The English Civil War Recreated in Colour Photographs (Europa Militaria)

Recreated in Colour Photographs

Chris Honeywell & Gill Spear

© 1993 Chris Ho neywell & G ill Spear Designed by John Anastasio/Creative Line Printed in S ingapore This edition published in Great Britain 1993 by Windrow & Greene Ltd . 5 Gerrard Street London WI V 7LJ All ri g hts reserved. No pmt of thi s publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by a ny means electronic or mechanica l including photocopy, recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system , without the prior writte n consent of the publi shers. A C IP catalogue record for this book is avai lable from the British Library

ISBN 1-872004-54-7

Acknowledgements: The a utho rs and publisher wish to record the ir g ratitude for the generous ass istance of many people during the preparation of thi s book, inc luding particularly the following: Nick Bacon , Mark Beaby, Peter Be ntha m Hill , Gareth Blyth, John C rawford, Barry Denton, Howard Giles, Mark Harrison, Chris Jo hn son, Stuart Reid , Ke ith Roberts, David Ryan, Marga ret Sm ith. Ke lvin Spooner, Des Thomas, Jo hn Tincey , Dennis Ward, Tig Wri ght ; (at Basing House) Ia n Ba rret, S imo n Frame, Phil French , Gerry Hug hes, Geoff King, Dave Laurent, Jo hn Litchfield. Andrew Munro, Nigel Preece, Les Prince, Ian Tindle, Alan Turton (C urator) , Dave Vogel. Ian Whittaker, David Wil son; (a t Clifford's Towe r) Paul Cramer, Robert Burrell Draper, Michael Fagin , Ni gel Walton . Particular tha nks to all in Earl Rivers' Reg ime nt of Foot for their he lp over the years.

A Warre Without

An Enemy

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harge yo ur pike ... " The order from the g rimfaced Roya li st officer is a lmost drowned by an ec hoi ng vo ll ey of Parli a me nt a ri a n mu sketry. Drums ralllc o ut their urge nt co mm ands , and bri g htl y co loured fl ags blow in the wind amidst the belching smoke of canno n-fire. A typical scene from the Eng li sh Civil Wars: yet thi s is not 1642, but a Sunday afternoon three and a half ce nturi es later. The Sealed Knot is o nce aga in in ac tio n. Na med afte r the Roya li st unde rgro und organisation which plotted the res to rati o n of the monarchy durin g Cromwell's Protectorate, today's Sealed Knot Society grew fro m a small pri vate party held in 1967 to launch the book Edgehi/1 1642: The Cmnpa if?n and the BaiT/e by Brigadier Peter Young, a hi gh ly decorated wartime Commando officer and military hi storian . A very much large r than life c haracte r, Pe te r Young thought it mi g ht be fun if he and a few friends dressed up as Cavaliers; he could hardl y have e nvisaged that the results would be so lasting or dramatic. A few of Youn g· s friends la te r wrote to ask when they could dress up again. a nd whether they could form a group to co mm e mo rate thi s formative period in o ur history. A man of action, Youn g saw the potential for so met hin g more adve ntur o u s than the original conception of a research a nd debating soc iety. And so the Sealed Kn o t prope r was bo rn, at a n in a ug ural meeting at The Mitre Ho te l in Oxford; eac h of the founders und e rt ook to rec ruit (so met imes re luctant ) friends for a c ross be tween a wargame and a military pageant. From the beginning the soc iety has owed o ne of its grea t s treng th s to Pe te r Young's insi s te nce th at membership be open to a ll who share its a im s. The Knot has a lways been no n- political, no n -sec tar ian , a nd without bar o n gro unds of race, sex, age, o r di sab ility each member contributes as much time and e ffort as he or she can manage. Some lady me mbe rs "feig n the ir sex"- wh ic h was not unknow n in the 1640s- and march as soldi ers; othe rs e ncourage " li vi ng hi story" scenarios in camp and garri son displays. Every age from infants to grandparents can be seen at musters of the Knot. Peter Young was the Sealed Kn ot's first, and hithe rto on ly. Capta in Generall - a pos iti o n he he ld until hi s death in September 1988 . The Kn ot owes much to the legacy of hi s c ha ri sma ti c persona lity; even in hi s last years he s till rode hi s w hit e c harge r a ro und th e

battlefield to the applause of the c rowd, and me mbe rs s till exchange affectionate anecdotes a bout thi s remarkable man. The first musters were small in scope, and costume owed more to inge nuity than authenticity. Though a few members obtained Civil War-style helme ts, th e norm was bonded velvet uniform s, recycled "we lli es", and plastic buff coats; tenni s ball s stood in for cannon-shot, pik es were extremely motley , and mu s k e t s were invariably shotg uns with the addition of mu sket rests: as Pete r Young said , " in those day s we had l 0% hi story a nd 90% im ag ination". Twenty-five years la ter the picture could not be more different ; today's Sealed Knot members spend many hours researching every de tail of Civil War clothing and armoury to achieve the most hi storically correct costumes po ss ible. Mu s ke ts are authentic reproductions of 17th century matchloc ks; 16foot pikes are planed and balanced conectly to ease the prope r exerci se of thi s ancient weapon. The society is constantly striving to improve, and a whole sub-c ulture of small speciali st bu s inesses has sprun g up to supply members' needs. Cavalry and artillery pl ay a n active ro le in Sealed Knot re-enactme nts . Horses are spec iall y trained to 3

part1c1pate in th e thi c k o f battl e, th e ir rid ers ma kin g das hing and co lourful charges dressed in authentic buff coats, armour, '' lobstertail' ' he lmets and mass ive boots; prac tical research is even beginning to produce authentic 17 th ce nt ur y sad d les. Me mbe r s o f th e Tr ay n e of A rtill ery have purs ued de ma ndin g researc h into th e design and reconstruction of wooden gun carriages, and t he int r icac ies o f fo un dry-cast i ro n a nd brass g un barrels. Whil e ful fillin g th e s tric tes t lega l a nd sa fe ty req uire me nts , t he soc iety h as ac quire d a ra n ge o f pyrotechnical ski li s to add to the spectacle, fro m simple blank cannon-fire and ground charges to the burning of mock-up vill ages . Wherever poss ible regiments wear the correct co loured coats, a nd are rec ruit e d in th e a reas wh e re th e ir na mesa kes fir s t s aw ac ti o n . On e o f th e o ldes t , fo r example, is the King's Lifeguard of Foot, who wear red, and rec ruit stro ng ly in O xfo rd and Nottingham ; whil e Lord Saye and Sele ' s " bluecoats" rec ruit in the Midlands and Kent. Large towns may support more than one local unit ; in Lo nd o n o ne may find Roya li s t me mbe rs of Prin ce Rupe rt 's Foo t li v in g o nl y s tree ts away fr o m Roundheads of Samuel Jones's Regiment. Although the Knot was originall y a Royali st gro up, it was obvious that not all me mbers shared Peter Young's enthu sias m for Kin g C harl es; a nd a Roundhead arm y was deve loped by th e hi sto ri a n Dr. Jo hn Ad a ir. The re la ti o ns hip be t wee n th e t wo e le m e nt s ec h oes, neve rth e less, th e fa m o u s wo rd s o f th e 16 4 3 correspondence between Sir Ralph Hopton and hi s o ld co mrade a nd new o ppo ne nt S ir Willi a m Wall e r: " a 4 warre without an enemy'' . Nature being what it is, it is

normal to see me mbers of each side drinkin g happil y together onl y hours after fac ing each other in battle; and mi xed marri ages betwee n latte r-d ay Ro undheads and Cavali ers are not unknown . Man y members were surpri sed at the earl y musters to see ca rs s to p and c row d s ga th e r a lo ng he dge rows , occ asion a ll y ca usin g major traffi c co nges ti o n. With ever-growing numbers wi shing either to j oin the Knot or me re ly to wat c h it in ac tion , a nd with reg im e nt s s prin g in g up lit e r a lly fr o m L a nd 's E nd t o J o hn 0 ' Groats, it was clear by the end of the 1960s th at it wo uld have to e vo lv e into th e m o re pro fess io na ll y o r g ani sed soc ie ty of to d ay. Neve rth e less, profess ionali sm in the soc iety 's admini stration and the qu a lity of it s di s pla ys h as n o t a lt e re d th e Knot 's essential character: all membe rs, fro m the chairman to the newest pikeman, remain volunteers. As branches and regiments grew the Knot organi sed itself in reg ions, one of the earliest and still most ac ti ve being the Army of the North . Through its e fforts one of the first major battl e re-enactments fought was Marston Mo or (a battl e w hi ch w ill b e dra m ati ca ll y re peated during its 350th anniversary year in 1994 ). The Knot is also very ac tive in Scotland , where the soc iety takes on a new dimension from pl a id-wearing Hig hl anders and dour, bonneted Covenanters. These Scots think nothing of travelling 500 miles during a weekend to take part in a battle in England , and hold their own musters at sites s u c h as Stirlin g. Th e Kn o t is a lso d eve lo pin g

internati onal links. with me mbers in Ge rmany and North America forming reg ime nts and orga ni sing battles and "li ving hi story" ca mps; there have also bee n exchange visits betwee n groups and indi viduals, and Sealed Knot displays in France and Germany. As the soc iety deve loped during the 1970s its numbers grew until Sea led Knot battles could involve a thousand participant s; today three times that number may attend a major muster such as Newark or Edgehill in 1992, and with a paid-up membership of more than 6,000 the Knot is the largest acti ve re-e nactment assoc iation in Europe. From it s modes t beg innin gs the soc ie ty has also become a major charit y fund-raise r - a rol e pl anned by Peter Young from the fir st. Apart from battl es, Knot me mbers and unit s also undertake many other sponsored events. The hi gh identifi cati on with charity work has led great fo rti fied houses such as Sudelcy, Broughton Castle and Warwick Castl e to in vite the Knot on a regul ar bas is to recreate past times, raising money for vari ous causes. Co un cil s a nd loca l c ha riti es s uc h as th e Li o ns and Rotary Clubs oft en join with the Knot in eve nts such as the traditional Holl y Holy Day at Nantwich , Cheshire, or major occasions such as those organi sed at Newark in Nottinghamshire. Wherever the Sea led Knot appears it draws substantial crowds, to the extent that its absence fro m a give n eve nt now ca uses comment. In 1977 th e Sea led Kn ot had th e great hon o ur of fo rming a guard of honour for H.M. T he Queen at the Windsor firework di spl ay mounted as part of the Royal Sil ve r Jubil ee ce le brati o ns. Alth ough it has a lw ays attrac ted press and te lev is ion atte nti on, the Knot has recentl y begun to rece ive approac hes for film work as ex tras and spec iali sts; hav in g a ready-trained arm y of peri od so ldi e rs e nabl ed the soc ie ty to fulfill military roles fo r such T V drama seri es as By Th e Sword Divided and Th e Year 4 the French. Another important as pect of the acti vities of the reenac tment soc ieti es is hi stori ca l researc h. From their roo ts in Peter Youn g's sc holarship , the Kn ot a nd the ECWS have contributed greatl y to seri ous e nquiry into aspec ts of th e period not suitable or fas hio nable for ge neral ac ad e mi c stud y. Prac ti ca l ex pe rim e nt a nd doc um entary researc h have combined to increase our understandin g o f s ubj ect s as vari ed as 17th ce ntury dyestuffs. and cooking, as well as cl othing des ign and proc ureme nt. weapons and tac ti cs. Valuabl e spec iali st publi shing has bee n undert ake n by soc iety me mbe rs; and pro fess ional hi stori ans such as Dr.Dav id Chandle r of th e RM A Sa ndhurst, a nd th e Ne w Mode l Arm y authorit y Barr y De nto n, co ntribute th e ir stre ngth in resea rch. Th e Kn ot is constantl y as ked for advice, at every leve l. on all as pects of the period . The Sealed Knot is currentl y heavil y in volved in the celebrations for the 350th anni versary of the C ivil Wars; and in 1993 e nj oys it s ow n S il ve r Jubil ee , with j ustifi abl e prid e in hav in g no t o nl y fulfill ed Pe te r Yo un g's o ri g in a l int e nti o n o f wid e nin g a nati o n 's interest in its heritage, but al so becoming a pleasurable part of everyday life for thousands of people.

