on the boundary of P and that the set of lattice points inside P , denoted by I(P ), are all in the ﬁrst quadrant; see Fig. 2.1. The equation of the line connecting points A and B (respectively points C and D) is given by px + qy = pq − p − q (respectively is given by px + qy = pq). Let T1 and T2 be the triangles formed by points (q, 0), (0, p), (−1, p − 1) and (−1, p − 1), (q − 1, −1), (q, 0), respectively. Since q 0 1 1 1 p 1 = (q + p) A(T1 ) = 0 2 −1 p−1 1 2

Computing g(p, q) is easy

33

D=(0,p) B=(-1,p-1) px+qy=pq P

C=(q,0)

px+qy=pq-p-q

A=(q-1,-1)

Figure 2.1: Polygon P .

1 = 2

−1 q−1 q

p−1 −1 0

1 1 1

= A(T2 ),

then A(P ) = A(T1 ) + A(T2 ) = p + q and, by Pick’s theorem, we have that I(P ) = p + q − 1. We claim that line px + qy = pq − p − q + i contains exactly one point in I(P ) for each i = 1, . . . , p+q −1. Suppose that there exists 1 ≤ j ≤ p +q −1 such that line px +qy = pq −p −q +j contains two points of I(P ), that is, px1 +qy1 = pq−p−q+j = px2 +qy2 for some 0 ≤ x1 , x2 < q, x1 = x2 and 0 ≤ y1 , y2 < q, y1 = y2 . Then, (x1 − x2 )p = (y2 − y1 )q and since (p, q) = 1 then (x1 − x2 ) = sq ≥ q, which is impossible. So, each line px + qy = pq − p − q + i contains at most one point of I(P ). Moreover, each line px + qy = pq − p − q + i has at least one point of I(P ), if not, then there exists 1 ≤ j ≤ p + q − 1 such that px1 + qy1 = pq − p − q + j do not contain point from I(P ) and then each of the p + q − 1 points of I(P ) belongs to at least one of the p+q −2 lines px1 +qy1 = pq −p−q +i, 1 ≤ i = j ≤ p+q −1. So, by the pigeon-hole principle, there would exist a line px + qy = pq − p − q + j for some 1 ≤ j ≤ p + q − 1 containing two points of I(P ), which is a contradiction. Since all lines px + qy = n ≥ pq clearly have at least one lattice point in the ﬁrst quadrant then pq − p − q is the largest value for which px + qy = pq − p − q has no solution on the non-negative integers.

34

The Frobenius number for small n

A geometrical proof of Theorem 2.1.1 follows from Theorem 1.2.14 (cf. Example 1.2.17). Fourth proof of Theorem 2.1.1. Let r(n) be the number of representations of n in the form px + qy with x, y ≥ 0. By Theorem 4.1.2, we have that ∞ 1 r(i)xi = · R(x) = p )(1 − xq ) (1 − x i=1

Let

(xpq − 1)(x − 1) f (x) = · p q (x − 1)(x − 1) h(x) We claim that Q(x) is a polynomial of degree pq − p − q + 1 with leading coeﬃcient 1. Indeed, let ζ be any complex number such that both ζ p = 1 and ζ q = 1. Since (p, q) = 1 then there exist integers a, b such that ζ 1 = ζ as+bq = (ζ p )a (ζ q )b = 1. So, no linear factor (except for (x − 1)) appears twice in the denominator of Q(x) and therefore, every linear factor in the denominator cancels against a linear factor in the numerator. Now, by L’Hopital’s rule we have that Q(x) =

2pq f (x) f (x) f (x) = lim = lim = = 1. x→1 h(x) x→1 h (x) x→1 h (x) 2pq

Q(1) = lim

Therefore, one is a root of Q(x) − 1 and Q(x)−1 x−1 is also a polynomial of degree pq − p − q with leading coeﬃcient 1. But, ∞ 1 Q(x) − 1 pq pq = (x − 1)R(x) + = x R(x) − R(x) + xi x−1 1−x i=0

=

∞ i=0

=

∞

r(i)xpq+i +

∞

(1 − r(i))xi

i=0

(r(i − pq) + 1 − r(i))xi +

i=0

pq−1

(1 − r(i))xi .

i=0 Q(x)−1 x−1

is of degree pq −p−q with leading Since the rational function coeﬃcient 1 then the power series coeﬃcient of the (pq−p−q)−th term is 1 (and thus 1 − r(pq − p − q) = 1 implying that r(pq − p − q) = 0) and the coeﬃcient of the k−th term is zero for each k > pq −p−q (and thus 1 − r(k) = 0 implying that r(k) = 1 for each pq − p − q < k ≤ pq − 1). A proof of Theorem 2.1.1 can also be obtained from the very useful result in terms of congruences due to Brauer and Shockley [59] (cf. Lemma 3.1.6).

A Formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

2.2

35

A Formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

Contrary to the case n = 2, the computation of a formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) turned out to be much more diﬃcult. As we have seen in Chapter 1, various polynomial time algorithms to compute g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) are known but none lead to an explicit formula. Curtis showed that, in some sense, a search for a simple formula when n = 3 is impossible. Indeed, Curtis [100] proved that in the case n = 3, and consequently in all cases n ≥ 3, the Frobenius number cannot be given by closed formulas of a certain type. Theorem 2.2.1 [100] Let A = {(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ IN3 | a1 < a2 < a3 , a1 and a2 are prime, and a1 , a2 |a3 }. Then there is no non-zero polynomial H ∈ C[X1 , X2 , X3 , Y ] such that H(a1 , a2 , a3 , g(a1 , a2 , a3 )) = 0 for all (a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ A.

The following corollary shows that g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) cannot be determined by any set of ‘closed’ formulas that could be reduced to a ﬁnite set of polynomials when restricted to set A (deﬁned in Theorem 2.2.1). Corollary 2.2.2 [100] There is no ﬁnite set of polynomials {h1 , . . . , hn } such that for each choice of a1 , a2 , a3 there is some i such that hi (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). Proof. H =

n

i=1 (hi (X1 , X2 , X3 )

− Y ) would vanish on A.

An explicit general formula for computing g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) can be found. Let L1 , L2 and L3 be the smallest positive integers such that there exist integers xij ≥ 0, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 3, i = j with L1 a1 = x12 a2 + x13 a3 , L2 a2 = x21 a1 + x23 a3 , L3 a3 = x31 a1 + x32 a2 .

(2.2)

Theorem 2.2.3 [109, 347] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be pairwise relatively prime positive integers and {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3}. Then,  3   an if xij > 0 max{Li ai + xjk ak , Lj aj + xik ak } −   n=1

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

  3   Lj aj + Li ai − an

for all i, j, if xij = 0.

n=1

The formula of Theorem 2.2.3 can be deduced from the degree of Hilbert series of certain graded ring. This algebraic proof is given in

36

The Frobenius number for small n

Chapter 4 (Section 4.7) where a more general setting is discussed. In Section 8.4, we describe a polynomial time method to calculate L1 , L2 and L3 that depends on the values si , pi and ri deﬁned in Rødseth’s method (see Section 1.1.1). We notice that the following closely related formula was given by Johnson [219, Theorem 4], g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = Li ai + max{xjk ak , xkj aj } − j,k =i

3

an .

n=1

However, Johnson’s formula assumes that Li > 1 for all i and xij > 0 for all i = j. Thus, it may not give the Frobenius number for certain triples (for instance, if a1 = 4, a2 = 9 and a3 = 25 then x13 = x23 = 0 and L3 = 1). The formula of Theorem 2.2.3 does not have these constraints and is valid for any given triple; see also [457].

2.3

Results when n = 3

Johnson [219] showed that a common factor (a1 , a2 ) = d can be removed in order to compute g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). Theorem 2.3.1 [219] If a1 , a2 , a3 are relatively prime and (a1 , a2 ) = d then a1 a2 g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = dg( , , a3 ) + (d − 1)a3 . d d It is clear from Theorem 2.3.1 that if a3 ≥ g( ad1 , ad2 ) then g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(a1 a2 − a1 − a2 ) + (d − 1)a3 . Oiu and Niu [311] generalized the latter in the following way. Theorem 2.3.2 [311] Let (a1 , a3 ) = d, a1 = a1 d and a2 = a2 d such that there exist integers x1 , x2 ≥ 0 with a3 = x1 a1 + x2 a2 . Then, a1 a2 g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = − a1 − a2 + (d − 1)a3 . d Brauer and Shockley [59] generalized Johnson’s result for any integer n ≥ 1 (cf. Lemma 3.1.7). In fact, the methods obtained by Brauer and Shockley in [59] (cf. Lemma 3.1.6) give the exact value for some special cases when n = 3; see also [213]. For instance, if a1 , a2 , a3 are relatively prime and a1 |(a2 + a3 ) then

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = −a1 + max ai i=2,3

a1 a5−i a2 + a3

.

(2.3)

Kan generalized equality (2.3) (see Theorem 3.1.21). Among other particular results, Roberts [356] obtained the following one.

Results when n = 3

37

Theorem 2.3.3 [356] (a) If (a3 − a1 , a2 − a1 ) = 1 then

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ a1 a3 − a2 − 2 +

a1 a3 − a1

+ (a2 − a1 − 1)(a3 − a1 − 1) + a1 + a2 + a3 . (b) If a, j > 2 are integers then g(a, a + 1, a + j)  a+1   a + (j − 3)a    j

=

if a ≡ −1 mod j and a ≥ j 2 − 5j + 3,

 a + 1     (a + j) + (j − 3)a if a ≡ −1 mod j and a ≥ j 2 − 4j + 2.

j

(c) 0 < a < b and m are integers such that (a, b) = 1, m ≥ 2 then

m g(m, m + a, m + b) ≤ m b − 2 + b

+ (a − 1)(b − 1).

Goldberg [159] studied g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) in some very special cases. Theorem 2.3.4 [159] Let 1 < a < b be integers with (a, b) = d and (d, m) = 1 with md2 > b(b − a − 2d) and dm = ax0 + by0 , 0 ≤ x0 < b/d, y0 ≥ 0. Then,

g(m, m + a, m + b)  a a   + x − 1 + y + d − 3 n + b −a  0 0  d d =  b   + y0 + d − 3 n + b( ad − 1) − a(x0 + 1) 

d

if dx0 ≥ b − a, otherwise.

This result solves FP for the relatively prime numbers 1 < a1 < a2 < a3 if these numbers are not very diﬀerent (that is, if a1 is large enough compared to a3 − a1 ). Byrnes [79] gave the following partial result and observed that his method can be applied in many other cases when n = 3.

38

The Frobenius number for small n

Theorem 2.3.5 [79] Let a1 < a2 < a3 , with a2 ≡ 1 mod a1 . Then,

g(a1 , a2 , a3 )  a1 a2 − (a1 + a2 ) if a3 ≤ ja2 ,       a3 a1 −m + (m − 1)a2 − a1 if (j − m)a2 < a3 ≤ ja2 , j =  a −m−j j  a3 1 j + (j − 1)a2 − a1 if a2 a1 −m+j (j − m) ≤ a3     

< (j − m)a2 ,

where j and m are such that a3 ≡ j mod a1 , 0 ≤ j < a1 and (if j = 0) a1 ≡ m mod j, 1 ≤ m ≤ j. The sequence a1 , . . . , an is called independent if none of the basis elements has a representation by the others. Selmer [392] found a quite general formula for independent triples. Theorem 2.3.6 [392] If a1 , a2 and a3 are independent and pairwise relatively prime then

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ max{(s − 1)a2 + (q − 1)a3 , (r − 1)a2 + qa3 } − a1 , where s is determined by a3 ≡ sa2 mod a1 , 1 < s < a1 and q and r are determined by a1 = qs + r, 0 < r < s. Moreover, if a2 ≥ t(q + 1) where a3 = sa2 − ta1 , t > 0 then g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = max{(s − 1)a2 + (q − 1)a3 , (r − 1)a2 + qa3 } − a1 . The latter can be considered as a particular case of a rather complicated general result given by Hofmeister [198] (cf. Theorem 2.3.11). In [346], we studied Kannan’s approach to FP via the covering radius (see Section 1.2, Corollary 1.2.16 and Proposition 3.1.8) and found two upper bounds close related to those given in Theorem 2.3.6. Theorem 2.3.7 [346] Let 0 < w1 < a3 and 0 < w2 < a3 be the unique integers such that a1 w1 ≡ a2 mod a3 and a2 w2 ≡ −a1 mod a3 , respectively, and let r1 and r2 be the largest positive integers such that −a3 + r1 w1 < 0 and a3 − w2 r2 > 0, respectively.

(a) g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ max{a1 (a3 − r1 w1 ) + a2 (r1 + 1), a1 w1 + a2 r1 } −a1 − a2 − a3 . (b) g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ max{a1 +a2 (a3 +(1−r2 )w2 ), a1 r2 +a2 w2 }−a1 −a2 −a3 .

Results when n = 3

39

The upper bounds given in Theorem 2.3.7 might not be close to each other, however, there are cases in which one of them (or both) give a value very close to g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). This is illustrated in Examples 2.3.8 and 2.3.9. Example 2.3.8 Let a1 = 4, a2 = 7 and a3 = 9. We have that w1 = 4, w2 = 2, r1 = 2 and r2 = 4. Then,

(by Theorem 2.3.7 (a)) max{25, 30} − 20 g(4, 7, 9) ≤ (by Theorem 2.3.7 (b)) max{18, 30} − 20 = 10 = g(4, 7, 9).

Example 2.3.9 Let a1 = 5, a2 = 14 and a3 = 31. We have that w1 = 11, w2 = 2, r1 = 2 and r2 = 15. Then,

g(5, 14, 31) ≤

 (by Theorem 2.3.7 (a)) max{87, 83} − 50 = 37

= g(5, 14, 31) (by Theorem 2.3.7 (b)) max{47, 103} − 50 = 87.



In [31], Beck et al. used their results on denumerants (see Section 4.1) to obtain the following upper bound. Theorem 2.3.10 [31] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be positive integers with (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 1. Then,

1 4

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ a1 a2 a3

1 1 1 + + a1 a2 a2 a3 a1 a3

1 − (a1 − a2 − a3 ). 2

2.3.1 Hofmeister’s formula and its generalization Hofmeister [198] generalized Theorem 2.3.3. Theorem 2.3.11 [198] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be positive integers pairwise relatively prime with ai ≥ 4 and a1 < a2 , a3 . Let j, k, m be positive integers deﬁned by a3 ≡ ja2 mod a1 , a1 = kj + m. Then,

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = −a1 +

a2

  (m − 1)a2 + ka3

(j − 1)a2 + (k − 1)a3

 

if (j − m)a2 ≤ a3 , if (j − m)a 2 > a3 ≥ j−m a2 k+1 .

Note that the above theorem does not consider the case a3 < j−m k+1

. Hujter and Vizv´ ari [213] extended Hofmeister’s formula.

40

The Frobenius number for small n

Theorem 2.3.12 [213] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be positive integers pairwise relatively prime with ai ≥ 7 and a1 < a2 , a3 . Let j, k, l be positive integers as in Theorem 2.3.11 and let r be an integer such that 0 ≤ r ≤ j − m, m − 1 ≡ r mod (j − m). j−m ≤ a < a then a) If j ≥ 2m and a2 j−2m 3 2 k+1 k+1

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = −a1 + (m − 1)a2 + 2ka3 , and b) if j < 2m and a2

j−m−r−1 k+1

≤ a3 < a2

j−m k+1

then

m−1 (k + 1) a3 . g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = −a1 + ra2 + 2k + j−m

2.3.2 More special cases Vitek [467] has shown that Theorem 2.3.13 [467] If a1 , a2 , a3 are independent (i.e. none of the ai is representable by the other two) then

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ a1

a3 −1 . 2

Vitek exhibited some cases to show that the bound in Theorem 2.3.13 is sharp. Davison [104] gave a new shorter proof of Vitek’s upper bound. Kan et al. [224] gave an identity connecting g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) with g(s, s + 1, s + p) for particular integers s and p (answering a conjecture posed by Stechkin and Baranov [435, Problem 2.25, page 99]). Theorem 2.3.14 [224] Let a1 < a2 < a3 be positive integers and let d = (a1 , a2 ). Then,

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

a1 a2 (g(s, s + 1, s + p) + 2s + 1) + (d − 1)a3 − (a1 + a2 ), ds(s + 1)

− 1) and v ∈ IN satisﬁes the condition where s = ad2 v − 1, p = s( aa3 dv 1 a2 v ≡ d mod a1 with vd < a1 . Kan et al. [224] gave2 an exact formula for g(s, s + 1, s + p) when 2 ≤ p ≤ 5, s > p(p − 4) + 1 and also an upper bound for general p. 2

The results of [224] appeared in the section ‘short communications’ of the journal, and no proofs were given.

Results when n = 3

41

Hujter [210] has proved the following equality in order to give a lower bound for the general problem (cf. Theorem 3.6.2). If q > 2 is an arbitrary integer then g(q 2 , q 2 + 1, q 2 + q) = 2q 3 − 2q 2 − 1.

(2.4)

Djawadi [116] gave an exact formula for g(a, a−2, a+k) with k ≥ 5, k-odd and a ≥ k. Beck et al. [34] have studied FP when n = 3 and, based on empirical data, they conjectured that √ g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ C a1 a2 a3 p−a1 −a2 −a3 where p < 43 and C is a constant. (2.5) They also conjectured that, in fact: √ (2.6) g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≤ a1 a2 a3 5/4 − a1 − a2 − a3 . They checked by computer that this upper bound is veriﬁed in more than three thousand randomly chosen admissible triplet (a triple is called admissable if they are independent, they do not form an almost arithmetic sequence and they are pairwise coprime). In [140], Fel disproved both conjectures by giving the following two counterexamples. Let a1 = 10 001 = 73 × 137, a2 = 10 003 = 7 × 1429 and a3 = 20 003 = 83 × 241 (it can be checked that this is an admissable triple). In this case, g(10 001, 10 003, 20 003) = 50 014 999 while the conjectured bound in eqn (2.6) reads g(10 001, 10 003, 20 003) √ 5/4 ≤ 10 001 · 10 003 · 20 003 − (10 001 + 10 003 + 20 003) = 48 745 742.422. For the conjectured bound in eqn (2.5), Fel considered the triple a1 = 2l + 1, a2 = a1 + 2 = 2l + 3 and a3 = 2a1 + 1 = 4l + 3 with l >> 1 and where a1 is a prime number. Again, it can be checked that this is an admissable triple. Here, g(2l + 1, 2l + 3, 4l + 3) = 2l2 + 3l − 1. Now, in order to disproved conjecture 2.5 it is showed that that there is not always a constant C and value p < 4/3 such that

p

C (2l + 1)(2l + 3)(4l + 3) − (2l + 1 + 2l + 3 + 4l + 3) ≥1 δl (C, p) = g(2l + 1, 2l + 3, 4l + 3) for all l > 1. Independently, Schlage-Puchta [387] has also disproved the conjectured bound in eqn (2.6).

42

The Frobenius number for small n

2.3.3 Johnson integers In [219], Johnson gave a symmetric expression for the best upper bound for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and insights into the general problem. Based on Johnson’s work, Tinaglia investigated g(a1 , . . . , an ) by deﬁning the Johnson integers as follows. For each j = 1, . . . , n the j–th Johnson integer Aj , associated with the integers a1 , . . . , aj , . . . , an , is deﬁned by Aj = min {Xj ∈ ZZ|Xj ≥ 1 such that there exist X1 , . . . , Xj−1 , Xj+1 , . . . , Xn with a1 X1 + · · · + aj−1 Xj−1 , aj+1 Xj+1 + · · · + an Xn = aj Xj } . That is, Aj is the smallest integer such that aj Aj is a linear combian . In such a case each solution X1 , . . . , nation of a1 , · · · , aj−1 , aj+1 , . . . , −Aj , . . . , Xn of the equation ni=1 ai xi = 0 with integers Xi ≥ 0, i = 1, . . . , j − 1, j + 1, . . . , n, is a Johnson solution associated with solutions. Aj . Note that there are always at least n Johnson n ¯ Let d(m) be the number of solutions of i=1 ai xi = m with xi < Ai . In [449], Tinaglia gave a speciﬁcation of what happens to the solution of a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = m, with xi ≥ 0, when m < g(a1 , a2 , a3 ), by ¯ analysing d(m) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) (the number of diﬀerent representations of m as a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = m with xi ≥ 0; see Chapter 5).

2.4

g(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )

If g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) is diﬃcult to compute the cases n ≥ 4 seem even harder. By using graph-theoretical methods, Dulmage and Mendelsohn [122] obtained some interesting formulas. Theorem 2.4.1 [122] Let a be a non-negative integer. Then, a+2 a) g(a, a + 1, a + 2, a + 4) = (a + 1) a4 + a+1 4 + 2 4 − 1, (a+2) a a+1 a+3 b) g(a, a + 1, a + 2, a + 5) = a a+1 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 2 5 − 1

and a+2 a+3 c) g(a, a + 1, a + 2, a + 6) = a a6 + 2 a6 + 2 a+1 6 + 5 6 + 6 a+5 + a+4 6 + 6 − 1. In fact, the formula in part (a) of Theorem 2.4.1 follows easily from Theorem 3.3.5; see also [392] and [423]. Vitek [467] has proved that

(a4 − 2)(a4 − 3) − 1. g(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) ≤ 3

(2.7)

We ﬁnally mention the following two formulas due to Kan [225] obtained as a Corollary of Theorem 3.1.21. Let {α} denote the fractional

Supplementary notes

43

part of α ∈ IR, that is {α} = α − α . Let a, b be positive integers such that a > b ≥ 2. (a) If a + 1 ≥ (b − 1) ab then

g(a, a + 1, a + 2, a + b, a + 2b) = (a + b)

a−1 + ab − 2a − 1 b

a − min −b + (ab + b) − b a−1 b{(a − 1)/b} b+1 a−1−b +a +a ,a +a . 2b 2 2 2b a (b) If 2a + 3 ≥ (2b − 3) then b

a−1 g(a, a + 1, 2a + 3, a + b) = (a + b) + ab − 2a − 1 b b{(a − 1)/b} b+2 a − min −b + (ab + b) − +a ,a . b 3 3

2.5

Supplementary notes

A proof of Theorem 2.1.1 using Brauer and Shockley’s result (Lemma 3.1.6) is given by Ontkush [318]; see also [275]. In [447] Tinaglia has determined g(a1 , . . . , a4 ) when one of the Johnson integers is less than 5 and in [446] Tinaglia obtained a complete solution for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) by using continued fractions and found a simple formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) in special cases. Morikawa [302] has also investigated the Frobenius number when n = 3. In [486], Yuan gave an intrisic formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and in [89] Chen proposed some upper bounds when n = 3; see also the work by Kang and Liu [227], by Ke [232] and by Grant [169]. In [148], Fr¨ oberg used the algebraic concept, called socle, to calculate g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) when the semigroup S = a1 , a2 , a3 is non-symmetric. Fr¨ oberg obtained essentially the same formula as that of Theorem 2.2.3 in the case when xij > 0 for all i, j. In the case when xij = 0 (that is, when S is symmetric), Herzog [191] managed to give a method to compute g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) but no explicit formula, similar to Theorem 2.2.3, is obtained. Byrnes [80] studied g(a1 , . . . , an ) and examined the situation when ak ≡ k − 1 mod a1 , 2 ≤ k ≤ n obtaining an explicit solution for n = 5 in such cases. Investigations for a simple formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) in special cases has been done by by Chen and Liu [91]. In fact, Chen and Liu’s result is a special case (when n = 3) of a result by W. Lu and Wu; see eqn (3.8). In [253], Kraft rediscovered some results due

44

The Frobenius number for small n

to Johnson [219] by considering an algebraic point of view. In [368], Rosales et al. proved that for any given positive integer n there always exist integers a, b, c such that g(a, b, c) = n; see also [367] for a related result.

3 The general problem 3.1

Formulas and upper bounds

In his lectures in Berlin in 1935, Schur proved1 Theorem 3.1.1 Let (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ (a1 − 1)(an − 1) − 1. Smory´ nski [430] presented a new proof for Schur’s result by using Skolem’s method [425] of quantiﬁer elimination2 . Brauer [57] improved Schur’s result3 . Theorem 3.1.2 [57] Let di = (a1 , . . . , ai ) and let T (a1 , . . . , an ) = n−1 a d i=1 i+1 i /di+1 . Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ T (a1 , . . . , an ) −

n

ai .

i=1

Rødseth [379] found the following easy proof of Theorem 3.1.2. Proof of Theorem 3.1.2. Notice that

a1 ai ai+1 ,..., , g di di di+1 1

a1 ai ≤g ,..., , di di

(3.1)

According to Brauer’s introduction in [57]. Classical elimination theory consists in reducing questions of the solvability of certain types of equations or systems of equations to calculable conditions on the coeﬃcients of the equations. Smory´ nski puts forward this application of Skolem’s work as a useful pedagogic example for courses in logic and elementary number theory. 3 Reference [57] was intended to be published originally as a joint paper of Brauer and Schur. But because of the circumstances, Brauer met Schur’s wishes and published alone. 2

46

The general problem

where equality holds if

ai+1 di+1

a1 ai di , . . . , di .

is dependent on

di = di+1

a1 ai ,..., di+1 di+1

Since,

then repeated applications of Theorem 3.1.7 and eqn (3.1) give the desired inequality. Brauer gave suﬃcient and necessary conditions for T (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (deﬁned in Theorem 3.1.2) to be the smallest best possible bound. In particular, Brauer showed the following result. Theorem 3.1.3 [57] Let b1 and b2 be relatively prime numbers. Then, there exists exactly (b1 − 1)(b2 − 1)/2 positive integers b3 for which T (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is not the best bound.

For instance, T (m, m + 2, m + 1) is the smallest possible bound if m is an even integer, and it is not the best bound if m > 1 is odd. In a continuation of [57], Brauer and Seelbinder [58] proved the following two theorems; see also [59]. Theorem 3.1.4 [58] The bound obtained in Theorem 3.1.2 is the best a possible if and only if each of the integers djj , j = 2, . . . , n, is representable in the form n−1 aj = yji dj i=1

ai dj−1

!

with yji ≥ 0.

Nijenhuis and Wilf [310] gave another diﬀerent proof of Theorem 3.1.4. Their simpler proof is based on the observation that if x and y are positive integers with x + y = g(a1 , . . . , an ), then at most one of x and y can have a representation by a1 , . . . , an (see the proof of Theorem 5.2.5). Theorem 3.1.5 [58] If in Theorem 3.1.2, g(a1 , . . . , an ) < T (a1 , . . . , an ) − ni=1 ai then

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ T (a1 , . . . , an ) −

n

ai − min{a1 , . . . , an }.

i=1

The following two lemmas, due to Brauer and Shockley [59], are very helpful. Lemma 3.1.6 [59]

g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

max

{tl } − an ,

l∈{1,2,...,an −1}

Formulas and upper bounds

47

where tl is the smallest positive integer congruent to l modulo an , that is expressible as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an−1 . Proof. The proof is rather simple. Let L be a positive integer. If L ≡ 0 mod an then L is a non-negative integer combination of an . If L ≡ l mod an then L is a non-negative integer combination of a1 , . . . , an if and only if L ≥ tl . Lemma 3.1.7 [59] Let d = (a1 , . . . , an−1 ). Then,

a1 an−1 ,..., , an + (d − 1)an . g(a1 , . . . , an ) = dg d d

Proof. Let G = G(a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , . . . , an ) + ni=1 ai , that is, G is the largest integer not representable as a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an in positive integers. Then, equality g(a1 , . . . , an ) = dg( ad1 , . . . , an−1 d , an ) + (d − 1)an holds if and only if

G(a1 , . . . , an )

n

ai = dG

i=1

n−1 ai a1 an−1 ,..., , an −d −dan +(d−1)an d d d i=1

holds, or equivalently, if and only if

a1 an−1 G(a1 , . . . , an ) = dG ,..., , an + an − dan + (d − 1)an d d an−1 a1 ,..., , an = dG d d

n−1 holds. Notice that G(a1 , . . . , an ) = i=1 ai xi with xi > 0 (this follows n−1 , . . . , an ) = i=1 ai xi + an xn from the fact that we can write an + G(a1 n−1 with xi > 0 and thus G(a1 , . . . , an ) = i=1 ai xi + an (xn − 1) that contradicts the deﬁnition of G unless xn = 1). Let ai = dai , i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Hence,

G=

n−1

ai xi = d

i=1

n−1

ai xi and G is divisible by d, say G = dG . (3.2)

i=1

of It is clear that G cannot be expressed as a linear combination n−1 in positive integers (otherwise G = yn an + i=1 ai yi n−1 with yi > 0 and G = G d = y1 da1 + i=1 ai yi , which is a contradiction). Now, if h > G then h can be expressed as a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an−1 , an with positive coeﬃcients. For, since hd > G d = n−1 n G then hd = zi > 0. Hence, i=1 ai zi = zn an + d i=1 ai zi with n−1 ai zi . Thus, d must divide zn , say z1 = dz1 , and h = zn an + i=1 a1 , . . . , an−1 , an

48

The general problem

G = G(a1 , . . . , an−1 , an ) and by eqn (3.2) we have G(a1 , . . . , an ) = dG( ad1 , . . . , an−1 d , an ). An algebraic proof of Lemma 3.1.7 was given by Delorme [107, Proposition 1.3]. Notice that Lemma 3.1.7 can also be obtained from Lemma 3.1.6 from which it can be deduced that if an is representable as a linear combination of the other ai s with non-negative integers then g(a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , . . . , an−1 ).

(3.3)

Notice that eqn (3.3) and Lemma 3.1.7 reduce the problem to compute g(a1 , . . . , an ) to the case where each (n − 1)-subset of a1 , . . . , an is relatively prime and no aj is a linear combination of the other ai s with non-negative integers (generalizing Johnson’s result given in Theorem 2.3.1). The following proposition is one of the basic lattice properties investigated in [346] in relation to the covering radius Proposition 3.1.8 Let x, x ∈ ZZn−1 be such thatxi < xi for each n−1 ai (xi − xi ). i = 1, . . . , n − 1. If µ(x) absorbs point x then µ ≥ i=1

As an easy application of the above Proposition and Corollary 1.2.16, we obtain that if (aj , an ) = 1 for each j = 1, . . . , n − 1 then g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

n−1

(ai − 1)vi ,

(3.4)

i=1

n−1 where vj aj ≡ − i=1 i =j modan . vn−1 ) can The latter comes from the fact that the point v = (v1 , . . . , n−1 ai vi . be absorbed by a simplex placed at the origin and thus µ∗v ≤ i=1 n−1 It can be checked that translations of µ0 (v) cover the IR . This is shown in Fig. 3.1 for the case n = 3. Wilf’s algorithm (see Section 1.2) provides the following easy upper bound.

Theorem 3.1.9 [480]

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ a2n . Proof. After each full sweep of the algorithm at least one more light must be on (otherwise g(a1 , . . . , an ) will be inﬁnite, which is a contradiction by Theorem 1.0.1).

In a personal communication [480], Koren mentioned to Wilf that in fact it can be proved that every sweep interval of length a1 produces a new light on.

Formulas and upper bounds

49

y

2v

2

v

2

2 1 x 1 2

v

1

2v

1

Figure 3.1: Copies of the simplex µ0 (v) covering IR2 .

In [31], Beck et al. used their results on denumerants (see Section 4.1) to show the following upper bound. Theorem 3.1.10 [31] Let a1 ≤ · · · ≤ an with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

1 " a1 a2 a3 (a1 + a2 + a3 ) − a1 − a2 − a3 . 2

Proof. It can be easily veriﬁed that

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ g(a1 , a2 , a3 ). The result follows by combining this and Theorem 2.3.10. Selmer [392] has remarked that if each element of the basis is independent (i.e. has no representation by the other elements in the basis) then n ≤ min ai , the veriﬁcation of this is immediate. Assume min ai = a1 and n ≥ a1 + 1, so the number of elements a1 , . . . , an is at least a1 . Then, there is either an i ≥ 2 such that ai ≡ 0 mod a1 , or i, j ≥ 2 with ai ≡ aj mod a1 leading in both cases to a dependence between basis elements. Selmer used this easy argument to get the following upper bound. Theorem 3.1.11 [392] Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then, a1 − a1 . g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ 2an n

50

The general problem

This bound is sometimes smaller than the following bound4 given by Erd˝ os and Graham [131], the elegant proof of which is presented here5 . Theorem 3.1.12 [131] Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ 2an−1

an − an . n

Proof. Let A = {0, a1 , . . . , an−1 } be the set of residues modulo an and let C=A + ·$% · · + A& = {b1 + · · · + bm | bk ∈ A} mod an , # '

(

m

where m = ann . By a strong theorem of Kenser [245] there exists a (minimal) divisor g of an such that

(g ) + ·$% · · + A(g &) modan , C=A # m

where

A(g ) = {a + rg | 0 ≤ r < an /g , a ∈ A} mod an ,

and such that

mn m − 1 |C| ≥ − · (3.5) an an g Assume that C does not contain a complete system of residues mod ulo an . Since (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 then A(g ) must consist of more than one congruence class modulo g . By the theorem of Kneser and the minimality of g , it follows that C must contain at least m + 1 distinct residue classes modulo g . Thus, |C| m+1 ≥ · an g Note that an ≥ n and m = ann imply 1 m+1> 2

(3.6) !

m−1 mn 1 . an − 2

(3.7)

Suppose now that |C| ≤ 12 an . By eqns (3.5) and (3.7) we have mn m − 1 1 − ≤ , an g 2 4

g ≤

m−1 < 2(an + 1). − 12

mn m

This upper bound has been used to the study of the partition of vector space problem; see Section 8.3. 5 Reproduced from [131] with kind permission of Acta Arithmetica.

Formulas and upper bounds

51

Hence, by eqn (3.6), |C| m+1 m+1 1 ≥ > = , an g 2(m + 1) 2 which is a contradiction. We may therefore assume that |C| > 12 an . But in this case it is easily seen that C+C contains a complete residue system modulo an . It follows that the least possible integer not representable in the form x1 b1 + · · · + x2m b2m + xan , with xi ≥ 0, x ≥ 0 and bi ∈ A is given by

2m · max a − an = 2an−1 a∈A

an − an . n

Erd˝ os and Graham showed that the upper bound of Theorem 3.1.12 is asymptotically sharp. Moreover, in the case n = 2 and a2 is odd we have g(a1 , a2 ) ≤ 2a1 a22 −a2 = a1 a2 −a1 −a2 , which is best possible (cf. Theorem 2.1.1). Rødseth [379] gave another proof of Theorem 3.1.12 (using additive number theory) and improved it when n is odd. Theorem 3.1.13 [379] Let n be an odd integer. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ 2an

a1 + 2 − a1 . n+1

Vitek [466] has proved inductively the following bound for independent sequences. Theorem 3.1.14 [466] Let a1 < · · · < an be an independent sequence with n ≥ 2. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) <

a1 (an − n) . 2

Proof. By induction on n. For n = 2 the result reduces to Theorem 2.3.13. We suppose that it is true for n = k − 1 and prove it for n = k. Let (a1 , . . . , ak−1 ) = d, then clearly (d, ak ) = 1 and (a1 /d, . . . , ak−1 /d) = 1 so by the induction hypothesis we have

a1 ak−1 g ,..., d d

a1 < 2d

'

ak−1 −k+1 . d (

ak−1 a1 All multiples of d starting with 2d d − k + 1 d are representable as a non-negative linear combination of a1 , . . . , ak−1 . On the

52

The general problem

other hand, all numbers from g(d, ak ) + 1 = (d − 1)(ak − 1) onwards are representable in the form αak + hd with 0 ≤ α < d, h ≥ 0. It follows that

g(a1 , . . . , ak ) <

a1 2d

a1 ≤ 2

ak−1 − k + 1 d + (d − 1)(ak − 1) d

ak−1 − k + 1 + (d − 1)(ak − 1). d

Since the set is independent then 1 ≤ d ≤ Therefore, if d = 1 we have that

g(a1 , . . . , ak ) < and if d =

' a1 ( 2

' a1 ( 2

(in fact d ≤

' a1 ( k

).

a1 a1 (ak−1 − k + 1) ≤ (ak − k), 2 2

then

a1 a1 a1 a1 g(a1 , . . . , ak ) < ak−1 − k+ + ak − − ak + 1 2 2 2 2 a1 ≤ ak−1 + (ak − k) − ak + 1 2 a1 (ak − k). ≤ 2 Then, g(a1 , . . . , ak ) <

'a ( 1

2

(ak − k) for any 1 ≤ d ≤

'a ( 1

2

.

Shen [419] generalized Vitek’s bound by showing that !

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

a1 − n − 1 − l an − a1 − l − 2, 12 (n + 1) + 1 )

*

where l is the least non-negative integer such that 12 (n + 1) divides a1 − s − 1 + l. Vitek used Theorem 3.1.14 to prove the following two theorems. Theorem 3.1.15 [466] Let a1 < · · · < an and let i be the ﬁrst index such that ai = λa1 for any non-negative integer λ. If there is an aj such that aj = µa1 + νai for any pair of non-negative integers µ and ν then a1 (an − 2) , g(a1 , . . . , an ) < 2 otherwise g(a1 , . . . , an ) = a1 ai − a1 − ai .

Formulas and upper bounds

53

Proof. The existence of such aj implies the existence of a maximal independent subset {a1 , av1 , . . . , avt } ⊆ {a1 , a1 , . . . , an }, t ≥ 2 where (a1 , av1 , . . . , avt ) = 1. Then, by Theorem 3.1.14, we have a1 a1 g(a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , av1 , . . . , avt ) < (avt − t) ≤ (an − 2) . 2 2 Theorem 3.1.16 [466] Let a1 < . . . < an be positive integers such that (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then,

(a2 − 1)(an − 2) . 2 Proof. Let ai and aj be deﬁned as in Theorem 3.1.15. If there exists such aj , then g(a1 , . . . , an ) <

a1 1 (an − 2) ≤ (a2 − 1) (an − 2) 2 2 (a2 − 1)(an − 2) ≤ · 2 Otherwise, we have for i = 1, an (a2 − 1)(an − 2) g(a1 , . . . , an ) = a1 a2 − a1 − a2 < − 1 (a2 − 1) = · 2 2 For i > 1 we have, by deﬁnition of ai , that a2 = λa1 , λ ≥ 2. Then, g(a1 , . . . , an ) <

g(a1 , . . . , an ) < (a1 − 1)(ai − 1) = (a2 /λ − 1)(ai − 1) a1 (a2 − 1)(an − 2) ≤ − 1 (an − 1) < · 2 2 Notice that for n = 3 Theorem 3.1.16 is Lewin’s bound given in Theorem 6.1.2 and for n > 3 it is stronger. In [469], Vizv´ ari analysed the accuracy of some of the above upper ari [469] bounds by considering the so-called Knapsack problem6 . Vizv´ 6

The Knapsack problem is a classical model in operation research literature. Suppose there are n objects, the i−th having a positive integer ‘weight’ ai and ‘utility’ ui . It is desired to ﬁnd the most valuable subset of objects, subject to the restriction that their total weight does not exceed b, the ‘capacity’ of a knapsack. The knapsack problem has the following formulation as an integer programming. Maximize

n i=1 n

subject to

i=1

where xi = 1 if object i is chosen and 0 otherwise.

ui xi ai xi ≤ b,

54

The general problem

noted that the problem class where the known upper bounds behave arbitrarily bad had the property that a1 + 1 = a2 . Vizv´ ari then applied this approach to obtain new upper bounds for this special class. Theorem 3.1.17 [469] If a1 + 1 = a2 and 2a1 ≥ an then

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

n j=2

aj

aj+1 − aj aj − a1

!

− a1 where an+1 = 2a1 .

The following two results are special cases of Theorem 3.1.17 by remarking that if a1 , . . . , an are arbitrary positive integers but a1 + 1 = a2 < a3 < · · · < an < 2a1 then the numbers q1 , . . . , qn−1 can be chosen a −a1 , j = 1, . . . , n − 1 where an+1 = 2a1 . so qj = aj+2 j+1 −a1 Theorem 3.1.18 [469] Let q1 , . . . , qn−1 be arbitrary rational numbers and suppose that a1 = q1 · · · qn−1 , a2 = a1 + 1, a3 = a1 + q1 , a4 = a1 + q1 q2 , . . . , an = a1 + q1 · · · qn−2 are integers. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ (q1 + q2 + · · · + qn−1 − n − 1)a1 − 1. Hujter [209] showed that if the numbers q1 , . . . , qn−1 , in Theorem 3.1.18, are integers then equality holds. Theorem 3.1.19 [207,209] For an arbitrary positive integer q, we have that

g(q n−1 , q n−1 + 1, q n−1 + q, . . . , q n−1 + q n−2 ) = (n − 1)(q − 1)q n−1 − 1. Boros [55] showed that the assumption 2a1 ≥ an of Theorem 3.1.17 is not essential. Theorem 3.1.20 [55] Let a1 , d2 , . . . , dn , h2 , . . . , hn be positive integers satisfying 0 < d2 ≤ d3 ≤ . . . ≤ dn , hd22 ≥ hd33 ≥ . . . ≥ hdnn and d2 = (d2 , . . . , dn ) with (a1 , d2 ) = 1. If k denotes the greatest index for which dk < a1 d2 and aj = ha1 + dj , j = 2, . . . , n then

d3 − 1 + ··· d 2 a1 d2 − 1 + hk −1 . dk

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ a1 d2 − a1 − d2 + a1 h2

+hk−1

dk dk−1

Let us brieﬂy describe the simple idea used by Boros in order to prove the above theorem (as well as Theorem 3.6.9). Deﬁne the function v(r) = min{−x1 +x2 +· · ·+xn |r = a1 x1 +(a2 −a1 )x2 +· · ·+(an −a1 )xn },

Formulas and upper bounds

55

where r, x1 , . . . , xn are non-negative integers. It is clear that the greatest integer r with v(r) > 0 is g(a1 , . . . , an ). Thus, if u(r) (resp. l(r)) is an upper bound (resp. lower bound) for v(r) then the greatest r for which u(r) > 0 (resp. l(r) > 0) is an upper bound (resp. lower bound) for g(a1 , . . . , an ). Then, Boros used methods and results from the theory of subadditive theory7 to obtain upper and lower bounds for v(r). As remarked by Kan [225], Rødseth algorithm (see Section 1.1.1) is based on certain special sequences (sequences where each term, other than the ﬁrst and last one, is the divisor of the sum of its neighbours). In [225], Kan investigated this approach to obtain new formulas for g(a1 , . . . , an ). Recall that a−m , a−m+1 , . . . , a−1 , a0 , a1 , . . . , an with m, n ≥ 1, (a0 , a1 ) = 1 is a chain sequence if lj =

aj−1 + aj+1 for each j = −m + 1, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 are naturals. aj

Let ε, ε1 , ε2 be the numbers deﬁned by ε=

1 l1 −

l2 −

ε1 =

1 1

..

1 l−1 −

.− l1n

l−2 −

and ε2 = −ε1 .

1 1

..

1 .− l−m+1

For the cases n = 1 and m = 1 it is assumed that ε = ε1 = 0. Theorem 3.1.21 [225] (a) If a0 = min{a0 , . . . , an } then

g(a1 , . . . , an ) = a0 a1 − a0 − a1 − a0 ε(a0 − 1). (b) If a0 = min{a−m , a−m+1 , . . . a0 , . . . , an } then

a0 ε2 − a1 a0 ε2 − a1 − a0 ε , ε − ε ε − ε 2 2 a1 ε − a0 a1 − εa0 − a0 −ε2 . −a1 ε2 − ε ε2 − ε

g(a−m , . . . , an ) = −a0 + max a1

Notice that Theorem 3.1.21 (a) generalizes Theorem 5.1.1 and Theorem 2.3 is a particular case of Theorem 3.1.21 (b). A function f : V → IR ∪ {+∞} is said to be subadditive on the monoid (V, +) if g(x + y) ≤ g(x) + g(y) for every x, y ∈ V . Recall that a set V of elements (integers, vectors, etc.) is said to be monoid (V, +) if it is closed under the addition. 7

56

The general problem

Lu and Wu [282] found a formula for the following set of special sequences. Let ti = (a1 , . . . , ai−1 , ai+1 , . . . , an ) and ai = ai /(t1 , . . . , ti−1 , ti+1 , . . . , tn ). Then, g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

n

!

ai

+

g(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

t1 · · · tn −

i=1

n

ai .

(3.8)

i=1

Note that g(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = −1 when some ai = 1 (this special case was also rediscoverd by Niu in [312]). Krawczyk and Paz [255] presented a polynomial time algorithm for the computation of a bound for the Frobenius number. Theorem 3.1.22 [255] Let αi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n be the minimal integer α such that there exists non-negative integers xi such that n

xj aj = αai − 1,

(3.9)

j=1 j =i

and let B =

n

i=1 (αi

− 1)ai . Then,

B − 1 ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ B − 1. n Proof. We ﬁrst prove that B ≤ n(g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1). To this end, we show that (αi − 1)ai ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1 for any 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Suppose it is not true, that is, (αi − 1)ai > g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1 then, by the deﬁnition of g(a1 , . . . , an ), the equation a1 x1 + · · · + an xn = (αi − 1)ai − 1 has a solution over the non-negative integers, implying that the equation

a1 x1 + · · · + ai−1 xi−1 + ai+1 xi+1 + · · · + an xn = (αi − 1 − xi )ai − 1 leads to a contradiction with the minimality of αi . Hence, B=

n i=1

(αi − 1)ai ≤

n

(g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1) = n(g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1).

i=1

Now, to prove the upper bound we show that for any m ≥ B − 1 there exist non-negative intgers xi such that a1 x1 + · · · + an xn = m. To this end, we show that if for any m > B − 1 a solution exists, then a solution also exists for m − 1. Let β1 , . . . , βn be a solution for such a m, that is, a1 β1 + · · · + an βn = m,

(3.10)

Bounds in terms of the lcm(a1 , . . . , an )

57

where βi are non-negative integers. As m > B − 1, there exists some index i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n such that βi > αi − 1. On the other hand, by the deﬁnition of αj , there exist non-negative integers αi such that ai−1 − αi ai + αi+1 ai+1 + · · · + αn an = −1. α1 a1 + · · · + αi−1

(3.11)

Combining eqns (3.10) and (3.11) we get that (β1 + α1 )a1 + c . . . + (βi−1 + αi−1 )ai−1 + (βi − αi )ai +(βi+1 + αi+1 )ai+1 · · · + (βn + αn )an = m − 1, where βi − αi ≥ 0 since βi > αi − 1. Thus, m − 1 is representable by a1 , . . . , an as desired. Theorem 3.1.23 [255] The bound B given in Theorem 3.1.22 can be computed in polynomial time for every ﬁxed value n. Proof. Finding a minimal αi in eqn(3.9) is an integer linear problem n (minimize j=1 j =i xj aj such that nj=1 j =i xj aj = αai − 1). Thus, in order to ﬁnd the values αi we have to solve n such problems but this can be done by using Lenstra’s polynomial algorithm for the integer linear programming [264].

Up to the Krawczyk and Paz paper, no bound that for ﬁxed n is of the same order of magnitude as g(a1 , . . . , an ) and computable in polynomial time, was known.

3.2

Bounds in terms of the lcm(a1 , . . . , an )

Motivated by the investigation of the theory of concurrency, Chrz¸astowski-Wachtel [92] encoutered FP and obtained the following upper bound. We denote by [a1 , . . . , an ] the least common multiple of integers a1 , . . . , an . Theorem 3.2.1 [92] Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ (n − 1)[a1 , . . . , an ]. Proof. The result follows from Theorem 3.1.2 by observing that

T (a1 , . . . , an ) =

n−1 i=1

ai+1 di /di+1 ≤ (n − 1)[a1 , . . . , an ] −

n

ai ,

i=1

with di = (a1 , . . . , ai ) since each of the ﬁrst n − 1 components of T is at most [a1 , . . . , an ].

58

The general problem

Raczunas and Chrz¸astowski-Wachtel [337] continued related investigations and found a reduction formula for g(a1 , . . . , an ) in terms of [a1 , . . . , an ] for what they called ﬂat and strongly ﬂat systems. The seﬂat (resp. strongly ﬂat) if and only if there quence a1 , . . . , an is called n n exists i such that ai = j=1 qj /qi (resp. if and only if ai = j=1 qj /qi for all i) where qj = (a1 , . . . , aj−1 , aj+1 , . . . , an ). Theorem 3.2.2 [337] (a) The sequence a1 , . . . , an is ﬂat if and only if

g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

n

(qi − 1)ai −

i=1

n +

ai .

i=1

(b) The sequence a1 , . . . , an is strongly ﬂat if and only if g(a1 , . . . , an ) = (n − 1)[a1 , . . . , an ] −

n

ai .

i=1

Notice that Theorem 3.2.2 (a) and (b) characterize those sequences for which equality is reached in the inequalities given in Theorem 3.1.2 and Theorem 3.2.1, respectively. Also note that Theorem 3.2.2 (b) is a generalization of Theorem 2.1.1 since all systems for n = 2 are strongly ﬂat. In [67–69], Brimkov and Bˆ arneva found the following upper bound in terms of the least common multiple of ai and aj with i = j g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ min

 

j=1,...,n 

[ai , aj ] −

i =j

 

ai

i =j



.

Herzog [191] used the following lemma to investigate complete intersection semigroups; see Section 7.3.2. Lemma 3.2.3 [191] Let di = (a1 , . . . , ai ) with dn = 1 and assume that [di , ai+1 ] is representable by a1 , . . . , ai for each i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

n−1

n

i=1

i=1

[di , ai+1 ] −

ai .

Moreover, z is representable by a1 , . . . , an if and only if g(a1 , . . . , an ) − z is not for all z ∈ ZZ (that is, the semigroup generated by a1 , . . . , an is symmetric; see Section 7.2). Proof. Let ci = di−1 /di , 1 < i ≤ n. Then, [di , ai+1 ] = (ddii,aai+1 = i+1 ) di ai+1 di+1 = ci+1 ai+1 . Since dj+k |aj and dj+k |dk for all k ≥ 0 then ci |aj

Arithmetic and related sequences

59

for all i > j. So, if z = ni=1 xi ai then 0 ≤ xi < ci , 2 ≤ i ≤ n. We claim that z is representable by a1 , . . . , an if and only if x1 ≥ 0. Clearly, if z is representable then x1 ≥ 0. Conversely, by contradiction, suppose that x1 < 0 then ni=2 xi ai = x1 a1 with x1 = 0 and |xi | < ci , 2 ≤ i ≤ n. Let k > 0 be the greatest integer such that xk = 0 (there exists such k since x1 < 0). Since ci divides aj for all i > j then xk ak = x1 a1 − k−1 i=2 xi ai ≡ 0 mod ck and then ak xk ≡ 0 mod ck , ci i>k

and as

ak i>k

ci

, ck

=

ak dk−1 dk , dk

= 1, we ﬁnd that xk ≡ 0 mod ck ,

which is a contradiction since |xk | < ck . Now, n−1

n

i=1

i=1

[di , ai+1 ] −

ai − z = =

n−1 i=1 n

ci+1 ai+1 −

n

ai − z

i=1

ci ai −

i=2

n

ai − a1 −

i=2

= (−1 − x1 )a1 +

n

xi ai − x1 a1

i=2 n

(ci − xi − 1)ai .

i=2

n−1 Hence, i=1 [di , ai+1 ] − ni=1 ai − z is representable if and only if only if x1 < 0 or equivalently, by the above −1 − x1≥ 0, that is, if and n−1 [di , ai+1 ] − ni=1 ai − z is representable if and only if z is claim, i=1 not representable by a1 , . . . , an .

Note that Lemma 3.2.3 also generalizes Theorem 5.1.1.

3.3

Arithmetic and related sequences

Brauer [57] found the Frobenius number for k consecutive positive integers m, m + 1, . . . , m + k − 1. Theorem 3.3.1 [57] Let a be a positive integer. Then,

g(a, a + 1, . . . , a + k − 1) =

a−2 + 1 a − 1. k−1

The sequence a1 , . . . , an is called arithmetic if ai+1 = ai + d for each i = 1, . . . , n − 1 with d a positive integer. Roberts [355] generalized the above theorem for general arithmetic sequences.

60

The general problem

Theorem 3.3.2 [355] Let a, d and s be positive integers with (a, d) = 1. Then, a−2 g(a, a + d, . . . , a + sd) = + 1 a + (d − 1)(a − 1) − 1. s Note that Theorem 3.3.2 contains Theorem 3.3.1 when s = k − 1 and d = 1. Roberts’ proof is elementary but very involved. We present here a much simpler proof of Theorem 3.3.2 due to Bateman [29].

Proof of Theorem 3.3.2. Let yi = sj=i xj for i = 0, . . . , s. It is clear that a positive integer L has a representation by si=0 (a + id)xi if and only if L = ay0 + d(y1 + · · · + ys ) with y0 ≥ · · · ≥ ys ≥ 0. Now, for a given y0 , the integers representable in the form y1 +· · ·+ys with y0 ≥ · · · ≥ ys are precisely the integers z such that 0 ≤ z ≤ sy0 . Thus, L has a representation by a, a+d, . . . , a+sd if and only if L = ay+dz with 0 ≤ z ≤ sy. ,

-

Observation 3.3.3 Let R = a−2 + 1 a+(d−1)(a−1) and suppose s that r ≥ R. Since (a, d) = 1 then there exists an integer z such that dz ≡ r mod a and 0 ≤ z ≤ a − 1. Hence, r − dz = ay where y is an integer. Further,

ay = r − dz ≥ r − d(a − 1) ≥ R − d(a − 1) a−2 a−2 = + 1 a − (a − 1) > a. s s ,

-

a−2 a−2 + 1 > a−2, Thus, y > a−2 s ; that is, y ≥ s +1. Since s s then a−2 + 1 ≥ a − 1 ≥ z. sy ≥ s s Therefore, r = ay + dz with 0 ≤ z ≤ sy and thus, by Observation 3.3.3, r has a representation by a, a+d, . . . , a+sd. Finally, let r = R−1 and suppose that y and z are integers such that r = ay +dz with z ≥ 0. Since a−2 + 1 a + (d − 1)(a − 1) − 1 R−1= s a−2 = + 1 a + d(a − 1) − a, s

then z ≡ a − 1 mod a. Hence, z ≥ a − 1 and y ≤ a−2 s . Hence,

a−2 sy ≤ s ≤ a − 2 < a − 1 ≤ z. s

Regular bases

61

Therefore r cannot be of the form r = ay + dz with 0 ≤ z ≤ sy and, again, by Observation 3.3.3, r does not have a representation by a, a + d, . . . , a + sd. Zheng [489] also found a new proof for Theorem 3.3.2; see [271,357, 374, 455] as well. Selmer [392] generalized Robert’s result. Theorem 3.3.4 [374, 392] Let a, h, d and k be positive integers with (a, d) = 1. Then,

g(a, ha + d, ha + 2d, . . . , ha + kd) = ha

a−2 + a(h − 1) + d(a − 1). k

In [374], Rødseth also found the above formula and studied the almost arithmetic sequences, obtaining the following result; see also [423]. Theorem 3.3.5 [374] Let a, h, d, k be positive integers with (a, d) = 1. Let c = a, + Kd,-k ≤ K and put a = αK + β, 0 ≤ β < K. If β = 0 or then α + d ≥ K−β−1 k

g(a, a + d, . . . , a + kd, c) = cα − d

β−2 K −2 + dβ, a −a . + max a 2 2

Note that the formulas given by Dulmage and Mendelsohn [122] in Theorem 2.4.1 easily follow from Rødseth’s formula. Hofmeister [198] gave a formula for g(a, a + d, a + dt, . . . , a + tn−2 d) provided that a, d, t are positive integers a, t > 1, (a, d) = 1 and d exceeds a certain (rather large) bound. Selmer [392] found Hofmeister’s formula in the case when d = 1 and t = 2 without asking any extra condition, this is given by g(a, a + 1, a + 2, a + 22 , . . . , a + 2n−2 )

= (a + 1)

a 2n−2

+

n−3 i=0

.

2

i

/

a + 2i + (n − 4)a − 1. 2n−2

(3.12)

Notice that eqn (3.12) generalizes Theorem 2.4.1.

3.4

Regular bases

Let An = {a0 , a1 , . . . , an } with a0 > 1, (a0 , a1 ) = 1. If necessary by reindexing a2 , . . . , an , Marstrander [287] gives An in the following ordered form  ai = a1 bi − a0 ci , i = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1 (an+1 = 0) 1 = b1 < b2 < · · · < bk < bn+1 = a0  0 = c1 < c2 < · · · < ck < ck+1 = a1 .

62

The general problem

To obtain this, some dependent bases are excluded (but there may still be dependencies in a basis in the ordered form). Set Bn = {1, b2 , . . ., bn+1 } and Cn = {0, c2 , . . . , cn+1 }. Since b1 = 1, any positive integer may be expressed by the basis {1, b2 , . . . , bj }, j ≤ n + 1, as m = ji=1 xi bi with xi ≥ 0 (in many ways). Denote the (unique) regular representation by m = ji=1 ei bi . Now deﬁne R(m, j) = ji=1 xi ci , R(m) = R(m, n) j j and M (m, j) = max{ i=1 xi ci |m = i=1 xi bi }. Marstrander [287] deﬁned the (ordered) basis An to be regular if R(m, n + 1) = M (m, n + 1) for every natural number m. This property depends on the choice of the (coprime) basis elements a0 and a1 . Marstrander [287] used regular bases to improve some results given by Hofmeister in [198, 199]. Theorem 3.4.1 [287] If An is regular and a1 > a0 max {ci −R(bi −1)}, 2≤i≤n

then g(a0 , . . . , an ) = g(a0 , a1 ) − a0 R(a0 − 1). Selmer [395] extended the deﬁnitions and the results of Marstrander’s paper and made a connection between regular bases and the postage stamp problem (see Chapter 6).

3.5

Extending basis

Suppose that the basis a1 , . . . , an is extended with a new element an+1 . Selmer [392, Section 4] was the ﬁrst to examine the inﬂuence of an+1 on g(a1 , . . . , an ). It is immediately clear that g(a1 , . . . , an+1 ) ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ). By showing that g(a1 , a2 ) has a representation by a1 , a2 and a3 , Mendelsohn [292] proved the strict inequality in the case n = 2. Theorem 3.5.1 [292] Let a1 , a2 and a3 be relatively prime integers. Let s be an integer such that a3 ≡ sa2 mod a1 . Then, g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) < g(a1 , a2 ) if sa2 > a3 . Proof. The integer s always exists since (a1 , a2 ) = 1, moreover, 1 < s < a1 . Thus, a3 = sa2 − ta1 , so ta1 = sa2 − a3 > 0 and since a1 > 0 then t > 0. Hence,

g(a1 , a2 ) = (t − 1)a1 + (a1 − s − 1)a2 + a3 , with t − 1 ≥ 0 and a1 − s − 1 ≥ 0 since a1 ≥ s + 1. Then, g(a1 , a2 ) is representable by integers a1 , a2 and a3 . Kirfel [237] determined a condition under which g(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) = g(a1 , a2 , a3 ); see also [295]. Selmer [392] has pointed out that we can add a new term c = a+kd (assuming k < a) to the arithmetic sequence

Lower bounds

63

A = {a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + (k − 1)d} where d > 0, and (a, d) = 1 without altering g(A) if

a−2 a−2 = , k−1 k

which is always possible by an appropriate choice of a and k. In [354], Ritter gave the set of all independent numbers c satisfying g(A, c) = g(A) when A = {a, a + d, . . . , a + (k − 1)d}. Moreover, in the case a > k, Ritter gave a set B of maximal cardinality such that g(A ∪ B) = g(A). Ritter [353] also studied the following question. Question 3.5.2. Which subsets of the generalized arithmetic sequence Ak = {a, ha + d, ha + 2d, . . . , ha + (k − 1)d} with d, h > 0 and (a, d) = 1 can be omitted without altering the value of g(Ak )? Theorem 3.5.3 [353] Let lk be the greatest number of elements that can be omitted from Ak without altering g(Ak ). Then,

a) 1 − √4k ≤ lkk ≤ 1 − √ with d > 2h k, and b) 1 −

4 k

≤

lk k

≤1−

3 k

3 k

for every k ≥ 3 provided a > k, or a = k if q > (k − 4)k + 3 and k > 5.

For Ritters’ result it is assumed that a ≥ k. Ritter [354] remarked that if ¯l represents the greatest number of independent elements that can be added to A = (a, a + d, . . . , a + kd) without altering g(A) then ¯l and lk behave quite diﬀerently. Fr˝ oberg et al. [149] have also studied the extending bases problem and came up with a complete characterization of sequences a1 , . . . , an such that there is an integer an+1 , independent of a1 , . . . , an with g(a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , . . . , an , an+1 ). Their characterization is given in terms of semigroups (cf. Theorem 7.2.4).

3.6

Lower bounds

In this section, we discuss the known lower bounds for the Frobenius number. For the case n = 3, Davison [104] found the following bound. Theorem 3.6.1 [104] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be integers such that (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 1. Then, √ √ g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≥ 3 a1 a2 a3 − a1 − a2 − a3 .

Davison [104] showed √ that the bound in Theorem 3.6.1 is sharp, that is, the constant 3 cannot be replaced by a larger value with the inequality remaining true for all a1 , a2 and a3 . A slighly weaker lower

64

The general problem

bound (replacing 3 by 2) will be proved later on (see Theorem 3.6.5). Hujter [210] has given the following bounds. Theorem 3.6.2 [210] Let a1 , a2 , a3 be integers such that (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 1. Then, g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) √ ≥ 2. 2 ≥ lim inf √ a1 a2 a1 a2 a3 →∞ a3

Moreover, for any positive number h we have √ (g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + h + a1 + a2 + a3 )3 − (g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + 1)3 ≥ 6h a1 a2 a3 . General lower bounds are also known. For instance, Hujter [209] proved that Theorem 3.6.3 [209] Let n be a ﬁxed integer. Then,

1 > lim inf

min

t→∞ a1 ,...,an ≥t

g(a1 , . . . , an ) (n − 1)(min aj )

1 1+ (n−1)

>

n−1 · ne

The proof for the upper bound of Theorem 3.6.3 is obtained by using Theorem 3.1.19, while the proof for the lower bound uses the following nice result also due to Hujter [209]. Theorem 3.6.4 [209] Let a1 , . . . , an be integers such that (a1 , . . . , an )=1. Then,

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≥

n 1 n−1 ((n − 1)!a1 a2 · · · an ) n−1 − ai . n i=1

Proof. Consider the following linear condition

a1 x1 + · · · + an xn ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ) + h,

(3.13)

with xi ≥ 0, i = 1, . . . , n and h an arbitrary positive number. Let M be the number of non-negative solutions for which eqn (3.13) holds (obviously the vector 0 is one such solution). Thus, by inequality (4.9.2), we have n n g(a1 , . . . , an ) + h + ai i=1 · M≤ n n! ai i=1

By the deﬁnition of g(a1 , . . . , an ), each number in the set E = , . . ., an ) + 1, . . . , g(a1 , . . . , an ) + h } can be written in the form {g(a n 1 i=1 xi ai with xi ≥ 0. It is obvious that the vectors x1 , . . . , xn diﬀer

Lower bounds

65

from each other for diﬀerent numbers in E and are not equal to the vector 0. So, M − 1 ≥ h and we obtain

n

g(a1 , . . . , an ) + h + n!

n

n

ai

i=1

≥ h > h,

ai

i=1

that is

g(a1 , . . . , an ) + h +

n

n

ai

i=1

h

> n!

n

ai .

(3.14)

i=1

If we assume that n, a1 , . . . , an are ﬁxed and h is a variable then we are interested in ﬁnding the minimum of the left-hand side of inequality = 0 where f (h) = (g + h + a)n /h with (3.14). We then calculate f (h) n g = g(a1 , . . . , an ) and a = i=1 ai . We obtain that the minimum is g+a and that given by h∗ = n−1

f (h∗ ) =

g+

g+a n−1 + g+a n−1

n

a

=

n(g+a) n n−1 g+a n−1

nn (g + a)n−1 · (n − 1)n−1

=

Thus, by eqn (3.14) n nn (g + a)n−1 > n! ai , n−1 (n − 1) i=1

or equivalently n nn−1 (g + a)n−1 > (n − 1)! ai , (n − 1)n−1 i=1

that is,

n(g + a) n−1

n−1

> (n − 1)!

n

ai ,

i=1

from which the result follows. A lower bound has also been obtained by Killingbergtrø [236] Theorem 3.6.5 [236] Let a1 , . . . , an be integers such that (a1 , . . . , an )=1. Then, 1

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ ((n − 1)!a1 a2 · · · an ) n−1 −

n i=1

ai .

66

The general problem y

3 b 2

1

x 1

2

3

a

Figure 3.2: R[5, 7, 11] and its corresponding simplex (in bold lines).

The proof of Theorem 3.6.5 uses the cube-ﬁgure method (see Section 1.1.3). Let us see how this proceeds in the case n = 3 (an analogous idea can be applied for any n ≥ 4). A sketch of the proof of Theorem 3.6.5 when n = 3. Let R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] be the cube-ﬁgure deﬁned in Section 1.1.3. Let S be the simplex deﬁned by points (0, 0), (α, 0) and (0, β) where a2 α = a3 β = √ 2!a1 a2 a3 . Notice that this choice of α and β is such that (a) (a2 , a3 ) · (x, y) is constant for all points (x, y) lying on the hypotenuse of S, given by y = −β/α(x − α), that is, αy + βx = αβ = 2a1 , and (b) the volume of S = αβ/2 = 2a1 /2 = a1 ; see Fig. 3.2. Since the volume of R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] is also a1 (cf. Remark 1.1.3) then there must be corners of R[a1 , a2 , a3 ] lying just outside of S (i.e. not lying in either the interior or the boundary of S). Thus, we must have

g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ≥

2!a1 a2 a3 − a1 − a2 − a3 . √

Example 3.6.6 From Example 1.1.4, we have that α = √ √ 770 β = 11 ; see Fig. 3.2. Thus, g(5, 7, 11) ≥ 770 − 23 = 5.

770 7

and

Example 3.6.7 From Example 1.1.5, we have that αa2 = βa3 = γa4 = (3!a1 a2 a3 a4 )1/3 ≈ 1456.8; see Fig. 3.3. Thus, g(103, 133, 165, 228) ≥ 1457 − 629 = 828.

Lower bounds

67

z g

b y

a x

Figure 3.3: Cube-ﬁgure R and its corresponding simplex.

Vizv´ari [471] studied the interrelation between FP and discrete optimization and gave diﬀerent lower bounds by using the Gomory cuts ari showed method8 . After stating a parametric knapsack problem, Vizv´ that FP is equivalent to ﬁnding the value of the parameter where the optimal objective function value is maximal. Then Gomory’s cutting plane method is applied to the knapsack problem. Let us mention one of the Vizv´ ari’s lower bounds (the other bounds, rather long and complicated, can be found in [471]). Theorem 3.6.8 [471] Let a1 < aj , for j = 2, . . . , n and let cj and dj be natural numbers such that aj = cj a1 + dj , where 1 ≤ dj < a1 and cj c∗ d∗ = min dj . Then, 2≤j≤n

g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 8

c∗ 2 c∗ a − a1 − 1. d∗ 1 d∗

The Gomory method is one of the ﬁrst methods to solve linear integer programming problems. It is based on the dual simplex method of linear programming; see [160–162] for further details.

68

The general problem

The above bound is sharp when n = 2 and d2 = 1. Moreover, if d∗ = 1 then the bound is sharp in which case dj = 1 for some 2 ≤ j ≤ n and d∗ |(a1 − 1). Boros [55] has also obtained another lower bound of similar ﬂavour to the above theorem. Theorem 3.6.9 [55] Let ai , ci , c∗ and di as in Theorem 3.6.8. Then,

d(a1 − 1)c∗ g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ a1 + a1 d − a1 − d, d∗ where d = (d2 , . . . , dn ).

3.7

Supplementary notes

Schoch [388, 389] presented another proof of Theorem 3.3.1 and calculated the Frobenius number for further special cases. Rødseth [379] gave a diﬀerent proof of Theorem 3.1.4. Gupta and Tripathi have studied the following problem: for a given set M of positive integers, a set S of non-negative integers is called an M -set if a, b ∈ S implies a − b ∈ M . In an upublished problem collection, Motzkin posed the problem of determing the quantity ¯ µ(M ) = sup δ(S), S

¯ where the supremum is taken over the class of all M -sets S and δ(S) is deﬁned as lim n→∞ S(n)/n, where S(x) denotes the number of elements in S less than or equal to x. In [175], Gupta and Tripathi determined µ(M ) in the case where the elements of M form an arithmetic progression. Their method gives a straightforward proof of Theorem 3.3.2. In [374], Rødseth has provided a formula for g(a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + kd, c) for positive integers a, c, d, k with (a, d) = 1 and Shao [412] obtained a formula for g(a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + kd, a + (k + s)d) with 0 < s − 1 ≤ 2k. Tsang [458] gave a minimization approach for FP reﬁning the latter result by Rødseth. The main tool of Tsang’s proof is an explicit optimum value for the problem

min δx + γ x≥ξ

βx α

,

Supplementary notes

69

with positive integers α, β, γ and δ and an arbitrary integer ξ. L’vovsky [284] gave the following upper bound by using some cohomological machinery g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ (δ − 2)an + 1, where δ = max {(ai − ai−1 ) + (aj − aj−1 )} with a0 = 0. 1≤i<j≤n

In [472], Vizv´ ari applied greedy algorithms to the knapsack problem and proposed polynomial time algorithms that produce sharp estimates for FP. In many cases these estimates coincide with the exact solutions. This approach is simpliﬁed in [473] by using the optimal behaviour of the greedy method for the knapsack problem; see also [208, 211, 288]. Milanov [297] showed some connections between FP and particular discrete optimization problems. A relatively easy upper bound is computed by Djawadi and Hofmeister [118] when an−1 + 1 = an . The covering radius approach used in [346] leads to a general lower bound. Cornuejols et al. [98] generalized Lemma 3.1.6 by applying techniques for decomposing the matrix of coeﬃcients of a family of integer programs. In [1], Aardal and Lenstra also gave a similar formulation for computing the Frobenius number and obtained upper and lower bounds for FP when the sequences are of the form ai = pi C + ri for some special integers pi , ri and C. Tinaglia [447] has estimated g(a1 , . . . , an ) when (a1 , . . . , ak ) = d1 and (ak+1 , . . . , an ) = d2 with (d1 , d2 ) = 1. In [456], Tripathi investigated the following problem. Let Γ(a1 , . . . , an ) denote the set of all non-negative integer combinations of a1 , . . . , an , that is, Γ is the set of all integers representable by a1 , . . . , an . Let S = {n ∈ Γ|n + a ∈ Γ for any a ∈ Γ}. Let g ∗ (respectively n∗ ) be the smallest integer (the number of elements) in S. Since g(a1 , . . . , an ) is the largest integer in S then g ∗ ≤ g(a1 , . . . , an ) and n∗ ≥ 1 with equality if and only if g ∗ = g(a1 , . . . , an ). Tripathi found the values of g ∗ and n∗ when the sequence a1 , . . . , an is an arithmetic progression. The latter problem arises in the study of the derivation modules of certain curves [324]. Temkin [443] has also studied the Frobenius number for an almost arithmetic set and Boros [56] has determined the Frobenius number ¨ uk constructed, for geometrical type sequences. In [407], Sert¨oz and Ozl¨ from integers a1 , . . . , an , an inﬁnite set I and showed that g(a1 , . . . , an ) can be found from I; see also [52, 94, 405].

70

The general problem

We ﬁnally mention that in [436, Section 1] Sun gave a brief survey on the Chinese research work about FP. Unfortunately the titles of the manuscripts, cited in the bibliography, are missing and the original sources [88, 247, 248, 281, 282] are not readily accessible.

4 Sylvester denumerant 4.1

From partitions to denumerants

Let p(m) be the partition function of an integer m, i.e. the number of ways a positive integer m can be written as a sum of positive integers (without restriction). The theory of the general partition function of an integer m is an old problem (a detailed account of this theory can be found in [114, pages 101–64]). This theory was established at the end of the eighteenth century by Euler [136] who found the generating function of p(m). Theorem 4.1.1 [136] The generating function of p(m) is given by ∞ i=1

1 (1−z i ) ·

Euler also proved the following recursive relation mp(m) =

m

p(m − k)σ(k),

k=1

where σ(k) denotes the sum of the divisors of m. The importance of the partition theory was enhanced by Hardy and Ramanujan and Rademacher [339, 340]; see also [86]. Hardy and Ramanujan [185] proved for p(m) the following asymptotic formula; see also [14]. √ 2m eπ 3 p(m) ∼ √ · 4 3m Erd˝ os [130] gave an elementary proof of the relation 1/2

a · eπ(2/3) m1/2 p(m) ∼ , m but was unable to show that a = 4√1 3 . Kr¨ atzel [254] showed that p(m) ≤ m/4 5 with equality only when m = 4.

72

Sylvester denumerant

In 1857, Sylvester [438] investigated the number of partitions into speciﬁed parts, repeated or not and deﬁned the function d(m; a1 , . . . , an ), called the denumerant, as the number of non-negative integer representations of m by a1 , . . . , an , that is, the number of solutions of the form n m=

xi ai ,

i=1

with integers xi ≥ 0. In [85, page 341], Cayley remarked “The notion of a denumerant is, in fact, an important generalization of the notion of a number of partitions”. Notice that d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is actually the number of partitions of m whose summands are taken (repetitions allowed) from the sequence a1 , . . . , an . Apostol [14] generalized Euler’s result by showing that md(m; a1 , . . . , an ) =

m

d(m − k; a1 , . . . , an )σn (k),

k=1

where σn (k) denotes the sum of those ai that divide m. Sylvester [439] found the generating function1 of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ); see also [440]. Theorem 4.1.2 [439] The generating function of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is given by 1 · f (z) = (1 − z a1 )(1 − z a2 ) · · · (1 − z an )

∞ 1 ir Proof. Recall that 1−z r has the expansion i=0 z and let us restrict ourselves to |z| < 1 wherein convergence is absolute. By taking r = a1 , . . . , an we ﬁnd n i=1

1 1−z ai

= (1 + z 1a1 + z 2a1 + · · ·)(1 + z 1a2 + z 2a2 + · · ·) × · · · × (1 + z 1an + z 2an + · · ·) =

∞ ∞

i1 =0 i2 =0

···

∞

in =0

z i1 a1 +···+in an =

∞

ci z i ,

i=0

where cm is the number of solutions of i1 a1 + · · · + in an = m in nonnegative integers i1 , . . . , in . That is, cm = d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Remark 4.1.3 g(a1 , . . . , an ) is the greatest integer k with f k (0) = 0. 1

A more general setting was previously pointed out by Euler; see Section 8.7.2.

Formulas and bounds for d(m; a1 , . . . , an )

4.2

73

Formulas and bounds for d(m; a1 , . . . , an )

The knowledge of an exact formula for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is not only of intrisic interest in number theory but also very important in other areas of mathematics; see Section 8.7. It is not surprising that ﬁnding formulas for denumerants is very diﬃcult since even the problem of determing if d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) > 0 is well known to be a N P-complete problem [322, page 376]; see also [3]. Thus, approximations and formulas for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) in particular cases are of great interest. In Section 4.3.1 some methods for computing d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) are explained. In 1877, Laguerre [261] investigated the general behaviour of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). In 1926, Schur [390] gave the following estimation for the value of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Theorem 4.2.1 [390]Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 and let Pn = ni=1 ai . Then,

d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ∼

mn−1 Pn (n−1)!

as m → ∞.

Proof. Consider the generating function of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ), that is,

f (z) =

(1 −

z a1 )(1

1 = d(m; a1 , . . . , an )z m , a a 2 n − z ) · · · (1 − z )

and let us simply look for one of the heaviest term in this expansion. f (z) is a rational function whose poles all lie on the unit circle |z| = 1. The point z = 1 is a pole of multiplicity n because the denominator has c an n-fold zero and so there will be a term (1−z) n . All the other zeros are roots of unity (i.e. they are of the form ω = e2πir/s where (r, s) = 1) and all will be of order lower than n. Indeed, the multiplicity with which point ω occurs as a pole of f (z) is equal to the number of ai s that are divisable by s that is stricly less than n since (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. m+n−1 c The coeﬃcient of the term (1−z)n is c × n−1 and the coeﬃcients b j n+j . Thus the total sum of of all other terms (1−ωz) j will be b × ω j−1 since all these terms is negligible compared to the term c × m+n−1 n−1 j < n, hence for m → ∞ we have d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ∼ c m+n−1 or n−1 mn−1 d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ∼ c (n−1)! . Let us now ﬁnd the value of c. The partial expansion of f (z) is of the form f (z) =

c 1 −n+1 + O (1 − z) , = (1 − z a1 )(1 − z a2 ) · · · (1 − z an ) (1 − z)n

74

Sylvester denumerant

multiply both sides by (1 − z)n to get

(1 − z) (1 − z) (1 − z) n −n+1 · · · = c + (1 − z) O (1 − z) . (1 − z a1 ) (1 − z a2 ) (1 − z an )

1−z By L’Hopital’s rule we have that limz→∞ 1−z ai = 1 −n+1 (1 − z) → 0 as z → ∞. Thus, c = Pn and

d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ∼

mn−1 Pn (n−1)!

1 ai

while (1 − z)n O

as m → ∞.

This result was also found by Netto [307]; see also [333, Problem 27] and [182]. It is clear that Theorem 4.2.1 implies that for given integers a1 , . . . , an with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 there exists a suﬃciently large integer M so that d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 for any m ≥ M ; see Theorem 1.0.1. Erd˝ os and Lehner [134] gave the following asymptotic formula d(m; 1, . . . , k) ∼

mk−1 k!(k − 1)!

(4.1)

that holds uniformly for k = o(m1/3 ). In [408, Theorem 1], Sert¨ oz and ¨ uk proved, by induction on n, the following more accuarate result. Ozl¨ d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) =

mn−1 + O mn−1 , Pn (n − 1)!

(4.2)

n with Pn = i=1 ai (the O(·) notation is used in the sense that O(mn−1 ) limm→∞ mn−1 = 0). Blom and Fr˝ oberg [50] showed that

(m + sn )n−1 mn−1 ≤ d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ , Pn (n − 1)! Pn (n − 1)! where s1 = 1, s2 = a2 and si = a2 + 12 (a3 + · · · + ai ) for i ≥ 3. Recently, Nathanson [306] came out with a purely arithmetic proof of the following even more accurate result than eqn (4.2). d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) =

mn−1 + O(mn−2 ). Pn (n − 1)!

(4.3)

¨ uk gave the folllowing nice relation for In [408], Sert¨ oz and Ozl¨ d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Theorem 4.2.2 [408] Let Pn = Sn + n − 2. Then,

1=

n−2

(−1)

i=0

!

i

n

i=1 ai ,

Sn =

n

i=1 ai

and m > Pn −

n−2 (d(m − i; a1 , . . . , an ) − d(m − i − Pn ; a1 , . . . , an )) · i

Formulas and bounds for d(m; a1 , . . . , an )

75

Proof. Let Qn (z) be deﬁned as

Qn (z) =

(1 − z Pn )(1 − z)n−2 1 − · a a 1 n (1 − z ) · · · (1 − z ) 1 − z

(4.4)

Qn (z) is a polynomial of degree Pn −Sn +n−2 since every root of the denominator is a root of the denominator with the same multiplicity. By Theorem 4.1.2 we have 1 n

=

(1 −

z ai )

∞

d(t; a1 , . . . , an )z t .

(4.5)

t=0

i=1

Substituting eqn (4.5) and the usual expansion of we obtain Qn (z) =

∞

=

n−2

(1 − z Pn )

t=0

= =

∞

i=0

!

n−2

−z

!

!

!

!

!

n−2 i z (−1)i d(t; a1 , . . . , an ) − 1 z t i

n−2 (−1)i (z i − z Pn +i ) d(t; a1 , . . . , an ) − 1 z t i

t=0 i=0 n−2 ∞ t=0 i=0 Pn +i+t

=

into eqn (4.4)

(1 − z Pn )(1 − z)n−2 d(t; a1 , . . . , an ) − 1 z t

t=0 ∞

1 (1−z)

!

n−2 (−1)i (z i+t d(t; a1 , . . . , an ) i d(t; a1 , . . . , an )) − z t

! ∞ n−2 n−2 t=0 i=0

(−1)i (d(t − i; a1 , . . . , an )

i

−d(t − i − Pn ; a1 , . . . , an ) − 1)z t . Since Qn (z) is a polynomial the coeﬃcient of z m is zero beyond the degree of Qn (z) and the result follows. In [5], Agnarsson used direct combinatorial methods to ﬁnd the following upper and lower bounds for denumerants. Theorem 4.2.3 [5] Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = d. Then,

d m − Bn Pn n − 1

!

!

d m + An ≤ d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ , Pn n − 1

76

Sylvester denumerant

where the Ai s and Bi s are deﬁned recursively as follows: i−1 ) A1 = 0 and Ai = Ai−1 + ai (a(a1 ,...,a , for 2 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ,...,ai )

and B1 = 0 and Bi = Bi−1 + ai

(a1 ,...,ai−1 ) (a1 ,...,ai )

− 1, for 2 ≤ i ≤ n.