In the earl y 1970s a second soc iety was born out of the Sealed Knot. The English Civil War Society in fact co ns ists o f two v irtu a ll y a uto no mous g ro ups : The King's Army a nd The Roundhead Ass ociation. Co nt ac t be t wee n th e Sea led Kn o t a nd th e EC W S co ntinu es on an inform al bas is; there is co nside rabl e dual membership, and joint events are not unknow n. T he EC WS has a total me mbership of about 3,000, draw n from all ove r the country and with a small but stalwart contin ge nt from th e Ame ri ca n co loni es . Th e Kin g ' s Army and Roundhead Assoc iation are each organi sed as a 17th ce ntury arm y. with a reg im e nt of cava lry and seve ra l inf a ntr y reg im e nt s a pi ece, toge th e r w ith supporting artillery and camp-foll owe rs. Th ough ge ne rall y small er than SK mu ste rs, EC WS di spl ays ha ve been notabl e rece ntl y for the soc iety's 5

Association have combined at Warkworth Castle, Northumberland to recreate the Civil War garrison Major William Lyell 's company of the Ma ster of Yester's Reg iment. The ECWS annual programme is carefully balanced to provide four evenly-spaced major events involving full musters of the membership , and anything up to 60 smaller " regimental invited events" of all shapes and sizes. These involve only a limited number of units as such, although members from other regiments can normally take part by joining the ranks of the invited units to ensure a convincing di splay . The society has also been very active in promoting "living history" as di stinct from purely military displays. In August 1986 the ECWS pioneered the use of English Heritage sites by re-enactment groups with a di splay at Tynemouth Castle; and since then has enjoyed a healthy re lationship with English Heritage, presenting a number of impressions of garrison life each year. Barry Denton FRHistS Stuart Reid

ability to form and maintain recognisable battle-lines. Th e Roundhead Association, and less formally the King' s Army, have formed brigades which group two or more units into larger formation s. These are better suited to practi sin g 17th ce ntury tactical evolutions without breaking down into formless, swirling melees . Each ECWS unit is modelled on an original CiviiWar regiment. All the recreated King 's Army units served in, or alongside, the Royalist Oxford army in the summer of 1643. This allows a fairly ti ght specification for clothing and equipment , since the Oxford army was the best documented of all Royali st forces. The Roundhead Association cove rs a wider period, represe nting units from both the provincial armies of 1642-44 and the New Mode l Army a nd its successo rs, though " redcoats" predomin ate. Standards of costume authenticity are taken very seriou sly in both armies. One Scottish-based RA unit, the Earl of Loudon's Reg iment, in fact serves quite often on the Royalist side in post- 1647 scenarios, given the complexity of AngloScottish relations during the Civil Wars. Such flexibility is also seen in the occas ional emergence of temporary units: e.g. the ma inly English Royalist Sir Thomas Tyldesley's Regiment adopts the identity of the Laird of Grant ' s Regi ment at Scottish events. Similarly, and particularly at events where the "living history" aspect is strong, a specific unit will be specially recreated to reenact particular circum stances. On two occasions so far 6 members of the Kin g ' s Army and Roundhead

A pikem:m of Devereux's Regiment of the English Civil War Society (hereafter. " ECWS" ) photographed at Basing House. the major Roya list stronghold in Hampshire which was the scene of much bloody lighting between July 1643 and October 1645. Apru1 from a steel gorget or collar-piece he wears the full recommended equipment of the pikeman. Helmets of various styles based on the older mori on and cabasset were norm al: this typical " pike man's pot" has the morion ' s deep reinforci ng comb and flared hrim, and broad cheekpieces. His waist-length back-andbreast plates are fined w ith ta~set s heavy thigh-pieces. He wears gloves to protect his hands when handling the pike; and has a simple. ma~s-produced sword ("a good sti ff tuck") as a hand-to-hand weapon in practice it was probabl y used for camp chores more often than for fi ghting. Earl y in the war many pikemen seem to have discarded tirst the tm;sets. and later the whole cuirass (which at up to 501bs. weight wa~ tiring to wear for any length of time): and many may never have received one in the first place. Armour was of limited pmctical use, seldom being proof agai nst musket balls at banle ranges. On the march armour and sometimes pikes seem to ha ve been cruTied in wagons (when available. and w hen hattie wa~ not imminent).

B

y the reign of King Charles I, England had enjoyed almost unbroken peace since the beginning of the 17th century ; and, as a nation, had no continuity of military experience to draw upon when civil war broke out. Over th e previous ha lf-ce ntury. however, import a nt advances had been made on the Co ntin en t in military equipment, training, formations and tactics. These had first emerged during the wars in Italy, and had developed further durin g the lo ng stru ggle fo r Dutch inde pe nde nce fro m Spain , and latte rl y during Sweden 's in vo lve ment in the Thirty Years ' War. The campaigns of Maurice of Nassau and Gu stav us Adolphus had been the ta lk of Europe. Thousands of British mercenaries had served overseas, and in the 1640s many brought the ir first -hand experience home. Profe ss io na l so ldi e rs and drill - m as te rs ha d published technical treati ses in Eng li sh, which were studied by the keener officers of the Trained Bands regional militia. In the e arl y ca mpa ig ns of the C iv il W ar the leaders struggled to impose these professional models on the raw mass of indiffe re ntl y eq uipped, poorly di sc iplined , and

unreliably paid volunteer and conscript recruits. But bloody ex peri ence provided its own instruction : and by the 1650s British regiments seem to have been the professional equals of any in Europe.

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The Civil War " regiment of foot" wa o rga ni sed on a theoretical model of ten companies totalling either I ,000 or I ,200 men plus officers. In practice the regiments' uneven success in recruitin g, variable rate of deserti ons, and good or bad fortune in di sease-ridden camps and on the battlefield le ft the m with anything between 150 and 850 me n, with some extre me examples even weaker or stronger; and the number of companies raised could also vary. Despite the growing dominance of musketeers on the mid17th century battle field their vulnerability to cavalry during the reloading process still made it necessary to mi x them for protec ti o n with bl oc ks of pike me n. The proportion of "shot" to "pike" varied, generall y increasing steadily from about two-to-one in 1642; many units, particularly Royali st, were all-shot by 1645. Each company had a mixed strength ;

the pike was supposedly the more honourable weapon, and for practical rea ons wa carried by the strongest men . On the battlefi eld the company did not fi ght as a tactical formati on; a strong reg iment might be divided into two "grand di vi ion ", while weaker regiments mi ght form a single unit, or in extreme cases several regiments might be combined. Within the tactical units (called "battalia") all the pikemen were drawn up in a central block between two wings of musketeer , all formed six or eight men deep. The basic sub-unit was the file - that is, the six or eight men who stood in a line from front to rear of the formation. In theory there were set positions for men of different experience and seniority within each file, the senior man taking the lead.

(Below) A sergeant of John Bright 's Regiment , ECWS. photographed at li fford 's Tower in York - an art illery position during the siege of 1644. He represents a member of Sir Thomas l'airfax 's Parliamentarian army in the north of England. identified by the blue sash: the nat woollen bonnet and plain grey coat were typical of both cots Covenanters and northern English troops. Body annour would not have been general in the northern

anny. which had much more "shot" than "pike": but like the sash, and the modest lace decoration on the breeches, it is a typical distinction for a junior offi cer (among whom sergeants were then classed). Sergeants were officially distinguished by carrying halberdsaxe-headed poleanllS. He wears a typical sleeveless buff coat with shoulder extensions: and ankJelcngth "start-ups", old-fashioned but hard-wearing labourers' boots.

(Above) A lieutenant of Devereux's Regiment. ECWS. at Basing House. In theory each company had a captain, a lieutenant. and an ensign. Officers wore their own personal clothing. di spl aying a greater or lesser degree of wealth. This young gentleman has fine lace shirt cuffs and collar ("falling band"). its point · gathered by a ribbon; a hat with expensive imported plumes: gold bullion lace on his breeches: and fa. hi onably red-heeled '·bucket top'' riding boots, the tops folded down here for service on foot. In battle he might wear bac k-andbreast annour over hi s buff coat. Marks of otlicer rank are his gorget: his bullion-frin ged sash, in the tawny-orange which identified the Earl of Essex's Parliamentarian army; and the partizan. a short poleann with a more or less elaborately shaped head - the tasse l collar was practical as well as decorati ve, keeping rain from running down onto the grip. His sword is a reproducti on of the socalled " mortuary" style: the crude human head worked into the basket guard has been claimed to commemorate the fate of King Charles the Martyr - but examples arc known with female heads. and others which pre-date 1649. (Right) Another pikeman of Devereux' s Regiment. ECWS: and a close-up of his cuirass. Most Civil War annour was blackened or

browned to protect it against rust, which on a wet day can bloom over polished steel surfaces almost while you watch. Most helmets were apparently unlined. and worn over a knitted "Monmouth cap" - a very widespread piece of common soldier's headgear. l'or most Civi l War soldiers the onl y item of actual "uniform", issued in a common colour to the men of a unit. was nonnally the coat: even this wa. far from uni versal - and a regiment might change it. coat colour wi th each replacement issue. Otherwise soldiers were largely dressed in what they brought from their homes or managed to buy. steal or scavenge on campaign. with occasional issues or repl acement shoes and shirts obtained by their quartennasters by the same methods but on a grander scale. A rc-cnactor might spend today around £65 for a metal helmet, £95 for breast-and-hack annour with tassels. £35 for his coat,£ 15 for his woollen breeches, £70 for a good pair of hobnailed reprod uction 17th century "latchet" shoes, and anything between £65 and £95 for a sword , scabbard and baldric. With linen shirts, stockings. and small personal kit , a complete outfit costs £500 or £600: but most units have regimental stocks. and a rccr11it is not expected to buy the whole kit for hi s first muster.

(Above, left to right:) Pikemen photographed at a muster of the Sealed Knot (hereafter, ''SK") at Carew Castle; the Marqui s of Newcastle's Whitecoats at Edgehill; Earl Rivers' Regiment, Western Association at Weston Super Mare; and an offi cer of the King ' s Lifeguard at Edgeh ill. The latter wears a "Montero'', a type of cap which seems to have been popul ar (particularl y in the "Oxford army") throughout the Civil War. (1-crt) Pikes, helmets, an officer's

partizan and a sergeant ' s halberd laid ready for an S K muster at Roundway Dow n by Stamford ' s Regiment. Civil War ash-wood pikes varied from 15ft. to 18ft. but I 6ft. was conventi ona l. sometimes with wound twine

grips. Some soldiers di sobedientl y cut theirs down to handi er lengths: if batt le brought them to " push of pike" aga in st opponents w ith longer staves they might pay a gri sly pri ce. About two fee t of the shaft below the Si n. head wa. usuall y protected against sword -cut s by riveted stee l strips.

(Right) Second Battle of Newbury. SK: pikemen of Robert Hammond ' s Regi ment on the march. pikes shouldered. with slung blankets and knapsacks. The Scaled Knot usually orga ni se one long endurance march eac h year, in full kit and co mplete with wagons. foll owi ng the hi stori ca l route of a particular Ci vil War campa ign. Such marches are sponsored for charitable causes .

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(A bove) Pikcmcn of the King's Lifeguard of Foot. SK. take up their positions at Weston Super Mare. holding their pikes at the .. advance ... TI1e English .. lohstertail pot .. helmet with iL~ three-har face guard was p1imaril y a cavalry item. but would have been wom by some officers of foot. The origi nal Lifeguard were not a picked elite. but an ordinary regi ment -often understrength and badly armed. li ke other early Roya list units - raised in Derbyshi re. Lincolnshire and Cheshire. They were. however.

issued wi th unifonns: complete reel suits and M onteros. The difficulty of hand ling the 16ft. pike in closely-ordered rank~ without tripping or even maiming ones com rades must have made recruit drill parades a sight to behold. Officers would have been sati sfied when their men could handle the unwieldy weapon deftly enough to fonn up and march without disruption or injury; and to present an effecti ve. overlapping hedge of points fo r attack and defence.

(Right) A plai n, soldierly looking offi cer at Carew Cast le: in the background, pike of the Lifeguard and Ri vers· Regiment, SK. Hi s gorget. sash and parti zan mark hi s status; and note the fashionab le open , buttoned coat sleeves. The srav es of some halberd s and parti zan s we re covered w ith leather or fabri c. and/or studded w ith brass (which does not ru st or . park . and wears down smoothl y wi thout snagging): for cheapness and safety re-enac tors often usc

painted wooden heads for combat. Offi cers work thei r way up through the rank s of thei r reenactme nt units; they are trained in the usc of all arm s. and have to pas · safety tests on their handling before promot ion to posts of res ponsibility .

(Below) Second Battle of Newbury. S K: pi ke men u f Slann ing' s Reg iment and (background) the Western Assoc iati on move into the att ack . Stri ped pike staves are used by thi s re-e nactment unit fo r

identifi catio n. So me re-enac tors usc headless staves. others heads of carved and painted wood ur of vul cani sed rubber. for c heapness and safe ty (metal heads arc ex pensive and easil y damaged ).

(Below) Second Battle of Newbury, SK: an artillery gun captain - note his linstock, and the whip for gun team horses -warns a sergeant of Western Association pikemen: "Have a care, loaded gun! " A Civil War company was

supposed to have two sergeants and three corporals for I00 or so privates (the tenn was already in use); but in the early campaigns there wa a chronic shortage of experienced sergeants.

Weston Super Mare and Second Battle of Newbury, SK: pike press, "Bertie Basset's Regiment" - the name given to temporary units formed at mu ters by amalgamating smaller groups into a regiment of practical size for battle. The rear ranks of Civil War pike units would have packed in behind their front-rank comrades with staves slanted, shoving on their backs to lend weight and momentum. Very much the same happens in re-enactments, most pike units fighting with points upward for the sake of safety; for the same reason swords are not carried by pikemen in battle. Such encounters have been described as like •·rugby matches with 600 a side".