Sylvester [438] and Cayley [85] showed that d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) = An (m) + Rn (m),

(4.6)

in m of degree n − 1 and Rn (m) is a where An (m) is a polynomial periodic function of period ni=1 ai ; see [307, pages 319–320]. The coeﬃcients of An (m) for n ≤ 4 can be found in [96, page 113]. In the case n = 1 we have A1 (m) = 1/a1 and R1 (m) = −1/a1 + 1 or −1/a1 according to whether a1 divides or not m. In the case n = 2 we have, by Theorem 4.4.1, that A2 (m) =

m 1 1 , R2 (m) = − a1 − a2 + 1, a1 a2 a1 a2

where a1 a1 ≡ −m mod a2 , 1 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 and a2 a2 ≡ −m mod a1 , 1 ≤ a2 ≤ a1 ; see Theorem 4.4.1. The polynomial part in eqn (4.6) when n = 3 can be obtained from the formulas in [96, page 113]. In particular, if a1 , a2 , a3 are pairwise relatively prime positive integers then A3 (m) =

m(m + a1 + a2 + a3 ) · 2a1 a2 a3

Moreover, a result due to Popoviciu [335, page 28] states that for each i = 1, 2, . . . , a1 + a2 + a3 − 1 we have R3 (a1 a2 a3 − (a1 + a2 + a3 ) + i) =

i(a1 + a2 + a3 − i) · 2a1 a2 a3

We observe that if (ai , aj ) = 1 for all 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n then the periodic part Rn (m) in eqn (4.6) is expressible as a sum ni=1 Ri , where each Ri , is periodic with period ai . Then, a linear system can be set up for the unknowns Ri (j), 1 ≤ i ≤ n and 0 ≤ j ≤ ai − 1. And, solving n 3 this system by Gaussian elimination requires O ( i=1 ai ) elementary operations. Beck et al. [33] have derived the following explicit formula for the polynomial part An (m) (deﬁned in eqn (4.6)).

Computing denumerants

An (m) =

77

n−1 1 (−1)k Bk · · · Bkn n−1−k t ak11 · · · aknn 1 , a1 · · · an k=0 (n − 1 − k)! k +···+k =m k1 ! · · · kn ! 1

n

where Bj is the Bernoulli number (see Appendix B.5).

4.3 Computing denumerants 4.3.1 Partial fractions The traditional method for computing denumerants is typically based on a decomposition of the rational fraction into partial fractions. This method can be helpful and easy to apply in some cases (see Example 4.3.1) but this is rare, normally it is more complicated and messy (see Example 4.3.2). Example 4.3.1 We may compute d(m; 1, 2).

1 1 = f (z) = 2 (1 − z)(1 − z ) 4 

1 1 1 + + 1 + z 1 − z (1 − z)2



1 =  (−z)m + zm + 2 (m + 1)z m  , 4 m≥0 m≥0 m≥0

which gives the value d(m; 1, 2) = 14 (2m + 3 + (−1)m ) as a coeﬃcient of z m . Example 4.3.2 (obtained from [184, pages 9–10]) We may compute d(m; 1, 2, 3).

1 1 1 = + 2 3 3 (1 − z)(1 − z )(1 − z ) 6(1 − z) 4(1 − z)2 1 1 1 + + + 72(1 − z) 8(1 + z) 9(1 + z + z 2 ) 1 1 1 1 = + + + · 3 2 2 6(1 − z) 4(1 − z) 4(1 − z ) 3(1 − z 3 )

f (z) =

1 We may use the fact that (1−αz) k is just a constant times the (m−1)−th 1 m m derivative of (1−αz) = α z . Thus, since

d m d 1 1 = = z = (m + 1)z m , 2 (1 − z) dz (1 − z) dz

78

Sylvester denumerant

and d d m + 1 m (m + 2)(m + 1) m 1 1 z = z , = = 3 2 (1 − z) dz 2(1 − z) dz 2 2 then d(m; 1, 2, 3) =

(m + 2)(m + 1) (m + 1) s1 (m) s2 (m) + + + , 12 4 4 4

(4.7)

where

s1 (m) =

1 0

if 2|m, otherwise

s2 (m) =

and

1 0

if 3|m, otherwise.

And eqn (4.7) can be shortened nicely into .

/

m2 + 6m + 5 . d(m; 1, 2, 3) = 12

4.3.2 Bell’s method Bell [38] gave an elementary proof of the fact that, for any ﬁxed q, d(pm + q; a1 , . . . , an ) is a polynomial in m of degree n − 1. Theorem 4.3.3 [38] Let p be the least common multiple of a1 , . . . , an . Then, for any integer q such that 0 ≤ q ≤ p − 1 and every integer s ≥ 0, we have

d(ps + q; a1 , . . . , an ) = c0 + c1 s + · · · + cn−1 sn−1 , where ci are constants independent of s. The constants are fully determined when the denumerant is known for n diﬀerent values of s, say s1 , . . . , sn . Indeed, by Lagrange’s interpolation formula d(ps + q; a1 , . . . , an ) =

n Fj (s) j=1

Fj (sj )

d(psj + q; a1 , . . . , an ),

(4.8)

where Fj (x) = h(x)/(x − sj ) and h(x) = (x − s1 )(x − s2 ) · · · (x − sn ). By putting sj = j, eqn (4.8) becomes ! n ! s−1 jd(jp + q; a1 , . . . , an ) n−j n (−1) . d(ps+q; a1 , . . . , an ) = s−j n j j=1 (4.9)

Computing denumerants

79

Example 4.3.4 Let us calculate d(2s; 1, 2) by using Bell’s result. From eqn (4.9) we have !

!

2 s−1 2 jd(js; 1, 2) (−1)2−j d(2s; 1, 2) = 2 j s−j j=1

!

s−1 = 2

−2d(2; 1, 2) 2d(4; 1, 2) . + s−1 s−2

Since d(2; 1, 2) = 2 and d(4; 1, 2) = 3 then (s − 1)(s − 2) d(2s; 1, 2) = 2

−4 6 + s−1 s−2

= s + 1.

Notice that d(2s; 1, 2) can also be obtained from Example 4.3.1 by taking m = 2s. Bell [39] also found the following determinant expression for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Theorem 4.3.5 [39] Let φ1 (m) (resp. φ2 (m)) be the number of partitions of integer m into an even (resp. odd) number of distinct parts chosen from integers a1 , . . . , an . If φ(m) = φ1 (m) − φ2 (m) then

d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) φ(1) 1 m = (−1) 0 ··· 0

φ(2) φ(1) 1 ··· 0

φ(3) φ(2) φ(1) ··· 0

··· ··· ··· ··· ···

φ(m − 1) φ(m − 2) φ(m − 3) ··· 1

φ(m) φ(m − 1) φ(m − 2) · · · · φ(1)

Example 4.3.6 We compute d(5; 2, 3) via Bell’s determinant. Figure 4.1 shows the values of φ1 , φ2 and φ. Thus, we have that 5 d(5; 2, 3) = (−1)

0 1 0 0 0

= (−1)(−1)

−1 −1 1 0 −1 −1 1 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 1 −1 −1 1 1 1 0 −1 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 0 1 0

1 1 −1 −1 0

80

Sylvester denumerant

i 1 2 3 4 5

φ1 (i) 0 0 0 1 1

φ2 (i) 0 1 1 0 0

φ(i) 0 −1 −1 1 1

Figure 4.1: The values of φ1 , φ2 and φ. −1 −1 1 1 0 −1 = (−1)(−1)(−1) 0 1 −1 −1 1 = (−1) (−1) + (−1) 1 −1

−1 1

−1 0

= (−1)((−1)0 + (−1)(1)) = 1, which is correct, since 2x + 3y = 5 has only the solution (x, y) = (1, 1).

4.4

d(m; p, q)

Let p and q be positive integers. It is known that for any non-negative integer m if m = qpq +s with 0 ≤ s < pq then d(m; p, q) = q +d(s; p, q). In fact,  0 or 1

d(m; p, q) =

1  0

if 0 < m < pq, for all pq − p − q < m < pq, if m = pq − p − q.

(4.10)

Notice that d(pq; p, q) = 2 if (p, q) = 1, since pq = x1 p + x2 q and either x1 = q and x2 = 0 or x1 = 0 and x2 = p. It is also d(m; p, q) is always one of the two consecutive , -known , that m m or pq + 1; see for instance [313, page 214] or [481, page integers pq 90]. In 1953, Popoviciu [335] found the exact value of d(m; p, q). Theorem 4.4.1 [335]Let p, q and m be positive integers with (p, q) = 1. Then, m + pp (m) + qq (m) d(m; p, q) = − 1, pq

where p (m)p ≡ −m mod q, 1 ≤ p (m) ≤ q and q (m)q ≡ −m mod p, 1 ≤ q (m) ≤ p.

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )

81

Theorem 4.4.1 has been rediscovered by Sert¨oz [405] and by Tripathi [454] (the proofs of which involved generating functions). Recentely, Brown, et al. [74] gave a short simple proof that we present here; see also [481, page 90] and [96, pages 113–114]. Proof of Theorem 4.4.1. By equality (4.10), we may assume that 0 < m < pq − p − q. Since pq divides pp (m) + qq (m) + m (as both p and q divides pp (m) + qq (m) + m) and 0 < pp (m) + qq (m) + m < 3pq then either pp (m) + qq (m) + m = pq or 2pq. Case I] If pp (m) + qq (m) + m = pq. We claim that d(m; p, q) = 0. Suppose that d(m; p, q) > 0 then there exist integers s, t ≥ 0 such that ps + qt = m. Hence, pp (m) + qq (m) + ps + qt = pq or equivalently p(p (m) + s) + q(q (m) + t) = pq. So, p divides q (m) + t and q divides p (m) + s but since 0 < q (m) + t ≤ p and 0 < p (m) + s ≤ q then p = q (m) + t and q = p (m) + s obtaining that 2pq = pq, which is a contradiction Case II] If pp (m) + qq (m) + m = 2pq. We just notice that m = p(q − p (m)) + q(p − q (m)). Then, d(m; p, q) = 1.

Theorem 4.4.1 can be easily generalized when (p, q) = d > 1. Corollary 4.4.2 Let (p, q) = d > 1. Then, 0

d(m; p, q) =

0 m+pp (m)+qq (m) [p,q]

−1

if d | m, otherwise,

where p (m)( dp ) ≡ −(m/d) mod (q/d) and q (m)( dq ) ≡ −(m/d) mod (p/d) if d divides m. Theorem 4.4.1 gives a formula for d(m; p, q), generalizing eqn (4.10). Corollary 4.4.3 Let (p, q) = 1 and let m = qpq + s with 0 ≤ s < pq. Then,  q+1   

if q if d(m; p, q) =  q + 1 if   q if

pq − p − q < s < pq, s = pq − p − q, s < pq − p − q and pp (s) + qq (s) + s = 2pq, s < pq − p − q and pp (s) + qq (s) + s = pq,

where p (s) and q (s) are deﬁned as in Theorem 4.4.1.

4.5

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) ¨ uk [408] have also investigated oz and Ozl¨ In connection with FP, Sert¨ the function d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) with 2 ≤ n ≤ 4. They found the following old results due to Ehrhart [123, 124].

82

Sylvester denumerant

Theorem 4.5.1 [123, 408] Let Sn = ni=1 ai , Pn = ni=1 ai and let rn and xn be deﬁned by m = rn Pn + xn with 0 < xn < Pn . If m ≥ Pn then m−x2 P2 + d(x2 ; a1 , a2 ), 3 (x3 +S3 ) d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = m(m+S3 )−x + 2P3

(a) d(m; a1 , a2 ) = (b)

d(x3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ),

(c) d(P3 − x3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(P3 − x3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + 1 for 1 ≤ x3 ≤ S3 − 2, (d)

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) = A − Bd(P4 − 2; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) + (B + r4 )d(P4 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) + d(x4 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ), where A =

1 2

r4

k=1 (m

− kP4 + 2) and B = 12 r4 (m + x4 − P4 + 2).

Proof. By putting n = 2 in the equation of Theorem 4.2.2 we have

d(m; a1 , a2 ) = d(m − P2 ; a1 , a2 ) + 1. Part (a) follows by successively substracting P2 from m. We now put n = 3 in the same equation, obtaining d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(m − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + d(m − P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − d(m − P3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + 1, which is valid for m < deg(Q3 ) = P3 − S3 + 1. It can be found, inductively, that d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(m − k; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + d(m − P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − d(m − P3 − k; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + k. We replace k by m − P3 (where d(−t) = 0 for any positive integer t) to obtain d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + d(m − P3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + m − P3 . Finally, by successively substracting P3 from m we obtain

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

2d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − P3 m2 + m 2P3 2P3 x3 P3 − 2x3 d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − x33 + + d(x3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 )· 2P3

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )

83

Part (b) follows by replacing Theorem 4.5.3 part (a) in the above equation. Parts (c) and (d) can be obtained by similar (but more tedious) arguments as that used in part (b). The following useful proposition was given by Brown et al. [74]. Proposition 4.5.2. [74]Let a1 , a2 , a3 and m be non-negative integers. Let S3 = 3i=1 ai , P3 = 3i=1 ai . Then,

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

d(m − S3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + q(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) q(m; a1 , a2 , a3 )

if m ≥ S3 , otherwise,

where q(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(m; a2 , a3 ) + d(m; a1 , a3 ) + d(m; a1 , a2 ) − a1 (m) − a2 (m) − a3 (m) and

d (t) =

1 0

if d|t, otherwise.

Proof. Let E{a1 ,a2 ,a3 } (m) = {(x, y, z)|x, y, z ≥ 0, integers and a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = m}. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ∈ E{a1 ,a2 ,a3 } (m). If 0 < m < a1 + a2 + a3 then x1 y1 z1 = 0. Thus, d(m − a1 − a2 − a3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = E{a1 ,a2 ,a3 } (m) \ {E{a1 ,a2 ,0} (m) ∪ E{a1 ,0,a3 } (m) ∪ E{0,a2 ,a3 } (m)} and the results follows by the inclusion-exclusion formula. Corollary 4.5.3 [74, 123, 408] Let a1 , a2 and a3 be non-negative integers. Let S3 = 3i=1 ai , P3 = 3i=1 ai . Then, 3 (a) d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = P3 +S + 1, 2 P3 −S3 + 2 3 S3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = P3 −S + 1, 2 P3 −S3 S3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 2 −

(b) d(P3 − S3 + 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (c) d(P3 − (d) d(P3 −

1, 1.

Proof. Consider the following equality P2

d(P3 − ia3 ; a1 , a2 ),

(4.11)

P3 − ia3 = fi P2 + ki with 0 ≤ ki < P2 .

(4.12)

d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

i=0

and deﬁne fi and ki as

By Theorem 4.5.1 part (a) and by eqn (4.11) we have d(fi P2 + ki ) =

fi P2 + ki − ki + d(ki ; a1 , a2 ) = fi + d(ki ; a1 , a2 ), P2

84

Sylvester denumerant

and thus d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

P2

(fi + d(ki ; a1 , a2 )) .

(4.13)

i=0

Since d(m; a1 , a2 ) = 0 for exactly half of the integers between 0 and P2 −S2 (cf. Theorem 5.1.1) and d(m; a1 , a2 ) = 1 for P2 −S2 +1 ≤ m ≤ P2 (cf. Theorem 4.4.3) then P2

P 2 −S2

P2

P2 + S 2 + 1 · 2 i=0 i=0 i=P2 −S2 +1 (4.14) P2 Now, the other sum in eqn (4.13), that is i=0 fi , is the number of lattice points in and on the triangle T (except the ones on the x-axis) deﬁned by the line P2 y + a3 x = P3 in the ﬁrst quadrant (the latter follows by comparing this with eqn (4.12)). This set of lattice points can be computed by using Pick’s theorem, that is, the area of T equals the number of interior lattice points of T plus half of the number of lattice points in its boundary minus one (see Theorem 2.1.2). Since the area of T is equals to P22a3 and the number of lattice points in its boundary is a3 + P2 + 1 then the number of interior lattice points of T is P3 −a32−P2 +1 . So, the number of lattice points in and on the triangle T (except the ones on the x-axis) is d(ki ; a1 , a2 ) =

d(ki ; a1 , a2 )+

d(ki ; a1 , a2 ) =

P3 + a3 − P2 + 1 P3 − a3 − P2 + 1 + a3 = , 2 2 and then P2 i=0

fi =

P3 − P2 + a3 + 1 · 2

(4.15)

Part (a) follows by adding eqns (4.14) and (4.15). Part (b) follows by combining Theorem 4.5.1 parts (a) and (b). (c) By Proposition 4.5.2, we have d(P3 − S3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(P3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − d(P3 ; a2 , a3 ) − d(P3 ; a1 , a3 ) −d(P3 ; a1 , a3 ) + a1 (P3 ) + a2 (P3 ) + a3 (P3 ). From Corollary 4.4.3 part (a), we obtain that d(P3 ; a2 , a3 ) = a1 + 1, d(P3 ; a1 , a3 ) = a2 +1 and d(P3 ; a1 , a2 ) = a3 +1. And, since a1 (P3 ) = a2 (P3 ) = a3 (P3 ) = 1 then d(P3 − S3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

P3 − S 3 + 1. 2

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) and d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )

85

(d) Again, from Proposition 4.5.2, we have d(P3 − S3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(P3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − d(P3 − 1; a2 , a3 ) −d(P3 − 1; a1 , a3 ) − d(P3 − 1; a1 , a2 ) +a1 (P3 − 1) + a2 (P3 − 1) + a3 (P3 − 1). By Theorem 4.5.1 part (b), we have that d(P3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) 3) − 1 and by Corollary 4.4.3, we obtain d(P3 − 1; a2 , a3 ) = = (P3 −S 2 d((a1 − 1)a2 a3 + (a2 a3 − 1); a2 , a3 ) = a1 (similarly, d(P3 − 1; a1 , a3 ) = d((a2 − 1)a1 a3 + (a1 a3 − 1); a1 , a3 ) = a2 and d(P3 − 1; a1 , a2 ) = d((a3 − 1)a1 a2 + (a1 a2 − 1); a1 , a2 ) = a3 ). Since a1 (P3 − 1) = a2 (P3 − 1) = a3 (P3 − 1) = 0 then d(P3 − S3 − 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

P3 − S 3 − 1. 2

In [74], Brown et al. found a recursive formula for d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ). Theorem 4.5.4 [74] Let n be an integer with 1 ≤ n ≤ a1 a2 a3 − a1 − a2 − a3 and let t be the largest integer such that m − t(a1 + a2 + a3 ) ≥ 0. Then,

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

t 2m(t + 1)S3 − t(t + 1)S32 1 + a (a1 , m − iS3 ) 2a1 a3 a3 a1 i=0 2

t 1 a (a2 , m − iS3 ) a2 i=0 3

t 1 a (a3 , m − iS3 ) a3 i=0 1

t

+ a3 (a1 , m − iS3 ) + + a1 (a2 , m − iS3 ) + + a2 (a3 , m − iS3 ) −

(a1 (m − iS3 ) + a2 (m − iS3 )

i=0

+ a3 (m − iS3 )) − 3(t + 1), where v (e, m) denotes the integer satisfying vv (e, m) ≡ −m mod e with positive integers, v, e, m such that (v, e) = 1 and with d (t) deﬁned as in Proposition 4.5.2. Proof. By applying recursively Proposition 4.5.2, we have that

d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

t−1 i=0

q(m − iS3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) + d(m − tS3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 )

86

Sylvester denumerant

=

t

q(m − iS3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ),

i=0

where q(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) is deﬁned as in Proposition 4.5.2. Hence, t

q(m − iS3 ; a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

i=1

t

(d(m − iS3 ; a2 , a3 )

i=1

+ d(m − iS3 ; a1 , a3 ) + d(m − iS3 ; a1 , a2 )) −

t

(a1 (m − iS3 ) + a2 (m − iS3 )

i=0

+ a3 (m − iS3 )) . The result follows by using Theorem 4.4.1. The following example illustrates Theorem 4.5.4. Example 4.5.5 (Obtained from [74]) Let a1 = 5, a2 = 7 and a3 = 11. Then, S3 = 23 and t = 1. We may ﬁnd d(41; 5, 7, 11) = 3. Indeed, there are exactly three partitions of 41 with parts in {5, 7, 11}, namely

41 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 11 = 5 + 7 + 7 + 11 + 11.

4.6

Hilbert series

In this section we will explain the connection of Hilbert series, denumerants and the Frobenius number (we refer the reader to Appendix B.3 for a basic presentation of modules, resolutions and Hilbert series needed throughout this section). Let k be a ﬁeld and let R = k[X1 , . . . , Xn ] be a graded polynomial ring where Xi has degree ai , denoted by deg(Xi ) = ai (sometimes called the weight or graduation of Xi ) with ai a non-negative integer. Then a monomial X b1 · · · X bn has (weighted) degree t = a1 b1 + · · · + an bn . This gives a grading on R such that Rt is the set of n-linear combinations of monomials of degree t. It is not diﬃcult to show (see proof of Theorem 4.1.2) that the Hilbert series of R is given by H(R, z) =

∞ t=0

dimk (Rt )z t =

1 (1 −

z a1 ) · · · (1

− z an )

,

(4.16)

where dimk means dimension as a vector space over k. In other words, H(R, z) is the generating function of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Let A[S] =

Hilbert series

87

k[z a1 , . . . , z an ] be the semigroup ring over a ﬁeld k associated to the semigroup S =< a1 , . . . , an > (note that A[S] is a graded subring of k[z]). Then, it turns out that the generating function of the elements in S is actually the Hilbert series of A[S], which is a rational function (see [433, 434]), that is, H(A[S], z) =

Q(z)

zs =

(1 −

i∈S

z a1 ) · · · (1

− z an )

·

(4.17)

Combining eqn (4.17) with the equality

zs +

zs =

i ∈S

i∈S

1 1−z

we obtain that g(a1 , . . . , an ) is equal to the degree of the rational function H(A[S], z). We are thus interested in calculating H(A[S], z). We notice that the N P-hardness result on the FP given in Theorem 1.3.1 implies that the computation of H(A[S], z) is a diﬃcult task from the computational point of view. In fact, Bayer and Stillman [30] proved that the computation of Hilbert series is N P-complete, in general. By using a classical method to compute Hilbert series via graded resolution (see Appendix B.3), we obtain that, if I

0 −→ Rdm −→Rdm−1 −→ · · · −→Rd1 −→R −→ A −→ 0 is a graded resolution of A[S] where the map I is given by the kernel of the map φ : xi → z ai for each i (I is sometimes called the toric ideal of the semigroup S) then m H(A[S], z) =

(−1)j H(Rdj , z),

(4.18)

j=0

where d0 = 1. We illustrate how this approach works with the following two examples. Example 4.6.1 We compute g(11, 19, 23, 37) by calculating the Hilbert serie of the semigroup ring A[S] associated to S =< 11, 19, 23, 37 >. Let R = k[X, Y, Z, T ], where deg(X) = 11, deg(Y ) = 19, deg(Z) = 23 and deg(T ) = 37. The graded resolution of A[S] is given by ψ3

ψ2

ψ1

I

0 → R8 → R6 −→ R1 −→ R −→ A → 0,

88

Sylvester denumerant

where the map I is given by the kernel of the map X → z 11 , Y → z 19 , Z → z 23 , T → z 37 and homomorphism ψi is given by matrix Mi where M1 = (X 3 Z − Y T



XZ 2 − Y 3

Z −X 2    Y M2 =   0   0 0 and

ZT − X 2 Y 2

T 2 − Y X5

X 8 − Z 3Y

T Y 2 X 2Y X 5 Z3 0 0 −T 0 0 0 Z3 3 −T 0 0 −X 6 −X ZX Y 0 Z 0 0 0 0 0 0 −Z −T −Y 2 0 0 0 −Y −X 3 −XZ 

Z 4 − T X 5) 

0 0  −Z 3    X 5  X 2Y  T



T Z3 0 5  −Z 0  −X    X2 0 Z3     Y 0 −X 6    M3 =  .  0 T X 3Y     0 −Z −Y 2     0 X2 T  0 Y XZ Thus, by eqn (4.18) we have that the Hilbert series of A[S] is given

by H(A[S], z) = z 56 + z 57 + z 60 + z 74 + z 88 + z 92 − (z 79 + z 93 + z 94 + z 97 + z 111 + z 125 + z 126 + z 129 ) + z 116 + z 148 + z 163 · (1 − z 11 )(1 − z 19 )(1 − z 23 )(1 − z 37 )

So, g(11, 19, 23, 37) = 163 − 90 = 73. The following example shows that symmetry in semigroups (see Section 7.2) does not imply complete intersection (see Section 7.3.2). Example 4.6.2 Let us compute g(5,6,7,8) by calculating the Hilbert serie of the semigroup ring A[S] associated to S =< 5, 6, 7, 8 >. Let R = k[X, Y, Z, T ], where deg(X) = 5, deg(Y ) = 6, deg(Z) = 7 and deg(T ) = 8. The graded resolution of A[S] is given by ψ3

ψ2

ψ1

I

0 → R5 → R5 −→ R1 −→ R −→ A → 0, where the map I is given by the kernel of the map X → z 5 , Y → z 6 , Z → z 7 , T → z 8 and homomorphism ψi is given by matrix Mi where M1 =

2 Y − XZ

Y Z − TX

Z2 − T Y

X3 − T Z

T 2 − X 2Y

A proof of a formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) 

Z −Y   M2 =  X   0 0

T −Z Y 0 0 

and

   M3 =   



X2 0 T Z Y

0 T 0 Y X T 2 − X 2Y X3 − T Z T Y − Z2 Y Z − TX Y 2 − XZ

89

0 X 2   0 ,  T Z

    .  

Thus, by eqn (4.18) we have that the Hilbert series of A[S] is given by H(A[S], z) = z 12 + z 13 + z 14 + z 15 + z 16 − (z 19 + z 20 + z 21 + z 22 + z 23 ) + z 35 · (1 − z 5 )(1 − z 6 )(1 − z 7 )(1 − z 8 ) Then, g(5, 6, 7, 8) = 35 − 26 = 9.

4.7

A proof of a formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 )

Let a1 , a2 , a3 > 1 be pairwise relatively prime integers. After, Herzog [191, 258], it is known that if R = k[X, Y, Z] is a polynomial ring graded by deg(X) = a1 , deg(Y ) = a2 and deg(Z) = a3 is not a complete intersection (that is, if the semigroup S =< a1 , a2 , a3 > is not symmetric) then A[S] = k[z a1 , z a2 , z a3 ] has graded resolution M

M

I

2 1 R3 −→ R −→ A → 0, 0 → R2 −→

(4.19)

where the map I is given by X → z a1 , Y → z a2 and Z → z a3 . Moreover, Herzog [191] proved that the toric ideal I of the semigroup S =< a1 , a2 , a3 > is generated by the entries of the matrix  

M1 = 

X L1 − Y x12 Z x13 Y L2 − X x21 Z x23 Z L3 − X x31 Y x32



 ,

where Li and xi,j are the integers appearing in the system of eqns (2.2). We use these to calculate the Hilbert series of A[S] from which the formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ), stated in Theorem 2.2.3, is obtained. Proof of Theorem 2.2.3. In each case, we compute the Hilbert series of H(A[S], z) by using eqn (4.18).

90

Sylvester denumerant

Case I] xij > 0 for all i, j. This case is reduced to ﬁnd matrix M2 as in eqn (4.19). We claim that M looks as follows

M2 =

Z x23 Y x32

X x31 Z x13

Y x12 X x21

.

Indeed,

M2 × M1 =

Z x23 X L1 − Y x12 Z x13 +x23 + X x31 Y L2 − X x21 +x31 Z x23 + Y x12 Z L3 − X x31 Y x32 +x12

Y x32 X L1 − Y x12 +x32 Z x13 + Z x13 Y L2 − X x21 Z x23 +x13 + X x21 Z L3 − X x31 +x21 Y x32

=

0 , 0

where the last equality follows by using Proposition 4.7.1 part (a). As all of the terms, in each entry, are homogeneous, we have that u = a3 x21 + a1 L1 = a1 x31 + a2 L2 = a2 x12 + a3 L3 , and v = a2 x32 + a1 L1 = a3 x13 + a2 L2 = a1 x21 + a3 L3 . So, by eqn (4.18), we have H(A[S], z) =

1 − z a1 L1 − z a2 L2 − z a3 L3 + z u + z v · (1 − z a1 )(1 − z an )(1 − z a3 )

Therefore, the degree of H(A[S], z) is max{u, v} − a1 − a2 − a3 and the formula follows. Case II] xij = 0 for some i, j. Without loss of generality, suppose that x12 = 0. By Proposition 4.7.1 part (b), the toric ideal I is then generated by the entries of the matrix M1 =

X L1 − Z L3 Y L2 − X x21 Z x23

!

=

a b

.

In this case, A[S] has graded resolution M

M

I

2 1 0 → R −→ R2 −→ R −→ A → 0,

where M2 = (b, −a). So, by eqn (4.18) again, we have H(A[S], z) =

1 − z a1 L1 − z a2 L2 + z a1 L1 +a2 L2 (1 − z a1 L1 )(1 − z a2 L2 ) = · (1 − z a1 )(1 − z an )(1 − z a3 ) (1 − z a1 )(1 − z an )(1 − z a3 )

And the degree of H(A[S], z) is a1 L1 + a2 L2 − a1 − a2 − a3 .

Ehrhart polynomial

91

We ﬁnally prove the following proposition used in the above proof. Proposition 4.7.1. Let Li , i = 1, . . . , 3 and xij be the integers satisfying eqns (2.2). (a) If xij > 0 for all i, j then

L1 = x21 + x31 L2 = x12 + x32 L3 = x13 + x23 . (b) If xij = 0 for some i, j then Li ai = Lk ak , k = j and Lj aj = xji ai + xjk ak with xji , xjk > 0. Proof. Part (a) can be easily checked as a consequence of minimality (see [191, Proposition 3.2]). Part (b) If xij = 0 for some i, j then Li ai = xik ak with k = j. We claim that xkj = 0. We do this by contradiction. Suppose that xkj > 0, we notice, by the minimality of Lk , that xik ≥ Lk . Also note that xki > 0. So, we have

Li ai = xki ai + (xik − Lk )ak + xkj aj , and thus (Li − xki )ai = (xik − Lk )ak + xkj aj , with xik − Lk ≥ 0 and xkj > 0, which is a contradiction with the minimality of Li . Thus, if xij = xkj = 0 then Li ai = xik ak and Lk ak = xki ai . Now, the minimality of Li implies that (Li , xik ) = 1 and then xki (resp. Lk ) is a multiple of Li (resp. xik ). And, by minimality, we have that Li = xki and xik = Lk . Moreover, if xji = 0 (respectively xjk = 0) then, by similar arguments as in Part (a), this would imply that xki = 0 (respectively xik = 0), which is impossible. The above connection between the Frobenius number and Hilbert series has been observed earlier by Morales [299]; see also [300]. However, Morales’ motivation was in the converse direction, that is, to use results related to the Frobenius number in order to calculate some special resolutions; see Section 8.4.

4.8

Ehrhart polynomial

A set C ⊂ IRn is called convex if, for all x, y ∈ C, x = y, the line segment {λx + (1 − λ)y|0 ≤ λ ≤ 1} is contained in C. A convex polytope is the convex hull of ﬁnitely many points in IRn . A hyperplane

92

Sylvester denumerant

H is called a supporting hyperplane of a convex polytope P ⊂ IRn if H ∩ P = ∅ and P ⊂ H − or P ⊂ H + . If H is a supporting hyperplane of P then we call F = P ∩ H a face of P . A 1-,2- and (n − 1)-face of a polytope ⊂ IRn is called vertex, edge and facet of P . Let P be a convex polytope of dimension n. A polytope is called integral (respectively rational) if all its vertices have integer (respectively rational) coordinates. Let t be a positive integer and let i(P, t) be the number of lattice points in P dilated by a factor of t, that is, i(P, t) = #(tP ∩ ZZn ), where tP = {(tx1 , . . . , txn )|(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ P }. In other words, i(P, t) counts the number of lattice points that lie inside the dilated polytope tP . Ehrhart [127] initiated the systematic study of the function i(P, t) (see also [123, 124]). Theorem 4.8.1 [127] Let P be an integral convex polytope of dimension n. Then, i(P, t) is always a polynomial in t ∈ IN of degree n. That is, (4.20) i(P, t) = en (P )tn + en−1 (P )tn−1 + · · · + e0 (P ).

Moreover, for positive integers n the value of (−1)deg i(t,P ) i(P, −t) is equal to the number of integral points in the relative interior of the polytope tP (the ‘reciprocity law’). The polynomial i(P, t) is called the Ehrhart polynomial. We refer the reader to the monograph [126] that collects Ehrhart’s work and where detailed references are given; see also [290, 291] for another proof of Theorem 4.8.1 and related results. It is known that e0 = 1, en = vol(P ) (vol(P ) denotes the volume of P ) and en−1 is the sum of the volumes of the (n − 1)-dimensional faces of P . The other coeﬃcients of i(P, t) remained a mystery. However, in the special case when P is a unimodular zonotope (i.e. a polytope that tiles the space) there is a nice interpretation of these coeﬃcients in terms of the Tutte polynomial associated to P; see [479] for further details. There exists a close relationship among denumerants and Ehrhart polynomials. Indeed, given a set of positive integers a1 , . . . , an , we consider the following rational polytope P = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ IRn : xk ≥ 0,

n k=1

ak xk ≤ 1}.

(4.21)

Ehrhart polynomial

93

y 3

2

1

x 1

2

3

4

3x+4y=5

Figure 4.2: Dilates of 3x + 4y = t and some points of the integer lattice.

Note that P has vertices (0, . . . , 0), ( a11 , 0, . . . , 0), (0, a12 , 0, . . . , 0), . . . , (0, . . . , 0, a1n ). Thus, geometrically, d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) enumerates the lattice points on the skewed facet of P. Remark 4.8.2 g(a1 , . . . , an ) is the largest integer t such that the facet n { k=1 xk ak = t} of the dilated polytope tP contains no lattice point, that is, the largest t such that d(t; a1 , . . . , an ) = 0. Example 4.8.3 Let a1 = 3 and a2 = 4. Figure 4.2 shows that the hypotenuse of P is given by 3x + 4y = t (that is, the hypotenuse of the t-dilated triangle 3x + 4y ≤ 1). It is clear that this line has no integer points if t = 5 but it always does for any integer t ≥ 6; see the third proof of Theorem 2.1.1.

In the case when P is a rational polytope it is known that i(P, t) is not a polynomial but a quasipolynomial (a quasipolynomial of degree n is a function f : IN → C of the form f (t) = cn (t)tn + · · · + c1 (t)t + c0 (t), where each ci (t) is a periodic function (with integer period), and where cn (t) is not the zero function.

94

Sylvester denumerant

Beck et al. [31] presented two diﬀerent procedures for computing the terms appearing in the quasipolynomials i(P, t) = #(tP ∩ ZZn ) and i(P 0 , t) = #(tP 0 ∩ ZZn ), where P 0 denotes the interior of polytope P (deﬁned in eqn (4.21)). Their proof is based on the Fourier–Dedekind sums and the Fourier analytical method [70, 338]. From these results, they showed that d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) has an explicit representation as a quasipolynomial. In [35], Beck and Zacks used Remark 4.8.2 to obtain upper bounds for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) that depends on upper bounds for the periodic part of d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ). For n = 2, eqn (4.20) correspond to Pick’s theorem. Let S be a polygon, by Theorem 2.1.2, we have A(S) = I(S) +

B(S) − 1, 2

where A(S) denotes the area of S, I(S) and B(S) are the number of lattice points in the interior and in the boundary of S respectively. So, I(S) + B(S) = A(S) −

B(S) B(S) + 1 + B(S) = A(S) + + 1. 2 2

This yields to 1 i(S, t) = vol(S)t2 + vol(∂S)t + 1, 2 where vol(∂S) denotes the sum of the lattice lengths of the edges of S. For a three-dimensional integral convex polytope T we have 1 i(T , t) = vol(T )t3 + vol(∂T )t2 + e1 t + 1, 2 where vol(∂T ) denotes the sum of the lattice volumes of the twodimensional faces of T . An interesting problem is to determine the value of e1 . By analogy with Pick’s theorem, one would hope to express e1 in terms of the volumes of the one-dimensional faces of T . In [348], it is shown that this is not possible in general. To see this, we consider the tetrahedron Tr ∈ ZZ3 with vertices at (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (1, 1, r) with r ∈ ZZ. It can be proved that e1 = 1 − 6r , but the lattice volumes of the one-dimensional and two-dimensional faces of Tr are independent of r. Thus, even in case of a tetrahedron, a formula for e1 cannot just depend on the volumes of the faces of T .

Variations of the denumerant

95

Pommersheim [334] used techniques from algebraic geometry related to the Todd classes of toric varieties to express e1 in terms of Dedekind sums2 in the case of a general lattice tetrahedron. Mordell [301] had already made the connection between lattices points in a tetrahedron and Dedekind sums by considering the tetrahedron T (a, b, c) with vertices (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and (0, 0, c). Mordell gave a formula for i(T (a, b, c), t) expressed in terms of three Dedekind sums when the integers a, b, c are pairwise relatively prime. Pommersheim [334] derived a formula for i(T (a, b, c), t) for arbitrary positive integers a, b, c by using the connection between convex polytopes and toric varieties. Theorem 4.8.4 [334] Let a, b, c integers with (a, b, c) = 1. Then,

ab + ac + bc + d 2 abc 3 i(T (a, b, c), t) = t t + 61 4 ! 1 ac bc ab d2 + + + + 12 b a c abc bc ad1 a + b + c + d1 + d2 + d3 + − d1 s , 4 d d ac bd2 ab cd3 − d2 s − d3 s t + 1, , , d d d d where d1 = (b, c), d2 = (a, c), d3 = (a, b) and d = d1 d2 d3 . In the next section, we shall see how the value of i(T (a, b, c), t) could be obtained as a particular case of a more general function (see Remark 4.9.1).

4.9

Variations of the denumerant

In this section we discuss some variations of the denumerant. 2

The Dedekind sum s(p, q) for relatively prime integers p and q is deﬁned by

s(p, q) =

q i pi i=1

where

((x)) =

q

x − x − 0

q

1 2

,

if x ∈ ZZ if x ∈ ZZ.

96

Sylvester denumerant

4.9.1 d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) Let m, a1 , . . . , an be integers such that m ≥ ai > 0 for i = 1, . . . , n. Let d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) be deﬁned as the number of solutions to x1 a1 + · · · + xn an ≤ m with integers xi ≥ 0. Remark 4.9.1 Let t be a positive integer. Let S be the set of all non-negative integer points in x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) such that ax11t + ax22t + x3 a3 t ≤ 1. In other words, S is the set of all integer points in the positive orthant lying ‘below’ the hyperplane H passing through the points (a1 t, 0, 0), (0, a2 t, 0) and (0, 0, a3 t). Since the equation of H is given by y x z a1 t + a2 t + a3 t = 1 then we have

i(T (a, b, c), t) = d (ta1 a2 a3 ; a2 a3 , a1 a3 , a2 a3 ). The value d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) has been extensively studied. Beged-Dov [36] has investigated the function d (m; a1 , . . . , an ), in relation with a knapsack-type problem called the cutting stock problem3 and found the following bounds. Theorem 4.9.2 Let a1 , . . . , an positive integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 and let Pn = nj=1 aj . Then, n n m + a i mn i=1 ≤ d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ · n!Pn n!Pn Proof. Let B(b1 , . . . , bn ) denote the set of points x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) satisfying the following 2n inequalities

bi ai ≤ xi < (bi + 1)ai

(4.22)

for each i = 1, . . . , n. B(b1 , . . . , bn ) is a n-dimensional rectangular box with volume Pn . Let P (r) denote the set of points x satisfying x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ≥ 0 and x1 + · · · + xn ≤ r.

(4.23)

n

P (r) is a pyramid of volume rn! . Now, each x ∈ IRn belongs to the unique box B(b1 , . . . , bn ), where bi = xaii for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus, if x is in P (m) then, by eqn (4.23) we have that n xi i=1 3

ai

ai ≤

n xi i=1

ai

ai =

n

xi ≤ m,

i=1

The cutting stock problem is the problem of ﬁlling an order at minimum cost for speciﬁed numbers of lengths of material to be cut from given stock lengths of given cost; see [156].

Variations of the denumerant

97

and so, bi ai + · · · + bn an ≤ m.

(4.24)

Therefore, the union of the d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) boxes B(b1 , . . . , bn ) where the (b1 , . . . , bn ) satisfy inequality (4.24) contains P (m). We obtain the lower bound by comparing the volume of this union with the volume of P (m), that is mn ≤ d (m; a1 , . . . , an )Pn . n! Conversely, consider any point x in any of the d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) boxes B(b1 , . . . , bn ) with (b1 , . . . , bn ) satisfying (4.24). From eqn (4.22) we have n n xi ≤

(bi + 1)ai ≤ m +

i=1

ai ,

i=1

which shows that x is in P (m + ni=1 ai ). We now obtain the upper bound by comparing the volume of the union of the d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) n boxes with the (larger) volume of P (m + i=1 ai ), that is

m+ Pn d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

n i=1

n!

n

ai ·

Padberg [321] showed that the lower bound can be sharpened, obtaining (m + 1)n ≤ d (m; a1 , . . . , an ). (4.25) n!Pn In [321], Padberg also derived alternative upper and lower bounds for d (m; a1 , . . . , an ). It is clear that d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) =

m

d(i; a1 , . . . , an ),

i=0

thus the d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is the coeﬃcient of z m in the development of f (z) =

1 f (z), 1−z

where f (z) is the generating function of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ). Achou [4] studied the generating function f (z) and derived an expression to

98

Sylvester denumerant

compute d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) when the integers a1 , . . . , an are pairwise relatively prime. However, because of the presence of complex roots of unity, is awkward to calculate d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) numerically. In [329], Piehler transformed Achou’s formula so that the calculation can be done by using only rational numbers. Hujter [212] improved the above upper and lower bounds of d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) by using geometrical methods. Theorem 4.9.3 [212] Let d = (a1 , . . . , an ) and V = d m d (i.e. V is the largest integer that is not larger than m and a multiple of d). Then,

(V + d)n n!

n

2 V +

≤ d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤

aj

j=1

1 2

n

!2

aj

j=1 n

n!

−Vn ·

aj

j=1

The proof of the above upper bound is based on the so-called Brunn–Minkowski inequality (see [177] for details of this inequality).

4.9.2 d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) In [343], we have investigated the boundary between easy and hard variations of the denumerant. Let m, a1 , . . . , an , r1 , . . . , rn be integers such that 0 ≤ ai ≤ ri for i = 1, . . . , n and let d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of solutions to x1 a1 + · · · + xn an = m

with integers 0 ≤ xi ≤ ri .

A sequence a1 , . . . , an is called a chain-divisible if aj |aj+1 for j = 1, . . . , n−1 and superincreasing if ji=1 ai ≤ aj+1 for j = 1, . . . , n− 1. Theorem 4.9.4 [343] There exists a polynomial time algorithm that decides whether d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 if either (a) a1 , . . . , an is superincreasing and ri = 1 for all i or (b) a1 , . . . , an is an arithmetic progression and ri = 1 for all i or (c) a1 , . . . , an is a chain. Proof. (a) d (m; a , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 if and only if there exists s ⊆ {1, . . . , n} 1 such that m = i∈s ai . Let r be the greatest integer such that m ≥ ar . Since the sequence is superincreasing then m = ar + t where we now need to ﬁnd a representation of t as the sum of the superincreasing

Variations of the denumerant

99

sequence a1 , . . . , ar−1 . repeating this procedure gives a representation of m (if there exists one). (b) We shall use the following observation. Observation: Let a, n, k be integers with 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Then, if there exists s ⊆ T = {a, a + j, . . . , a + (n − 1)j} with |s| = k, s = {a + (n − k)j, . . . , a + (n − 1)j} such that i∈s i = t then there exists s ⊆ T with |s | = k, such that i∈s i = t + j. Let a, n, k be integers with 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Let Sk = {s | s ⊆ {a, a + j, . . . , a + (n − 1)j} and |s| = k}, and let

ck = ck (a, n, j) = min s∈Sk

and dk = dk (a, n, j) = max s∈Sk

i∈s

i=

i∈s

i=

k(k − 1) j + ka, 2

n(n − 1) − (n − 1 − k)(n − k) j + ka 2

k(2n − k − 1) = j + ka. 2 Observe that ck and dk are increasing functions of k. First note that for all s in Sk we have i∈s i ≡ ck ≡ ka mod j. Let g = (a, j). Suppose that g|t (otherwise there can be no solution, since we would have t = pa + qj for some p, q ∈ IN). There is a solution in SSP with triple (a1 , n, j) and integer t if and only if the there is a solution in SSP with triple (ˆ a1 = ag1 , n, ˆj = gj ) and integer tˆ = gt . Thus we may assume that a and j are coprime, and so a has an inverse a−1 mod j, (easily computed by Euclidean algorithm). We are interested only in the sizes k such that ka ≡ t mod j, i.e., such that k ≡ a−1 t mod j. Let k1 be the least k ≡ a−1 t mod j such that dk ≥ t. We may ﬁnd k1 in polynomial time by binary search (or ﬁnd if there is no such k). Hence, by the above observation d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 if and only if ck1 ≤ t. (c) Let e and f be non-negative integers with e ≤ f . Let S(P ) = S (a1 , r1 , . . . , an , rn ; e, f ) be the set of vectors x= (x1 , . . . , x n ) of nonnegative integers such that 0 ≤ xi ≤ ri for i = 1, . . . , n and ni=1 ai xi ∈ [e, f ]. We may ﬁnd (if there exist) vectors x= (x1 , . . . , xn ) such that S(P ) = ∅ (i.e., such that d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1) by repeating the following subroutine. Let S(P1 ) = S(a1 , r1 , . . . , an , rn ; t1 , t2 ), and let a1 , r1 , . . . , a ¯n , rn ; t¯1 , t¯2 ) with a ¯i = aa1i for i = 1, . . . , n, t¯1 = S(P2 ) = S(¯ at11 and t¯2 = at21 . Then, S(P1 ) = S(P2 ) since ni=1 ai xi = a1 ni=1 a ¯i xi . Further, S(P2 ) = ∅ if and only if S(P3 ) = S(¯ a2 , r2 , . . . , a ¯n , rn ; t¯1 − r1 , t¯2 ) = ∅.

100

Sylvester denumerant

However, in general, to decide whether d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 is a diﬃcult probem. Theorem 4.9.5 [343] Decide whether d (m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ 1 is a N Pcomplete problem even if the sequence a1 , . . . , an is superincreasing and ri ≤ 2 for all i.

In [343], we also proved that some more general problems can be solved in polynomial time for particular sequences; see also [341] for further related results.

4.10

Supplemetary notes

Hofmeister [203] studied FP via the partition theory; see also the paper [491] by Z¨ ollner for further results on this direction. Another proof of Theorem 4.2.1 was also given by Wright [482]. Fergola4 and Sardi5 gave a more complicated determinant expression of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) than Theorem 4.3.5. Kuriki [259, 260] found a recursive formula for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) based on Theorem 4.3.5 and Del Vigna [110] gave a combinatorial proof of Theorem 4.3.3. By investigating d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) and variants of it, Badra [22] obtained formulas for the Frobenius number, improving Chrz stowski-Wachtel’s result (Theorem 3.2.1) and generalizing Rødseth’s formula (Theorem 5.3.9). The form that the function d(m; p, q) takes is well known; see [481, page 90] and [96, pages 113–114]. In [23], Barbosa obtained the following explicit formulas: d(m; 1, 3, 4) = m(m + 8)/24 + 1, d(m; 1, 3, 5) = m(m + 9)/30 + 1 and d(m; 1, 4, 5) = m(m + 10)/40 + a where a = 2 if m ≡ 5 mod 20 and a = 1 otherwise. Israilov [216] found a ‘long’ but general formula for d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) in the case when a1 , . . . , an are pairwise relatively primes. Israilov also discussed a method to calculate denumerants. Ehrhart [125, 126] has also developed an algorithm for the computation of d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) in the general case and Komatsu [249] gave a general form that is well computable practically to ﬁnd d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) when (ai , aj ) = 1 for all i = j and m ≥ 2. In [330], Piehler investigated d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) through examples by using results due to Csorba [101]. Investigations on d(m; p, q) have also been done by Catalan and de Polignac among others (see [114, pages 64–71] for an historical review of d(m; p, q) and related problems). Blakley [45, 46, 47] has developed the denumerant partition theory to multi-indexes as follows. For vectors m = (m1 , . . . , mk ), let L be the 4 5

Giornali di Matematiche 1 (1863), 63–64. ibid. 3 (1865), 94–99.

Supplemetary notes

101

system of k equations, ai,1 x1 + ai,2 x2 + ai,3 x3 + · · · = mi , where ai,j are integers. Blakley showed that the generating function of number d(ai,j ) (m) of solutions of system L in integers xi ≥ 0 is given by !

m1 ,m2 ,...,mk ≥0

1 d(ai,j ) (m)tm 1

k · · · tm k

=

j≥1

1−

k a i,j

ti

i=1

−1

·

¨ uk applied their results in [408] to the theory of Sert¨ oz and Ozl¨ Hilbert–Samuel polynomials (a basic reference for deﬁnitions on the Hilbert–Samuel polynomials is [20]). Lisonˇek [277] presented an arithmetic procedure to compute d(m; a, b, c) in time O (ab) for any m when a, b, c are pairwise relatively prime positive integers. A nice MAPLE package for computing denumerants has been implemented by Lisonˇek [278]. A closed formula for the Ehrhart polynomial of a lattice of a 4-simplex was announced by Kantor and Khovanskii [230] and more recently by Cappell and Shaneson [84] for n-simpleces. Diaz and Robins [111, 112] computed the Ehrhart polynomial using Fourier integrals; see also the work by Brion and Vergne [71, 72]. A fuller review of problems concerning lattice points can be found in [133] and [181]. In [385], Sardo Inﬁrri studied the problem of lattice point enumeration using ideas in relation with toric varieties. We refer the reader to [26] and [27] for a detailed discussion of this and related topics and in which a vast literature can be found. An optimization version of the value dm (n) is considered by Campillo and Revilla [83]. They showed how the availability of the greedy algorithm for ﬁnding the minimum number of coins l(b) in a coin system, 1 = a1 < · · · < an needed to achieve the value b > 0 is related to the Cohen–Macaulay property of the toric projective curves given by the integers a1 , . . . , an .

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5 Integers without representation 5.1

Sylvester’s classical result

Let N (a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of positive integers with no nonnegative integer representation by a1 , . . . , an (we still assume that (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 unless stated otherwise). The study of N (a1 , . . . , an ) dates back at least to 1882 in a paper by Sylvester [439] in which the partition function and the denumerant are studied; see Chapter 4. In [439] an explicit formula for N (a1 , a2 ) is given. Theorem 5.1.1 [439, page 134] Let p, q be positive integers such that (p, q) = 1. Then, 1 N (p, q) = (p − 1)(q − 1). 2 In 1909, Glaisher [157] simpliﬁed Sylvester’s proof to obtain the same formula; see also [158]. In [437, Problem 7382], Sylvester posed, (as a recreational problem) the question of ﬁnding such a formula. We reproduce below the page of this so many referenced manuscript1 where Curran Sharp [413] answered Sylvester’s question. We may give two other proofs of Theorem 5.1.1. Let N ∗ (p, q) be the set of positive integers without non-negative integer representation by ¯ ∗ (p, q) = IN \ N ∗ (p, q). p and q and let N Second proof of Theorem 5.1.1. Suppose that c ∈ N ∗ (p, q), i.e., c = px+qy with x, y ≥ 0. We claim that (p−1)(q−1)−c−1 ∈ N ∗ (p, q). Assume the contrary, that is, there exist integers z, t ≥ 0 such that pz + qt = (p − 1)(q − 1) − c − 1. Then,

pz + qt = (p − 1)(q − 1) − c − 1 = p(q − 1 − x) + q(−1 − y) = p(−1 − x) + q(p − 1 − y). 1

With the kind permission of The Educational Times. We keep the same style and format as the original manuscript.

104

Integers without representation

MATHEMATICS from

THE EDUCATIONAL TIMES, WITH ADDITIONAL PAPERS AND SOLUTIONS. ----------------------------------------------------------------7382. (By Professor Sylvester, F.R.S.)-If p and q are relative primes, prove that the number of integers inferior to pq which cannot be resolved into parts (zeros admissible), multiples respectively of p and q , is 1 2 (p

− 1)(q − 1).

[If p = 4, q = 7, we have 12 (p − 1)(q − 1) = 9; and 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 17 are the only integers inferior to 28, which are neither multiples of 4 or 7, nor can be made up by adding together multiples of 4 and 7.] ——— Solution by W.J. Curran Sharp, M.A. If the product (1 + xp + x2p + · · · + xpq )(1 + xq + x2q + · · · + xpq ) be considered, each term between 1 and xpq corresponds to a number less than pq , and of the form mp + nq ; also 2xpq is the middle term, and the coefficients from each end are the same. Hence twice the number of integers of the form mp + nq , and less then pq , is the value of the above product when x = 1 with four deducted, since the terms involving x1 , xpq , x2pq are not included; and therefore the number of these integers is 1 2 (p

+ 1)(q + 1) − 2

and the number of those which cannot be put into this form

= pq − 1 −

2

1 2 (p

3

+ 1)(q + 1) − 2 =

1 2

[pq − p − q + 1] = 12 (p − 1)(q − 1).

-------------------------------------------------------------------

Nijenhuis’ and Wilf’s results

105

Since (p, q) = 1 then it is impossible to have (p − 1)(q − 1) − c − 1 = pz+qt with −1−x < z < q−1−x. Hence, we have either z ≤ −1−x < 0 (which is a contradiction since z ≥ 0) or z ≥ q − 1 − y but then t ≤ −1 − y < 0 (which is also a contradiction since y ≥ 0). Now suppose that c ∈ N ∗ (p, q). We can write c = xp + yq with 0 ≤ x < q and y < 0. We also have that (p − 1)(q − 1) − c − 1 = p(q − 1 − x) + q(−1 − y), where (−1 − y) ≥ 0 and q − 1 − x ≥ 0. Thus, we have that the symmetry, regarding the middle of the interval [0, . . . , pq − p − q], interchanges the elements of N (p, q)∗ and its complement. Therefore, each class, in this interval, has 12 (p − 1)(q − 1) elements. Third proof of Theorem 5.1.1. Consider the map φ : [1, . . . , q − ¯ ∗ (p, q) deﬁned by φ(x, y) = px + qy. 1] × [1, . . . , p − 1] −→ N Remark 5.1.2 There is a central symmetry with center ( 2q , p2 ) (which is a point on the line with at least one non-integer co-ordinate) between the points in (z1 , z2 ) ∈ [1, . . . , q − 1] × [1, . . . , p − 1] lying below the line px + qy = pq that is, points such that pz1 + qz2 < pq and the points in (z1 , z2 ) ∈ [1, . . . , q − 1] × [1, . . . , p − 1] lying above this line that is, points such that pz1 + qz2 > pq.

Since there are no points φ(x, y) lying on px+qy = pq in [1, . . . , q−1] ×[1, . . . , p − 1] then, by the above remark, there are (p − 1)(q − 1)/2 points lying in the region [1, . . . , q − 1] × [1, . . . , p − 1]. By adding points ip, 1 ≤ i ≤ q − 1 and jq, 1 ≤ j ≤ p − 1 and 0, we ﬁnd that there are (p−1)(q−1)/2+(p−1)+(q−1)+1 elements in [0, . . . , pq−1] of the form pIN+qIN. Therefore, there are pq−((p−1)(q−1)/2+(p−1)+(q−1)+1) = (p − 1)(q − 1)/2 elements not of the form pIN + qIN. in [0, . . . , pq − 1]. It is easy to verify that if c ≥ pq then we can write c = px + qy with 0 ≤ x < q; and thus y > 0 (see proof of Theorem 2.1.1). Therefore, |N ∗ (p, q)| = (p − 1)(q − 1)/2. We invite the reader to see Chapter 7 (cf. Proposition 3.2.3) for a generalization of Theorem 5.1.1 in terms of symmetric semigroups.

5.2

Nijenhuis’ and Wilf’s results

Nijenhuis and Wilf [310] studied N (a1 , . . . , an ). Let d1 = a1 and di = (a1 , . . . , ai ), 1 < i ≤ n. We say that the sequence a1 , . . . , an satisfy condition [I]

if

aj dj

=

1 dj−1

j−1 i=1

yji ai with integer yji ≥ 0 for each j = 2, . . . , n,

106

Integers without representation

and condition [II]

n−1

if g(a1 , . . . , an ) =

i=1

ai+1 di /di+1 −

n

ai .

i=1

Theorem 5.2.1 [310] Suppose that a1 , . . . , an satisfy condition [I] then

[III]

N (a1 , . . . , an ) =

1 2

n−1 i=1

ai+1 di /di+1 −

n

ai .

i=1

Moreover, the right side of [III] is always an upper bound for N (a1 , . . . , an ). Rødseth [373] found the following easy proof of Theorem 5.2.1. Proof of Theorem 5.2.1. Let γ = It is clear that

N

a1 ai ai+1 ,..., , di di di+1

1 2

4 n−1

≥N

i=1

ai+1 di /di+1 −

n

5

i=1 ai .

a1 ai ,..., , di di

i+1 where equality holds if and only if adi+1 is dependent on ad1i , . . . , adii . By Lemma 5.3.2 we have that N (a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ γ, and also that N (a1 , . . . , an ) = γ if and only if a1 , . . . , an satisfy condition [I].

The proof of Theorem 5.2.1 given in [310] yields that the conditions [I], [II] and [III] are actually equivalent2 . Theorem 5.2.2 [310] Under condition [I] (or equivalently [II] or [III]) we have

[IV]

N (a1 , . . . , an ) =

g(a1 ,...,an )+1 · 2

In [310], Nijenhuis and Wilf compared the values N (a1 , . . . , an ) and g(a1 , . . . , an ). Theorem 5.2.3 [310]

g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1 ≤ N (a1 , . . . , an ). 2 Proof. Let ρ(x) = g(a1 , . . . , an ) − x; so ρ(x) + x = g(a1 , . . . , an ). The right side is not representable as a non-negative linear combination of a1 , . . . , an . Hence, both terms on the left side cannot be representable as a non-negative linear combination of a1 , . . . , an (semigroup property, see Chapter 7). So, if x is representable then ρ(x) is not. The set of the non-representable values among 0, . . . , g(a1 , . . . , an ) contains therefore 2

The equivalence of conditions [I] and [II] was shown by Brauer and Seelbinder [58] (cf. Theorem 3.1.4).

Nijenhuis’ and Wilf’s results

107

a subset of the cardinality of that of representable values, so at least half of the numbers 0, . . . , g(a1 , . . . , an ) are non-representable. Notice that the same argument as that used in the above proof shows that if m is a non-representable value then at least half of the numbers 0, . . . , m are non-representable. Nijenhuis and Wilf [310] investigated the relationship between the above conditions and the following property arising from the theory of Gorenstein rings. Suppose n S is a set of integers m that are expressible by i=1 xi ai and in which xn = 0 for every representation. Let T = {m ∈ S|m + ai ∈ S for all i}. The Gorenstein condition [167] is the property [V]

|T | = 1.

Nijenhuis and Wilf [310] showed3 that Theorem 5.2.4 Let T = {m ∈ S|m + ai ∈ S for all i}.

|T | = 1 if and only if N (a1 , . . . , an ) =

1 (g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1) . 2

Nijenhuis and Wilf used the following Lemma (see Theorem 7.2.11) to prove Theorem 5.2.4. Lemma 5.2.5 Let T = {m ∈ S|m + ai ∈ S for all i} and let W = {x|x− an ∈ T }. Then

W = {x|x is not representable and x + ai is representable for all i}. Moreover, g(a1 , . . . , an ) belongs to W . Proof of Theorem 5.2.4. Suppose that |T | = 1, we shall show that ρ(x) = g(a1 , . . . , an ) − x is representable if x is not (and so, exactly half of the numbers 0, . . . , g(a1 , . . . , an ) are not representable). Suppose that x is not representable and let y be the largest representable value for which x + y is not representable. As y + ai is representable, which exceeds y, it follows that x + y + ai is representable; so, x + y is in W and thus x + y = g(a1 , . . . , an ), that is, y = ρ(x) is representable. Conversely, suppose that (IV) holds, then ρ(x) is representable if and only if x is not. Let w be such that w ∈ W , then w is not reprepresentable. Suppose that resentable and hence g(a1 , . . . , an ) − w is g(a1 , . . . , an ) − w > 0, so it is of the form ni=1 ψi ai with ψi > 0 for at least one i. Then, there exists i such that w = g(a1 , . . . , an ) − w − ai is 3

In [310], it is remarked that Kunz [256] has also proved independently such a characterization; see Chapter 7.

108

Integers without representation

representable implying that ρ(w ) = w − ai is not representable, contrary to one of the properties of the elements in w ∈ W (Lemma 5.2.5). Hence, w = g(a1 , . . . , an ), and that is the only element of W . In fact, the proof of Theorem 5.2.4 implies that if w ∈ W, w < g(a1 , . . . , an ) then ρ(w) is not representable, obtaining the following inequality 2N (a1 , . . . , an ) − g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≥ |W |. In [310] were noted the following interrelationships among the above conditions [I] ⇔ [II] ⇔ [III] ⇒ [IV] ⇔ [V], and it was also observed that the example (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (6, 7, 8) shows that the missing implication cannot be included in general.

5.3

Formulas for N (a1 , . . . , an )

In this section, we state some formulas for N (a1 , . . . , an ). We start with a result due to Selmer [392]. Theorem 5.3.1 [392] Let L = {1, . . . , a1 − 1}. Then,

N (a1 , . . . , an ) =

1 a1 − 1 , tl − a1 l∈L 2

with tl is the smallest positive integer congruent to l modulo a1 , that is expressible as a non-negative integer combination of a2 , . . . , an . Proof. The number of M ≡ l ≡ 0 mod a1 with 0 < M < tl is given . The result by at11 . By assuming that 0 < l < a1 , we have atl1 = tla−l 1 follows by summing over l ∈ L.

The following analogue formula to that given in Theorem 3.1.7 was proved by Rødseth [373]; see also [198, 374]. Theorem 5.3.2 [373] Let d = (a1 , . . . , an−1 ). Then,

N (a1 , . . . , an ) = dN

an−1 1 a1 ,..., , an + (an − 1)(d − 1). d d 2

Proof. Let tl = tl (a1 , . . . , an ) be the smallest integer that is dependent on a1 , . . . , an and tl ≡ l mod an . Then there are no non-negative integers xi such that tl = a1 x1 +· · ·+an xn where, by deﬁnition of tl , xn = 0. Let ai = dai for each i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Since (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 then (an , d) = 1. We put tl = tl (a1 , . . . , an−1 , an ). There are non-negative

Formulas for N (a1 , . . . , an )

109

integers yi such that dtl = d

n−1

ai yi =

i=1

n−1

ai yi .

(5.1)

i=1

By deﬁnition of tl , the sum on the right-hand-side of eqn (5.1) is the smallest integer dependent on a1 , . . . , an and tl ≡ dl mod an . Hence, tdl = dtl .

(5.2)

By Theorem 5.3.1 we have N (a1 , . . . , an−1 , an )

an − 1 1 = t − . an l∈L l 2

(5.3)

As l runs through a complete residue system modulo an , so does dl. Hence, an − 1 1 N (a1 , . . . , an ) = tdl − . (5.4) an l∈L 2 By eqns (5.2)–(5.4) we have N (a1 , . . . , an ) =

an − 1 1 tdl − an l∈L 2

= dN (a1 , . . . , an−1 , an ) +

an − 1 (d − 1). 2

Mastrander [287] used Theorem 3.4.1 to show that Theorem 5.3.3 [287] Following the notation of Section 3.4 we have

N (a0 , . . . , an ) = N (a1 , a2 ) −

a 1 −1

R(l) if and only if the sequence

l=1

a0 , . . . , an is regular. The results of Krawczyk and Paz [255] (cf. Theorem 3.1.22) provide the following bound (computable in polynomial time). Recall that αi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n is deﬁned as the minimal integer α such thatthere exists a solution over the non-negative integers to the equation nj=1 xj aj = αai and let B =

n

j =i

i=1 αi ai .

Then,

B ≤ N (a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ B. 2n

110

Integers without representation

Killingbergtrø [236] have used the cube-ﬁgure method (see Section 1.1.3) to obtain the following lower bound .

/

n 1 n−1 ((n − 1)!a1 a2 · · · an ) n−1 − ai − 1 ≤ N (a1 , . . . , an ). n i=1

We ﬁnally mention two formulas for the case n = 3. The ﬁrst one is given by Tinaglia [446] and the other one is due to Rødseth [373] obtained via the negative division remainder approach (see Section 1.1.1). Theorem 5.3.4 [446] Let p, q, r be the minimum positive integers satisfying a1 xp + a2 yp = qa3 , a1 xq + a3 yq = qa2 and a2 xr + a3 yr = ra1 with integers xp , xq , xr , yp , yq , yr ≥ 0. Then,

1 N (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 r + a2 q + a3 p − pqr − a1 − a2 − a3 + 1). 2 Theorem 5.3.5 [373] Let p0 = 1, p1 = q1 , p2 = q1 q2 − 1 and pi+1 = ≤ aa32 < psvv where qi and si are deﬁned in Rødseth’s qi+1 pi − pi−1 . If psv+1 v+1 Algorithm (see Section 1.1.1). Then,

N (a1 , a2 , a3 ) =

5.4

1 1 − a1 + a2 (sv − sv+1 − 1) + a3 (pv+1 − 1) 2 a2 s − v − a3 pv +sv+1 (pv+1 − pv ) . a1

Arithmetic sequences

The results of Nijenhuis and Wilf in [310] lead to mJ N (m, m + 1, . . . , m + k − 1) = 2

(m − 1) + θ(k − 1) , m

m−1 where J is the least integer greater or equal to m−1 k−1 , and θ = k−1 − J + 1 (0 < θ ≤ 1). By using Theorem 3.3.1, it can be checked that Theorem 5.2.3 is always veriﬁed in this case. Moreover, Theorem 5.2.2 is satisﬁed in this case if and only if k − 1 divides m − 2. Lewin [271] investigated some particular arithmetic sequences.

Theorem 5.4.1 [271] Let a, d, k be positive integers with (a, d) = 1 and 1 ≤ k ≤ 7. Then,

(a − 1)(a − 1 + kd) . N (a, a + d, . . . , a + kd) = 2k

The sum of integers in N (p, q)

111

Grant [170] has found the exact number of N (a, a + d, . . . , a + kd) for any k. Theorem 5.4.2 [170] Let a, d, k be positive integers with (a, d) = 1 and let a − 1 = r(k − 1) + q with 0 ≤ q < k − 1. Then,

1 ((a − 1)(r + d) + q(r + 1)) . 2 Selmer [392] generalized Grant’s result by giving a formula for almost arithmetic sequences. N (a, a + d, . . . , a + (k − 1)d) =

Theorem 5.4.3 [392] Let a, h, d, k be positive integers with (a, d) = 1 and let a − 1 = r(k − 1) + q with 0 ≤ q < k − 1. Then,

N (a, ha + d, ha + 2d, . . . , ha + (k − 1)d) =

5.5

1 ((a − 1)(hr + d + h − 1) 2 +hq(r + 1)).

The sum of integers in N (p, q)

Although we know that N (p, q) = 12 (p − 1)(q − 1) (cf. Theorem 5.1.1), additional information about the non-representable numbers would be provided by estimating their sum S(p, q) =

{m|m ∈ N (p, q)}.

An easy upper (respectively lower) bound is obtained by taking the sum of the 12 (p − 1)(q − 1) largest (respectively smallest) integers in the interval [0, . . . , pq − p − q], giving 1 1 1 3 (p−1)2 (q−1)2 − (p−1)(q−1) ≤ S(p, q) ≤ (p−1)2 (q−1)2 − (p−1)(q−1). 8 4 8 4 Ho et al. [197] improved the latter upper bound. They found that if A is any ﬁnite set of non-negative integers such that the complement of A (in the set of non-negative integers) is closed under addition, then {n|n ∈ A} ≤ A2 . Since the sum of two representable numbers is certainly a representable number, then by setting A = N (p, q) we have

1 {n|n ∈ N (p, q)} ≤ |N (p, q)|2 = (p − 1)2 (q − 1)2 , 4 1 obtaining an upper bound for S(p, q) of order 4 (pq)2 . Brown and Shiue [75] found the exact value of S(p, q). S(p, q) =

Theorem 5.5.1 [75] Let p, q be positive integers with (p, q) = 1. Then,

S(p, q) =

1 (p − 1)(q − 1)(2pq − pq − 1). 12

112

Integers without representation

Therefore the exact order of S(p, q) is 16 (pq)2 . Brown and Shiue proof uses the following nice idea (see the fourth proof of Theorem 2.1.1). Deﬁne f (x) =

pq−p−q

(1 − r2 (m))xm .

m=0

Since r2 (m) = 0 or r2 (m) = 1 for 0 ≤ m ≤ pq − 1 then

f (1) =

pq−p−q

m(1 − r2 (m)) =

{m|1 ≤ m ≤ pq and r2 (m) = 0}

m=1

=

{m|m ∈ N (p, q)} = S(p, q).

Thus, the problem of ﬁnding S(p, q) was reduced to calculating that was achieved in [75] by using the following simple formula ¨ uk (and appearing in a more general setting in [408, discovered by Ozl¨ equation (23)]; see proof of Theorem 4.2.2). f (1)

g(x) =

(xpq − 1)(x − 1) P (x) − 1 where P (x) = p · x−1 (x − 1)(xq − 1)

Rødseth [375] generalized Brown and Shiue’s result by giving a closed form for Sm (p, q) = nm . n∈N (p,q)

Notice that Sylvester’s result and Brown and Shiue’s result are special cases of Rødseth’s equality when m = 0 and m = 1, respectively. Theorem 5.5.2 [375] Let p, q, m be positive integers with (p, q) = 1 and m ≥ 1. Then, !

m m−i m+1 1 Sm−1 (p, q) = m(m + 1) i=0 j=0 i

−

!

m+1−i Bi Bj pm−j q m−i j

1 Bm , m

where the Bi s are the Bernoulli numbers4 . 4

Bernoulli numbers are the coeﬃcients of the power series ez

zj z = Bj · −1 j! j≥0

numbers can also be deﬁned by an implicit recurrence relation, Bernoulli m m+1 j=0

j

Bj = 0 for all m ≥ 0; see Appendix B.5 for further details.

Related games

113

Theorem 5.5.2 implies the following rather simple formula for S2 (p, q) S2 (p, q) =

1 (p − 1)(q − 1)pq(pq − p − q). 12

Recently, Tuenter [460] has rediscovered the above Rødseth’s equality by characterizing, in an elegant manner, the set of integers that have no representation of the form px + qy in non-negative integers x and y.

5.6

Related games

In this section we discuss two games closely related to integer representations.

5.6.1 Sylver coinage Sylver coinage5 : In this game the players alternatively name diﬀerent numbers, but are not allowed to name ‘any’ number that is a sum of previously named ones. The ‘winner’ is the player who names the last number. Of course, as soon as 1 has been played, every other number is illegal (i.e. representable as a sum of ones) and the game ends. Because the player who names 1 is declared the ‘loser’. Is there a winning strategy?

In [40, Chapter 18], it was remarked that the game cannot go on forever due to Sylvester’s result6 . For, at any time after the ﬁrst move, if g is the greatest common divisor of the moves made then, by Theorem 1.0.1, only ﬁnitely many multiples of g are not expressible as sums of numbers already played. In fact, one may use Theorem 5.1.1 from the second move to guarantee the existence of only 12 (a − 1)(b − 1) playable numbers where a and b are the numbers named by the ﬁrst and second player, respectively. A position S in sylver coinage is determined by a set of previous moves {x1 , . . . , xj }. The expression S + n denotes the position obtained by adjoining n to the set S. Notice that diﬀerent sets of moves may be equal as sylver coinage position; for example, the position {3, 5, 10, 11} equals the position {3, 5} since the moves 10 and 11 can be expressed as sums of 3s an 5s, so they do not aﬀect play in the position. A position is said to be N-position if the player ‘next’ to play can win. 5 6

Game invented by J.C. Conway. It is because of this result that the game was called sylver coinage.

114

Integers without representation

Every position partitions the set of numbers into legal and illegal moves; for exemple in the position {3, 5} the moves 1,2,4 and 7 are legal (they are not expressed as a sum of 3s an 5s), all other numbers are illegal. Note that in any position S, all moves that lower the value of (x1 , . . . , xj ) are legal, so the set of legal moves is inﬁnite if and only if (x1 , . . . , xj ) > 1. In a position S with (x1 , . . . , xj ) = 1, a legal move is called an end if it does not eliminate any other legal move. In particular, g(x1 , . . . , xj ) is always an end. A position S where g(S) is the only end is called and ender. Thus, in an ender position, every legal move other than g(S) eliminates g(S). Suppose that g(S) > 1, the player on the move, say player A, in an ender S must be able to win. Suppose player A plays g(S) if the second player has a winning reply u player A can play u instead of g(S) and reach the same winning position as the second player because S + g(S) + u = S + u. Thus every ender with g(S) > 1 is N-position. The most important general result in sylver coinage is due to Hutchings [40, 174]. Theorem 5.6.1 [174] If (m, n) = 1 and m, n > 3 then {m, n} is a N-position.

At the moment, there is no way of working out a winning strategy from an arbitrarily given position. In [40, Chapter 18] some winning openings have been studied. We refer the reader to [421] where a variety of results about sylver coinage are presented.

5.6.2 The jugs problem The jugs problem7 :

There are three jugs with integral capacities B, M , and S, respectively, where B = M + S and M ≥ S ≥ 1. Any jug may be poured into any other jug until either the ﬁrst one is empty or the second is full. Initially jug B is full and the other two are empty (we use B as the name of the jug with capacity B, etc.). We want to divide the wine equally, so that 12 B gallons are in jugs B and M and jug S is empty, and we want to do 7 This game is a generalization of the original puzzle with measures B = 8, M = 5, and S = 3 the roots of which can be traced back at least as far as Tartaglia, an Italian mathematician of the sixteenth century; see [316] and [442] for an historical review. We also refer the reader to [341] for closed related results.

Related games

115

so with as few pourings as possible. We ask three questions. Can we share equally? If so, what is the least number of pourings possible; and how do we achieve this least number? In [289], it is shown that it is possible to share equally if and only if B is divisible by 2r, where r = gcd(M, S). If this is the case, then the least number of pourings is 1r B −1, and the unique optimal sequence of pourings is given by the ﬁrst 1r B − 1 steps (pourings) of the algorithm below. Let us use b, m, s to denote the quantities of wine at any stage in jugs B, M, S, respectively. Jug Algorithm

Pour jug B into jug M Repeat Pour jug M into jug S Pour jug S into jug B If m < S Then Pour jug M into jug S Pour jug B into jug M Note that for simplicity a stopping condition is not included in this algorithm since it is interested only in the ﬁrst 1r B − 1 steps; see Example 5.6.2. In the movie Die Hard: With a Vegeance8 the main characters have to defuse a bomb by measuring four gallons of water using jugs of capacities three and ﬁve. The ‘good boy’ succeeded to defuse the bomb. The way to proceed is the same as ﬁrst interations of the jug algorithm for the case B = 8, M = 5 and S = 3; see Example 5.6.2. Example 5.6.2 Let B = 8, M = 5 and S = 3. We denote by (b, m, s) the quantities of wine at any stage in jugs B, M, and S, respectively. Thus, the quickest way to reach state (4, 4, 0) form state (8, 0, 0) is given by the following sequence of states: (8, 0, 0), (5, 0, 3), (5, 3, 0), (2, 3, 3), (2, 5, 1), (7, 0, 1), (7, 1, 0), (4, 1, 3), (4, 4, 0) (this sequence is illustrated in Fig. 5.1).

The main result in [289] is based in the following lemmas. 8

c Copyright 1995 Twenty-Century Fox.

116

Integers without representation

Lemma 5.6.3 Let M and S be coprime, let B = M + S and let 0 < b < B. Then there is a unique solution i, j to

B − b = iS − jM , 1 ≤ i ≤ M , 0 ≤ j ≤ S − 1, and it is given by setting iS ≡ B − b mod M and jM ≡ b − B mod S.

(5.5)

Proof. Any solution must be given by eqn (5.5). Let i, j be as in eqn (5.5). Then, iS − jM ≡ B − b mod M and modS, and hence also mod M S. But iS −jM ≤ M S < B −b+M S and iS −jM ≥ S −(S −1) M = M + S − M S > B − b − M S. Hence indeed iS − jM = B − b, as required. Lemma 5.6.4 Let M and S be coprime integers and let B = M + S. The jug algorithm starts at vertex (B, 0, 0), makes exactly 2B − 1 nontrivial moves arriving exatly once at each vertex other than (0, M, S), then makes one ‘dummy’ move, and terminates back at (B, 0, 0). The

B=8

M=5

S=3

5

2

2

3

3

7

1

0

0

5

4

1

3

5

3

0

1

7

0

1

3

4

4

0

Figure 5.1: Sequence of pourings.

Supplemetary notes

117

jug algorithm does not visit the vertex (O, M, S), and for each vertex x = (b, m, s) other than (B, 0, 0) and (0, M, S) it arrives at x after exactly t(x) steps, with

t(x) =

2i + 2j − 1 2i + 2j

if s = S or m = 0 and s < S, if s = 0 and m > 0 or s > 0 and m = M ,

where i and j are deﬁned as in Lemma 5.6.3.

5.7

Supplemetary notes

Piehler [328] has also found Theorem 5.2.1 and Rødseth [379] also gave a simpler proof for Theorem 5.2.3. In [374], Rødseth has rediscovered Theorem 5.4.2 as well as Theorem 5.4.1. In [450], Tinaglia was interested in ﬁnding the smallest mi for which the equation nj=1 aj xj = mi has at least i solutions in non-negative integers. Tinaglia determined mi in the case n = 3; see also [448]. We refer the reader to the following web pointer for an enourmous amount of information (results, references, software, etc.) about sylver coinage http://www.monmouth.com/~colonel/sylver.

In [53] Boldi et al. studied the jug problem in a more general form (for any set of n ≥ 3 jugs).

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6 Generalizations and related problems 6.1

Special functions

Let f = (a1 , . . . , an , t) = f (n, t) be the maximum of the Frobenius os numbers when a1 < · · · < an ≤ t. Let us start with a result of Erd˝ and Graham [131]. Corollary 6.1.1 [131] Let a1 < · · · < an ≤ t be integers with (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then, t2 2t2 /n > f (n, t) ≥ − 5t. n−1 Proof. The upper bound is a consequence of Theorem 3.1.12. The lower bound is obtained by remarking , that - f (n, t) ≥ g(x, 2x, . . . , t2 t ∗ (n − 1)x, x ) ≥ n−1 − 5t, where x = n−1 and x∗ = (n − 1)x + 1, n ≥ 2.

Note that by Sylvester’s result (cf. Theorem 5.1.1) one could acos and Graham [131] conjectured tually get f (2, t) = t2 − 3t + 1. Erd˝ that .

/

(t − 2)2 − 1, f (3, t) ≤ 2 with equality for { 2t , t−1, t}, {t−2, t−1, t} if t is even, and { (t−1) 2 , t−1, t} if t is odd. This conjecture was proved by Lewin [272] for any n ≥ 3 .

/

(t − 2)2 f (n, t) ≤ − 1. 2

(6.1)

It was showed in [272] that the above upper bound is sharp for n = 3. In [273], Lewin improved the upper bound of eqn (6.1) when n = 3.

120

Generalizations and related problems

Theorem 6.1.2 [273] Let a1 < a2 < a3 = t. Then,

f (3, t) ≤

1 (a2 − 1)(t − 2) − 1. 2

In [272], Lewin conjectured that in general for ﬁxed n and for t large enough

(t − 2)(t − n) − 1. (6.2) n If true in general, then it is best possible, as for every n the bound is attained for inﬁnitely many integers t. Vitek [467] proved Lewin’s conjecture for n = 4 and showed that for any n ≥ 5 if t ≥ n(n − 3) then f (n, t) ≤

f (n, t) ≤ t2 /n.

(6.3)

Vitek remarked that the restriction t ≥ n(n − 3) is probably not essential (although in Lewin’s conjecture n must be large enough with respect to t). As an application of a generalization of Vosper’s theorem, Hamidoune [179] proved that either a1 < . . . < an ≤ t has a very ‘special’ structure or f (n, t) ≤ (k − 1)(t − r) − 1 where t = kn + r and 1 ≤ r ≤ n. Hamidoune used the latter bound to prove the uniqueness of sets attaining the bound in this case (the proof depends on a tedious density theorem). From density considerations, Nagata and Matsumura [303] proved that f (n, 2n + k) = 2n + 2k − 1 for 1 − n ≤ k ≤ −1. They obtained, as a corollary, a result that has to do with the gaps of a point on a closed Riemann surface. Erd˝ os [129] proved that Theorem 6.1.3 [129] f (n, 2n) = 2n + 1, f (n, 2n + 1) = 2n + 3, and for k ﬁxed f (n, 2n + k) = 2n + p(k) for some function p(k) provided n is suﬃciently large.

Erd˝ os and Graham found the exact value of p(k) of Theorem 6.1.3. Theorem 6.1.4 [131] For ﬁxed k, if n is suﬃciently large then  2n + 2k − 1   

2n + 1 f (n, k) =  2n + 4k − 1   2n + 4k + 1

for for for for

k k k k

≤ −1, = 0, ≥ 1 and n − k ≡ 1 mod 3, ≥ 1 and n − k ≡ 1 mod 3.