Shot he smoothbore, muzzle - loadin g, matchlock muske ts use d in the Civil War - like so much other equipment. in a country pitched into war without the well-stocked magazines of a sta ndin g armycame from various British and fore ign sources, and were of various ages, lengths and bores. Before the war the usua l barre l len g th was about 4ft. , the bore being calculated on a bullet size of 12 to the pound weight (rou ghl y .8 in c h ). With a weight of 14 to 201bs. thi s heavy musket required a forked rest for efficient aiming. addin g to the burden a nd awkwardness of the muske tee r's e quipment. A " bastard musket" with a 3ft.6in . barre l was a lso avai Iable; at l 0 to 12lbs. this could be aimed without a rest, but supplies of a ll kinds were uncertain , and mixed equipment within armies a nd regiments was common. Differin g bores caused problems of ammunition supply. and soldiers had to clip or even bite bits of lead off th e iss ue d bullet s to m a ke them fit the barrel. Gunpowder was supposed to be iss ued in two grades of fineness: "corn" powder for the main charge, and a finer grain "touc h" powd e r for primin g the sma ll external pan, whi ch flared when se t off by the s m o ulderin g match. Powder quality was somet imes as unpredictable as ball siz.e; and by some accounts Civil War mu sketeers were care less abo ut carrying paper for wadding, even further reduc ing accuracy and rate of fire. The bandolier of woode n or tin tubes in which the musketee r carried 12 to 16 measured charges of powder (not, in fact. ca ll ed ''the Twelve Apostles" in the 17th century) was certainly awkward to use . The tube covers could slip up their strings, spillin g powder; in battle a man cou ld eas ily for get which ones he had empti ed; they rattled loud l y. betrayin g night attacks and ambu shes: and with burning m a tchcord s and opened powder containers all round him in a c lose e ngagement, it was not unknown for a soldi e r to suffe r the lethal ex plosion of his whole bandolier. An a lternative was so me sort o f belt-box worn at the waist. holdin g m eas ure d charges in folded paper cartridges ; and these were issued to some extent. But paper cartridges often came apart with hasty handling or simply from be in g shaken up on the move . Some commanders complained of men carrying cartridges in their poc kets. where they quickly spoiled ; and even of some "fantastical fe llows" loading by eye from handfuls of loose powder. At least pape r cartridges provided their own wads. In the days of tlint-and-stee l and tinderbox the need to kee p matchcord smou ld e rin g whenever battle was imminent was a problem, a nd soldiers must constantly have been aski ng a comrade or their file- leader for a li g ht. Onc e li g ht e d . th ey normally kept both e nds smoulde rin g at once in case one e nd got exting uished or was bl ow n off by the de tonation of the primin g. An

T

( ('011finued on pagt•

2 I)

Musketeer, Colonel Valentine Walton 's Regiment. ECWS. photographed at Basing House. C ivil War musketee rs did not wear he lmeL~. or any other annour. The broad-brimmed fe lt hat was a desirable, though quite expensive headgear in mid- 17th century annies ; this soldier has a piece of paper tucked into the cord as a "field sign". Since units on opposing sides often wore the same co loured coats, nr no unifom1 clothing at all , cases of mistaken identity were freyuent . often leading to death or capture. Officers were identifiable onl y by coloured sashes. of which the best-known are Essex· s Parliamentary tawnyorange and the King's red.Before an engagement field signs such as spri gs of greenery. pieces of paper. scraps of cloth or even untuckcd shirt wil s were often chosen. as were hattie-cries and pa~swords. Many soldiers were issued with a "snapsack" to cany a few spare

clothes, rations, utensil s. and small belongings such as nint-and-stee l. ll1i s sturdy leather example is of a less popular shape: most were sausage-shaped. of t.hin leather or li ght can va~. Thi s soldier also has a tine glazed stoneware bottle for hi s water (perhaps mi xed with vinegar) or ale, in the Dutch style known as "bcllarmine". He wears simple over-stockings to protect the inner pair; the usc of layered stockings and shirts seems to have been common . His plain, broad-bladed sword is wom from a haldric. Note the long ramrod ("scouring stick"), tipped with bone or copper to prevent sparking, in its housing under the barrel of hi s musket. The musketeer was supposed to c:my detachable tools which screwed to the other end of thi s: a wire brush for scouring out a foul ed barre l, and a cork screwshaped "worm" for drowing out mi stires.

17

The musketeer of Walton's, shnwing his equipmen l. At least one powder flask, wi th a spring cut-off device in the nozz le to control the flow. would have been carried for the fine "touch" powder: and perhaps a second with a reserve of "com '' powder. On the hip a pouch for musket balls is just vi sible above the flask. I Ie might also carry a small oil bottle; and, unless he was a fool,"proyning wires" to prick away the heavy fouling of burnt powder whi ch after repeated firing could block the touch-hole connecti ng the priming pan and the charge in the barrel. A supply of match. cut to conveni ent lengths. is looped to his be lt of charges, and more may be tucked into hi s shirt or under his hal. Match was simply made by soak ing cord in a sa ltpetre soluti on. which makes it smoulder slow ly and evenl y; on one famous occasion the Royali st general Sir Ralph I Iopton supp lied his troops by requisi tioni ng bedstead cords from the householder. of Devizes. The wooden bottles for the powder charges were turned, proofed by soaking in oi l. then painted or varnished. Reenactors· charge bottles, though sti ll made from wood , often have non-sparking copper lining for safety; and powder fl asks are non-ferrous, spark proof, and have built-in weak spots. The issue of powder during reenactments is tightly controlled, and unused powder must be handed back. Would-be re-enactor musketeers must hold a Shotgun Certi fi cate and a Black Powder Permil. They also have to attend four battles with dummy or unl oaded muskets, to become accustomed to the adrenal in-rush which can occur during combat reenactments. They arc then tested on firi ng practice. maintenance and safety before obtaining a Proficiency Test card. All training is done through the regiment , but tests are by the Musket Inspectorate of the Safety Board. one of whose inspectors is present at every muster. Proficien y Test cards are revoked on the spot if anyone is seen using a musket unsafcly.

(Right) Musketeer, Devereux's Regiment. E WS. demonstrating the use of the musket rest. in the drill po ture "Guard your pan". Note the thong round hi s left wrist. allowing him to let the rest drag when he needs both hands for reloading. Reproduction matchlock muskets arc made by about half-a-doze n active gunsmiths in Britain : re-enactors may also buy them from their units. Most cost from around £110 upward. They we igh around 121bs.; the bore is .75 to .88 in. ; the stee l barrels are fu ll y proofed for shot. and numbered for traci ng, to conform with legal requirements. The knitted Monmouth cap was produced in tens of thousands by many contractors. apart from indi vidually home-knit ones, and varied from a ski mpy stocking cap to a large, felted . blocked item like this. using a pou nd weight of wool. His coat is "uniform" in the sense that hi s co mmanders have ordered it in bulk in a common colour and lining; it may distinguish a regiment. or a large r regional force . It was not until 1646, when hostiliti es were almost over. that Pari iament · s New Model Army were able to issue a single co lour throu ghout · red. with different co loured linings probably for different regi ments (the lining presumab ly visible at turned- bac k cuffs). The coat was a heavy outdoor garment of dense broadcloth. Under it the soldier wore hi s civi lian clothes. supplemented by occasional army issues: these were for usc. not identili cati on. and although e.g. breec hes see m often to have been grey, co lours would be governed by cost and availability. A woo l or heavy linen doublet, so metimes attached to the breeches. was often worn. Loose, lined broaddoth breeches were about ca lf-length (3 1in . is a measure menti oned in accounts lists). gathered by garters; leather pockets were common. Loose linen shins had sma ll co ll ars and gathered cuffs: more than one might be worn in cold weather. Long knit or woven stock ings were normally grey or white. Civil War armies knew the importance of good footwea r. and tried (ideall y) to repl ace the sturdy. straight-lasted , round-or square-toed "latchet" shoes about every three months.

(Right) Reliance on a burning match could leave unit;, of "shot"' helplcs> at short notice in rainy weather (eve n ve ry damp air incrcm.es the rat e of mi;.fires to anyth ing up 10 50 per cent ). Naked fl ame and loose powder was a recipe for frequent accidents. N ight all ac ks were often betrayed by the tell -tale points of li ght. Free fro m all these drawbacks were the early fl intl ock ("fi rel ock'') muskets. availabl e to i vi l War armi es in small num be rs. Needing no naked fl ame. they could be carri ed loaded but uncocked for hours. ready for instant u;,e . Costing half as much again a;. a matchl ock (in 1645. 15s.6d. - three weeh · pay for a so ldier). they we re normall y carried onl y by spec ial pi cked in fantry units: and parti cul arl y by musketeers guarding the artillery . where smouldering match close to ope n powder barre ls could cause catastrophic accidcm;.. T hi s musketee r of Walton's Reg iment has a " dog- lock" fl intl oc k. named from the safety catch visible behind the cock .

(Left) A n offi ce r of Devereux's Regiment of the Roundhead A ssoc iation , EC WS. Thi s mi ght be desc ribed as " dai ly" miliwry dress : back-a nd -breast plates mi ght be added for bailie. The fe lt hat was quite a co. tl y it em in the 17th ce n\Ury. as we re imported feath er plumes - de rigeur for a fashi onable offi cer. T he openin g. bulloned doublet sleeves arc typi ca ll y handed with gold bulli on lace: he ha. a fin e lace coll ar falling ove r hi s gorget, and ex tra ''boot hose" pro tec t ex pensi ve stoc kin gs from the rubbing of hi s superb bucket-top hoots. filled with spurs on " hu11erfl y" lea thers for riding- an infantry offi ce r wo uld ride on the march. The broad frin ged sash. ti ed in a huge bow. is typi cal. A more decorati ve and less functi onal '' leading starr· mi ght be carried instead of a parti zan. A regiment of foot mi ght have a staff of a col onel. a li eutenantco lonel, a sergeant-maj or (then an offi ce r rank ), a quartermaster. a provos t-marshal : and perhaps 27 other company offi cers. Roth sides . but parti cul arl y the Royali sts. ·uffered as the war progressed fro m an excess of office rs. Regimental strengths we re whilll ed away by di sease, death and deserti on; hut reduced unit s onl y grudgingly amalga mated with others, the o ffi cers refu sin g to gi ve up their

status and pay . (The Roya li st garri son of Readin g in 1644 included Bl ac kwe ll 's Regiment. of four compani es. with a total of 56 men but 30 offi ce rs.) In both armi es, hu t parti cularl y the King's, office rs w ith out so ldi ers might fi ght in the rank s. sometimes fo rming whole troops or compani es. These " refonnadoes" did not enjoy a hi gh reputation for di scipline or effi ciency.

arm y o n campa ig n used vas t qua ntiti es o f matc hcord , and ensurin g supplies was a maj o r logistic pro ble m : o ne threatened garri son o f I ,500 me n is recorded as ha ving u ed some q uarter-to n we ig ht of matc h in 24 hours. Parli ame nt 's arm ies a t first favo ured a n e ig ht- ra nk fo rm ati o n fo r th e w in gs of mu s ke tee rs fl a nkin g the "stands" o f pik e w he n draw n up fo r ba ttl e, but th e Royalists may have ado pted the Swedi sh six-rank sty le by the battle of Edge hill : by 1643 thi s seems to have been the norm on both sides. As the battl e lines approac hed one another musketry was used to thin and di srupt the enemy 's ranks. Although a musket ball could kill at 600 yards, and pierce armour at 200-400. it was hope less ly inacc urate at such distances. Indi vid ua l marksmanship was ge ne rall y unknow n in pitched battles; the unit of shot fired " into the brown", by ranks. on the ir offi cer's order. Unless trying to provoke the enemy for some reason they seldom ope ned fire at more than 100 yards' range. Even the n the e ffect wa uncertain : but a solid hit, by luck or judge ment, w ith a large, s low. soft- lead ba ll ca used le th a ll y m a ng lin g wounds.

The classic Dutc h syste m used by both s ides in volved each rank o f musketeers firing in tum, then retiring to the rear to reload. Variations of this system could be carried o ut whil e maintainin g th e s am e g ro und o r w hil e a d va nc ing o r re treatin g; the o bj ec t was to kee p up a co ntinuou s fire (e xpe rime nts prove that a co mpe te nt musketeer could re load in abo ut half a minute).

(Below ) Engli sh Ci vi l War Society mu sketee rs asse mble in York. March 1993. to take part in a march and wreath -lay ing ce remony to honour the memory of the great Ci vil War general and gentleman Sir Thomas Fairfax. creator and leader of Parli ament's New Model A rm y. The scarlet-uniformed men of Devere ux's Regime nt in the fo reground wear M ontero caps;

the upper n aps co uld someti mes be folded in various ways to give protection f rom the weather before the Civ il War the Montero was already known in Germany as the ''Engli sh fog-hat"'. Note also bando liers of charges wi th blue-pai nted tubes and blue-andw hite strin gs: these co lours are spec i f ied in the survi vi ng contract books o f the New Model Army.

(Left) Musketeers of the King's Lifeguard, SK, at Carew Cast le, carryi ng rests and reversed mu skets; at left is a sergeant.

(Below left & right) Ranks of SK northern Parliamentarians, including Ballard 's Greycoats, fire a "sal vee" at Edgehill. This Swedish variation on the usual rolling fire by rank s was we ll estab li shed in Cominental wars before the 1640s. In th e last moments before two bodies of foot carne together, the ranks of "shut" mi ght be doubled up to fire three rank s together - the front rank kneeling, the nex t stooping and the third standin g behind them . By doubling their frontage all six rank s might even fire at once. This co ncentrated firepower might decimate the enemy front ranks at the psychologica l moment before hand-to-hand contact, hut left musketeers with no time to reload.

rnu s ~c t ee rs of Sir Marmad uke Rawdon's Regiment, SK, fire a vo lley during a mu ster at W eston Super Mare. the barrels poi ntin g up for afcty.

(Right) Roya li st

These photographs show ''shot" of the Tower H amlets Trained Bands. SK. during a muster at Weston Super M arc. The Trained Bands we re loca l militias first raised in Queen Eli zabeth 's reign. whi ch by 1642 varied w idely in strength , eq uipment and preparedness: but they were the nearest thing England had to a standing army. and both sides tri ed to get control of them (and their arrnouri es) by se lecti ve appointment o f offi cers. M ost Trained Band s refu sed to serve out side their counti es. Notable excepti ons we re those from Corn wall , wh o were among the K i ng's best infantry; and the L ondon Trained Bands. who we re fro m the first among

24

Pa rli ament 's most va lu ahl e assets. The Bands of the city and suburbs totall ed. by 1643. nine very strong regiments (ave raging about I .200 men eac h) and nine new A uxili ary reg iment s of 1.000 eac h. A reli abl e Parli amentary defence force for the ca pital. the L ondon Trained Band s were also persuaded to suppl y large fi eld hri gades for campaigns further afield in 1643-44.