Special functions

121

Lev [267] also studied the function f (n, k) for certain values of k, ﬁnding that if 2n < k < 3n − 2, then

f (n, k) =

2(2k − 3n) + 1 2(2k − 3n) − 1

if k ≡ 2 mod 3, if k ≡ 2 mod 3.

Dixmier [113] settled a conjecture by Erd˝ os and Graham [132, page 86] stating that f (n, t) ≤

t2 · (n − 1)

Theorem 6.1.5 [113]

6

7

t−2 t−2 (t − n + 1) − 1 ≤ f (n, t) ≤ t − 1· k−1 n−1

Notice that Lewin’s conjectured upper bound (eqn (6.2)) follows from Theorem 6.1.5 if t ≡ 0 or 2 mod (n − 1). We present a nice simple proof for the upper bound of Theorem 6.1.5 due to Hamidoune [180]. Hamidoune’s proof uses the notion of saturate sets as well as three wellknown additive results (see below). Let us introduce some standard terminology and notation. Let G be an abelian group. Let A1 , . . . , Aj ⊂ G. We write A1 + · · · + Aj = {x1 + · · · + xj | xi ∈ Ai }. If A1 = · · · = Aj = A we write jA = A1 + · · · + Aj (with the convention that 0A = {0}). Let A ⊂ IN∗ be such that max(A) = t and assume that gcd(A) = 1. We write ψ(A) =

8

jAj and ψk (A) = ψ(A) ∩ [(k − 1)t + 1, kt].

j≥0

The Frobenius number of A is, by deﬁnition, g(A) = max{ZZ \ ψ(A)}. Lemma 6.1.6 (folklore) Let G be a ﬁnite group and let A, B ⊂ G. If |A + B| > G then A + B = G. Lemma 6.1.7 (Mann Theorem [286]) Let B be a generating subset of a ﬁnite abelian group G such that 0 ∈ B. Let A be a subset of G such that |A + B| ≤ min{|G| − 1, |A| + |B| − 2}. Then, there is a subgroup H of G such that |H + B| ≤ min{|G| − 1, |H| + |B| − 2}.

122

Generalizations and related problems

Lemma 6.1.8 (folklore [113, Lemma 2.3]) Let A ⊂ IN∗ be such that |A| > max{A}/2. Then,

g(A) ≤ 2 max{A} − 2|A| − 1. We denote by A¯ the congruence class, modulo t = max{A}, of each element in A and by ZZm the set of integers modulo m. A subset A of IN is called saturated if for all x, y ∈ A either x+y ∈ A or x+y > max{A}. Lemma 6.1.9 [180, Lemma 9.3] Let A ⊂ IN∗ = IN \ 0 be a saturated subset such that gcd(A) = 1, |A| = n and max{A} = t. Also assume that |A| ≤ t/2. Let H be a proper subgroup of ZZt such that |A¯ + H| ≤ ¯ − 2. For i ∈ {0, 1} put t − 1 + i = ki (n + i − 1) − ri where |H| + |A| 1 ≤ ri ≤ n + i − 1. Then,

g(A) ≤ (k0 − 1)(t − r0 − 1) − 1. Proof for the upper bound in Theorem 6.1.5. Let A ⊂ IN∗ be such that max{A} = t, n = |A| and with gcd(A) = 1. Now, set t − 1 = k(n − 1) − r where 1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1. We claim that

g(A) ≤ (k − 1)(t − r − 1) − 1.

(6.4)

Note that eqn (6.4) implies Dixmer’s upper bound when r = 1. In order to prove inequality (6.4) we assume without loss of generality that A is saturated (since A is contained in some saturated set X such that g(X) = g(A)). We have two cases. ¯ ≥ min{t, 1 Case a) Suppose that for all j ≤ k − 1, |j A| +j(n−1)}. By deﬁnition of k, we have 1+j(n−1) = min{t, 1+j(n−1)}. Hence, |ψ(A) ∩ [1, (k − 1)t]| =

k−1 j=1

|ψj | ≥

k−1

(1 + j(n − 1))

j=1

= (k − 1)(2 + k(n − 1))/2 = (k − 1)(t + r + 1)/2. Recall that A ⊂ ψ(A) ∩ [1, (k − 1)t] ⊂ ψ(A), obtaining that g(A) = g(ψ(A)∩[1, (k−1)t]). By Lemma 6.1.8, g(A) = g(ψ(A)∩[1, (k −1)t]) ≤ (k − 1)(t − r − 1) − 1. ¯ < min{t, 1 + j(n − Case b) Suppose that there exists j ≤ k − 1, |j A| 1)}. Note that j ≥ 2. By Lemma 6.1.6, 2n ≤ t. Take a maximal ¯ ≥ 1 + i(n − 1). By putting B = iA¯ we have i ≤ j − 1 such that |iA| ¯ ¯ |B + A| < min{t, |B|+|A|−1} and by Mann’s Theorem (Lemma 6.1.7),

Special functions

123

¯ ≤ |H|+|A|−2. ¯ there is a proper subgroup H such that |H + A| Finally, by Lemma 6.1.9, g(A) ≤ (k − 1)(t − r − 1) − 1. In [113], Dixmier also improved the upper bound of Theorem 6.1.5 and gave the exact value of f (n, t) for some special cases. Theorem 6.1.10 [113]

(i) f (n, t) ≤ 2vt − v(v + 1)n + v 2 − v − 1 where v = (ii) if n − 1 divides t or t − 2 then t(t − 2) f (n, t) = − t + 1. n−1 (iii) if n − 1 divides t − 1 then f (n, t) =

,

t−2 n−1

-

.

(t − 1)2 − t. n−1

Lev [266, 268] gave an independent proof of Theorem 6.1.10 (i) and remarked that equality holds if t ≡ 0 mod (v + 1). Kiss [242] extended the validity of Erd˝ os and Graham formula (cf. Theorem 6.1.4) for any n ≥ k + 2 using the upper bound of Theorem 6.1.10. Theorem 6.1.11 [242] Let d, n, k be integers such that 2 ≤ d < n, 0 ≤ k ≤ n − d. If n − k ≡ 0 mod d + 1 or n − k ≡ −1 mod d + 1 then

f (n, dn + k) = d(d − 1)n + 2dk + d2 − d − 1. The function f (n, t) for sets that are the union of two arithmetic progressions with the same diﬀerence has been investigated by Janz [218]. Theorem 6.1.12 [218] Let F be the set of all saturated subsets A of IN∗ such that A ∪ {0} is the union of two arithmetic progressions with the same diﬀerence. Let a1 , . . . , an ≤ t ∈ F where t ≥ (9n3 − 30n2 + 4n − 22)/4 non-congruent to 0 or 1 modulo (n − 1). Then,

f (n, t) ≤ f (t, t − 1, . . . , t − n + 1). By using the critical pair method introduced in [180], Hamidoune obtained a diﬀerent proof of a sharper (and more involved) result than that presented in Theorem 6.1.12. Let h(a1 , . . . , an , t) = h(n, t) be the minimum of the Frobenius numbers when t ≤ a1 < · · · < an . Hujter [207] proved that the following inequalities hold for some absolute positive constants c1 and c2 h(n, t) c1 ≤ (6.5) 1 ≤ c2 . (n − 1)t + n−1

124

6.2

Generalizations and related problems

The modular generalization

Skupie´ n [427] formulated and studied a generalization of FP on numerical semigroups, namely, the modular change problem that is deﬁned as follows. Let a1 , . . . , an and m be natural numbers. For j ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1} a given non-negativenatural number p is called j-omitted if it has no representation p = ni=1 xi ai with non-negative naturals x’s n such that i=1 xi ≡ j mod m. The largest of the j-omitted numbers is denoted by Nj (m; a1 , . . . , an ) (if there is not one we write Nj (m; a1 , . . . , an ) = −1). Let Ωj (m; a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of j-omitted natural non-negative numbers and let k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) = max{Nj (m; a1 , . . . , an )|j ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1}}. We have that k(1; a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , . . . , an ). Skupie´ n [427] characterized the existence of k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) for arbitrary m and found the exact values of k(m; a1 , a2 ) and Ωj (m; a1 , a2 ). Theorem 6.2.1 [427] Let a1 , . . . , an and m be natural numbers. Then, k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is ﬁnite if and only if (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 and (m, a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 , . . . , an − an−1 ) = 1. Theorem 6.2.2 [427] Let a1 and a2 be positive integers with (a1 , a2 ) = 1. (i) k(m; a1 , a2 ) = ma1 a2 − a1 − a2 , (ii) Nj (m; a1 , a2 ) = k(m; a1 , a2 )−(m−2−j)a1 for each −1 ≤ j ≤ m−2, where N−1 denotes Nq−1 .

(iii) Ωj (m; a1 , a2 ) =

j(m;a1 ,a2 )+1 · 2

Hence the interval [0, k(m; a1 , a2 )] contains as many j-representable integers as j-omitted ones (keeping the same property as for the case m = 1; see Theorem 5.1.1). Hofmeister [201] found a formula for k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) for arithmetic progression sequences. Theorem 6.2.3 [201] Let a, d, and m be natural numbers with (am, d) = 1. Then,

k(m; a, a + d, . . . , a + jd) =

ma − 2 a + (ma − 1)d. j

Note that Theorem 6.2.3 implies Theorem 6.2.2 part (i) by setting j = 1 and a + d = b. An integer is called omitted if it is j-omitted for some j ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1}. Let ω(m; a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of omitted numbers. Hofmeister [201] also found a formula for ω(m; a1 , . . . , an ) for arithmetic sequences.

The modular generalization

125

Theorem 6.2.4 [201] Let a, d and m be natural numbers with (am, d) = 1 and let (m − 1)a = q1 j − r1 , 0 ≤ r1 < j and a − 1 − r1 = q2 j + r2 , 0 ≤ r2 < j. Then,

ω(m; a, a + d, . . . , a + jd) =

1 ((a − 1)(q2 + d) + (r2 − r1 )(q2 + 1)) 2 + ((m − 1)d + q1 ) a.

Theorem 6.2.4 covers the general case of two basis elements by setting j = 1 and a + d = b, that is, ω(m; a, b) =

(a − 1)(b − 1) + (m − 1)ab. 2

(6.6)

We close this section by stating the following upper bound given by Skupie´ n [427] that implies Erd˝ os and Graham’s upper bound given in Theorem 6.1.1 when m = 1. .

k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ 2man−1

an n−1+

/

(m − 1)(an−1 − a1 ) − an .

1 m

2

n Thus k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) is of order O ma . n Skupie´ n [427] used the modular change problem to extend Wilf’s algorithm (cf. Section 1.2.5).

Skipie´ n’s algorithm

Processes consecutive integers n ∈ IN using the following simple rule: r is (j + 1)-representable if and only if r − ai is j-representable for some i = 1, . . . , n with j ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1}. Store the corresponding information in the lattice with m − 1 columns and ‘large’ number of rows, that is, entry (light) (n, j) is 1 (light is on) if and only if n is j-representable or 0 (light is oﬀ) otherwise.

126

Generalizations and related problems

During the process we keep updating R[j], the number of jrepresentable integers. Let N [j] be the largest integer such that it is the a1 -th of consecutive j-representable integers. The process stops at the ﬁrst s which is the a1 -th of consecutive fully representable numbers (a number is fully representable if it is j-representable for each j = 0, . . . , m − 1). Then, Ωj (m; a1 , . . . , an ) = s + 1 − R[j], Nj = N [j] − a1 and k(m; a1 , . . . , an ) = max{Nj (m; a1 , . . . , an )|j ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1}}.

Example 6.2.5 Let m = 3, a1 = 4 and a2 = 5. Figure 6.1 shows the corresponding lattice of lights with entry (n, j) ﬁlled circle if n is j-representable and empty circle otherwise. We have that s = 55, N0 (3; 4, 5) = N [2] − 4 = 51 − 4 = 47, N1 (3; 4, 5) = N [1] − 4 = 55 − 4 = 51, N2 (3; 4, 5) = N [2] − 4 = 47 − 4 = 43 and R[0] = R[1] =

k n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0

1

2

k n 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

0

1

2

k n 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

37 38 39 40

Figure 6.1: Lattice of lights.

0

1

2

The postage stamp problem

127

R[2] = 30. So, Ωj (3; 4, 5) = 55 − 30 + 1 = 26 for each j = 0, 1, 2 and k(3; 4, 5) = max{43, 47, 51} = 51. Notice that ω(3; 4, 5) = 56 − 10 = 46 which can also be obtained by eqn (6.6).

6.3

The postage stamp problem

The (local) postage stamp problem is deﬁned as follows. Given an integral basis (the stamp denominations) An = {a1 , . . . , an }, 1 = a1 < a2 < . . . < an . For a positive integer h (the size of the envelope, that is, the envelope has room for at most h diﬀerent stamps) we form all the combinations x1 a1 + · · · + xn an , xi ≥ 0 with x1 + · · · + xn = h, and ask for the smallest integer Sh (An ) that is not represented as the above combination (the smallest amount of postage that cannot ﬁt on the envelope). Let sh (An ) = Sh (An )−1. sh (An ) is called the h-range and is deﬁned as the largest integer such that each integer between 0 and sh (An ) can be represented as sums of at most h elements of a1 , . . . , an (allowing repetitions). The postage stamp problem was apparently introduced by Rohrbach [359, 360] in 1937, and since then a number of papers have been written about it and a variant, namely, the global postage stamp problem (see below). We refer the reader to [396–401] for results concerning h-range and [403] for a comprehensive summary on the problem. The connection of the FP with the postage stamp problem was found by Meures [294] (independent proofs were also given by Rødseth [377] and Hofmeister [199]; see also [399]). Theorem 6.3.1 [294] There exists a positive integer h1 such that

sh (An ) = han − g(A¯n ) − 1 for any h ≥ h1 , where A¯n = {an − an−1 , an − an−2 , . . . , an − a1 , an }. Notice that g(an − an−1 , an − an−2 , . . . , an − a1 , an ) is well deﬁned since an − a1 = an − 1 and thus (an − a1 , an ) = 1. The value h1 in Theorem 6.3.1 is usually diﬁcult to determine. Several upper bounds for h1 are given by Kirfel [238, 239] and in [403, page 8.2]. It turns out that if An is pleasant1 then both h and sh (An ) are known and thus An = {a0 , . . . , an }, 1 = a0 < a1 < · · · < an is pleasant if and only if the regn e a has a minimal coeﬃcient sum among all possible ular representation n= i=0 i i n representations n = i=0 xi ai for all natural numbers n. 1

128

Generalizations and related problems

g(An ) can be determined. Hence, it is natural to ask when A¯n can be organized as a regular basis (see Section 3.4 for the deﬁnition of regular basis). Selmer [395] has studied the latter in some cases; see also [115, 241, 492]. Alter and Barnett [7, Problem 8] asked if there exists a polynomial time algorithm that solves the postage stamp problem. Shallit [410] observed that the following corollary of Theorem 6.3.1 together with the N P-hardness result of FP (i.e. Theorem 1.3.1) answer the latter negatively (unless P = N P). Corollary 6.3.2 [410] Let a1 , . . . , an be positive integers such that (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then, there exist positive integers b1 , . . . , bn and h1 such that

g(a1 , . . . , an ) = hbn − sh (b1 , . . . , bn ) for any h ≥ h1 . Proof. Take bi = an − an−i for each i = 1, . . . , n with a0 = 0.

6.4

(a1 , . . . , an )-trees

A tree T is a connected acyclic directed graph with a distinguished vertex called the root. We assume that the direction of the edges is downward. The height of a vertex in T is the length of the (unique) path from the root to the vertex. A vertex v is called a leaf if its outdegree is zero and all other vertices are called internal. The level m of T is the set of vertices of height m. A (a1 , . . . , an )-tree is a tree with internal vertices having outdegrees in {a1 , . . . , an } and leaves of the same height. An integer N is said to be (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable if there exists a (a1 , . . . , an )-tree with N leaves. Figure 6.2 shows a (3, 4)-tree with 11 leaves implying that 11 is (3, 4)-realizable. Root Level 0

Level 1

Level 2

Figure 6.2: A (3, 4)-tree.

(a1 , . . . , an )-trees

129

Let bi = ai − a1 for all i ≥ 2. In [319], Ottman et al. proved that all but ﬁnite set of positive integers are (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable if and only if (b2 , . . . , bn ) = 1 (this was also proved by Lee et al. in [262]). Lemma 6.4.1 Let N be a positive integer. If N is (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable then N − 1 can be written of the form

N −1=

n i=1

xi (ai − 1) where xi is a non-negative integer for all i.

Proof. Since N is (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable then there exists a (a1 , . . . , an )-tree T with N leaves. Let xi be the number of vertices on T having outdegree ai . Then,

the number of leaves in T = N = 1 +

n

xi (ai − 1),

i=1

and the result follows. The converse of Lemma 6.4.1 is not true. For instance, a result of Jones [221] implies that there is not a (3, 4)-tree having 80 leaves (see below). However, it turns out that all integers greater than 80 are (3, 4)-realizable. This naturally leads to the following deﬁnition. Let κ(a1 , . . . , an ) be the least positive integer such that for all N ≥ κ, N is (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable. Lemma 6.4.1 implies that g(a1 , . . . , an ) ≤ κ(a1 + 1, . . . , an + 1). If the property on the height of the leaves in a (a1 , . . . , an )-tree were dropped (that is, if there were no restriction on the level location of the leaves) and the function κ were redeﬁned accordingly, then, in this case, we would have that κ(a1 + 1, . . . , an + 1) = g(a1 , . . . , an ). In [221], Jones showed that if a1 , . . . , an form an interval, that is, if ai+1 = ai + 1 for i = 1, . . . , n − 1 then the number of integers that are (a1 , . . . , an )-realizable is given by ∪j=1 [aj1 , ajn ], where [aj1 , ajn ] denote the set of integers lying in the interval between aj1 and ajn . So, the number of integers that are (3, 4)-realizable is [3, 4] ∪ [9, 16] ∪ [27, 64] ∪ [81, 256] ∪ [243, 1024] ∪ . . . , and thus, the largest integer that is not (3, 4)-realizable is 80.

130

6.5

Generalizations and related problems

Vector generalization of FP

A geometric interpretation of FP is as follows. If (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1 then the (1-dimensional) non-negative half-line cone (spanned by a1 , . . . , an ) can be shifted into its own inside in such a way that the shifted cone contains only integers representable by the integers a1 , . . . , an . Vizv´ari [468,470,474] has generalized FP to its m-dimensional analogue as follows. Let {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } be m-dimensional integer vectors. Let A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) be a (m × n) matrix containing a basis of IRm . Let cone(A) = {Ax|x ∈ Q I ≥0 }, and mon(A) = {Ax|x ∈ ZZn+ }. Then the pseudo-conductor of vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , an , denoted by h = h(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is a vector in mon(A) such that every integral vector of the set h + cone(A) is a non-negative integer combination of a1 , a2 , . . . , an (i.e. the cone A is shifted into its own inside in such a way that all integer points of the shifted cone are representable). Note that in the one-dimensional case h(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is not an element of mon(A), i.e. in the one-dimensional case h(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) + 1 = g but in the general case h ∈ mon(A). Vizv´ari [468] gave a complete characterization for the existence of such a vector h(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ); see also [383, 384] and [217] for an equivalent result. Theorem 6.5.1 [150, 217, 468, 474] Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be mdimensional integer vectors and assume that the set a1 , a2 , . . . , an contains a linear basis of the space IRm . Let {Ω1 , . . . , Ωr } be the set of all (m × m) matrices with the columns chosen from A and let dΩi = |det Ωi |, 1 ≤ i ≤ r. Then,

(dΩ1 , . . . , dΩr ) = 1,

(6.7)

if and only if a pseudo-conductor h(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) exists. Remark 6.5.2 The condition (dΩ1 , . . . , dΩr ) = 1 in Theorem 6.5.1 means that the lattice L(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) generated by the vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , an is the standard lattice ZZm , that is,

L = L(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =

0 n i=1

9

λi ai λi ∈ ZZ, i = 1, . . . , n .

Vector generalization of FP

131

The proof of Theorem 6.5.1 can be obtained from the following two propositions given by Khovanskii in [234] where its relation with the Newton polyhedron is investigated; see also [235]. Proposition 6.5.3 [234] Let D be a ﬁnite subset of ZZn , ZZn ⊂ IRn such that the subgroup generated by the elements of D coincides with C with the following propthe group ZZn . Then, there exists a constant αi ai of vectors ai ∈ D with real erty: for every linear combination that α a is an integral vector, there exists a lincoeﬃcients αi such i i n a of a with integer coeﬃcients such that it is ear combination i i i i equal to αi ai and |ni − αi | < C. Proof. For every x from the ﬁnite set X of integral vectors represented αi ai with 0 ≤ αi ≤ 1, ﬁx a representation of the form in the form x = x = ni (x)ai with ni (x) ∈ ZZ. Such representation exists because the group ZZn . Now, take C = m + q where elements ai ∈ D generate the m |n (x)|. Thus, for any integral vector m = |D| and q = max x∈X i=1 i form α a , the vector x = z − αi ai belongs to X. z ∈ ZZn of the i i Hence, x = ni (x)ai and z = ni ai where ni = αi + ni (x) < C. Proposition 6.5.4 [234] Let D be a ﬁnite subset of ZZn such that it coincides with ZZn . Then every integral point in con(D) + x where x = C ai ∈A ai and C is the constant occurring in Proposition 6.5.3 is representable by the elements of D. Proof. If the vector z − x lies in the con(D), then this vector can αi ai , αi ≥ 0. Therefore, each be represented in the form z − x = integral vector z can be represented in the form z = (αi +C)ai where αi ≥ 0. By Proposition 6.5.3, every integral vector z of this form can be represented as a linear combination of vectors of ai with natural coeﬃcients. 5 3 3 Example 6.5.5 Let A = . We illustrate con(A) in 2 2 3 Fig. 6.3. We have

Ω1 =

5 2

3 2

Ω2 =

5 2

3 3

Ω3 =

3 3

2 3

,

and thus,

5 dΩ1 = 2

3 = 4, 2

5 dΩ2 = 2

3 = 9, 3

3 dΩ3 = 2

3 = 3. 3

132

Generalizations and related problems

h

13 12

h'

10

3

10

18 19

Figure 6.3: Lattice ZZ2 with points (ﬁlled circles) belonging to con(A) (A deﬁned in Example 6.5.5) and translations of (19, 13)+con(A) and (18, 12)+con(A).

Therefore, (dΩ1 , dΩ2 , dΩ3 ) = (4, 9, 3) = 1. By Theorem 6.5.1, the semi-conductor h of matrix A exists. For instance, with h = (19, 13) then clearly all integer points inside h+con(A) are representable as a non-negative integer combination of vectors (5, 2), (3, 2) and (3, 3). If the columns of A form a Hilbert basis2 , then, by Remark 6.5.2, every integral vector of the con(A) is the pseudo-conductor of the vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , an . The latter motivated Rycerz [382,384] to introduce and study the notion of an m-conductor. A pseudo-conductor is called

2 A set of integral vectors a , a , . . . , a 1 2 n is called a Hilbert basis if every integral vector in the con(A) can be expressed as a non-negative integer combination of a1 , a2 , . . . , an .

Supplementary notes

133

an m-conductor of a1 , a2 , . . . , an if it has the smallest Euclidean distance from among all pseudo-conductors. Example 6.5.6 In continuation of Example 6.5.5 we have that the 2-conductor of A is given by vector h = (18, 13); see Fig. 6.3.

The vector generalization was also obtained independently by Ivanov and Shevchenko [217], Halter-Koch [178] and more recently by Simpson and Tijdeman [424] subject to a geometric condition on the input set of vectors. In [332], Pleasants et al., gave generalizations of both Theorem 5.1.1 and the notion of symmetry; see Section 7.2 in the case when n = dim L or dim L − 1. This also has been done by Reid and Roberts in [349, Theorem 5.2].

6.6

Supplementary notes

In [314], Norman reports a level conjecture that appears to have important consequences for estimating f (n, t). Norman proved the level conjecture for n = 3 and used it to prove Lewin’s conjecture in the case n = 3. Hofmeister [202] gave an asymptotic formula for f (n, t) for certain classes of sequences. In [117], Djawadi and Hofmeister introduced two functions and studied their connection with FP. Analogously to f (n, t), Kiss [242] deﬁned µ(n, t) as µ(n, t) = max N (a1 , . . . , an ) where the max is taken over all sequences satisfying 1 < a1 < · · · < an ≤ t. Kiss proved that µ(n, t) = N (t − n + 1, tn + 2, . . . , t) for any 1 ≤ n ≤ t; see also [243]. Rødseth [376–380] gave an upper bound of sh and proposed to determine all sets A = {1, a2 , 2a2 , . . . , (k−2)a2 , an } with certain parameters; see the work by Selmer and Selvik [394]. A variant of the postage stamp problem is as follows: for arbitrary h ≥ 2 and n ≥ 2 one may generally ask for the extremal h-range mh (n) and the corresponding extremal base(s) A∗n where sh (A∗n ) = mh (n). In stamp terminology, the problem is as follows. Given the number of stamp denominations and the size of the envelope. How should the denominations be chosen to cover the largest possible block of consecutive postages that can be stamped? Selmer [402] denotes this as the (global) postage stamp problem. In contrast to this, the local stamp problem consists on determining the h-range mh (An ) for given h and An ; see also [409] for a closed related amusing problem. Novikov [315] considered a multidimensional analogue of FP; see also [269, 270].

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7 Numerical semigroups Let S be a ﬁnitely generated commutative semigroup1 with 0. We shall write S(s1 , . . . , sn ) or < s1 , . . . , sn > to denote the semigroup generated by integers s1 , . . . , sn . In this chapter, S will always denotes a semigroup of integers such that n + IN ∪ {0} ⊆ S for some n ∈ IN (such semigroups are called numerical semigroups). The latter is equivalent to the condition that (s1 , . . . , sn ) = 1. The least positive integer belonging to S is called the multiplicity of S (denoted by µ(S)). The cardinality of an irredundant set of generators of S is called the embedding dimension of S (denoted by e(S)). Notice that g(s1 , . . . , sn ) = g(S) is the largest integer not belonging to < s1 , . . . , sn > (g(S) is also known as the conductor of S).

7.1

Gaps and non-gaps

The genus of a numerical semigroup S is the number N (S) = #(IN\S); see Chapter 5. Throughout this section will be assumed greater than zero. The positive elements of S (resp. IN \ S) are called the non-gaps (resp. gaps) of S. We denote by ρi (S) = ρi the i-th non-gap of S. We also enumerate the gaps of S by increasing order l1 , < · · · < lN (S) . So lN (S) = g(S) is the largest gap of S. Finally, the number of gaps smaller than ρi will be denoted by n(ρi ). One motivation to study gaps comes from the important role they play in the concept of symmetry (see next section) as well as in the investigations of hyperelliptic and Weierstrass semigroups (see Section 7.1.2). The following proposition gives some basic results on gaps (some parts of this proposition can be found in [205, 240, 252]). 1 A semigroup (S, ∗) consists of a non-empty set S and an associative binary operation ∗ on S.

136

Numerical semigroups

Proposition 7.1.1 Let S be a semigroup. Then,

(i) N (S) = 0 if and only if g(S) = 1. (ii) If N (S) > 0 then N (S) ≤ g(S). (iii) ρ1 = 0 and ρ2 = 1 if and only if N (S) = 0. (iv) S has at least N (S) non-gaps in [1, . . . , 2N (S)]. (v) g(S) < 2N (S). (vi) If l ∈ IN then N (ρl ) = ρl − l + 1. (vii) If l ∈ IN then ρl ≤ l + N (S) − 1 and equality holds if and only if ρl + 1 ≥ g(S). (viii) If l > g(S) − 1 − N (S) then ρl = l + N (S) − 1. (ix) If l ≤ g(S) − 1 − N (S) then ρl < g(S). (x) Let B ⊂ IN ∪ {0} and a ∈ IN ∪ {0}. We write (a + B) = {a + b|b ∈ B}. Then, |S \ (s + S)| = s for any s ∈ S. Proof. Parts (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are clearly true.

(v) Let [p, q] denotes the set of integers m with p ≤ m ≤ q. Let r ≥ 2N (S) and consider the following two subsets of [0, r]: I = S ∩ [0, r] and J = {r − i|i ∈ I}. Notice that each set contains at least r + 1 − N (S) integers. Since 2(r + 1 − N (S)) ≥ r + 2 > r + 1 then I and J have a common element. Hence, there exists i, j ∈ I such that i = r − j. This shows that r = i + j ∈ S and then g(S) < 2N (S). (vi) The non-gap ρl is the (ρl + 1)-th element of IN ∪ {0}. So ρl is the (ρl + 1 − N (l))-th element of S. Hence, l = ρl + 1 − N (l). (vii) N (ρl ) ≤ g(S) and N (ρl ) = g(S) if and only if ρl ≥ g(S) + 1. (viii) g(S) + 1 is the (g(S) + 1)-th element of IN ∪ {0} and all gaps are strictly smaller than g(S). So, g(S) + 1 is the (g(S) + 1 − g)-th element of S. Hence, g(S) + 1 = ρg(S)+1−N (S) . If l > g(S) − 1 − N (S) then ρl ≥ ρg(S)+1−N (S) = g(S) + 1. Therefore, by part (vii), ρl = l + N (S) − 1.

Gaps and non-gaps

137

(ix) If l ≤ g(S) − 1 − N (S) then ρl ≤ l + N (S) − 1 ≤ g(S), but, by deﬁnition of g(S), ρl < g(S). (x) Let T = {t ∈ IN|t ≥ s + g(S) + 1}. Then, T is contained in S and in (s + S). Let U = {u ∈ S|u < s + g(S) + 1} then the number of elements of U is equal to s + g(S) + 1 − N (S) and S is the disjoint union of T and U . Let V = {v ∈ (s + S)|s ≤ v < s + g(S) + 1} then, the number of elements of V is equal to g(S) + 1 − N (S) and (s + S) is the disjoint union of V and T . Moreover, since s ∈ S and S is a semigroup then V ⊆ U . Hence, |S\(s+S)| = |U |−|V | = (s+g(S)+1−N (S))−(g(S)+1−N (S)) = s.

Lemma 7.1.2 [240] Let S =< p, q > and let M ∈ S with M < (p−1)q. Let PM be the number of pairs m1 , m2 ∈ S such that M = m1 + m2 . Then, there is at least one gap in the interval [M − PM , M ]. Proof. Since M ∈ S and M ≤ lN (S) then M = xp + yq with x, y ≥ 0 and y < p and thus

M = xp + yq = (x1 p + y1 q) + (x2 p + y2 q) = m1 + m2 . The system x = x1 + x2 , y = y1 + y2 has exactly PM = (x + 1)(y + 1) pair of non-negative integers solutions that are pairwise since 0, y1 , y2 ≤ y < p. Let M − z be an element of [M − PM , M ], then M − z = sz p + rz q, 0 ≤ rz < p for z = 0, . . . , PM .

(7.1)

We claim that sz < 0 for some z (implying that there is at least one gap in the interval [M − PM , M ]). We have two cases. Case A) If PM < p then the set of rz , 0 ≤ z ≤ PM takes PM + 1 distinct non-negative integers. So, there is at least one rz ≥ PM = (x + 1)(y + 1) and, for the corresponding sz , we have sz p = M − z − rz q ≤ xp + yq − z − (x + 1)(y + 1)q ≤ x(p − q) − z − q < 0, since p < q. Case B) If PM ≥ p then, since M − z ≡ qrz mod p and (p, q) = 1, there exists 0 ≤ z ≤ PM such that rz = p − 1. We have, for the corresponding sz sz p = M − z − rz q ≤ M − (p − 1)q < 0, since, by hypothesis, M < (p − 1)q.

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In [345], we have investigated the distribution of the gaps of S = < p, q > in the interval [0, . . . , pq − (p + q)] by applying Pick’s theorem (as used in the third proof of Theorem 2.1.1). Theorem 7.1.3 [345] Let p, q be relatively prime integers. Let G(s) be the number of gaps of S =< p, q > ,in the - interval [pq − (k + 1) pq (p + q), . . . , pq − k(p + q)] with 0 ≤ k ≤ p+q − 1. Then, 0

G(S) =

2(k + 1) + 1

,

-

kq p

+

,

kp q

-

if 1 ≤ k ≤ if k = 0.

,

pq p+q

-

−1

Proof. In the third proof of Theorem 2.1.1 we deﬁned P as the lattice polygon with vertices (q−1, −1), (−1, p−1), (q, 0) and (0, p) and proved that line px + qy = pq − p − q + i contains exactly one point in I(P ) for each i = 1, . . . , p + q − 1. Let k ∗ be the largest integer such that pq − k ∗ (p + q) ≥ 0. Let rk (resp. rk ) be the intersection of line px + qy = pq − k(p − q) with the x-axis (resp. with the y-axis) for each k = 0, . . . , k∗ . Let Qk (resp. Qk ), k = 0, . . . , k∗ − 1 be the (not necessarily lattice) polygon formed by the points (rk , 0), (rk+1 , 0), (q − k, −k) and (q − (k + 1), −(k + 1)) ), (−k, p − k) and (−(k + (resp. formed by the points (0, rk ), (0, rk+1 1), p − (k + 1))). By applying the same arguments as the claim proved in the third proof of Theorem 2.1.1, we have that the number of gaps of S in the interval [pq − (k + 1)(p + q), . . . , pq − k(p + q)] is given by I(Qk ) + I(Qk ) for each k = 0, . . . , k∗ − 1. So, we calculate I(Qk ) and I(Qk ) for each k = 1, . . . , k∗ − 1 (note that I(Q0 ) = I(Q0 ) = 0). To this end, we ﬁrst observe that the number of integers points lying on the interval [(rk , 0), . . . , (q, 0)[= [(q − k − kq p , 0), . . . , (q, 0)[ )[= [(0, p), . . . , (0, p − k − (resp. lying on the interval [(0, p), . . . , (0, r k , , kq kp

)[) is equal to k + (resp. equal to k + kp q p q ). Now, if for each ∗ k = 0, . . . , k −1 we denote by ∆k and ∆k the number of integers points ), . . . , (0, rk )[ lying on the intervals [(rk+1 , 0), . . . , (rk , 0)[ and [(0, rk+1 ∗ respectively, then for each k = 0, . . . , k − 1

I(Qk ) = =

k−1 i=0 k−1

∆i = 1+

i=0

Similarly, I(Qk ) = k +

,

,

k−1

(i + 1) +

i=0 (i+1)q p

kp q

-

-

−

,

, iq p

(i+1)q p

-

=k+

−i−

,

kq p

-

, iq p

.

, k = 1, . . . , k∗ − 1 and the result follows.

Gaps and non-gaps

139

7.1.1 Telescopic semigroups Let di = (s1 , . . . , si ) and set Ai = {s1 /d1 , . . . , si /di } for each i = 1, . . . , n. Let Si be the semigroup generated by Ai . The sequence {s1 , . . . , sn } is called telescopic if si /di ∈ Si−1 for i = 2, . . . , n. We call a semigroup telescopic if it is generated by a telescopic sequence. Remark 7.1.4 If {s1 , . . . , sn } is telescopic then (s1 /d1 , . . . , si /di ) = 1 and the sequence {s1 /d1 , . . . , si /di } is telescopic for i = 2, . . . , n. If di = 1 for a telescopic sequence {s1 , . . . , sn }, then {s1 , . . . , si } is also telescopic and generates the same semigroup. Example 7.1.5 Semigroups generated by two elements are telescopic. The sequence {4, 6, 5} is telescopic since d2 = 2 and 5 is an element of the group generated by 4/2 and 6/2. The sequence {4, 5, 6} is not telescopic. Lemma 7.1.6 [240] If {s1 , . . . , sn } is telescopic and M ∈ Sn then there exists uniquely determined non-negative integers 0 ≤ xi < di−1 /di for i = 2, . . . , n such that

M=

n

xi si .

i=1

Proof. It follows by induction on n and by using Remark 7.1.4.

The following lemma shows that telescopic semigroups are symmetric. Lemma 7.1.7 [240] For a semigroup generated by the telescopic sequence {s1 , . . . , sn } we have

lN (S) (Sn ) = dn−1 lN (S) (Sn−1 ) + (dn−1 − 1)sn =

n di−1 i=1

di

− 1 si , (7.2)

and N (Sn ) = dn−1 N (Sn−1 ) + (dn−1 − 1)(sn − 1)/2 =

lN (S) (Sn ) + 1 , (7.3) 2

where d0 = 0. Proof. Since (sn , dn−1 ) = 1 then every integer m ∈ IN can be uniquely represented as m = vsn + wdn−1 with 0 ≤ v ≤ dn−1 (w may be negative). By Lemma 7.1.6 the gaps of Sn are exactly the numbers m, where the corresponding w is either a gap of Sn−1 or w is negative. Thus, the ﬁrst equality in (7.2) follows. The second equality follows by induction on n.

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We shall now prove the ﬁrst equality of (7.3) (the second equality follows by induction on n). For every value of 0 ≤ v < dn−1 we get N (Sn−1 ) gaps of Sn from those of Sn−1 . Moreover, integers of the form m = vsn + wdn−1 where w < 0 are also gaps in Sn . But these gaps are exactly the gaps of the semigroup < sn , dn−1 > that, by Theorem 2.1.1, there are (dn−1 − 1)(sn − 1)/2. Thus the total number of gaps in Sn is dn−1 N (Sn−1 ) + (dn−1 − 1)(sn − 1)/2. It is not true that symmetric semigroups need to be telescopic. For instance, consider the semigroup S¯ generated by {g, g + 1, . . . , 2g − 2}. ¯ Thus, Then, it is clear that 1, 2, . . . , g − 1 and 2g − 1 are the gaps of S. ¯ ¯ S has g gaps and the largest gap is 2g − 1, so S is symmetric. It can be shown by induction that S¯ is not telescopic. Semigroups with the property mentioned in Lemma 7.1.6 are called ‘semi-groupe libre’(free semigroups) by Bertin and Carbonne in [41, 42]. In these papers it is proved that a sequence is telescopic if and only if it is free if and only if the formula for the largest gap in Lemma 7.1.7 holds.

7.1.2 Hyperelliptic semigroups A semigroup S =< s1 , . . . , sn > with s1 < · · · < sn is called hyperelliptic if s1 = ρ2 (S) = 2. Oliveira [317] gave a characterization of hyperelliptic and non-hyperelliptic semigroups with respect to gaps. The corresponding characterization in terms of non-gaps was obtained by Buchwitz [78]. Theorem 7.1.8 [317] Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn > with s1 < · · · < sn be a semigroup with genus N (S). Then,

(i) S is hyperelliptic if and only if li = 2i−1 for each i = 2, . . . , N (S). (ii) S is nonhyperelliptic if and only if li ≤ 2i − 2 for each i = 2, . . . , N (S) − 1 and lN (S) ≤ 2N (S) − 1 (here we assume that ρ2 ≥ 3 since the case ρ2 = 1 is irrelevant). Sketch of the proof. (i) If S is hyperelliptic then all even positive integers belongs to S and thus all gaps are odd integers. Now, let i be the smallest integer such that si is odd (there is at least one since (s1 , . . . , sn ) = 1). Since g(S) = g(2, si ) = 2si − si − 2 = si − 2 then (i.e. all odd integers smaller than or equal to si − 2). N (S) = si −2+1 2 For the converse, if all gaps are odd integers then any positive even integer belongs to S, in particular 2 ∈ S.

Symmetric semigroups

141

(ii) This part follows from the following observation: Let j be an integer where 2 ≤ j ≤ N (S). Notice that at least one of the integers in the pair {r, lr − r} with 1 ≤ r ≤ lj /2 is a gap of S (otherwise, if both were non-gaps then r + lj − r = lj would be a non-gap, which is a contradiction). Thus, we have lj /2 ≤ j − 1 (since lj is the j-th gap) that is, lj ≤ 2j − 1. The following result shows the importance of studying the sum of gaps in semigroups. Theorem 7.1.9 [317] If S is a non-hyperelliptic semigroup then each integer 2 ≤ r ≤ 2N (S) is the sum of two gaps of S with the exception only of lN (S) if S is symmetric. Proof. Let r ≥ 2 be an integer such that r is not the sum of two gaps of S. Then, at least one of the integers in the pair {i, r − i} with 1 ≤ i ≤ r/2 is a non-gap of S (otherwise, if both were gaps then r = i + r − i would be a sum of two gaps), therefore the number of non-gaps between 1 and r − 1 is at least r/2 . Thus, if N (r) denotes the number of gaps smaller then r we have N (r) ≤ r − 1 − r/2 , so 2N (r) + 1 ≤ r. Since r ≤ 2N (S) then N (r) < N (S) and

2N (r) + 1 ≤ r ≤ lN (r)+1 .