(Left) Note the pronounced " hatchet" shape of the mu sket stock : th e cloth fi eld sign tied around a sleeve. left ; and thi s reenactor' s bas ket-hilted sword, rather more elaborate th an would normall y be see n at the hip nf a si mplc so ldier.

(Lert and below) Un der the orders of a sergeant at the far end of the ranks, the Tower H amlets men (to judge from their co lou rs in the background , from the second captain ' . company - see page 32) make ready to fire . A s w ith the pike, tec hniea ltreati scs included dozens of drill postures each w ith its own word o f command. givi ng an impress ion of co mplex ity . In wartime practice the handling of the weapon would be learned as a logica l seq uence and the number of separate comm ands would be reduced to the minimum necessary for safety and the effecti ve delivery of fire in battle: ambitious enough objec ti ves , w hen working with rec ruit s many of w hom wou ld neve r have held a gun in their li ves.

(Left) Tower Ham lets shot drawn up in two rank s: the mix of muskets used with and w ithout rest~ is probably authenlic . Before re-enactors w ho use rests close wit h the enemy in hand -tohand combat they drop their re sts - the spiked ferru le could be dangerous: they also di scard any pieces of li ghted match for the same reason - youn g " powder monkeys" foll ow up the reg iment to collect them. Note large hrass and small leather-covered powder flasks. and spare matches.

The essent ial stages of re loadin g a matchlock musket; these acti ons mu st be repeated be fore eac h shut. (Lert) A green-coated musketeer of Carr's Regiment, SK, at Carew Castle. He has removed the smouldering match from the spring jaws of the "serpent" and ho ld s it sa fely out of the way between the fin gers of hi s left hand . With hi s ri ght he selects and opens a charge bottle, and prepares to pour powder into the mu zzle.

(Right) Men of Bri ght 's and Hampden's Regiments, Crawford's Brigade, ECWS, at Gos port . The ba ll was then dropped into the mu zzle after the powder, with or without a paper wad; these men now ram ho me their (bl ank ) charges . In the exci te ment and confusion of battle it is surprisingly easy to tire a musket with the ramrod still in the barre l, with dangerous co nsequences. The ex pli cit order to "secure your scouring stic k" is al ways given before the order to fi re, and musketeers learn the habit of fee lin g for it under the barre l.

(Below left) A mu sketeer of Devereux's, ECWS. at Basing House. The swi ve lling cover is now swung off the priming pan; "touch" powder is poured in; and the pan is re-covered. (Below centre) After any spi It priming powder is carefully bl own off the outside of the lock the match is repl aced in the serpent. (Below right) The musketeer has to adjust the length of hi s match every fe w moments as it burns away, or the smoulde ring tip will no longer fall square ly on the powder in the priming pan when he fin all y pulls the trigger. He a lso has to bl ow on the match to remove the fine ash and keep the tip glowing hot.

( Right) ""Give fire'""- Goring's Reg iment. King's Army. EC WS. at the Gosport mu ster. When the tri gge r was pull ed

the serpent snapped down and back. press ing the glowing tip of the match into the priming powder. A simpl er way. so metimes used in extremi.l", was to ignore the serpent and simpl y to hold a length of match in the ri ght hand . "popping·· it direc tl y into the primin g at the order to fire: the reducti on in accuracy was not too important at very close ranges. Either way, the "hang- fire"' before the priming sets off the main charge in the barre l can seem surpri singly long.

(Above) The tension of wait ing:

a Scaled Knot mu sketeer awa it s the enemy during a mu;.ter at Nort hampton. (Right) Men of a mi xed EC WS

forma ti on stand steady in their ranks. the front rank in the ··prese nt" " pos iti on. with priming pans uncovered. straining for the order to fire . Since he has no match the foreground man see ms to bt: a trainee musketeer se rving out hi ;. safety apprentices hip with an unloaded musket.

28

.___~lours and Drums

ac h compa ny of a Civ il War infantry regiment had it s ow n fl ag- th e "co lo ur" or "e nsig n". Surviving ev idence shows that while those of the various regiments differed quite widely, the re was a common system of des ign. A typical (though far from uni versa l) scheme was as follows:

E

The senior "colonel' s company" colour mi g ht be a plain fi eld in a co lour common to all the regim e nt 's ensigns. The " lieutenant colonel's" was plain apart from a St. George's Cross in th e upper hoi st co rn er. Th e ''sergeant-major's company" often had the same but with a wavy " pile" in a contrasting colour di ago nall y fro m the bottom right corner of the StGeorge's Cross. The ensigns of th e "ca ptain s' companies" bore the StGeorge's Cross, plus from one to seven sy mbol s discs, diamonds, crosses, stars , etc. - in the contrasting colour, arranged in lines or block patterns, the number of sy mbol s id e ntifyin g th e co mp a ny. Differe nt co nv e ntions adopted for th e e nsi g ns of th e se ni o r offi cers ' companies make it difficult to ide nti fy any particular captain 's co lour with certainty unl ess the whole regimental scheme is known . (Above) Battle of Rnundway Down, SK : colours and drums of the Parliamentary force assembled during a parley.

30

(Left) Royalist ensigns at the battle of Edgehill , SK: ri ght, that of a company or Charles Gerard's Regiment - one of several units w ith quattercd colours and unusual company distinct ions.

(Left) Weston Super Mare, SK: second captain ' s colo ur, Sir Thomas Ballard 's Regiment. C ivil War co lours were abo ut 6ft.6in . square, of painted si lk, tl ow n on quite sho rt staves which all owed the bearers to perform e laborate ceremonial flourishes. For economy , today ' s re producti o ns are so metimes made of linen or cotto n, and cost around £25 - silk reproductions can cost aro und £ I 00, and colours are easily damaged in battle. The colour was carried by the junior company offi cer,thc term "e nsi gn" a lso being used for this rank .

(Right) A Parliamentary officer photographed at l:l asing House carrying the 1649 Commonwea lth Ensign ado pted after the First C ivil War and the King' s executio n. Over hi s blue doublet he wears a gorge t, a baldric for hi s swept-hilt rapier, and a tawny-orange sash. I-I is outer garment is a "cassack", with unbutto ning s leeves and side seams which a llowed it to be arranged either as a coat o r a cloak. Cheaper alternatives were si mple cloaks of various lengths, often worn by cava lry; and the "Dutch coat", a conventio nal loose overcoat.

(Left) The colours of the Tower Hamlets Trained Bands regiment of Parl iamentary foot were clearl y recorded. and one is carried here by Sealed Knot reenactors at Weston Supe r Mare. The whole reg iment carri ed red co lours with the sil ver ce ntral motto JEHO VA PROVIDEBIT ("God Will Prov ide") surrounded by palm branches, with small pa lms in the corners, all except the co lone l' s hav ing the St. George's C ross in the upper hoist canton. The sergeantmajor' s bore a single di sc at the top edge beside the c ross. in stead of the alternative "pile"; so the first captain ' s bore two di scs, the seco nd captain 's three (as here, with one disc obscured). and so on.

(Far left) R11undway Dow n. SK : blue ensign of a r~g imen l usin g a mmif from irs commamkr's heraldi c arms in sread nf si mpl e geomerril: shapes. ( Lefll Wesron Super Marc . SK : while ensig. n wirh " pil e" idcrllifyin g rht• sergeanr -major' s e< Hnpan y. (Righi) Pendcnni s Casrk. SK : a w hir e-o n - hl~t c k co lonel 's compan y colour. c trricd by rhc recreared Sir Nicholas Slannin g's Regimen!.

(Left) Second B arri e of Newbury. SK : ensigns of Prince Ruperr' s Regimen! of Fool had a blac k and w hile quartered des ign w ith compani es ident ified by numbers of open circles. i\1 leas! four we re captured al Naseby in I (,45 ( w here, with so me 500 men. it may have been the strongest Roy ali st unit of foot on the field). and were larer recorded w hen paraded in L ond on. Female reg imenwl mu sician s. wir h a fife and a small side drum. are see n in rhe backgro und wearin g laced coars with open sleeves: boy and girl members of re-enactment units ofren rake rhe fi eld in rhi s gui se.

33

(Left) Scaled Knot drummer boy of the King's Li feg uard of Foot in camp at Ro undway Down. Each infantry company offi cia ll y had two drummers; when the unit was drawn up for battle they. like the ir offi cers and sergeants, took post on the fl anks of the bl ocks of pike and shot where they could - in theory - be seen and heard . Civil War drummers were not in fact boys; the drums were large and heavy, and drummers had a vita l part to play in battle, beating signa ls to pass the ir offi cers' orders. They a lso sti II retained echoes of the medieva l herald , be ing sent as envoys to parley with the ene my (and , if possible, to spy o ut hi s forces). T hese duti es demanded matu rity and inte ll igence. (Right) Drummer, Co lone l Valentine Wa lton's Reg iment, ECWS. photographed at Bas ing House. Drummers' clothing was not regulated. but as they played an important part in the regiment 's out ward show the colo nel normally paid for a more or less elaborate costume. O ne very common feature was the coat wi th opened. hanging sleeves. A sword was worn as a sign of military di gnity rather than a practical weapo n. Thi s rope-tensioned fi e ld drum is of authenti c size and weight, made of Dutch oak, goatsk in and calfs kin . It is carri ed by means of the si lk sash - which can cut off the circulati on after three ho urs' unrelieved carrying of the d rum . Reproduction drums arc purchased by regiments fro m spec iali st makers, and cost fro m about £ 130.

Horse

theory a Civil War cavalry regi ment was about 500 trong. divided into six troops. In practice it might have ything from 150 to (exceptionally) 800 or more men, in from three to ten troops. A troop co nve nti onall y had one captain. one Iieutenant , one cornet, a quartermaster, three corporals, two trumpeters, a fatTier, and anything fro m 25 to 80 troopers. Early in the war the Royali sts, recruiting among the rural gentry and their followers , enjoyed advantages both in numbers and in quality of cava lry to offse t Parliament's advantages in mercantile wealth and urban militia infantry. Prince Rupert of the Rhine. the King's nephew, was a brilliant and experienced cava lry general; hi s exa mple dominated cavalry tactics for much of the war. By 1645, however, Parliament had patiently redressed the balance. The New Model Army cava lry - particularly the units formed from Oliver Cromwell 's old Eastern Association regiments- were equal in all respects. and supctior in discipline, to the Cavalier horse. Although many cavalry units spent much of the war split up for dispersed garrison duties. their tactics when assemhled for pitched battle were fairly predictable. The cava lry of the

!:

Second Battle o f Ne wbury: a ve teran owner-ride r trooper of Si r William Waller's Lifeg uard. SK , prese nt s the class ic out line of a Ci vil War " harque husier" It is difficult to obta in convi nc in gloo king 17th ce ntury- style tack ,

altho ugh the re is a sadd le r in Fareham. Hampsh ire , who makes reproduct ion brid les. and the re is a move toward s a standard bridle. Si nce horses cannot easil y adju st to d iffe re nt bits the se will re main modern .

opposing armies were almost inv
Waller's trooper exercising on the morning before Second Newbury . He has a rolled blanket, cloak and fodder sack behind his saddle; a pair of pistols, with flask and pouch , in saddle ho lsters; and a slung flintl ock carbine, copied from survivi ng examples in the Littlecote House coll ection. Early in the Civil War most horses, certainly in the Royali st arm ies. would have been provided by their riders or unit com manders. The task of keeping armies mounted as the war progressed was enormous, and every means was used : central purchase, hire-purchase, compu lsory regional quotas. quasi-legal confiscation , and outright theft. The cost of a cavalry horse varied between about £6 and £10 (for comparison: 10- 16 days ' pay for a captain. six to I0 months ' pay for a so ldier).

sword-charge. If charged themselves the troopers were supposed to hold their ground until the last moment before firing into the approaching enem y, then drawing sword to meet them hand-to-hand. Royalist commanders seldom gave their opponents time for such comp li cated tactics; the unev e nl y trained Roundhead troopers could seldom stand their ground in the face of a Cavalier charge, and Rupert's regiments swept them from the field time after time. By 1645 , however, Parli amentar ian unit s s uch as Cromwell's famous " Ironsides" had been patiently trained to keep their nerve and their discipline. They adopted the more manageable three-rank formation; and charged at a controlled pace, firi ng one of each man's pair of pi stols at a realistic range, before closing sword in hand. Unlike the Royalists, Roundhead troopers were drilled to keep their heads and obey the recall trumpets so that they could make more than one charge, switching direction and target as the battle took shape . Their leaders had also learned - and increasing ly had the resources - to hold back reserves to exploit an opportunity or turn back a threat. Until the end of the war the blazing Cavalier charge might still win the hour - but not the day : typically, by the time they straggled back after chasing their immediate opponents aero s half a county, the Roundheads had regrouped and were cutting the sunounded Royalist infantry to pieces.

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Mounted re-enactment obviously presents difficulties unknown to infantry units of the Sealed Knot and English Civil War Society. Only a small number of the overall membership are experienced riders, and even fewer can provide their own mounts. At a major muster it is normal to see one unit of 12 horse on each side, though for special events larger numbers can be assembled. There were 44 mounted re-enactors at the 1992 Edgehill muster; and the large combined SKJECWS re-enactment of the battle of Powick Bridge in the same year saw 120 horse take the field. The established cavalry regiments are Prince Rupert 's Lifeguard of Horse and Sir William Waller's Lifeguard of 3 Horse (SK), and Grenville' s and Hungerford's Regiments

(EC WS) ; these units recruit nationally . In addition, a number of regiments of foot have thei r own cavalry or dragoon troops recruited from their own areas. The SK has a maximum of about 100 riders, the ECWS about 50; some transfer from infantry units, others are recruited directly into the cavalry. Each unit has a number of owner-riders, but most horses are hired for musters. Two stables have particularly specialised in hiring mounts for Civil War re-enactments: Joan Bamford 's Mayfield Stables, near Evesham, which has been mounting SK troopers since the 1970s, and Wilf Thomas's Pegasus Riding Centre near Abergavenny . Mayfield Stables can provide, e.g., 24 horses in two specialist vehicles, complete with grooms to care for and saddle the horses . (M uster organisers are expected to prepare a budget, and organise sponsorship, to cover the cost of horse hire and ownerriders' expenses , as well as powder, cannon transport expenses, on-site facilities, etc.; any profits are donated to charity .) The Sealed Knot 's Master of Horse visits the sites, checking suitability, vehicle access, water, grazing, secure areas, owner-rider facilities, etc.; he must bear in mind that horses which are not stablemates may not mix peacefully. The Saturday moming of a muster is used for training, tests, and allocation of mounts. Riders are tested to the level of the British Horse Society Grade 2 examination; and in their ability to obey cavalry commands, which are given in 17th century terminology. A rider experienced in another discipline, e.g. dressage, may not be suitable for service in re-enactment cavalry. The horses do not have any special training prior to a reenacted battle unless it is their first time out; in that case they will be ridden among troops with colours and drums, and will have swords brandished around their heads . Animals hired from the regular stables are already well accustomed to the sights and sounds of action, and have a calming effect on newcomers; most horses behave better in the company of others, particularly stablemates. Highly strung horses are avoided, and any animal which is being difficult is removed from the field.

(Right ) Parliamentary trooper attached to John Bright' s Regiment of Foot. ECWS, photographed at Clifford ·s Tower, York. Apan from the absent "lobster pot .. he Imet he wears full authentic equipment; the helmet would be replaced when po sible by the more comfortable hat. The "harquebusier ·s.. protective equipment included stee l bac kand-breast plates: a sleeved. longkirted "buff coat": and mass ive bucket-topped boots. whi ch would be pulled up to cover the thigh when riding. The long. single-edged "backsword". sl ung here from a broad baldric. was a deadly weapon panicularly against fleeing infantry - the greatest casualties we re always uffered by defeated troops. and when given the chance cavalry turned rout into butchery. This example is of "Wall oon" sty le . The "buff coat" (like the baldric, this example is a copy of one used by Popham' s Horse. wh ich survive in the important Littlecote coll ecti on) was originally made from so-ca lled ''buffalo" leather. but in practice Civil War coats were of cow or ox hide. This was treated by an oil-tanning process which rendered it fl ex ibl e and proofed it against decay or harde ningefficiently. to judge by the state of the several surviving examples after 350 years. The process also gave the leather a li ght ye llowish shade; and as they could not be cleaned. coats were suh. eq uentl y plastered over with an ochre dye to cover wear and tear. enhancing the yellow colour. Even a poor quality Civ il War buff coat was. at £1 lOs., costlier than a steel cuirass: and a fine example cost £ I0 - the same as a good cavalry horse. They could tum sword cuts. and some claim that they could stop a mu sket ball - though thi s can onl y have been at extreme range . At up to about 251bs. weight a cavalry coat was almost half as heavy as body armour, while allowi ng easier arm movement in the di agonal plane. This example by Mark Beabey is a superb reproduction of a Littlecote House coat using authentic materials. tanning methods and construct ion techniques.

(Left) Member of Sir Edward Hun gerford's Regiment of Horse, ECWS, at Basing House. He wears the classic "lobster pot" he lmet, which is found differing widely in quality and details of design. Single visor bars are associated with Dutch-made imports (probabl y more likely to be used by Royali st troops), and triple bars with English-made helmets (and thus, Parliamentarian supplies). The steel body armour was often claimed to be proof against pi stol ball s, but seems to have varied widely in degree of protectionand the thi cker the metal, the heavier and more exhausting it was to wear. (A proofing mark, a dent supposedl y showing that the maker had rested the pl ate with a pi stol , can be seen at ri ght above the sash in the photo bel ow.) A reproduction helmet today costs about £65; back-and-breast pl ates, £65-£80; and a cavalry sword, about £75. Hungerford ' s do not use firearms, but o ur subject poses here with a superb long-barrelled wheellock carbi nepistol. (Right) Detail of the wheellock pistol. Because it was impossible to handle matchlock weapons on horseback, the pairs of pistols normall y carried holstered at the sadd lebow by Civil War cavalrymen were flintlocks or whee llocks (the latter seem to have figured significantly among Royalist imports from France). The wheellock, set off by a spark struck by a clockwork spring revolving a serrated steel wheel against a piece of iron pyrites, shared the main advantages of the flintlock. It cou ld be wound up in advance (with a "spanner" like a large Allen key), and fired when needed. But it was complex , expensive to buy and maintain, and rather fragile for field conditions, often jamming or breaking. Pistols came in many designs , usually between 16 and 24i ns. long, with bores of between 20 and 36 balls to the pound weight. They were fired held on their side with the priming pan upwards, to ensure a good contact between the priming and the touch -hole. Tests wi th a large calibre wheellock pistol made in about 1620 have given impressive results- an 85 % chance of hitting a man-sized target, and penetration of 2mm of steel plate, at 30 yards (though under perfect range condi ti ons). Most Civil

War use seems to have been at point-blank range. Reproduction wheellocks used by re-enactors can cost around £ 1,000 a pair. Since neither wheellocks nor the cheaper flintlocks can easi ly be reloaded in the sadd le so me re-enactors carry one dummy with a blankfiring device built in, which all ows repeated shots. It is not known how widely carbines were issued to Civil War cavalry; but contemporary purchase accounts do include the m in large numbers, and several survive in collections. Carbines seem to have had a barrel length of 2fl. -2ft.6ins .. and were carried fro m a baldric by a spring c lip and ring-and-bracket arrangement. Bores seem to have varied between 24 balls to the pound (i.e. about .4in.) to full musket bore or even sli ghtly larger.

(Left) Cavalry officer, Bright 's Regi ment, ECWS, at Clifford 's Tower, York; the red sash was not exclusively a Royalist officer' s insignia. The sword worn here from an oi l-tanned leather baldric is a swept-hilt rapier: typi cal of the personal weapons which the gentry would have taken to war in 1642, but rather light for a cavalryman's battle weapon . He also carries an all -purpose dirk in hi s squaretoed, straight-cut, high-top boot. (The legs of this style were made from a sin gle piece of hide; strictl y, the term "bucket-to p" sho uld only apply to those which had an ex tra, flared section sewn on above the knee.) Cavalry reenactors who wish to avoid the cost (£250- 300) of made-tomeas ure reproduction boots sometimes use naval surplus deck boots with added extensions.

(Right) Detail of the " Fiennes" buff coat. which weighs over 271bs. Note the construction . with bun-stitching rather than overlapped seams . Such coats would be made to measure for their owners. Museum exa mpl es are usually lined, or partly so. with woollen . linen or si lk material. Fastening varies from simple leather laces, to leather bunons, to metal hooks-and-eyes . A fine reproduction of. e.g .. the coat on page 37 costs today from £400 unlined. £650 lined ; o ne like this would be nearer £850. Re-enactors who have invested in them report that i1 can take two years' use to get them fairl y pliable, and that the arms can never straighten fully as the sleeves are cut on the curve. Buff coats are also sensiti ve 10 temperature , and as stiff as a board in very cold weather; weighing as much as a Vietnam helicopter pilot's ceramic body armour. they are ex hausting and overheating to wear for more than a couple of hours at a stretch.

The buff coat is of an ornate style appropri ate for a well -to-do officer, and was copied by Mark Beabey from that in a famous portrait of Nathaniel Fiennes. Unlike the coat illustrated on page 37, made with four fu ll length body sections. the Fiennes coat has four torso and four fl ared skirt secti ons. Its most noticeable feature is the double construction of the sleeves, the thick, protective o uter sleeve with a scalloped cutaway in the e lbow to allow easier movement of the arm in the thinner, full-length inner sleeve. There is evidence that some coats were completely "doubled"- i.e. there were two complete bodies, the thick outer one with shorter cut-away sleeves sewn over a thinner coat with full -length sleeves.

(Left) Parli amentari an offi cer of horse at Bas ing House: one of Cromwell' s "plain russet-coated captains who knew what he fought for and loved what he knew". He wears the Earl of Essex's tawny sas h, tied rea li sti cally hi gh. over hi s swo rd baldric; and note the outer boothose. He carries a reproduction mid- 17th century flintl ock pi stol; these have to be made up around reproduction locks since no co mplete authentic replicas are currently avail able, and cost £250-300. He also carri es a saddl e cover of authenti c design (which, like the buff coat, thi s reen actor made for him se lf).

(Left) Weston Super Mare. SK: at thi s muster Parliamentary cava lry temporaril y changed side. to thicken up Prince Rupert 's rank s for a pre-battle cameo. SK Royali st cava lry wear blue doublets and red sashes; not all wear back-and-breast arm our, or helmets, and the latter vary - thi s example is a quite ornate fluted Continental zischagge style. Parliamentarian horse wea r buff coats, cuirasses, helmets and orange sashes. Many of them also have saddle covers made in Ci vil War style,as here; these cost about £30. Prince Rupert' s mos tl y use qui Ited saddle cloths, which look acce ptable at a di stance. The diffi culty of obtaining authenti clooking tack has already been menti oned; but the SK Master of Horse di scourages such modern lookin g items as nylon girths, numnahs and sheepskin nosebands.

(Right) Weston Super Mare. SK: a hushand and ll'ife. both ride rs with the Parliamcnwri an cava lry. preparing in th e horse lines for a pre-battle ca meo in whi ch horse of both armies co mbi ned . After a demonstrati on of uragoo n tacti cs they made a massed charge int o ..dead gruu nd .. agai nst an imaginary enemy out of the crowd' s line of sigh!. The fan cy green velvet cap may cove r a hard hat of some kind . compu lsory by SK Boa r<.! of Safety re~u l ati o n s . Royali sts may wear a me tal .. secrete.. under a fe lt hat. or a riding cap in>ille a Montero. L'p to a thiru of Seal e<.! Knot ca1·alry are wo men. reflec ting the greater numbers of horsewomen than men in thi s ountry: many are long-servin g members. and fi ght in hanl e reenactments with equal determinati on to th eir male comrades .

(Above) At Powick Bridge a combined Sealed Knot and English Civil War Society muster allowed the assembly of 120 mounted cavalry. Here Hungerford' s Regiment of the Roundhead Association , ECWS , ride throu gh the English countryside in buff and stee l - a splendid sight, and sli ghtl y eerie for 1992. (Left) Powick Bridge: the commander of Hungerford's Regiment confers with hi s trumpeter. At Powick Bridge officers did not wear buff leather, but black coats. Like drummers of foot, Civil W ar cavalry trumpeters were richly clothed at unit expense, often with open hanging or false sleeves . The trumpet banner often bore some element of th e commander's heraldic arms.

(Below) Powick Bri dge: Si r William Waller 's Lifeguard of Horse. SK. at the ca nter. followed by dragoons on smaller horses. Note the

shoulder pauldrons worn by the centre officer; and " WWH" breas tpl ates on the harness, le ft foreground.

(Above) Powick Bridge: an ow ner-rider in Parli ament 's rank s. wearing sheepskin under hi s c uirass both for comfort and

to prevent the armo ur wearing away hi s buff coat, which has detachable s leeves laced into place.

(Left) Weston Super Mare, SK: the commander (ri ght) of Prince Rupert 's Li feg uard of Horse with the comet - junior troop offi cer carrying the unit standard . Each troop of C ivil War cavalry had a standard; they were about 2ft. square, usuall y frin ged, and bore a wide vari ety of designs - religious and politi cal motifs and mottoes were popul ar. They seem generally to have lacked the identificati on systems fo und on infantry company co lours.

(Below) Powick Bridge: the commander of Grenvill e's Horse, Kin g's Army, ECWS, gives the battle cry; the trumpet sounds; and (opposite) the Cavali er charge thunders dow n on the enemy.

Very few Ci vil War unit s wore full "c uirassier" armour - the last ec ho of the medieval knight with a ''c lose" helmet or a burgonet and fu ll torso. shoulder. arm and thi gh armour. Although it gave very good protec ti on it was ex pensi ve, diff icult to maintain for whole unit s on ca mpaign, and ex haustingly heavy and hot to fi ght in for a generation of men who- unlik e their ancestors- had not been rai sed from boy hood to bear it. After the rout, at Round way Down in Jul y 1643, of Parli amentari an Sir Arthur Haslerigge's regiment of socalled " Lobsters" , cuirass ier armour was probably on ly see n worn by some indi vidual

(Above left) Powi .:k Bridge: the commander of PriiKC Rupen ·s Lifeguard. SK. in co mbat with the commander of llungerfortl' s Horse. RntiiH.Ihcad i\ssociat iull. ECWS. Single co mhat s in frolll of the crowd arc almoSI always practised and "<.: horeog raphcd" beforehand.