(7.4)

We claim that N (r) + 1 = N (S). Indeed, if N (r) + 1 < N (S) then by Theorem 7.1.9 part (ii) and by eqn (7.4) we have 2N (r) + 1 ≤ r ≤ lN (r)+1 ≤ 2(N (r) + 1) − 2 = 2N (r),

(7.5)

which is a contradiction. So, if N (r) + 1 = N (S) then again by Theorem 7.1.9 part (ii) we have that r ≤ lN (S) ≤ 2N (S) − 1 and by the the left-hand inequality of (7.4) we have r ≥ 2N (r) + 1 = 2 (N (S) − 1) + 1 = 2N (S) − 1. Thus, r = 2N (S) − 1 = lN (S) Therefore, if r is an integer that is not the sum of two gaps of S we obtain that r must be lN (S) = g(S) .

7.2

Symmetric semigroups

Let gS = {g(s1 , . . . , sn ) − s|s ∈ S}. Notice that S and gS are disjoint sets (otherwise, x = g(S) − s for some s ∈ S and since x ∈ S then g(S) − s + s = g(S) ∈ S, which is a contradiction). A semigroup S is called symmetric2 if S ∪ gS = ZZ. 2

Herzog [192] called these semigroups ‘Sylvester-semigroups’.

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Numerical semigroups

The interest in symmetric numerical semigroups started from their role in the classiﬁcation of plane algebraic branches (see Section 7.2.2). Later, the result of Herzog [191] that a monomial curve3 is ideal theoretically a complete intersection if and only if its associated semigroup is symmetric together with a result by Bresinsky [62] that a monomial curve in the aﬃne space A4 is set theoretically complete intersection if its associated semigroup is symmetric along with the appealing theorem of Herzog and Kunz [193] (see also [256]) that a Noetherian local ring of dimension one and analiytically irrreducible is a Gorenstein ring if and only if its associates value semigroup is symmetric have certainly contributed to increase even more the interest in symmetric semigroups. For a semigroup S, let TS = {z ∈ ZZ \ S|z + s ∈ S for every positive s ∈ S}. The number of elements in TS is called the type of S. Proposition 7.2.1

TS ∩ gS = {g(S)}. Proof. It is clear that g(S) belong to gS and TS . Suppose that there exists x = g(S) − s ∈ gS with s > 0, then x + s = g(S) ∈ S and thus x ∈ TS .

A ﬁrst characterization of symmetric groups was given by Kunz [256] (cf. Theorem 5.2.6) Theorem 7.2.2 [256] TS = g(S) if and only if S is symmetric. Proof. Suppose that S is symmetric and assume that x ∈ TS with x ≤ g(S). Then, 0 < g(S) − x ∈ S and x + (g(S) − x) = g(S) is in S, which is a contradiction, So, x = g(S). 3

Let a1 , . . . , an be relatively prime positive integers. A monomial curve Γ in the aﬃne space Ank over a ﬁeld k is given parametrically by xi = tai that is, we have Γ = {(ta1 , . . . , tan ) ∈ Ank |t ∈ k}.

Symmetric semigroups

143

Now, assume that TS = g(S). Let z ∈ S, z > 0, we must show that g(S) − z ∈ S. Suppose the contrary, g(S) − z ∈ S and assume that z is the least positive integer such that g(S) − z ∈ S. Since g(S) − z = g(S) then, there exists s ∈ S, s = z such that (g(S) − z) + s ∈ S (otherwise, g(S) − z ∈ TS , which is not possible since TS = g(S)). Thus, it must be the case that z − s > 0 (if not, then g(S) − z + s = g(S) + r with r > 0 and then g(S) + r ∈ S by deﬁnition of g(S)) that contradicts the choice of z. Thus, by Theorem 7.2.2 and Sylvester’s result (cf. Theorem 2.1.1) any semigroup S =< p, q > is symmetric in the interval [0, . . . , pq − p − q]. Fr˝ oberg et al . [149] gave alternative descriptions of the concept of symmetry in semigroups. Lemma 7.2.3 [149] The following conditions are equivalent for a semigroup S =< s1 , . . . , sn >.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

S is symmetric. For each z ∈ ZZ we have that either z ∈ S or g(S) − z ∈ S. If x + y = g(S) then exactly one of x and y belongs to S. There is a ∈ S such that x + y = a implies that exactly one of x and y belongs to S. (v) Among the numbers 0, 1, . . . , g(S) there are just as many elements in S as there are elements outside S.

Proof. Since S and gS are always disjoint then (ii) and (iii) are just reformulations of (i). Clearly (ii) implies (iv) and since non-negative numbers belong to S then we must have that a is the largest number not belonging to S and hence (iv) implies (ii). Finally, since condition (iii) is always true for z < 0 then we have that (iii) is equivalent to (v).

Notice that Lemma 7.2.3 part (v) shows that g(S) must be an odd number if S is symmetric. One may also study S when g(S) is even (and thus S not symmetric). Let Sr = {S|S be a semigroup with g(S) = r}. Sr is partially ordered under set-theoretic inclusion. It is easy to see, by Zorn’s Lemma4 , that Sr has at least one maximal element. Lemma 7.2.3 can be reformulated as follows. 4 Zorn’s Lemma states that every non-empty inductive system possesses at least one maximal element. If the reader has not encountered Zorn’s Lemma before, it is suggested to be treated as an axiom. It is in fact, equivalent to be the Well Ordering Principle.

144

Numerical semigroups

Lemma 7.2.4 [149] Let r ∈ IN be odd. Then, for any semigroup S ∈ Sr , the following are equivalent:

(i) S is symmetric. (ii) The map S ∩ {0, 1, . . . , r} → (IN \ S) ∩ {0, 1, . . . , r} s→ r − s is a bijection. (iii) |S ∩ {0, 1, . . . , r}| = (r + 1)/2. (iv) TS = {r}. (v) S is maximal in Sr . The proof for the equivalence between (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are just as in Lemma 7.2.3 so we may just prove the equivalence between condition (ii) and condition (v). To this end, we need the following proposition. Proposition 7.2.5 Let HS = {z ∈ ZZ|z ∈ S and g(S) − z ∈ S}. Then,

(i) TS \ HS = {g(S)}. (ii) Let hS be the largest element of HS . Then, hS is the second largest element of TS . (iii) 2hS ≥ g(S). Proof. (i) It is clear that g(S) ∈ TS \ HS (by the deﬁnitions of TS and HS ). Let ρ ∈ TS \ {g(S)} and suppose g(S) − ρ ∈ S. Then, g(S) − ρ = s for some s ∈ S, s > 0 and so g(S) = ρ + s ∈ S, which is impossible. Therefore, g(S) − ρ ∈ S; hence ρ ∈ HS and so TS \ HS = {g(S)}. (ii) Assume that hS + s ∈ S for some s ∈ S, s > 0. By the maximality of hs , we have that hS + s ∈ HS and thus g(S) − (hS + s) ∈ S. We rewrite the latter as g(S) − hS − s = t for some t ∈ S. Therefore, g(S) − hS ∈ S that is contradictory to the fact that hS ∈ HS . So, hS + s ∈ S for all s ∈ S, s > 0 implying that hS ∈ TS . Finally, from (i) we can see that there are no elements in TS strictly between hS and g(S). (iii) This part follows by observing that if h ∈ HS then g(S) − h ∈ HS and that either hS or g(S) − hS is greater than or equal to g(S)/2 (since their sum is g(S)).

Symmetric semigroups

145

Proof of the equivalence between (ii) and (v) of Lemma 7.2.4. If S is symmetric and a ∈ S then we have that a = g(S) − s for some s ∈ S. Thus, g(S) = a + s ∈< S, a > so g(S, a) < g(S) and hence S is maximal in Sr . Now, suppose that (ii) does not hold then we claim that g(S) ∈< S, hS >. Indeed, if g(S) = s + nhS for some s ∈ S and some n ∈ IN we must have, by Proposition 7.2.5 (iii) that n = 1 and thus hS = g(S) − s, which is impossible by deﬁnition of HS . Thus g(S, hS ) = g(S) and S is not maximal in Sr .

The following lemma gives some (analogous) information of S when the conductor of S is even. Lemma 7.2.6 [149] Let r ∈ IN be even. Then, for any semigroup S ∈ Sr , the following are equivalent: (i) S ∪ gS = ZZ \ {r/2}, (ii) The map

S ∩ {0, 1, . . . , r − 1} → (IN \ S) ∩ {0, 1, . . . , r − 1} s →r−s is a bijection. (iii) For each z ∈ ZZ we have either z ∈ S or z ∈ gS or z = r/2. (iv) TS = {r/2, r}. (v) S is maximal in Sr . Proof of Lemma 7.2.6. Condition (iii) is just a reformulation of condition (i) and their equivalence to condition (ii) follows as in Lemma 7.2.3. We show the equivalence between (i) and (iv). Suppose tha (i) holds. Since TS ∩ gS = {g(S) = r} and TS ∩ S = ∅ then TS ⊆ {r/2, r}. But S is not symmetric (since r = g(S) is even) then TS = {r/2, r} implying condition (iv). Now, suppose that (iv) holds then, by Proposition 7.2.5 (ii), hS is the second largest element in TS (and thus nS = r/2) and also hS is the largest element such that hS ∈ HS and thus, by deﬁnition of HS , g(S) − hS = r − 2r = 2r ∈ S. Thus condition (iv) implies condition (i). We now prove the equivalence between (iv) and (v). Suppose that TS = {r/2, r}. If a ∈ S then we have either a ∈ r − s for some s ∈ S or a = r/2. In both cases we have that r ∈< S, a > and thus g(S, a) < g(S) = r implying the maximality of S in Sr . The other direction follows by using the same argument as in the proof of the equivalence between (ii) and (v) of Lemma 7.2.4.

146

Numerical semigroups

A numerical semigroup satisfying conditions of Lemma 7.2.6 is called pseudo-symmetric. A simple example of a pseudo-symmetric semigroup is given by < 3, 4, 5 >. Fr˝ oberg, et al. [149] used Lemmas 7.2.4 and 7.2.6 not only to give an answer to the extending bases problem (see Section 3.5) but also to show that the number of symmetric semigroups grows exponentially with g(S). Proposition 7.2.7 [149] Let r be a ﬁxed odd number. The number of r symmetric semigroups S with g(S) = r is at least 2 8 . Proof. Let T =< g(S) + 1, . . . , 2g(S) + 1 >. It is clear that g(T ) = g(S). We extend T to a semigroup 4, T-1 by adding , an -5even number g(S) g(S) of generators form the set E = + 1, . . . , 2 . If T1 is not 4 symmetric then we set T2 =< T1 , hT1 > and check if T2 is symmetric, if not then we set T3 =< T2 , hT2 > and so on. It is clear that we eventually reach a symmetric semigroup (by Lemmas 7.2.4 (v) and 7.2.6 (v)). r The result follows since there are at least 2 8 ways to choose an even number of generators from the set E each yielding diﬀerent semigroups such that g(Ti ) remains the same throughout the process.

Backelin [21] improved this proposition in some cases. Theorem 7.2.8 [21] Let Sr = {S|S is a semigroup with g(S) = r}. Then,

0 < lim inf 2−r/2 |Sr | < lim sup 2−r/2 |Sr | < ∞. r→∞

r→∞

Moreover, 2 (r−1)/2 ≤ |Sr | ≤ 42 (r−1)/2 for all positive integers r. The proof of Theorem 7.2.8 is based in an upper bound of K(n, q) = |{X ⊆ {1, . . . , n} : |2X| ≤ q}|, where 2X denotes X + X = {a + b|a, b ∈ X} and n, q are positive integers. In [149], Fr˝ oberg et al. established an easy criteria for deciding whether a semigroup with three elements is symmetric. Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn > and let di = (s1 , . . . , si−1 , si+1 , . . . , sn ). The derived semigroup of S is deﬁned as the semigroup generated by {s1 / j =1 dj , . . . , sn / j =n dj }. Theorem 7.2.9 [149] S =< s1 , s2 , s3 > is symmetric if and only if its derived semigroup is generated by two elements.

Symmetric semigroups

147

Instead of proving Theorem 7.2.9 (that requires a number of technical lemmas), we rather expose an algorithm that uses Theorem 7.2.9, for detecting symmetry on semigroups on three elements. Fr˝oberg, Gottlieb and H˝aggkvist Algorithm

Determine the derived semigroup of S, say < s¯1 , s¯2 , s¯3 > (suppose that s¯3 is the largest of these three elements) If s¯3 > s¯1 s¯2 − s¯1 − s¯2 Then S is symmetric Else , If s¯1 divides s¯3 −i¯ s2 for some i = 1, . . . , ss¯¯32 Then S is symmetric Else S is not symmetric. Delorme [106] found a recursive characterization for symmetric semigroups. Theorem 7.2.10 [106] Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn > and S =< s1 , . . . , sn > and let s and s be positive integers such that s ∈ S, s ∈ S and (s, s ) = 1. Let T =< s S + sS >= {t|t = ss0 + s s0 , s0 ∈ S, s0 ∈ S }. Then,

(i) g(T ) = s g(S) + sg(S ) + ss . (ii) T is symmetric if and only if S and S are symmetric. Proof. (i) Since g(s, s ) = ss − s − s is the conductor of sIN + s IN then

s g(S) + sg(S ) + ss + IN ⊂ s g(S) + s IN + sg(S ) + sIN ⊂ s S + sS . Now, suppose that s g(S) + sg(S ) + ss ∈ T . Hence, s b + sb = s g(S) + sg(S ) + ss ,

(7.6)

with b ∈ S and b ∈ S . By taking equality (7.6) modulo s and s , we obtain the following equalities b = g(S) + su and b = g(S ) + s u ,

(7.7)

where u and u are integers. By combining eqns (7.6) and (7.7) we have that u + u = 1. Moreover, u, v = 0, otherwise b = g(S) (respectively b = g(S )), which is impossible since b ∈ S and g(S) ∈ S (respectively, b ∈ S and g(S ) ∈ S ). (ii) Suppose that S and S are symmetric. Let us + u s ∈ T . By modifying the decompostion of us + u s, we can actually assume that

148

Numerical semigroups

u ∈ S and u + s ∈ S. Thus, u − s i nS (otherwise, if u − s ∈ S then us + u s = s (u + s ) + s(u − s) ∈ T contradicting the choice of us + u s) and, by part (i), we have g(T ) − (us + u s) = s g(S) + sg(S ) + ss − (us + u s) = s (g(S) − u) + s(g(S ) + s − u ), but s (g(S) − u) + s(g(S ) + s − u ) ∈ T since g(S) − u ∈ S (as S is symmetric) and g(S ) + s − u ∈ S (as S is symmetric). So, T is symmetric.

7.2.1 Intersection of semigroups A numerical semigroup S is called irreducible if it cannot be expressed as an intersection of two numerical semigroups properly containing it; see [366] for results on irreducibility. From [149], it can be deduced that the set of irreducible numerical semigroups with odd (even) Frobenius number coincides with the set of symmetric (pseudo-symmetric) numerical semigroups. Hence, every numerical semigroup can be expressed as an intersection of numerical semigroups that are either symmetric or pseudo-symmetric. In [365], Rosales and Branco characterize those numerical semigroups that can be expressed as a ﬁnite intersection of symmetric numerical semigroups. Theorem 7.2.11 [365] Let S be a semigroup. Then, S can be expressed as a ﬁnite intersection of symmetric semigroups if and only if for every even positive integer x ∈ S, there exists an odd positive integer y such that x + y ∈< S, y >.

In fact, they improved the above theorem for pseudo-Frobenius numbers. Let S be a semigroup. An element x ∈ S is called a pseudoFrobenius number of S if x ∈ S but x + s ∈ S for all s ∈ S \ {0}, that is, x ∈ TS . Theorem 7.2.12 [365] Let S be a semigroup and let g1 , . . . , gt be its pseudo-Frobenius numbers. Then, S can be expressed as a ﬁnite intersection of symmetric semigroups if and only if for all gi even, there exists an odd positive integer yi such that gi + yi ∈< S, yi >.

We close this section by proving a nice characterization of symmetry for a special sequence due to Estrada and L´ opez [135] generalizing a result due to Juan [222].

Symmetric semigroups

149

Theorem 7.2.13 [135] Let S =< s, hs + d, hs + 2d, . . . , hs + kd > with (s, d) = 1 and k ≤ s − 1. Then, S is symmetric if and only if either k = 1 or k ≥ 2 and s ≡ 2 mod k. Proof. From Theorems 3.3.4 and 5.4.15 we have that s−2 + s(h − 1) + d(s − 1), g(s, hs + d, hs + 2d, . . . , hs + kd) = hs k

and (s − 1)(hq + d + h − 1 + hr(q + 1)) , 2 where s − 1 = qk + r with 0 ≤ r < k, respectively. Now, by Lemma 7.2.3 part (v), S is symmetric if and only if N (s, hs+d, hs+2d, . . . , hs+kd) =

g(s, hs + d, hs + 2d, . . . , hs + kd) + 1 · 2 In this case such a condition is equivalent to

N (s, hs+d, hs+2d, . . . , hs+kd) =

s−2 = sq − q − 1 + rq + r. k

(7.8)

We have two cases. Case a) If r = 0 then s−2 k = q − 1 so condition (7.8) means that q − 1 = sq − q − 1 if and only if 2q = sq that is, s = 2 implying that k = 1. Case b) If r = 0 then s−2 k = q so condition (7.8) is the same as q = sq − q − 1 + rq + r = sq − q − 1 + r(q + 1) = sq + (q + 1)(r − 1). So, q(s − 1) = (q + 1)(r − 1) implying that q|(r − 1) but since r < q then r = 1. Thus, s − 1 = qk + 1 implying that s ≡ 2 mod k with k ≥ 2.

7.2.2 Ap´ery sets The Ap´ery set of element n, n ∈ S \ {0} is deﬁned as Ap(S, n) = {s ∈ S|s − n ∈ S}. Proposition 7.2.14 The set Ap(S, n) is a complete system modulo n. Proof. Let w(i) = min{s ∈ S|s ≡ i mod n} for every i = 0, . . . , n − 1. The element w(i) exists since for every n ∈ IN, n > g(S), we have that

150

Numerical semigroups

n ∈ S that implies that the set {s ∈ S|s ≡ i mod n} is not empty. It is easy to check that Ap(S, n) = {w(0), . . . , w(n − 1)}. From the above proposition we have that |Ap(S, n)| = n. Moreover, Proposition 7.2.15

g(S) = max{Ap(S, n)} − n. Proof. Let n ∈ S \ {0}. By deﬁnition, max{Ap(S, n)} − n ∈ S. Let s ∈ IN be an element greater than max{Ap(S, n)}−n and suppose that w ∈ Ap(S, n) is such that s ≡ w mod n. Since, s + n > max{Ap(S, n)} then s + n > w and thus s + n = w + qn for some q ∈ IN \ {0}. Hence, s = w + (q − 1)n ∈ S.

Ap´ery [13] showed the following result. Lemma 7.2.16 [13] Let n ∈ S \ {0} and 0 = w(0) < w(1) < · · · < w(n − 1) the smallest elements of S in the respective congruence class modulo n. Then, S is symmetric if and only if w(i) + w(n − (i + 1)) = w(n − 1) for all i ∈ {0, . . . , n − 1}. Proof. By Proposition 7.2.15 that g(S) = w(n − 1) − n. Now, suppose S is symmetric then there exists a permutation j0 , . . . , jn−1 of the set {0, . . . , n − 1} such that w(i) + w(ji ) = g(S) + n = w(n − 1) and since w(i) < w(i + 1) then ji = n − (i + 1). Contrarily, suppose that w(i) + w(n − (i + 1)) = w(n − 1) for all i ∈ {1, . . . , n}. Then for any two integers a and b such that a + b = w(n − 1) − n = g(S) we must have that a = w(i) + λn and b = w(n − (i + 1)) + λ n with λ, λ ∈ IN and λ + λ = −1. Then, necesarily either λ < 0 or λ < 0 and the result follows since clearly every integer g is of the form w(i) + λn where λ ≥ 0 if g ∈ S (λ < 0 otherwise).

7.3 Related concepts 7.3.1 Type sequences In [24, 25], Barucci et al. remarked that, although symmetric semigroups are characterized by having type less than or equal to one (cf. Lemma 7.2.4), the pseudo-symmetric semigroups are only one particular kind of semigroups having type two. For instance, the semigroup S =< 3, 10, 11 > is of type two (since TS = {7, 8}) but it is not pseudosymmetric (since g(S)/2 = 4 = 3 = {3, 10, 11} ∩ {0, 1, . . . , 8}). Barucci

Related concepts

151

et al. sharpened the notion of type in order to characterize the maximal elements of the set Sr . Let S = {0 = s0 , s1 , . . . , sn = g(S)−1, →} be a numerical semigroup where si < si+1 , n = n(S) = |S ∩ {0, 1, . . . , g(S)}| and the arrow means that every integer greater than g(S) + 1 belongs to S. Let Si = {x ∈ S|x ≥ si } and deﬁne S(i) := (S − Si ) = {x ∈ IN|x + Si ⊆ S}. It is obvious that every S(i) is itself a numerical semigroup and that Sn ⊂ Sn−1 ⊂ · · · ⊂ S1 ⊂ S ⊂ S(1) ⊂ · · · ⊂ S(n − 1) ⊂ S(n) = IN. The number tS := |S(1) \ S| is the type of S. Likewise, it is deﬁned ti (S) := |S(i) \ S(i − 1)|, i ≥ 1. Obviously, t1 (S) = TS , but, in general case, ti (S) = t(S(i)) (cf. [24, Theorem 8]). In this way, it is possible to associate with every numerical semigroup S a numerical sequence {t1 , . . . , tn(S) } that is called the type sequence of S. Since IN \ S is the disjoint union of the sets S(i) \ S(i − 1), the integer n(S)

g(S) + 1 − n(S) =

ti (S)

(7.9)

i=1

counts the elements in IN \ S. Proposition 7.3.1 [24] Let S = {0 = s0 , s1 , . . . , sn = g(S) − 1, →} be a numerical semigroup, S = IN. Then, for each i = 1, . . . , n(S)

(i) g(S(i)) = g(S) − si , (ii) 1 ≤ ti (S) ≤ t1 (S), (iii) 2n(S) ≤ g(S) + 1 ≤ n(S)[t(S) + 1] and (iv) t(S) ≤ g(S) + 2 − 2n(S). Proof. (i) Since g(S) = g(S) + si − si ∈ S then g(S) − si ∈ S(i). Moreover, if x > g(S) − si then for each si ∈ Si , x + si > g(S) and so x + s ∈ S. Hence, x ∈ S(i) and g(S(i)) = g(S) − si . (ii) If s ∈ Si then g(S) − si−1 + s ≥ g(S) − si−1 + si ≥ g(S) + 1 and thus g(S) − si−1 ∈ (S \ Si ) = S(i) but g(S) − si−1 ∈ S(i − 1); hence, 1 ≤ ti (S). Now, consider the injection

S(i) \ S(i − 1) → S(1) \ S x → x + si−1 . By deﬁnition si−1 +s ≥ si for each s ∈ S \{0}; thus, if x ∈ S(i) then x + si−1 + s ∈ S and x + si−1 ∈ S(1). Therefore, the above injection is an immersion of S(i) \ S(i − 1) into S(1) \ S; thus ti (S) ≤ t1 (S). (iii) and (iv) follow from part (ii) and eqn (7.9).

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Numerical semigroups

Corollary 7.3.2 [24] Let r ≥ 1 and let S ∈ Sr = {S|S is a semigroup with g(S) = r}. Then, S is maximal in Sr if and only if its type sequence is (t1 (S), 1, . . . , 1) and t1 (S) ≤ 2. Proof. Suppose that r is odd. Then, by Lemma 7.2.4, S is maximal in Sr if and only if t(S) = 1 and, by Propostition 7.3.1 (ii), if and only if the type sequence of S is (1, . . . , 1). Moreover, by eqn (7.9) if S has type sequence (2, 1, . . . , 1) then r = 2n(S) is even. Now, suppose that r is odd. By eqn (7.9), S cannot have type sequence of the form (1, . . . , 1) and if the type sequence of S is of the form (2, 1, . . . , 1) then n(S) = r/2 and thus, by Lemma 7.2.6 S is maximal in Sr . Conversely, if S is maximal in Sr then n(S) = r/2 and t1 (S) = 2. Therefore, by eqn (7.9) and Propostition 7.3.1 (ii) the type sequence of S is (2, . . . , 1).

Given integers n ≥ 2 and f ≥ 3, an interesting problem is to characterize the type sequences arising from S such that n(S) = n and g(S) = f . The case n = 2 is answered in the following result. Proposition 7.3.3 [24] If n = 2 and f ≥ 3 then an ordered pair (t, τ ) of natural numbers is the type sequence of some semigroup S such that n(S) = 2 and g(S) = f if and only if we have that

1 ≤ τ ≤ t, (f − 1)/2 ≤ t ≤ f − 2 and t + τ = f − 1.

(7.10)

Proof. If n(S) = 2 and g(S) = f then eqn (7.10) follows by eqn (7.9) and Proposition 7.3.1 (ii), (iii) and (iv). Conversely, suppose that (t, τ ) veriﬁes eqn (7.10) then there exists a semigroup S = {0, s, f + 1, →} with type sequence (t, τ ) with 2 ≤ s ≤ f −1 and f +1 ≤ 2s. Indeed, any such s implies that n(S ) = 2 and g(S ) = f ; moreover, t(S ) = s − 1 (since T (S ) = {x ∈ IN \ S|f + 1 ≤ x + s}). By setting s = t + 1, we have, by eqns (7.9) and (7.10), that S has type sequence (t, τ ) with 2 ≤ s ≤ f − 1 and f + 1 ≤ 2s.

7.3.2 Complete intersection A semigroup S =< s1 , . . . , sn > is called complete intersection if the cardinality of a minimal presentation plus one equals the cardinality of a minimal system of generators of the given semigroup. Equivalently, S is a complete intersection if the semigroup ring k[S] = k[ts1 , . . . , tsn ]

Related concepts

153

is a complete intersection5 . Complete intersection semigroups are important because they can be presented by the least possible number of relators. Delorme [106] found a recursive characterization of complete intersection semigroups. Theorem 7.3.4 [106] Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn > and S =< s1 , . . . , sn > be two semigroups and let s and s be positive integers such that s ∈ S, s ∈ S and (s, s ) = 1. Let T =< sS + s S >= {t|t = ss0 + s s0 , s0 ∈ S, s0 ∈ S }. Then, T is a complete intersection if and only if S and S are a complete intersection.

Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn > and let di = (s1 , . . . , si ) for i = 1, . . . , n with dn = 1. In [191], Herzog showed that if (after suitable reordering) S veriﬁes that [di , si+1 ] ∈< s1 , . . . , si > for i = 1, . . . , n − 1,

(7.11)

where [x, y] denotes the least common multiple of integers x and y then S is complete intersection (see Lemma 3.2.3). Further, Herzog proved that condition (7.11) is not only suﬃcient but also necessary in the case n = 3. In [143], Fischer and Shapiro showed that this is not the case in general by considering the semigroup S =< 20, 30, 33, 44 > (one can check that S does not satisfy condition (7.11) by observing that no matter how the elements are ordered [s1 , (s2 , s3 , s4 )] is never in < s2 , s3 , s4 >, while S is complete intersection). However, they showed that condition (7.11) is equivalent to the concept of principally dominating for matrices.

7.3.3 The M¨obius function Let P be a ﬁnite partially ordered set (or poset). The function µ : P × P −→ ZZ satisfying x≤y≤z

µ(x, y) = δ(x, z) if x ≤ z,

(7.12)

where δ is the Kronecker delta function6 together with ordering property µ(x, z) = 0 if x < z is called the M¨ obius function of P . µ exists If we consider the homomorphism ΦS : k[X1 , . . . , Xn ] → R[S], Φ(Xi ) = tsi , S is a complete intersection if and only if Ker(ΦS ) is generated by n − 1 elements. 6 The Kronecker delta function is deﬁned by 5

δ(x, z) =

1 0

if x = z otherwise.

154

Numerical semigroups

and is uniquely recursively deﬁned. Indeed, let us rewrite eqn (7.12) µ(x, x) = 1, µ(x, z) = −

µ(x, y) if x < z.

(7.13) (7.14)

x≤y
It can be ﬁrst calculated µ(x, z) with z = x from eqn (7.13) and then, recursively from eqn (7.14) for successively higher z by induction on the length of the longest chain from x to z. Thus µ depends only on the order structure of the interval [x, z] and not on the rest of P . Let S =< s1 , s2 > be the semigroup generated by s1 and s2 . Notice that S can be given a natural partial order: for g, h ∈ S, g < h ⇔ g + k = h for some k ∈ S. Deddens [105] determined the M¨ obius function7 of S. Theorem 7.3.5 [105] Let µ be the M¨ obius function of the poset S =< s1 , s2 >. Then,  

µ(0, s) =



1 −1 0

if s ≡ 0 or s1 + s2 mod (s1 s2 n), if s ≡ s1 or s2 mod (s1 s2 ), otherwise.

j Deddens actually calculated ∞ j=1 (−1) N (j, s), where N (j, s) denote the number of (ordered) ways that s can be written as the sum of j non-zero elements of G (not necessarily distinct), that is, N (j, s) is the number of chains of length j of the type 0 = g0 < g1 < · · · < gj = g. j ekely and Wormald [441] We have that ∞ j=1 (−1) N (j, s) = µ(0, s). Sz´ computed the zeta and the M¨ obius functions of S =< s1 , s2 , s3 >. They also showed that a similar result does not extend to the case with n ≥ 4 generators.

7.4

Supplementary notes

Let γ ≥ 0 be an integer. A semigroup S is called γ-hyperelliptic if the following conditions hold: S has γ even elements in the interval [2, 4γ] and the (γ + 1)-th positive element of S is 4γ + 2. The motivation for studying γ-hyperelliptic semigroups comes from the investigations of Weierstrass semigroups8 7

It is remarked in [105] that this result originally arose in connection with semigroups of operators on Hilbert spaces. 8 A Weierstrass semigroup is a semigroup associated to a point on an algebraic curve (or on a Riemann surface) X. This semigroup can give important information about the curve X. We refer the reader to [15, 173, 432] for further details.

Supplementary notes

155

In [452], Torres investigated the γ-hyperelliptic semigroups and found some characterizations of such semigroups in terms of the genus and non-gaps and applied them in order to characterize double coverings of curves by means of weights of Weierstrass semigroups. Consider the following interesting question: when a numerical semigroup occurs as a Weierstrass semigroup? In 1976, Buchweitz [77] gave the ﬁrst example of a numerical semigroup that cannot occur as a Weierstrass semigroup. Buchweitz’s proof is based on the fact that if S is a Weierstrass semigroup then |Lm (S)| ≤ (2m − 1)(N (S) − 1), where Lm denotes the set of all sums of m elements of IN \ S. Buchweitz [77] constructed numerical semigroups S satisfying |Lm (S)| > (2m − 1)(N (S) − 1) (such semigroups are called Buchweitz). Torres [453] also used his results on Weierstrass semigroups (on γ-hyperelliptic curves) and Buchweitz’s examples to give the ﬁrst examples of symmetric numerical semigroups that cannot occur as Weierstrass semigroups on non-singular curves. Kraft [253] gave another characterization of symmetric semigroups in terms of the Euler derivation; see also [64] for closed related results. In [362], Rosales compared the cardinals of a minimal relation of S and S ∪ {g(S)} obtaining a recurrent method to build the set S(m) of all numerical semigroups with multiplicity m. In [363], Rosales gave an upper bound for the cardinal of a minimal relation of a symmetric semigroup S (which depends on the multiplicity of S) and studied the set of numerical semigroups with given conductor and multiplicity. In [151], Garc´ıa-S´ anchez and Rosales studied numerical semigroups generated by intervals and showed that S = < s, s + 1, . . . , s + x > is symmetric if and only if s ≡ 2 mod x. Notice that this is a special case of Theorem 7.2.13 by taking y = 1 and d = x. Juan [222] gave a proof of a weaker version of Theorem 7.2.13. The concept of fundamental gaps in numerical semigroups and its Frobenius number is investigated in [369]. In [285] Manley, investigated the gaps of semigroups generated by arithmetic progressions. In [149], Fr˝ oberg et al. proved that if S is a semigroup of type t with n(S) < g(S) then g(S) + 1 ≤ (t + 1)n(S).

(7.15)

In [73], Brown and Curtis, classiﬁed all semigroups with g(S) = (t + 1) n(S) or g(S) + 1 = (t + 1)n(S). Kunz [257] considered the classiﬁcation of numerical semigroups in connection with the study of their invariants coming from the associated semigroup rings (i.e. Cohen–Macaulay type, Betti numbers, etc.).

156

Numerical semigroups

In [363], Rosales studied questions related to Ap´ery sets and remarked that the characterization of Lemma 7.2.16 shows that there exist only a ‘few’ symmetric semigroups S fulﬁlling the condition that the elements of Ap(S, n) have a unique expression. From results due to Rosales and Garc´ıa-S´ anchez [153], it can be deduced that if the elements of Ap(S, n) have a unique expression then S is a free semigroup; see also [371] and [370]. A numerical semigroup S is an Arf numerical semigroup if for every x, y, z ∈ S such that x ≥ y ≥ z, we have that x+y−z ∈ S. Barucci et al. [25] have characterized the Arf semigroups that are either symmetric or pseudo-symmetric, studied their role in characterizing Arf rings9 and investigated the Lipman semigroups10 ; see also [120] and [276]. In [82], Campillo and Marijuan studied complete intersection semigroups via the Koszul complexes. Zariski [487, 488] remarked on the importance of the conductor in semigroups in relation to algebroid branches and the Newton–Puiseux expansions; see also [41] and [42]. In [250], Komeda investigated whether a given numerical semigroup is Buchweitz and in [251] the Schubert index associated to numerical semigroups S, that is, the tuple (l1 − 1, l2 − 2, . . . , lN (S) − N (S)) where l1 < · · · < lN (S) are the gaps of S. D’Anna [103] deduced some general results, which allowed complete characterization of the type sequences of semigroups S when n(S) is 3 or 4. Moreover, D’Anna obtained upper and lower bounds for the elements of ti (S) and proved a result that connects the type sequence of S with the standard bases of the S(i) (in the sense of [351]). The latter result yields an algorithm for computing the type sequence of a given numerical semigroup. Delorme’s complete intersection characterization (Theorem 7.3.4) generalized some results given by Watanabe [476]. Garc´ıa-S´ anchez and Rosales [151] characterized complete intersection semigroups generated by intervals (sequences of consecutive integers). Ap´ery used Lemma 7.2.16 to show that the symmetric semigroup < 6, 7, 8 > does not correspond to an algebroid planar branch; a complete characterization of this type of symmetric semigroup for planar branches over any algebraically closed ground ﬁeld K, has been given by Angerm¨ uller [9]. For the general case, a very elegant algebraic char9

Arf rings are an important class of rings studied in algebraic geometry and commutative algebra. We refer the reader to [406] for a discussion on Arf rings and their relevance in geometry and also to [25] for the connection between the Arf property of a one-dimensional analytically irreducible domain and the Arf property of its value numerical semigroup; see also [16]. 10 In honour of [276].

Supplementary notes

157

acterization was given by Herzog and Kunz [193]. Unfortunately, this does not give an intrinsic characterization of symmetry in terms of generators of Thoma [445] presented a simple technique, based on the gluing concept, for ﬁnding monomial varieties that are set theoretic complete intersection. We refer the reader to [60, 61, 63] for further investigation related to Ap´ery sets and planar branches. Theorem 7.3.4 was also proved by Fischer and Shapiro [143]. Their proof depends on a decomposition theorem for mixed dominating anchez and Rosales [152] characterized simplicial matrices11 . Garc´ıa-S´ complete intersection aﬃne semigroups, with dimension less than four, by using the concept of gluing semigroups; see also the dissertation of Sch¨ afer (1987). In [144], Fischer et al. generalized the latter to arbitrary dimensions. In [296], Micale studied monomial semigroups by using the concept of critical number (a natural number k is a critical number for si if si + k ∈< s1 , . . . , sn >). 11 A matrix is said to be mixed if every row contains non-zeros of opposite sign real numbers and is dominating if it does not contain a non-empty square mixed submatrix; We refer the reader to [145] for a collection of many interesting properties of mixed dominating matrices.

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8 Applications of the Frobenius number The knowledge of the Frobenius number turned out to be very useful in many diﬀerent areas. In this chapter we show a number of applications of FP.

8.1

Complexity analysis of the Shell-sort method

Shell-sort is a sorting algorithm proposed by Shell [414] in 1959. Shellsort leads to a simple and compact sorting program that works well for small ﬁles and for ﬁles that are partially ordered. Let us give a brief description of the Shell-sort (for a detailed explanation of the Shell-sort procedure see Appendix B.4). Given an increment sequence h1 , h2 , . . . a ﬁle is sorted by successively hj -sorting it, for j from integer t down to 1. An array a[1], . . . , a[N ] is deﬁned to be hj -sorted if a[i − hj ] ≤ a[i] for i = hj + 1, . . . , N . The method used for hj -sorting is insertion sort: for i = hj + 1, . . . , N , we sort the sequence . . . , a[i − 2hj ], a[i − hj ], a[i] by taking advantage of the fact that the sequence . . . , a[i − 2hj ], a[i − hj ] is already sorted, so a[i] can be inserted by moving larger elements one position to the right in the sequence, then putting a[i] in the place vacated. Example 8.1.1 The table shows how a sample ﬁle is sorted by Shellsort with increments h3 = 7, h2 = 3 and h1 = 1.

Input ﬁle 7-sorted 3-sorted 1-sorted

3, 2, 7, 9, 8, 1, 1, 5, 2, 6 3, 2, 6, 9, 8, 1, 1, 5, 2, 7 1, 2, 1, 3, 5, 2, 7, 8, 6, 9 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Shell-sort sorts properly whenever the increment sequence ends with h1 = 1, but the running time of the algorithm clearly depends on the

160

Applications of the Frobenius number

speciﬁc increment sequence used and little is known on how to pick the ‘best’ increment sequence. Surprisingly, FP is very useful to obtain upper bounds for the running time of this fundamental sorting algorithm. Let nd (a1 , . . . , an ) be the number of multiples of d that cannot be represented as a linear combinations (with non-negative coeﬃcients) of a1 , . . . , an (see Chapter 5 for further details on nd (a1 , . . . , an ) when d = 1). Lemma 8.1.2 [214] The number of steps required to hj -sort an array a[1], . . . , a[N ] that is already hj+1 -hj+2 -, . . . ,-ht -sorted is

O N nhj (hj+1 , hj+2 , . . . , ht ) . Proof. The number of steps required to insert element a[i] is the number of elements among a[i − hj ], a[i − 2hj ], . . ., which are greater than a[i]. Any element a[i − x] with x a linear combination of hj+1 , hj+2 , . . . , ht must be less than a[i] since the ﬁle is hj+1 -hj+2 -, . . . ,-ht sorted (recall that if a k-sorted ﬁle is h-sorted, it remains k-sorted; see [246]). Thus, an upper bound on the number of steps to insert a[i], for 1 ≤ i ≤ N , is the number of multiples of hj that are not expressible as linear combination of hj+1 , hj+2 , . . . , ht or nhj (hj+1 , hj+2 , . . . , ht ). Lemma 8.1.3 Suppose that (a1 , . . . , an ) = 1. Then

nd (a1 , . . . , an ) <

g(a1 , . . . , an ) · d

Proof. Every integer greater than g(a1 , . . . , an ) can be represented as a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an ; in the worst case all multiples of d less than g(a1 , . . . , an ) cannot.

The complexity of Shell-sort is related to the Frobenius number in the following lemma due to Incerpi and Sedgewick [214]; see also [477]. Lemma 8.1.4 [214] The number of steps required to hj -sort an array a[1], . . . , a[N ] that is already hj+1 -hj+2 -, . . . ,-ht -sorted is !

O

N g(hj+1 , hj+2 , . . . , ht ) . hj

Proof. The result follows from Lemmas 8.1.2 and 8.1.3.

Speciﬁc bounds are obtained by solving FP for particular increment sequences. For example, Theorem 2.1.1 leads directly to an upper

Petri Nets

161

bound for hj -sorting of O(N hj ) when hj = 2j + 1 since N

g(hj+1 ,hj+2 ,...,ht ) hj

≤

g(hj+1 ,hj+2 ) hj

=O N

hj+1 ,hj+2 hj

= O(N hj ).