(Lefl) Puwick Bridge: cava lry

melee between the Cava liers of Grenvi lle 's and the Roundhead troopers of Hungerford 's. About 20 riders were unhorsed during this muster. hut sutlered no serious injuries: no mnre than lightl y daLcd and wimkd. they followed their training and lay till. lclling the horses avoid them until the ballk swi rled away.

commanders (for its " kni ghtl y" prestige) and their bodyguards. However, the torso and arm section s of such armour were practi ca l for use on their own, and were no doubt retained by those w ho had them, trading a littl e extra weight for improved protection. It was not unu sual for earli er. eve n Eli zabethan helmets and armour to be pressed into servi ce from fa mily armouri es.

(Left) Second Battle of Newbury. SK: burgonet, rerebraccs and tassels being tried on in M erchant' s Row. (Below) Weston Super Marc, SK: a member of Prince Rupert' s Lifeguard of Horse wearing a burgonet and pauldrons.

Dragoons oth sides in the C i vil W ar fi elded se rv eral units of dragoons. These were esse nti all y " mo unted infantry", enj oy in g th e mobility of hors e but dismounting to fi ght as skirmi shin g infantry. Various 17th ce ntury co mmentari es lay di f ferin g emph as is on their in fa ntry/ cavalry rol es, some recommending tactic s fo r firing from the saddl e: but in prac tice th ey see m mos tl y to have f oug ht o n f oo t w hil e ho rse ho ld er s g uard ed th eir mo unt s. They were ve r y use ful for patrolling, forag ing, local security and outpost duties. In pitched battl es th ey were u se d in support of conventi onal cavalry, firing from cover on the flanks , or as a "forl orn hope" to se i ze advanced positions.

B

(Left ) Round way Down , SK : a di smounted d ragoo n of W arul aw's Regiment w ith a political pamphlet tuckeu in hi s hat - a C ivil War practice among Roundhead act i vists. Some Ci vil W ar dragoon regiments had to se rve on foot for months before eve n rece iving horses. At the Powi ck Bridge muster, whi ch was organised by the Co mmandery at W orces ter. there was a di splay of uragoon tacti cs by a combined unit 92 stro ng: ridin g up to their objecti ve, they dismounted to fi ght on foot while SK cavalry troope rs leu their horses away. (B el ow) Pendenni s Castle SK muster: dragoons of Slanning·s, showin g (left) a w hee l loc k carbin e. and (ri ght ) the single "brid le-gauntlet" oft en worn by mounted men to protect their rein-hand and forearm -s las hin g at an opponent 's rein s or left hand to rob him of control over hi s horse was a common pl oy in cava lry melees.

(Above left ) Powi ck Bridge: a dragoon of Slanning·s Regiment . SK. ··a sturdy W el sh cob w ith a stundy rider" . Note the slung musket: some New M odel Arm y dragoons we re provided with flintl ocks. but gi ve n their infantry tactic. at least some unit s ce rtainl y carried matchloc ks: and some kind of sling would have bee n necessary. Dragoon horses. anu saddles. are recorded as costin g only about half as much as their cavalry equi valents. (Left) Weston Super M are. SK :

Slanning·s Dragoons ad vance on foot. Note the swallow-tailed dragoon guidon: and (left foreground ) an offi ce r w ith a pair of rapiers - an archaic fashi on for gentlemen. There is no real evidence for dragoo n dress and equipment : a treati se of 1639 recommends buff coat s and openface helmets. but infantry dress. perhaps with boots. was probably the norm during the Ci vil W ar. wi th a Montero or some other cap.

Guns

ivil War artillery came in as motley an array of sizes and designs as all other equipment. Cannon ranged from the little "robinet" weighing 120lbs., firing a 3f4lb . ball of il/4in. calibre, to the 4 ton, 8in. calibre "cannon royal" firing a 63lb. ball with a 40lb. powder charge. Artillery was of central importance in the many sieges around which the regional campaigns of the field armies often revolved . Trains of artillery were dragged laboriously around the country by large horse teams over bad dirt roads, which they ploughed into dusty, brick-hard rut s in dry weather and impassable quagmires in the rain; and ultimately decided the outcome of sieges by battering down city walls and castle towers. Large ca libre, short range mortars dropp ed explosive shells into towns with devastating effect, often starting serious fires. In pitched battles cannon were less effective, being ge nera lly too unwieldy for movement around the battlefield. Artillery was very frightening; was widely hated as a devili sh, inhuman weapon; and could cause hideous local casualties amongst formed-up infantry ; but it seldom seriously affected, and never decided, the outcome of battles of manoeuvre. At Naseby, June 1645, the King fielded 12 guns: two "demi cannon" weighing 6,000Ibs., firing 27lb. shot of 6in. calibre, and needing a nine-man crew; two "demiculverin" (3 ,600Ibs., 4 1h in. calibre, 9lbs., six crew); and eight "sakers" (about 2,500Ibs., 3ih in. calibre, 5-61b. shot, s ix crew) . A saker 's flat -trajectory range was around 300 yards, its maximum carrying range about I ,500 yards. Guns were slow to load: five to six minutes for the middle-ran ge sakers and demi-cannon. The muzzleloaded barrel had to be carefully scoured and swabbed of debris or sparks from the last shot, and the touch-hole

C

(Above) Second Newbury, SK: 4in. guns manned by Edward Montague, Earl of Manchester's Regiment fire in battery. Some re-enactment units are purel y artillery; others are companies

within foot regiments, with one or more guns. SK gunners, like their Civil War originals, tend to be independent spirits and something of a law unto themselves.

cleaned. Powder was then ladled down the bore from an open "budge barrel" brought up to the muzzle , and tamped with a wad of straw or dry grass; the ball was rolled in, and secured with a second wad. The touchhole was filled with fine priming powder from the gunner's flask ; and the gun was fired with smouldering slowmatch held in a linstock. Throughout Civil War armies the accidental meeting of exposed powder with sparks or naked flame was commonplace, and lethal; when it involved the large stocks found in artillery lines or ammunition wagons it could be disastrous enough to affect the course of a battle. In an age when the mathematical skills needed for gunnery were extremely rare, experienced gunners were respected as the masters of a scientific mystery . In high demand, they were highly paid; often Dutch or German mercenaries, they would be offered incentives to change sides if captured. The greatest number of reproduction guns used at any re-enactment muster was 26, at Second Newbury in I 989. Several times this number of guns are owned by various units, but many are incomplete or unserviceable at any given time. Most are of small size, for economic and practical reasons, and are classed as robinets. All guns must comply with legal proofing requirements, and are tested by the Birmingham Proof House; so me are proofed for shot, others for powder and wad only.

(Left) A 3in . gun of an SK Parliamentary unit ready to move, with its too ls and powder box in position. The slidin g escutcheon plate covering the touch-hole is not authentic, but a safety feature. Most gun tend not to be exact replicas of 17th century designs, but give a reasonable impression from a distance. Guns are made by group members, taking wooden patterns from 18th or 19th century barre ls and casting in iron or brass (the latter easier to cast, but more expensive). The cost of casting a 4in. barrel 8-9ft. long was about £1,100 in 1991. The King's Lifeguard have a g un made from high tensile stee l tube covered in fibreg lass, which is full y proofed but very li ght. There is a sc hool of tho ught in the SK that larger bores should be reduced by sleev ing, for economy of powder and (supposed ly) increased safety; but thi s is far from a generall y held view.

(Right) Pendennis Castle, SK: gunners of Sir Bevil Grenvile's Regiment, distinguished by hooped black sleeves, with their No.2 gun, a brass fawconet named "Caesar' s Due". It was made by Harry Stocker (third left), Battery Com mander of the Parliamentary Army , S K, and Powder Master West of Eng land .

(Right) Edgc hill . SK: a very "null robi net on an A-fra me carriage. At left. not~ the head of the linstoc k u;ed fur firin g c<mnon: it holds a leng th of match lit at both end s. and sometimes has a blade whi ch could be u,ed in hand-to-hand fight ing. At re-enac tments the clu>>ic arrange ment for a gun pu,ition i' a triangle. with the lin, tock swck in the ground down -wind. and the powder hox holdin g measured . bagged charge' upwi nd of the gun . For lega l reason, the gun captai n in eac h crew. who is responsib le at all times for the powder. mu st hold a Black Powder Ce rtificate; and one crew member. a Shotgun Certificate (if the bore is less than 2in.) or Firearm Ce rtificate (if it i' larger).

(Left) Round way Down, SK: robinet of Si r Marmaduke Rawdon's Reg iment. One of the crew protects the touch-hole with her hand , so the piece is presumabl y loaded. Wome n are often seen in today' s gun crews, desp ite the fairly heavy physica l work in volved with the larger pieces. and Ballard ·, Regi ment has an all -female crew . (Right) Helmsley Ca. ti e. Yorks,

EC WS : the two most authenti c reproducti on gun s 'ee n at today' s re-e nac tment s. Foreg round is " Harak", owned by the Roundhead Association. a "bastard cul verin" made by Ken Fisher, with a bore of about 3 3;~ in s. and a barrel ahout three fee t shorter than a co mparab le Civil War piece. In the background is " Rave n", a reproducti on saker owned by the Royal Armouries , HM Tower of London. made by Austin Co lin Carpenter using an ori ginal barrel of the 1630s as a model. It was cast by Iron Bros. of Tavi,toc k. with a steel sleeve red ucing the hore to 3 inches. The ca rriage is based on plans dating from the Marlburian period and Civi l War specification ·. ( Phow by MaMie L11111em . courtesy Engli>·h Heriwge Special E• •e111.1' U11 i1)

(Left) Pendennis astl e, SK: Roya li st fawconct of Sir icholas Slanning's Regi ment. There are usuall y about six crew for a medium-s ize gun . Like Civ il War ordnance, re producti on guns are often individuall y named "Phoeni x", "Sweet Lips". " Magog" , etc.; thi s piece is "Charity". Note the tools at right: a mop and a screw-headed ··searcher" or scourer. The bucket ho ld s water for damping the swabbin g mop; the hessian sack. wadd ing material- paper. straw. hay. or grass (cut. not pulled up. to prevent pebbles being rammed in with the wad). At one time sma ll roll s of carpet felt were also used: the tape holding them was supposed to be cut at the last moment so that the roll opened o ut on firing and did not form a project il e. but forgetfulness over this safety measure led to the usc of felt being stopped.

(Left) Weston Super Mare. S K: the priming ignites in the touchhole of a ro binet of Sir Thomas Ballard 's Regiment . Powder is purchased centrall y by re-enactment soc ieties (at abo ut £3. 50 a po und ) and sold on to the Muster Master for a parti cular event; over a whole season the Sealed Knot mi ght use abo ut 3 112 tons. It is issued to the legally licensed gun captains, who make up charges of sizes to suit their gun - anythin g from lf2oz . for a robinetto 4lbs. for a saker in plastic bags. These are kept in the powder box, and passed to the gunner at need by the " powder monkey". The gunner puts the bag in the muzzle, then a wad. which is rammed home - the bag itself is never rammed, to prevent it splitting. A pricker is thrust down the touch-ho le to pi erce the bag: the to uch-hole must then be covered by a gloved hand until primed , from a separate n ask. and fired with match in a linstock.

54

(Right) Gosport . ECWS: battery of robinets coming under attack at point of pike. The pl ac ing of guns at a muster is at the choice of the commander of the Terc io (brigade). Artillery will fight mi xed among other troops - as here- when they are permitted. bu t are most often placed o n the n ank s. Hi sto ri ca ll y. it would be more authentic for them to fi ght more close ly with their units under the protecti on of regimental in fa ntry. Safety regul ati ons state that troops must not approach a loaded gun : a gun captain can order pikemen away . and in keeping troops c lear of loaded ordn ance he may overrule any other commander - the ultimate responsibility fo r sa fety is his alone . In the centre bac kground. note the small , co lo urful guido n: thi s is a commanding offi cer' s personal heraldi c tl ag .

eCamp

os t re-e na c tors li ve on a campsite for the durati o n of a muster. The organi sers provide a suit ab le area ou t of s ight o f the battleground , wi th latrine. drinking water a nd washing facilities. He re tents of all co lours and sizes blossom among the parked cam pe r va n s a nd carava n s. Dependin g on local regulations ca mp fires may be lit for o utdoor cooking; if not, tho se who ca nn o t b e bothere d to brew up o n camping stoves will inev itably foll o w the smell of hot grease to the mobil e kitchens of the reg iste red caterers who haunt the re -e nactme nt trail. As evening fall s the troops converge o n the lig ht a nd noise of the one utterl y re li able landmark: the beer te nt, which forms the soc ia l focus of the mu ster. With access to the campsite restric ted to me mbers and their families, re-enactors can re lax in the beer te nt, often li stening to a live band or fo lk g roup , and s wappin g pints a nd li es with friends a nd ri vals o ld a nd new . Here 20-yea r veteran s can be heard declaring that in the earl y days cos tumed members ca ug ht in headli g hts while walking the ni ghtime lanes in search of pubs were often reported as ghosts ... And Les retell s the one abo ut the It a lian tou ri s t in Scotland who came ac ross a uniformed crew dragging a cann on , and told the local police he had spo tted bandits in the hill s, .. And Dave recall s puttin g hi s a rmour on under his coat to avo id

M

(Above ) Siege of Carew Castl e, SK : an idylli c setting fo r an authenti c hi storical camp, where a "camp fo ll ower" prepares plau sible 17th century food using period -style utensils and method s.

paying excess baggage at a n a irport check-in , and the Cu stom s officer's face when he found what had set off the metal detector ... Quite separate from thi s site is sometimes found an authentic hi storica l camp set up by the host unit or some other g ro up . The publi c are a l lowed into this area, which is usually near the fi e ld of battle a nd which form s part of the actual re-enactment. All mode rn features are ba ni s he d from the a uthe nti c camp, where the keene r " li ving hi stor y" re-e nactors may li ve throu g hout the mu s te r, s how in g v is ito rs round a nd ex pl a inin g th e realities of 17th century life. 55

II

(Right) A so ldi er of S ~mue l Jones's Parli ament ari an regiment in the authenti c ca mpsite at the SK siege of Ca rew Castl e. Reenac tors of any hi stori ca l peri od will know how gratefull y these troops and their famili es mu st we lcome thi s sunn y day in a good site: for those caught hy heavy rain on a bad ly drained site the horrors of ca mpaigning can become all too convincing. Sieges we re in fact the most deadl y epi sodes for Civil War troop, and ci vili ans. L arge ca mps. stati c for month s. we re lethal hreed in g-grounds of typhoid and bubonic plag ue - far greater kill ers than bl ade or ball : and eve n in ope n field ca mpai gning losses from a co mbinati on o f fati gue. ex pos ure. scanty ra tions and disease could be enormous.

56

(Left) Weston Super M are.S K: the w i fe and chi ldren of a soldi er of the King's Lifeg uard of f oot act out their ro les in the authentic camp. In fact. Ci v il W ar camps on the march had tents for offi ce rs only: leners and memoirs often speak of the mi se ry of sleepin g in the open, eve n though most ca mpaigns we re conducted betwee n Apri l and October. Durin g winter armi es went into permanent quarters in town s. usuall y livin g quite comfon ahl y and being wel l fed. During the l"Jlllf:l'
(Right ) Round way Dow n, SK: a pikernan of Earl Ri ve rs' Regiment busies him sel f with domesti c chores, and hi s linle son. during quiet hours in camp. Orten whole famili es w ill attend a muster. treating it like any other ca mpin g hoi iday. Re-enac tment groups enco urage famil y memberships w ith concessionary subsc ripti on rates. Children may j oin . but are not usuall y all owed on the batt lefi eld if under 16 years of age. (Fa r right) Weston Super M are, ?,'K. : a"·camp rrdilowc r" ·rn ine authenti c ca mp. Women may join any fi ghtin g unit as full members, but so me prefer the camp followers· ro le: the care they brin g to their hi stori cal costumes is noti ceab le. They perform more or less the same roles as their 17th century ori ginal s: they care for their men and children in camp: and durin g battl e reenactment · carry water to the co mbatants, and lat er sea rch for their menfo lk among th e slain .

(Right I Second Nell'hury. SK : Bai liff .., Forge 'c lling armour on

Trader,· Ru" . Mml uf a Ci" il War rc-c nac tor" !"-

n ee d ~

ca n he

. ali,fi~ d from I he trader'· hnnlh s a1 mu'iers. Ba, ir rl nlhing may be hom~ · madc . hul kalhcr and metal ilcrm haw lo he uhlained (i ndi\'idua ll y. or hy unil bulk purchase I from ' pcc ia li sl crafls mcn. i\1 Ihe larger mu ster' one may find 311 t\r -l!liraLkrs sc i up near Ihe c nn psilc. se llin g ciOi hing. ' hoe s. an nuur. wcarun., and lealhc r wo r~ . The trader' arc licensed ann uall y and regulated by 1hc host rc-enac llncnl 'oc ict y.

(Left) Pendenni s Castle, SK: a young boy takes advantage of one of the simpl e wooden carts often seen around authentic campsites to practice the campai gner's first lesson: sleep whenever and wherever you get the chance.

(Right) The last hours of peace: a pikeman enjoys the beauty of a summer's morning in the rolling landscape of southern England. Roundway Down , SK.

(Right) Westo n Super Mare, SK : in the authentic camp the Co lone l of Bard 's Regiment catches a moment of peace by the fire. Despite hi s burdensome responsibiliti es, hi s rank presumably brings immunity from cleaning blac k iron cauldrons · an unforgettabl e chore in any re-enactment camp.

58

(Above) A dragoon passes the news of the day with a g un crew of the Parli a ment '' arrny. Second Newbury. SK.

(Left) A quie t sce ne in an idyllic spot - until you sta rt wondering about that rope ... A hangin g party prepare to g ive a spy hi s quietus. Roundway Down . SK.

60

(Left) A ca ptain of foot of 1he Earl of Stamford's Reg iment enj oy' a last peaceful pipe as the camp >lir' around him . Roundway Down. SK.

(Righi) Cava lry palmi' gho"

along 1he hedge ro w,, fee ling oul lhc ' hape of Ihe enemy·, deploy menl. Edgc hill : Walkr' ' Lifeguard. SK.

(Above left) Hi s Maj esty King Charles I approac hes the fi eld of Edgehill. He is portrayed here by actor and drama teacher Arthur Starkey. (Above) Regime ntal colonels confer with their offi cers and staff: here. the comm anding offi cer of Carr' s Regiment , SK, at Roundway Down . (Left) The general of the Parliamentari an army emerges from hi s tent to survey hi s forces' preparati ons for battle. Weston Super Mare, S K.

(Above) The moments tick away for an ensign of Parli amentary foo t, clutching the co lour which he must soon guard with hi s life. York , ECW S.

(Above right) The Mu ster Master Genera l di scusses a point of deploy ment with a se ni or officer of Skippon 's. Weston Super M are, SK .

(Right) " The watchword is God and the Cause ..." The commander of the Roya li st Army of the West, SK, at Pendenni s Castle.

(Above left) Mea nwhil e. the

humbler soldi ers have nothin g to do but wait . in what calm they ca n co mm and : infantry of the se rgea nt-major's company, James Carr's Reg iment . Western Associati on, SK, at Roundway Dow n. (Above) f or many in the rank s of Parliament 's armi es their nonconformi st faith was a shi eld again st doubt and fear: thi s pikeman of Carr' s, like some of hi s Civil War forebears. has sc ribed bi blical quotations on hi s helmet. Roundway Down. SK .

(Left) Both sides brought

pass ionate reli gious con viction to the Civi l War, and encouraged chapl ains to give rou sin g se rmons before battle. Thi s was parti cul arl y mark ed among the Roundheads. whose chapl ain s so metimes charged into battl e with thei r units, bible in one hand and wea pon in the oth er: hymns and psalms were often sun g hy whole regiment s as they ad vanced . At Leeds in June 1644, for instance. one Rev. Jonathan Scholeficld led a des perate assault in perso n. singing the 68th Psa lm : "Let God arise. let hi s enemies be sca ttered ... " Here a soberl y dressed chapl ain ex hort s Co lonel Jame s Wardla w's Dragoons to fi ght fur God and Parli ament: Round way Down. SK.

(Above) Infant ry form up for battle

at Round way Down; the Lord General of the Royalist army reviews the Prince Palatine's Tercio. consisting of Prince Rupert 's and Earl Ri vers· Regiments of Foot. SK. When only small unit; are represe nted at a muster they are brigaded together; in case of equal ranks. the offi cer with the largest number of men takes command . There is an offi cers' briefin g at Tercio level. which is then rel ayed to the junior ranks. Most re-enacted battles follow the histori cal events. and with the same outcome, although it is nut always poss ible to refi ght them on the actual historical sites. On the rare occasions when a banle which is not historicall y documented is re-enacted, a result is determined by carefull y fo llowing 17th century tactics. A Civil War fi eld army's infantry were usually drawn up for a pitched battle in at least two lines of units. the regiment s pl aced chequerboardfas hion so that the interva ls in the front line were covered by units in the second line. Artillery pieces were also pl aced in so me of the gaps between units. The horse were drawn up on each wing in at least two lines of units. similarl y arranged. A reserve of cavalry mi ght be held back behind the centre or one fl ank. On the extreme fl anks. either extending the frontage. advanced under cover. or "refused", there might be units of dragoons or detached musketeers; and a small force mi ght be pushed forward in some exposed po it ion - or to seize one - as a so-called "forl orn hope". (Right) A dismounted dragoon

readies hi s musket a · the troops move towards their positi ons. Roundway Down. SK.

65

(Previous pages. 66-67) The Roya li st army. SK. forms for battle at Edgehill. In the foreground. troopers of Prince Rupert 's Lifeguard of Horse: right. the Roya l Standard. ami beyond it th e pikes of Sir Nicholas Slanning·s Regiment : in the distance. the Kin g's Lifeguard of Foot march on. Durin g the Civi l War major battles might involve armi es of between I0.000 and 15.000 men on eac h side. The largest was Marston Moor. in Jul y 1644, fought by a total of around 46.000 men. (Abo ut 1.500 Parliamentarians and between 3,000 and 4.000 Roya li sts died there. and we may assume that the wounded totalled sli ghtl y more than the dead.) Soldiers usuall y ca me to the field after a punishing march, and severa l comfortless night s in the open. Long. stragg ling columns of men, horses. guns and wagons ruined the dirt roads. and there were few reliable maps; a unit might average only eight or ten miles a day fo r many hours of toil. In May -Jul y 1644. for instance. William Waller's infantry marched on 36 out of 69 days; spent no more than three nights in one pl ace: and slept in the open, during a very wet summer. for 21 of those ni ghts. Although the official sca le or

rations - bread. meat. cheese. beans or peas, and beer - was fair ly ge nerous , its issue when on the march was unpredictable. When an army finally stood for battle the men were often tired, hun gry and thirsty as they waited in their ranks for hours on end. thinking about the ordeal to come. The Civi l War did not, in fact , invol ve many large-scale pitched battles between major field armi es: of the total co mbat casualties it has bet!n cakulated that onl y about 15% were suffered in major actions invol vin g I,000 or more dead . It was mainly a war of fairly small. dispersed forces manoeuvring and fighting for regional supremacy. Must of the so ldi ers of the Civ il War spent much of their tim e in garrisons of a few hundred foot and horse contro llin g an area of the countryside, and living off itsometimes in a cruelly oppressive way. Numerically. more than half of the 650-odd recorded engageme nts involved less than 250 dead. Most of these were encounters between small force spatrols, small units attacking neighbouring garriso ns or "beating up" enemy billets, or the merciless plundering expedi tions which made life a misery for civi li ans.

(A bove left) A trumpeter of horse leads Royali st musketeers from Owen' s and other regiments into their place in the battle line. Edgehill , SK. (Left) On the Parliame ntarian

nank a troop of horse stamp and fid ge t as they await the order to advance. their commander at their head with his cornet standard-bearer and trumpeter. Hungerford ' s Horse at Powick Bridge, SK/ECWS . (Above) At last. the ten sion breaks: Hungeford's troopers advance into battle. Powi ck Bridgt!, SK/ECWS.

69

(Left) The fi rst clash of infantry: a captain of the Earl of Stam ford 's Regiment leads hi s pikemen in the defence of a hastily fortifi ed positi on. Ro undway Down , SK.

(Right) Parl iamentari an pike struggle to hold their position against a determined attack by Royali st foot and horse. Western Associati on, SK, Ro undway Down.

70

Royalist musketeers of Blackwell's Regiment of Foot, Duke of York's Brigade, advance among the fallen in their authentic six-deep files. with their drummer, sergeant and officer on the flank. Gosport, ECWS.

72

(Above left & above) The most feared weapon in the Ki ng's armoury: Prince Rupert 's Lifeguard of Horse unleash a charge. Edgehill . SK. The outcome of cava lry charges (in any period of military hi story) was decided more by nerve th an by the actual phys ica l shock. No horse, unless madde ned by pain or panic, will charge full tilt into a olid mass of armed men and other horses - at the las t moment it will always swerve or pull up. Rupert 's cava lry owed their mastery of so many tie ids to their boldness and hi gh morale. The heart-stopping sight of a wave of armed riders bearing dow n, knee to knee and ye lling like fiends above the thunder of thousands of hooves, is enough to make all but the stead iest troops break and run . Once the opposi ng infant ry or cavalry lost their for mation they became a mob of indiv idu al victims. and the Cavali ers hunted them me rciless ly. leav in g their butchered bod ies st rewn across mi les of countrys ide. If a so lidly fanned body of pike or shot held

their ground and waited until the cavalry came within range they were more or less in vulnerable to all but a thin hail of pistol ball s. (Below left) Prince Rupert 's Li feg uard anack infantry of Hammond 's Reg iment and the London Trained Bands. In today' s re-e nactment ballles musketeers do not ge nerall y fire when horses are cl oser than 35 yards in any direction.

(Overleaf, pages 74-75) The ultimate test fo r Civil War infantry: advancing to contact at point of pike. With pikes in th e "charge" position a unit' s fro nt rank eac h had the pikeheads of the two or three men behind them in fi le thrusting fo rward past their shoulders. Pushed by the rank s behind. who waited to press forward into the place of those who fe ll , they advanced ont o the enemy' s pikeheads .. .. ,;Push nf pi ke" must have called fo r great strength , and cold-bl ooded courage the front rank men • could hardly move to protect them. elves in the press. In most battles thi s exhausting, bloody se rum probably lasted only a few moments hefore one side began to wave r. It would have been the rear ranks whi ch gave way first they coul d tell what was awaiting them at the front as the ranks wore away, and, unlike the front ranks, they could sti II move free ly enough to try to escape. The spark of panic would spread th rough the close-pac ked mass in a moment, and once a unit's

formati on began to break up it was lost. Once one unit in the battl e- line broke. the enemy could press forward th rough the gap to take other units in the tl anks and rear, "rolling up" the whole line. Devereux's Regiment. Roundhead Associati on, ECWS, at Gosport.