The above bound was given by Papernov and Stasevich [323] and was generalized by Pratt [336] to cover a large family of ‘almost geometric’ increment sequences. From Lemma 8.1.4, other speciﬁc bounds can be obtained by solving FP for particular increment sequences. Sedgewick [391] used Selmer’s results (cf. Theorem 2.3.6) for n = 3 to develop increment sequences obtaining a bound of order O(N 4/3 ). The increment sequences were rather complicated (of the form 4j+1 + 3(2j ) + 1 and 2(4j ) + 9(2j ) + 9). Incerpi and Sedgewick [214] improved O(N 4/3 ) to O(N 1+ ) and √ further to O(N 1+/ log N ) by using the FP approach as well. Their proof of the bound O(N 1+ ) resulted from a complicated increment sequence. Selmer [393] presented a simpler method to prove the latter, by using a classical result for the Frobenius number due to Brauer (cf. Theorem 3.1.2) and by Brauer and Seelbinder (cf. Theorem 3.1.4).

8.2

Petri Nets

Petri nets are one of the most sustained techniques to model and analyse non-sequential systems and have successfully been applied in many areas. Indeed, they are frequently used to model systems performing inﬁnite processes like operating systems, real-time control devices, communication protocols or information systems. This model was introduced and studied by Petri [326].

8.2.1 P/T systems Here, we consider Place/Transition nets that, among Petri nets, have become very popular. A triple N = (P, T ; F ) is called a net if and only if (a) P ∩ T = ∅ and P ∪ T = ∅, (b) F ⊆ (P × T ) ∪ (T × P ). A ﬁvetuple N = (P, T ; F, K, W ) is a Place/Transition net (we write P/T net) if and only if (a) (P, T ; F ) is a net where P and T are disjoint sets of places and transitions with |P | = n, |T | = m. (b) K : P −→ IN+ ∪ {∞} is a capacity function.

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Applications of the Frobenius number

(c) W : F −→ IN+ is a weight function. A P/T net N is called pure if and only if (p, t) ∈ F then (t, p) ∈ F for all (p, t) ∈ P × T (i.e. N has no parallel edges forming a directed cycle). A function M : P → IN is called marking. A P/T system is a pair (N , M0 ) where N is a P/T net and M0 is the initial marking. A transition t ∈ T is enabled at M if and only if (a) M (s) ≥ W (s, t) for all s such that (s, t) ∈ F , and (b) K(s) ≥ M (s) + W (t, s) for all s such that (t, s) ∈ F . If t is enabled at M then t may ﬁre, yielding a new marking M given by M (s) =

  M (s) − W (s, t)

M (s) − W (t, s)  M (s)

if (s, t) ∈ F, if (t, s) ∈ F, otherwise.

We call M reachable from M if and only if there exists a sequence of ﬁrings transforming M into M . Clearly, a P/T system N can be seen, and drawn, as weighted directed bipartite graphs where the partition sets are given by P and T and directions of edges are given by the relation F (i.e. one direct edge from x to y if and only if (x, y) ∈ F ). An (N , M0 ) system is live if there exists an inﬁnite sequence of enabled transitions starting from M0 (otherwise the (N , M0 ) system is called dead). The liveness problem (i.e. the problem of deciding liveness of a given markings) is one of the main problems studied in Petri nets. Example 8.2.1 Let (N , M0 ) be the P/T system given by

P = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, T = {1, 2, 3, 4}, F = {(a, 1), (c, 1), (1, b), (1, d), (b, 2), (e, 2), (2, a), (2, d), (d, 3), (f, 3), (3, c), (3, g), (d, 4), (g, 4), (4, e), (4, f )}, K : P → {∞}, W : F → {1}, M0 : P → {0, 1} where {a, b, c, g} → {1} and {d, e, f } → {0}. The (N , M0 ) system is represented in Fig. 8.1. The only enabled transition is 1 ∈ T and the immediate follower marking of M0 is M , where M : P → {0, 1, 2} with {b} → {2},

Petri Nets

163

a

1

2 b

d c

e f

3

4 g

Figure 8.1: (N , M0 ) system.

{d, g} → {1} and {a, c, e, f } → {0}. In turn, under M the only enabled transition is 4 ∈ T and the immediate follower marking of M is M , where M : P → {0, 1, 2} with {b} → {2}, {e, f } → {1} and {a, c, d, g} → {0}. It can be checked that under M there is not an enabled transition, and thus this P/T system is dead.

8.2.2 Weighted circuits systems An (N , M0 ) system is called a weighted circuit system1 (denoted by C) if and only if the bipartite graph associated to (N , M0 ) is an even directed (say, anti-clockwise) circuit with vertex partitions P = {p0 , . . . , pn−1 } and T = {t0 , . . . , tn−1 } with the relation F = {(ti , pi ) and (pi , ti+1 )}, where i + 1 is taken modulo n. Moreover, if we let W (ti , pi ) = wi,i and W (pi , ti+1 ) = wi,i+1 , where again i + 1 is taken modulo n then C = (ci,j ) denotes the incidence matrix, associated to C, where ci,i = wi,i , ci,i−1 = −wi,i+1 and zero otherwise. We say that C is consistent (resp. conservative) if there exists a positive integer T -vector X = (x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) (resp. P -vector Y = (y0 , . . . , yn−1 )t ) such that C · X = 0 (resp. Y t · C = 0t ). Such vectors 1

One motivation to study weighted circuits systems is that some problems (like the liveness of T -graphs) can be reduced to the problem of liveness of circuits.

164

Applications of the Frobenius number

are up to a constant uniquely determined by the matrix C (thus, we may assume that (x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) = 1 and (y0 , . . . , yn−1 ) = 1). The least positive X and Y are called T -invariant and P -invariant (also called the weight vector). The weight of a marking M is the value of the scalar product W (M ) = Y t · M . It is known that during ﬁring transitions the weights of reachable markings are invariant. A marking M is potentially reachable from marking M if and only if the equation C · z = M −M has an integer solution. Notice that if system (N , M0 ) is live then the set of reachable markings from M0 is equal to the set of potentially reachable markings. We say that number w is live weight (respectively. dead weight) if and only if all markings with weight w are live and there exists at least one (respectively, if and only if no live marking in C has a weight d). We denote by MD the greatest dead marking of C. Example 8.2.2 Let C be the system represented in Fig. 8.2. We have that incident matrix associated to C is given by 

5 −9 C=  0 0

0 3 −5 0



−4 0 . 0 9

0 0 4 −3 T4

5

4

P1

P4

9

9

T3

T1

3 3

5 P2

4 T2

P3

Figure 8.2: A conservative weighted circuit system.

Partition of a vector space

165

System C is conservative since Y = (4, 12, 15, 5)t . If M = (8, 4, 2, 3) then the weight of C is given by W (M ) = (4, 12, 15, 5)·(8, 4, 2, 3) = 125. Question What is the least live weight in a conservative weighted circuit? Teruel et al. [444] answered this question by using FP. Theorem 8.2.3 [444] Let C be a consistent weighted circuit and let Y t = (y1 , . . . , yn ) be a P -invariant. Then W (MD ) − g(y1 , . . . , yn ) is the value of the minimal live weight.

The proof of Theorem 8.2.3 depends on a non-trivial intrisic result (see [93, Lemma 2.3]). It is clear that having a formula for the Frobenius number would give a simple method to determine the value of the least live weight. Chrz¸astowski-Wachtel and Raczunas [93] proved the following stronger result. Theorem 8.2.4 [93] The problem of ﬁnding a formula for the least live weight in conservative weighted circuits and FP are equivalent. Proof. Theorem 8.2.3 shows that the problem of ﬁnding the least live weight can be reduced to FP. For the other direction, it is enough to construct a circuit with the least live weight equal to W (MD ) − g(y1 , . . . , yn ). To this end, it suﬃces to construct a circuit with the weight vector equal to Y = (y1 , . . . , yn ). It can be easily checked that the circuit with input arcs deﬁned as ci,i = [yi ,yyii−1 ] and with output

arcs deﬁned as ci,i−1 = denotes the lcm(a, b).

[yi ,yi−1 ] yi−1

has Y as its weight vector, where [a, b]

Example 8.2.5 In continuation of Example 8.2.2, we can easily verify that g(4, 5, 12, 15) = g(4, 5) = 11 and by Theorem 8.2.3 we have that the weight W (M ) − g(4, 5, 12, 15) = 125 − 11 = 114 is the least live weight.

8.3

Partition of a vector space

1 A collection {Vi }ki=1 of subspaces of V = Vn (q) (the vector space of ntuples over GF [q] with q an arbitrary prime power) is called a partition of V if and only if V = ∪ki=1 Vi and Vi ∩ Vj = {0} when 1 ≤ i = j ≤ k. A group H is said to have a partition H = G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gn if H is the union of n of its subgroups that have pairwise only the zero element in common. Partitions groups have been studied by several authors. Young [485] proved that if an abelian group has a non-trivial partition, the group must be an elementary abelian p-group. Since such

166

Applications of the Frobenius number

a group can be represented as the additive group of some Vn (p) and U is a subgroup of Vn (p) if and only if U is a subspace of Vn (p) then partitions of Vn (p) are a generalization of partitions of abelian groups. Herzog and Schønheim [194] related the partition problem (existence, classiﬁcation and enumeration of the partitions of Vn (p)) to coding theory. This motivated them to try to ﬁnd suﬃcient and necessary conditions for the existence of partitions of abelian groups. Beutelspacher [43] introduced the notion of T -partition of Vn (q). Let T = {t1 , . . . , tk } be a set of positive integers with t1 < · · · < tk . If W is a subspace of Vn (q), we denote by dimq W the dimension of W . A partition π of Vn (q) constitutes a T -partition if (a) for any element W of π dimq W ∈ T , and (b) for any t ∈ T there is an element W of π with dimq W = t. Remark 8.3.1 [108, page 29] Let n, t be positive integers. Then a ﬁnite vector space Vn (q) admits a partition of type {t} if and only if t is a divisor of n.

Beutelspacher proved the analoguous result for partitions of type {t1 , . . . , tk }. Theorem 8.3.2 [43] Let n be an integer. Suppose that Vn (q) admits a partition π of type T = {t1 , . . . , tk } with t1 < · · · < tk and n > tk . Then,

(i) n ≥ tk−1 + tk , (ii) if tk−1 + tk ≤ n < 2tk then (t1 , . . . , tk−1 )|n − tk , (iii) if n ≥ 2tk then (t1 , . . . , tk )|n. Proof. (i) The partition π must contain subspaces W and W with dimq W = tk and dimq W = tk−1 . Since W and W have no point in common then n ≥ tk + tk+1 . (ii) If tk−1 + tk ≤ n < 2tk then π contains a unique element, say W , with dimq W = tk . Hence, the remaining elements of π cover exactly q n − q tk vectors. Since d = (t1 , . . . , tk−1 )|ti for each i = 1, . . . , k − 1 then q d − 1|q ti − 1 for each i = 1, . . . , k − 1. And, since any subspace W with dimq W = ti in π contains exactly q ti − 1 of the q tk (q n−tk − 1) vectors of Vn \ W then q d − 1|q tk (q n−tk − 1). Therefore, q d − 1|q n−tk − 1 implying that d |n − tk . (iii) If d = (t1 , . . . , tk ) then q d − 1|q ti − 1 for each i = 1, . . . , k. So, by using the fact that π is a partition then q d − 1|q n − 1, implying that d|n.

Partition of a vector space

167

Theorem 8.3.3 [43] Let n be an integer such that n > dg(t1 /d, . . . , tk /d) + t1 + · · · + tk , where d = (t1 , . . . , tk ). Then, Vn (q) admits a partition of type T = {t1 , . . . , tk } if and only if d|n.

Theorem 8.3.2 implies the necessity of Theorem 8.3.3. In order to prove the suﬃciency we need the following two lemmas. Lemma 8.3.4 Let s, t be positive integers. Then Vs+t (q) admits a partition of type {s, t}. Proof. By Remark 8.3.1, V2s (q) admits a partition π of type {s}. Let V be a subspace of V2s (q) with dimq V = s + t containing an element, say W , of π. We shall show that any element W of π \ {W } intersects V in a subspace of dimension t. To see the latter, ﬁrst observe that dimq (V ∩W ) ≤ t otherwise the distinct elements W and W of π would have a point in common. On the other hand, dimq (V ∩ W ) ≥ t since both W and W generate the whole vector space V2s (q) and W ⊆ V . Hence,

π = {W } ∪ {W ∩ V |W ∈ π \ {W }} is a partition of type {s, t} in V . Lemma 8.3.5 Let n ≥ t be positive integers. If Vn (q) admits a partition {t1 , . . . , tk } then Vn+t (q) admits a partition of type {t1 , . . . , tk , t}. Proof. By Lemma 8.3.4, Vn+t (q) contains a partition π of type {n, t}. Let W be the unique element in π with dimq W = n. By hypothesis W admits a partition π of type {t1 , . . . , tk }. Hence,

π := π ∪ (π \ {W }) is a partition of type {t1 , . . . , tk , t} in Vn+t (q). Proof of Theorem 8.3.3. As we stated before, the necessity follows by Theorem 8.3.2. Suppose that d|n. By Lemma 8.3.4, Vtk +tk−1 (q) admits a partition of type {tk , tk−1 } and by Lemma 8.3.5 we have that Vt1 +···+tk (q) admits a partition of type {t1 , . . . , tk }. Now, n > dg(t1 /d, . . . , tk /d) + t1 + · · · + tk then a repeated application of Lemma 8.3.5 shows that Vn (q) admits a partition of type {t1 , . . . , tk } if

n=

k

xi ti

i=1

for integers xi > 0 (which is the case since (t1 , . . . , tk )|n).

168

Applications of the Frobenius number

Since the Frobenius number is ﬁnite then there is a least integer N (T, q) such that if n > N (T, q) and (t1 , . . . , tk ) divides n then Vn (q) has a T -partition. Beutelspacher used the upper bound given in Theorem 3.1.11 to obtain that

N (T, q) ≤ 2t1

tk t2 + · · · + tk . dk

In [190], Heden improved the latter by showing that if t1 ≤ k − 2 ≤ 2(q − 1) then N (T, q) ≤ dg(t1 /d, . . . , tk /d) + tk−1 + tk .

(8.1) tk−1 2

or

(8.2)

Moreover, Heden proved that in general N (T, q) ≤ dg(t1 /d, . . . , tk /d) + tk−2 + tk−1 + tk .

8.4

(8.3)

Monomial curves

Let a, b, and c be positive integers such that (a, b, c) = 1. Let R = k[X, Y, Z] be the polynomial ring graded by weight deg(X) = a, deg(Y ) = b and deg(Z) = c. Recall the result due to Herzog [191,258] stating that the monomial curve k[ta , tb , tc ], denoted by C, considered as a R-module has the following resolution M

N

I

0 −→ R2 → R3 → R → k[ta , tb , tc ] → 0, where the map I is given by X → ta , Y → tb , Z → tc . Herzog determined explicitly matrix N (see eqn (4.7)) and gave an algorithm to ﬁnd the matrix M but no explicit formula for the entries of M was given. In [299], Morales improved Herzog’s result by giving the entries of M explicitely. To do this, Morales considered Rødseth’s method (see Section 1.1.1) to ﬁnd g(a, b, c). Let s0 be the unique integer such that bs0 ≡ c mod a, 0 ≤ s0 < a. If s0 = 0 then M is trivially described. So, assume that s0 > 0, write s−1 := a and consider the continuous fraction a = q1 s0 − s1 , 0 ≤ s1 < s0 , s0 = q2 s1 − s2 , 0 ≤ s2 < s1 , s1 = q3 s2 − s3 , 0 ≤ s3 < s2 , .. .

Monomial curves

169

sm−1 = qm+1 sm , sm+1 = 0, where qi ≥ 2, si ≥ 0 for all i (see Section 1.1.1). Set p−1 = 0, p0 = 1, pi+1 = qi+1 pi − pi−1 and ri = (si b − pi c)/a and recall that v is the unique integer number such that rv+1 ≤ 0 < rv , or equivalently, the unique integer such that c sv+1 sv ≤ < · pv+1 b pv Remark 8.4.1 (a) {si } and {ri } are strictly decreasing sequences and {pi } is a strictly increasing sequences.

(b) rm+1 is a negative integer and si pi+1 − si+1 pi = a for any i Theorem 8.4.2 [299] (i) If a, b, and c are positive integers pairwise relatively prime then the matrix syzygies M of the curve C is given by

M=

pv Z

Y sv+1

X −rv+1 Z pv+1 −pv

Y sv −sv+1 . X rv

(ii) The curve C is a complete intersection if either rv+1 = 0 or pv+1 = 0 or sv+1 = 0. By the results of Herzog in [191], part (i) of Theorem 8.4.2 follows if the following claim is true. Claim 8.4.3

(i) pv+1 c is the least multiple of c as a non-negative integer linear combination of a and b. (ii) sv b is the least multiple of b representable as a non-negative integer linear combination of a and c. (iii) (rv −rv+1 )a is the least multiple of a representable as a non-negative integer linear combination of b and c. In Section 2.2, we deﬁned the values L1 , L2 and L3 as the smallest positive integers such that there exist integers xij ≥ 0, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 3, i = j with L1 a = x12 b + x13 c, L2 b = x21 a + x23 c, L3 c = x31 a + x32 b.

(8.4)

170

Applications of the Frobenius number

Claim 8.4.3 tells us that L1 = rv − rv+1 , L2 = sv and L3 = pv+1 . By the deﬁnition of si , pi , and ri , we have the following equalities (rv − rv+1 )a =(sv − sv+1 )b + (pv+1−pv )c sv b = rv a + pv c pv+1 c = − rv+1 a + sv+1 b.

(8.5)

Note that the equations in the system (8.5) are consistent with the values of the Li s, given in Proposition 4.7.1. Proof of Claim 8.4.3. Let S =< a, b, c > and let s ∈ S, then the Apery set of s is deﬁned as Ap(S, s) = {l ∈ S|l − s ∈ S} (see Section 7.2.2). Any element s ∈ Ap(S, a) can be written of the form s = yb + zc with integers y, z ≥ 0. We suppose that z is the minimal with this property in which case the pair (y, z) is unique. Let

A = {(y, z)|0 ≤ y < sv − sv+1 , 0 ≤ z < pv+1 } and B = {(y, z)|sv − sv+1 ≤ y < sv , 0 ≤ z < pv+1 − p − v}. It can be checked that Ap(a, S) = {yb + zc|(y, z) ∈ A ∪ B} (by construction). Part (i) By contradiction, suppose that there exists γ, 0 < γ < pv+1 such that γc ∈< a, b >. We have that (0, γ) ∈ A ∪ B and thus γc ∈ Ap(S, a). Now, since γc ∈< a, b > then γc = αa + βb for some nonnegative integers α and β. We observe that in fact, α = 0 (otherwise, γc−a = (α−1)a+βb ∈ S, which is a contradiction since γc ∈ Ap(S, a)). So, γc = βb, which is a contradiction with the minimality condition on z. Part (ii) By contradiction, suppose that there exists γ, 0 < γ < sv such that γb ∈< a, c > and γ is minimal with this property. We have that (γ, 0) ∈ A ∪ B and thus γb ∈ Ap(S, a). Now, since γb ∈< a, b > then γb = αa + βc for some non-negative integers α and β. We observe that in fact, α = 0 (otherwise, γc − a = (α − 1)a + βc ∈ S, which is a contradiction since γc ∈ Ap(S, a)). So, γc = βb and, by part (i), we have that λ ≥ pv+1 . By using the third equation of system (8.5) we have γb = (λ − pv+1 )c + bsv+1 + (−rv+1 )a. We observe that rv+1 = 0 otherwise, if −rv+1 ≥ 1 then γb − a = (λ − pv+1 )c + bsv+1 + (−rv+1 − 1)a ∈ S, which is a contradiction since

Algebraic geometric codes

171

γb ∈ Ap(S, a). So, we have γb = (λ − pv+1 )c + bsv+1 . By the minimality of γ, we have two cases: (a) sv+1 = 0 and pv+1 = 0 that is impossible since, by Remark 8.4.1, sv pv+1 − sv+1 pv = 0 = a and (b) γ = sv+1 and λ = pv+1 in this case sv+1 b = pv+1 c. Since (b, c) = 1 then c divides sv+1 and combined with the fact that (a, c) = 1 we have, from the third equation of system (8.5), that c divides rv+1 . By the latter and since rv+1 a = sv b − pv c (obtained by the recurrence of the ri s) then we have that c divides sv . So, we deduce that if c divides sv+1 then c divides sv , and, by carrying on this argument, we obtain that c divides s0 = a, which is a contradiction. Part (iii) By Proposition 4.7.1 we have that L1 = x21 + x31 L2 = x12 + x32 L3 = x13 + x23 , where the xij are given as in the system (8.4). Now, by parts (i) and (ii) we have that L3 = pv+1 and L2 = sv and by system (8.5) we deduce that x31 = −rv+1 , x32 = sv+1 , x21 = rv and x23 = pv . From these, we obtain L1 = rv − rv+1 . In [300], Morales used Theorem 8.4.2 to construct a large class of monomial curves deﬁned by an ideal P in R = k[X, Y, Z] such that R(P ) is noetherian.

8.5

Algebraic geometric codes

The idea of using methods from algebraic geometry to introduce algebraic geometric codes (AG codes) is one of the major developments in the theory of error-correcting codes. These codes are based on generalizations of Goppa’s code and were inspired by ideas of the work of Goppa [164–166]. AG codes are known to be more eﬃcient than the well-known Reed–Solomon codes in many parameter ranges and they also oﬀer more ﬂexibility in the choice of code parameters; see [461]. This series of results contributed signiﬁcantly to advancing the decoding of algebraic geometric codes. AG codes have played a more prominent role in the theory of errorcorrecting codes. In 1982, Tsfasman et al. [459] obtained a very appealing result: they showed the existence of a sequence of AG codes that exceeds the

172

Applications of the Frobenius number

Gilbert–Varshamov bound2 . Since then, many papers dealing with AG codes and decoding procedure have followed. The Frobenius numbers are of particular interest for the study of the AG codes called evaluation code and its dual code. To see this, we need to introduce some deﬁnitions and terminology. The rest of this section is based on [205] where a detailed treatment can be found. Let R = IF[X1 , . . . , Xm ] be a IFq -algebra and suppose that ≺ is a total order on the set of monomials in the variables X1 , . . . , Xm such that if M = 1 then 1 ≺ M and if M1 ≺ M2 then M M1 ≺ M M2 , where M, M1 and M2 are monomials. Let f1 , f2 , . . . be the enumeration of the set of monomials such that fi ≺ fi+1 for all i. The monomials form a basis of R, so every monomial f = 0 can be written uniquely as f=

j

λi fi ,

i=1

where λi ∈ IF for all i and λj = 0. Let us deﬁne the function ρ : IF[X1 , . . . , Xm ] −→ IN ∪ {−∞}

by ρ(0) = −∞ and ρ(f ) = min{j|f = ji=1 λi fi } − 1. One can check that the function ρ satisﬁes the following conditions (a) ρ(f ) = −∞ if and only if f = 0, (b) ρ(λf ) = ρ(f ) for all non-zero λ ∈ IF, (c) ρ(f +g) =≤ max{ρ(f ), ρ(g)} and equality holds when ρ(f ) < ρ(g), (d) If ρ(f ) < ρ(g) and h = 0 then ρ(f h) < ρ(gh), (e) If ρ(f ) = ρ(g) then there exists a non-zero λ ∈ IF such that ρ(f − λg) < ρ(g), for all f, g, h ∈ R. Here −∞ < n for all n ∈ IN. An order function on R is a map ρ : R −→ IN ∪ {−∞} satisfying the above conditions. A weight function on R is an order function on R that also satisﬁes the following condition (f) ρ(f g) = ρ(f ) + ρ(g). 2

Tsfasman, Vl˘ adut¸ and Zink received the IEEE Information Theory Group Paper Award in 1983 for this work.

Algebraic geometric codes

173

Let (fi |i ∈ IN) be a basis of R such that ρ(fi ) < ρ(fi+1 ) (the existence of such a basis is always guaranteed [205, Proposition 3.12]) and let Ll be the vector space generated by f1 , . . . , fl . In this case, we have that ρ(f ) = ρ(fl ) if and only if l is the smallest integer such that f ∈ Ll for all non-zero f ∈ R. The vector space IFnq with the coordinatewise multiplication, denoted by ∗, becomes a commutative ring with the unit (1, . . . , 1). By identifying the unitary subring {(λ, . . . , λ)|λ ∈ IFq } with IFq then IFnq is an IFq -algebra. We say that the map ψ : R → IFnq is a morphism of IFnq -algebras if ψ is IFq -linear and ψ(f g) = ψ(f ) ∗ ψ(g). Let hi = ψ(fi ) and deﬁne the evaluation code El and its dual Cl by El = ψ(Ll ) =< h1 , . . . , hl > and Cl = {c ∈ IFnq |c · hi = 0 for all i ≤ l}. We note that condition (f) above implies that the subset Γ = {ρ(f )|f ∈ R, f = 0} of the non-negative integers has the property that 0 ∈ Γ and x + y ∈ Γ for all x, y ∈ Γ. Thus, Γ is a semigroup (see Chapter 7). It is assumed that the greatest common divisor of the weights ρ(f ), 0 = f ∈ R is one. So, the number of gaps of Γ, denoted by N (Γ) is ﬁnite. The elements of Γ will be enumerated by the sequence (ρi |i ∈ IN) such that ρi < ρi+1 for all i and the number of gaps smaller than ρi will be denoted by n(ρi ). Let l(i, j) be the smallest positive integer l such that fi fj ∈ Ll and deﬁne Nl = {(i, j) ∈ IN2 |l(i, j) = l = 1}. Since the function l(i, j) is determined by ρl(i,j) = ρi + ρj then the set Nl can be redeﬁned by Nl = {(i, j) ∈ IN2 |ρi + ρj = ρl+1 }. Let νl = |Nl | and d(l) = min{νm |m ≥ l}. The number l + 1 − N (Γ) is called the Goppa designed minimum distance of Cl and is denoted by dG (l). It is a lower bound on the minimum distance of Cl . Theorem 8.5.1 Let g(Γ) be the conductor of Γ and let D(l) = {(x, y) ∈ IN2 |x and y are gaps and x + y = ρl+1 }. Then,

νl = l + 1 − l + 1 − n(ρl+1 ) + |D(l)|, where n(ρl+1 ) = N (Γ) if l ≥ g(Γ) − N (Γ) and |D(l)| = 0 if l > 2g(Γ) − N (Γ) − 2. Furthermore, d(l) ≥ dG (l) = l + 1 − N (Γ) and equality holds if l > 2g(Γ) − N (Γ) − 2. In this case dG (l) is called the order bound or the Feng–Rao designed minimum distance of Cl . This distance is a good estimate for the minimum distance of one-point AG codes, the main interest of such a code is that they can be decoded eﬃciently by the majority scheme of the Feng and Rao algorithm [142].

174

8.6

Applications of the Frobenius number

Tilings

A tiling is a plane-ﬁlling arrangement of plane ﬁgures called tiles (another word for a tiling is a tessalation). The history of tessellations dates back to the early Greeks. The Greeks actually used small quadrilateral tiles as tokens in their games. These tiles then were taken and used to make mosaic pictures on walls, ﬂoors, and ceilings. Mathematicians tend to be very interested in tessellations because of their ties to symmetry of ﬁgures, angle divisions, rotation of objects, and various geometrical concepts. Here, we consider the problem of tiling a large rectangle using smaller rectangles. Problem B-3 (from the 1991 William Mowell Putnam Examination) ‘Does there exist a natural number L, such that if m and n are integers greater than L, then an m × n rectangle may be expressed as a union of 4 × 6 and 5 × 7 rectangles any two of which intersect at most along their boundaries?’

The rectagles 4 × 6 and 5 × 7 will be called tiles and will be denoted by T1 and T2 . A rectangle is to be said tiled if it can be expressed as a union of T1 and T2 any two of which intersect at most along their boundaries. Since the areas of T1 and T2 are 24 and 35, respectively, then a rectangle of area A that is tiled must satisfy the equation 24x + 35y = A, (8.6) where x and y are non-negative integers. The solutions to this equation determine a list of the possible quantities of the two types of tiles used in a tiling. We note that the areas of T1 and T2 are relatively prime, otherwise if an integer p > 1 divides each area, tiling a rectangle whose sides are both congruent to 1 modulo p would not be possible. In [244], Klosinski et al. gave one solution to the Putnam problem, with a guarantee that every rectangle whose sides are larger than 2213 can be tiled. Their proof uses Theorem 2.1.1 and it goes as follows. A 20 × 6 and a 20 × 7 rectangle can be tiled (by joining 5 L1 and by joining 4 L2 , respectively) then, by Theorem 2.1.1 a 20 × n rectangle can be tiled for any n > g(6, 7) = 29.

(8.7)

Now, a 35 × 5 and a 35 × 7 rectangle can be tiled (by joining 5 L2 ) then, by Theorem 2.1.1 a 35 × n rectangle can be tiled for any n > g(5, 7) = 23,

(8.8)

Applications of denumerants

175

and ﬁnally a 42 × 4 and a 42 × 5 rectangle can be tiled (by joining 7 L1 and by joining 6 L2 , respectively) then, by Theorem 2.1.1 a 42 × n rectangle can be tiled for any n > g(4, 5) = 11.

(8.9)

By combining eqns (8.7) and (8.8), we can tile a 55× n rectangle for any n ≥ 30. Since (42, 55) = 1 then, from the latter and from eqn (8.9) we conclude that all m × n rectangles with m ≥ n > g(42, 55) = 2214 can be tiled with rectangles T1 and T2 . In [304], Narayan and Schwenk established a lower bound for L by showing that a 33 × 33 square cannot be tiled and they proved that this bound is tight.

8.7

Applications of denumerants

8.7.1 Balls and cells A classical use of generating functions is the calculation of the number of possible placements of n diﬀerent balls into r distinct cells under certain restrictions. For instance, one may wish to know the number of n place sequences made up from an alphabet of As, Bs, and Cs so that the number of As is even, the number of Bs is odd and there are no restriction on the number of Cs. Many such problems are dealt with by Liu [279, Chapter 2] and by Riordan [352, Chapter 5]. Cornish [97] investigated the following generalization. Let hj and kj be integers such that 0 ≤ hj < kj for each j = 1, . . . , r. What is the number of ways of placing n ≥ 0 diﬀerent balls in r distinct cells so that the number of balls in the j-th cell is congruent to hj modulo kj ? Cornish [97] gave an expression for such a number, denoted by p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ). Theorem 8.7.1 [97] r

p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) =

!−1

kj

j=1

×

r −hj sj

ωi

j=1 s1 , . . . , sr 0 ≤ sj ≤ kj − 1

2π

where ωj = e kj .

n ! r sj  ω  , j

j=1

176

Applications of the Frobenius number

Cornish’s proof3 is by means of the exponential enumerator and xki employs the generalized cosh: Ck (x) = ∞ i=0 (ki)! . The simpler alternative proof below was given by Pitman and Leske [331]. They also noted the following connection between conditions for p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) to be non-zero and the denumerant. Proposition 8.7.2 [331] Let nj ≡ hj mod kj (and thus nj = hj +yj kj ). Then, p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) > 0 if and only if the equation

y1 k1 + · · · + yr kr = n −

r

hj

j=1

is solvable in non-negative integers, y1 , . . . , yr , that is, p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) > 0 if and only if 

d n −

r



hj ; k1 , . . . , kr  > 0.

j=1

Sketch of the proof of Theorem 8.7.1. Let us write e2πiy = e(y) and let x, h and k > 0 be integers. Then, k−1 s=0

e

2πis(x−h) k

=

k 0

if x ≡ h mod k, otherwise.

Now, the number of ways of placing n = n1 + · · · + nr diﬀerent balls · into r distinct cells so that there are nj balls in the j-th cell is n1 !nn! 2 !···nr ! Hence, p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) =

(n1 ,...,nr )∈Pn

n! , n1 !n2 ! · · · nr !

where Pn = {(n1 , . . . , nr ) ∈ INr |n1 + · · · + nr = n} and nj ≡ hj mod kj . Of course p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr ) = 0 if Pn = ∅. We obtain 3

As a consequence, Cornish was led to the rediscovery of the so-called higher-order hyperbolic functions; comments on these functions together with related bibliography can be found in [231].

Applications of denumerants

p(n; h1 , . . . , hr , k1 , . . . , kr )

r

kj

j=1

=

r

n1 , . . . , nr ≥ 0 n1 + · · · + n r = n

=



n!  e n1 !n2 ! · · · nr ! j=1 0≤s ≤k −1 j

r −hj sj

ωj

j=1 s1 , . . . , sr 0 ≤ sj ≤ kj − 1

n1 , . . . , nr ≥ 0 n1 + · · · + n r = n

n1 , . . . , nr ≥ 0 n1 + · · · + n r = n

 2πisj (nj −hj ) kj



j

r n! ns ωj j j . n1 !n2 ! · · · nr ! j=1

And, by the multinomial theorem,

177



n

r n! s =  ωj j  , n1 !n2 ! · · · nr ! j=1

from which the result follows.

8.7.2 Conjugate power equations Let wij , 1 ≤ i ≤ k, 1 ≤ j ≤ t and n1 , . . . , nk be non-negative integers. Consider the linear diophantine problem n1 = w11 y1 + w12 y2 + · · · + w1t yt , n2 = w21 y1 + w22 y2 + · · · + w2t yt , .. .

(8.10)

nk = wk1 y1 + wk2 y2 + · · · + wkt yt , which can be written succintly as N = W Y, where N = (n1 , . . . , nk )t and W denotes the matrix W = (wij ), 1 ≤ i ≤ k, 1 ≤ j ≤ t. Here, N and W are ﬁxed and  

Y =

y1 .. .

  

yt consists of non-negative variables. In 1748, Euler [137,138] pointed out that the number of non-negative solutions of a system W x = N of linear equations is equal to the coefﬁcient of xn1 1 · · · xnk k in the expansion of 1 R(x1 , . . . , xk ) = w11 wk1 wkt · 1t (1 − (x1 · · · xt )) · · · (1 − (xw 1 · · · xt ))

178

Applications of the Frobenius number

In the case when k = 1 and n1 = n we obtain Theorem 4.1.2. In [11], Anshel and Goldfeld studied the function R(x1 , . . . , xk ) and obtained the following bound for the length ti=1 yi of the solution Y for the equation N = W Y t i=1

yi ≤

k i=1

!  t !−1  12 k  · max ni ·  wij j=1

1≤j≤t

i=1

k

!− 12

wij

= B(N, W ).

i=1

(8.11) They applied their results to the investigation of equations in groups. Let G = G(q1 , . . . , qt ) be a HNN group4 given by the generators and relations q1 −1 qt < a1 , . . . , at , b; a−1 1 ba1 = b , . . . , at bat = b >,

where the exponents q1 , . . . , qt are distinct rational integers, qi ≥ 2. Let p1 , . . . , pt denotes the distinct prime divisors of the exponent qi , so wik i1 q i = pw 1 · · · pk ,

(8.12)

with non-negative integer exponents wi1 , . . . , wik . A positive conjugate power equation for G is given by bn = x−1 bx,

(8.13)

where n is a positive integer and x is a positive word (i.e. one containing no negative exponents in the generating symbols a1 , . . . , at , b. It is known [10, 12] that equality (8.13) has a solution provided that n = pn1 1 · · · pnk k and system (8.10) takes the form N = (n1 , . . . , nk ) where W consists of the wij given in eqn (8.12) and each yi ∈ Y = (y1 , . . . , yt ) denotes the number of occurrences of ai in the word x. Also, if x is a solution to eqn (8.13), then the insertion or deletion of a b symbol anywhere in the word x results in another solution of eqn (8.13). Anshel and Goldfeld proved that if there exists a solution x of equality (8.13) (involving only the generators a1 , . . . , at ) then the word length of x, denoted by |x| satisﬁes the bound |x| ≤ B(N, W ), with B(N, W ) given in eqn (8.11). They obtained the following corollary involving the Frobenius number. 4

Introduced by Higman et al. in [195].

Other applications

179

Corollary 8.7.3 [11] If the group G = G(pw1 , . . . , pwt ) with p a ﬁxed prime and w1 < · · · < wt with (w1 , . . . , wt ) = 1 and n > g(w1 , . . . , wt ) then there exists a solution x of eqn (8.13) with n |x| ≤ ·

wt

t

wi

i=1

8.7.3 Invariant cubature formulas A Cubature formula is a formula for the approximate calculation of multiple integrals of the form >

I(f ) =

p(x)f (x)dx, Ω

where the integration is performed over a set Ω in the Euclidean space IRn , x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) with p(x) ﬁxed. A cubature formula is an approximate equality I(f ) ∼ =

N

Cj f (xj ).

(8.14)

j=1

A cubature formula is said to have the m-property if eqn (8.14) is an exact equality whenever f (x) is a polynomial of degree at most m. Let G be a ﬁnite subgroup of the group of orthogonal transformations of the space IRn that leave the origin ﬁxed. Theorem 8.7.4 [431] A cubature formula that is invariant under G possesses the m-property if and only if it is exact for all polynomials of degree at most m that are invariant under G.

This theorem is of essential importance in the construction of invariant cubature formulas. It made possible the construction of fairly convenient formulas for the approximate integration on spheres and on their interiors. Theorem 8.7.4 shows the necessity to know the number of invariant polynomials of degree at most m. It turns out that this number coincides with d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) for some values a1 , . . . , an . We refer the reader to [128] for both an excellent introduction as well as an advanced treatment of cubature formulas.

8.8 Other applications 8.8.1 Generating random vectors One standard way to generate random vectors uses a procedure to generate random numbers, say, ψ1 , ψ2 , . . . and thus to generate random

180

Applications of the Frobenius number

vectors η1 = (ψ1 , . . . , ψn ), η2 = (ψn+1 , . . . , ψ2n ), . . .. As remarked by Vizv´ari [474], one of the serious drawbacks of this method is that if the random number generator is cyclic (with cycle length C) then the random vector generators are cyclic as well, with cycle length at most C. In particular, in higher dimensions, it means that the random vectors lie very sparsely in the space; see [308, 381]. Vizv´ari [474] used the vector generalization of FP (see Section 6.5) to present a new method that generates the random vector directly (avoiding the above-mentioned disavantage). This method generates all of the integer points of a given m-dimensional rectangle with equal probability and thus the cycle length of it can be greater than any prior given large number. Let us see how this method proceeds. Let (d1 , . . . , dm ) be a ﬁxed vector of positive integers. Let U = {u = (u1 , . . . , um )|0 ≤ ui < di , ui ∈ IR+ for all i}. Let D be the set of integer points of the rectangle U , that is D = {u = (u1 , . . . , um )|0 ≤ ui < di , ui ∈ IN+ for all i}. Let {a1 , . . . , an } ⊂ D of ﬁxed vectors and let ξi , i ≥ 1 be a random number that is uniformly distributed on the set {1, . . . , n}. We shall denote by n(i) the i-th coordinate of vector n. Random Vector Algorithm Begin n0 := 0 k := 0 While true Do Begin nk+1 := nk + aξk For i := 1 To m Do If nk+1 (i) ≥ di Then nk+1 (i) = nk+1 (i) − di End k := k + 1 End

Vizv´ari [474] showed that if the set {a1 , . . . , an } contains a linear basis of IRm and the condition (6.7) of Theorem 6.5.1 is satisﬁed then 1 lim P (nk = u) = m

k→∞

dj j=1

for all u ∈ U .

Other applications

181

Notice that this method uses a random number generator (for the ξi s). If the latter is acyclic then the random vector generator is also acyclic but if it is cyclic (say, with periodic length C) then the random vector generator can also be cyclic (say, with periodic length γ). It is clear that γ ≥ |C| =

m

dj ,

j=1

and as |D| is independent of C and it can be arbitrarily large then γ can also be arbitrarily large.

8.8.2 Non-hamiltonian graphs We say that a graph G is Hamiltonian if there is a cycle in G that passes through every vertex. A graph G is called a hypo-Hamiltonian if G is not Hamiltonian but every vertex-deleted subgraph G − v is Hamiltonian. Example 8.8.1 The Petersen graph is the smallest (of order 10) hypoHamiltonian graph; see Fig. 8.3.

Chv´ atal [95] introduced a class of graphs called ﬂip-ﬂops for constructing new hypo-Hamiltonian graphs and showed that the number h(p) of non-isomorphic hypo-Hamiltonian graphs of order p has the property that h(p) −→ ∞. A graph is traceable if it contains a Hamiltonian path. Clearly every Hamiltonian graph is also traceable but the converse does not always hold (for instance, a path is traceable but not

Figure 8.3: Petersen graph.