73

(Above & above right) The Parliamentarian infantry of Fairfax ' s Brigade (Overton' s, Walton' s, Foxe ' s and Devereux's Regiments) face pike of the King's Army: Gosport, ECWS . In re-enactments pikeme n fight "at poi nt" only to gain ground , though some c laim that it is actuall y safer than the alternati ve method with pikes slanted. Although all battles are "scripted", if a regiment do not give ground they have it taken from them . Every unit aims to win the confrontations even if history dictates that they lose the battle. Some regiment s are known to fi ght hard , and expect res istance . Close fi ghting gives a surge of adrenal in, which has to be controlled to avoid injuries.

76

(Below left ) A sergeant of pike in Sir Gilbert Hoghton's Co mpany, wearing a burgonet helmet and a "Dutch coat'' over hi s armour: Weston Super Mare, SK. Sergeants in re-enac tment units work their way up through the ranks, and are chosen by their regi mental offi cers. Their duties are to keep rank and fi lc, enforce discipline. and pass on offi cers' orders.

(Right) Royali t' eye view of

Roundhead Assoc iati on pikemen of Fai rfax ' s Brigade: Gos port, ECWS .

77

(Left) Pendenni s Castl e, SK: Royalist gun crew scouring their piece after firing, to scrape out any debris before they re load. Thi s is followed by swabbing with a wet mop to ex tin gui sh any fi nal spark , and the n with a dry mop, although plasti c bags protect the powder charges from damp . The artillery have many longserving members who collaborate to ensure max imum safety thro ugh strict training, controls and supervision . One veteran told the authors that he could onl y recall four acci dents in 22 years. The authors happened to witness one of these, when a gun went off while being rammed. The ramrod was bl own

for some distance. and the gunner received burns (from which he made a complete recovery after hospital treatment).

(Below) Robinet of Sir Thomas Ball ard ' s Regiment firing - the camera lens foreshortens the distance between gun and infantry rather overdramaticall y. Weston Super Mare, SK. (Right) Offi cer and pikemen of Fairfax's Brigade at close quarters: Gosport,ECWS. The man at left has a green tape tied round hi s arm , the Civil War sign of the Le vellers , an extremi st Roundhead movement.

(Above) Parli amentari an cavalry charging past Royali st in fa ntry: the commander of Wall er's Horse with , background, pikemen of Si r Nicho las Slanning's, Sir Gilbert Hoghton's and the Marqui s of Newcastl e's Foot. Weston Super Marc, SK.

(Left) Troopers get in amongst fl ee ing in fa ntry as a barricaded strongpoint falls. Roundway Down, SK.

(Above) If infantry held their

grou nd , forming a .. stand .. of pike. the cava lry co uld do little to break them. Note the fluted, antiq ue-style lance fo r the troop standard - an authenti c touch. Waller' s Horse at Edgehill. SK. (Right ) A veteran of Wa ller's

Horse adj usts his brid le-gauntlet. By 1648 a majority of troopers in the eli te Roundhead cavalry regiments had se rved together for six years: the quality of these units is understand ab le. Second Newbury , SK .

81

(Above, left, & above right) Under a dramatic sky full of racing clouds, Royalist musketeers supported by Prince Rupert's Lifeguard of Horse engage Parliamentarian pike of Ballard's, Carr' s, and the Tower Hamlets Trained Bands. Weston Super Mare, SK. (Right) A final volley of shot from Sir Marmaduke Rawdon' s Royalist musketeers as the infantry lines come together. Weston Super Mare, SK.

(Top left & right) The last shots fired, musketeers reverse their weapons and rush forward to fight hand-to-hand with the butts. This was a recognised tactic, not an act of individual desperation (the I 7th century command was "Fall on pell-mell!"); the heavy musket with its angular butt was a murderous skull-crusher. Edgehi ll , SK.

(Left) A last desperate pike charge as the cl imax of battle approaches. Second Newbury , SK.

(Left) A trooper of Prince Rupert's Lifeguard comes to hand-to-hand with a doublyarmed Highlander: Rannoch 's Company of Sword, SK, at Weston Super Mare.

(Right) Parliamentarian officer

and Royalist pikeman struggling over a barricade: Second Newbury, SK.

(Left) Re-enactment is a "contact sport", and battles can become heated between units which enjoy particular rivalry. Pendennis Castle, SK. (Below) A Royali st officer "kills" a disarmed enemy musketeer. Summary execution of prisoners, almost unknown in the early campaigns, became more common as the bitter years of civil war dragged on. Edgehi ll , SK.

Now the hurly-burly's done, now the battle 's lost and won ... It should perhaps be remembered (if only briefly. and without false so lemnity) that the events which these historical re-enactment societies recreate today in comradeship and good humour, for their own interest in hi story and the crowds' enjoyment of colourful spectac le. were among the most devastating in British 8 history.

It has been calculated that in England and Wales alone battle deaths between 1642 and 1651 may have totalled 85,000, to which must be added about 100,000 military and civi lian deaths from war-related disease. From a total population of perhaps five million , that loss represents 3.7%- which should be compared with 2.6% of the population of the British Isles dead in the First, and 0.6% in the Second World Wars. In Scotland

and Ireland local hatreds brought a particular savagery to the Civil War campaigns, and losses were proportionately much higher. In the early campaigns in England "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" might call each other "Papist dogs" and "rebel rogues", but there is much evidence that they respected each other' s courage and sincerity, however misguided. This tolerance largely disappeared during the Second and

Third Civil Wars, which were fought with ruthless detennination. The harsh lessons learnt during the war, and the decade of military rule which followed , have shaped British political hi story. It may be argued that the relative civil peace and order which we have enjoyed since those years is our legacy from those who ri ked everything, and often gave it, for King or Parliament on the battlefields of the 1640s.

The Sweets of Victory

Some members of re-enactment societies take their interest in the arts, crafts and dai ly life of 17th century England beyond the purely military aspects. Some go to great trouble and expense to equip themselves for demanding "living history" recreations of civil as well as military life. Apart from the displays which they put on for the public and for educational bodies. these enthusiasts meet privately to enjoy each others' company and to share their knowledge. Most of these pictures were taken at a costumed banquet held by members of the Scaled Knot in a 17th century hall at Abingdon.

(Previous page) A cavalry trooper in Sir William Waller's Lifeguard of Horse, relaxing off duty in civilian finery: she is Francine Pimperton, in the blue. (Above) Foreground, Sue and

Mark Hargreaves, who make and sell lace and glassware for re-enactors. (Right) A pensive and sombrely dressed diner. His fi ne lace collar, and the discreet richness of his clothing, show that he is not a true Puritan.

(Opposite) A fine, painterly study ) of Mark Hargreaves.

(Above) Geoff and Caroline Vincent, members of Earl Rivers' Regiment of Foot. Like many female members of these groups Caroline makes all her own costumes; it is extremely timeconsuming and demanding, involving in-depth research and many hours of painstaking needlework.

(Left) The hairstyle is copied carefu ll y from period portraits , the gown from a surviving examp le; the beauty spot would have been painted on in the 17th century.

(Above left & right ) Detail s of fine quality reconstructed 1640s female (left ) and male costume women did not have a monopoly of rich embroidery. Such workmanship would have bee n very ex pensive in the 17th century, involving costl y silks and bulli on wire. Today. with less expen ivc materi al>. the main investment fo r those with the necessary skill is time. Although most members make their own "dress" costumes there are a few speciali sts -such as the Ci vil Wardrobe - makin g such clothing for sa le. (Right) An aptl y posed study of pewterer Cli ve Simpson at tabl e.

(Right) John Cartwright, the regimental chaplain to Earl Rivers' Regiment, is a vicar in real life. Here he officiates at the christeni ng of a child of a member of the regiment; the entire regiment attended, all including the infant - in authentic 17th century costume.

(Left) Will Hughes, a Royalist officer of Sir John Owen's Regiment, Welsh Militia, pays court to a lady-i n-waiting.

Basic Chronology of 1he English Civil War 1642 After years of di spute over constitutional and re lig iou s prerogatives between King and Parliament, King Charles I leaves London for York (Ma y). Final negotiations fail; King calls upon loyal subjects for aid in crushing rebellion, and formally raises hi s standard (22 August). 23 Sept.: Royalist general Prince Rupert defeats Nathaniel Fiennes at Powick Bridge. King gains narrow advantage over Parliamentarian Earl of Essex in confused battle at Edgehill (23 Oct.); occupies Oxford as hi s headquarters; marches on London. 13 Nov.: Rupert turns back from London when blocked by Essex with London Trained Bands at Turnham Green.

1643 Sporadic regional warfare throu ghout year, each side enj oy ing mi xed fortunes as many towns are taken and retaken. In the south and west main Royali st general is Sir Ralph Hopto n; Parliamentary champ ion is Sir Willi am Waller. In the north and Midlands Sir Thomas Fairfax and his fa th er, fo r Parliament, ma inl y fight th e Earl of Newcastle. Period icall y the main Royalist "Oxford" army, under the Kin g a nd Rupert, and the Earl of Essex's Rou ndhead arm y, manoeuvre agai nst each other or the enemy ' s regional armies. 19 Jan.: Hopton victorious at Braddock Down . Prince Maurice defeats Waller near Tewkesbury ( 13 April). Part of Essex ' s army beaten by Rupert at Chalgrove Field (1 8 June). Newcastle defeats Fairfax near Bradford. Hopton and Waller fight costly, indecisive battle at Lansdown Hill (5 July). The Queen brings the King important munitions from the Continent. Waller routed by Wilmot and Byron at Round way Down (13 July). Rupert captures Bristol (26 July). Oliver Cromwell founds hi s reputation by cavalry vic tory near Gainsborough . Roundhead defeat at Torri ngton; Exeter surrendered to Royalists (4 Sept.) . Essex defeats Kin g at First Newb ury (20 Sept.). Parliament ratifies Solemn League and Covenant with Scots (25 Sept.); King negotiates for troops from Ireland . Cromwell and Fairfax beat Royalists at Winceby ( 11 October).

1644 Jan.: Fairfax successful in north; Earl of Leven leads Scots army south to aid Parliament. Waller defeats Hopton at Cheriton (28 March). Earl of Newcastle besieged in York by Fairfax and Leven, later joined (Ma y) by Earl of Manchester. Waller defeated by King at Cropredy Bridge (29 June) . Rupert raises siege of York and is joined by Newcastle.Their 17,000-strong arm y is defeated by up to 28,000 Roundheads and Scots under Fairfax, Leven and Manchester at Marston Moor (2 July). Royali st Scottish general Montrose beats Lord Elcho at Tippermuir (I Sept.);

sac ks Perth , Aberdeen . The King forces Essex's arm y to surrender at Lostwithiel (2 Sept.). Waller and Manchester beaten by King at Second Newbury (2 7 October).

1645 April: Formation , from commands of Essex, Waller and Ma nche s ter , of Parliament 's New Mod e l Army permanent, unified force 22,000 strong for nationwide operations, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, Sir Philip Skippon (foot) and Oliver Cromwell (horse). Montrose's Highland and lrish army defeat Covenanters at Auldearn (9 May). The King , with 8,000 men , is dec isive ly defeated by 13,000-strong New Model under Fairfax at Naseby ( 14 June). Fairfax defeats western Royali sts under Goring at Langport ( 10 July) . Montrose infl ic ts heavy loss on Covenanters at Kil syth (15 Aug.). Royalist garri sons fall, including Bristol ( 10 Sept.). Montrose routed by Dav id Leslie at Philiphaugh ( 13 September) .

1646 King Charles surrenders to Scots at Newark (5 March) ; iso lated Royali st garrisons hold out, but the " First Civil War" is over. The King is he ld by Parliament durin g prolonged, three- s ided negoti a tion s betwe e n Kin g, Parliament, and its disaffected army.

1647 King negotiates secretly with Scots while Parliament and army factions wrangle over constitutional settlement.

1648 April: "Second Civil War" - Royalist risings in Wales and south-east, Scottish invasion . Fairfax successful in Kent and Essex (June), and Cromwell in Wales before defeating Royalists at Preston (17 Aug.) and Scots at Winwich Pass.

1649 After army republican faction forces trial of King for treason by House of Commons he is beheaded (30 Jan.). Cromwell, chairman of Council of State, ruthlessly crushes Royalist rising in Lreland (from August).

1650 Scots proclaim King Charles II (May): "Trurd Civil War". C romwell return s; re places Fairfax as captain -general ; destroys Scots army under Leslie at Dunbar (3 September).

1651 C harl es II invad es with Scottish army, des troy ed by Cromwe ll at Worcester (3 Sept.); Charles fl ees abroad. ( 1653-58 : Cromwell rules Commonwealth as Lord Protector heading military government.)

It is fair to claim that the hobby of historical re-enactment and 'living history' in Britain owes its birth and ever-increasing popularity to a private party held in 1967 by the late Brigadier Peter Young to celebrate the publication of his book on the battle of Edgehill. From these small beginnings grew the Sealed Knot, the largest historical re-enactment society in Europe, and the more recently founded English Civil War Society. Today, summer weekends across the country may see up to 3,000 enthusiasts for 17th century history muster with pike and musket, horse and cannon to restage one of the battles of the English Civil Wars probably the most tumultuous period in British history. With a membership of several thousand men and women, these societies are dedicated to the study and accurate portrayal of the armies and 'camp-followers' of the days of Prince Rupert and Cromwell. A great deal of valuable research and specialist publication has grown out of the more vigorous aspects of the hobby, as have educational projects and charitable fund-raising. In this colourful record of the 17th century re-enactment hobby, photographers CHRIS HONEYWELL and GILL SPEAR present a fascinating collection of 150-plus photographs conveying the pleasure and excitement of this unique pastime, and the dedication of its followers.

Windrow UK price £12.95 US price $19.95 Printed in Singapore

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I SBN 1- 872004-54- 7