182

Applications of the Frobenius number

Hamiltonian). A graph is homogeneously traceable if there is a Hamiltonian path beginning at every vertex of G. Figure 8.4 illustrates a homogeneously traceable non-Hamiltonian graph. Notice that every hypo-Hamiltonian graph is also homogeneously traceable. Skupie´ n [426] introduced the notion of homogeneously traceable graphs and the existence of homogeneously traceable nonHamiltonian graphs for all orders p ≥ 9 was shown in [87]. Let F ⊂ E(G). G is called a F -Hamiltonian if it contains a Hamiltonian cylce through F . In [428], Skupie´ n contructs exponentially many n-vertex minimum homogeneously traceable non-F -Hamiltonian graphs (here, minimum means that the number of edges is as large as possible provided the number of vertices is ﬁxed). Skupie´ n’s idea is based in some new constructions, involving ﬂip-ﬂops, that depend on the existence of the value k(m; r, s) (deﬁned in the modular generalization problem in Section 6.2) for some integers r, s and m. Skupie´ n’s construction is as follows. Let M and S be the graphs deﬁned in Fig. 8.5. We construct the graph G(r, s) by aligning r consecutive copies of M and afterward s consecutive copies of S and by joining vertices c and a and vertices d and b of two consecutive copies (not necessarily of

Figure 8.4: A homogeneously traceable non-Hamiltonian graph. a

c

a

c

b

d

b

d

Figure 8.5: Graphs M and S each containing a special 1-factor denoted by bolded edges.

Supplementary notes

a

c

a

c

a

c

a

c

b

d

b

d

b

d

b

d

a

b

183

c

d

Figure 8.6: Graph G(2, 3).

the same type) including the last and ﬁrst copies. Figure 8.6 illustrates G(2, 3). Let F be the set of edges induced by the set of 1-factors of each copy. Proposition 8.8.2 Let r and s be a solution of equation

n = 2r + 3s, where r + s is odd,

(8.15)

with n ≥ 22. Then, G(r, s) is a n-vertex minimum homogeneously traceable non-F -Hamiltonian graph. We notice that Theorem 6.2.2 ensures the existence of integers 1 ≤ r ≤ 3 and s ≥ 2 verifying eqn (8.15) since k(2; 2, 3) = 2(2)(3)−2−3 = 7 is the largest integer such that it is j-omitted with j = 0 or 1. Thus, for any integer n ≥ 8 there exist non-negative integers s, r such that n = sa + rb and s + r ≡ j mod 2 for j = 0, 1, in particular if j = 1 this implies that r + s is odd, as desired. The condition n ≥ 22 is required for the non-F -Hamiltonicity of G(r, s).

8.9

Supplementary notes

Xu and Wu [483] presented two sets of necessary and suﬃcient conditions for the existence of non-negative integersolutions for the indetern n minate equation i=1 xi ai = m, where m ≤ i=2 ai (di−1 /di )− ni=1 ai . These conditions were developed from the discussion of the reachability and liveness, of the Petri net model Type I of an indeterminate equation of the ﬁrst degree. Using these conditions, two kinds of algorithms for FP were given.

184

Applications of the Frobenius number

In [155], Gaubert and Klimann studied the algebraic problems that arise when considering rational computations of diod algebras in connection with the analysis of a speciﬁc class of discrete event systems. They investigated the periodicities of algebras and showed how FP helps in the computation of the periodic behaviour. Anderson and Winner [8] examined factorization problems in the semigroup ring k[S] and gave upper bounds in terms of the conductor of S. In [200], Hofmeister used FP to generalize other related problems. Pellikaan and Torres [325] have nicely applied results of Weierstrass semigroups to AG codes; see also [139] and [81]. Bla˙zewicz et al. [48] used the upper bound of Theorem 6.1.1 to study the computational complexity of the following problem that arises in DNA sequencing by hybridization. Given integers l and k and a set S of words of length k over the alphabet {A, B, C, D}, does there exist a word w of length l with kspectrum (i.e. the set of all subsequences of w consisting of k consecutive letters) equal S? (see [49] for more details). Motivated by their work on primality testing, Lenstra and Pomerance [265] stated recently a problem that can be viewed as a continuous analogue of FP in which bounded sets of positive real numbers are considered instead of positive integers. Results in connection with the complexity of learning problems can be found in [2,3]. Applications of FP in relation with the automata are given in [102, 293, 411]. Rosenm¨ uller and Weidner [371] have studied FP in relation to linear diophantine analysis. Rosiak [372] estimated certain functions related to primitive digraphs by using the Frobenius number. An application of the Frobenius number to representation theory is discussed in [370]. Remy and Thiel [350] used the Frobenius number to solve certain problems in relation to image description.

Appendix A Problems and conjectures A.1

Algorithmic questions

It is known [342] that FP is N P-hard under Turing reductions. Problem A.1.1 Is FP N P-complete (under Karp reductions)?

One may wonder whether the knowledge of the Frobenius number could help to ﬁnd a desired representation. Consider the following promising question. Problem A.1.2 Let a1 , . . . , an and t be positive integers such that a polynomial time algorithm that ﬁnds t > g(a1 , . . . , an ). Is there ai ? s ⊆ {1, . . . , n} such that t = i∈s

Vizv´ari conjecture1 that there exists an integer K such that the above question is easy if t > K. To show that FP is solvable in polynomial time with n ﬁxed, Kannan [228] gave a polynomial time algorithm that ﬁnds the covering radius µ(P, L) for any convex set P in IRn and any lattice L of dimension n also in IRn with ﬁxed n. Problem A.1.3 Does there exist a polynomial time algorithm that ﬁnds µ(P, L) where P and L are deﬁned as in Theorem 1.2.14?

Maybe the constructive version for the covering radius given in Corollary 1.2.16 could leads to such an algorithm. The following conjecture is due to L. Lov´ asz. Conjecture A.1.4. [280] If n is ﬁxed and A is an integral matrix then the set of vectors b yielding maximal lattice free bodies (see Section 1

Personal communication.

186

Problems and conjectures

1.2.1 for deﬁnitions) is the union of the set of lattice points contained in a polynomial number of polyhedra (with a particular lattice for each polyhedron). Maximizing a linear function over the lattice points in each such polyhedron is a standard integer program which can be solved in polynomial time for a ﬁxed number of variables (by using Lenstra’s algorithm [264]). So, if the Lov´ asz conjecture were correct, this would yield to an alternative polynomial algorithm for FP.

A.2

g(a1 , . . . , an )

Davison has proposed the following two conjectures [104, Conjectures 1 and 2]. Let a, b, c be positive integers and let Xn = {(a, b, c)|1 ≤ a, b, c ≤ n, (a, b, c) = 1}. Conjecture A.2.1. Is it true that supn ( X1n ) g(a,b,c)−a−b−c √ < ∞? abc (a,b,c)∈Xn

Conjecture A.2.2. Does lim

n→∞ (a,b,c)∈X

g(a,b,c)−a−b−c √ abc

exist and is ﬁnite?

n

In [208], Hujter posed the following problem (cf. Theorem 3.6.2). Problem A.2.3 Compute the exact value for lim inf ab c

→∞

g(a,b,c) √ · abc

After the general expresion for g(a1 , a2 , a3 ) given in Theorem 2.2.3, an appealing question is to ﬁnd a similar formula for n ≥ 4. Problem A.2.4 Is there an explicit formula for g(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )?

As Hujter remarks, Boros’ technique, via subadditive functions (cf. Theorem 3.1.20), seems to be very useful in order to obtain new results concerning FP. Problem A.2.5 Develope the subadditive approach in relation to FP.

In [32], Beck and Robins generalized FP as follows. An integer m is said k-representable if d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) = k, that is, m can be represented in exactly k ways; see [343, 341, 450] for a closely related problem. Let gk (a1 , . . . , an ) be the largest no k-representable integer (it is easy to see that for each k, eventually all integers are representable at least k times). Thus, g0 (a1 , . . . , an ) = g(a1 , . . . , an ). Beck and Robins found that gk (a1 , a2 ) = (k + 1)a1 a2 − a1 − a2 . Their proof for the

Denumerant

187

latter is by induction and based in the fact that d(m + a1 a2 ; a1 , a2 ) = d(m; a1 , a2 ) + 1. They proposed the following problem. Problem A.2.6 Investigate gk (a1 , . . . , an ) when n ≥ 3.

Supported by many computations, Beihoﬀer et al. [37] presented the following conjecture Conjecture A.2.7. Let A = {a1 , . . . , an }. Then the expected value of

g(A) is a small constant multiple of

1 A 2 n!

1 n−1

−

A.

In [19, Problem 2003–5], Arnold has also posed a closely related question. In [17], Arnold proposed to investigate the asymptotical behaviour of what it was called the derivate Problem A.2.8 What is the behaviour of ∆(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) = d(m + 1; a1 , a2 , a3 ) − d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 )?

A.3

Denumerant

Problem A.3.1 Is computing d(m; a1 , . . . , an ) #P-complete?

Note that d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) is known if m ≥ P3 (cf. Theorem 4.5.1 part b) and if P3 − S3 + 1 ≤ m < P3 (cf. Corollary 4.5.3). In [408], ¨ uk proposd the following problem. Sert¨ oz and Ozl¨ Problem A.3.2 Find a formula for d(m; a1 , a2 , a3 ) when m < P3 − S3 + 1.

The following question turned up in [341] while investigating FP. Problem A.3.3 Let p and q be prime numbers. Is there a polynomial time algorithm that ﬁnds d(m; p, p2 , . . . , pn , q, q 2 , . . . , q n )?

This does not seem to be immediate even if we insist that p = 3 and q = 5.

A.4

N (a1 , . . . , an )

Problem A.4.1 Is computing N (a1 , . . . , an ) N P-complete?

Or perhaps, Problem A.4.2 Is computing N (a1 , . . . , an ) #P-complete?

Selmer [392] has shown that the number N (a1 , . . . , an ) can be increased by the removal of some ai s.

188

Problems and conjectures

Problem A.4.3 Given integers a1 , . . . , an , what is the inﬂuence of a new (independent) element an+1 in N (a1 , . . . , an )?

Wilf [480] proposed the following two problems. Problem A.4.4 Is it true that for ﬁxed n the fraction N (a1 , . . . , an )/ (g(a1 , . . . , an ) + 1) ≤ 1 − n1 with equality only for (a1 , . . . , an ) = (n, n + 1, . . . , 2n − 1)?

Fr˝ oberg et al. [149] remarked that Lemmas 7.2.4 and 7.2.6 show that there is always equality in Wilf’s question if n = 2. They also showed that Wilf’s question can be answered positively in the case n = 3 by proving that the type of any semigroup S =< s1 , s2 , s3 > is at most two. Finally, they also showed that there is always equality for all semigroups S =< k, mk + 1, mk + 2, . . . , (m + 1)k − 1 > since g(S) = mk − 1, N (S) = m and the number of generators is k. In [121] Dobbs and Matthews answered Problem A.4.4 when the semigroup < a1 , . . . , an > is symmetric, pseudo-symmetric or of maximal embedding dimension. Problem A.4.5 Let q(n) be the number of semigroups having the same Frobenius number. What is the order of magnitude of q(n) for n → ∞?

In relation to ProblemA.4.5, Backelin [21] posed the following question. Problem A.4.6 Find explicit formulas or good upper bounds for the quantities

K(n, k, q) = |{X ⊆ {1, . . . , n} : |X| = k, |2X| ≤ q}|. Backelin [21] remarked that for q < 3k − 3 fairly good results for Problem A.4.6 can be obtained by means of [145, Theorem 1.9] and that [145, Theorem 2.8]may also yield good results in general.

A.5

Gaps

Recall that l1 , < · · · < lN (S) denotes the gaps (ordered increasingly) of the semigroup S where N (S) = #(IN \ S) is the genus of S; see Section 7.1. Problem A.5.1 Let S =< s1 , . . . , sn >. Investigate the behaviour of the li s.

In particular,

Miscellaneous

189

Problem A.5.2 Is there an explicit formula that computes li for each 1 ≤ i ≤ N (S) when S =< s1 , s2 >?

We know that lN (S) = s1 s2 − s1 − s2 but, for general n, the search for such a formula seems to be a diﬃcult task. This is not very surprising since computing the i-th gap of a semigroup is as hard as to calculate the Frobenius number. Indeed, for calculating the i-th gap of a semigroup S we may calculate g N (S)−i (S) = g(S ∪ {g N (S) (S)} ∪ · · · ∪ {g N (S)−i+1 (S)}) where g N (S) (S) = g(S). May be a formula for gaps in some special sequences could be accesible. Problem A.5.3 Let S =< a, a + d, . . . , a + sd > with s ≥ 1 and (a, d) = 1. Is there a formula that computes li for each 1 ≤ i ≤ N (S)?

This problem is solved [345] in the simplest case when s = 1. Notice that Theorem 3.3.2 gives a positive answer when i = N (S) for any integers a, s and d. Recall that n(ρi ) denotes the number of gaps smaller than ρi where ρi denotes the i-th non-gap of S. Problem A.5.4 Is n(ρi ) computable in polynomial time?

A.6

Miscellaneous

The major unsolved analytic problem of Shell-sort is to determine the asymptotic behaviour of its average running time. Discovering increment sequences for Shell-sort with better perfomance than those previously known is always a valuable practical result because the new sequence can be immediately used with only a one line change in the Shell-sort routine. Problem A.6.1 Investigate further increment sequences for the Shellsort method.

Let I(a1 , . . . , an ) be the greatest number of elements that can be omitted without altering g(a1 , . . . , an ); see Section 3.5. Problem A.6.2 What is the behaviour of I(a1 , . . . , an )?

Recall that Ωk (m; a1 , . . . , an ) (respectively Nk (m; a1 , . . . , an )) is the number of k-omitted natural non-negative numbers and (respectively the largest of the k-omitted numbers); see Section 6.2.

190

Problems and conjectures

Problem A.6.3 Study the functions Nk (m; a1 , . . . , an ) in the case n ≥ 3.

Ωk (m; a1 , . . . , an )

and

Skupie´ n has posed the following problem. Problem A.6.4 Characterize the sequences a1 , . . . , an and the integers m such that Ωk (m; a1 , . . . , an ) > k(m;a21 ,...,an ) for all k ∈ {0, . . . , m − 1}.

While investigated FP, Norman [314] came up with the following conjecture. Conjecture A.6.5. Let M = {0, 1, . . . , m − 1}, let S ⊆ M with 0 ∈ S and let B = {b1 , . . . , bk } ⊂ M with bi = 0 for all i and (m, d) = 1 where (b1 , . . . , bk ) = d. Let U = S + B (addition modulo m). Then, the following two conditions are suﬃcient for the inequality |U | − |S| ≥ k:

(i) |S| ≤ m − k and (ii) for any positive integers p and q such that p < q < k,

pm q

∈ B.

Furthermore, if the second condition is satisﬁed and the ﬁrst is not then U = M . Recall that N (t1 , . . . , tk , q) is the least integer such that if n > N (t1 , . . . , tk , q) and (t1 , . . . , tk ) divides n then the vector space Vn (q) admits a partition of type {t1 , . . . , tk }. In [190], Heden conjecture the following bound for N (t1 , . . . , tk , q). Conjecture A.6.6. N (t1 , . . . , tk , q) < 2tk .

The following question turned up in [341] while investigating Problem A.3.3. Problem A.6.7 Investigate the complexity of the following question. Given integer z, are there integers x and y such that x2 + y 2 = z?

Let IS be the toric ideal of the semigroup S and let α(I) denote the minimal number of generators of ideal I. Bresinsky [61, page 218] raised the following problem. Problem A.6.8 Let S be a symmetric numerical semigroup. Does there exist an upper bound for α(IS ) which depends only on the minimal number of generators of S?

If n = 2 then α(IS ) = 1 because IS is a principal ideal in k[X1 , X2 ]. If n = 3 Herzog [191] proved that α(IS ) = 2. If n = 4, Bresinsky

Miscellaneous

191

[61] proved that α(IS ) ≤ 5. If n = 5, Bresinsky [63] proved that α(IS ) ≤ 13 under certain conditions; see [81] and [76, Section 5.1] for further details. Guy [176] has posed several problems concerning the Sylver Coinage game. Notice that an answer to Problem A.4.3 may yield to a winning strategy for the Sylver Coinage game; see Section 5.6.1. Problem A.6.9 Investigate further winning strategies for the Sylver coinage game. Problem A.6.10 Generalize the results of the jugs problem when there are four or more jugs.

A.6.1 Erd˝os’ problems In a rich and fruitful mailing (in relation to FP) with Chrz¸astowskiWachtel, Erd˝ os posed the following questions. Problem A.6.11 What is the smallest integer f (n) for which one can divide the integers 1 ≤ t ≤ n into f (n) classes so that n should not be the sum of a subset of the elements of the same class (i.e. n = xi ui with xi = 0 or 1 and {ui } are in the same class)? Problem A.6.12 Is there a non-trivial lower bound for f (n)? per1 haps, f (n) > n 3 − ? Problem A.6.13 Is it true that for every integer k there is a integer h(k) so that every prime p > h(k) if a1 , . . . , ak all less that p are any set of k integers one can always divide them into two classes so that p is not the sum of a subset of the numbers of the same class? Problem A.6.14 2 Let a1 < a2 < · · · < an+1 ≤ 2n be n + 1 integers less than or equal to 2n. Trivially, two of them are consecutive and thus relatively prime. Is it true that there are (ai , aj ) = 1 where the smallest is less or equals to n? Also, is (ai , aj ) = 1 with aj − ai > n − σ(n) solvable? i.e. are there two of them which are far apart and are realtively prime? If n−σ(n)|n is not true a weaker inequality might also be of interest.

2

In one of the letters, Erd˝ os wrote ‘this is a very annoying elementary problem of mine which I cannot solve’.

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Appendix B B.1

Computational complexity aspects

We outline some relevant notions of computational complexity, for a detailed presentation see [154]. Decision problems are problems having only two possible answers: either yes or no. Several well-known computational problems are decision problems. People are interested in classifying decision problems according to their complexity. We shall denote by P the class of decision problems that can be solved by a polynomial time algorithm. The class P can be deﬁned very precisely in terms of Turing machines. Informally, P is the class of relatively easy decision problems, those for which an eﬃcient algorithm exists. We shall now introduce N P. For a problem to be in N P, we do not require that every instance can be answered in polynomial time by an algorithm. We simply require that, if x is a yes instance of a problem, then there exists a concise (that is, of length bounded by a polynomial in the size of x) certiﬁcate for x that can be checked in polynomial time for validity. We can formalize this idea as follows: Let Σ be a ﬁxed ﬁnite alphabet and # be a distinguished symbol in Σ (the symbol # marks the end of the input and the beginning of a certiﬁcate). If x is a string of symbol from Σ, then its length (the number of symbols that x contains) is denoted by |x|. We say that a decision problem Π is in the class N P if there exists a polynomial p(n) and an algorithm A (the certiﬁcate checking algorithm) such that the following is true. The string x is a yes instance of Π if and only if there exists a string of symbols in Σ, c(x) (the certiﬁcate) with the property that A, if supplied with the input x#c(x), reaches the answer yes after at most p(|x|) steps. We say that a decision problem Π1 polynomially reduces to another decision problem Π2 if, given any string x, we can construct a string y within polynomial time (in |x|) such that x is a yes instance of Π1

194

if and only if y is a yes instance of Π2 . A decision problem Π ∈ N P is said to be N P-complete if all other problems in N P polynomially reduce to Π. Suppose Π1 and Π2 are two problems, a polynomial time Turing reduction from Π1 to Π2 is an algorithm A that solves Π1 by using a hypothetical subroutine A for solving Π2 , such that, if A were a polynomial time algorithm for Π2 then A would be a polynomial time algorithm for Π1 . It is said that Π1 can be Turing reduced to Π2 . A problem Π1 is called (Turing) N P-hard if there is an N P-complete decision problem Π2 such that Π2 can be Turing reduced to Π1 .

B.2

Graph theory aspects

We describe some graph theory terminology used in this book. We refer the reader to [54] for further details. A ﬁnite graph is a triple G(V, E, φ), where V is a ﬁnite set of vertices, E is a ﬁnite set of edges and φ is a function that assigns to each edge e a 2-element multi set of vertices. Thus, φ : E → V2 . An edge e is called a loop if e = {v, v} for some v ∈ V . Two vertices u and v are said to be adjacent if there is an edge e such that e = {u, v}. Otherwise, they are called non-adjacent. A set U ⊆ V is a stable set if they are pairwise non-adjacent. A graph is bipartite if its set of vertices can be partitioned into two stables sets. If there exist vertices v1 , . . . , vk such that (s, v1 ), (v1 , v2 ), . . . , (vk , t) are edges of the graph then s is said to be connected to t by a path. A graph is connected if any two distinct vertices are joined by a path. A cycle is a path that begins and ends with the same vertex (edges and vertices may be repeated). An elementary cycle is a cycle that repeats neither edges nor vertices. A graph G is said to be Hamiltonian if it has an elementary cycle containing all the vertices of G. A directed graph is deﬁned analogously to a graph, except now φ : E → V × V , that is, an edge consist of an ordered pair (i, j) of vertices. A graph G is strongly connected if for every pair of vertices s and t there is a directed path connecting s to t.

B.3

Modules, resolutions and Hilbert series

We outline some algebraic geometry notions needed in Section 4.6. We refer the reader to [99, 258, 434] for a more detailed presentation. A module M over a ring R is a set together with a binary operation and an operation of R on M satisfying the following properties.

Modules, resolutions and Hilbert series

• • • • •

195

M is an abelian group under addition. For all a ∈ R an all f, g ∈ M , a(f + g) = af + ag. For all a, b ∈ R an all f ∈ M , (a + b)f = af + bf . For all a, b ∈ R an all f ∈ M , (ab)f = a(bf ). If 1 is the multiplicative identity in R, 1f = f for all f ∈ M .

Given a ring R, a simple check shows that R is a module over itself. Also, Rm is an R-module, with the addition and scalar multiplication operations being the componentwise ones. M is said to be a free module if it has a module basis (that is, a generating set that is R-linearly independent). An R-module M is ? N (the said to be projective if there is an R-module N such that M ? direct sum M N is the set of all ordered pairs (f, g) with f ∈ M and g ∈ N ) is a free module. Let R = k[X1 , . . . , Xn ] be the polynomial ring in n variables, over the ﬁeld k where each Xi has degree 1. R is a graded algebra and we can express it as R=

∞ @

Ri ,

i=0

where the Ri s are k-vector spaces of homogeneous polynomials of degree i, and Ri Rj ⊂ Ri+j . A graded module over a graded algebra R is a module M with a family of subgroups Mt : t ∈ ZZ of the additive group of M . The elements Mt must satisfy (a) M =

∞ ?

Mi ,

i=0

and (b) Rs Mt ⊂ Ms+t for all s ≥ 0 and all t ∈ ZZ. The elements of Mt are called homogeneous of degree t. Notice that, by deﬁnition, each Mt is a k-vector subspace of M and that if M is ﬁnitely generated then the Mt are ﬁnite-dimensional over k. The free modules Rm are graded modules since by deﬁning (Rm )t = (Rt )m we obtain a grading, that is the elements of (Rm )t are the m-tuples whose entries are homogeneous elements of degree t. If M is a ﬁnitely generated graded R-module and s ∈ IN, we deﬁne M (d) as the regrading of M

196

obtained by a shift of the graduation of M , more precisely, M (d) =

∞ @

M (d)i ,

(B.1)

i=0

where M (d)i = Md+i , we set Mi = 0 if i < 0. It turns out that M (d) is also a graded R-module. The graded module R(d)m has the same standard basis as Rm , but since R(d)−d = R0 , the standard basis of Rm (d) is homogeneous of degree −d. The graded modules R(d)m are called shifted or twisted graded free modules over R. We have that if d1 , . . . , dm are integers then M = R(d1 )

@

R(d2 )

@

···

@

R(dm )

is a graded free module where the basis elements are homogeneous of degree −di , 1 ≤ i ≤ m. If M and N are graded R-modules then ψ:M →N is said to be a homogeneous map (of degree d) if ψ is an R linear map (that is, ψ(af + g) = aψ(f ) + ψ(g) for all a ∈ R and all f, g ∈ M ) and ψ(Mi ) ⊂ Ni+d for all i. Observe that the kernel and image of a homogeneous map are also graded. Suppose that M = f1 , . . . , fm is a graded R-module where the polynomials fi are homogeneous of degree di . Then the following map is homogenous of degree zero φ : R(−d1 )

@

R(−d2 )

@

···

@

R(−dm ) → M,

where φ(ei ) = fi , with ei the standard basis elements of Rm , but deg(ei ) = di . A graded resolution of M is a resolution of the form ψ2

ψ1

ψ0

· · · −→ F2 −→ F1 −→ F0 −→ M −→ 0, where each Fi is a twisted free graded R-module (that is, sums of modules of the form R(d) for various integers d) and the maps are all homogeneous map of degree zero. In this case the ψi s are given by certain graded matrices (see [99, Chapter 6] for a detailed deﬁnition of these matrices). Theorem B.3.1 [196] (Graded Hilbert Syzygy Theorem) Let R = k[X1 , . . . , Xn ]. Then, every ﬁnitely generated graded R-module has a ﬁnite graded resolution of length at most n.

Shell-sort method

197

Let M be a ﬁnite generated module over R = k[X1 , . . . , Xn ], then the Hilbert function, denoted by HM (z) and the Hilbert series, denoted by H(M, z), of M are deﬁned by HM (z) = dimk (Mz ) and H(M, z) =

∞

HM (t)z t ,

t=0

where dimk means dimension as a vector space over k. It is known that if M (d) is the twist deﬁned in eqn (B.1) then HM (d) (t) = HM (t + d). The latter is used to prove the following important classical result regarding graded resolution. Theorem B.3.2 [196] Let R = k[X1 , . . . , Xn ] and let M be a graded R-module. For any graded resolution of M of the form

0 −→ Fm −→Fm−1 −→ · · · −→F0 −→M −→ 0, we have HM (z) =

m

(−1)j HFj (z).

j=0

Moreover, H(M, z) =

m

(−1)j H(Fj , z).

j=0

The toric ideal of the semigroup S = < s1 , . . . , sn > is the kernel of the homomorphism φ of semigroup algebras from k[X1 , . . . , Xn ] to the polynomial ring k[z s1 , . . . , z sn ] induced by S, that is, φ(Xi ) = z si , where I denotes the kernel of the map φ given by Xi → z si for each i.

B.4

Shell-sort method

One classical sorting algorithm, the perfomance of which remains unanalysed in most cases, is the Shell-sort proposed by Shell [414]. Shellsort is simple to code and can eﬃciently take advantage of parallel supercomputer architectures with little extra eﬀort. These considerations make Shell-sort an attractive algorithm. Recall that Shell-sort performs an hk -sort, an hk−1 -sort, an so on until an h1 = 1-sort; see Section 8.1. The running time of the algorithm is clearly quite dependent on the speciﬁc increment sequence h1 , . . . , hk that is used. Unfortunately, little is known on how to pick the ‘best’

198

increment sequence. In the table some sequences are listed that have been suggested for use. Shell Hibbard Papernov–Stasevich Knuth

1, 2, 4, 8, . . . , 2k , . . . 1, 3, 7, 15, . . . , 2k − 1, . . . 1, 3, 5, 9, . . . , 2k + 1, . . . 1, 4, 13, 40, . . . , 12 (3k − 1), . . .

If k = 1, then Shell-sort is equivalent to insertion sort, an algorithm whose perfomance is well understood. For insertion sort, the running time is known to be proportional to the number of inversions in the input (each element must move past the elements that are greater than it to the left). In this case, the worst-case running time is quadratic; see [246]. For k > 1, the running time of Shell-sort is known to be O(N 3/2 ) where N is the number of elements of the ﬁle (on the average and in the worst case) for the special case where each increment divides the previous increment; see [414]. At the other end of the spectrum, Pratt [336] gave a set of increments for which the running time is O(N log2 N ). Although the asymptotic growth of the average case running time of Shell-sort is unknown for the types of increment sequence used in practice, it appears to be considerably less than O(N log2 N ) (Gonnet [163] conjectured that the real value is O(N log N log log N )). Empirical tests indicate that there might exist increment sequences for which the average running time is O(N log N ); see [119]. Thus, the study of increment sequences for Shell-sort is also important because of the potential for a simple constructive proof of the existence of an O(N log N ) sorting network. The existence of such a network (with depth O(log N )) was presented by Ajtai et al. [6] but their construction is hardly practical. Further reﬁnements have been made by Leighton [263], but these networks are still far more complex than a Shell-sort network would be. Finally, let us mention that Yao [484] has analysed the average behaviour of Shell-sort in the general three-pass case when the increments are (h, g, 1). The most interesting part of his analysis dealt with the third pass, where the running time is O(N ) plus a term proportional to the average number of inversions that remain after a random permutation that has been h-sorted and g-sorted.

B.5

Bernoulli numbers

Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) discovered a curious relationship while working out the formulas for sums of m-th powers. Deﬁne Sm (n) =

Bernoulli numbers

199

1m + 2m + · · · + (n − 1)m . By the binomial theorem, we have !

(k + 1)m+1 − k m+1

!

!

m+1 m+1 2 m+1 m = 1+ k+ k +···+ k , 1 2 m

and by substituting k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 and adding, we have !

!

!

m+1 m+1 m+1 n +1 = n+ S1 (n) + S2 (n) + · · · + Sm (n). 1 2 m (B.2) Thus, one can have a formula for Sm (n) if formulas for S1 (n), . . . , Sm−1 (n) are known. Bernoulli observed that Sm (n) is a polynomial nm+1 (this follows by induction of degree m + 1 in n with leading term m+1 from eqn (B.2)). One can see also that the value of the constant term is always zero (the coeﬃcient values for the other terms are less obvious). Bernoulli empirically discovered that m

!

!

m+1 m+1 1 B0 nm+1 + B1 nm + · · · + Bm n Sm (n) = 1 m m+1

!

!

m m+1 1 = Bk nm+1−k . k m + 1 k=0

The Bernoulli numbers B0 , B1 , B2 , . . . are deﬁned inductively as follows. B0 = 1 and (m + 1)Bm = −

!

m−1

m+1 Bk . k

k=0

The ﬁrst Bernoulli numbers turn out to be n Bn

0

1

2

1

− 12

1 6

3

4

0

1 − 30

5

6

0

1 42

7

8

0

1 − 30

9

10 11

0

5 66

0

12 691 − 2730

.

With this result in hand, Bernoulli was able to answer the question of evaluating1 the sums Sm (n). Bernoulli numbers appear in many diﬀerent areas. In 1960, Vandiver [462] published a survey article in which he remarks that some 1500 papers on these numbers had been 1 Bernoulli proudly remarks (in his book Ars Conjectandi (1713)) that in less than a half of a quarter of an hour he was able to sum the tenth powers of the ﬁrst thousand integers [429].

200

published. This suggests how important and fascinating this sequence of numbers are. We refer the reader to [168] for further discussions on Bernoulli numbers. Most of the material presented in this section is based on [215, Chapter 15].

B.6

Irreducible and primitive matrices

A permutation matrix is a square matrix that in each row and each column has some one entry, all other zero. An n × n matrix B is called reducible if there exists an n × n permutation matrix P such that

B1,1 B1,2 , P BP = 0 B2,2 T

where B1,1 is an r×r submatrix and B2,2 is an (n−r)×(n−r) submatrix. If no such permutation matrix exists, then B is called irreducible2 . One motivation to study reducible matrices is the following. To solve the matrix equation A¯x = k, where A¯ = P AP T is the partitioned matrix as above, then we can partition the vectors x and k similarly so that the matrix equation A¯x = k can be written as A1,1 x1 + A1,2 x2 = k1 A2,2 x2 = k2 . Thus, by solving the second equation for x2 and with this known solution for x2 solving the ﬁrst equation for x1 , we have reduced the solution of the original matrix equation to the solution of two lowerorder matrix equations. The geometrical interpretation of the concept of irreducibility by means of graph theory is quite useful. Let G(B) be the associated directed graph to matrix B as deﬁned in Section 1.2.2. Theorem B.6.1 An n × n complex matrix B is irreducible if and only if its associated directed graph G(B) is strongly connected.  

Example B.6.2 Let B1 =  

1 0 2

0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 0 0

   and B2 = 

1 . The corresponding graphs are shown in Fig. B.1. 3

The term irreducible (unzerlegbar) was introduced by Frobenius [147]; it is also called irreduced and indecomposable in the literature; see [361].

Irreducible and primitive matrices

v

(a)

201

u

(b)

Figure B.1: (a) G(B1 ) and (b) G(B2 ).

By inspection, we can see that G(B1 ) is strongly connected but G(B2 ) is not (there exists no path from vertex u to vertex v). (k) Now, suppose that B k = (bij ). Since (k)

(bij ) =

bri1 bi1 i2 · · · bim−1 s , m ≥ 2,

1≤ii ,...,ik−1 ≤m

(k)

then (bij ) = 0 if and only if there is a path of G(B) of length m connecting r to s. With this in mind, the following fundamental lemma is immediate. An irreducible, non-negative matrix B is primitive if B t > 0 for some integer t ≥ 1 (and hence, it can be shown, for all integers greater than t). The least integer γ(B) such that B γ(B) > 0 is called the index of primitivity of B. Lemma B.6.3 [187] If B is primitive then γ(B) is the least integer such that for all m ≥ γ(B) there is a path of length m connecting two arbitrary (not necessarily distinct) vertices of G(B).

The above lemma yields the following well-known result. Lemma B.6.4 [361, 465] If B ≥ 0 is irreducible then B is primitive if and only if the lengths of all circuits of G(B) are relatively prime.

Heap and Lynn [187] have proved the following fact.

202 Lemma B.6.5 [187] Let B be a primitive matrix and let 0 < a1 < . . . < ak be the distinct lengths of all elementary circuits of G(B). Then, the length L of any circuit of G(B) can be expressed in the form L = ni=1 xi ai with xi ≥ 0 for all i. Proof. Let C = {xi1 , . . . , xic } denote any circuit, not necessarily elementary of G(B) and let c be its length. Let q1 , . . . , qk be the set of all distinct lengths of all elementary circuits of G(B). We claim that c = ki=1 xi qi with xi ≥ 0. Indeed, if C is elementary, this is obvious (c = qi for some i). Otherwise, we have that xij = xil for some j = l, l ≥ 1. Thus, C can be decomposed into two circuits, say C1 and C2 , whose lengths add up to c. If C1 and C2 are elementary circuits then we are done; otherwise, we may decompose the appropiate one (or both) in two circuits, and so on.

Since c is ﬁnite, C can be decomposed into a ﬁnite number of elementary circuits whose lengths add up to c and the claim follows and so does the result.

B.6.1 Upper bounds of index of primitivity Let B = (bij ) be a real (m × m) matrix. Let G(B) be the directed graph, associated to B, having vertex set {1, . . . , m} and directed edge from i to j if and only if bij = 0. The well-known Dulmage–Mendelsohn [122] bound states Theorem B.6.6 [122] Let A be an (n × n)-matrix. Then,

γ(A) ≤ n + s(n − 2), where s is the girth of the directed graph G(A) associated to A. In [415], Shen improved the above upper bound Theorem B.6.7 [415]

γ(A) ≤ d + 1 + s(d − 1), where d is the diameter of the adjacency digraph G(A) associated to matrix A. In [416], Shen presented a much shorter proof of Theorem B.6.7. Hartwig and Neumann [186] conjectured that γ(A) ≤ (m − 1)2 + 1 and that γ(A) ≤ d2 +1, where m is the degree of the minimal polynomial of A and d is the diameter of the directed graph G(A). It is known that

Irreducible and primitive matrices

203

the latter is stronger than the former because d ≤ m − 1. In [417, 418], Shen has proved both conjectures. Theorem B.6.8 [417, 418]

γ(A) ≤ (m − 1)2 + 1 and γ(A) ≤ d2 + 1.

B.6.2 Computation of index of primitivity One may compute the index of primitivity of a matrix A as follows. Let B(A) denote the associated Boolean matrix of a non-negative matrix A, that is, the matrix whose elements are one if the corresponsing elements of A are positive, and zero otherwise. It can be shown that, given a non-negative matrix A, B(Ar+s ) = B(Ar )B(As ), where B (Ar )B(As ) denotes the Boolean product of the matrices B(Ar ) and B(As ). For the deﬁnition of this and other concepts in connection to Boolean matrices, the reader is referred to [475]. The γ(A) is the smallest integer for which B(Aγ(A) ) > 0. The procedure for obtaining γ(A) is to form and store the Boolean matrices r B(A), B(A2 ), B(A4 ), . . . , B(A2 ), until either the last formed matrix is positive or else r is such that 2r+1 is known to be greater than an upper bound for γ(A). In fact, using the results in [187] one may verify that, for the Frobenius graph deﬁned in Section 1.2.2, γ(B) ≤ (n + 1)(an − an−1 − 1) + a1 − 1(an − 1) −

n

ai .

i=1

It is a simple procedure to evaluate the smallest integer m for which B(Am ) > 0 by using a binary search on the previously computed mas trices B(A2 ) with 1 ≤ s ≤ r. Notice that this procedure does not imply a polynomial time algorithm since it may require an exponential number of matrix multiplications.

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Index (a1 , . . . , an ), 1 (a1 , . . . , an )-tree, 128 < s1 , . . . , sn >, 135 H(M, z), 197 HM (t), 197 N (a1 , . . . , an ), 103 S(s1 , . . . , sn ), 135 [a1 , . . . , an ], 57 γ(B), 11 µ(S), 135 d(m; a1 , . . . , an ), 72 f (a1 , . . . , an , t) = f (n, t), 119 g(S), 135 g(a1 , . . . , an ), 1 h(a1 , . . . , an , t) = h(n, t), 123 i(P, t), 92 p(m), 71 Ap´ery set, 149 balls and cells problem, 175 basis, 1 Hilbert, 132 regular, 62 Bell’s method, 78 Bernoulli numbers, 112, 198 code algebraic geometric, 171 designed minimum distance Feng-Rao, 173 Goppa, 173 evaluation, 173 dual, 173 conjugate power equation, 178 convex set, 91 covering radius, 22

cubature formula, 179 m-property, 179 cube-ﬁgure, 7 cutting stock problem, 96 Davison’s algorithm, 5 decision problem, 185 Dedekind sums, 95 denumerant, 72 Ehrhart polynomial, 92 reciprocity law, 92 Frobenius directed graph, 12 minimal graph, 15 number, 1 problem FP, 1 function Kronecker delta, 153 M¨ obius, 153 partition, 71 subadditive, 55 Gomory cuts, 67 Gorenstein condition, 107 graded Hilbert syzygy theorem, 196 resolution, 196 graph F -Hamiltonian, 182 connected, 194 cycle, 194 Hamiltonian, 181 homogenously traceable, 182 hypo-Hamiltonian, 181 path, 194

242

Index

graph (cont.) Petersen, 181 strongly connected, 194 traceable, 182 Greenberg’s algorithm, 18 Heap and Lynn method, 11 Hilbert function, 197 serie, 197 HNN group, 178 Johnson integers, 42 jugs problem, 114 Kannan’s method, 21 Killingbergtrø’s algorithm, 6 Knapsack problem, 53 integer, 25 liveness problem, 162 matrix dominating, 157 graded, 196 index of primitivity, 11, 202 irreducible, 11, 200 mixed, 157 non-negative, 11 permutation, 200 positive, 11 primitive, 11 reducible, 11, 200 maximal lattice free body, 8 modular change problem, 124 module, 194 free, 195 graded, 195 projective, 195 regrading, 195 shift, 196 money-changing problem, 1 monoid, 55 monomial curve, 142

Nijenhuis’ algorithm, 19 partition vector space problem, 165 Petri net, 161 Pick’s theorem, 32 place/transition net, 161 pure, 162 system, 162 dead, 162 live, 162 weighted circuit, 163 polygon lattice, 32 simple, 32 polytope convex, 91 face, 92 facet, 92 integral, 92 rational, 92 postage stamp problem, 127 global, 133 pseudo-conductor, 130 m-conductor, 133 quantiﬁer elimination, 45 quasipolynomial, 93 random vector algorithm, 180 Rødseth’s algorithm, 3 Scarf and Shallcross’ algorithm, 9 semigroup, 135 γ-hyperelliptic, 154 Arf numerical, 156 Buchweitz, 155 complete intersection, 152 conductor, 135 critical number, 157 derived, 146 embedding dimension, 135 free, 140 gaps, 135 fundamental, 155 genus, 135

Index hyperelliptic, 140 irreducible, 148 multiplicity, 135 non-gaps, 135 numerical, 135 pseudo-symmetric, 146 ring, 87 Schubert index, 156 symmetric, 141 telescopic, 139 toric ideal of, 197 type, 142 Weierstrass, 154 sequence almost arithmetic, 29 almost chain, 29 arithmetic, 59 chain, 29 chain-divisible, 98 ﬂat, 58

independent, 38 pleasant, 127 saturated, 122 strongly ﬂat, 58 superincreasing, 98 telescopic, 139 type of, 151 Shell-sort method, 159, 197 Skupie´ n’s algorithm, 125 Sylver coinage game, 113 tessalation, 174 tiling, 174 Turing reduction, 194 unimodular zonotope, 92 Wilf’s algorithm, 19 Zorn’s Lemma, 143

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